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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Bronze Age in Ireland
+
+Author: George Coffey
+
+Release Date: October 11, 2008 [EBook #26880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Anne Storer and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The term "halberd" and "halbert" have both been
+used on numerous occasions. "Halbert" is a variant of "Halberd" and
+has been left as printed in the original text.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND
+
+
+
+
+ THE BRONZE AGE
+ IN IRELAND
+
+ BY
+ GEORGE COFFEY
+
+ MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
+ HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF IRELAND
+ KEEPER OF IRISH ANTIQUITIES IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM
+ AND PROFESSOR R.H.A. DUBLIN
+
+
+ _WITH ELEVEN PLATES AND EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+
+ HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., LIMITED,
+ 104 GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN
+ SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.,
+ LONDON
+ 1913
+
+
+
+
+ PRINTED AT THE
+ DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS
+ BY PONSONBY AND GIBBS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In this book on the Bronze Age in Ireland I have collected and
+collated all my work on the period. Much of it I have already
+published in the "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy" and
+elsewhere. I have long felt the need of a book on the Bronze Age in
+Ireland, as hitherto none has appeared dealing adequately with the
+archæology of that period in this country.
+
+Within the last few years it has been recognized that the Bronze-Age
+civilization in Europe did not consist of a series of isolated
+communities, each developing its own type of objects and decorations,
+but that there was a community of ideas and forms extending from
+Mycenæ all over the European continent.
+
+I have described the various forms of Bronze-Age implements of peace
+and of war found in Ireland, and have shown how they are connected
+with similar types on the continent of Europe. M. J. Déchelette, of
+the Roanne Museum, one of the first authorities on the Bronze Age,
+agrees with me in ascribing a Mycenæan origin to certain forms of
+Bronze-Age implements.
+
+How this Mycenæan influence penetrated to Ireland is a matter on which
+there is some difference of opinion, and possibly new discoveries may
+throw additional light on the problem. As I have shown both in this
+and in former works, the most probable route seems to be that of the
+Danube and the Elbe, and thence by way of Scandinavia to Ireland. It
+is to be hoped that now--with a concentrating of Irish interests on
+Irish affairs a new impetus will be given to the study of the history
+of our country, and that many workers may be found in the fields of
+archæology and of all subjects connected with our past.
+
+In my "Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian Period" I have
+given the history of Irish art in the Christian period; in "New Grange
+(Brugh na Boine) and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland, the influence of
+Crete and the Ægean in the extreme west of Europe in early times," I
+have given as much as is known of the pre-Christian period up to the
+Bronze Age; and in this, my latest work, which has been much
+interrupted by illness, I have endeavoured to complete the history of
+ancient art in Ireland.
+
+I have to thank the Councils of the Royal Irish Academy and of the
+Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for the loan of a number of
+blocks. In other cases drawings have been made direct from objects in
+the National Museum by Miss E. Barnes.
+
+The plates are from photographs taken by the photographer of the
+National Museum.
+
+In offering this book to the public I must express my gratitude to Mr.
+E. C. R. Armstrong, to whom I am indebted for his unvarying kindness
+and sympathy, and for much valuable assistance both in the matter and
+form of the work.
+
+                                              GEORGE COFFEY.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                              PAGE
+ CHAPTER I,                                                      1
+   Introduction; Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age.
+
+ CHAPTER II,                                                     6
+   Transitional Copper Period; Localities where native copper
+   is found in Ireland; Finds of copper celts; Moulds for
+   casting flat celts; List of localities where Irish copper
+   celts have been found; Halberds; Localities where found;
+   Types; Analyses; Continental examples; Probable derivation
+   of Irish halberds from Spain.
+
+ CHAPTER III,                                                   23
+   First and later periods of the Bronze Age; Evolution of the
+   bronze celt; Ornamentation of bronze celts; Palstave with
+   double loops; Anvil and hammers; Spear-heads; Evolution
+   from the knife-dagger; Type derived from the rapier;
+   Leaf-shaped spear-heads; Spear-heads with apertures in the
+   blade; Moulds for casting spear-heads; Ferules for spear-butts.
+
+ CHAPTER IV,                                                    46
+   Irish gold: Account of Irish gold deposits; Lunulæ:
+   General description of; Distribution.
+
+ CHAPTER V,                                                     56
+   Daggers and rapiers; Evolution of the dagger and rapier
+   blade; Handles of daggers and rapiers.
+
+ CHAPTER VI,                                                    62
+   Gold gorgets; Gold sun-disks; Gold balls; Clare find;
+   Penannular rings and ring-money; Ring-money.
+
+ CHAPTER VII,                                                   71
+   Leaf-shaped swords; Division of types; Absence of moulds
+   for casting; Bronze chapes; Winged chapes; Shields;
+   Circular bronze shields; Shield of wood; Leather Shield.
+
+ CHAPTER VIII,                                                  78
+   Torcs; Twisted torcs; Distribution of torcs; Ribbon torcs;
+   Plain torcs.
+
+ CHAPTER IX,                                                    80
+   Bronze-age finds; List of well-authenticated Irish finds.
+
+ CHAPTER X,                                                     88
+   Bronze trumpets; Types and derivation of Irish trumpets;
+   Sickles; Discussion of types; Importance of, with regard to
+   date of agriculture; Disk-headed pins.
+
+ CHAPTER XI,                                                    94
+   Bronze-age pottery; Food-vessels; Derivation of, from
+   Neolithic type; Cinerary urns; Incense cups.
+
+ CHAPTER XII,                                                  101
+   Bronze-age ornamentation in Ireland; Discussion of the
+   ornamentation at New Grange; M. Déchelette's views as to
+   its origin compared with those of the author.
+
+ INDEX,                                                        105
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ Fig.                                                     Page
+   1. Copper Halbert, Birr find,                             7
+   2. Copper celts, Birr find,                               8
+   3. Copper knife and awls found at Knocknague,             9
+   4. Copper celts,                                         10
+   5. Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork,                  11
+   6. Stone mould for casting celts,                        12
+   7. Halbert blades,                                       13
+   8. Halbert blades,                                       14
+   9. Halbert blades,                                       15
+  10. Halbert blades,                                       16
+  11. Halberts from North Germany and Sweden,               18
+  12. Halberts from South and East Spain,                   19
+  13. Rock markings, Maritime Alps,                         20
+  14. Stone pick from the Bann,                             21
+  15. Deer-horn pick,                                       21
+  16. Ornamented bronze celts,                              24
+      Plate I, Irish bronze celts in the order
+          of their development,                             24
+  17. Ornamented bronze celts,                              25
+  18. Ornamented bronze celts,                              26
+  19. Winged celt,                                          27
+  20. Winged celt,                                          27
+  21. Palstave with double loops,                           27
+  22. Bronze anvil,                                         28
+  23. Bronze hammers,                                       28
+  24. Dagger and spear-heads,                               29
+  25. Spear-heads,                                          30
+  26. Spear-heads,                                          31
+  27. Rapier and spear-head,                                31
+  28. Leaf-shaped spear-heads,                              32
+  29. Ornamented socket of spear-head,                      32
+  30. Leaf-shaped spear-heads found at the Ford,
+          Belturbet,                                        33
+  31. Spear-heads with loops joining the blade,             34
+  32. Spear-heads,                                          34
+  33. Ornamental spear-heads, with openings in
+          the blade,                                        35
+  34. Portion of spear-head, with studs at the
+          base of the wings,                                35
+  35. Spear-heads with openings in the blades,              36
+  36. Spear-heads with ornamental loops in the blades,      37
+  37. Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,             37
+  38. Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           38
+  39. Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           39
+  40. Mould for casting a spear-head and knife,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           40
+  41. Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in
+          Co. Tyrone,                                       41
+  42. Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in
+          Co. Tyrone,                                       42
+  43. Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           43
+  44. Bronze spear-ferules,                                 44
+  45. Bronze spear-ferule with La Tène ornament,            44
+  46. Gold lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal,  47
+  47. Gold lunula found in Co. Galway,                      48
+  48. Gold lunula,                                          49
+  49. Gold lunula found at Killarney,                       50
+  50. Oak case for lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan,      51
+  51. Gold lunula found at Valognes, Manche,                51
+  52. Gold lunula found in Co. Londonderry,                 52
+  53. Gold lunula found at Athlone,                         54
+  54. Map showing the distribution of gold lunulæ in
+          Ireland and Europe,                               55
+  55. Stone celt, bronze dagger with gold band, and urn,
+          found in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh,    56
+  56. Dagger and rapier blades,                             57
+  57. Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       59
+  58. Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne,                     59
+  59. Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry,                   59
+  60. Rapiers and daggers found in Ireland,                 61
+  61. Gold gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the
+          possession of the Earl of Charleville,            62
+      Plate II, Irish gold gorgets,                         62
+      Plate III, gold sun-disks,                            64
+      Plate IV, portion of the great Clare find,            66
+  62. Gold fibulæ and other objects found together
+          at Coachford, Co. Cork,                           67
+      Plate V, gold fibulæ,                                 68
+  63. Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+          showing Europeans holding manillas,               68
+  64. Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+          showing natives holding manillas,                 69
+      Plate VI, gold ring-money,                            70
+  65. Leaf-shaped bronze swords found with a spear-head
+          at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,                          72
+  66. Bronze chapes,                                        73
+  67. Winged chapes,                                        73
+  68. Bronze shield found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick,       74
+  69. Alder-wood shield found in Co. Leitrim,               75
+  70. Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin,
+          Co. Longford,                                     76
+      Plate VII, gold torcs from Tara and elsewhere,        78
+      Plate VIII, gold torcs,                               78
+      Plate IX, gold torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter,  80
+  71. Two late Bronze-Age finds,                            83
+  72. Late Bronze-Age horse-hair fabrics from Armoy,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       84
+  73. Bronze implements, Co. Tipperary,                     85
+  74. Bronze implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary,  86
+      Plate X, bronze trumpets,                             88
+  75. Mould for casting a sickle, found at Killymeddy,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       89
+  76. Bronze sickles,                                       90
+  77. Bronze sickles,                                       91
+  78. Bronze disk,                                          92
+  79. Bronze button,                                        92
+  80. Incense cup,                                          94
+  81. Cinerary urn,                                         94
+  82. Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny,      95
+  83. Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford,             96
+      Plate XI, food-vessels in the order of their
+          development,                                      96
+  84. Model of cinerary urn from Greenhills, Co. Dublin,    97
+  85. Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone,                  98
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This book deals with the Bronze Age principally from the point of view
+of the implements and weapons in use in Ireland during that period. It
+is unnecessary to state that the materials for writing anything like a
+full account of the civilization or political organization during the
+Bronze Age do not exist; and even the ethnological affinities of the
+dominant race that inhabited Ireland during this period are doubtful.
+All that can be said is that there was apparently no gap between the
+end of the Neolithic Period and the transitional Copper to Bronze
+Period. Stone weapons continued in use side by side with those of
+copper and bronze; and the form of the former was sometimes actually
+influenced by those of the latter.
+
+There has been so little scientific excavation in Ireland that the
+question as to the early burial-customs is surrounded with difficulty;
+such evidence as there is points to cremation having been practised
+early, as was also the case in Great Britain. Instances show that the
+two rites of inhumation and cremation were practised side by side.
+
+In the cairn excavated on Belmore Mountain, County Fermanagh, both
+burnt and unburnt interments were found with pottery and other objects
+of early Bronze-Age type.[1] At a recent excavation near Naas, County
+Kildare, a burnt interment was discovered in a cist, the remains being
+associated with a wrist-bracer and remains of pottery.[2] In the fine
+series of cairns on Carrowkeel Mountain, County Sligo, burnt and
+unburnt interments were found associated with pottery, bone
+implements, and stone beads.[3] At Annaghkeen, County Galway, a
+cremated burial was discovered in a cist associated with pottery and a
+small bronze knife-dagger and awl.[4]
+
+ [1] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xx, p. 659.
+
+ [2] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, p. 351.
+
+ [3] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxix, p. 311.
+
+ [4] Journal Galway Archæological and Historical Society, vol. v, p. 159.
+
+The Hon. John Abercromby gives a list of food-vessels found with
+cremated burials in Ireland, and to these must be added a food-vessel
+of early type found in 1912 in a quarry at Crumlin, County Dublin. It
+must, however, be left for future excavations to decide many questions
+to which at present no answer, or only a doubtful one, can be given.
+This, however, is certain--Ireland during the Bronze Age was not
+isolated, but stood in direct communication with the Continent. Ægean
+and Scandinavian influences can be detected in the great tumuli of the
+New Grange group[5]; and Iberian influence is discernible in some of
+the later types of bronze implements. Ireland, as will be shown in the
+chapters dealing directly with the gold objects, was, during the
+Bronze Age, a kind of western El Dorado, owing to her great richness
+in gold; Irish gold ornaments have been found both on the Continent
+and in Scandinavia; while Scandinavian amber has been found in
+Ireland. As will be seen on p. 81, the Bronze-Age people were
+acquainted with the art of weaving; and fine ornaments of horse-hair
+were sometimes used. The art of making pottery by hand was carried to
+a high degree of excellence. Shaving must have been fairly common,
+judging by the number of bronze razors found. We shall find evidence
+further on in this work to show that corn was probably grown and
+agriculture fairly advanced.
+
+ [5] "New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland," p. 62.
+
+The great tumuli at New Grange and the lesser ones at Carrowkeel show
+that the art of building was well developed, and that the religious
+ideals of the people had attained a certain fixed form. What the
+actual dwellings occupied by the people were we cannot say; but it is
+probable that many of the promontory-forts and some at least of the
+larger cashels and ring-forts date back to this period. There remain,
+however, many questions which, as we have said, must be kept over for
+future investigations.
+
+
+THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE IRISH BRONZE AGE
+
+Some discussion as to the absolute chronology of the Bronze Age in
+Ireland will, no doubt, be expected, though any attempts to give
+actual dates can only be approximate; the succession of types is
+really of considerably more importance than the actual date, as such
+a succession enables objects, finds, and interments to be arranged
+in a progressive series, and shows the general trend of advance and
+culture. The doyen of prehistoric archæology, Dr. Oscar Montelius,
+of Stockholm, has been the pioneer of the study of the prehistoric
+chronology of Europe, his chronology of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia
+having been published as far back as 1885. Since then he has published
+the results of his studies of the Bronze-Age chronologies of Greece
+and Italy, and of France, Belgium, South Germany, and Switzerland.
+More recently (1908) he has put forward the chronology of the British
+Islands in a notable memoir published in Archæologia. It may be
+mentioned that Dr. Montelius visited Ireland some years ago, and
+speaks with the greater authority as having personally examined the
+actual Irish evidence.
+
+In this memoir Dr. Montelius divides the Bronze Age of Great Britain
+and Ireland into five periods, and includes in his first period the
+transitional time when copper was in use (Copper Period), which he
+places at from the middle of the third to the beginning of the second
+millennium B.C. Now, though the division of the Irish Bronze Age into
+five periods may be accepted, we should hardly care to place the first
+period as early as Dr. Montelius suggests; and without going into the
+question of the time at which the period commenced, we might take the
+period of its ending at from about 2000-1800 B.C. In this period would
+be included the flat copper celts of early form, copied from the stone
+celts of the preceding Neolithic Period, some few small, flat
+knife-daggers of copper, and the earliest of the halberds. Stone
+implements, no doubt, remained largely in use; and the very finely
+decorated hammer-axes probably belong to this period.
+
+It is possible that gold--which, on account of its colour and
+appearance on the surface of the ground, must have been one of the
+metals first noticed and made use of in prehistoric times--was used
+for making ornaments at this period, or possibly, as Prof. Gowland
+suggests, may have been hammered into ornaments even during the
+preceding Neolithic Age.[6] There is, however, no gold object in the
+National Collection which we should care to place so early.
+
+ [6] Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. xlii, p. 259.
+
+The second division of the Bronze Age (the first period of the true
+Bronze Age) would fall between 1800 and 1500 B.C.; and in it would be
+included, as the principal types, the flat bronze celts--including
+those with the edge much wider than the blade--flanged celts, small
+bronze daggers, the later halberds, jet buttons with conical
+perforations, and the early types of jet necklaces, and probably
+the gold lunulæ.
+
+The third period might be placed at from 1500 to 1250 B.C., and the
+principal types falling within it are flanged celts with stop-ridges,
+tanged spear-heads, and larger dagger-blades, sometimes with bronze
+handles.
+
+The fourth period, which was long, and during which a considerable
+development takes place, might be placed at from 1280 to 900 B.C.
+This period includes the later type of celts with increased stop-ridge
+and flanges (palstaves), and some of the earlier forms of socketed
+celts, long rapiers, the earlier type of leaf-shaped swords, and the
+looped and leaf-shaped spear-heads, gold torcs, and possibly some of
+the bronze fibulæ, and sickles without sockets; the disk-headed pins
+and bronze razors may be placed either at the end of this time or the
+beginning of the next period. In this period must also be placed the
+building of the great tumuli of the New Grange group.
+
+The fifth division--also a long one--would go from 900 to about 350
+B.C., at which time iron weapons were probably coming into general use
+in Ireland. In this period would fall the socketed celts, including
+the latest type, which takes a form not uncommon among iron or steel
+axes, the later bronze swords with notches below the blades, bronze
+sword-chapes, the socketed sickles, probably some of the more highly
+ornamented bronze spears with apertures in the blades, the bronze
+trumpets, the gold fibulæ, and gold gorgets. It must be remembered
+that the Continental Hallstatt period is not at present well
+represented in Great Britain and Ireland, and though, under Hallstatt
+influence, certain Continental Iron-Age types such as bronze caldrons,
+trumpets, round shields, &c., found their way into Ireland, we cannot
+as yet definitely separate this period from the end of the Bronze
+Age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TRANSITIONAL COPPER PERIOD
+
+
+In Ireland the metal first used was copper. Native copper is plentiful
+in Ireland, and has been chiefly obtained from the Counties of
+Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Galway. In Waterford
+stone implements have been found in copper mines in ancient workings,
+showing copper was mined for at an early period.[7] The time during
+which copper was in use was probably relatively only a short one, much
+shorter than the Neolithic Period or than the true Bronze Age. The
+evidence for this period is the large number of flat copper celts
+which have been found in the north and south, and east and west, of
+the country. The earliest copper celts resemble in form the stone
+celts from which they are derived, and were cast in open moulds on one
+side only, and then hammered flat on the other. Moulds for casting
+celts in this way have been found in Ireland. It is also extremely
+interesting to notice that some stone celts betray the influence of
+metal types by their form. It may be well here to meet an objection
+that has been raised against a special use of copper in Ireland. It
+has been urged that the large number of flat copper celts may have
+been due to a scarcity of tin, and that as copper cannot be cast in
+closed moulds, casters who could cast advanced forms of bronze celts
+were obliged to return to the primitive form necessary for casting in
+an open mould. Copper ores are, however, very rarely found in a pure
+state, and the small impurities of antimony, arsenic, &c., combine in
+the smelting with the copper, and lend a hardness and ductibility
+which would enable it to be cast in closed moulds.[8] The analyses of
+Irish copper celts agree among themselves, and substantially with
+those from other countries, the small quantities of tin, antimony,
+arsenic, &c., which are found being due to impurities in the ore. The
+celts may be taken to be of copper, and not of poor bronze.[9] The
+earliest copper celts resemble the stone celts from which they are
+derived; some of them are small. A development takes place throughout
+the series, the celts becoming larger and the edges thinner as they
+approach the bronze forms. No trace of a stop-ridge is ever found on
+copper celts.
+
+ [7] Sir R. Kane, Industrial Resources of Ireland. Second edition, 1845,
+     p. 189.
+
+ [8] See analysis of a socketed celt of an alloy of copper and antimony
+     found at Elbing, West Prussia, Journal Anthropological Institute,
+     vol. xxxvi, p. 21.
+
+ [9] See paper "Irish Copper Celts," Journal Anthropological Institute,
+     vol. xxxi, p. 265, where the question is fully dealt with.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Copper Halberd, Birr find.]
+
+The principal finds are as follows:--
+
+    1. Three copper celts, three copper awls, and a copper knife found,
+    in 1874, in a bog at Knocknague, Kilbannon, County Galway. Purchased
+    from the finder, Michael Rafferty, by the Royal Irish Academy. (Fig.
+    3.)
+
+    2. Three copper celts, a fragment of a fourth (butt-end), a copper
+    halberd, and a short blade of copper of somewhat similar form, found
+    in 1892, near Birr, King's County, formerly in the collection of Mr.
+    Robert Day, of Cork. (Fig. 2.)
+
+    3. Three copper celts found in 1868, when ploughing at Cullinagh,
+    near Beaufort, Killarney, County Kerry. (Day Collection.)
+
+    4. Two large and well-formed copper celts found together in street
+    excavations in Suffolk Street, Dublin, in May, 1857. (Ray
+    Collection.) (Fig. 4, nos. 1 and 7.)
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Birr find.]
+
+    5. Two copper celts found together at Clontoo, near Kenmare, County
+    Kerry, in 1906. (Fig. 4, nos. 2 and 3.)
+
+    6. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County Cork.
+
+
+The distribution, analyses, types, and finds show that the copper
+celts represent a period when copper was in common use throughout
+Ireland and before bronze was generally known. The celts from the Ray
+Collection mentioned above show that the fully developed celt was in
+use during this period, while the "Birr find" with the halberd shows
+that the halberd was also known and in use during the full copper
+period.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Copper Knife and Awls found at Knocknague.]
+
+Moulds for casting flat celts, copper and bronze, have been found in
+the following places in Ireland:--Carrickfergus; Ballymena; Loughgall,
+County Antrim; Ballynahinch, County Down; and Lough Scur Crannog,
+County Leitrim.[10]
+
+ [10] Crawford, "Early Bronze-Age Settlements in Britain," Journal Royal
+      Geographical Society, 1912, p. 217.
+
+Copper celts have been found practically over the whole country; and
+the following is a list of those in the National Collection, of which
+the localities are known, and, as well as these, there are about
+eighty for which the provenance has not been exactly recorded:--
+
+
+LIST OF COPPER CELTS FOUND IN IRELAND.
+
+    Antrim, Craigbally, 1 (1897: 111).
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Copper Celts.]
+
+    Cavan, 1 (R. 1685).
+
+    Cork, Cappeen (6); County Cork, 1 (1881: 136).
+
+    Donegal, Letterkenny, 1 (1897: 114).
+
+    Dublin, Suffolk Street, 1857: 2 large copper celts. (Ray
+    Collection.)
+
+    Galway, Knocknague, Kilbannon, three copper celts, a copper knife,
+    and three copper awls. County Galway, 1. (R. 1660) (Fig. 3.)
+
+    Kerry, Beaufort, Killarney, three copper celts found together in
+    1868 when ploughing at Cullinagh. (Day Collection.) Clontoo, near
+    Kenmare, two copper celts found together in 1906.
+
+    Londonderry, in the River Bann, near Coleraine, 1. (W. 3.).
+
+    Louth, 1. (R. 362).
+
+    Mayo, Killala, 1 (W. 4.).
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork.]
+
+    Meath, Dunshaughlin, 1 (172, W.).
+
+    Tipperary, Dundrum, 1 (1881: 133).
+
+    Tyrone, Mountfield, 1 (112: 1897).
+
+    Waterford, Tramore, 1 (W. 10.).
+
+
+The localities of the following copper celts in other collections are
+known:--
+
+    Antrim, 3 (Knowles Collection.)
+
+    Cork, 5 (Day Collection, about 4. Evans Collection, 1.)
+
+    Fermanagh, 2 (Day Collection, 1. Evans Collection, 1.)
+
+    Kerry, 3 (Day Collection.)
+
+    Kilkenny, 1 (Day Collection.)
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+    King's County, 8 (Birr three, and five others found in the King's
+    County. Day Collection.)
+
+    Limerick, 2 (Day Collection.)
+
+    Sligo, 2 (Sir John Leslie's Collection.)
+
+
+
+HALBERDS
+
+As already stated the Birr find shows that the halberd was in use
+during the full Copper Period; and, though to judge by the form of the
+celts, we may place it at the end of the period, yet more primitive
+types are known, and we may therefore presume the halberd goes well
+back into the Copper Period.
+
+The National Collection at Dublin contains forty-nine specimens of
+these broad coppery blades. In a few cases there may possibly be a
+doubt as to whether they should be classified as halberds or primitive
+daggers. The localities of the majority are not known further than
+that they have been found in Ireland; but from the known localities
+they seem, like the copper celts, to have been found in all parts of
+the island; and local distinctions of type, if they existed, are not
+now possible.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Halberd blades.]
+
+Of the forty-nine mentioned, twenty have localities as
+follows:--Antrim 1, Cavan 3, Roscommon 2, Galway 8, Meath 1, King's
+County 1, Queen's County 1, Clare 1, Limerick 1, Cork 1. Seven of
+those from Galway represent a single find, which gives that county an
+undue proportion.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Halberd blades.]
+
+
+TYPES
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Halberd blades.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Halberd blades.]
+
+What may be considered as the developed or normal type of the Irish
+halberd blade is slightly but distinctly curved, so that they have
+been called "scythe-shaped." They vary from about 9 inches to 15 or 16
+inches in length, and from about 3 to 4 inches in breadth at the
+widest part; with few exceptions they have three rivets with large
+heads. The various sizes are well represented in a find of seven of
+these blades obtained in 1888 when making the railway near Hollywood,
+County Galway. They were described as having been found about 2-1/2
+feet under the surface of a shallow bog "stuck in a bunch in the
+ground, with points down. No other relics appeared near them." We do
+not think it is any use attempting to place the halberds in a series
+of development; and no progression can be claimed for their forms
+other than that there appears to be a movement of development from the
+smaller straight blades to the larger and curved blades. In one or two
+cases the mid rib has been brought to a slight roof-ridge; and a fine
+example in the late Sir John Evans' collection shows a well-marked
+bead down the mid rib ("Bronze Implements," fig. 331); but in most
+cases the mid rib is quite plain with a rounded curve in section.
+
+
+ANALYSES
+
+Analyses of the halberd blades show that the metal of which they are
+composed does not differ much from that of the copper celts. A recent
+analysis of five specimens is appended which shows that the blades are
+practically of pure copper. This is interesting, as it removes the
+doubt expressed by Sir John Evans in "Bronze Implements," p. 265, that
+"many of these blades have the appearance of being made of copper; but
+the absence of tin in their composition has not been proved."
+
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |Bismuth|
+ | |          |Copper.|Tin.|Antimony.|Arsenic.|Lead.|Silver.|Iron.| Nickel|
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |  Zinc.|
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+ |1|King's Co.|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |Day Coll.,|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 25,| 99.02 |0.22|   Nil   |   Nil  | 0.19|  0.26 | 0.04|  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |2|Antrim,   |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |1903, 235,|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 9, | 97.31 |0.31|   0.14  |   0.18 | Nil |   Nil | Nil |  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |3|Galway,   |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | | W. 241,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 19,| 98.06 |0.22|   Nil   |   Nil  | 0.58|   Nil | 0.17|  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |4|Cork,     |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | | R. 459,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 7, | 98.30 |0.30|   0.27  |   0.37 | Nil |   Nil | Nil |  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |5| W. 248,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 28,| 97.24 |0.18|   Nil   |   1.54 | Nil |  0.25 | Nil |  Nil  |
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Halberds from North Germany and Sweden after
+                Montelius.]
+
+The manner in which the halberd blades were attached to their shafts
+is explained by the bronze halberds with bronze shafts--the blade and
+upper part of the shaft often in one piece--from North Germany and
+from Sweden. These halberds are referred to an early stage of the
+Bronze Age; but they are of bronze, and, in casting and other
+features, show a considerable advance on a primitive type; the large
+imitation rivets cast in the head of the shaft no doubt represent an
+earlier form in which the shaft was of wood and the rivets real. Ten
+bronze halberd blades were found together near Stendal in Prussian
+Saxony, but without handles, four of which are figured by Montelius in
+"Die Chronologie der ältesten Bronzezeit," figs. 115-118. An analysis
+of one of the blades gave 15 per cent. of tin and of a rivet 4·5 per
+cent. of tin. From the straight mark across the blades, and some
+bronze tubular pieces for the handles, there seems no doubt that they
+were intended for straight wooden handles, and thus represent the
+earlier type. The blades are about 12-1/4 inches in length. It is
+important to note that the rivets are of two kinds: some are large and
+stout like the usual Irish form; and some have metal washers, like the
+solitary example found in Ireland (fig. 7), and which has caused some
+authorities to consider the Irish halberd blades somewhat later than
+we should care to place them. In general appearance these halberd
+blades from Stendal are closer to the Irish halberds than any of the
+others which have been found on the Continent, but do not include the
+curved or scythe-shaped form common to Ireland. Copper halberds, with
+remains of transverse wooden shafts, have been found by the brothers
+Siret on the south-east of Spain. In this case they go back to the
+very beginning of the bronze age in this district. The form of the
+blades is, however, in most cases #T#-shaped, and different from the
+Irish examples (fig. 12). Halberds attached to their shafts are also
+shown on the prehistoric rock-markings in the "Italian Maritime Alps,"
+published by Mr. C. Bicknell. The actual blades, however, that can be
+classified with any certainty as halberds are very rare in the North
+and Middle Italian districts, though some of the copper and early
+bronze triangular dagger forms may have been occasionally mounted as
+halberds. It is possible, however, that the decoration of certain
+halberds found in Germany may have been influenced by that of the
+Italian dagger.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Halberts from South-east Spain.]
+
+The halberd blade can be distinguished from the broad dagger by the
+shape of the handle, which is curved or indented in the case of the
+dagger, but straight across in the case of the halberd. There is,
+however, another point. The hindmost rivets, both in the case of the
+blades with four rivets and those with three only, are shorter than
+those in front of them. The shortness of the end-rivets and slope of
+the heads imply that the handle was rounded off behind the blade, as
+would be the case with a transverse shaft. So there appears no room to
+doubt the manner in which the long scythe-shaped blades were mounted
+on handles, though some uncertainty was formerly expressed on the
+subject. The Irish halberd-blades were evidently mounted at right
+angles to the shaft in the same way as most of the Continental blades,
+as can be seen from the straight-across marks of the handle, which can
+be traced on several examples.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Rock Markings, Maritime Alps.]
+
+From the analyses of copper halberds, it will be seen that the tin
+varies from ·18 to ·31 per cent. We may therefore conclude that the
+copper halberds are simply coarse or unrefined copper from similar
+ores to the copper celts; and that the copper implements found in
+Ireland may contain up to about ·5 per cent. of tin. An increasing
+percentage of tin was not found in any of the copper celts, or,
+contrary to expectation, in the copper halberds; but, judging from the
+widespread use of copper implements in Ireland, from which it may be
+inferred that copper remained in use for a considerable time, it seems
+probable that bronze was introduced as an alloy of a known percentage
+of tin. As relatively few analyses of Irish bronze implements have
+been made, it is not possible at present to come to any fixed
+conclusions on the subject of the introduction of bronze into Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Stone Pick from the Bann.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Deer Horn Pick.]
+
+Also, in the case of the halberds, the great rarity of any specimens
+of bronze blades which can be classified as halberds indicates that
+the form of implement practically ceased to be used when bronze came
+into use in Ireland. As the copper celts show a gradual transition
+from stone to metal forms, it seems reasonable to look for the
+prototypes of the copper halberd among the stone implements of the
+preceding period. In the Bann Valley many flint wedges or picks have
+been found, which may, perhaps, have influenced the copper halberds;
+and if a stone pick-like instrument was in use in Neolithic times, it
+may explain to some extent the prevalence of the metal halberd in
+Ireland in the copper period. When the blades were made larger, the
+curved form would come into existence, being suggested by the
+deer-horn picks already in use. Copper came into use in Ireland, we
+may suppose, in no sudden or violent manner. On the contrary, the
+transition from stone was probably of some duration. The use of copper
+made its way up through Europe, spreading from the lands of the
+eastern Mediterranean along the old trade routes of Neolithic times,
+influenced by the search for new deposits of ore. Though at first
+implements of copper, and even, perhaps, the metal, might be carried a
+considerable distance, an early use of the local ores seems to explain
+the case better.
+
+Whether this new knowledge of metal, coming from the eastern
+Mediterranean, first crept round by way of Spain, or struck across
+the Continent to the north and west of Europe, and so to Ireland, we
+cannot at present definitely say; the line of march, as indicated by
+the halberds, which are strangely deficient both in the south and the
+north of France, seems to point to north Germany and Scandinavia, by
+way of the rich ore-fields of middle Europe. But the archæology of the
+Peninsula for this early period is at present too uncertain to speak
+with confidence. There are indications, even in Neolithic times,
+which, perhaps, point to Spain; but, again, there are relations which
+indicate a considerable correspondence with Brittany and the North of
+France in the early Bronze Age. The late Dr. Much ("Die Kupferzeit,"
+p. 131) compared the Irish halberds with the Spanish and German
+examples, and came to the conclusion that the Irish halberds were
+later than the Spanish and earlier than the German. This view is
+supported by the form of the Irish halberds, which are more primitive
+in type than the German examples.
+
+Any conclusion as to the probable date when the halberds were in use
+in Ireland can only be arrived at in an indirect and approximate
+manner. We are, on the whole, inclined to think it is probable that
+the Irish halberds were influenced by the Spanish examples; and
+Herr Hubert Schmidt, who has worked out in much detail a scheme
+of chronology for this period, based upon the Egyptian dating of
+Professor Eduard Meyer, places the finds from El Argar at from 2500 to
+2360 B.C.[11] Allowing, therefore, some margin on the later side, we
+should probably be fairly safe in placing the period when the halberds
+were in use in Ireland at the end of the third and beginning of the
+second millennium B.C. We must remember that the whole of the Irish
+Bronze Age has to be fitted in after the copper period; and if we are
+to allow sufficient room for the several periods and their approximate
+correspondence with the periods of the Continental chronology, it is
+not easy to see how this dating can be much reduced. It may be noted
+that Montelius in his recent scheme of Bronze Age chronology for the
+British Islands, treats the halberds as bronze, and places them in his
+second period (first period of the true Bronze Age) dated from the
+beginning of the second millennium to the seventeenth century B.C.[12]
+
+ [11] Prehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. i, 1909, p. 138.
+
+ [12] Archæologia, vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xi, fig. 43.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FIRST AND LATER PERIODS OF THE BRONZE AGE
+
+
+Even during the copper period an evolution can be traced in the celt.
+The cutting-edge has been expanded; and the thickest part of the celt
+has been moved up from just above the cutting-edge to the centre.
+Until, however, we get into the Bronze Age, there has been no trace of
+a stop-ridge. When we get into the true Bronze Age, we find a complete
+and probably fairly rapid evolution of type from the flat celt to the
+final socketed form. Analyses of Irish celts on a large scale have not
+been made; but such analyses as have been done do not indicate an
+experimental stage of small additions of tin, but rather show that
+the bronze from the first contained a fairly large proportion of tin.
+Where the tin came from is at present uncertain. The illustrations
+will make the evolution of the celt clear. The first step was the
+broadening of the cutting-edge, and moving the thickest part up to the
+centre of the blade; the next step was hammering the sides to make
+flanges to grip the handle more securely; a stop-ridge was then added
+to prevent the handle slipping down over the blade; and the latter
+forms are reached by increasing the flanges and broadening the
+stop-ridge; in its last forms the wings are increased at the expense
+of the stop-ridge; and the final socketed form is reached by leaving
+out the centre division between the wings. Figure 20 may be noticed,
+as it is very similar to certain Continental forms.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE I. Irish bronze celts in the order of their
+                development. _p. 24._]
+
+Some of the earlier flat bronze celts may have been hafted like the
+stone celts, by merely fixing the smaller end into a stick with a
+thick head; but this method must soon have been abandoned, as after a
+certain number of blows had been delivered, the axe-head would be
+forced back into the shaft. A more practical method was to place the
+head in a handle having a forked head, and the origin of the
+stop-ridge was to prevent the two sides coming down too low on to the
+blade. The side flanges and palstave-form developed naturally from
+this. The manner of hafting the socketed celts is well shown by a
+handled socketed celt found at Edenderry, King's Co., and formerly in
+the Murray collection. This object is now in the Ethnological and
+Archæological Museum at Cambridge; and it is to be regretted that so
+rare and important a find should have left the country.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+Some of the flat bronze celts are very finely decorated with incised
+chevrons, triangles, cross-hatchings, and other Bronze-Age linear
+ornament. One example has a kind of herring-bone pattern, somewhat
+resembling the well-known leaf-marking at New Grange. Some examples
+show a kind of cable-pattern on the side flanges; and the size of
+a few specimens is remarkable. A flat celt, with a remarkable
+ornamentation from the Greenwell collection found near Connor, County
+Antrim, is figured by Sir John Evans, _op. cit._, p. 64. It has a
+border of chevrons along the edge of the side; and this is carried
+across the celt in the centre and at the commencement of the
+cutting-edge. This border is joined by a similar centre band of
+ornament.
+
+Several of the Irish palstaves have a shield-shaped ornament below the
+stop-ridge. The socketed celts are, as a rule, unornamented; but there
+are a few which have been found in Ireland which are ornamented with
+ribs ending in pellets.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+The question is often asked as to whether the bronze celts were used
+as weapons or tools; and the probability is that they were used as
+either as occasion demanded. The celts do not show any marked
+difference of type which would enable us to differentiate a weapon
+from a tool, as is possible in the later iron axes of the Norman and
+Danish period when we can distinguish a heavy axe and a lighter keen
+blade. The Bayeux tapestry shows the two types in use, the heavy type
+being used to fell trees and the lighter for fighting.
+
+There is one palstave, with double loops, in the National Collection;
+and another was found in Ireland at Ballincollig, County Cork, and is
+in the Evans collection. These double-looped palstaves are of much
+interest, as the type is characteristic of the Iberian peninsula. A
+few have been found in the west of France, and some in the south-west
+of England, but on the route which one would expect to have been
+followed if they are due to intercourse with Spain. These probably
+belong to the Middle Bronze Age, though they have not as yet been
+found associated with objects which would give much information as to
+their date.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Winged Celt.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Winged Celt.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Palstave with Double-loops.]
+
+
+ANVIL AND HAMMERS
+
+Among objects that may undoubtedly be classed as tools are the small
+bronze anvil (fig. 22), and the bronze socketed hammers (fig. 23).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Bronze Anvil.]
+
+The anvil appears to be the only specimen which has been found in the
+British Islands, though examples are not uncommon in France. It
+resembles the small anvils used by jewellers, and it is interesting to
+note that, as M. Déchelette points out, these small bronze anvils
+correspond to those mentioned by Homer, which were also portable and
+used by goldsmiths.[13] Socketed bronze hammers resembling the Irish
+examples are fairly common in England and on the Continent. One
+well-known Irish specimen was found in the Douris hoard and is figured
+in Evans's "Bronze Implements," p. 179. Of the specimens illustrated,
+the largest was found at Abbeyshrule, Co. Longford, the exact locality
+of the others, further than that they were found in Ireland, is not
+known.
+
+ [13] Déchelette, Manuel d'Archéologie Préhistorique, vol. ii, p. 277.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Bronze Hammers.]
+
+
+SPEAR-HEADS
+
+Even as early as the Copper Period small weak knife-daggers were in
+use, and these continued into the Bronze Age, becoming the parent of
+the spear-head as well as of the rapier and sword. The spear-head was
+evolved by decreasing the width of the base of the dagger-blade, and
+adding a narrow tang with a peg-hole to fix into the shaft. The
+addition of a ferule was the next step; and the omission of the tang,
+and amalgamation of the ferule with the blade, gave rise to the
+socketed spear-head.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+The Irish spear-heads may be divided into two well-defined groups,
+looped and riveted; and it will be found that the separation of the
+types extends farther than the mode of attachment. The form of the blade
+of each class is quite distinct. Taking the looped spear-heads first, we
+can follow the development of the spear-head from the dagger-blade. The
+adaptation is shown in fig. 24 (the centre spear-head), which is, in
+fact, a dagger-blade placed on a socket. The socket does not enter the
+blade, but is stopped at the shoulders. The #V#-shaped base of the blade
+is derived from the dagger, and disappears as the true character of the
+spear form is developed. A feature of special interest is the survival
+of the rivet-heads of the dagger in the form of ornamental bosses at
+the base of the blade. The rivet-holes appear to have been drilled, and
+not formed in casting. No examples of this form of spear-head have been
+found in England; and but one is recorded from the Isle of Man and two
+from Scotland. In the last example (in fig. 24), the imitative rivets
+are reduced to a single boss, and completely disappear in the next stage
+(fig. 25).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+In the subsequent figures we see the blade developed at the expense of
+the socket; and the transition to the fully developed spear-head
+begins. The derivation of this form of spear-head from the so-called
+Arreton Down type of tanged blade is now admitted. Though tanged
+spear-heads of the Arreton Down type are fairly represented in Irish
+finds, no socket has been so far recovered with any of them; but an
+early form of nondescript tanged blade with a socket was found at
+Lough Ruadh bog near Tullamore, King's County, in 1910, and shows the
+socket was known in Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Leaf-shaped Spear-heads.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+Another very early type of spear-head, nearly all the known examples of
+which were found in Ireland, was derived by mounting the rapier on a
+socket (fig. 27). There are six of these spear-heads in the collection
+of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the collection of the Royal
+Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. One of these spear-heads, found at
+Taplow on the Thames, has gold studs at the base of the blade which,
+no doubt, represent the rivets. The derivation of the spear-head by
+gradually rounding off the corners of the blade can be easily followed.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at
+                the Ford, Belturbet, Co. Cavan.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+We will now turn to the spear-heads with rivet-holes in the sockets,
+but without loops or openings in the blades (figs. 28 and 30). These
+spear-heads are almost invariably leaf-shaped and devoid of ribs. The
+pins or rivets used to attach this class to the shaft were probably of
+wood, horn, or bone. Two examples formerly in Mr. Day's collection
+have rivets of bronze, and others with bronze rivets have been found
+in England. The leaf-shaped spear-head is associated by form with the
+leaf-shaped sword; the looped type with the older type of weapons, the
+dagger and rapier forms. The records of the finds are very incomplete;
+but the association of leaf-shaped spears and swords to the exclusion
+of the looped form is sufficiently marked to be noted as an additional
+piece of evidence.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Ornamental Spear-heads with openings in the
+                blade.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Portion of Spear-head with studs at the base
+                of the wings.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+There are in the Academy's collection a number of spear-heads with
+rivet-holes in the sockets and ornamental side-apertures (figs. 33 and
+34). These spear-heads are very highly decorated, and form an attractive
+class. They may be derived from the spear-heads in which the loops are
+joined to the base of the blade (fig. 31), and in which, by a process of
+evolution, the loop has been incorporated as part of the wing, or they
+may also have been influenced by the early type of tanged spear-heads
+from the Greek islands, in which the openings in the blade were
+functional, being used for binding the head into a split shaft. These
+ornamental spear-heads belong, as a type, to the British Islands, where
+the socketed spear-head itself appears to have been evolved. Several of
+these spear-heads have, as well as the wings, small holes in the blades,
+the purpose of which is not clear. They are very finely cast; and even
+in Ireland, where Bronze-Age casting reached its highest point, these
+are amongst its best products.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Spear-heads with ornamental openings in the
+                blades.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Half of mould for casting a socketed
+                spear-head, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+Another very rare type of spear-head, in which the loops are formed by
+the extension of the small ribs on each side of the mid rib, must be
+mentioned. These spear-heads are very seldom met with. We only know of
+the existence of four, of which one is in the Greenwell collection, two
+in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the Municipal
+Museum at Belfast. The Academy was fortunate enough to secure a very
+fine specimen in 1912. It was found with two leaf-shaped bronze swords
+at Tempo, County Fermanagh,[14] and measures 15-1/2 inches long (fig.
+37). Judging from the associated swords, this spear-head may be dated
+about the ninth century B.C.
+
+ [14] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, sec. c, p. 91.
+
+
+MOULDS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 39.--Half of mould for casting a spear-head and
+                dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+The most important moulds for casting spear-heads found in Ireland are
+a series for casting early tanged spear-heads which were found about
+thirty years ago at Omagh, County Tyrone, and are now in the possession
+of Mr. M. J. Sullivan. These moulds are of the greatest importance in
+the history of the development of the bronze spear-head, as they show
+the evolution of the tanged blade to the socketed form, and also that
+the tanged and socketed forms were in contemporary use in Ireland. The
+form of the moulds for the socketed spear-heads shows them to be at the
+very commencement of this type; and it was probable that the tanged type
+was rapidly superseded by the improved socketed form.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mould for casting spear-head and knife,
+                Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+These moulds are made of sandstone; and the illustrations will show
+them sufficiently. For a full description see the Journal of the Royal
+Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xxxvii, 1907, p. 181.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 41.--MOULDS FOR PRIMITIVE SPEAR-HEADS FOUND IN THE
+                COUNTY TYRONE. (Reproduced from the Journal of the
+                Royal Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 42.--MOULDS FOR PRIMITIVE SPEAR-HEADS FOUND IN THE
+                COUNTY TYRONE. (Reproduced from the Journal of the
+                Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.)]
+
+Another very important find of moulds was made in 1910 at Killymeddy,
+near Ballymoney, County Antrim. This find included two complete moulds
+and a half mould for casting looped socketed spear-heads. Of the other
+moulds for casting spear-heads found in Ireland, nearly all are for
+the looped type; and the few that have been found for casting the
+leaf-shaped type are small and indeterminate in character. It is most
+probable that, with the introduction of the leaf-shaped spear-heads,
+moulds of clay or sand were introduced; and these have naturally
+perished. Fragments of a clay mould for casting a spear-head and a sword
+were found at Whitepark Bay, and portions of clay moulds for spear-heads
+have been found in Brittany, the Lake of Bienne, and other places. The
+discoveries of moulds enforce the distinction of type between the
+looped and leaf-shaped spear-heads, and the moulds from Killymeddy
+(figs. 38-40 and 43) may probably be placed at the end of the period
+when stone moulds were in use, and assigned to about 1500-1200 B.C.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 43.--Half of mould for casting spear-head and
+                dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+
+SPEAR-FERULES
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Bronze spear ferules.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Bronze spear ferule with La Tène ornament.]
+
+From time to time objects of bronze have been found in Ireland of a
+curious shape, somewhat like the handle of a door; and their use was
+considered uncertain; it is, however, clear that they were the ferules
+of spears; and in some cases the remains of the wooden shafts have been
+found inside them. The finding, moreover, of one in the Lisnacroghera
+Crannog with the whole of the shaft, measuring 8 feet in length,
+attached to it, places the matter beyond dispute.[15] It also shows
+that these objects were in use down to the early Iron Age, as most of
+the objects of the Lisnacroghera find belong to the La Tène period.
+
+ [15] Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xvi, p. 395.
+
+Other ferules assume a long and graceful shape, and one is decorated
+with La Tène motives (fig. 45).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+IRISH GOLD
+
+
+Ireland's extreme richness in gold during the Bronze Age made her
+a kind of El Dorado of the western world. The gold was, no doubt,
+obtained from County Wicklow, where gold was worked down to the end
+of the eighteenth century, nuggets of 22, 18, 9, and 7 oz. being
+recorded. One exceptionally large nugget weighing 22 oz., found in
+1795 at Croghan Kinshela, Co. Wicklow, was presented to King George
+III; and its discovery caused a rush to the workings. As well as
+Wicklow there are six other counties where gold has been found. The
+very large number of gold ornaments that have been found in Ireland is
+therefore not surprising. The ancient literature of Ireland contains
+many references to gold ornaments and payments of gold by weight. It
+is interesting to note that the tradition preserved in the Book of
+Leinster, a MS. of the twelfth century, refers the first smelting
+of gold in Ireland to a district in which gold has been found in
+considerable quantities in modern times. The Leinstermen, it is
+stated, were called "Lagenians of the gold," because it was in their
+country that gold was first discovered in Erin. It is further stated
+that gold was first smelted for Tighearnmas, one of the earliest of
+the Milesian kings, in the forests standing on the east side of the
+River Liffey, by Iuchadan, a native of that district.
+
+After the discovery of native gold in Ballinvally stream at Croghan in
+1796, the Government undertook mining operations; and in three years
+collected 944 ounces worth, at the price of the day, £3,675. Since
+the workings were abandoned by the Government, the district has been
+worked at intervals by companies, and at other times by the peasants;
+the total output since 1795 is estimated at a value of £30,000. The
+knowledge of the Irish gold deposits must have been a very
+considerable factor in the foreign relations of the island in the
+Bronze Age.
+
+
+LUNULÆ
+
+The earliest of the Irish gold ornaments are the flat gold collars
+known as lunulæ. These have been found fairly evenly distributed over
+the country, and in astonishing numbers.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 46.--Gold Lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans,
+                Co. Donegal.]
+
+The circumstances under which the lunulæ have been found have not
+often been recorded. The collection of the Royal Irish Academy in the
+National Museum, Dublin, contains no less than thirty-seven examples.
+Several of these have been found and recorded during the past three or
+four years. As a rule the lunulæ are engraved on one face only with
+finely cut or scored well-recognized Bronze Age ornament, consisting
+of bands of lines, cross-hatchings, chevrons, triangles, and
+lozenges.
+
+The centres of the lunulæ are plain, the exact reason of which is not
+quite apparent. The ornament is gathered to the end of the lunula and
+spaced out by bands. Two lunulæ found together at Padstow, Cornwall,
+are said to have been found with a bronze celt of early type. The find
+is preserved in the Truro Museum, and is of the utmost importance as
+an indication of the early Bronze-Age date of the lunulæ. It is, we
+believe, the only instance of lunulæ being found with associated
+objects.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 47.--Gold Lunula found in Co. Galway.]
+
+Figures 46-49 and 51-53 illustrate the various types of ornament; it
+will be noticed that some of the smaller examples are quite plain.
+
+One lunula was found in an oak case at Newtown, Crossdoney, Co.
+Cavan. The case has greatly shrunk since it was found, as when first
+discovered it measured 10 inches by 8 inches (fig. 50).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Gold Lunula, locality not recorded.]
+
+The two expanded pieces at the ends are always turned at right angles
+to the plane of the lunula, and serve to clasp the back of the neck,
+and may have been secured by a tie. It need not, however, be pointed
+out that they are quite out of place in a head-ornament; indeed, the
+geometrical shape of a lunula is contrary to such a theory, and quite
+different from recognized diadems or head-ornaments.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 49.--Gold Lunula found at Killarney.]
+
+One example found at Volognes has a chain and sort of buckle attached
+at the ends. It has since been melted down, but a drawing of it has
+been preserved (fig. 51). The chain seems to have been ancient--at
+least it is stated to have been on it, as shown, when found; but,
+however ancient it may be, it is evident that it was more recently
+attached than the original make of the ornament. It is, however, of
+interest as indicating at some time a chain-tie to secure the ends of
+the ornament.
+
+The accompanying list of finds shows how numerous the lunulæ are in
+Ireland and how rarely they have been found outside this island. The
+map shows their distribution (fig. 54).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 50.--Oak case for Lunula found at Newtown,
+                Co. Cavan.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 51.--Gold Lunula found at Valognes, Manche.]
+
+Two have been found in the West Baltic at Zealand and Funen. They have
+otherwise hardly penetrated beyond Brittany. One has recently (1912)
+been found at Hanover, and another some time ago at Fauvillers,
+Luxembourg. This failure to penetrate far beyond the coasts of England
+and Brittany may point to early raids; but the copper and tin of
+Cornwall, as well as the tin deposits of Brittany and the general
+trade with Brittany, may indicate the early seeking of the Irish gold
+deposits. We may take as a provisional date for the lunulæ, 1200 to
+1000 B.C.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 52.--Gold Lunula found in Co. Londonderry.]
+
+Lunulæ now existing or known to have formerly existed:--
+
+
+IRELAND (62 at least).
+
+ --------------+---+------------------------------------------------
+ County.       |No.|                  Reference.
+ --------------+---+------------------------------------------------
+ Donegal,      | 2 |  R.I.A. 1889: 20 (1). Trenta, Carrigans. R.I.A.
+               |   |    1909: 6 (1). Naran.
+               |   |
+ Londonderry,  | 2 |  R.I.A. W. 12 (1). R.I.A. (loan 1907: 7) (1).
+               |   |
+ Antrim,       | 3 |  Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv, p. 295.
+               |   |
+ Down,         | 1 |  Castlereagh, Ulster Journal of Archæology,
+               |   |    vol. ix, p. 46.
+               |   |
+ Tyrone,       | 3 |  Trillick, R.I.A. 1884: 495 (1). Carrickmore,
+               |   |    R.I.A. 1900: 50 (1). Tartaraghan, Ulster
+               |   |    Journal of Archæology, vol. ix, p. 47 (at Cecil,
+               |   |    Augher) (1).
+               |   |
+ Mayo,         | 1 |  R.I.A. 1909.
+               |   |
+ Sligo,        | 1 |  Windele's Miscellanea, p. 206.
+               |   |
+ Fermanagh,    | 1 |  Enniskillen (Day Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Monaghan,     | 1 |  Ballybay (Day Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Galway,       | 1 |  R.I.A. W. 10 (Sirr Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Roscommon,    | 2 |  Athlone, R.I.A. W. 5, and 1893: 4.
+               |   |
+ Cavan,        | 3 |  Newtown, R.I.A. 1884: 494 (1). Bailieborough
+               |   |    (British Museum) (1). Lisanover, Bawnboy.
+               |   |    1910: 45 (1).
+               |   |
+ Westmeath,    | 2 |  Ross, R.I.A. 1896: 15 (1). Mullingar, 1884:
+               |   |    7 (1).
+               |   |
+ Kildare,      | 4 |  Dunfierth, R.I.A. W. 4, 8, 9, and 15.
+               |   |
+ Clare,        | 2 |  Porsoon Callan, R.I.A. 1877: 52 (1). Proc.
+               |   |    R.I.A., vol. viii, p. 83 (1).
+               |   |
+ Tipperary,    | 1 |  Glengall (British Museum).
+               |   |
+ Kerry,        | 5 |  Banmore, R.I.A. R., 1755, 1756, 1757 (3):
+               |   |    R.I.A., Killarney, W. 2 (1). Mangerton (Brit.
+               |   |    Mus.) (1).
+               |   |
+ Cork          | 2 |  Ballycotton (Brit. Mus.) (1), and one or perhaps
+               |   |    two in Mr. Cliborn's scrap-book in R.I.A.
+
+In addition to the foregoing there are 16 in the collection of the
+R.I.A. and 5 in the British Museum, and about 6 in private
+collections, which are known to have been found in Ireland, but of
+which the localities have not been recorded.
+
+
+ENGLAND (4).
+
+ Cornwall,     | 4 |  Penzance (1), Padstow (2), Lesnewth (1) (Arch.
+               |   |  Journ., vol. xxii, 276).
+
+
+WALES (1).
+
+ Carnavonshire,| 1 |  Llanllyfni (British Museum).
+
+
+SCOTLAND (4).
+
+ Lanarkshire,  | 2 | Southside near Coulter (Anderson, vol. i, p. 223).
+               |   |
+ Dumfriesshire,| 1 | Auchentaggart (Anderson, vol. i, p. 222).
+               |   |
+ Elginshire,   | 1 | Fochabers (Cat. Nat. Mus., Scot., p. 210).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 53.--Gold Lunula found at Athlone.]
+
+
+FRANCE (6).
+
+ Côtes du Nord,| 1 | Saint-Potan (Reinach, Revue Celtique, 1900,
+               |   |   p. 95).
+               |   |
+ Manche,       | 3 | Tourlaville (1), Valognes (1) (Reinach, R. C.,
+               |   |   1900, p. 95).
+               |   | Montebourg (1) (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905,
+               |   |   p. 301).
+               |   |
+ Vendée,       | 2 | Bourneau (1), Nesmy (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900,
+               |   |   p. 95).
+
+
+BELGIUM (1).
+
+ Luxemburg,    | 1 | Fauvillers (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 302).
+
+
+DENMARK (2).
+
+ Zealand,      | 1 | Grevinge (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).
+               |   |
+ Funen,        | 1 | Skogshöierup (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 54.--Map showing the Distribution of Lunulæ in
+                Ireland and Europe.]
+
+
+GERMANY (1).
+
+ Hanover,      | 1 | Schulenburg (Leine) Springe (1911).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DAGGERS AND RAPIERS
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 55.--Stone celt, Bronze dagger with gold band,
+                and Urn found in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+As has been mentioned, as well as being parent to the spear-head, the
+small weak knife-dagger frequently found in early Bronze-Age burials
+also developed into the true dagger-blade, and in course of time into
+the sword. Bronze daggers have often been found in Ireland; there are
+about forty in the National Collection. Among the most interesting
+finds of these early daggers may be mentioned that discovered in 1897
+at an interment at Topped Mountain Cairn, County Fermanagh. This
+dagger measures 5-5/8 inches, and is covered with a beautiful blue
+patina. It is decorated with raised lines on each side of the blade,
+and has two small rivets. It was discovered in a cist in the cairn
+lying at the right side of the skull of an uncremated body, and in the
+same place was a small band of gold which appears to have been half
+of a band of that metal which was probably round the handle of the
+dagger (fig. 55). Another interesting find is the small bronze dagger
+discovered with urns and cremated bones in a cist at Annaghkeen Cairn,
+County Galway, in 1908.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 56.--Dagger and Rapier blades.]
+
+In course of time the length of the dagger-blade was increased; and
+later examples are wonderful specimens of casting. The earlier
+daggers were either attached to the handle by rivets, or else notches
+were left in the base of the blade for the attachment. The manner of
+hafting them is quite clear, as a few hafted examples have been found.
+Some had bronze handles cast separately (fig. 56); others had handles
+of horn or wood (fig. 57); but the hilts for the most part were made
+of some perishable substance, and they have consequently not been
+recovered. The scolloped mark left by the hilt is often quite plainly
+to be seen on the blade. In later times the handle was sometimes cast
+in one piece with the blade; but the division between the handle and
+the blade is always quite clearly marked. The decoration of the later
+dagger-blades takes the form of a number of triangles at the base of
+the blade, and the extreme similarity in decoration between the
+Italian and the early northern and western daggers has led Montelius
+to consider the latter as derived from the former; and this is
+enforced in the case of the Irish examples by the series of small
+hatched-triangles which have been found at the base of two well-known
+Irish examples (fig. 56).
+
+The rapiers were evolved quite naturally by lengthening the
+dagger-blade; and this form was probably influenced also, as will be
+mentioned later, by contemporary weapons in use in the Mediterranean
+lands.
+
+The longest rapier ever found in Western Europe is the splendid weapon
+found at Lissane, Co. Derry, in 1867, which measures 30-1/4 inches in
+length (fig. 59). Another very remarkable Irish example is the short
+rapier found in Upper Lough Erne, and obtained by Mr. Thomas Plunkett,
+M.R.I.A., from the finder. This weapon is a wonderfully fine piece of
+casting. It measures 16-3/4 inches in length (fig. 58).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 57.--Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney,
+                Co. Antrim.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 58.--Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 59.--Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 60.--Rapiers and Daggers found in Ireland.]
+
+The rapiers belong to the middle and later portions of the Bronze Age.
+This type of weapon is common in France, and is described by M.
+Déchelette as widely spread in the British Islands and the north of
+France, and as having been introduced from there into South Germany
+and the region of the Middle Rhine.[16] The rapiers of advanced
+type he places in the third division of the Bronze Age, as they have
+been found in Bronze-Age tumuli of that period, as at Staadorf, Haut
+Palatinat (1600-1300 B.C.). Montelius places the rapiers in his fourth
+period dated at the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the twelfth
+century B.C.,[17] so that his dating of these objects practically
+coincides with that of M. Déchelette. It is now well recognized that
+the swords of the Ægean-Mycenæan area were developed on parallel lines
+to those of Western Europe. We find that the long rapiers or thrusting
+swords are developed from the tanged Cypriote dagger, and that the
+true sword is a later evolution from the rapier. It is hardly to be
+doubted that some of the western forms of daggers and rapiers were
+influenced by Mycenæan types; and the discovery in Sicily of rapiers
+of Mycenæan type with pottery dated as recent Minoan III, establishes
+a direct bond between the Ægean and Western Europe.[18]
+
+ [16] "Manuel d'Archéologie," vol. ii, p. 208.
+
+ [17] "Archæologia," vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xv.
+
+ [18] "Manuel d'Archéologie," vol. ii, p. 214.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+GOLD GORGETS
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Gold Gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the
+                possession of the Earl of Charleville. From Vetusta
+                Monumenta, Vol. v, Pl. xxviii.]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE II. Irish Gold Gorgets. _p. 62._]
+
+Among the most striking of the gold ornaments in the National Collection
+are the five gold gorgets or neck-collars, with the ends decorated with
+ornamented disks. These are very elaborately decorated, and of great
+massiveness. Two others mentioned as having been found in Ireland,
+one of which was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville,
+were figured in "Vetusta Monumenta." Vallancey states that another was
+found in the County Longford. A few disks have also been found which may
+have been portions of these gorgets. The neck-portion of the gorgets is
+arranged in three rows of raised ridges, and these are ornamented with
+rows of small bosses, the depressions of the ridges being occupied with
+a narrow rope-shaped fillet. In some cases the ridges are left plain.
+The small disks at the terminals of the collar are remarkable; they
+measure about 2-7/8 or 3 inches in diameter, and are decorated with a
+centre and side bosses, surrounded with concentric circles. They much
+resemble in miniature the round shields or bucklers of the late Bronze
+Age, but they also show some resemblance to the so-called sun-disks
+which have been found in Ireland, and which will be described later
+on. Unfortunately the gorgets have in no case been found with any
+accompanying objects which would assist in dating them, and in fact in
+only two cases have details as to their finding been preserved, one
+found at Ardcroney, near Nenagh, County Tipperary, the other at Tony
+Hill, Croom, County Limerick. Their ornamentation, however, would seem
+to place them in the Hallstatt period, first Iron Age, which may be
+dated at about 700-600 B.C. Their form and ornamentation may be compared
+with that of the splendid gold collar from Cintra, Lisbon, now in the
+British Museum,[19] and also with the triple bronze collars common in
+Scandinavia and north Germany, all of which are referred to the
+Hallstatt period. This period is at present not well represented in
+Ireland or the British Isles; and it is doubtful whether iron came into
+general use in Ireland till about the third century B.C.
+
+ [19] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 148.
+
+One point of much interest must be noticed. In one of the gorgets
+shown in Plate II, where the disk is attached to the gorget, above
+the line where the end of the plate passes into the boss, three
+perpendicular and two cross-stitches can be seen. Some of these
+sewings are made by means of slight square wire, but in others the
+fastenings are composed of fine woollen thread, round which is twisted
+spirally a thin, flat strip of gold. These strips are one of the
+oldest specimens of woollen cordage now in existence in Ireland.
+
+
+GOLD SUN-DISKS
+
+We have already referred to the flat disks of gold, a number of which
+have been found in Ireland. There are four in the British Museum, and no
+less than fifteen in the National Collection at Dublin. In four cases
+they have been found in pairs--one pair at Ballina, County Mayo, another
+pair at Tydavnet, County Monaghan, a third at Cloyne, Co. Cork, and the
+fourth at Castle Martyr, Co. Cork. Some of these disks are ornamented
+with concentric circles; others have a cruciform ornament which
+resembles the four-spoked chariot-wheel, and is a well-known sun symbol.
+When these objects were first discovered, their origin and use were
+quite unknown; and Mr. Reginald A. Smith, of the British Museum, was the
+first to point out their resemblance to the gold disk, decorated with
+spirals, affixed to a bronze sun-chariot, found in Trundholm Moss,
+Zealand, in 1902. The bronze chariot consisted of a bronze disk mounted
+on wheels and drawn by a horse, the gold disk being affixed to the
+bronze one. The ornamentation of the Irish disks is somewhat different,
+as the spiral does not appear, its place being taken by the concentric
+circle. The Trundholm sun-chariot is dated by Prof. Sophus Muller at
+before 1000 B.C. The Trundholm disk is admittedly connected with
+sun-worship, as is also the cruciform ornament on the Irish disks. The
+spoked-wheel is a well-known solar symbol; and similar designs have been
+found on the bases of some Irish food-vessels, and may also be compared
+with some of the markings at Dowth.[20] The prevalence of sun-worship
+in the Bronze Age need not be further gone into here; but the gold disks
+are of great interest, as furnishing another point of contact between
+Ireland and Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. The finding of Irish gold
+lunulæ in Denmark, and the occurrence of Scandinavian amber in Irish
+finds of the Bronze-Age, have already been mentioned.
+
+ [20] "New Grange and other Incised Tumuli," p. 59, fig. 39.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE III. Gold sun-disks. _p. 64._]
+
+
+GOLD BALLS
+
+We may also mention the large hollow golden balls of which seven are
+in the National collection, one in the possession of Mr. H. J. B.
+Clements, and another in the British Museum. Eleven of these golden
+balls were found in 1834 at Carrick-on-Shannon.[21] There has been
+much conjecture as to the use these balls were put to, and it has been
+suggested that as their large size would render them inconvenient as
+personal ornaments, they were probably used to decorate a horse. If so
+they may have been attached to the bridle like the large balls shown
+on the horses' bridles in the bronze scabbard from Hallstatt, dated La
+Tène I. See Déchelette, "Manuel d'Archéologie," vol. ii, p. 770. The
+Golden Peytrell found at Mold, Flintshire, may be instanced to show
+that gold was sometimes used to decorate horses; and if the gold balls
+were really used for this purpose, we may well endorse what the author
+of the "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide" says when he writes: "A
+discovery of this kind demonstrates in a striking manner the abundance
+of gold at the end of our Bronze period."[22]
+
+ [21] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 450.
+
+ [22] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 150.
+
+
+CLARE FIND
+
+Another type of neck-ornaments are the thin gold gorgets with
+funnel-shaped ends, many of which were found in the great Clare find.
+These gorgets are quite plain, except for a little ornamentation at
+the extreme ends near the funnel-shaped extremities. There are five of
+these objects in the National Collection, and all were found together
+in the celebrated Clare find. This find--the largest collective one of
+gold objects ever made in Western Europe--was discovered in making a
+railway-cutting for the Limerick and Ennis Railway in 1854. A gang of
+labourers were digging near an old hawthorn-bush, a little distance to
+the south of the railway bridge in Moghaun north, on the west side of
+the line of the great fort, and opposite the lough, when they
+undermined a kind of cist. The fall of one of the containing-stones
+disclosed a mass of gold ornaments--gorgets, bracelets of all sizes
+with cup-shaped ends, and a few ingots of gold. The find, from a
+numerical point of view, far surpassed anything ever made, but none
+of the objects were highly ornamented or of a special type.
+
+The fact of this immense number of gold ornaments being hidden in
+a cist in this way has given rise to many conjectures; but in the
+absence of any other explanation, it may be suggested that the objects
+had been collected together, and hidden purposely, with the idea of
+returning and regaining possession of them later. The value of the
+find has been estimated at at least £3,000. Unfortunately, most of the
+objects were sold to jewellers and melted down, but a large number
+were exhibited at the Archæological Institute by Dr. Todd and Lord
+Talbot de Malahide in 1854, and casts of these were taken, and a set
+is now in the National Collection. There are also a small number of
+the originals in the Royal Irish Academy's collection (Plate IV).
+Otherwise such objects of the find as escaped the melting-pot were
+scattered, and have found their way into different museums and private
+collections. As has been mentioned, the objects of this find did not
+show any remarkable types, and for the most part consisted of very
+thin bracelets and penannular rings with cup-shaped ends. It is
+probable that, as well as being ornaments, they served as a kind of
+currency.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE IV. Portion of the great Clare find. _p. 66._]
+
+
+PENANNULAR RINGS AND RING-MONEY
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 62.--Gold fibulæ, and other objects found together
+                at Coachford, Co. Cork.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 63.--Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+                showing Europeans holding manillas (after Read and Dalton,
+                _Antiquities of the City of Benin_).]
+
+The large number of penannular rings with cup-shaped ends which have
+been found from time to time in the island, brings us on to the
+general question of the so-called Irish fibulæ. In Ireland penannular
+rings with cup-shaped ends of copper or bronze are very rare, only
+about half a dozen being known, while fibulæ of gold are exceedingly
+common. The Coachford find, in which amber beads, gold fibulæ, and a
+copper or bronze fibula were all found together, shows that the
+objects were contemporary; and as this find may be placed at the end
+of the Bronze Age, it shows that these objects were in use at that
+period (fig. 62). On the other hand, it is likely that their use began
+earlier and continued for a long period. These objects when made of
+gold are of two shapes--in the one case the expanded cups are large
+and flat and the connecting bar is bow-shaped, and is striated. These
+have been conjectured to have been used as brooches for fastening a
+garment; and their form was probably influenced by the Scandinavian
+spectacle-brooches, the bows of the latter having, in some cases, the
+same decoration. Except for the striations on the connecting link,
+the Irish so-called mamillary fibulæ are almost always plain; but
+Vallancey has figured two examples, one of which is engraved with
+triangular, and the other with lozenge, ornaments. There is also the
+well-known example in Trinity College, Dublin, in which the surfaces
+of the cups are completely covered with concentric circle ornament,
+the inside rims of the cups being decorated with hatched triangles,
+and the neckings of what may be called the handle, with chevron and
+herring-bone pattern, while along the back of the handle is an
+ornament of lozenges. In the second type these objects assume the
+shape of a bracelet; and the expanded ends are sometimes cup-shaped
+and sometimes plain. From the extreme similarity between the shape of
+these, whether in gold or bronze, to the so-called African manillas,
+it has been conjectured the Irish examples, like the African, may have
+been used as a medium of exchange; and on the whole it seems probable
+that such was the case, the dividing line between what were used for
+ornaments and what may have been used for exchange not being at all
+easily defined (figs. 63 and 64).
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE V. Gold Fibulæ. _p. 68._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 64.--Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+                showing natives holding manillas (after Read and Dalton,
+                _Antiquities of the City of Benin_).]
+
+
+RING-MONEY
+
+The question of a medium of exchange leads us to mention the very
+small gold penannular rings, the largest being about an inch in
+diameter, frequently found in Ireland, which are known as
+'ring-money.' There are fifty-six in the National Collection; and a
+find made near Belfast of a socketed bronze celt in association with
+some of these objects shows they were in use during the late Bronze
+Age.[23] Attention has been called to the similarity of these Irish
+gold rings to the penannular copper rings plated with gold often found
+in early Japanese burials.[24]
+
+ [23] Archæologia, lxi, p. 153.
+
+ [24] See Munro, "Pre-historic Japan," p. 435, fig. 276.
+
+Many attempts have been made to equate the weights of a series of
+these rings with some known standard; and in his valuable work "The
+Origin of Currency and Weight Standards," Professor Ridgeway devotes
+several pages of his Appendix C to a discussion of the subject, and
+gives a table of the weights arrived at by grouping the rings in
+multiples of 18.
+
+While there can be no reasonable doubt that these objects were used as
+a medium of exchange, we are not inclined, in the absence of literary
+evidence, to go any further into the question of what standard they
+may represent. Some of these rings are evidently forgeries of ancient
+times, as they are composed of bronze rings covered with a thin plate
+of gold. The rings as a rule are plain; but some are ornamented with
+small strips of darker metal let into the gold, and two examples are
+twisted like small torcs.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VI. Gold Ring-Money. _p. 70._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
+
+
+A number of leaf-shaped bronze swords have been found in Ireland. They
+may be roughly divided into two types, those with notches just below
+the blade and above the handle, and those that are plain. The latter
+are the earlier, and belong to the late Bronze Age; the former
+correspond to the Continental swords of the Hallstatt period. The
+leaf-shaped type was the typical Bronze-Age sword of western and
+northern Europe. It was developed from the dagger, and, like it, was
+a thrusting rather than a cutting weapon. The handle is cast in one
+piece with the blade, and has rivet-holes, and in some cases a slit
+for the attachment of the hilt, which was no doubt formed of bone or
+horn plates. The pommel was probably globular, and formed of lead or
+some heavy material. A bronze sword of this type was found in a house
+on the Akropolis at Mycenæ by Schliemann, and it can be dated at about
+1200 B.C.[25] The discovery of this sword may be explained either as
+the result of a raid, or as showing that invaders from the north had
+reached Greece as early as this date. A leaf-shaped sword has been
+noticed on one of the clay tablets dated as late Minoan II, and in one
+of the stone slabs from over the fifth shaft grave at Mycenæ, which
+represents a figure in a chariot attacking a man on foot, the latter
+is armed with a leaf-shaped sword.[26] In any case it gives us a date
+for the period when these swords were in common use in western Europe.
+The type with notches below the blade has a tendency to become
+straighter at the sides, and to lose its leaf-shaped form. The use
+of the notches is not apparent, but it has been thought that the
+scabbards at that time were made of wood and were liable to shrink
+from exposure to weather, and that this may have prevented the sword
+from being thrust home, so that the edge was cut off by the notches
+slightly below the handle to avoid cutting the hand. The handle end of
+this latter type very frequently assumes a form like a fish's tail.
+These swords develop into the iron swords of the Hallstatt period, of
+which so far only one Irish example has been found. A bronze sword of
+the notched type formed part of the Dowris hoard, and is figured in
+the "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," plate ii. Two remarkably fine
+specimens of this type were found in 1912 with a socketed spear-head
+at Tempo, County Fermanagh.
+
+ [25] Naue, "Die Vorrömischen Schwerter," pp. 12 and 20.
+
+ [26] See Burrowes, "Discoveries in Crete," p. 183.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 65.--Leaf-shaped bronze swords, found with a
+                spear-head at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+No moulds for casting leaf-shaped swords of either type have been
+found in Ireland; and it is therefore probable that at the time they
+were in use sand-casting had replaced casting from stone moulds. The
+scabbards of the leaf-shaped swords were made of wood or leather,
+protected by a ferule or chape of bronze, which was fastened to it by
+rivets; the point of the weapon does not seem to have reached the end
+of the sheath. There are several examples of bronze chapes in the
+Royal Irish Academy's collection, and they display a considerable
+variety of design. Some are long and tubular in shape (fig. 66), while
+others are of the winged or boat-shaped type which is found on the
+Continent (fig. 67). Others again are of a small and simple type. The
+rivet-holes for the attachment of the sheaths can be seen in nearly
+all the Irish specimens. The casting of these objects shows a good
+deal of skill, as the metal is very thin. The winged variety are
+probably the latest, as they have been found with iron swords of
+Hallstatt type on the Continent.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 66.--Bronze chapes.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 67.--Winged chapes.]
+
+
+SHIELDS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 68.--Bronze shield, found at Lough Gur,
+                Co. Limerick.]
+
+Two circular shields or bucklers of bronze have been found in Ireland.
+There is only one in the National Collection, the fine shield
+discovered at Lough Gur, County Limerick. There is, however, a small
+shield of bronze ornamented with large bosses in the British Museum
+which was found at Athenry, County Galway.[27] These bronze shields
+have never been found in the British Islands with any objects which
+would give any definite clue to their date; but they are generally
+referred to the late Bronze Age. They belong to a common type, being
+decorated with numerous bands of small bosses separated by concentric
+circles. They appear to have been hammered out.
+
+ [27] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 30.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 69.--Alder-wood shield, found in Co. Leitrim.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Front and back of leather shield, found at
+                Clonbrin, Co. Longford.]
+
+There are two other shields of great interest in the National
+Collection. One is the remarkable alder-wood shield found 10 feet deep
+in a bog in 1863 at Annadale, County Leitrim. This shield is oval in
+shape, and has a central boss and seven raised ribs. It will be
+noticed that the ribs show an indentation at one side; but too much
+emphasis must not be placed on this, as the shield shrank a good
+deal after its removal from the bog, and the alteration may be due to
+this. This shield has a handle at the back. It is interesting to note
+that 'sciath,' one of the Irish words for 'shield,' denotes 'alder.'
+The next is the leather shield found in 1908 at Clonbrin, County
+Longford, and presented to the Royal Irish Academy's collection by
+Colonel W. H. King-Harman. This truly remarkable shield, the only one
+of its kind in Europe, is made of a solid piece of leather nearly 1/4
+of an inch thick, and measures 20-1/2 inches in length by 19-1/2
+inches across. It has an oblong centre boss pressed out of the leather
+and covered with an ornamental cap of fine leather laced on to it. The
+boss is encircled by three ribs, the inner one being gapped, and the
+two others having a curious re-entrant angle. The shield has
+twenty-four small round bosses on it which resemble those on the
+bronze shields. There is a leather handle which was laced on to the
+back. This shield appears to be complete as it stands, as there is no
+sign of any wooden supports at the back, nor is it easy to see how
+such supports could have been attached to it. According to Polybius
+round shields of bulls' hide were used by the Roman equites in the
+early days of Roman history.
+
+The round shield of the late Bronze Age was succeeded by the oval
+shield which may be taken as partly transitional to the oblong shield
+of Southern Europe and also of the late Celtic type found in Britain.
+The date, therefore, of this Irish leather shield is probably to be
+placed in the Early Iron period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TORCS
+
+
+There are twenty-four golden torcs of various types in the National
+Collection and one of bronze; but the Irish provenance of the latter
+is doubtful.
+
+The best known are the two magnificent gold torcs found in the side of
+one of the raths at Tara, and these belong to a type that has been
+found in England and France, of which the best known examples are
+those found at Yeovil, Somerset,[28] and Grunty Fen, Cambridge.[29] A
+torc of this type was also found by Schliemann in the royal treasury
+in the second city of Troy. This find has led to a good deal of
+speculative opinions varying as to whether the model of the torc was
+imported into Ireland from the south, or whether the Irish gold could
+have reached the Mediterranean in pre-Mycenæan times.[30] Torcs of
+this type were made by folding two thin ribbons of gold along the
+middle at a right angle; they were then attached with some kind of
+resinous flux, apex to apex, and twisted together. In some cases,
+instead of two folded ribbons a flat one and two halves of another
+were used, after being fastened together, the twisting being done in
+the same way. In some of the Irish examples the body of the torc is
+plain, or was grooved to simulate the appearance of the twisted torc.
+A peculiar feature of these torcs is the large hooks with which they
+are provided. It must be noted that whereas twisted torcs of bronze
+are fairly common in England and France there is only one bronze torc
+in the Irish National Collection, and, as mentioned above, the
+provenance of this is doubtful. The dating of these twisted torcs
+is a matter of difficulty, as there are only two instances of their
+having been found in association with bronze objects, one in the case
+of the Grunty Fen torc which was discovered with three bronze
+palstaves, and another found at Fresné la Mère, near Falaise,
+Normandy, which was found with a bronze razor and other objects of
+bronze. Such evidence as exists, therefore, would place them in the
+late Bronze Age, probably somewhere about 1000 B.C., but certain
+varieties of torcs, as we shall see, continued in use as late as the
+first century. The area of distribution of gold torcs of the Tara type
+in Ireland, England and France is very limited, none having been found
+in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Holland, or Spain and
+Portugal.[31] It has been suggested that the gold of which all these
+torcs were composed came from the Wicklow Mountains,[32] and in view
+of the extreme wealth of Ireland in gold, as evinced by the number of
+gold ornaments which are still constantly found, this may be
+considered probable.
+
+ [28] Proceedings Somerset Archæological and Natural History Society,
+      vol. lv, 1909, pt. ii, pp. 66-84.
+
+ [29] Cambridge Antiquarian Society's Communications, vol. xii, p. 96.
+
+ [30] Déchelette, "Manuel d'Archéologie," vol. ii, p. 355, note.
+
+ [31] Congrès Archéologique Français, Beauvais, 1905, p. 294.
+
+ [32] Proc. Soc. Antiquaries of London, second series, vol. xxiv, p. 42.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VII. Gold Torcs from Tara and elsewhere.
+                _p. 78._]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VIII. Gold Torcs. _p. 78._]
+
+Among the other types of gold torcs are two splendid examples, one of
+which appears to have been prepared for twisting and left unfinished,
+while the other is in a complete state (Plate VIII).
+
+Small torcs made by twisting a plain ribbon are fairly common, and
+some of these are so small that they must have been used as bracelets.
+
+In later times the torc was the distinguishing ornament of the Celt,
+and there are many allusions to torcs in classical writers. In 223
+B.C., when Flaminius Nepos gained his victory over the Gauls on the
+Addua, it is related that instead of the Gauls dedicating, as they had
+intended, a torc made from the Roman spoils to their god of war, the
+Romans erected a Roman trophy to Jupiter made from Gaulish torcs.
+
+The name of the Torquati, a family of the Manlia Gens, was derived
+from their ancestor, T. Manlius, who, having slain a gigantic Gaul in
+B.C. 361, took the torc from the dead body, and placed it round his
+neck.
+
+The famous statue of the Dying Gaul preserved in the Capitol at Rome
+shows a torc on the warrior's neck. This is one of a series of statues
+set up by the Greeks of Pergamos to celebrate their struggle with, and
+first victory over, the Gauls of Asia Minor, with whom they came in
+contact from about 240 to 160 B.C. The twisted torc appears to have
+been replaced in Ireland about the second century B.C. by the plain
+torc, which was probably introduced from Gaul. The fine gold torc from
+Clonmacnois (Plate IX), with La Tène decoration, is a good example of
+these torcs, and is almost identical with one from the Marne district
+now preserved in the St. Germain Museum. Probably the finest La Tène
+torc in existence is that found in the celebrated Broighter find,
+which is richly decorated with La Tène ornament (Plate IX, the inner
+torc).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+BRONZE-AGE FINDS
+
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE IX. Gold Torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter.
+                _p. 80._]
+
+One of the greatest difficulties to be contended with in any attempt
+to arrive at a working chronology for the Prehistoric Period in Ireland
+is that, though Ireland had a rich Bronze Age, as attested by the
+magnificent collection of objects preserved in the National Collection,
+yet in very few cases have any of these objects been found in
+association. Excavation carried on under scientific supervision was
+practically unknown in Ireland until quite recent years, and though, no
+doubt, hoards of associated objects have been discovered in the country,
+yet trustworthy particulars as to their finding have hardly ever been
+preserved, and the objects themselves have generally been scattered.
+Under these circumstances it seemed useful to gather together in the
+present chapter an account of the finds--unfortunately very few--in
+which associated objects have been discovered, and of which there is
+indisputable evidence of their association:--
+
+1. Find of a socketed celt, a gouge, a pin, a razor (the last in a
+simple leather case), a portion of a woollen garment, an ornament of
+horse-hair, like a tassel, and some pieces of wood. These objects were
+found in a bog in the townland of Cromaghs, parish of Armoy, Co.
+Antrim, in May, 1904, when cutting turf[33] (Fig. 71, nos. 1-5).
+
+ [33] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, p. 119.
+
+2. A find of late Bronze-Age objects discovered in a bog in the
+townland of Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, in May, 1861. The find
+contained the following objects:--two small socketed celts, a
+disk-headed pin, a plain bronze ring, and a bronze fibula[34] (Fig.
+71, nos. 6-10).
+
+ [34] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, 124.
+
+3. Find at Mountrivers, Rylane, Coachford, Co. Cork. This find was
+made in May, 1907, and contained the following objects:--two socketed
+bronze celts, two gold fibulæ, one fibula of copper or bronze, and
+eleven amber beads[35] (fig. 62).
+
+ [35] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 85.
+
+4. Find at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, made in May, 1906, The find
+consisted of a bronze socketed celt, a socketed sickle, two chisels,
+and a gouge[36] (fig. 74).
+
+ [36] Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+      vol. xxxvii, p. 86.
+
+5. Find of moulds for casting primitive spear-heads. This find was
+made near Omagh, Co. Tyrone, about 1882, and consisted of seven blocks
+of sandstone for casting tanged and socketed spear-heads.[37] (See
+page 39.)
+
+ [37] Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+      vol. xxxvii, p. 181.
+
+6. Find of moulds made in December, 1910, at Killymeddy, Ballymoney,
+Co. Antrim. The find contained two complete moulds for casting looped
+socketed spear-heads, and half a mould for a looped socketed
+spear-head, a mould for one side of a long dagger-blade, a large mould
+for casting one side of a leaf-shaped knife, two halves of a mould
+for casting a sickle, eight fragments of moulds, two sharpening
+stones, and a stone for hammering or smoothing objects.[38] (See page
+40.)
+
+ [38] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 83.
+
+7. Find made at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh. This find was made in 1912, and
+consisted of two leaf-shaped bronze swords with notches below the
+blades, and a very fine socketed spear-head[39] (figs. 65 and 37).
+
+ [39] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 91.
+
+8. Two leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the Ford, Belturbet,
+Co. Cavan[40] (fig. 30).
+
+ [40] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 93.
+
+9. Large hoard found at Dowris, King's Co., about 1825. A small
+portion of this hoard, consisting of two bronze trumpets, seven
+crotals, five socketed spear-heads, and a socketed gouge, are
+preserved in the Royal Irish Academy's collection in the National
+Museum. There are other portions of this hoard in the British Museum
+and at Birr Castle.[41]
+
+ [41] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 28.
+
+10. Bronze socketed celt, large bronze ring, two smaller rings with
+lateral-shaped trumpet projections, and a small flat ring all found
+together near Glenstal, Co. Limerick, about 1901.
+
+11. Large find of objects, formerly in St. Columba's College
+Collection, all stated to have been found together, in 1830, in a bog
+at Derryhall, County Antrim. The find comprises fourteen disk-headed
+bronze pins of late Bronze-Age type, and two bronze pins, with
+cup-shaped heads, a bronze dagger and two bronze knives (one of the
+latter being socketed), a socketed celt, nine bronze rings, a bronze
+ring with side perforations and a double ring, a bronze fibula with
+three beads; also two late brooches, and two late pins, which are said
+to have proved part of this find, but whose association with the
+remaining objects is very doubtful.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 71.--Two Late Bronze-Age Finds.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 72.--Late Bronze-Age horse-hair Fabrics from
+                Armoy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+12. Bronze fibula, and twenty-two bronze rings, found together,
+about 1876, at Broca, Rochford Bridge, County Westmeath.
+
+13. Socketed bronze celt, bronze fibula, bronze ring, and disk-headed
+Bronze-Age pin. All found together at Lapoudin, Tulla, County Clare.
+
+14. Three large, seventeen small, eight double bronze rings, and one
+fragment, probably all found together.
+
+15. Bronze fibula, bronze gouge, and three rings, found together, but
+locality unrecorded.
+
+16. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County Cork.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 73.--Bronze Implements, Co. Tipperary.]
+
+17. Seven halberds found together at Hillswood, County Galway.[42]
+
+ [42] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvii, Sec. C, p. 97.
+
+18. Two bronze rings, a small leaf-shaped spear-head, a socketed celt,
+and a small gold bulla, said to have been found together in Kinnegoe
+bog, County Armagh, in 1840. St. Columba's College Collection.
+
+19. Three bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog in the
+barony of Moyarta, County Clare.
+
+20. Six bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog close to
+Chute Hall, in the townland of Clogher, Clemin, three miles from
+Tralee, County Kerry.
+
+21. Two trumpets, one in two parts, probably found together in a bog
+at Carrick O'Gunnell, County Limerick. (These are probably two of
+those described by Mr. R. Ousley, in the Trans. R.I.A., 1788.)
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 74.--Bronze Implements found at Kilfeakle,
+                Co. Tipperary.]
+
+22. Three trumpets found at Carraconway, near Cloughouter Castle,
+County Cavan.[43]
+
+ [43] Wilde's Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection, p. 626.
+
+23. Two trumpets found at Macroom, County Cork.
+
+24. Four trumpets found in the bog of Drumabest, Kilraughts, County
+Antrim, in 1840.[44]
+
+ [44] _Ibid._
+
+25. Two trumpets found in County Cork. (Londesborough collection.)
+
+26. Two trumpets and a part of a third found together, but locality
+unknown.
+
+27. Two trumpets probably found together, from Trinity College,
+Dublin, collection.
+
+28. A socketed bronze celt and gold ring-money found together near
+Belfast.[45]
+
+ [45] Archæologia, vol. lxi, p. 153.
+
+29. Four gold lunulæ, found together at Dunfierth, Carbury, County
+Kildare.[46]
+
+ [46] "Wilde's Catalogue of Gold Antiquities," p. 18.
+
+30. A large spear-head, a round bronze shield, with a central boss for
+the hand, and two circles of smaller bosses, found in a mound or rath,
+at Athenry, County Galway.[47]
+
+ [47] Horae Ferales. pl. xi, fig. 1.
+
+With the exception of Nos. 4, 5, 27, and 30, the above-mentioned finds
+are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy's collection, in the National
+Museum, Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+BRONZE TRUMPETS
+
+
+Numerous trumpets of cast bronze have been found in Ireland, both in
+the south and the north. They are rare in Britain. Two or more
+trumpets have often been found together; eight were found at
+Dungannon, County Tyrone, in 1713, and thirteen or fourteen near Cork
+in 1750. The Irish trumpets may be divided into three types--(1) in
+the shape of a horn, open at both ends, having the mouth-piece and
+trumpet cast in one piece; (2) of similar shape, but closed at the
+narrow end, with an aperture for the mouth at the side near the closed
+end; (3) also horn-shaped, but with a long straight tube attached to
+the narrow end of the carved portion, the upper end of the tube having
+four rivet-holes, to which another tube or mouth-piece may have been
+fixed. There are references in classical authorities to the trumpets
+used by the Celts. Polybius, describing the defeat of the Celts by the
+Romans at the battle of Telemon, B.C. 225, speaks of the innumerable
+horns and trumpets of the Celts (Gaesatæ, Insubres, Taurisci, and
+Boii).
+
+Dr. F. Behn, of the Mainz Museum, has recently written an account of
+the music in the Roman army, in which he has brought together much
+information about the early bronze trumpets; and he includes a short
+description of the Irish type.[48] The Irish trumpets, which are
+furnished with the straight tubular piece, much resemble the Roman
+lituus; and, as a whole, the Irish type is very closely allied to the
+lituus and carnyx, the difference between the lituus and carnyx being
+that the expanded end of the carnyx takes the form of some fantastic
+animal's head. Trumpets have been found in the Dowris hoard, with
+socketed spear-heads, and other objects of the late Bronze Age, and
+they must be dated to that period; on this account the Etruscan
+lituus can hardly have been derived from Irish trumpets; so that it is
+probable that the Irish trumpets, like those of Gaul, were derived
+from the south.
+
+ [48] Die Musik im römischen Heere "Mainzer Zeitschrift," 1912, p. 36.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE X. Bronze Trumpets. _p. 88._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 75.--Mould for casting a sickle, found at
+                Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+
+SICKLES
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 76.--Bronze sickles.]
+
+Socketed bronze sickles have been found fairly frequently in different
+parts of Ireland. Those in the National Collection have generally been
+referred to the late Bronze Age. These sickles are all very small, and
+it has been thought that the Irish, like the Gauls, cut only the ear
+of the corn, and burnt the stalk. A recent find of moulds in County
+Antrim contained a mould for casting a sickle without a socket like
+the Continental examples, and shows that this type was also known in
+Ireland in the later Bronze Age (fig. 75). The bronze sickles have an
+important bearing on the question of agriculture in Ireland. An
+opinion has recently been expressed that corn was not introduced into
+England until the Roman invasion, and was introduced into Ireland even
+later than this.[49] However, there are instances of ears of corn
+being found within the walls of food-vessels of early Bronze Age date
+in Scotland; and it is probable that corn was also grown in Ireland
+during the Bronze Age. There is evidence that the ox was domesticated
+during this period. The excellence of the metal-casting and the high
+degree of skill shown in casting implements and weapons during the
+Bronze Age lead us to believe that the civilization, and with the
+civilization the art of agriculture and material comfort, had reached
+a fairly high level.
+
+ [49] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxxi (Clare Island Survey, Part 5).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 77.--Bronze sickles.]
+
+
+DISK-HEADED PINS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 78.--Bronze disk.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 79.--Bronze button.]
+
+In the late period of the Irish Bronze Age, bronze pins with
+disk-shaped heads having a conical projection in the centre are
+fairly common. The disk-heads in many instances are ornamented with
+concentric circles and other simple kinds of decoration. They are
+bent at right angles to the pin, though in some cases the pin comes
+straight from the head. The pins are very long, some measuring as much
+as 12 inches. In the very interesting find at Armoy, County Antrim (p.
+81), it will be remembered that one of these pins was found together
+with a woollen garment, and there is no doubt they were used to fasten
+the dress. The fact of a razor being one of the objects of this find
+indicates that the pins were used by men, though no doubt they may
+also have been worn by women. The use of such long pins seems to point
+to the wearing of some kind of cloak-like garment probably fastened
+in the front; and the ornamental heads of the pins indicate that they
+were worn in a conspicuous place.
+
+As well as the pins a few bronze buttons have been found consisting of
+disks with the same conical projection, but having the pin replaced by
+a small bar at the back. One remarkable example in the National
+Collection measures 4-3/4 inches in diameter (fig. 78). This object
+was probably either attached to a leathern belt or possibly may have
+been a portion of a horse's furniture. The smaller buttons have been
+found on the Continent, and are fairly numerous in the Continental
+lake-dwellings or finds of the late Bronze Age.
+
+One is tempted to see in the Irish examples a derivation of the button
+from the pin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BRONZE-AGE POTTERY
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 80.--Incense cup.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 81.--Cinerary urn.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 82.--Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort,
+                Co. Kilkenny.]
+
+In Ireland the pottery of the Bronze Age is principally represented
+by the type of vessel known as a food-vessel. We may commence with
+these, as there has only been one undoubted find of beakers made: this
+consisted of the remains of three vessels found together at Moytura,
+County Sligo, and preserved in the National Collection. A beaker is
+stated to have been found at Mount Stewart, County Cavan; but the
+vessel is not extant, and the evidence as to its discovery is not
+perfectly satisfactory. The Irish food-vessel is derived directly
+from the round-bottomed vessel of Neolithic times. Some of these
+round-bottomed bowls have been found with Neolithic remains at
+Portstewart, County Down, and there is one in the National Collection
+described as found in a cavern associated with stone implements beside
+the moat of Dunagore, near the town of Antrim. The development from
+the Neolithic bowl can be clearly traced in the Irish series. The
+earliest are flat, almost saucer-shaped bowls, which are generally
+covered all over with ornament, and often have a cruciform pattern on
+the base which has been thought to indicate that the vessels were
+turned mouth downwards when not in use.[50]
+
+ [50] Abercromby, "Bronze-Age Pottery," vol. i, p. 121.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 83.--Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford.]
+
+These bowls have a very pleasing effect; and, as Dr. Abercromby says:
+"The small native women, sometimes under five feet high, who made
+these little vessels, had certainly a fine sense of form and a
+delicate perception of the beauty of curved forms. The care and
+precision with which the ornament was effected, and the richness of
+the effect produced by simple means, may excite our admiration."[51]
+
+ [51] Abercromby, _op. cit._, p. 121.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE XI. Food-vessels in the order of their
+                development. _p. 96._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 84.--Model of cinerary urn, showing its position
+                in cist over burnt bones and small vessel, Greenhills,
+                Co. Dublin.]
+
+In the next stage a slight indentation about the centre of the
+vessel can be noticed, the ornament being arranged on either side
+above and below this; next two small ridges develop out of this, which
+are at first close together, but are afterwards placed further apart,
+and in the later stages the vessel becomes considerably higher, the
+base assuming the form of a cone, and the upper portion having an
+everted lip. Some of these latter vessels have a number of small ribs
+encircling them. Plate XI shows a series of food-vessels placed in
+the order of their evolution. The decoration can be well seen. It
+consists for the most part of chevron, herring-bone, and other linear
+ornament, but wavy lines can be seen in some examples. In some rare
+cases the food-vessels were provided with lids (fig. 82). All of these
+vessels were made by hand; and though the baking of the pottery
+varies, it was evidently done over a fire.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone.]
+
+The food-vessels, which are found both with unburnt and burnt
+interments, continued in use during the greater part of the Bronze
+Age, and the name food-vessel is hardly appropriate in Ireland, as in
+many cases these vessels have been found containing cremated bones,
+having apparently served the purpose of cinerary urns.
+
+The so-called cinerary urns are large vessels which have been usually
+discovered containing human bones; they have often been found inverted
+over cremated remains. They can be conveniently divided into several
+types, of which the type with the overhanging rim may be mentioned
+first. In this type the vessel consists of two portions, a lower
+flower-pot-like cone, on which is placed a larger truncated cone,
+which forms the overhanging rim. This type is widely distributed in
+England, and in Ireland has been found in the Counties of Antrim,
+Down, and Tyrone. The cordoned or hooped type is developed from the
+preceding type by replacing the overhanging rim by a moulding, both
+types being contemporary. In the encrusted type the urn, which is of
+the flower-pot shape, is decorated with strips of clay in the form of
+chevrons and bosses, the ornamentation assuming a rope-like form. Urns
+of this type have been found at Greenhills, Tallaght, County Dublin;
+Gortnain, Broomhedge, County Antrim; Tullyweggin, Cookstown, County
+Tyrone; Closkett, Drumgooland, and Glanville, Newry, County Down.
+
+Very small vessels, of usually about 2 to 2-1/2 inches in height, are
+often found in interments associated with the large cinerary urns, and
+occasionally, when the latter are inverted, are found inside them. The
+exact use of these small vessels, which are called "incense-cups" or
+"pygmy-cups," is a matter of speculation; several theories have been
+advanced to explain the purpose of placing them in graves, but none of
+them are altogether satisfactory.[52]
+
+ [52] See Abercromby, _op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 24, who discusses these
+      small vessels at length.
+
+Like the other vessels, they can be divided into different types, of
+which some are peculiar to England, and even there confined to
+certain counties. In Ireland several of these small cups have
+perforated walls, while some have handles. One remarkable specimen
+found at Knocknacoura, Co. Carlow, is covered all over with ornament.
+
+In the fine cist discovered at Greenhills, County Dublin, and now set
+up in the National Museum, a very remarkable little cup was found
+inside the large inverted cinerary urn (fig. 84). The form of this
+small cup appears to be originally derived from a metal prototype, and
+exactly resembles pottery-vessels of Iron-Age date found in the
+cemetery at Marne.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BRONZE-AGE ORNAMENTATION IN IRELAND
+
+
+The ornament of the Bronze Age in Ireland consists of chevrons, hatched
+triangles, lozenges, etc., combined with some wavy patterns, and later
+in some instances with the spirals introduced from Scandinavia,[53]
+where this motive had penetrated early from the Ægean along the amber
+route. This early type of ornament can be seen on some of the bronze
+celts, and also on the pottery, notably the food-vessels, which are
+often most tastefully decorated. The ornamentation, however, can be
+most fully studied on the inscribed stones in the great monuments of
+the New Grange group. These monuments, perhaps the most remarkable in
+Western Europe, have justly aroused the interest of generations of
+archæologists, and many interpretations have been placed upon their
+decoration. Having dealt so fully with this subject in a recent book,
+"New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland," 1912, it is not
+proposed to go into the question again, but there are one or two points
+that may be noticed.
+
+ [53] See Hoernes, "Jahrbuch für Altertnmskunde," Band vi, p. 163.
+
+The most remarkable feature about the ornamentation at New Grange is
+the occurrence of the spiral motive; and it is the presence of this
+distinctive motive which has led to so much speculation.
+
+It may be stated at once that the general view at present held by
+those who have studied the question is that the spiral was introduced,
+and that in the case of Ireland it was derived from Scandinavia.
+
+The similarity between New Grange and the tholos tombs of the mainland
+of Greece is so striking that it is at least likely that the former
+may have been derived from the latter.
+
+In examining the monument of New Grange, the author had been led by
+long study, and the comparison with motives common in the Ægean at
+about the same period, to explain the ornamentation, notably in the
+cases of the large stones illustrated in the book, p. 75, as derived
+from combinations of ornaments commonly found on Ægean pottery, these
+motives being themselves connected with the symbolism of sun-worship.
+In the case of other markings, it was considered these were possibly
+derived from the decoration of certain objects of Scandinavian origin.
+In an article in _L'Anthropologie_, vol. xxiii, p. 29, dealing with
+the subject, M. J. Déchelette has put forward other views with regard
+to the markings at New Grange. M. Déchelette sees in the markings at
+New Grange a degenerated copy of the female idols of neolithic times,
+carvings of which in a more or less rudimentary form have been found
+in the Iberian peninsula, Italy, France, England, and Scandinavia. It
+may be mentioned that from the occurrence of carvings of this idol on
+sepulchral monuments it is to be connected with funeral rites. M.
+Déchelette supports his contentions with a wealth of illustrations
+drawn from the tattooed idols of Greece, Portugal, and Aveyron, the
+engraved chalk cylinder from Madrid, the incised lines from
+Almizaraque, the sculptures from the artificial grottos of Marne, the
+vase fragments of Charantaise, the chalk drum from Folkton Wold
+(Yorkshire), and the engravings from the dolmens of Locmariaquer.
+
+On p. 43 M. Déchelette gives a scheme of the evolution of the pattern
+of the idol, starting from fairly well-defined eyes, eyebrows, and
+nose, with chevron marks imitating tattooing. The face becomes
+stylized by the substitution of a mere arched line for the eyebrows,
+and concentric circles for the eyes, the tattooing marks becoming a
+conventional pattern of regular chevrons. In the Irish examples the
+spiral replaces the concentric circles for the eyes, and the pattern
+below is further enriched by lozenges, and finally we arrive at a form
+in which the spiral has an eyebrow above and a single lozenge below,
+and this form M. Déchelette compares to the engravings on the slabs at
+New Grange. The shield-like figure on the roofing stone of the right
+recess at New Grange is compared by M. Déchelette to the engravings on
+the dolmen of Pierres-Plates at Locmariaquer, which also appear to be
+a stylized form of the idol.
+
+M. Déchelette compares the very remarkable boundary-stone at Dowth,
+with the engraving of suns on it, to the vases from Millares, province
+d'Almérie, which are ornamented with raised circles, these in their
+turn being derived from a degenerate form of the idol.
+
+M. Déchelette applies the same explanation to the scribings at
+Gavir'inis, the spiral ornamentation of which is to be regarded as
+derived from Ireland.
+
+This very brilliant and original interpretation of the scribings at
+New Grange seems to fit the case exceedingly well, and M. Déchelette's
+theory may be regarded as a very probable one for the origin of the
+markings, but it must be remembered that there is some difficulty
+caused by the fact that the similarity in plan between New Grange
+and the tholos tombs, as has been pointed out, is too great to be
+neglected. Now if New Grange is derived from this source, it cannot
+well be placed earlier than 1000 B.C. The idol, on the other hand, is
+neolithic in date, and must have survived a considerable time to have
+influenced the Irish carvings. It must also be borne in mind that no
+other forms of this idol have been met with in Ireland.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abercromby, Hon. John, 2, 96.
+
+ Amber found in Ireland, 2, 65, 68.
+
+ Annadale, Co. Leitrim, wooden shield found at, 75.
+
+ Annaghkeen, Co. Galway, burial at, 1, 57.
+
+ Anvil and hammers, 27, 28.
+
+ Armoy, Co. Antrim, find made at, 81.
+
+ Athenry, Co. Galway, bronze objects found at, 87.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Bann, River, Co. Antrim, 21.
+
+ Beakers found in Ireland, 95.
+
+ Belfast, find of gold ring-money and bronze celt at, 87.
+
+ Belmore Mountain, Co. Fermanagh, interment at, 1.
+
+ Belturbet, bronze spear-heads found at, 33, 82.
+
+ Birr, King's Co., celts found at, 7.
+
+ Broighter find, 80.
+
+ Bronze Age in Ireland, chronology of, 3-5;
+   1st period of, 23-27;
+   finds of, 80-87;
+   ornamentation, characteristic of, 101-103.
+
+ Bronze celts, evolution of, 23;
+   hafting of, 24, 25;
+   ornamentation of, 25, 26.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cappeen, Co. Cork, copper celts found at, 8, 85.
+
+ Carraconway, Co. Cavan, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Carrick O'Gunnell, Co. Limerick, trumpets found at, 86.
+
+ Carrowkeel, Co. Sligo, interments at, 1.
+
+ Chapes of bronze for swords, 72, 73.
+
+ Chute Hall, Co. Kerry, trumpets found at, 85.
+
+ Cinerary urns, 99, 100.
+
+ Clare find of gold ornaments, 65, 66.
+
+ Clements, Mr. H. J. B., 65.
+
+ Clonbrin, Co. Longford, leather shield found at, 77.
+
+ Clonmacnois, gold torc found at, 80.
+
+ Clontoo, Co. Kerry, copper celts found at, 8.
+
+ Coachford, Co. Cork, objects found at, 68, 81.
+
+ Copper, counties in which obtained, 6.
+
+ Copper celts, list of counties in which these have been found, 10-12.
+
+ Copper Period in Ireland, 6-23.
+
+ Cork, Co., trumpets found in, 87.
+
+ Crumlin, Co. Dublin, urn found at, 2.
+
+ Cullinagh, Co. Kerry, celts found at, 7.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Daggers and Rapiers, 56-61.
+
+ Déchelette, M. J., 58, 65, 102, 103.
+
+ Disk-headed pins, 81, 92, 93.
+
+ Dowris hoard, 82.
+
+ Drumabest, Co. Antrim, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Dublin, copper celts found in, 8.
+
+ Dunfierth, Co. Kildare, gold lunulæ found at, 87.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Finds of copper celts, 7, 8, 10-12.
+
+ Finds of Bronze-Age implements and weapons, 80-87.
+
+ Food-vessels, description of, 95-99.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Glenstal, Co. Limerick, find of bronze objects at, 82.
+
+ Gold balls found at Carrick-on-Shannon, 65.
+
+ Gorgets, gold, 62-64.
+
+ Gowland, Prof. W., 4.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Halberds, 12-23;
+   analyses of, 17.
+
+ Hallstatt Period in Ireland, 5, 63.
+
+ Hillswood, Co. Galway, halberds found at, 85.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Incense cups, 99.
+
+ Irish gold deposits, 46, 47.
+
+ Iron sword of Hallstatt type found in Ireland, 72.
+
+
+ K
+
+ Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, bronze implements found at, 81.
+
+ Killymeddy, Co. Antrim, find of moulds at, 40, 81.
+
+ Kinnegoe bog, Co. Armagh, bronze objects found at, 85.
+
+ Knocknague, Co. Galway, celts found at, 7.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, find of bronze objects at, 81.
+
+ Leaf-shaped swords, 71-73.
+
+ Lisnacroghera crannog, 45.
+
+ Lissane, Co. Derry, rapier found at, 58.
+
+ Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, bronze shield found at, 74.
+
+ Lunulæ, gold, 47-55.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Macroom, Co. Cork, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Manillas, African, similarity to Irish gold fibulæ, 70.
+
+ Montelius, Dr. Oscar, 3, 23, 58, 61.
+
+ Moulds for casting spear-heads, 39-44;
+   absence of, for casting leaf-shaped swords, 72;
+   for casting flat celts, 6, 9.
+
+ Mountrivers, Coachford, Co. Cork, find at, 81.
+
+ Moyarta, Co. Clare, trumpets found at, 85.
+
+ Much, Dr., 22.
+
+ Muller, Prof. S., 64.
+
+ Mycenæ, leaf-shaped swords found at, 71.
+
+
+ N
+
+ Naas, Co. Kildare, excavation at, 1.
+
+ Neolithic pottery found in Ireland, 95.
+
+ New Grange, 3-5;
+   ornamentation at, 101-103.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Omagh, Co. Tyrone, moulds found at, 81.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Padstow, Cornwall, gold lunulæ found at, 48.
+
+ Palstaves with double loops, 27.
+
+ Penannular rings and ring-money, 67-70.
+
+ Polybius quoted, 77.
+
+ Pottery of the Bronze Age, 94-100.
+
+
+ R
+
+ Ridgeway, Prof. W., 70.
+
+ Ring-money, 70.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Schmidt, Herr Hubert, 23.
+
+ Shields, bronze, 74, 75;
+   wood, 75;
+   leather, 77.
+
+ Sickles, 90, 91;
+   mould for casting, 90.
+
+ Smith, Mr. R. A., 64.
+
+ Spain, halberds from, 19.
+
+ Spear-heads, 29-38;
+   spear-ferules, 44, 45.
+
+ St. Columba's College, collection, 82.
+
+ Sullivan, Mr. M. J., 39.
+
+ Sun-disks, gold, 64, 65.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tempo, Co. Fermanagh, swords found at, 82.
+
+ Topped mountain cairn, find of objects made at, 56.
+
+ Torcs, 78-80.
+
+ Trumpets, 88, 89;
+   finds of, in Ireland, 85-87.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Wicklow, gold obtained from, 46.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey
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+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Bronze Age In Ireland, by George Coffey.
+    </title>
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Bronze Age in Ireland
+
+Author: George Coffey
+
+Release Date: October 11, 2008 [EBook #26880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Anne Storer and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="notes">Transcriber&#8217;s Note:<br />
+The term &ldquo;halberd&rdquo; and &ldquo;halbert&rdquo; have both
+been used on numerous occasions. &ldquo;Halbert&rdquo; is a variant of &ldquo;Halberd&rdquo;
+and has been left as printed in the original text.</p>
+
+<div class="box">
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>THE BRONZE AGE</h1>
+<h2>IN IRELAND</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h5>BY</h5>
+<h3>GEORGE COFFEY</h3>
+
+<p style="font-size: smaller;" class="center">MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY<br />
+HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF IRELAND<br />
+KEEPER OF IRISH ANTIQUITIES IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM<br />
+AND PROFESSOR R.H.A. DUBLIN</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><em>WITH ELEVEN PLATES AND EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS</em></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 14em;">
+HODGES, FIGGIS, &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited,</span><br />
+104 GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN<br />
+SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, &amp; CO.,<br />
+LONDON<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;">1913</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Printed at the</strong></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img004.jpg" width="150" height="125" alt="Dublin University Press" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>By Ponsonby and Gibbs.</strong></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>In this book on the Bronze Age in Ireland I have collected and
+collated all my work on the period. Much of it I have already
+published in the &ldquo;Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy&rdquo;
+and elsewhere. I have long felt the need of a book on the
+Bronze Age in Ireland, as hitherto none has appeared dealing
+adequately with the arch&aelig;ology of that period in this country.</p>
+
+<p>Within the last few years it has been recognized that the
+Bronze-Age civilization in Europe did not consist of a series
+of isolated communities, each developing its own type of objects
+and decorations, but that there was a community of ideas and
+forms extending from Mycen&aelig; all over the European continent.</p>
+
+<p>I have described the various forms of Bronze-Age implements
+of peace and of war found in Ireland, and have shown
+how they are connected with similar types on the continent
+of Europe. M. J. D&eacute;chelette, of the Roanne Museum, one of
+the first authorities on the Bronze Age, agrees with me
+in ascribing a Mycen&aelig;an origin to certain forms of Bronze-Age
+implements.</p>
+
+<p>How this Mycen&aelig;an influence penetrated to Ireland is a
+matter on which there is some difference of opinion, and
+possibly new discoveries may throw additional light on the
+problem. As I have shown both in this and in former works,
+the most probable route seems to be that of the Danube and
+the Elbe, and thence by way of Scandinavia to Ireland. It is
+to be hoped that now&mdash;with a concentrating of Irish interests
+on Irish affairs a new impetus will be given to the study
+of the history of our country, and that many workers may
+be found in the fields of arch&aelig;ology and of all subjects
+connected with our past.</p>
+
+<p>In my &ldquo;Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period&rdquo; I have given the history of Irish art in the Christian
+period; in &ldquo;New Grange (Brugh na Boine) and other Incised
+Tumuli in Ireland, the influence of Crete and the &AElig;gean
+in the extreme west of Europe in early times,&rdquo; I have given
+as much as is known of the pre-Christian period up to the
+Bronze Age; and in this, my latest work, which has been
+much interrupted by illness, I have endeavoured to complete
+the history of ancient art in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>I have to thank the Councils of the Royal Irish Academy
+and of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for the loan
+of a number of blocks. In other cases drawings have been made
+direct from objects in the National Museum by Miss E. Barnes.</p>
+
+<p>The plates are from photographs taken by the photographer
+of the National Museum.</p>
+
+<p>In offering this book to the public I must express my
+gratitude to Mr. E. C. R. Armstrong, to whom I am indebted
+for his unvarying kindness and sympathy, and for much
+valuable assistance both in the matter and form of the work.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;">
+GEORGE COFFEY.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+</div>
+
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<p class="ralign"><span class="smcap">page</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_1"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> I,</a> <span class='ralign'>1</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Introduction; Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_6"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> II,</a> <span class='ralign'>6</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Transitional Copper Period; Localities where native copper
+is found in Ireland; Finds of copper celts; Moulds for
+casting flat celts; List of localities where Irish copper celts
+have been found; Halberds; Localities where found;
+Types; Analyses; Continental examples; Probable derivation
+of Irish halberds from Spain.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#III"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> III,</a> <span class='ralign'>23</span></p>
+<p class="content2">First and later periods of the Bronze Age; Evolution of the
+bronze celt; Ornamentation of bronze celts; Palstave with
+double loops; Anvil and hammers; Spear-heads; Evolution
+from the knife-dagger; Type derived from the rapier;
+Leaf-shaped spear-heads; Spear-heads with apertures in the
+blade; Moulds for casting spear-heads; Ferules for spear-butts.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_46"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> IV,</a> <span class='ralign'>46</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Irish gold: Account of Irish gold deposits; Lunul&aelig;:
+General description of; Distribution.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_56"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> V,</a> <span class='ralign'>56</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Daggers and rapiers; Evolution of the dagger and rapier
+blade; Handles of daggers and rapiers.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_62"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VI,</a> <span class='ralign'>62</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Gold gorgets; Gold sun-disks; Gold balls; Clare find;
+Penannular rings and ring-money; Ring-money.</p>
+
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_71"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VII,</a> <span class='ralign'>71</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Leaf-shaped swords; Division of types; Absence of moulds
+for casting; Bronze chapes; Winged chapes; Shields;
+Circular bronze shields; Shield of wood; Leather Shield.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_78"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> VIII,</a> <span class='ralign'>78</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Torcs; Twisted torcs; Distribution of torcs; Ribbon torcs;
+Plain torcs.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#IX"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> IX,</a> <span class='ralign'>80</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Bronze-age finds; List of well-authenticated Irish finds.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_88"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> X,</a> <span class='ralign'>88</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Bronze trumpets; Types and derivation of Irish trumpets;
+Sickles; Discussion of types; Importance of, with regard to
+date of agriculture; Disk-headed pins.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_94"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> XI,</a> <span class='ralign'>94</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Bronze-age pottery; Food-vessels; Derivation of, from
+Neolithic type; Cinerary urns; Incense cups.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_101"><span class="smcap">Chapter</span> XII,</a> <span class='ralign'>101</span></p>
+<p class="content2">Bronze-age ornamentation in Ireland; Discussion of the
+ornamentation at New Grange; M. D&eacute;chelette&#8217;s views as to
+its origin compared with those of the author.</p>
+
+<p class="content1"><a href="#Page_105"><span class="smcap">Index</span>,</a>  <span class='ralign'>105</span></p>
+
+
+<div class="box">
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td align='right'>Fig.</td>  <td align='left'></td>  <td align='right'>Page</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig1">1.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Copper Halbert, Birr find,</td>  <td align='right'>7</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig2">2.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Copper celts, Birr find,</td>  <td align='right'>8</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig3">3.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Copper knife and awls found at Knocknague,</td>  <td align='right'>9</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig4">4.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Copper celts,</td>  <td align='right'>10</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig5">5.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork,</td>  <td align='right'>11</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig6">6.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Stone mould for casting celts,</td>  <td align='right'>12</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig7">7.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td>  <td align='right'>13</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig8">8.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td>  <td align='right'>14</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig9">9.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td>  <td align='right'>15</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig10">10.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halbert blades,</td>  <td align='right'>16</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig11">11.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halberts from North Germany and Sweden,</td>  <td align='right'>18</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig12">12.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Halberts from South and East Spain,</td>  <td align='right'>19</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig13">13.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Rock markings, Maritime Alps,</td>  <td align='right'>20</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig14">14.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Stone pick from the Bann,</td>  <td align='right'>21</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig14">15.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Deer-horn pick,</td>  <td align='right'>21</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig16">16.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td>  <td align='right'>24</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate1">Plate I,</a> Irish bronze celts in the order of their development,</td>  <td align='right'>24</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig17">17.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td>  <td align='right'>25</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig18">18.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Ornamented bronze celts,</td>  <td align='right'>26</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">19.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Winged celt,</td>  <td align='right'>27</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">20.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Winged celt,</td>  <td align='right'>27</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig19">21.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Palstave with double loops,</td>  <td align='right'>27</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig22">22.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze anvil,</td>  <td align='right'>28</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig23">23.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze hammers,</td>  <td align='right'>28</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig24">24.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Dagger and spear-heads,</td>  <td align='right'>29</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig25">25.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td>  <td align='right'>30</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig26">26.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td>  <td align='right'>31</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig26">27.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Rapier and spear-head,</td>  <td align='right'>31</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig28">28.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped spear-heads,</td>  <td align='right'>32</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig29">29.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Ornamented socket of spear-head,</td>  <td align='right'>32</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig30">30.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped spear-heads found at the Ford, Belturbet,</td>  <td align='right'>33</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig31">31.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads with loops joining the blade,</td>  <td align='right'>34</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig31">32.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads,</td>  <td align='right'>34</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig33">33.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Ornamental spear-heads, with openings in the blade,</td>  <td align='right'>35</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig33">34.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Portion of spear-head, with studs at the base of the wings,</td>  <td align='right'>35</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig35">35.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads with openings in the blades,</td>  <td align='right'>36</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig36">36.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-heads with ornamental loops in the blades,</td>  <td align='right'>37</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig36">37.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,</td>  <td align='right'>37</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig38">38.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>38</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig39">39.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>39</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig40">40.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Mould for casting a spear-head and knife, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>40</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig41">41.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in Co. Tyrone,</td>  <td align='right'>41</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig42">42.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in Co. Tyrone,</td>  <td align='right'>42</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig43">43.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>43</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig44">44.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze spear-ferules,</td>  <td align='right'>44</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig44">45.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze spear-ferule with La T&egrave;ne ornament,</td>  <td align='right'>44</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig46">46.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal,</td>  <td align='right'>47</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig47">47.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found in Co. Galway,</td>  <td align='right'>48</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig48">48.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula,</td>  <td align='right'>49</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig49">49.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Killarney,</td>  <td align='right'>50</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig50">50.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Oak case for lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan,</td>  <td align='right'>51</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig51">51.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Valognes, Manche,</td>  <td align='right'>51</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig52">52.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found in Co. Londonderry,</td>  <td align='right'>52</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig53">53.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold lunula found at Athlone,</td>  <td align='right'>54</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig54">54.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Map showing the distribution of gold lunul&aelig; in Ireland and Europe,</td>  <td align='right'>55</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig55">55.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Stone celt, bronze dagger with gold band, and urn, found in Topped Mountain<br /> Cairn, Co. Fermanagh,</td>  <td align='right'>56</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig56">56.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Dagger and rapier blades,</td>  <td align='right'>57</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">57.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>59</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">58.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne,</td>  <td align='right'>59</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig57">59.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry,</td>  <td align='right'>59</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig60">60.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Rapiers and daggers found in Ireland,</td>  <td align='right'>61</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig61">61.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville,</td>  <td align='right'>62</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate2">Plate II,</a> Irish gold gorgets,</td>  <td align='right'>62</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate3">Plate III,</a> gold sun-disks,</td>  <td align='right'>64</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate4">Plate IV,</a> portion of the great Clare find,</td>  <td align='right'>66</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig62">62.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Gold fibul&aelig; and other objects found together at Coachford, Co. Cork,</td>  <td align='right'>67</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate5">Plate V,</a> gold fibul&aelig;,</td>  <td align='right'>68</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig63">63.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing Europeans holding manillas,</td>  <td align='right'>68</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig64">64.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing natives holding manillas,</td>  <td align='right'>69</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate6">Plate VI,</a> gold ring-money,</td>  <td align='right'>70</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig65">65.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Leaf-shaped bronze swords found with a spear-head at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,</td>  <td align='right'>72</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig66">66.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze chapes,</td>  <td align='right'>73</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig67">67.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Winged chapes,</td>  <td align='right'>73</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig68">68.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze shield found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick,</td>  <td align='right'>74</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig69">69.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Alder-wood shield found in Co. Leitrim,</td>  <td align='right'>75</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig70">70.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin, Co. Longford,</td>  <td align='right'>76</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate7">Plate VII,</a> gold torcs from Tara and elsewhere,</td>  <td align='right'>78</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate8">Plate VIII,</a> gold torcs,</td>  <td align='right'>78</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate9">Plate IX,</a> gold torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter,</td>  <td align='right'>80</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig71">71.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Two late Bronze-Age finds,</td>  <td align='right'>83</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig72">72.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Late Bronze-Age horse-hair fabrics from Armoy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>84</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig73">73.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze implements, Co. Tipperary,</td>  <td align='right'>85</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig74">74.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary,</td>  <td align='right'>86</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate10">Plate X,</a> bronze trumpets,</td>  <td align='right'>88</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig75">75.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Mould for casting a sickle, found at Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,</td>  <td align='right'>89</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig76">76.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze sickles,</td>  <td align='right'>90</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig77">77.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze sickles,</td>  <td align='right'>91</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig78">78.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze disk,</td>  <td align='right'>92</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig79">79.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Bronze button,</td>  <td align='right'>92</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig80">80.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Incense cup,</td>  <td align='right'>94</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig81">81.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Cinerary urn,</td>  <td align='right'>94</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig82">82.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny,</td>  <td align='right'>95</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig83">83.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford,</td>  <td align='right'>96</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'></td>  <td align='left'><a href="#plate11">Plate XI,</a> food-vessels in the order of their development,</td>  <td align='right'>96</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig84">84.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Model of cinerary urn from Greenhills, Co. Dublin,</td>  <td align='right'>97</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='right'><a href="#fig85">85.</a></td>  <td align='left'>Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone,</td>  <td align='right'>98</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h1>THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND</h1>
+
+<p class="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Introduction</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>This book deals with the Bronze Age principally from the
+point of view of the implements and weapons in use in Ireland
+during that period. It is unnecessary to state that the
+materials for writing anything like a full account of the
+civilization or political organization during the Bronze Age do
+not exist; and even the ethnological affinities of the dominant
+race that inhabited Ireland during this period are doubtful.
+All that can be said is that there was apparently no gap
+between the end of the Neolithic Period and the transitional
+Copper to Bronze Period. Stone weapons continued in use side
+by side with those of copper and bronze; and the form of the
+former was sometimes actually influenced by those of the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>There has been so little scientific excavation in Ireland that
+the question as to the early burial-customs is surrounded with
+difficulty; such evidence as there is points to cremation having
+been practised early, as was also the case in Great Britain.
+Instances show that the two rites of inhumation and cremation
+were practised side by side.</p>
+
+<p>In the cairn excavated on Belmore Mountain, County
+Fermanagh, both burnt and unburnt interments were found
+with pottery and other objects of early Bronze-Age
+type.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span>
+At a recent excavation near Naas, County Kildare, a burnt
+interment was discovered in a cist, the remains being associated
+with a wrist-bracer and remains of
+pottery.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>
+In the fine series
+of cairns on Carrowkeel Mountain, County Sligo, burnt and
+unburnt interments were found associated with pottery, bone
+implements, and stone
+beads.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a>
+At Annaghkeen, County
+Galway, a cremated burial was discovered in a cist associated
+with pottery and a small bronze knife-dagger and
+awl.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Hon. John Abercromby gives a list of food-vessels found
+with cremated burials in Ireland, and to these must be added a
+food-vessel of early type found in 1912 in a quarry at Crumlin,
+County Dublin. It must, however, be left for future excavations
+to decide many questions to which at present no answer,
+or only a doubtful one, can be given. This, however, is
+certain&mdash;Ireland during the Bronze Age was not isolated, but
+stood in direct communication with the Continent. &AElig;gean and
+Scandinavian influences can be detected in the great tumuli of
+the New Grange
+group<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a>;
+and Iberian influence is discernible in
+some of the later types of bronze implements. Ireland, as will
+be shown in the chapters dealing directly with the gold objects,
+was, during the Bronze Age, a kind of western El Dorado,
+owing to her great richness in gold; Irish gold ornaments have
+been found both on the Continent and in Scandinavia; while
+Scandinavian amber has been found in Ireland. As will be
+seen on p. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, the Bronze-Age people were acquainted with
+the art of weaving; and fine ornaments of horse-hair were
+sometimes used. The art of making pottery by hand was
+carried to a high degree of excellence. Shaving must have been
+fairly common, judging by the number of bronze razors found.
+We shall find evidence further on in this work to show that
+corn was probably grown and agriculture fairly advanced.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>
+The great tumuli at New Grange and the lesser ones at
+Carrowkeel show that the art of building was well developed,
+and that the religious ideals of the people had attained a certain
+fixed form. What the actual dwellings occupied by the people
+were we cannot say; but it is probable that many of the
+promontory-forts and some at least of the larger cashels and
+ring-forts date back to this period. There remain, however,
+many questions which, as we have said, must be kept over for
+future investigations.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>The Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>Some discussion as to the absolute chronology of the Bronze
+Age in Ireland will, no doubt, be expected, though any attempts
+to give actual dates can only be approximate; the succession
+of types is really of considerably more importance than the
+actual date, as such a succession enables objects, finds, and
+interments to be arranged in a progressive series, and shows the
+general trend of advance and culture. The doyen of prehistoric
+arch&aelig;ology, Dr. Oscar Montelius, of Stockholm, has been the
+pioneer of the study of the prehistoric chronology of Europe,
+his chronology of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia having been
+published as far back as 1885. Since then he has published
+the results of his studies of the Bronze-Age chronologies of
+Greece and Italy, and of France, Belgium, South Germany, and
+Switzerland. More recently (1908) he has put forward the
+chronology of the British Islands in a notable memoir published
+in Arch&aelig;ologia. It may be mentioned that Dr. Montelius
+visited Ireland some years ago, and speaks with the greater
+authority as having personally examined the actual Irish
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>In this memoir Dr. Montelius divides the Bronze Age of
+Great Britain and Ireland into five periods, and includes in his
+first period the transitional time when copper was in use
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+(Copper Period), which he places at from the middle of
+the third to the beginning of the second millennium <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> Now,
+though the division of the Irish Bronze Age into five periods
+may be accepted, we should hardly care to place the first period
+as early as Dr. Montelius suggests; and without going into the
+question of the time at which the period commenced, we might
+take the period of its ending at from about 2000-1800 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>
+In this period would be included the flat copper celts of early
+form, copied from the stone celts of the preceding Neolithic
+Period, some few small, flat knife-daggers of copper, and the
+earliest of the halberds. Stone implements, no doubt, remained
+largely in use; and the very finely decorated hammer-axes
+probably belong to this period.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible that gold&mdash;which, on account of its colour and
+appearance on the surface of the ground, must have been one
+of the metals first noticed and made use of in prehistoric
+times&mdash;was used for making ornaments at this period, or
+possibly, as Prof. Gowland suggests, may have been hammered
+into ornaments even during the preceding Neolithic
+Age.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>
+There is, however, no gold object in the National Collection
+which we should care to place so early.</p>
+
+<p>The second division of the Bronze Age (the first period
+of the true Bronze Age) would fall between 1800 and 1500 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>;
+and in it would be included, as the principal types, the flat
+bronze celts&mdash;including those with the edge much wider than the
+blade&mdash;flanged celts, small bronze daggers, the later halberds,
+jet buttons with conical perforations, and the early types of jet
+necklaces, and probably the gold lunul&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>The third period might be placed at from 1500 to 1250 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>,
+and the principal types falling within it are flanged celts
+with stop-ridges, tanged spear-heads, and larger dagger-blades,
+sometimes with bronze handles.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth period, which was long, and during which a
+considerable development takes place, might be placed at from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+1280 to 900 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> This period includes the later type of celts
+with increased stop-ridge and flanges (palstaves), and some of
+the earlier forms of socketed celts, long rapiers, the earlier
+type of leaf-shaped swords, and the looped and leaf-shaped
+spear-heads, gold torcs, and possibly some of the bronze fibul&aelig;,
+and sickles without sockets; the disk-headed pins and bronze
+razors may be placed either at the end of this time or the
+beginning of the next period. In this period must also be
+placed the building of the great tumuli of the New Grange
+group.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth division&mdash;also a long one&mdash;would go from 900 to
+about 350 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, at which time iron weapons were probably
+coming into general use in Ireland. In this period would fall
+the socketed celts, including the latest type, which takes a
+form not uncommon among iron or steel axes, the later bronze
+swords with notches below the blades, bronze sword-chapes, the
+socketed sickles, probably some of the more highly ornamented
+bronze spears with apertures in the blades, the bronze trumpets,
+the gold fibul&aelig;, and gold gorgets. It must be remembered that
+the Continental Hallstatt period is not at present well represented
+in Great Britain and Ireland, and though, under
+Hallstatt influence, certain Continental Iron-Age types such as
+bronze caldrons, trumpets, round shields, &amp;c., found their way
+into Ireland, we cannot as yet definitely separate this period
+from the end of the Bronze Age.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Transitional Copper Period</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>In Ireland the metal first used was copper. Native copper
+is plentiful in Ireland, and has been chiefly obtained from the
+Counties of Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and
+Galway. In Waterford stone implements have been found in
+copper mines in ancient workings, showing copper was mined
+for at an early
+period.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a>
+The time during which copper was in
+use was probably relatively only a short one, much shorter than
+the Neolithic Period or than the true Bronze Age. The
+evidence for this period is the large number of flat copper celts
+which have been found in the north and south, and east and
+west, of the country. The earliest copper celts resemble in
+form the stone celts from which they are derived, and were
+cast in open moulds on one side only, and then hammered flat
+on the other. Moulds for casting celts in this way have been
+found in Ireland. It is also extremely interesting to notice
+that some stone celts betray the influence of metal types by
+their form. It may be well here to meet an objection that has
+been raised against a special use of copper in Ireland. It has
+been urged that the large number of flat copper celts may have
+been due to a scarcity of tin, and that as copper cannot be cast
+in closed moulds, casters who could cast advanced forms of
+bronze celts were obliged to return to the primitive form
+necessary for casting in an open mould. Copper ores are,
+however, very rarely found in a pure state, and the small
+impurities of antimony, arsenic, &amp;c., combine in the smelting
+with the copper, and lend a hardness and ductibility which
+would enable it to be cast in closed
+moulds.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a>
+The analyses of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+Irish copper celts agree among themselves, and substantially
+with those from other countries, the small
+quantities of tin, antimony, arsenic, &amp;c.,
+which are found being due to impurities
+in the ore. The celts may be taken to be
+of copper, and not of poor
+bronze.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a>
+The earliest copper celts resemble the stone
+celts from which they are derived; some
+of them are small. A development takes
+place throughout the series, the celts
+becoming larger and the edges thinner
+as they approach the bronze forms. No
+trace of a stop-ridge is ever found on
+copper celts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 109px;">
+<img src="images/img019.jpg" width="109" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.&mdash;Copper Halberd, Birr find.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal finds are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+1. Three copper celts, three copper awls, and a copper knife found,
+in 1874, in a bog at Knocknague, Kilbannon, County Galway. Purchased
+from the finder, Michael Rafferty, by the Royal Irish
+Academy. (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+2. Three copper celts, a fragment of a fourth (butt-end), a copper
+halberd, and a short blade of copper of somewhat similar form,
+found in 1892, near Birr, King&#8217;s County, formerly in the collection
+of Mr. Robert Day, of Cork. (Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>.)</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+3. Three copper celts found in 1868, when ploughing at Cullinagh,
+near Beaufort, Killarney, County Kerry. (Day Collection.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+4. Two large and well-formed copper celts found together
+in street excavations in Suffolk Street, Dublin, in
+May, 1857. (Ray Collection.) (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>, nos. 1 and 7.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 344px;">
+<img src="images/img020.jpg" width="344" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2.&mdash;Birr find.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+5. Two copper celts found together at Clontoo, near
+Kenmare, County Kerry, in 1906. (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>, nos. 2 and 3.)</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 1.4em; text-indent: -1.4em;">
+6. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County
+Cork.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+The distribution, analyses, types, and finds show that the
+copper celts represent a period when copper was in common
+use throughout Ireland and before bronze was generally
+known. The celts from the Ray Collection mentioned above
+show that the fully developed celt was in use during this
+period, while the &ldquo;Birr find&rdquo; with the halberd shows that
+the halberd was also known and in use during the full copper
+period.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 232px;">
+<img src="images/img021.jpg" width="232" height="300" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3.&mdash;Copper Knife and Awls found at Knocknague.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Moulds for casting flat celts, copper and bronze, have been
+found in the following places in Ireland:&mdash;Carrickfergus;
+Ballymena; Loughgall, County Antrim; Ballynahinch, County
+Down; and Lough Scur Crannog, County
+Leitrim.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a></p>
+
+<p>Copper celts have been found practically over the whole
+country; and the following is a list of those in the National
+Collection, of which the localities are known, and, as well as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+these, there are about eighty for which the provenance has
+not been exactly recorded:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>List of Copper Celts found in Ireland.</strong></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">Antrim, Craigbally, 1 (1897: 111).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 463px;">
+<img src="images/img022.jpg" width="463" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.&mdash;Copper Celts.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Cavan, 1 (R. 1685).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Cork, Cappeen (6); County Cork, 1 (1881: 136).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Donegal, Letterkenny, 1 (1897: 114).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Dublin, Suffolk Street, 1857: 2 large copper celts. (Ray Collection.)</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;">Galway, Knocknague, Kilbannon, three copper celts, a copper
+knife, and three copper awls. County Galway, 1. (R. 1660) (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;">Kerry, Beaufort, Killarney, three copper celts found together
+in 1868 when ploughing at Cullinagh. (Day Collection.)
+Clontoo, near Kenmare, two copper celts found
+together in 1906.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Londonderry, in the River Bann, near Coleraine, 1. (W. 3.).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Louth, 1. (R. 362).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Mayo, Killala, 1 (W. 4.).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/img023.jpg" width="428" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.&mdash;Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Meath, Dunshaughlin, 1 (172, W.).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Tipperary, Dundrum, 1 (1881: 133).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Tyrone, Mountfield, 1 (112: 1897).</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Waterford, Tramore, 1 (W. 10.).</p>
+
+
+<p>The localities of the following copper celts in other collections
+are known:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Antrim, 3 (Knowles Collection.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">Cork, 5 (Day Collection, about 4. Evans Collection, 1.)</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Fermanagh, 2 (Day Collection, 1. Evans Collection, 1.)</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Kerry, 3 (Day Collection.)</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Kilkenny, 1 (Day Collection.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img024.jpg" width="300" height="221" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">King&#8217;s County, 8 (Birr three, and five others found in
+the King&#8217;s County. Day Collection.)</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Limerick, 2 (Day Collection.)</p>
+
+<p class="indent">Sligo, 2 (Sir John Leslie&#8217;s Collection.)</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Halberds</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>As already stated the Birr find shows that the halberd was
+in use during the full Copper Period; and, though to judge by
+the form of the celts, we may place it at the end of the period, yet
+more primitive types are known, and we may therefore presume
+the halberd goes well back into the Copper Period.</p>
+
+<p>The National Collection at Dublin contains forty-nine
+specimens of these broad coppery blades. In a few cases there
+may possibly be a doubt as to whether they should be classified
+as halberds or primitive daggers. The localities of the majority
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+are not known further than that they have been found in
+Ireland; but from the known localities they seem, like the
+copper celts, to have been found in all parts of the island;
+and local distinctions of type, if they existed, are not now
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;">
+<img src="images/img025.jpg" width="470" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7.&mdash;Halberd blades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Of the forty-nine mentioned, twenty have localities as
+follows:&mdash;Antrim 1, Cavan 3, Roscommon 2, Galway 8, Meath
+1, King&#8217;s County 1, Queen&#8217;s County 1, Clare 1, Limerick 1,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+Cork 1. Seven of those from Galway represent a single find,
+which gives that county an undue proportion.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 336px;">
+<img src="images/img026.jpg" width="336" height="550" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8.&mdash;Halberd blades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Types</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/img027.jpg" width="428" height="550" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9.&mdash;Halberd blades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 460px;">
+<img src="images/img028.jpg" width="460" height="550" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.&mdash;Halberd blades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>What may be considered as the developed or normal type of
+the Irish halberd blade is slightly but distinctly curved, so that
+they have been called &ldquo;scythe-shaped.&rdquo; They vary from about
+9 inches to 15 or 16 inches in length, and from about 3 to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+4 inches in breadth at the widest part; with few exceptions
+they have three rivets with large heads. The various sizes are
+well represented in a find of seven of these blades obtained in
+1888 when making the railway near Hollywood, County Galway.
+They were described as having been found about 2&frac12; feet under
+the surface of a shallow bog &ldquo;stuck in a bunch in the ground,
+with points down. No other relics appeared near them.&rdquo; We
+do not think it is any use attempting to place the halberds in a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+series of development; and no progression can be claimed for
+their forms other than that there appears to be a movement of
+development from the smaller straight blades to the larger and
+curved blades. In one or two cases the mid rib has been
+brought to a slight roof-ridge; and a fine example in the late
+Sir John Evans&#8217; collection shows a well-marked bead down the
+mid rib (&ldquo;Bronze Implements,&rdquo; fig. 331); but in most cases
+the mid rib is quite plain with a rounded curve in section.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Analyses</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>Analyses of the halberd blades show that the metal of which
+they are composed does not differ much from that of the copper
+celts. A recent analysis of five specimens is appended which
+shows that the blades are practically of pure copper. This is
+interesting, as it removes the doubt expressed by Sir John Evans
+in &ldquo;Bronze Implements,&rdquo; p. 265, that &ldquo;many of these blades
+have the appearance of being made of copper; but the absence
+of tin in their composition has not been proved.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>&nbsp;</td>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;</td>
+          <td align='center'>Copper.</td>  <td align='center'>Tin.</td>
+          <td align='center'>Antimony.</td>  <td align='center'>Arsenic.</td>
+          <td align='center'>Lead.</td>  <td align='center'>Silver.</td>
+          <td align='center'>Iron.</td>  <td align='center'>Bismuth,<br />Nickel,<br />Zinc.</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>King&#8217;s Co.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;Day Coll., No. 25,</td>
+          <td align='center'>99.02</td>  <td align='center'>0.22</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.19</td>  <td align='center'>0.26</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.04</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Antrim,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;1903, 235, No. 9,</td>
+          <td align='center'>97.31</td>  <td align='center'>0.31</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.14</td>  <td align='center'>0.18</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>3</td>  <td align='left'>Galway,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;W. 241, No. 19,</td>
+          <td align='center'>98.06</td>  <td align='center'>0.22</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.58</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.17</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>4</td>  <td align='left'>Cork,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;R. 459, No. 7,</td>
+          <td align='center'>98.30</td>  <td align='center'>0.30</td>
+          <td align='center'>0.27</td>  <td align='center'>0.37</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>  </tr>
+
+<tr>  <td align='center'>5</td>  <td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;W. 248, No. 28,</td>
+          <td align='center'>97.24</td>  <td align='center'>0.18</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>1.54</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>0.25</td>
+          <td align='center'>Nil</td>  <td align='center'>Nil</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img030.jpg" width="550" height="460" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11.&mdash;Halberds from North Germany and Sweden after Montelius.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the halberd blades were attached to
+their shafts is explained by the bronze halberds with bronze
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+shafts&mdash;the blade and upper part of the shaft often in one
+piece&mdash;from North Germany and from Sweden. These halberds
+are referred to an early stage of the Bronze Age; but they are
+of bronze, and, in casting and other features, show a considerable
+advance on a primitive type; the large imitation rivets cast in
+the head of the shaft no doubt represent an earlier form in which
+the shaft was of wood and the rivets real. Ten bronze halberd
+blades were found together near Stendal in Prussian Saxony,
+but without handles, four of which are figured by Montelius in
+&ldquo;Die Chronologie der &auml;ltesten Bronzezeit,&rdquo; figs. 115-118. An
+analysis of one of the blades gave 15 per cent. of tin and of a
+rivet 4&middot;5 per cent. of tin. From the straight mark across the
+blades, and some bronze tubular pieces for the handles, there
+seems no doubt that they were intended for straight wooden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+handles, and thus represent the earlier type. The blades are
+about 12&frac14; inches in length. It is important to note that the
+rivets are of two kinds: some are large and stout like the usual
+Irish form; and some have metal washers, like the solitary
+example found in Ireland (fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>), and which has caused some
+authorities to consider the Irish halberd blades somewhat later
+than we should care to place them. In general appearance these
+halberd blades from Stendal are closer to the Irish halberds than
+any of the others which have been found on the Continent, but
+do not include the curved or scythe-shaped form common to
+Ireland. Copper halberds, with remains of transverse wooden
+shafts, have been found by the brothers Siret on the south-east
+of Spain. In this case they go back to the very beginning of
+the bronze age in this district. The form of the blades is, however,
+in most cases <strong>T</strong>-shaped, and different from the Irish
+examples (fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). Halberds attached to their shafts are
+also shown on the prehistoric rock-markings in the &ldquo;Italian
+Maritime Alps,&rdquo; published by Mr. C. Bicknell. The actual
+blades, however, that can be classified with any certainty as
+halberds are very rare in the North and Middle Italian districts,
+though some of the copper and early bronze triangular dagger
+forms may have been occasionally mounted as halberds. It is
+possible, however, that the decoration of certain halberds found
+in Germany may have been influenced by that of the Italian
+dagger.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img031.jpg" width="500" height="179" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.&mdash;Halberts from South-east Spain.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+The halberd blade can be distinguished from the broad
+dagger by the shape of the handle, which is curved or indented
+in the case of the dagger, but straight across in the case of the
+halberd. There is, however, another point. The hindmost
+rivets, both in the case of the blades with four rivets and those
+with three only, are shorter than those in front of them. The
+shortness of the end-rivets and slope of the heads imply that
+the handle was rounded off behind the blade, as would be the
+case with a transverse shaft. So there appears no room to
+doubt the manner in which the long scythe-shaped blades were
+mounted on handles, though some uncertainty was formerly
+expressed on the subject. The Irish halberd-blades were
+evidently mounted at right angles to the shaft in the same
+way as most of the Continental blades, as can be seen from the
+straight-across marks of the handle, which can be traced on
+several examples.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img032.jpg" width="500" height="251" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13.&mdash;Rock Markings, Maritime Alps.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>From the analyses of copper halberds, it will be seen that
+the tin varies from &middot;18 to &middot;31 per cent. We may therefore
+conclude that the copper halberds are simply coarse or unrefined
+copper from similar ores to the copper celts; and that the
+copper implements found in Ireland may contain up to about
+&middot;5 per cent. of tin. An increasing percentage of tin was not
+found in any of the copper celts, or, contrary to expectation,
+in the copper halberds; but, judging from the widespread
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+use of copper implements in Ireland, from which it may
+be inferred that copper remained in use for a considerable
+time, it seems probable that bronze was introduced as an alloy
+of a known percentage of tin. As relatively few analyses of
+Irish bronze implements have been made, it is not possible at
+present to come to any fixed conclusions on the subject of the
+introduction of bronze into Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img033.jpg" width="500" height="358" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Fig. 14.&mdash;Stone Pick from the Bann.</span> <span style="margin-left: 3em;">Fig. 15.&mdash;Deer Horn Pick.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Also, in the case of the halberds, the great rarity of any
+specimens of bronze blades which can be classified as halberds
+indicates that the form of implement practically ceased to be
+used when bronze came into use in Ireland. As the copper
+celts show a gradual transition from stone to metal forms, it
+seems reasonable to look for the prototypes of the copper
+halberd among the stone implements of the preceding period.
+In the Bann Valley many flint wedges or picks have been
+found, which may, perhaps, have influenced the copper
+halberds; and if a stone pick-like instrument was in use in
+Neolithic times, it may explain to some extent the prevalence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+of the metal halberd in Ireland in the copper period. When
+the blades were made larger, the curved form would come into
+existence, being suggested by the deer-horn picks already in use.
+Copper came into use in Ireland, we may suppose, in no sudden
+or violent manner. On the contrary, the transition from stone
+was probably of some duration. The use of copper made its way
+up through Europe, spreading from the lands of the eastern
+Mediterranean along the old trade routes of Neolithic times,
+influenced by the search for new deposits of ore. Though at
+first implements of copper, and even, perhaps, the metal, might
+be carried a considerable distance, an early use of the local ores
+seems to explain the case better.</p>
+
+<p>Whether this new knowledge of metal, coming from the
+eastern Mediterranean, first crept round by way of Spain, or
+struck across the Continent to the north and west of Europe,
+and so to Ireland, we cannot at present definitely say; the line of
+march, as indicated by the halberds, which are strangely deficient
+both in the south and the north of France, seems to point to north
+Germany and Scandinavia, by way of the rich ore-fields of
+middle Europe. But the arch&aelig;ology of the Peninsula for this
+early period is at present too uncertain to speak with confidence.
+There are indications, even in Neolithic times, which, perhaps,
+point to Spain; but, again, there are relations which indicate a
+considerable correspondence with Brittany and the North of
+France in the early Bronze Age. The late Dr. Much (&ldquo;Die
+Kupferzeit,&rdquo; p. 131) compared the Irish halberds with the
+Spanish and German examples, and came to the conclusion that
+the Irish halberds were later than the Spanish and earlier than
+the German. This view is supported by the form of the Irish
+halberds, which are more primitive in type than the German
+examples.</p>
+
+<p>Any conclusion as to the probable date when the halberds
+were in use in Ireland can only be arrived at in an indirect and
+approximate manner. We are, on the whole, inclined to think
+it is probable that the Irish halberds were influenced by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+Spanish examples; and Herr Hubert Schmidt, who has worked
+out in much detail a scheme of chronology for this period,
+based upon the Egyptian dating of Professor Eduard Meyer,
+places the finds from El Argar at from 2500 to 2360
+<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>
+Allowing, therefore, some margin on the later side, we should
+probably be fairly safe in placing the period when the halberds
+were in use in Ireland at the end of the third and beginning of
+the second millennium <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> We must remember that the whole
+of the Irish Bronze Age has to be fitted in after the copper
+period; and if we are to allow sufficient room for the several
+periods and their approximate correspondence with the periods of
+the Continental chronology, it is not easy to see how this dating
+can be much reduced. It may be noted that Montelius in his
+recent scheme of Bronze Age chronology for the British Islands,
+treats the halberds as bronze, and places them in his second period
+(first period of the true Bronze Age) dated from the beginning
+of the second millennium to the seventeenth century
+<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>First and Later Periods of the Bronze Age</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>Even during the copper period an evolution can be traced in
+the celt. The cutting-edge has been expanded; and the thickest
+part of the celt has been moved up from just above the cutting-edge
+to the centre. Until, however, we get into the Bronze Age,
+there has been no trace of a stop-ridge. When we get into the
+true Bronze Age, we find a complete and probably fairly rapid
+evolution of type from the flat celt to the final socketed form.
+Analyses of Irish celts on a large scale have not been made;
+but such analyses as have been done do not indicate an experimental
+stage of small additions of tin, but rather show that the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+bronze from the first contained a fairly large proportion of
+tin. Where the tin came from is at present uncertain. The
+illustrations will make the evolution of the celt clear. The
+first step was the broadening of the cutting-edge, and moving
+the thickest part up to the centre of the blade; the next step
+was hammering the sides to make flanges to grip the handle
+more securely; a stop-ridge was then added to prevent the
+handle slipping down over the blade; and the latter forms are
+reached by increasing the flanges and broadening the stop-ridge;
+in its last forms the wings are increased at the expense of the
+stop-ridge; and the final socketed form is reached by leaving
+out the centre division between the wings. Figure <a href="#fig19">20</a> may be
+noticed, as it is very similar to certain Continental forms.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img036.jpg" width="500" height="448" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.&mdash;Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate I.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 470px;">
+<img src="images/img037.jpg" width="470" height="800" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Irish bronze celts in the order of their development.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the earlier flat bronze celts may have been hafted
+like the stone celts, by merely fixing the smaller end into a
+stick with a thick head; but this method must soon have
+been abandoned, as after a certain number of blows had been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+delivered, the axe-head would be forced back into the shaft. A
+more practical method was to place the head in a handle having
+a forked head, and the origin of the stop-ridge was to prevent
+the two sides coming down too low on to the blade. The side
+flanges and palstave-form developed naturally from this.
+The manner of hafting the socketed celts is well shown by
+a handled socketed celt found at Edenderry, King&#8217;s Co., and
+formerly in the Murray collection. This object is now in the
+Ethnological and Arch&aelig;ological Museum at Cambridge; and
+it is to be regretted that so rare and important a find should
+have left the country.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img039.jpg" width="500" height="424" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.&mdash;Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Some of the flat bronze celts are very finely decorated
+with incised chevrons, triangles, cross-hatchings, and other
+Bronze-Age linear ornament. One example has a kind of
+herring-bone pattern, somewhat resembling the well-known leaf-marking
+at New Grange. Some examples show a kind of cable-pattern
+on the side flanges; and the size of a few specimens is
+remarkable. A flat celt, with a remarkable ornamentation from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+the Greenwell collection found near Connor, County Antrim, is
+figured by Sir John Evans, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 64. It has a border of
+chevrons along the edge of the side; and this is carried across
+the celt in the centre and at the commencement of the cutting-edge.
+This border is joined by a similar centre band of ornament.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the Irish palstaves have a shield-shaped ornament
+below the stop-ridge. The socketed celts are, as a rule, unornamented;
+but there are a few which have been found in Ireland
+which are ornamented with ribs ending in pellets.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img040.jpg" width="500" height="395" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18.&mdash;Ornamented Bronze Celts.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The question is often asked as to whether the bronze celts
+were used as weapons or tools; and the probability is that they
+were used as either as occasion demanded. The celts do not
+show any marked difference of type which would enable us to
+differentiate a weapon from a tool, as is possible in the later
+iron axes of the Norman and Danish period when we can distinguish
+a heavy axe and a lighter keen blade. The Bayeux
+tapestry shows the two types in use, the heavy type being used
+to fell trees and the lighter for fighting.</p>
+
+<p>There is one palstave, with double loops, in the National
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+Collection; and another was found in Ireland at Ballincollig,
+County Cork, and is in the Evans collection. These double-looped
+palstaves are of much interest, as the type is characteristic
+of the Iberian peninsula. A few have been found in the
+west of France, and some in the south-west of England, but
+on the route which one would expect to have been followed
+if they are due to intercourse with Spain. These probably
+belong to the Middle Bronze Age, though they have not as
+yet been found associated with objects which would give much
+information as to their date.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img041.jpg" width="500" height="427" alt="image" title="" /></div>
+<p><span style="margin-left: 6em;"><strong>Fig. 19.&mdash;Winged Celt.</strong></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><strong>Fig. 20.&mdash;Winged Celt.</strong></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 24em; margin-top: -3em;"><strong>Fig. 21.&mdash;Palstave with Double-loops.</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Anvil and Hammers</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>Among objects that may undoubtedly be classed as tools
+are the small bronze anvil (fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and the bronze socketed
+hammers (fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 171px;">
+<img src="images/img042a.jpg" width="171" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22.&mdash;Bronze Anvil.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+The anvil appears to be the only specimen which has been
+found in the British Islands, though examples are not uncommon
+in France. It resembles the small anvils used by
+jewellers, and it is interesting to note that, as M. D&eacute;chelette
+points out, these small bronze
+anvils correspond to those mentioned
+by Homer, which were also portable and used by
+goldsmiths.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>
+Socketed bronze hammers resembling
+the Irish examples are
+fairly common in England and on
+the Continent. One well-known Irish specimen was found in
+the Douris hoard and is figured in Evans&#8217;s &ldquo;Bronze Implements,&rdquo;
+p. 179. Of the specimens illustrated, the largest was found at
+Abbeyshrule, Co. Longford, the exact locality of the others,
+further than that they were found in Ireland, is not known.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 252px;">
+<img src="images/img042b.jpg" width="252" height="350" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23.&mdash;Bronze Hammers.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Spear-Heads</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>Even as early as the Copper Period small weak knife-daggers
+were in use, and these continued into the Bronze Age, becoming
+the parent of the spear-head as well as of the rapier and sword.
+The spear-head was evolved by decreasing the width of the
+base of the dagger-blade, and adding a narrow tang with a peg-hole
+to fix into the shaft. The addition of a ferule was the next step;
+and the omission of the tang, and amalgamation of the ferule
+with the blade, gave rise to the socketed spear-head.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 436px;">
+<img src="images/img043.jpg" width="436" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 24.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 381px;">
+<img src="images/img044.jpg" width="381" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 25.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+The Irish spear-heads may be divided into two well-defined
+groups, looped and riveted; and it will be found that
+the separation of the types extends farther than the mode
+of attachment. The form of the blade of each class is
+quite distinct. Taking the looped spear-heads first, we can
+follow the development of the spear-head from the dagger-blade.
+The adaptation is shown in fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a> (the centre spear-head),
+which is, in fact, a dagger-blade placed on a socket.
+The socket does not enter the blade, but is stopped at the
+shoulders. The <strong>V</strong>-shaped base of the blade is derived from the
+dagger, and disappears as the true character of the spear form is
+developed. A feature of special interest is the survival of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+rivet-heads of the dagger in the form of ornamental bosses at the
+base of the blade. The rivet-holes appear to have been drilled,
+and not formed in casting. No examples of this form of spear-head
+have been found in England; and but one is recorded from
+the Isle of Man and two from Scotland. In the last example
+(in fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>), the imitative rivets are reduced to a single boss,
+and completely disappear in the next stage (fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 471px;">
+<img src="images/img045.jpg" width="471" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Fig. 26.</span>
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">Fig. 27.</span></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the subsequent figures we see the blade developed at
+the expense of the socket; and the transition to the fully
+developed spear-head begins. The derivation of this form of
+spear-head from the so-called Arreton Down type of tanged
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+blade is now admitted. Though tanged spear-heads of the
+Arreton Down type are fairly represented in Irish finds, no
+socket has been so far recovered with any of them;
+but an early form of nondescript tanged blade
+with a socket was found at Lough Ruadh bog
+near Tullamore, King&#8217;s County, in 1910, and
+shows the socket was known in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 478px;">
+<img src="images/img046a.jpg" width="478" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 28.&mdash;Leaf-shaped Spear-heads.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 122px; margin-top: -2em;">
+<img src="images/img046b.jpg" width="122" height="250" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Another very early type of spear-head, nearly
+all the known examples of which were found in
+Ireland, was derived by mounting the rapier on
+a socket (fig. <a href="#fig26">27</a>). There are six of these spear-heads
+in the collection of the Royal Irish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+Academy, and one in the collection of the Royal Society of
+Antiquaries of Ireland. One of these spear-heads, found at
+Taplow on the Thames, has gold studs at the base of the blade
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+which, no doubt, represent the rivets. The derivation of the
+spear-head by gradually rounding off the corners of the blade
+can be easily followed.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 254px;">
+<img src="images/img047.jpg" width="254" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 30.&mdash;Leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the
+Ford, Belturbet, Co. Cavan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img048.jpg" width="500" height="576" alt="image" title="" />
+<span style="margin-left: 6em;"><strong>Fig. 31.</strong></span>
+<span style="margin-left: 12.5em;"><strong>Fig. 32.</strong></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>We will now turn to the spear-heads with rivet-holes in the
+sockets, but without loops or openings in the blades (figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a> and <a href="#fig30">30</a>).
+These spear-heads are almost invariably leaf-shaped
+and devoid of ribs. The pins or rivets used to attach this class
+to the shaft were probably of wood, horn, or bone. Two
+examples formerly in Mr. Day&#8217;s collection have rivets of bronze,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and others with bronze rivets have been found in England. The
+leaf-shaped spear-head is associated by form with the leaf-shaped
+sword; the looped type with the older type of weapons,
+the dagger and rapier forms. The records of the finds are very
+incomplete; but the association of leaf-shaped spears and
+swords to the exclusion of the looped form is sufficiently marked
+to be noted as an additional piece of evidence.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 425px;">
+<img src="images/img049.jpg" width="425" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+</div>
+<p style="margin-left: 7em;"><strong>Fig. 33.&mdash;Ornamental Spear-heads<br />
+with openings in the blade.</strong></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 23em; margin-top: -3em;"><strong>Fig. 34.&mdash;Portion of Spear-head<br />
+with studs at the base of the wings.</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img050.jpg" width="500" height="488" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 35.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There are in the Academy&#8217;s collection a number of spear-heads
+with rivet-holes in the sockets and ornamental side-apertures
+(figs. <a href="#fig33">33</a> and <a href="#fig33">34</a>). These spear-heads are very highly decorated,
+and form an attractive class. They may be derived from the
+spear-heads in which the loops are joined to the base of the
+blade (fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>), and in which, by a process of evolution, the loop
+has been incorporated as part of the wing, or they may also have
+been influenced by the early type of tanged spear-heads from
+the Greek islands, in which the openings in the blade were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+functional, being used for binding the head into a split shaft.
+These ornamental spear-heads belong, as a type, to the British
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+Islands, where the socketed spear-head itself appears to have
+been evolved. Several of these spear-heads have, as well as
+the wings, small holes in the blades, the purpose of which
+is not clear. They are very finely cast; and even in Ireland,
+where Bronze-Age casting reached its highest point, these are
+amongst its best products.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 372px;">
+<img src="images/img051.jpg" width="372" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+</div>
+<p style="margin-left: 10em;"><strong>Fig. 36.&mdash;Spear-heads with<br />
+ornamental openings in the<br />
+blades.</strong></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 23em; margin-top: -4em;"><strong>Fig. 37.&mdash;Spear-head found<br />
+at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img052.jpg" width="300" height="382" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 38.&mdash;Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head,
+Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Another very rare type of spear-head, in which the loops
+are formed by the extension of the small ribs on each side of
+the mid rib, must be mentioned. These spear-heads are very
+seldom met with. We only know of the existence of four,
+of which one is in the Greenwell collection, two in the
+collection of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the
+Municipal Museum at Belfast. The Academy was fortunate
+enough to secure a very fine specimen in 1912. It was
+found with two leaf-shaped bronze swords at Tempo, County
+Fermanagh,<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
+and measures 15&frac12; inches long (fig. <a href="#fig36">37</a>).
+Judging from the associated swords, this spear-head may be
+dated about the ninth century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Moulds</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 321px;">
+<img src="images/img053.jpg" width="321" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 39.&mdash;Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger,
+Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The most important moulds for casting spear-heads found in
+Ireland are a series for casting early tanged spear-heads which
+were found about thirty years ago at Omagh, County Tyrone,
+and are now in the possession of Mr. M. J. Sullivan. These
+moulds are of the greatest importance in the history of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+development of the bronze spear-head, as they show the evolution
+of the tanged blade to the socketed form, and also that
+the tanged and socketed forms were in contemporary use in
+Ireland. The form of the moulds for the socketed spear-heads
+shows them to be at the very commencement of this type; and
+it was probable that the tanged type was rapidly superseded by
+the improved socketed form.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img054.jpg" width="500" height="313" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 40.&mdash;Mould for casting spear-head and knife,<br />
+Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These moulds are made of sandstone; and the illustrations
+will show them sufficiently. For a full description see the
+Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+vol. xxxvii, 1907, p. 181.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 332px;">
+<img src="images/img055.jpg" width="332" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 41.&mdash;Moulds for Primitive Spear-heads
+found in the County Tyrone.</strong></span><br />
+<strong>(Reproduced from the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries.)</strong>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 330px;">
+<img src="images/img056.jpg" width="330" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 42.&mdash;Moulds for Primitive Spear-heads found in the
+County Tyrone.</strong></span>
+<strong>(Reproduced from the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.)</strong>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Another very important find of moulds was made in
+1910 at Killymeddy, near Ballymoney, County Antrim. This
+find included two complete moulds and a half mould for casting
+looped socketed spear-heads. Of the other moulds for casting
+spear-heads found in Ireland, nearly all are for the looped type;
+and the few that have been found for casting the leaf-shaped
+type are small and indeterminate in character. It is most
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+probable that, with the introduction of the leaf-shaped spear-heads,
+moulds of clay or sand were introduced; and these have
+naturally perished. Fragments of a clay mould for casting
+a spear-head and a sword were found at Whitepark Bay, and
+portions of clay moulds for spear-heads have been found in
+Brittany, the Lake of Bienne, and other places. The discoveries
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+of moulds enforce the distinction of type between the looped
+and leaf-shaped spear-heads, and the moulds from Killymeddy
+(figs. <a href="#fig38">38-40</a> and <a href="#fig43">43</a>) may probably be placed at the end of the
+period when stone moulds were in use, and assigned to about
+1500-1200 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 329px;">
+<img src="images/img057.jpg" width="329" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 43.&mdash;Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger, Killymeddy,
+Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Spear-ferules</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 428px;">
+<img src="images/img058.jpg" width="428" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+</div>
+<p style="margin-left: 11em;"><strong>Fig. 44.&mdash;Bronze spear ferules.</strong></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 28em; margin-top: -2em;"><strong>Fig. 45.&mdash;Bronze spear<br /> ferule
+with La T&egrave;ne<br /> ornament.</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>From time to time objects of bronze have been found in
+Ireland of a curious shape, somewhat like the handle of a door;
+and their use was considered uncertain; it is, however, clear that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+they were the ferules of spears; and in some cases the remains
+of the wooden shafts have been found inside them. The finding,
+moreover, of one in the Lisnacroghera Crannog with the whole
+of the shaft, measuring 8 feet in length, attached to it, places
+the matter beyond
+dispute.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a>
+It also shows that these objects
+were in use down to the early Iron Age, as most of
+the objects of the Lisnacroghera find belong to the La T&egrave;ne
+period.</p>
+
+<p>Other ferules assume a long and graceful shape, and one is
+decorated with La T&egrave;ne motives (fig. <a href="#fig44">45</a>).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Irish Gold</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>Ireland&#8217;s extreme richness in gold during the Bronze Age
+made her a kind of El Dorado of the western world. The
+gold was, no doubt, obtained from County Wicklow, where gold
+was worked down to the end of the eighteenth century, nuggets
+of 22, 18, 9, and 7 oz. being recorded. One exceptionally
+large nugget weighing 22 oz., found in 1795 at Croghan
+Kinshela, Co. Wicklow, was presented to King George III;
+and its discovery caused a rush to the workings. As well
+as Wicklow there are six other counties where gold has been
+found. The very large number of gold ornaments that have
+been found in Ireland is therefore not surprising. The ancient
+literature of Ireland contains many references to gold ornaments
+and payments of gold by weight. It is interesting to note
+that the tradition preserved in the Book of Leinster, a <span class="smcap">ms.</span>
+of the twelfth century, refers the first smelting of gold in
+Ireland to a district in which gold has been found in considerable
+quantities in modern times. The Leinstermen, it is stated,
+were called &ldquo;Lagenians of the gold,&rdquo; because it was in their
+country that gold was first discovered in Erin. It is further
+stated that gold was first smelted for Tighearnmas, one of the
+earliest of the Milesian kings, in the forests standing on the
+east side of the River Liffey, by Iuchadan, a native of that
+district.</p>
+
+<p>After the discovery of native gold in Ballinvally stream at
+Croghan in 1796, the Government undertook mining operations;
+and in three years collected 944 ounces worth, at the price of
+the day, &pound;3,675. Since the workings were abandoned by the
+Government, the district has been worked at intervals by
+companies, and at other times by the peasants; the total output
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+since 1795 is estimated at a value of &pound;30,000. The knowledge
+of the Irish gold deposits must have been a very considerable
+factor in the foreign relations of the island in the Bronze
+Age.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Lunul&aelig;</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>The earliest of the Irish gold ornaments are the flat gold
+collars known as lunul&aelig;. These have been found fairly evenly
+distributed over the country, and in astonishing numbers.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/img061.jpg" width="333" height="350" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 46.&mdash;Gold Lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The circumstances under which the lunul&aelig; have been
+found have not often been recorded. The collection of the Royal
+Irish Academy in the National Museum, Dublin, contains no less
+than thirty-seven examples. Several of these have been found
+and recorded during the past three or four years. As a rule
+the lunul&aelig; are engraved on one face only with finely cut or
+scored well-recognized Bronze Age ornament, consisting of bands
+of lines, cross-hatchings, chevrons, triangles, and lozenges.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+The centres of the lunul&aelig; are plain, the exact reason of
+which is not quite apparent. The ornament is gathered to the
+end of the lunula and spaced out by bands. Two lunul&aelig; found
+together at Padstow, Cornwall, are said to have been found with
+a bronze celt of early type. The find is preserved in the Truro
+Museum, and is of the utmost importance as an indication of
+the early Bronze-Age date of the lunul&aelig;. It is, we believe, the
+only instance of lunul&aelig; being found with associated objects.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img062.jpg" width="400" height="388" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 47.&mdash;Gold Lunula found in Co. Galway.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Figures <a href="#fig46">46-49</a> and <a href="#fig51">51-53</a> illustrate the various types of
+ornament; it will be noticed that some of the smaller examples
+are quite plain.</p>
+
+<p>One lunula was found in an oak case at Newtown, Crossdoney,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+Co. Cavan. The case has greatly shrunk since it was found, as
+when first discovered it measured 10 inches by 8 inches (fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 374px;">
+<img src="images/img063.jpg" width="374" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 48.&mdash;Gold Lunula, locality not recorded.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The two expanded pieces at the ends are always turned at
+right angles to the plane of the lunula, and serve to clasp the
+back of the neck, and may have been secured by a tie. It need
+not, however, be pointed out that they are quite out of place
+in a head-ornament; indeed, the geometrical shape of a lunula is
+contrary to such a theory, and quite different from recognized
+diadems or head-ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 394px;">
+<img src="images/img064.jpg" width="394" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 49.&mdash;Gold Lunula found at Killarney.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+One example found at Volognes has a chain and sort of
+buckle attached at the ends. It has since been melted down,
+but a drawing of it has been preserved (fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>). The chain
+seems to have been ancient&mdash;at least it is stated to have been
+on it, as shown, when found; but, however ancient it may
+be, it is evident that it was more recently attached than
+the original make of the ornament. It is, however, of interest
+as indicating at some time a chain-tie to secure the ends of
+the ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The accompanying list of finds shows how numerous the
+lunul&aelig; are in Ireland and how rarely they have been found
+outside this island. The map shows their distribution (fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img065a.jpg" width="500" height="377" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 50.&mdash;Oak case for Lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 333px;">
+<img src="images/img065b.jpg" width="333" height="300" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 51.&mdash;Gold Lunula found at Valognes, Manche.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+Two have been found in the West Baltic at Zealand and
+Funen. They have otherwise hardly penetrated beyond
+Brittany. One has recently (1912) been found at Hanover,
+and another some time ago at Fauvillers, Luxembourg. This
+failure to penetrate far beyond the coasts of England and
+Brittany may point to early raids; but the copper and tin of
+Cornwall, as well as the tin deposits of Brittany and the
+general trade with Brittany, may indicate the early seeking of
+the Irish gold deposits. We may take as a provisional date for
+the lunul&aelig;, 1200 to 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img066.jpg" width="400" height="399" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 52.&mdash;Gold Lunula found in Co. Londonderry.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+Lunul&aelig; now existing or known to have formerly existed:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>IRELAND</strong> (62 at least).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;"><strong>County.</strong></td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;"> <strong>No.</strong></td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;"> <strong>Reference.</strong></td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Donegal,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>R.I.A. 1889: 20 (1). Trenta, Carrigans. R.I.A. 1909: 6 (1). Naran.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Londonderry,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>R.I.A. W. 12 (1). R.I.A. (loan 1907: 7) (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Antrim,</td>  <td align='center'>3</td>  <td align='left'>Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv, p. 295.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Down,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Castlereagh, Ulster Journal of Arch&aelig;ology, vol. ix, p. 46.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Tyrone,</td>  <td align='center'>3</td>  <td align='left'>Trillick, R.I.A. 1884: 495 (1). Carrickmore,
+                                                                                 R.I.A. 1900: 50 (1). Tartaraghan, Ulster
+                                                                                 Journal of Arch&aelig;ology, vol. ix, p. 47 (at Cecil,
+                                                                                 Augher) (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Mayo,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>R.I.A. 1909.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Sligo,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Windele&#8217;s Miscellanea, p. 206.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Fermanagh,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Enniskillen (Day Coll.).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Monaghan,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Ballybay (Day Coll.).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Galway,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>R.I.A. W. 10 (Sirr Coll.).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Roscommon,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Athlone, R.I.A. W. 5, and 1893: 4.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Cavan,</td>  <td align='center'>3</td>  <td align='left'>Newtown, R.I.A. 1884: 494 (1). Bailieborough
+                                                                                (British Museum) (1). Lisanover, Bawnboy.
+                                                                                1910: 45 (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Westmeath,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Ross, R.I.A. 1896: 15 (1). Mullingar, 1884: 7 (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Kildare,</td>  <td align='center'>4</td>  <td align='left'>Dunfierth, R.I.A. W. 4, 8, 9, and 15.</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Clare,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Porsoon Callan, R.I.A. 1877: 52 (1). Proc.
+                                                                                R.I.A., vol. viii, p. 83 (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Tipperary,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Glengall (British Museum).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Kerry,</td>  <td align='center'>5</td>  <td align='left'>Banmore, R.I.A. R., 1755, 1756, 1757 (3):
+                                                                                R.I.A., Killarney, W. 2 (1). Mangerton (Brit.
+                                                                                Mus.) (1).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Cork</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Ballycotton (Brit. Mus.) (1), and one or perhaps
+                                                                              two in Mr. Cliborn&#8217;s scrap-book in R.I.A.</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>In addition to the foregoing there are 16 in the collection of
+the R.I.A. and 5 in the British Museum, and about 6 in private
+collections, which are known to have been found in Ireland, but
+of which the localities have not been recorded.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>ENGLAND</strong> (4).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Cornwall,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">4</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Penzance (1), Padstow (2), Lesnewth (1) (Arch.
+                                                                                   Journ., vol. xxii, 276).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center"><strong>WALES</strong> (1).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Carnavonshire,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Llanllyfni (British Museum).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+<strong>SCOTLAND</strong> (4).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Lanarkshire,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">2</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Southside near Coulter (Anderson, vol. i, p. 223).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Dumfriesshire,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Auchentaggart (Anderson, vol. i, p. 222).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Elginshire,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Fochabers (Cat. Nat. Mus., Scot., p. 210).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img068.jpg" width="400" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 53.&mdash;Gold Lunula found at Athlone.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>FRANCE</strong> (6).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">C&ocirc;tes du Nord,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Saint-Potan (Reinach, Revue Celtique, 1900, p. 95).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Manche,</td>  <td align='center'>3</td>  <td align='left'>Tourlaville (1), Valognes (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900, p. 95).<br />
+                                                                                 Montebourg (1) (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 301).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Vend&eacute;e,</td>  <td align='center'>2</td>  <td align='left'>Bourneau (1), Nesmy (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900, p. 95).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>BELGIUM</strong> (1).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Luxemburg,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Fauvillers (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 302).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+<strong>DENMARK</strong> (2).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Zealand,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Grevinge (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).</td>  </tr>
+<tr>  <td align='left'>Funen,</td>  <td align='center'>1</td>  <td align='left'>Skogsh&ouml;ierup (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img069.jpg" width="600" height="549" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 54.&mdash;Map showing the Distribution of Lunul&aelig; in Ireland
+and Europe.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><strong>GERMANY</strong> (1).</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" width="630" cellpadding="3" style="table-layout:fixed" summary="">
+
+<tr>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 100px;">Hanover,</td>  <td style="text-align: center; width: 30px;">1</td>  <td style="text-align: left; width: 500px;">Schulenburg (Leine) Springe (1911).</td>  </tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Daggers and Rapiers</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img070.jpg" width="500" height="302" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 55.&mdash;Stone celt, Bronze dagger with gold band, and Urn found
+in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>As has been mentioned, as well as being parent to the spear-head,
+the small weak knife-dagger frequently found in early
+Bronze-Age burials also developed into the true dagger-blade,
+and in course of time into the sword. Bronze daggers have
+often been found in Ireland; there are about forty in the
+National Collection. Among the most interesting finds of
+these early daggers may be mentioned that discovered in
+1897 at an interment at Topped Mountain Cairn, County
+Fermanagh. This dagger measures 5&#8541; inches, and is covered
+with a beautiful blue patina. It is decorated with raised lines
+on each side of the blade, and has two small rivets. It was
+discovered in a cist in the cairn lying at the right side of the
+skull of an uncremated body, and in the same place was a small
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+band of gold which appears to have been half of a band of that
+metal which was probably round the handle of the dagger
+(fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>). Another interesting find is the small bronze dagger
+discovered with urns and cremated bones in a cist at Annaghkeen
+Cairn, County Galway, in 1908.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 415px;">
+<img src="images/img071.jpg" width="415" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 56.&mdash;Dagger and Rapier blades.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In course of time the length of the dagger-blade was
+increased; and later examples are wonderful specimens of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+casting. The earlier daggers were either attached to the handle
+by rivets, or else notches were left in the base of the blade for
+the attachment. The manner of hafting them is quite clear, as
+a few hafted examples have been found. Some had bronze
+handles cast separately (fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>); others had handles of horn or
+wood (fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>); but the hilts for the most part were made of
+some perishable substance, and they have consequently not been
+recovered. The scolloped mark left by the hilt is often quite
+plainly to be seen on the blade. In later times the handle was
+sometimes cast in one piece with the blade; but the division
+between the handle and the blade is always quite clearly
+marked. The decoration of the later dagger-blades takes the
+form of a number of triangles at the base of the blade, and the
+extreme similarity in decoration between the Italian and the
+early northern and western daggers has led Montelius to
+consider the latter as derived from the former; and this is
+enforced in the case of the Irish examples by the series of small
+hatched-triangles which have been found at the base of two
+well-known Irish examples (fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The rapiers were evolved quite naturally by lengthening the
+dagger-blade; and this form was probably influenced also, as
+will be mentioned later, by contemporary weapons in use in the
+Mediterranean lands.</p>
+
+<p>The longest rapier ever found in Western Europe is the
+splendid weapon found at Lissane, Co. Derry, in 1867, which
+measures 30&frac14; inches in length (fig. <a href="#fig57">59</a>). Another very remarkable
+Irish example is the short rapier found in Upper
+Lough Erne, and obtained by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, <span class="smcap">m.r.i.a.</span>,
+from the finder. This weapon is a wonderfully fine piece of
+casting. It measures 16&frac34; inches in length (fig. <a href="#fig57">58</a>).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 323px;">
+<img src="images/img073.jpg" width="323" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 5em;"><strong>Fig. 57.&mdash;Dagger with<br />
+horn handle found at<br />
+Ballymoney, Co. Antrim.</strong></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 16.5em; margin-top: -4.3em;"><strong>Fig. 58.&mdash;Rapier found<br />
+in Upper Lough Erne.</strong></p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 29em; margin-top: -3.1em;"><strong>Fig. 59.&mdash;Rapier found at<br />
+Lissane, Co. Derry.</strong></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 352px;">
+<img src="images/img074.jpg" width="352" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 60.&mdash;Rapiers and Daggers found in Ireland.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The rapiers belong to the middle and later portions of the
+Bronze Age. This type of weapon is common in France, and
+is described by M. D&eacute;chelette as widely spread in the British
+Islands and the north of France, and as having been introduced
+from there into South Germany and the region of the Middle
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+Rhine.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a>
+The rapiers of advanced type he places in the third
+division of the Bronze Age, as they have been found in Bronze-Age
+tumuli of that period, as at Staadorf, Haut Palatinat
+(1600-1300 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>). Montelius places the rapiers in his fourth
+period dated at the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the twelfth century
+<span class="smcap">b.c.</span>,<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a>
+so that his dating of these objects
+practically coincides with that of M. D&eacute;chelette. It is now well
+recognized that the swords of the &AElig;gean-Mycen&aelig;an area were
+developed on parallel lines to those of Western Europe. We find
+that the long rapiers or thrusting swords are developed from
+the tanged Cypriote dagger, and that the true sword is a later
+evolution from the rapier. It is hardly to be doubted that some
+of the western forms of daggers and rapiers were influenced
+by Mycen&aelig;an types; and the discovery in Sicily of rapiers
+of Mycen&aelig;an type with pottery dated as recent Minoan III,
+establishes a direct bond between the &AElig;gean and Western
+Europe.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Gorgets</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img076.jpg" width="400" height="387" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 61.&mdash;Gold Gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the possession of the
+Earl of Charleville. From Vetusta Monumenta, Vol. v, Pl. xxviii.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate2" id="plate2"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate II.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;">
+<img src="images/img077.jpg" width="550" height="451" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Irish Gold Gorgets.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the most striking of the gold ornaments in the
+National Collection are the five gold gorgets or neck-collars,
+with the ends decorated with ornamented disks. These are
+very elaborately decorated, and of great massiveness. Two
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+others mentioned as having been found in Ireland, one of which
+was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville, were
+figured in &ldquo;Vetusta Monumenta.&rdquo; Vallancey states that another
+was found in the County Longford. A few disks have also been
+found which may have been portions of these gorgets. The
+neck-portion of the gorgets is arranged in three rows of
+raised ridges, and these are ornamented with rows of small
+bosses, the depressions of the ridges being occupied with
+a narrow rope-shaped fillet. In some cases the ridges are left
+plain. The small disks at the terminals of the collar are
+remarkable; they measure about 2&#8542; or 3 inches in diameter,
+and are decorated with a centre and side bosses, surrounded
+with concentric circles. They much resemble in miniature the
+round shields or bucklers of the late Bronze Age, but they also
+show some resemblance to the so-called sun-disks which have
+been found in Ireland, and which will be described later on.
+Unfortunately the gorgets have in no case been found with any
+accompanying objects which would assist in dating them, and
+in fact in only two cases have details as to their finding been
+preserved, one found at Ardcroney, near Nenagh, County
+Tipperary, the other at Tony Hill, Croom, County Limerick.
+Their ornamentation, however, would seem to place them in
+the Hallstatt period, first Iron Age, which may be dated at
+about 700-600 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> Their form and ornamentation may be compared
+with that of the splendid gold collar from Cintra, Lisbon, now in the British
+Museum,<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a>
+and also with the triple bronze
+collars common in Scandinavia and north Germany, all of
+which are referred to the Hallstatt period. This period is at
+present not well represented in Ireland or the British Isles;
+and it is doubtful whether iron came into general use in Ireland
+till about the third century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span></p>
+
+<p>One point of much interest must be noticed. In one of the
+gorgets shown in <a href="#plate2">Plate II</a>, where the disk is attached to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+gorget, above the line where the end of the plate passes into the
+boss, three perpendicular and two cross-stitches can be seen.
+Some of these sewings are made by means of slight square wire,
+but in others the fastenings are composed of fine woollen thread,
+round which is twisted spirally a thin, flat strip of gold. These
+strips are one of the oldest specimens of woollen cordage now in
+existence in Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Sun-disks</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>We have already referred to the flat disks of gold, a number
+of which have been found in Ireland. There are four in the
+British Museum, and no less than fifteen in the National
+Collection at Dublin. In four cases they have been found in
+pairs&mdash;one pair at Ballina, County Mayo, another pair at
+Tydavnet, County Monaghan, a third at Cloyne, Co. Cork, and
+the fourth at Castle Martyr, Co. Cork. Some of these disks are
+ornamented with concentric circles; others have a cruciform
+ornament which resembles the four-spoked chariot-wheel, and
+is a well-known sun symbol. When these objects were first
+discovered, their origin and use were quite unknown; and
+Mr. Reginald A. Smith, of the British Museum, was the first
+to point out their resemblance to the gold disk, decorated with
+spirals, affixed to a bronze sun-chariot, found in Trundholm
+Moss, Zealand, in 1902. The bronze chariot consisted of a
+bronze disk mounted on wheels and drawn by a horse, the gold
+disk being affixed to the bronze one. The ornamentation of
+the Irish disks is somewhat different, as the spiral does not
+appear, its place being taken by the concentric circle. The
+Trundholm sun-chariot is dated by Prof. Sophus Muller at
+before 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The Trundholm disk is admittedly connected
+with sun-worship, as is also the cruciform ornament on the
+Irish disks. The spoked-wheel is a well-known solar symbol;
+and similar designs have been found on the bases of some
+Irish food-vessels, and may also be compared with some of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+markings at
+Dowth.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>
+The prevalence of sun-worship in the
+Bronze Age need not be further gone into here; but the gold
+disks are of great interest, as furnishing another point of
+contact between Ireland and Scandinavia in the Bronze Age.
+The finding of Irish gold lunul&aelig; in Denmark, and the
+occurrence of Scandinavian amber in Irish finds of the Bronze-Age,
+have already been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<a name="plate3" id="plate3"></a>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate III.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 545px;">
+<img src="images/img081.jpg" width="545" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold sun-disks.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Gold Balls</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>We may also mention the large hollow golden balls of which
+seven are in the National collection, one in the possession of
+Mr. H. J. B. Clements, and another in the British Museum.
+Eleven of these golden balls were found in 1834 at
+Carrick-on-Shannon.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a>
+There has been much conjecture as to the use these
+balls were put to, and it has been suggested that as their large
+size would render them inconvenient as personal ornaments,
+they were probably used to decorate a horse. If so they may
+have been attached to the bridle like the large balls shown on
+the horses&#8217; bridles in the bronze scabbard from Hallstatt, dated
+La T&egrave;ne I. See D&eacute;chelette, &ldquo;Manuel d&#8217;Arch&eacute;ologie,&rdquo; vol. ii,
+p. 770. The Golden Peytrell found at Mold, Flintshire, may be
+instanced to show that gold was sometimes used to decorate
+horses; and if the gold balls were really used for this purpose,
+we may well endorse what the author of the &ldquo;British Museum
+Bronze-Age Guide&rdquo; says when he writes: &ldquo;A discovery of this
+kind demonstrates in a striking manner the abundance of gold
+at the end of our Bronze
+period.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Clare Find</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>Another type of neck-ornaments are the thin gold gorgets
+with funnel-shaped ends, many of which were found in the
+great Clare find. These gorgets are quite plain, except for a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+little ornamentation at the extreme ends near the funnel-shaped
+extremities. There are five of these objects in the
+National Collection, and all were found together in the celebrated
+Clare find. This find&mdash;the largest collective one of gold objects
+ever made in Western Europe&mdash;was discovered in making a
+railway-cutting for the Limerick and Ennis Railway in 1854.
+A gang of labourers were digging near an old hawthorn-bush,
+a little distance to the south of the railway bridge in Moghaun
+north, on the west side of the line of the great fort, and opposite
+the lough, when they undermined a kind of cist. The fall of
+one of the containing-stones disclosed a mass of gold ornaments&mdash;gorgets,
+bracelets of all sizes with cup-shaped ends,
+and a few ingots of gold. The find, from a numerical point of
+view, far surpassed anything ever made, but none of the objects
+were highly ornamented or of a special type.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of this immense number of gold ornaments being
+hidden in a cist in this way has given rise to many conjectures;
+but in the absence of any other explanation, it may be suggested
+that the objects had been collected together, and hidden
+purposely, with the idea of returning and regaining possession
+of them later. The value of the find has been estimated at at
+least &pound;3,000. Unfortunately, most of the objects were sold to
+jewellers and melted down, but a large number were exhibited
+at the Arch&aelig;ological Institute by Dr. Todd and Lord Talbot
+de Malahide in 1854, and casts of these were taken, and a set is
+now in the National Collection. There are also a small number of
+the originals in the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s collection (<a href="#plate4">Plate IV</a>).
+Otherwise such objects of the find as escaped the melting-pot
+were scattered, and have found their way into different museums
+and private collections. As has been mentioned, the objects of
+this find did not show any remarkable types, and for the most
+part consisted of very thin bracelets and penannular rings
+with cup-shaped ends. It is probable that, as well as being
+ornaments, they served as a kind of currency.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate4" id="plate4"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate IV.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img085.jpg" width="600" height="483" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Portion of the great Clare find.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Penannular Rings and Ring-Money</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig62" id="fig62"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 384px;">
+<img src="images/img087.jpg" width="384" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 62.&mdash;Gold fibul&aelig;, and other objects found together
+at Coachford, Co. Cork.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig63" id="fig63"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 376px;">
+<img src="images/img088.jpg" width="376" height="450" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 63.&mdash;Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing Europeans
+holding manillas (after Read and Dalton, <em>Antiquities of the City of Benin</em>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The large number of penannular rings with cup-shaped ends
+which have been found from time to time in the island, brings
+us on to the general question of the so-called Irish fibul&aelig;.
+In Ireland penannular rings with cup-shaped ends of copper or
+bronze are very rare, only about half a dozen being known,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+while fibul&aelig; of gold are exceedingly common. The Coachford
+find, in which amber beads, gold fibul&aelig;, and a copper or bronze
+fibula were all found together, shows that the objects were
+contemporary; and as this find may be placed at the end of the
+Bronze Age, it shows that these objects were in use at that period
+(fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>). On the other hand, it is likely that their use began
+earlier and continued for a long period. These objects when
+made of gold are of two shapes&mdash;in the one case the expanded
+cups are large and flat and the connecting bar is bow-shaped,
+and is striated. These have been conjectured to have been used
+as brooches for fastening a garment; and their form was
+probably influenced by the Scandinavian spectacle-brooches,
+the bows of the latter having, in some cases, the same decoration.
+Except for the striations on the connecting link, the Irish
+so-called mamillary fibul&aelig; are almost always plain; but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+Vallancey has figured two examples, one of which is engraved
+with triangular, and the other with lozenge, ornaments. There
+is also the well-known example in Trinity College, Dublin, in
+which the surfaces of the cups are completely covered with
+concentric circle ornament, the inside rims of the cups being
+decorated with hatched triangles, and the neckings of what may
+be called the handle, with chevron and herring-bone pattern,
+while along the back of the handle is an ornament of lozenges.
+In the second type these objects assume the shape of a bracelet;
+and the expanded ends are sometimes cup-shaped and sometimes
+plain. From the extreme similarity between the shape
+of these, whether in gold or bronze, to the so-called African
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+manillas, it has been conjectured the Irish examples, like the
+African, may have been used as a medium of exchange; and on
+the whole it seems probable that such was the case, the dividing
+line between what were used for ornaments and what may have
+been used for exchange not being at all easily defined (figs. <a href="#fig63">63</a>
+and <a href="#fig64">64</a>).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate5" id="plate5"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate V.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img089.jpg" width="600" height="478" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold Fibul&aelig;.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig64" id="fig64"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<img src="images/img091.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 64.&mdash;Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin, showing natives holding
+manillas (after Read and Dalton, <em>Antiquities of the City of Benin</em>).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Ring-Money</strong></span></p>
+
+<p>The question of a medium of exchange leads us to mention
+the very small gold penannular rings, the largest being about
+an inch in diameter, frequently found in Ireland, which are
+known as &lsquo;ring-money.&rsquo; There are fifty-six in the National
+Collection; and a find made near Belfast of a socketed bronze
+celt in association with some of these objects shows they were
+in use during the late Bronze
+Age.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a>
+Attention has been called
+to the similarity of these Irish gold rings to the penannular
+copper rings plated with gold often found in early Japanese
+burials.<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a></p>
+
+<p>Many attempts have been made to equate the weights of
+a series of these rings with some known standard; and in his
+valuable work &ldquo;The Origin of Currency and Weight Standards,&rdquo;
+Professor Ridgeway devotes several pages of his Appendix C
+to a discussion of the subject, and gives a table of the weights
+arrived at by grouping the rings in multiples of 18.</p>
+
+<p>While there can be no reasonable doubt that these objects
+were used as a medium of exchange, we are not inclined, in the
+absence of literary evidence, to go any further into the question
+of what standard they may represent. Some of these rings are
+evidently forgeries of ancient times, as they are composed of
+bronze rings covered with a thin plate of gold. The rings as
+a rule are plain; but some are ornamented with small strips of
+darker metal let into the gold, and two examples are twisted
+like small torcs.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate6" id="plate6"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VI.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;">
+<img src="images/img093.jpg" width="485" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold Ring-Money.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Leaf-shaped Swords</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>A number of leaf-shaped bronze swords have been found in
+Ireland. They may be roughly divided into two types, those
+with notches just below the blade and above the handle, and those
+that are plain. The latter are the earlier, and belong to the late
+Bronze Age; the former correspond to the Continental swords
+of the Hallstatt period. The leaf-shaped type was the typical
+Bronze-Age sword of western and northern Europe. It was
+developed from the dagger, and, like it, was a thrusting
+rather than a cutting weapon. The handle is cast in one piece
+with the blade, and has rivet-holes, and in some cases a slit for
+the attachment of the hilt, which was no doubt formed of bone or
+horn plates. The pommel was probably globular, and formed of
+lead or some heavy material. A bronze sword of this type was
+found in a house on the Akropolis at Mycen&aelig; by Schliemann, and
+it can be dated at about 1200
+<span class="smcap">b.c.</span><a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
+The discovery of this sword
+may be explained either as the result of a raid, or as showing
+that invaders from the north had reached Greece as early as
+this date. A leaf-shaped sword has been noticed on one of the
+clay tablets dated as late Minoan II, and in one of the stone slabs
+from over the fifth shaft grave at Mycen&aelig;, which represents a
+figure in a chariot attacking a man on foot, the latter is armed
+with a leaf-shaped
+sword.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a>
+In any case it gives us a date for
+the period when these swords were in common use in western
+Europe. The type with notches below the blade has a
+tendency to become straighter at the sides, and to lose its
+leaf-shaped form. The use of the notches is not apparent, but
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+it has been thought that the scabbards at
+that time were made of wood and were
+liable to shrink from exposure to weather,
+and that this may have prevented the
+sword from being thrust home, so that
+the edge was cut off by the notches slightly
+below the handle to avoid cutting the
+hand. The handle end of this latter type
+very frequently assumes a form like a
+fish&#8217;s tail. These swords develop into the
+iron swords of the Hallstatt period, of
+which so far only one Irish example
+has been found. A bronze sword of the
+notched type formed part of the Dowris
+hoard, and is figured in the &ldquo;British
+Museum Bronze-Age Guide,&rdquo; plate ii.
+Two remarkably fine specimens of this
+type were found in 1912 with a socketed
+spear-head at Tempo, County Fermanagh.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig65" id="fig65"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;">
+<img src="images/img096.jpg" width="106" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 65.&mdash;Leaf-shaped bronze swords,
+found with a spear-head at Tempo,
+Co. Fermanagh.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>No moulds for casting leaf-shaped
+swords of either type have been found
+in Ireland; and it is therefore probable
+that at the time they were in use sand-casting
+had replaced casting from stone
+moulds. The scabbards of the leaf-shaped
+swords were made of wood or leather,
+protected by a ferule or chape of bronze,
+which was fastened to it by rivets; the
+point of the weapon does not seem to have
+reached the end of the sheath. There
+are several examples of bronze chapes
+in the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s collection,
+and they display a considerable variety
+of design. Some are long and tubular in
+shape (fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>), while others are of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+winged or boat-shaped type which is found on the Continent
+(fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a>). Others again are of a small and simple type. The
+rivet-holes for the attachment of the sheaths can be seen in
+nearly all the Irish specimens. The casting of these objects
+shows a good deal of skill, as the metal is very thin. The
+winged variety are probably the latest, as they have been found
+with iron swords of Hallstatt type on the Continent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig66" id="fig66"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img097a.jpg" width="350" height="239" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 66.&mdash;Bronze chapes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig67" id="fig67"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 350px;">
+<img src="images/img097b.jpg" width="350" height="239" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 67.&mdash;Winged chapes.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Shields</strong></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig68" id="fig68"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 274px;">
+<img src="images/img098.jpg" width="274" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 68.&mdash;Bronze shield, found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Two circular shields or bucklers of bronze have been found
+in Ireland. There is only one in the National Collection, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+fine shield discovered at Lough Gur, County Limerick. There
+is, however, a small shield of bronze ornamented with large
+bosses in the British Museum which was found at Athenry, County
+Galway.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>
+These bronze shields have never been found
+in the British Islands with any objects which would give any
+definite clue to their date; but they are generally referred
+to the late Bronze Age. They belong to a common type, being
+decorated with numerous bands of small bosses separated by
+concentric circles. They appear to have been hammered out.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig69" id="fig69"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 286px;">
+<img src="images/img099.jpg" width="286" height="350" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 69.&mdash;Alder-wood shield, found in<br /> Co. Leitrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig70" id="fig70"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 289px;">
+<img src="images/img100.jpg" width="289" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 70.&mdash;Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin, Co. Longford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>There are two other shields of great interest in the National
+Collection. One is the remarkable alder-wood shield found
+10 feet deep in a bog in 1863 at Annadale, County Leitrim.
+This shield is oval in shape, and has a central boss and
+seven raised ribs. It will be noticed that the ribs show an
+indentation at one side; but too much emphasis must not be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+placed on this, as the shield shrank a good deal after its
+removal from the bog, and the alteration may be due to this.
+This shield has a handle at the back. It is interesting to note
+that &lsquo;sciath,&rsquo; one of the Irish words for &lsquo;shield,&rsquo; denotes &lsquo;alder.&rsquo;
+The next is the leather shield found in 1908 at Clonbrin,
+County Longford, and presented to the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s
+collection by Colonel W. H. King-Harman. This truly remarkable
+shield, the only one of its kind in Europe, is made of a
+solid piece of leather nearly &frac14; of an inch thick, and measures
+20&frac12; inches in length by 19&frac12; inches across. It has an oblong
+centre boss pressed out of the leather and covered with an
+ornamental cap of fine leather laced on to it. The boss is
+encircled by three ribs, the inner one being gapped, and the two
+others having a curious re-entrant angle. The shield has twenty-four
+small round bosses on it which resemble those on the
+bronze shields. There is a leather handle which was laced on
+to the back. This shield appears to be complete as it stands,
+as there is no sign of any wooden supports at the back, nor is
+it easy to see how such supports could have been attached to
+it. According to Polybius round shields of bulls&#8217; hide were used
+by the Roman equites in the early days of Roman history.</p>
+
+<p>The round shield of the late Bronze Age was succeeded by
+the oval shield which may be taken as partly transitional to
+the oblong shield of Southern Europe and also of the late Celtic
+type found in Britain. The date, therefore, of this Irish
+leather shield is probably to be placed in the Early Iron period.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Torcs</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>There are twenty-four golden torcs of various types in the
+National Collection and one of bronze; but the Irish provenance
+of the latter is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>The best known are the two magnificent gold torcs found in
+the side of one of the raths at Tara, and these belong to a type
+that has been found in England and France, of which the
+best known examples are those found at Yeovil,
+Somerset,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a>
+and Grunty Fen,
+Cambridge.<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a>
+A torc of this type was also
+found by Schliemann in the royal treasury in the second city
+of Troy. This find has led to a good deal of speculative
+opinions varying as to whether the model of the torc was
+imported into Ireland from the south, or whether the Irish gold
+could have reached the Mediterranean in pre-Mycen&aelig;an
+times.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a>
+Torcs of this type were made by folding two thin ribbons of
+gold along the middle at a right angle; they were then attached
+with some kind of resinous flux, apex to apex, and twisted
+together. In some cases, instead of two folded ribbons a flat
+one and two halves of another were used, after being fastened
+together, the twisting being done in the same way. In some of
+the Irish examples the body of the torc is plain, or was grooved
+to simulate the appearance of the twisted torc. A peculiar
+feature of these torcs is the large hooks with which they
+are provided. It must be noted that whereas twisted torcs
+of bronze are fairly common in England and France there is
+only one bronze torc in the Irish National Collection, and, as
+mentioned above, the provenance of this is doubtful. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+dating of these twisted torcs is a matter of difficulty, as there
+are only two instances of their having been found in association
+with bronze objects, one in the case of the Grunty Fen torc
+which was discovered with three bronze palstaves, and another
+found at Fresn&eacute; la M&egrave;re, near Falaise, Normandy, which was
+found with a bronze razor and other objects of bronze. Such
+evidence as exists, therefore, would place them in the late
+Bronze Age, probably somewhere about 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, but certain
+varieties of torcs, as we shall see, continued in use as late as the
+first century. The area of distribution of gold torcs of the Tara
+type in Ireland, England and France is very limited, none having
+been found in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Holland, or Spain and
+Portugal.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a>
+It has been suggested that the gold
+of which all these torcs were composed came from the Wicklow
+Mountains,<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a>
+and in view of the extreme wealth of Ireland in
+gold, as evinced by the number of gold ornaments which are
+still constantly found, this may be considered probable.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate7" id="plate7"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VII.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img103.jpg" width="600" height="328" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold Torcs from Tara and elsewhere.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate8" id="plate8"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate VIII.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img105.jpg" width="600" height="432" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold Torcs.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Among the other types of gold torcs are two splendid
+examples, one of which appears to have been prepared for
+twisting and left unfinished, while the other is in a complete
+state (<a href="#plate8">Plate VIII</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Small torcs made by twisting a plain ribbon are fairly
+common, and some of these are so small that they must have
+been used as bracelets.</p>
+
+<p>In later times the torc was the distinguishing ornament of
+the Celt, and there are many allusions to torcs in classical
+writers. In 223 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span>, when Flaminius Nepos gained his victory
+over the Gauls on the Addua, it is related that instead of the
+Gauls dedicating, as they had intended, a torc made from the
+Roman spoils to their god of war, the Romans erected a Roman
+trophy to Jupiter made from Gaulish torcs.</p>
+
+<p>The name of the Torquati, a family of the Manlia Gens, was
+derived from their ancestor, T. Manlius, who, having slain a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+gigantic Gaul in <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 361, took the torc from the dead body,
+and placed it round his neck.</p>
+
+<p>The famous statue of the Dying Gaul preserved in the
+Capitol at Rome shows a torc on the warrior&#8217;s neck. This is
+one of a series of statues set up by the Greeks of Pergamos to
+celebrate their struggle with, and first victory over, the Gauls
+of Asia Minor, with whom they came in contact from about
+240 to 160 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The twisted torc appears to have been replaced
+in Ireland about the second century <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> by the plain torc,
+which was probably introduced from Gaul. The fine gold torc
+from Clonmacnois (<a href="#plate9">Plate IX</a>), with La T&egrave;ne decoration, is a
+good example of these torcs, and is almost identical with one
+from the Marne district now preserved in the St. Germain
+Museum. Probably the finest La T&egrave;ne torc in existence is that
+found in the celebrated Broighter find, which is richly decorated
+with La T&egrave;ne ornament (<a href="#plate9">Plate IX</a>, the inner torc).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-Age Finds</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate9" id="plate9"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate IX.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img109.jpg" width="400" height="423" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Gold Torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest difficulties to be contended with in any
+attempt to arrive at a working chronology for the Prehistoric
+Period in Ireland is that, though Ireland had a rich Bronze
+Age, as attested by the magnificent collection of objects preserved
+in the National Collection, yet in very few cases have
+any of these objects been found in association. Excavation
+carried on under scientific supervision was practically unknown
+in Ireland until quite recent years, and though, no
+doubt, hoards of associated objects have been discovered
+in the country, yet trustworthy particulars as to their finding
+have hardly ever been preserved, and the objects themselves
+have generally been scattered. Under these circumstances it
+seemed useful to gather together in the present chapter an
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+account of the finds&mdash;unfortunately very few&mdash;in which
+associated objects have been discovered, and of which there
+is indisputable evidence of their association:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Find of a socketed celt, a gouge, a pin, a razor (the last
+in a simple leather case), a portion of a woollen garment, an
+ornament of horse-hair, like a tassel, and some pieces of wood.
+These objects were found in a bog in the townland of Cromaghs,
+parish of Armoy, Co. Antrim, in May, 1904, when cutting
+turf<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a>
+(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>, nos. 1-5).</p>
+
+<p>2. A find of late Bronze-Age objects discovered in a bog in
+the townland of Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, in May, 1861.
+The find contained the following objects:&mdash;two small socketed
+celts, a disk-headed pin, a plain bronze ring, and a bronze
+fibula<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a>
+(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>, nos. 6-10).</p>
+
+<p>3. Find at Mountrivers, Rylane, Coachford, Co. Cork.
+This find was made in May, 1907, and contained the following
+objects:&mdash;two socketed bronze celts, two gold fibul&aelig;, one
+fibula of copper or bronze, and eleven amber
+beads<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a>
+(fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a>).</p>
+
+<p>4. Find at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, made in May, 1906,
+The find consisted of a bronze socketed celt, a socketed sickle,
+two chisels, and a
+gouge<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+(fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>).</p>
+
+<p>5. Find of moulds for casting primitive spear-heads. This
+find was made near Omagh, Co. Tyrone, about 1882, and
+consisted of seven blocks of sandstone for casting tanged and socketed
+spear-heads.<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a>
+(See page <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. Find of moulds made in December, 1910, at Killymeddy,
+Ballymoney, Co. Antrim. The find contained two complete
+moulds for casting looped socketed spear-heads, and half a mould
+for a looped socketed spear-head, a mould for one side of a long
+dagger-blade, a large mould for casting one side of a leaf-shaped
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+knife, two halves of a mould for casting a sickle, eight
+fragments of moulds, two sharpening stones, and a stone for
+hammering or smoothing
+objects.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> (See page <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>7. Find made at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh. This find was
+made in 1912, and consisted of two leaf-shaped bronze swords
+with notches below the blades, and a very fine socketed
+spear-head<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a>
+(figs. <a href="#fig65">65</a> and <a href="#fig36">37</a>).</p>
+
+<p>8. Two leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the Ford,
+Belturbet, Co.
+Cavan<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> (fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>).</p>
+
+<p>9. Large hoard found at Dowris, King&#8217;s Co., about 1825.
+A small portion of this hoard, consisting of two bronze
+trumpets, seven crotals, five socketed spear-heads, and a
+socketed gouge, are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s
+collection in the National Museum. There are other portions
+of this hoard in the British Museum and at Birr
+Castle.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p>10. Bronze socketed celt, large bronze ring, two smaller
+rings with lateral-shaped trumpet projections, and a small
+flat ring all found together near Glenstal, Co. Limerick, about
+1901.</p>
+
+<p>11. Large find of objects, formerly in St. Columba&#8217;s College
+Collection, all stated to have been found together, in 1830, in a
+bog at Derryhall, County Antrim. The find comprises fourteen
+disk-headed bronze pins of late Bronze-Age type, and two bronze
+pins, with cup-shaped heads, a bronze dagger and two bronze
+knives (one of the latter being socketed), a socketed celt, nine
+bronze rings, a bronze ring with side perforations and a double
+ring, a bronze fibula with three beads; also two late brooches,
+and two late pins, which are said to have proved part of this
+find, but whose association with the remaining objects is very
+doubtful.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig71" id="fig71"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 385px;">
+<img src="images/img113.jpg" width="385" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 71.&mdash;Two Late Bronze-Age Finds.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig72" id="fig72"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 414px;">
+<img src="images/img114.jpg" width="414" height="600" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 72.&mdash;Late Bronze-Age horse-hair Fabrics from Armoy, Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>12. Bronze fibula, and twenty-two bronze rings, found
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+together, about 1876, at Broca, Rochford Bridge, County
+Westmeath.</p>
+
+<p>13. Socketed bronze celt, bronze fibula, bronze ring, and
+disk-headed Bronze-Age pin. All found together at Lapoudin,
+Tulla, County Clare.</p>
+
+<p>14. Three large, seventeen small, eight double bronze rings,
+and one fragment, probably all found together.</p>
+
+<p>15. Bronze fibula, bronze gouge, and three rings, found
+together, but locality unrecorded.</p>
+
+<p>16. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County
+Cork.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig73" id="fig73"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img115.jpg" width="300" height="218" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 73.&mdash;Bronze Implements, Co. Tipperary.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>17. Seven halberds found together at Hillswood, County
+Galway.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>18. Two bronze rings, a small leaf-shaped spear-head, a
+socketed celt, and a small gold bulla, said to have been
+found together in Kinnegoe bog, County Armagh, in 1840.
+St. Columba&#8217;s College Collection.</p>
+
+<p>19. Three bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog
+in the barony of Moyarta, County Clare.</p>
+
+<p>20. Six bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog
+close to Chute Hall, in the townland of Clogher, Clemin, three
+miles from Tralee, County Kerry.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+21. Two trumpets, one in two parts, probably found together
+in a bog at Carrick O&#8217;Gunnell, County Limerick. (These are
+probably two of those described by Mr. R. Ousley, in the
+Trans. R.I.A., 1788.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig74" id="fig74"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 261px;">
+<img src="images/img116.jpg" width="261" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 74.&mdash;Bronze Implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+22. Three trumpets found at Carraconway, near Cloughouter Castle, County
+Cavan.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>23. Two trumpets found at Macroom, County Cork.</p>
+
+<p>24. Four trumpets found in the bog of Drumabest,
+Kilraughts, County Antrim, in
+1840.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>25. Two trumpets found in County Cork. (Londesborough
+collection.)</p>
+
+<p>26. Two trumpets and a part of a third found together, but
+locality unknown.</p>
+
+<p>27. Two trumpets probably found together, from Trinity
+College, Dublin, collection.</p>
+
+<p>28. A socketed bronze celt and gold ring-money found together near
+Belfast.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a></p>
+
+<p>29. Four gold lunul&aelig;, found together at Dunfierth, Carbury, County
+Kildare.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a></p>
+
+<p>30. A large spear-head, a round bronze shield, with a central
+boss for the hand, and two circles of smaller bosses, found in a
+mound or rath, at Athenry, County
+Galway.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>With the exception of Nos. 4, 5, 27, and 30, the above-mentioned
+finds are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s
+collection, in the National Museum, Dublin.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze Trumpets</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>Numerous trumpets of cast bronze have been found in
+Ireland, both in the south and the north. They are rare in
+Britain. Two or more trumpets have often been found together;
+eight were found at Dungannon, County Tyrone, in 1713, and
+thirteen or fourteen near Cork in 1750. The Irish trumpets
+may be divided into three types&mdash;(1) in the shape of a horn,
+open at both ends, having the mouth-piece and trumpet cast in
+one piece; (2) of similar shape, but closed at the narrow end,
+with an aperture for the mouth at the side near the closed
+end; (3) also horn-shaped, but with a long straight tube
+attached to the narrow end of the carved portion, the upper
+end of the tube having four rivet-holes, to which another tube
+or mouth-piece may have been fixed. There are references in
+classical authorities to the trumpets used by the Celts.
+Polybius, describing the defeat of the Celts by the Romans
+at the battle of Telemon, <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> 225, speaks of the innumerable
+horns and trumpets of the Celts (Gaesat&aelig;, Insubres, Taurisci,
+and Boii).</p>
+
+<p>Dr. F. Behn, of the Mainz Museum, has recently written an
+account of the music in the Roman army, in which he has
+brought together much information about the early bronze
+trumpets; and he includes a short description of the Irish
+type.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a>
+The Irish trumpets, which are furnished with the straight
+tubular piece, much resemble the Roman lituus; and, as a
+whole, the Irish type is very closely allied to the lituus and
+carnyx, the difference between the lituus and carnyx being
+that the expanded end of the carnyx takes the form of
+some fantastic animal&#8217;s head. Trumpets have been found
+in the Dowris hoard, with socketed spear-heads, and other
+objects of the late Bronze Age, and they must be dated to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+that period; on this account the Etruscan lituus can
+hardly have been derived from Irish trumpets; so that it is
+probable that the Irish trumpets, like those of Gaul, were
+derived from the south.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate10" id="plate10"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate X.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img119.jpg" width="500" height="530" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Bronze Trumpets.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig75" id="fig75"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 393px;">
+<img src="images/img121.jpg" width="393" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 75.&mdash;Mould for casting a sickle, found at<br /> Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Sickles</strong></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig76" id="fig76"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 388px;">
+<img src="images/img122.jpg" width="388" height="500" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 76.&mdash;Bronze sickles.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Socketed bronze sickles have been found fairly frequently
+in different parts of Ireland. Those in the National Collection
+have generally been referred to the late Bronze Age. These
+sickles are all very small, and it has been thought that
+the Irish, like the Gauls, cut only the ear of the corn, and
+burnt the stalk. A recent find of moulds in County Antrim
+contained a mould for casting a sickle without a socket like
+the Continental examples, and shows that this type was also
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+known in Ireland in the later Bronze Age (fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>). The bronze
+sickles have an important bearing on the question of agriculture
+in Ireland. An opinion has recently been expressed that corn was
+not introduced into England until the Roman invasion, and was
+introduced into Ireland even later than
+this.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a>
+However, there are instances of ears of corn being found within the walls of
+food-vessels of early Bronze Age date in Scotland; and it is
+probable that corn was also grown in Ireland during the Bronze
+Age. There is evidence that the ox was domesticated during
+this period. The excellence of the metal-casting and the high
+degree of skill shown in casting implements and weapons during
+the Bronze Age lead us to believe that the civilization, and with
+the civilization the art of agriculture and material comfort,
+had reached a fairly high level.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig77" id="fig77"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 380px;">
+<img src="images/img123.jpg" width="380" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 77.&mdash;Bronze sickles.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+<span class="smcap"><strong>Disk-Headed Pins</strong></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig78" id="fig78"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img124b.jpg" width="400" height="196" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 78.&mdash;Bronze disk.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig79" id="fig79"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img124a.jpg" width="300" height="173" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 79.&mdash;Bronze button.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the late period of the Irish Bronze Age, bronze pins with
+disk-shaped heads having a conical projection in the centre are
+fairly common. The disk-heads in many instances are ornamented
+with concentric circles and other simple kinds of
+decoration. They are bent at right angles to the pin, though
+in some cases the pin comes straight from the head. The pins
+are very long, some measuring as much as 12 inches. In the
+very interesting find at Armoy, County Antrim (p. <a href="#Page_81">81</a>), it will
+be remembered that one of these pins was found together with
+a woollen garment, and there is no doubt they were used to
+fasten the dress. The fact of a razor being one of the objects
+of this find indicates that the pins were used by men, though
+no doubt they may also have been worn by women. The use of
+such long pins seems to point to the wearing of some kind of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+cloak-like garment probably fastened in the front; and the
+ornamental heads of the pins indicate that they were worn in a
+conspicuous place.</p>
+
+<p>As well as the pins a few bronze buttons have been found
+consisting of disks with the same conical projection, but having
+the pin replaced by a small bar at the back. One remarkable
+example in the National Collection measures 4&frac34; inches in
+diameter (fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). This object was probably either attached to
+a leathern belt or possibly may have been a portion of a horse&#8217;s
+furniture. The smaller buttons have been found on the
+Continent, and are fairly numerous in the Continental lake-dwellings
+or finds of the late Bronze Age.</p>
+
+<p>One is tempted to see in the Irish examples a derivation of
+the button from the pin.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-Age Pottery</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig80" id="fig80"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 290px;">
+<img src="images/img126a.jpg" width="290" height="200" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 80.&mdash;Incense cup.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig81" id="fig81"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img126b.jpg" width="400" height="415" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 81.&mdash;Cinerary urn.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig82" id="fig82"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img127.jpg" width="400" height="428" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 82.&mdash;Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland the pottery of the Bronze Age is principally
+represented by the type of vessel known as a food-vessel. We
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+may commence with these, as there has only been one undoubted
+find of beakers made: this consisted of the remains of three
+vessels found together at Moytura, County Sligo, and preserved
+in the National Collection. A beaker is stated to have been found
+at Mount Stewart, County Cavan; but the vessel is not extant,
+and the evidence as to its discovery is not perfectly satisfactory.
+The Irish food-vessel is derived directly from the round-bottomed
+vessel of Neolithic times. Some of these round-bottomed bowls
+have been found with Neolithic remains at Portstewart, County
+Down, and there is one in the National Collection described as
+found in a cavern associated with stone implements beside the
+moat of Dunagore, near the town of Antrim. The development
+from the Neolithic bowl can be clearly traced in the Irish
+series. The earliest are flat, almost saucer-shaped bowls, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+are generally covered all over with ornament, and often have a
+cruciform pattern on the base which has been thought to
+indicate that the vessels were turned mouth downwards when
+not in use.<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig83" id="fig83"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/img128.jpg" width="400" height="395" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 83.&mdash;Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>These bowls have a very pleasing effect; and, as Dr.
+Abercromby says: &ldquo;The small native women, sometimes under
+five feet high, who made these little vessels, had certainly a fine
+sense of form and a delicate perception of the beauty of curved
+forms. The care and precision with which the ornament was
+effected, and the richness of the effect produced by simple means, may excite our
+admiration.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate11" id="plate11"></a></p>
+<p style="margin-left: 30em;"><span class="smcap"><strong>Plate XI.</strong></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/img129.jpg" width="600" height="507" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Food-vessels in the order of their development.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 15em;" class="caption"><em>p. <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</em></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig84" id="fig84"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<img src="images/img131.jpg" width="500" height="569" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 84.&mdash;Model of cinerary urn, showing its position in cist over burnt bones and
+small vessel, Greenhills, Co. Dublin.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In the next stage a slight indentation about the centre of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+the vessel can be noticed, the ornament being arranged on
+either side above and below this; next two small ridges develop
+out of this, which are at first close together, but are afterwards
+placed further apart, and in the later stages the vessel becomes
+considerably higher, the base assuming the form of a cone,
+and the upper portion having an everted lip. Some of these
+latter vessels have a number of small ribs encircling them.
+<a href="#plate11">Plate XI</a> shows a series of food-vessels placed in the order of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+their evolution. The decoration can be well seen. It consists
+for the most part of chevron, herring-bone, and other linear
+ornament, but wavy lines can be seen in some examples. In
+some rare cases the food-vessels were provided with lids
+(fig. <a href="#fig82">82</a>). All of these vessels were made by hand; and
+though the baking of the pottery varies, it was evidently
+done over a fire.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig85" id="fig85"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 297px;">
+<img src="images/img132.jpg" width="297" height="400" alt="image" title="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 85.&mdash;Cinerary urn, Cookstown,<br /> Co. Tyrone.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The food-vessels, which are found both with unburnt and
+burnt interments, continued in use during the greater part of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+the Bronze Age, and the name food-vessel is hardly appropriate
+in Ireland, as in many cases these vessels have been found
+containing cremated bones, having apparently served the
+purpose of cinerary urns.</p>
+
+<p>The so-called cinerary urns are large vessels which have
+been usually discovered containing human bones; they have
+often been found inverted over cremated remains. They can
+be conveniently divided into several types, of which the type
+with the overhanging rim may be mentioned first. In this
+type the vessel consists of two portions, a lower flower-pot-like
+cone, on which is placed a larger truncated cone, which forms
+the overhanging rim. This type is widely distributed in
+England, and in Ireland has been found in the Counties of
+Antrim, Down, and Tyrone. The cordoned or hooped type is
+developed from the preceding type by replacing the overhanging
+rim by a moulding, both types being contemporary. In
+the encrusted type the urn, which is of the flower-pot shape,
+is decorated with strips of clay in the form of chevrons and
+bosses, the ornamentation assuming a rope-like form. Urns of
+this type have been found at Greenhills, Tallaght, County
+Dublin; Gortnain, Broomhedge, County Antrim; Tullyweggin,
+Cookstown, County Tyrone; Closkett, Drumgooland, and
+Glanville, Newry, County Down.</p>
+
+<p>Very small vessels, of usually about 2 to 2&frac12; inches in height,
+are often found in interments associated with the large cinerary
+urns, and occasionally, when the latter are inverted, are found
+inside them. The exact use of these small vessels, which
+are called &ldquo;incense-cups&rdquo; or &ldquo;pygmy-cups,&rdquo; is a matter of
+speculation; several theories have been advanced to explain the
+purpose of placing them in graves, but none of them are altogether
+satisfactory.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>Like the other vessels, they can be divided into different
+types, of which some are peculiar to England, and even there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+confined to certain counties. In Ireland several of these small
+cups have perforated walls, while some have handles. One
+remarkable specimen found at Knocknacoura, Co. Carlow, is
+covered all over with ornament.</p>
+
+<p>In the fine cist discovered at Greenhills, County Dublin,
+and now set up in the National Museum, a very remarkable
+little cup was found inside the large inverted cinerary urn
+(fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>). The form of this small cup appears to be originally
+derived from a metal prototype, and exactly resembles
+pottery-vessels of Iron-Age date found in the cemetery at
+Marne.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Bronze-age Ornamentation in Ireland</strong></span></p>
+
+
+<p>The ornament of the Bronze Age in Ireland consists of
+chevrons, hatched triangles, lozenges, etc., combined with some
+wavy patterns, and later in some instances with the spirals introduced from
+Scandinavia,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a>
+where this motive had penetrated
+early from the &AElig;gean along the amber route. This early
+type of ornament can be seen on some of the bronze celts,
+and also on the pottery, notably the food-vessels, which
+are often most tastefully decorated. The ornamentation,
+however, can be most fully studied on the inscribed stones in
+the great monuments of the New Grange group. These monuments,
+perhaps the most remarkable in Western Europe, have
+justly aroused the interest of generations of arch&aelig;ologists, and
+many interpretations have been placed upon their decoration.
+Having dealt so fully with this subject in a recent book, &ldquo;New
+Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland,&rdquo; 1912, it is not
+proposed to go into the question again, but there are one or
+two points that may be noticed.</p>
+
+<p>The most remarkable feature about the ornamentation at
+New Grange is the occurrence of the spiral motive; and it is
+the presence of this distinctive motive which has led to so
+much speculation.</p>
+
+<p>It may be stated at once that the general view at present
+held by those who have studied the question is that the spiral
+was introduced, and that in the case of Ireland it was
+derived from Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>The similarity between New Grange and the tholos tombs
+of the mainland of Greece is so striking that it is at least
+likely that the former may have been derived from the latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+In examining the monument of New Grange, the author
+had been led by long study, and the comparison with motives
+common in the &AElig;gean at about the same period, to explain
+the ornamentation, notably in the cases of the large stones
+illustrated in the book, p. 75, as derived from combinations of
+ornaments commonly found on &AElig;gean pottery, these motives
+being themselves connected with the symbolism of sun-worship.
+In the case of other markings, it was considered these were
+possibly derived from the decoration of certain objects of
+Scandinavian origin. In an article in <em>L&#8217;Anthropologie</em>, vol. xxiii,
+p. 29, dealing with the subject, M. J. D&eacute;chelette has put
+forward other views with regard to the markings at New
+Grange. M. D&eacute;chelette sees in the markings at New Grange a
+degenerated copy of the female idols of neolithic times, carvings
+of which in a more or less rudimentary form have been found in
+the Iberian peninsula, Italy, France, England, and Scandinavia.
+It may be mentioned that from the occurrence of carvings
+of this idol on sepulchral monuments it is to be connected
+with funeral rites. M. D&eacute;chelette supports his contentions with
+a wealth of illustrations drawn from the tattooed idols of
+Greece, Portugal, and Aveyron, the engraved chalk cylinder
+from Madrid, the incised lines from Almizaraque, the sculptures
+from the artificial grottos of Marne, the vase fragments of
+Charantaise, the chalk drum from Folkton Wold (Yorkshire),
+and the engravings from the dolmens of Locmariaquer.</p>
+
+<p>On p. 43 M. D&eacute;chelette gives a scheme of the evolution of
+the pattern of the idol, starting from fairly well-defined eyes,
+eyebrows, and nose, with chevron marks imitating tattooing.
+The face becomes stylized by the substitution of a mere arched
+line for the eyebrows, and concentric circles for the eyes, the
+tattooing marks becoming a conventional pattern of regular
+chevrons. In the Irish examples the spiral replaces the
+concentric circles for the eyes, and the pattern below is further
+enriched by lozenges, and finally we arrive at a form in which
+the spiral has an eyebrow above and a single lozenge below,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+and this form M. D&eacute;chelette compares to the engravings on the
+slabs at New Grange. The shield-like figure on the roofing
+stone of the right recess at New Grange is compared by
+M. D&eacute;chelette to the engravings on the dolmen of Pierres-Plates
+at Locmariaquer, which also appear to be a stylized form
+of the idol.</p>
+
+<p>M. D&eacute;chelette compares the very remarkable boundary-stone
+at Dowth, with the engraving of suns on it, to the
+vases from Millares, province d&#8217;Alm&eacute;rie, which are ornamented
+with raised circles, these in their turn being derived from a
+degenerate form of the idol.</p>
+
+<p>M. D&eacute;chelette applies the same explanation to the scribings
+at Gavir&#8217;inis, the spiral ornamentation of which is to be
+regarded as derived from Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>This very brilliant and original interpretation of the
+scribings at New Grange seems to fit the case exceedingly
+well, and M. D&eacute;chelette&#8217;s theory may be regarded as a very
+probable one for the origin of the markings, but it must
+be remembered that there is some difficulty caused by the
+fact that the similarity in plan between New Grange and the
+tholos tombs, as has been pointed out, is too great to be
+neglected. Now if New Grange is derived from this source, it
+cannot well be placed earlier than 1000 <span class="smcap">b.c.</span> The idol, on the
+other hand, is neolithic in date, and must have survived a
+considerable time to have influenced the Irish carvings. It
+must also be borne in mind that no other forms of this idol
+have been met with in Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>A</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Abercromby, Hon. John, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.<br />
+
+Amber found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.<br />
+
+Annadale, Co. Leitrim, wooden shield found at, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+
+Annaghkeen, Co. Galway, burial at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.<br />
+
+Anvil and hammers, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.<br />
+
+Armoy, Co. Antrim, find made at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Athenry, Co. Galway, bronze objects found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>B</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Bann, River, Co. Antrim, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br />
+
+Beakers found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+Belfast, find of gold ring-money and bronze celt at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Belmore Mountain, Co. Fermanagh, interment at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br />
+
+Belturbet, bronze spear-heads found at, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Birr, King&#8217;s Co., celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+
+Broighter find, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Bronze Age in Ireland, chronology of, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">1st period of, <a href="#Page_23">23-27</a>;</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">finds of, <a href="#Page_80">80-87</a>;</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation, characteristic of, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>.</span><br />
+
+Bronze celts, evolution of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">hafting of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>C</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Cappeen, Co. Cork, copper celts found at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+
+Carraconway, Co. Cavan, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Carrick O&#8217;Gunnell, Co. Limerick, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br />
+
+Carrowkeel, Co. Sligo, interments at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br />
+
+Chapes of bronze for swords, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.<br />
+
+Chute Hall, Co. Kerry, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+
+Cinerary urns, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+
+Clare find of gold ornaments, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+
+Clements, Mr. H. J. B., <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+
+Clonbrin, Co. Longford, leather shield found at, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+
+Clonmacnois, gold torc found at, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br />
+
+Clontoo, Co. Kerry, copper celts found at, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+
+Coachford, Co. Cork, objects found at, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Copper, counties in which obtained, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+
+Copper celts, list of counties in which these have been found, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>.<br />
+
+Copper Period in Ireland, <a href="#Page_6">6-23</a>.<br />
+
+Cork, Co., trumpets found in, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Crumlin, Co. Dublin, urn found at, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br />
+
+Cullinagh, Co. Kerry, celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>D</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Daggers and Rapiers, <a href="#Page_56">56-61</a>.<br />
+
+D&eacute;chelette, M. J., <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br />
+
+Disk-headed pins, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.<br />
+
+Dowris hoard, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Drumabest, Co. Antrim, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Dublin, copper celts found in, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+
+Dunfierth, Co. Kildare, gold lunul&aelig; found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>F</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Finds of copper celts, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a>.<br />
+
+Finds of Bronze-Age implements and weapons, <a href="#Page_80">80-87</a>.<br />
+
+Food-vessels, description of, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>G</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Glenstal, Co. Limerick, find of bronze objects at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Gold balls found at Carrick-on-Shannon, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+
+Gorgets, gold, <a href="#Page_62">62-64</a>.<br />
+
+Gowland, Prof. W., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>H</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Halberds, <a href="#Page_12">12-23</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">analyses of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br />
+
+Hallstatt Period in Ireland, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br />
+
+Hillswood, Co. Galway, halberds found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>I</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Incense cups, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br />
+
+Irish gold deposits, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.<br />
+
+Iron sword of Hallstatt type found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>K</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, bronze implements found at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Killymeddy, Co. Antrim, find of moulds at, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Kinnegoe bog, Co. Armagh, bronze objects found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+
+Knocknague, Co. Galway, celts found at, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>L</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, find of bronze objects at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Leaf-shaped swords, <a href="#Page_71">71-73</a>.<br />
+
+Lisnacroghera crannog, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+
+Lissane, Co. Derry, rapier found at, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br />
+
+Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, bronze shield found at, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br />
+
+Lunul&aelig;, gold, <a href="#Page_47">47-55</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>M</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Macroom, Co. Cork, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.<br />
+
+Manillas, African, similarity to Irish gold fibul&aelig;, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+
+Montelius, Dr. Oscar, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+
+Moulds for casting spear-heads, <a href="#Page_39">39-44</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">absence of, for casting leaf-shaped swords, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>;</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">for casting flat celts, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</span><br />
+
+Mountrivers, Coachford, Co. Cork, find at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br />
+
+Moyarta, Co. Clare, trumpets found at, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+
+Much, Dr., <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.<br />
+
+Muller, Prof. S., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br />
+
+Mycen&aelig;, leaf-shaped swords found at, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>N</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Naas, Co. Kildare, excavation at, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.<br />
+
+Neolithic pottery found in Ireland, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.<br />
+
+New Grange, <a href="#Page_3">3-5</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">ornamentation at, <a href="#Page_101">101-103</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>O</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Omagh, Co. Tyrone, moulds found at, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>P</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Padstow, Cornwall, gold lunul&aelig; found at, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br />
+
+Palstaves with double loops, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br />
+
+Penannular rings and ring-money, <a href="#Page_67">67-70</a>.<br />
+
+Polybius quoted, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br />
+
+Pottery of the Bronze Age, <a href="#Page_94">94-100</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>R</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Ridgeway, Prof. W., <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+
+Ring-money, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>S</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Schmidt, Herr Hubert, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br />
+
+Shields, bronze, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">wood, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;</span><br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">leather, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br />
+
+Sickles, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">mould for casting, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</span><br />
+
+Smith, Mr. R. A., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br />
+
+Spain, halberds from, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+
+Spear-heads, <a href="#Page_29">29-38</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">spear-ferules, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br />
+
+St. Columba&#8217;s College, collection, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Sullivan, Mr. M. J., <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br />
+
+Sun-disks, gold, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>T</strong></p>
+
+<p style="line-height: 1.5em;">Tempo, Co. Fermanagh, swords found at, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br />
+
+Topped mountain cairn, find of objects made at, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+
+Torcs, <a href="#Page_78">78-80</a>.<br />
+
+Trumpets, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;<br />
+  <span style="margin-left: 2em;">finds of, in Ireland, <a href="#Page_85">85-87</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p style="margin-left: 15%;"><strong>W</strong></p>
+
+<p>Wicklow, gold obtained from, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 95%;" />
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xx, p. 659.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, p. 351.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxix, p. 311.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> Journal Galway Arch&aelig;ological and Historical Society, vol. v, p. 159.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> &ldquo;New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland,&rdquo; p. 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. xlii, p. 259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Sir R. Kane, Industrial Resources of Ireland. Second edition,
+1845, p. 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> See analysis of a socketed celt of an alloy of copper and
+antimony found at Elbing, West Prussia, Journal Anthropological
+Institute, vol. xxxvi, p. 21.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> See paper &ldquo;Irish Copper Celts,&rdquo; Journal Anthropological Institute,
+vol. xxxi, p. 265, where the question is fully dealt with.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> Crawford, &ldquo;Early Bronze-Age Settlements in Britain,&rdquo; Journal Royal
+Geographical Society, 1912, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Prehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. i, 1909, p. 138.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Arch&aelig;ologia, vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xi, fig. 43.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> D&eacute;chelette, Manuel d&#8217;Arch&eacute;ologie Pr&eacute;historique, vol. ii, p. 277.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, sec. c, p. 91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xvi, p. 395.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> &ldquo;Manuel d&#8217;Arch&eacute;ologie,&rdquo; vol. ii, p. 208.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> &ldquo;Arch&aelig;ologia,&rdquo; vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> &ldquo;Manuel d&#8217;Arch&eacute;ologie,&rdquo; vol. ii, p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> &ldquo;British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,&rdquo; p. 148.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> &ldquo;New Grange and other Incised Tumuli,&rdquo; p. 59, fig. 39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 450.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> &ldquo;British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,&rdquo; p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> Arch&aelig;ologia, lxi, p. 153.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> See Munro, &ldquo;Pre-historic Japan,&rdquo; p. 435, fig. 276.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> Naue, &ldquo;Die Vorr&ouml;mischen Schwerter,&rdquo; pp. 12 and 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> See Burrowes, &ldquo;Discoveries in Crete,&rdquo; p. 183.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> &ldquo;British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,&rdquo; p. 30.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Proceedings Somerset Arch&aelig;ological and Natural History Society,
+vol. lv, 1909, pt. ii, pp. 66-84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Cambridge Antiquarian Society&#8217;s Communications, vol. xii, p. 96.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> D&eacute;chelette, &ldquo;Manuel d&#8217;Arch&eacute;ologie,&rdquo; vol. ii, p. 355, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Congr&egrave;s Arch&eacute;ologique Fran&ccedil;ais, Beauvais, 1905, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Proc. Soc. Antiquaries of London, second series, vol. xxiv, p. 42.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+vol. xxxvii, p. 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+vol. xxxvii, p. 181.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 83.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 91.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> &ldquo;British Museum Bronze-Age Guide,&rdquo; p. 28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvii, Sec. C, p. 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> Wilde&#8217;s Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy&#8217;s Collection, p. 626.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> <em>Ibid.</em></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> Arch&aelig;ologia, vol. lxi, p. 153.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> &ldquo;Wilde&#8217;s Catalogue of Gold Antiquities,&rdquo; p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> Horae Ferales. pl. xi, fig. <a href="#fig1">1</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> Die Musik im r&ouml;mischen Heere &ldquo;Mainzer Zeitschrift,&rdquo; 1912, p. 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxxi (Clare Island Survey, Part 5).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Abercromby, &ldquo;Bronze-Age Pottery,&rdquo; vol. i, p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Abercromby, <em>op. cit.</em>, p. 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> See Abercromby, <em>op. cit.</em>, vol. ii, p. 24, who discusses
+these small vessels at length.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See Hoernes, &ldquo;Jahrbuch f&uuml;r Altertnmskunde,&rdquo; Band vi, p. 163.</p></div>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Bronze Age in Ireland
+
+Author: George Coffey
+
+Release Date: October 11, 2008 [EBook #26880]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Anne Storer and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note: The term "halberd" and "halbert" have both been
+used on numerous occasions. "Halbert" is a variant of "Halberd" and
+has been left as printed in the original text.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND
+
+
+
+
+ THE BRONZE AGE
+ IN IRELAND
+
+ BY
+ GEORGE COFFEY
+
+ MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY
+ HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF IRELAND
+ KEEPER OF IRISH ANTIQUITIES IN THE NATIONAL MUSEUM
+ AND PROFESSOR R.H.A. DUBLIN
+
+
+ _WITH ELEVEN PLATES AND EIGHTY-FIVE ILLUSTRATIONS_
+
+
+ HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO., LIMITED,
+ 104 GRAFTON STREET, DUBLIN
+ SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.,
+ LONDON
+ 1913
+
+
+
+
+ PRINTED AT THE
+ DUBLIN UNIVERSITY PRESS
+ BY PONSONBY AND GIBBS.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+In this book on the Bronze Age in Ireland I have collected and
+collated all my work on the period. Much of it I have already
+published in the "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy" and
+elsewhere. I have long felt the need of a book on the Bronze Age in
+Ireland, as hitherto none has appeared dealing adequately with the
+archaeology of that period in this country.
+
+Within the last few years it has been recognized that the Bronze-Age
+civilization in Europe did not consist of a series of isolated
+communities, each developing its own type of objects and decorations,
+but that there was a community of ideas and forms extending from
+Mycenae all over the European continent.
+
+I have described the various forms of Bronze-Age implements of peace
+and of war found in Ireland, and have shown how they are connected
+with similar types on the continent of Europe. M. J. Dechelette, of
+the Roanne Museum, one of the first authorities on the Bronze Age,
+agrees with me in ascribing a Mycenaean origin to certain forms of
+Bronze-Age implements.
+
+How this Mycenaean influence penetrated to Ireland is a matter on which
+there is some difference of opinion, and possibly new discoveries may
+throw additional light on the problem. As I have shown both in this
+and in former works, the most probable route seems to be that of the
+Danube and the Elbe, and thence by way of Scandinavia to Ireland. It
+is to be hoped that now--with a concentrating of Irish interests on
+Irish affairs a new impetus will be given to the study of the history
+of our country, and that many workers may be found in the fields of
+archaeology and of all subjects connected with our past.
+
+In my "Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian Period" I have
+given the history of Irish art in the Christian period; in "New Grange
+(Brugh na Boine) and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland, the influence of
+Crete and the AEgean in the extreme west of Europe in early times," I
+have given as much as is known of the pre-Christian period up to the
+Bronze Age; and in this, my latest work, which has been much
+interrupted by illness, I have endeavoured to complete the history of
+ancient art in Ireland.
+
+I have to thank the Councils of the Royal Irish Academy and of the
+Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland for the loan of a number of
+blocks. In other cases drawings have been made direct from objects in
+the National Museum by Miss E. Barnes.
+
+The plates are from photographs taken by the photographer of the
+National Museum.
+
+In offering this book to the public I must express my gratitude to Mr.
+E. C. R. Armstrong, to whom I am indebted for his unvarying kindness
+and sympathy, and for much valuable assistance both in the matter and
+form of the work.
+
+                                              GEORGE COFFEY.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                              PAGE
+ CHAPTER I,                                                      1
+   Introduction; Chronology of the Irish Bronze Age.
+
+ CHAPTER II,                                                     6
+   Transitional Copper Period; Localities where native copper
+   is found in Ireland; Finds of copper celts; Moulds for
+   casting flat celts; List of localities where Irish copper
+   celts have been found; Halberds; Localities where found;
+   Types; Analyses; Continental examples; Probable derivation
+   of Irish halberds from Spain.
+
+ CHAPTER III,                                                   23
+   First and later periods of the Bronze Age; Evolution of the
+   bronze celt; Ornamentation of bronze celts; Palstave with
+   double loops; Anvil and hammers; Spear-heads; Evolution
+   from the knife-dagger; Type derived from the rapier;
+   Leaf-shaped spear-heads; Spear-heads with apertures in the
+   blade; Moulds for casting spear-heads; Ferules for spear-butts.
+
+ CHAPTER IV,                                                    46
+   Irish gold: Account of Irish gold deposits; Lunulae:
+   General description of; Distribution.
+
+ CHAPTER V,                                                     56
+   Daggers and rapiers; Evolution of the dagger and rapier
+   blade; Handles of daggers and rapiers.
+
+ CHAPTER VI,                                                    62
+   Gold gorgets; Gold sun-disks; Gold balls; Clare find;
+   Penannular rings and ring-money; Ring-money.
+
+ CHAPTER VII,                                                   71
+   Leaf-shaped swords; Division of types; Absence of moulds
+   for casting; Bronze chapes; Winged chapes; Shields;
+   Circular bronze shields; Shield of wood; Leather Shield.
+
+ CHAPTER VIII,                                                  78
+   Torcs; Twisted torcs; Distribution of torcs; Ribbon torcs;
+   Plain torcs.
+
+ CHAPTER IX,                                                    80
+   Bronze-age finds; List of well-authenticated Irish finds.
+
+ CHAPTER X,                                                     88
+   Bronze trumpets; Types and derivation of Irish trumpets;
+   Sickles; Discussion of types; Importance of, with regard to
+   date of agriculture; Disk-headed pins.
+
+ CHAPTER XI,                                                    94
+   Bronze-age pottery; Food-vessels; Derivation of, from
+   Neolithic type; Cinerary urns; Incense cups.
+
+ CHAPTER XII,                                                  101
+   Bronze-age ornamentation in Ireland; Discussion of the
+   ornamentation at New Grange; M. Dechelette's views as to
+   its origin compared with those of the author.
+
+ INDEX,                                                        105
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+ Fig.                                                     Page
+   1. Copper Halbert, Birr find,                             7
+   2. Copper celts, Birr find,                               8
+   3. Copper knife and awls found at Knocknague,             9
+   4. Copper celts,                                         10
+   5. Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork,                  11
+   6. Stone mould for casting celts,                        12
+   7. Halbert blades,                                       13
+   8. Halbert blades,                                       14
+   9. Halbert blades,                                       15
+  10. Halbert blades,                                       16
+  11. Halberts from North Germany and Sweden,               18
+  12. Halberts from South and East Spain,                   19
+  13. Rock markings, Maritime Alps,                         20
+  14. Stone pick from the Bann,                             21
+  15. Deer-horn pick,                                       21
+  16. Ornamented bronze celts,                              24
+      Plate I, Irish bronze celts in the order
+          of their development,                             24
+  17. Ornamented bronze celts,                              25
+  18. Ornamented bronze celts,                              26
+  19. Winged celt,                                          27
+  20. Winged celt,                                          27
+  21. Palstave with double loops,                           27
+  22. Bronze anvil,                                         28
+  23. Bronze hammers,                                       28
+  24. Dagger and spear-heads,                               29
+  25. Spear-heads,                                          30
+  26. Spear-heads,                                          31
+  27. Rapier and spear-head,                                31
+  28. Leaf-shaped spear-heads,                              32
+  29. Ornamented socket of spear-head,                      32
+  30. Leaf-shaped spear-heads found at the Ford,
+          Belturbet,                                        33
+  31. Spear-heads with loops joining the blade,             34
+  32. Spear-heads,                                          34
+  33. Ornamental spear-heads, with openings in
+          the blade,                                        35
+  34. Portion of spear-head, with studs at the
+          base of the wings,                                35
+  35. Spear-heads with openings in the blades,              36
+  36. Spear-heads with ornamental loops in the blades,      37
+  37. Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,             37
+  38. Half of mould for casting a socketed spear-head,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           38
+  39. Half of mould for casting a spear-head and dagger,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           39
+  40. Mould for casting a spear-head and knife,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           40
+  41. Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in
+          Co. Tyrone,                                       41
+  42. Moulds for casting primitive spear-heads found in
+          Co. Tyrone,                                       42
+  43. Half of mould for casting spear-head and dagger,
+          Killymeddy, Co. Antrim,                           43
+  44. Bronze spear-ferules,                                 44
+  45. Bronze spear-ferule with La Tene ornament,            44
+  46. Gold lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans, Co. Donegal,  47
+  47. Gold lunula found in Co. Galway,                      48
+  48. Gold lunula,                                          49
+  49. Gold lunula found at Killarney,                       50
+  50. Oak case for lunula found at Newtown, Co. Cavan,      51
+  51. Gold lunula found at Valognes, Manche,                51
+  52. Gold lunula found in Co. Londonderry,                 52
+  53. Gold lunula found at Athlone,                         54
+  54. Map showing the distribution of gold lunulae in
+          Ireland and Europe,                               55
+  55. Stone celt, bronze dagger with gold band, and urn,
+          found in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh,    56
+  56. Dagger and rapier blades,                             57
+  57. Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       59
+  58. Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne,                     59
+  59. Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry,                   59
+  60. Rapiers and daggers found in Ireland,                 61
+  61. Gold gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the
+          possession of the Earl of Charleville,            62
+      Plate II, Irish gold gorgets,                         62
+      Plate III, gold sun-disks,                            64
+      Plate IV, portion of the great Clare find,            66
+  62. Gold fibulae and other objects found together
+          at Coachford, Co. Cork,                           67
+      Plate V, gold fibulae,                                 68
+  63. Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+          showing Europeans holding manillas,               68
+  64. Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+          showing natives holding manillas,                 69
+      Plate VI, gold ring-money,                            70
+  65. Leaf-shaped bronze swords found with a spear-head
+          at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh,                          72
+  66. Bronze chapes,                                        73
+  67. Winged chapes,                                        73
+  68. Bronze shield found at Lough Gur, Co. Limerick,       74
+  69. Alder-wood shield found in Co. Leitrim,               75
+  70. Front and back of leather shield, found at Clonbrin,
+          Co. Longford,                                     76
+      Plate VII, gold torcs from Tara and elsewhere,        78
+      Plate VIII, gold torcs,                               78
+      Plate IX, gold torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter,  80
+  71. Two late Bronze-Age finds,                            83
+  72. Late Bronze-Age horse-hair fabrics from Armoy,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       84
+  73. Bronze implements, Co. Tipperary,                     85
+  74. Bronze implements found at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary,  86
+      Plate X, bronze trumpets,                             88
+  75. Mould for casting a sickle, found at Killymeddy,
+          Co. Antrim,                                       89
+  76. Bronze sickles,                                       90
+  77. Bronze sickles,                                       91
+  78. Bronze disk,                                          92
+  79. Bronze button,                                        92
+  80. Incense cup,                                          94
+  81. Cinerary urn,                                         94
+  82. Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny,      95
+  83. Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford,             96
+      Plate XI, food-vessels in the order of their
+          development,                                      96
+  84. Model of cinerary urn from Greenhills, Co. Dublin,    97
+  85. Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone,                  98
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+THE BRONZE AGE IN IRELAND
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This book deals with the Bronze Age principally from the point of view
+of the implements and weapons in use in Ireland during that period. It
+is unnecessary to state that the materials for writing anything like a
+full account of the civilization or political organization during the
+Bronze Age do not exist; and even the ethnological affinities of the
+dominant race that inhabited Ireland during this period are doubtful.
+All that can be said is that there was apparently no gap between the
+end of the Neolithic Period and the transitional Copper to Bronze
+Period. Stone weapons continued in use side by side with those of
+copper and bronze; and the form of the former was sometimes actually
+influenced by those of the latter.
+
+There has been so little scientific excavation in Ireland that the
+question as to the early burial-customs is surrounded with difficulty;
+such evidence as there is points to cremation having been practised
+early, as was also the case in Great Britain. Instances show that the
+two rites of inhumation and cremation were practised side by side.
+
+In the cairn excavated on Belmore Mountain, County Fermanagh, both
+burnt and unburnt interments were found with pottery and other objects
+of early Bronze-Age type.[1] At a recent excavation near Naas, County
+Kildare, a burnt interment was discovered in a cist, the remains being
+associated with a wrist-bracer and remains of pottery.[2] In the fine
+series of cairns on Carrowkeel Mountain, County Sligo, burnt and
+unburnt interments were found associated with pottery, bone
+implements, and stone beads.[3] At Annaghkeen, County Galway, a
+cremated burial was discovered in a cist associated with pottery and a
+small bronze knife-dagger and awl.[4]
+
+ [1] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xx, p. 659.
+
+ [2] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, p. 351.
+
+ [3] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxix, p. 311.
+
+ [4] Journal Galway Archaeological and Historical Society, vol. v, p. 159.
+
+The Hon. John Abercromby gives a list of food-vessels found with
+cremated burials in Ireland, and to these must be added a food-vessel
+of early type found in 1912 in a quarry at Crumlin, County Dublin. It
+must, however, be left for future excavations to decide many questions
+to which at present no answer, or only a doubtful one, can be given.
+This, however, is certain--Ireland during the Bronze Age was not
+isolated, but stood in direct communication with the Continent. AEgean
+and Scandinavian influences can be detected in the great tumuli of the
+New Grange group[5]; and Iberian influence is discernible in some of
+the later types of bronze implements. Ireland, as will be shown in the
+chapters dealing directly with the gold objects, was, during the
+Bronze Age, a kind of western El Dorado, owing to her great richness
+in gold; Irish gold ornaments have been found both on the Continent
+and in Scandinavia; while Scandinavian amber has been found in
+Ireland. As will be seen on p. 81, the Bronze-Age people were
+acquainted with the art of weaving; and fine ornaments of horse-hair
+were sometimes used. The art of making pottery by hand was carried to
+a high degree of excellence. Shaving must have been fairly common,
+judging by the number of bronze razors found. We shall find evidence
+further on in this work to show that corn was probably grown and
+agriculture fairly advanced.
+
+ [5] "New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland," p. 62.
+
+The great tumuli at New Grange and the lesser ones at Carrowkeel show
+that the art of building was well developed, and that the religious
+ideals of the people had attained a certain fixed form. What the
+actual dwellings occupied by the people were we cannot say; but it is
+probable that many of the promontory-forts and some at least of the
+larger cashels and ring-forts date back to this period. There remain,
+however, many questions which, as we have said, must be kept over for
+future investigations.
+
+
+THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE IRISH BRONZE AGE
+
+Some discussion as to the absolute chronology of the Bronze Age in
+Ireland will, no doubt, be expected, though any attempts to give
+actual dates can only be approximate; the succession of types is
+really of considerably more importance than the actual date, as such
+a succession enables objects, finds, and interments to be arranged
+in a progressive series, and shows the general trend of advance and
+culture. The doyen of prehistoric archaeology, Dr. Oscar Montelius,
+of Stockholm, has been the pioneer of the study of the prehistoric
+chronology of Europe, his chronology of the Bronze Age in Scandinavia
+having been published as far back as 1885. Since then he has published
+the results of his studies of the Bronze-Age chronologies of Greece
+and Italy, and of France, Belgium, South Germany, and Switzerland.
+More recently (1908) he has put forward the chronology of the British
+Islands in a notable memoir published in Archaeologia. It may be
+mentioned that Dr. Montelius visited Ireland some years ago, and
+speaks with the greater authority as having personally examined the
+actual Irish evidence.
+
+In this memoir Dr. Montelius divides the Bronze Age of Great Britain
+and Ireland into five periods, and includes in his first period the
+transitional time when copper was in use (Copper Period), which he
+places at from the middle of the third to the beginning of the second
+millennium B.C. Now, though the division of the Irish Bronze Age into
+five periods may be accepted, we should hardly care to place the first
+period as early as Dr. Montelius suggests; and without going into the
+question of the time at which the period commenced, we might take the
+period of its ending at from about 2000-1800 B.C. In this period would
+be included the flat copper celts of early form, copied from the stone
+celts of the preceding Neolithic Period, some few small, flat
+knife-daggers of copper, and the earliest of the halberds. Stone
+implements, no doubt, remained largely in use; and the very finely
+decorated hammer-axes probably belong to this period.
+
+It is possible that gold--which, on account of its colour and
+appearance on the surface of the ground, must have been one of the
+metals first noticed and made use of in prehistoric times--was used
+for making ornaments at this period, or possibly, as Prof. Gowland
+suggests, may have been hammered into ornaments even during the
+preceding Neolithic Age.[6] There is, however, no gold object in the
+National Collection which we should care to place so early.
+
+ [6] Journal Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. xlii, p. 259.
+
+The second division of the Bronze Age (the first period of the true
+Bronze Age) would fall between 1800 and 1500 B.C.; and in it would be
+included, as the principal types, the flat bronze celts--including
+those with the edge much wider than the blade--flanged celts, small
+bronze daggers, the later halberds, jet buttons with conical
+perforations, and the early types of jet necklaces, and probably
+the gold lunulae.
+
+The third period might be placed at from 1500 to 1250 B.C., and the
+principal types falling within it are flanged celts with stop-ridges,
+tanged spear-heads, and larger dagger-blades, sometimes with bronze
+handles.
+
+The fourth period, which was long, and during which a considerable
+development takes place, might be placed at from 1280 to 900 B.C.
+This period includes the later type of celts with increased stop-ridge
+and flanges (palstaves), and some of the earlier forms of socketed
+celts, long rapiers, the earlier type of leaf-shaped swords, and the
+looped and leaf-shaped spear-heads, gold torcs, and possibly some of
+the bronze fibulae, and sickles without sockets; the disk-headed pins
+and bronze razors may be placed either at the end of this time or the
+beginning of the next period. In this period must also be placed the
+building of the great tumuli of the New Grange group.
+
+The fifth division--also a long one--would go from 900 to about 350
+B.C., at which time iron weapons were probably coming into general use
+in Ireland. In this period would fall the socketed celts, including
+the latest type, which takes a form not uncommon among iron or steel
+axes, the later bronze swords with notches below the blades, bronze
+sword-chapes, the socketed sickles, probably some of the more highly
+ornamented bronze spears with apertures in the blades, the bronze
+trumpets, the gold fibulae, and gold gorgets. It must be remembered
+that the Continental Hallstatt period is not at present well
+represented in Great Britain and Ireland, and though, under Hallstatt
+influence, certain Continental Iron-Age types such as bronze caldrons,
+trumpets, round shields, &c., found their way into Ireland, we cannot
+as yet definitely separate this period from the end of the Bronze
+Age.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TRANSITIONAL COPPER PERIOD
+
+
+In Ireland the metal first used was copper. Native copper is plentiful
+in Ireland, and has been chiefly obtained from the Counties of
+Wicklow, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Galway. In Waterford
+stone implements have been found in copper mines in ancient workings,
+showing copper was mined for at an early period.[7] The time during
+which copper was in use was probably relatively only a short one, much
+shorter than the Neolithic Period or than the true Bronze Age. The
+evidence for this period is the large number of flat copper celts
+which have been found in the north and south, and east and west, of
+the country. The earliest copper celts resemble in form the stone
+celts from which they are derived, and were cast in open moulds on one
+side only, and then hammered flat on the other. Moulds for casting
+celts in this way have been found in Ireland. It is also extremely
+interesting to notice that some stone celts betray the influence of
+metal types by their form. It may be well here to meet an objection
+that has been raised against a special use of copper in Ireland. It
+has been urged that the large number of flat copper celts may have
+been due to a scarcity of tin, and that as copper cannot be cast in
+closed moulds, casters who could cast advanced forms of bronze celts
+were obliged to return to the primitive form necessary for casting in
+an open mould. Copper ores are, however, very rarely found in a pure
+state, and the small impurities of antimony, arsenic, &c., combine in
+the smelting with the copper, and lend a hardness and ductibility
+which would enable it to be cast in closed moulds.[8] The analyses of
+Irish copper celts agree among themselves, and substantially with
+those from other countries, the small quantities of tin, antimony,
+arsenic, &c., which are found being due to impurities in the ore. The
+celts may be taken to be of copper, and not of poor bronze.[9] The
+earliest copper celts resemble the stone celts from which they are
+derived; some of them are small. A development takes place throughout
+the series, the celts becoming larger and the edges thinner as they
+approach the bronze forms. No trace of a stop-ridge is ever found on
+copper celts.
+
+ [7] Sir R. Kane, Industrial Resources of Ireland. Second edition, 1845,
+     p. 189.
+
+ [8] See analysis of a socketed celt of an alloy of copper and antimony
+     found at Elbing, West Prussia, Journal Anthropological Institute,
+     vol. xxxvi, p. 21.
+
+ [9] See paper "Irish Copper Celts," Journal Anthropological Institute,
+     vol. xxxi, p. 265, where the question is fully dealt with.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Copper Halberd, Birr find.]
+
+The principal finds are as follows:--
+
+    1. Three copper celts, three copper awls, and a copper knife found,
+    in 1874, in a bog at Knocknague, Kilbannon, County Galway. Purchased
+    from the finder, Michael Rafferty, by the Royal Irish Academy. (Fig.
+    3.)
+
+    2. Three copper celts, a fragment of a fourth (butt-end), a copper
+    halberd, and a short blade of copper of somewhat similar form, found
+    in 1892, near Birr, King's County, formerly in the collection of Mr.
+    Robert Day, of Cork. (Fig. 2.)
+
+    3. Three copper celts found in 1868, when ploughing at Cullinagh,
+    near Beaufort, Killarney, County Kerry. (Day Collection.)
+
+    4. Two large and well-formed copper celts found together in street
+    excavations in Suffolk Street, Dublin, in May, 1857. (Ray
+    Collection.) (Fig. 4, nos. 1 and 7.)
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Birr find.]
+
+    5. Two copper celts found together at Clontoo, near Kenmare, County
+    Kerry, in 1906. (Fig. 4, nos. 2 and 3.)
+
+    6. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County Cork.
+
+
+The distribution, analyses, types, and finds show that the copper
+celts represent a period when copper was in common use throughout
+Ireland and before bronze was generally known. The celts from the Ray
+Collection mentioned above show that the fully developed celt was in
+use during this period, while the "Birr find" with the halberd shows
+that the halberd was also known and in use during the full copper
+period.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Copper Knife and Awls found at Knocknague.]
+
+Moulds for casting flat celts, copper and bronze, have been found in
+the following places in Ireland:--Carrickfergus; Ballymena; Loughgall,
+County Antrim; Ballynahinch, County Down; and Lough Scur Crannog,
+County Leitrim.[10]
+
+ [10] Crawford, "Early Bronze-Age Settlements in Britain," Journal Royal
+      Geographical Society, 1912, p. 217.
+
+Copper celts have been found practically over the whole country; and
+the following is a list of those in the National Collection, of which
+the localities are known, and, as well as these, there are about
+eighty for which the provenance has not been exactly recorded:--
+
+
+LIST OF COPPER CELTS FOUND IN IRELAND.
+
+    Antrim, Craigbally, 1 (1897: 111).
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Copper Celts.]
+
+    Cavan, 1 (R. 1685).
+
+    Cork, Cappeen (6); County Cork, 1 (1881: 136).
+
+    Donegal, Letterkenny, 1 (1897: 114).
+
+    Dublin, Suffolk Street, 1857: 2 large copper celts. (Ray
+    Collection.)
+
+    Galway, Knocknague, Kilbannon, three copper celts, a copper knife,
+    and three copper awls. County Galway, 1. (R. 1660) (Fig. 3.)
+
+    Kerry, Beaufort, Killarney, three copper celts found together in
+    1868 when ploughing at Cullinagh. (Day Collection.) Clontoo, near
+    Kenmare, two copper celts found together in 1906.
+
+    Londonderry, in the River Bann, near Coleraine, 1. (W. 3.).
+
+    Louth, 1. (R. 362).
+
+    Mayo, Killala, 1 (W. 4.).
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Copper celts from Cappeen, Co. Cork.]
+
+    Meath, Dunshaughlin, 1 (172, W.).
+
+    Tipperary, Dundrum, 1 (1881: 133).
+
+    Tyrone, Mountfield, 1 (112: 1897).
+
+    Waterford, Tramore, 1 (W. 10.).
+
+
+The localities of the following copper celts in other collections are
+known:--
+
+    Antrim, 3 (Knowles Collection.)
+
+    Cork, 5 (Day Collection, about 4. Evans Collection, 1.)
+
+    Fermanagh, 2 (Day Collection, 1. Evans Collection, 1.)
+
+    Kerry, 3 (Day Collection.)
+
+    Kilkenny, 1 (Day Collection.)
+
+     [Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+    King's County, 8 (Birr three, and five others found in the King's
+    County. Day Collection.)
+
+    Limerick, 2 (Day Collection.)
+
+    Sligo, 2 (Sir John Leslie's Collection.)
+
+
+
+HALBERDS
+
+As already stated the Birr find shows that the halberd was in use
+during the full Copper Period; and, though to judge by the form of the
+celts, we may place it at the end of the period, yet more primitive
+types are known, and we may therefore presume the halberd goes well
+back into the Copper Period.
+
+The National Collection at Dublin contains forty-nine specimens of
+these broad coppery blades. In a few cases there may possibly be a
+doubt as to whether they should be classified as halberds or primitive
+daggers. The localities of the majority are not known further than
+that they have been found in Ireland; but from the known localities
+they seem, like the copper celts, to have been found in all parts of
+the island; and local distinctions of type, if they existed, are not
+now possible.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Halberd blades.]
+
+Of the forty-nine mentioned, twenty have localities as
+follows:--Antrim 1, Cavan 3, Roscommon 2, Galway 8, Meath 1, King's
+County 1, Queen's County 1, Clare 1, Limerick 1, Cork 1. Seven of
+those from Galway represent a single find, which gives that county an
+undue proportion.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Halberd blades.]
+
+
+TYPES
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Halberd blades.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Halberd blades.]
+
+What may be considered as the developed or normal type of the Irish
+halberd blade is slightly but distinctly curved, so that they have
+been called "scythe-shaped." They vary from about 9 inches to 15 or 16
+inches in length, and from about 3 to 4 inches in breadth at the
+widest part; with few exceptions they have three rivets with large
+heads. The various sizes are well represented in a find of seven of
+these blades obtained in 1888 when making the railway near Hollywood,
+County Galway. They were described as having been found about 2-1/2
+feet under the surface of a shallow bog "stuck in a bunch in the
+ground, with points down. No other relics appeared near them." We do
+not think it is any use attempting to place the halberds in a series
+of development; and no progression can be claimed for their forms
+other than that there appears to be a movement of development from the
+smaller straight blades to the larger and curved blades. In one or two
+cases the mid rib has been brought to a slight roof-ridge; and a fine
+example in the late Sir John Evans' collection shows a well-marked
+bead down the mid rib ("Bronze Implements," fig. 331); but in most
+cases the mid rib is quite plain with a rounded curve in section.
+
+
+ANALYSES
+
+Analyses of the halberd blades show that the metal of which they are
+composed does not differ much from that of the copper celts. A recent
+analysis of five specimens is appended which shows that the blades are
+practically of pure copper. This is interesting, as it removes the
+doubt expressed by Sir John Evans in "Bronze Implements," p. 265, that
+"many of these blades have the appearance of being made of copper; but
+the absence of tin in their composition has not been proved."
+
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |Bismuth|
+ | |          |Copper.|Tin.|Antimony.|Arsenic.|Lead.|Silver.|Iron.| Nickel|
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |  Zinc.|
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+ |1|King's Co.|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |Day Coll.,|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 25,| 99.02 |0.22|   Nil   |   Nil  | 0.19|  0.26 | 0.04|  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |2|Antrim,   |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |1903, 235,|       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 9, | 97.31 |0.31|   0.14  |   0.18 | Nil |   Nil | Nil |  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |3|Galway,   |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | | W. 241,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 19,| 98.06 |0.22|   Nil   |   Nil  | 0.58|   Nil | 0.17|  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |4|Cork,     |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | | R. 459,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 7, | 98.30 |0.30|   0.27  |   0.37 | Nil |   Nil | Nil |  Nil  |
+ | |          |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ |5| W. 248,  |       |    |         |        |     |       |     |       |
+ | |   No. 28,| 97.24 |0.18|   Nil   |   1.54 | Nil |  0.25 | Nil |  Nil  |
+ +-+----------+-------+----+---------+--------+-----+-------+-----+-------+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Halberds from North Germany and Sweden after
+                Montelius.]
+
+The manner in which the halberd blades were attached to their shafts
+is explained by the bronze halberds with bronze shafts--the blade and
+upper part of the shaft often in one piece--from North Germany and
+from Sweden. These halberds are referred to an early stage of the
+Bronze Age; but they are of bronze, and, in casting and other
+features, show a considerable advance on a primitive type; the large
+imitation rivets cast in the head of the shaft no doubt represent an
+earlier form in which the shaft was of wood and the rivets real. Ten
+bronze halberd blades were found together near Stendal in Prussian
+Saxony, but without handles, four of which are figured by Montelius in
+"Die Chronologie der aeltesten Bronzezeit," figs. 115-118. An analysis
+of one of the blades gave 15 per cent. of tin and of a rivet 4.5 per
+cent. of tin. From the straight mark across the blades, and some
+bronze tubular pieces for the handles, there seems no doubt that they
+were intended for straight wooden handles, and thus represent the
+earlier type. The blades are about 12-1/4 inches in length. It is
+important to note that the rivets are of two kinds: some are large and
+stout like the usual Irish form; and some have metal washers, like the
+solitary example found in Ireland (fig. 7), and which has caused some
+authorities to consider the Irish halberd blades somewhat later than
+we should care to place them. In general appearance these halberd
+blades from Stendal are closer to the Irish halberds than any of the
+others which have been found on the Continent, but do not include the
+curved or scythe-shaped form common to Ireland. Copper halberds, with
+remains of transverse wooden shafts, have been found by the brothers
+Siret on the south-east of Spain. In this case they go back to the
+very beginning of the bronze age in this district. The form of the
+blades is, however, in most cases #T#-shaped, and different from the
+Irish examples (fig. 12). Halberds attached to their shafts are also
+shown on the prehistoric rock-markings in the "Italian Maritime Alps,"
+published by Mr. C. Bicknell. The actual blades, however, that can be
+classified with any certainty as halberds are very rare in the North
+and Middle Italian districts, though some of the copper and early
+bronze triangular dagger forms may have been occasionally mounted as
+halberds. It is possible, however, that the decoration of certain
+halberds found in Germany may have been influenced by that of the
+Italian dagger.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Halberts from South-east Spain.]
+
+The halberd blade can be distinguished from the broad dagger by the
+shape of the handle, which is curved or indented in the case of the
+dagger, but straight across in the case of the halberd. There is,
+however, another point. The hindmost rivets, both in the case of the
+blades with four rivets and those with three only, are shorter than
+those in front of them. The shortness of the end-rivets and slope of
+the heads imply that the handle was rounded off behind the blade, as
+would be the case with a transverse shaft. So there appears no room to
+doubt the manner in which the long scythe-shaped blades were mounted
+on handles, though some uncertainty was formerly expressed on the
+subject. The Irish halberd-blades were evidently mounted at right
+angles to the shaft in the same way as most of the Continental blades,
+as can be seen from the straight-across marks of the handle, which can
+be traced on several examples.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Rock Markings, Maritime Alps.]
+
+From the analyses of copper halberds, it will be seen that the tin
+varies from .18 to .31 per cent. We may therefore conclude that the
+copper halberds are simply coarse or unrefined copper from similar
+ores to the copper celts; and that the copper implements found in
+Ireland may contain up to about .5 per cent. of tin. An increasing
+percentage of tin was not found in any of the copper celts, or,
+contrary to expectation, in the copper halberds; but, judging from the
+widespread use of copper implements in Ireland, from which it may be
+inferred that copper remained in use for a considerable time, it seems
+probable that bronze was introduced as an alloy of a known percentage
+of tin. As relatively few analyses of Irish bronze implements have
+been made, it is not possible at present to come to any fixed
+conclusions on the subject of the introduction of bronze into Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Stone Pick from the Bann.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Deer Horn Pick.]
+
+Also, in the case of the halberds, the great rarity of any specimens
+of bronze blades which can be classified as halberds indicates that
+the form of implement practically ceased to be used when bronze came
+into use in Ireland. As the copper celts show a gradual transition
+from stone to metal forms, it seems reasonable to look for the
+prototypes of the copper halberd among the stone implements of the
+preceding period. In the Bann Valley many flint wedges or picks have
+been found, which may, perhaps, have influenced the copper halberds;
+and if a stone pick-like instrument was in use in Neolithic times, it
+may explain to some extent the prevalence of the metal halberd in
+Ireland in the copper period. When the blades were made larger, the
+curved form would come into existence, being suggested by the
+deer-horn picks already in use. Copper came into use in Ireland, we
+may suppose, in no sudden or violent manner. On the contrary, the
+transition from stone was probably of some duration. The use of copper
+made its way up through Europe, spreading from the lands of the
+eastern Mediterranean along the old trade routes of Neolithic times,
+influenced by the search for new deposits of ore. Though at first
+implements of copper, and even, perhaps, the metal, might be carried a
+considerable distance, an early use of the local ores seems to explain
+the case better.
+
+Whether this new knowledge of metal, coming from the eastern
+Mediterranean, first crept round by way of Spain, or struck across
+the Continent to the north and west of Europe, and so to Ireland, we
+cannot at present definitely say; the line of march, as indicated by
+the halberds, which are strangely deficient both in the south and the
+north of France, seems to point to north Germany and Scandinavia, by
+way of the rich ore-fields of middle Europe. But the archaeology of the
+Peninsula for this early period is at present too uncertain to speak
+with confidence. There are indications, even in Neolithic times,
+which, perhaps, point to Spain; but, again, there are relations which
+indicate a considerable correspondence with Brittany and the North of
+France in the early Bronze Age. The late Dr. Much ("Die Kupferzeit,"
+p. 131) compared the Irish halberds with the Spanish and German
+examples, and came to the conclusion that the Irish halberds were
+later than the Spanish and earlier than the German. This view is
+supported by the form of the Irish halberds, which are more primitive
+in type than the German examples.
+
+Any conclusion as to the probable date when the halberds were in use
+in Ireland can only be arrived at in an indirect and approximate
+manner. We are, on the whole, inclined to think it is probable that
+the Irish halberds were influenced by the Spanish examples; and
+Herr Hubert Schmidt, who has worked out in much detail a scheme
+of chronology for this period, based upon the Egyptian dating of
+Professor Eduard Meyer, places the finds from El Argar at from 2500 to
+2360 B.C.[11] Allowing, therefore, some margin on the later side, we
+should probably be fairly safe in placing the period when the halberds
+were in use in Ireland at the end of the third and beginning of the
+second millennium B.C. We must remember that the whole of the Irish
+Bronze Age has to be fitted in after the copper period; and if we are
+to allow sufficient room for the several periods and their approximate
+correspondence with the periods of the Continental chronology, it is
+not easy to see how this dating can be much reduced. It may be noted
+that Montelius in his recent scheme of Bronze Age chronology for the
+British Islands, treats the halberds as bronze, and places them in his
+second period (first period of the true Bronze Age) dated from the
+beginning of the second millennium to the seventeenth century B.C.[12]
+
+ [11] Prehistorische Zeitschrift, vol. i, 1909, p. 138.
+
+ [12] Archaeologia, vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xi, fig. 43.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+FIRST AND LATER PERIODS OF THE BRONZE AGE
+
+
+Even during the copper period an evolution can be traced in the celt.
+The cutting-edge has been expanded; and the thickest part of the celt
+has been moved up from just above the cutting-edge to the centre.
+Until, however, we get into the Bronze Age, there has been no trace of
+a stop-ridge. When we get into the true Bronze Age, we find a complete
+and probably fairly rapid evolution of type from the flat celt to the
+final socketed form. Analyses of Irish celts on a large scale have not
+been made; but such analyses as have been done do not indicate an
+experimental stage of small additions of tin, but rather show that
+the bronze from the first contained a fairly large proportion of tin.
+Where the tin came from is at present uncertain. The illustrations
+will make the evolution of the celt clear. The first step was the
+broadening of the cutting-edge, and moving the thickest part up to the
+centre of the blade; the next step was hammering the sides to make
+flanges to grip the handle more securely; a stop-ridge was then added
+to prevent the handle slipping down over the blade; and the latter
+forms are reached by increasing the flanges and broadening the
+stop-ridge; in its last forms the wings are increased at the expense
+of the stop-ridge; and the final socketed form is reached by leaving
+out the centre division between the wings. Figure 20 may be noticed,
+as it is very similar to certain Continental forms.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE I. Irish bronze celts in the order of their
+                development. _p. 24._]
+
+Some of the earlier flat bronze celts may have been hafted like the
+stone celts, by merely fixing the smaller end into a stick with a
+thick head; but this method must soon have been abandoned, as after a
+certain number of blows had been delivered, the axe-head would be
+forced back into the shaft. A more practical method was to place the
+head in a handle having a forked head, and the origin of the
+stop-ridge was to prevent the two sides coming down too low on to the
+blade. The side flanges and palstave-form developed naturally from
+this. The manner of hafting the socketed celts is well shown by a
+handled socketed celt found at Edenderry, King's Co., and formerly in
+the Murray collection. This object is now in the Ethnological and
+Archaeological Museum at Cambridge; and it is to be regretted that so
+rare and important a find should have left the country.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+Some of the flat bronze celts are very finely decorated with incised
+chevrons, triangles, cross-hatchings, and other Bronze-Age linear
+ornament. One example has a kind of herring-bone pattern, somewhat
+resembling the well-known leaf-marking at New Grange. Some examples
+show a kind of cable-pattern on the side flanges; and the size of
+a few specimens is remarkable. A flat celt, with a remarkable
+ornamentation from the Greenwell collection found near Connor, County
+Antrim, is figured by Sir John Evans, _op. cit._, p. 64. It has a
+border of chevrons along the edge of the side; and this is carried
+across the celt in the centre and at the commencement of the
+cutting-edge. This border is joined by a similar centre band of
+ornament.
+
+Several of the Irish palstaves have a shield-shaped ornament below the
+stop-ridge. The socketed celts are, as a rule, unornamented; but there
+are a few which have been found in Ireland which are ornamented with
+ribs ending in pellets.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 18.--Ornamented Bronze Celts.]
+
+The question is often asked as to whether the bronze celts were used
+as weapons or tools; and the probability is that they were used as
+either as occasion demanded. The celts do not show any marked
+difference of type which would enable us to differentiate a weapon
+from a tool, as is possible in the later iron axes of the Norman and
+Danish period when we can distinguish a heavy axe and a lighter keen
+blade. The Bayeux tapestry shows the two types in use, the heavy type
+being used to fell trees and the lighter for fighting.
+
+There is one palstave, with double loops, in the National Collection;
+and another was found in Ireland at Ballincollig, County Cork, and is
+in the Evans collection. These double-looped palstaves are of much
+interest, as the type is characteristic of the Iberian peninsula. A
+few have been found in the west of France, and some in the south-west
+of England, but on the route which one would expect to have been
+followed if they are due to intercourse with Spain. These probably
+belong to the Middle Bronze Age, though they have not as yet been
+found associated with objects which would give much information as to
+their date.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 19.--Winged Celt.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 20.--Winged Celt.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 21.--Palstave with Double-loops.]
+
+
+ANVIL AND HAMMERS
+
+Among objects that may undoubtedly be classed as tools are the small
+bronze anvil (fig. 22), and the bronze socketed hammers (fig. 23).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 22.--Bronze Anvil.]
+
+The anvil appears to be the only specimen which has been found in the
+British Islands, though examples are not uncommon in France. It
+resembles the small anvils used by jewellers, and it is interesting to
+note that, as M. Dechelette points out, these small bronze anvils
+correspond to those mentioned by Homer, which were also portable and
+used by goldsmiths.[13] Socketed bronze hammers resembling the Irish
+examples are fairly common in England and on the Continent. One
+well-known Irish specimen was found in the Douris hoard and is figured
+in Evans's "Bronze Implements," p. 179. Of the specimens illustrated,
+the largest was found at Abbeyshrule, Co. Longford, the exact locality
+of the others, further than that they were found in Ireland, is not
+known.
+
+ [13] Dechelette, Manuel d'Archeologie Prehistorique, vol. ii, p. 277.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 23.--Bronze Hammers.]
+
+
+SPEAR-HEADS
+
+Even as early as the Copper Period small weak knife-daggers were in
+use, and these continued into the Bronze Age, becoming the parent of
+the spear-head as well as of the rapier and sword. The spear-head was
+evolved by decreasing the width of the base of the dagger-blade, and
+adding a narrow tang with a peg-hole to fix into the shaft. The
+addition of a ferule was the next step; and the omission of the tang,
+and amalgamation of the ferule with the blade, gave rise to the
+socketed spear-head.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 24.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+The Irish spear-heads may be divided into two well-defined groups,
+looped and riveted; and it will be found that the separation of the
+types extends farther than the mode of attachment. The form of the blade
+of each class is quite distinct. Taking the looped spear-heads first, we
+can follow the development of the spear-head from the dagger-blade. The
+adaptation is shown in fig. 24 (the centre spear-head), which is, in
+fact, a dagger-blade placed on a socket. The socket does not enter the
+blade, but is stopped at the shoulders. The #V#-shaped base of the blade
+is derived from the dagger, and disappears as the true character of the
+spear form is developed. A feature of special interest is the survival
+of the rivet-heads of the dagger in the form of ornamental bosses at
+the base of the blade. The rivet-holes appear to have been drilled, and
+not formed in casting. No examples of this form of spear-head have been
+found in England; and but one is recorded from the Isle of Man and two
+from Scotland. In the last example (in fig. 24), the imitative rivets
+are reduced to a single boss, and completely disappear in the next stage
+(fig. 25).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 27.]
+
+In the subsequent figures we see the blade developed at the expense of
+the socket; and the transition to the fully developed spear-head
+begins. The derivation of this form of spear-head from the so-called
+Arreton Down type of tanged blade is now admitted. Though tanged
+spear-heads of the Arreton Down type are fairly represented in Irish
+finds, no socket has been so far recovered with any of them; but an
+early form of nondescript tanged blade with a socket was found at
+Lough Ruadh bog near Tullamore, King's County, in 1910, and shows the
+socket was known in Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 28.--Leaf-shaped Spear-heads.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 29.]
+
+Another very early type of spear-head, nearly all the known examples of
+which were found in Ireland, was derived by mounting the rapier on a
+socket (fig. 27). There are six of these spear-heads in the collection
+of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the collection of the Royal
+Society of Antiquaries of Ireland. One of these spear-heads, found at
+Taplow on the Thames, has gold studs at the base of the blade which,
+no doubt, represent the rivets. The derivation of the spear-head by
+gradually rounding off the corners of the blade can be easily followed.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 30.--Leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at
+                the Ford, Belturbet, Co. Cavan.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 31.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 32.]
+
+We will now turn to the spear-heads with rivet-holes in the sockets,
+but without loops or openings in the blades (figs. 28 and 30). These
+spear-heads are almost invariably leaf-shaped and devoid of ribs. The
+pins or rivets used to attach this class to the shaft were probably of
+wood, horn, or bone. Two examples formerly in Mr. Day's collection
+have rivets of bronze, and others with bronze rivets have been found
+in England. The leaf-shaped spear-head is associated by form with the
+leaf-shaped sword; the looped type with the older type of weapons, the
+dagger and rapier forms. The records of the finds are very incomplete;
+but the association of leaf-shaped spears and swords to the exclusion
+of the looped form is sufficiently marked to be noted as an additional
+piece of evidence.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Ornamental Spear-heads with openings in the
+                blade.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 34.--Portion of Spear-head with studs at the base
+                of the wings.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 35.]
+
+There are in the Academy's collection a number of spear-heads with
+rivet-holes in the sockets and ornamental side-apertures (figs. 33 and
+34). These spear-heads are very highly decorated, and form an attractive
+class. They may be derived from the spear-heads in which the loops are
+joined to the base of the blade (fig. 31), and in which, by a process of
+evolution, the loop has been incorporated as part of the wing, or they
+may also have been influenced by the early type of tanged spear-heads
+from the Greek islands, in which the openings in the blade were
+functional, being used for binding the head into a split shaft. These
+ornamental spear-heads belong, as a type, to the British Islands, where
+the socketed spear-head itself appears to have been evolved. Several of
+these spear-heads have, as well as the wings, small holes in the blades,
+the purpose of which is not clear. They are very finely cast; and even
+in Ireland, where Bronze-Age casting reached its highest point, these
+are amongst its best products.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 36.--Spear-heads with ornamental openings in the
+                blades.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 37.--Spear-head found at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 38.--Half of mould for casting a socketed
+                spear-head, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+Another very rare type of spear-head, in which the loops are formed by
+the extension of the small ribs on each side of the mid rib, must be
+mentioned. These spear-heads are very seldom met with. We only know of
+the existence of four, of which one is in the Greenwell collection, two
+in the collection of the Royal Irish Academy, and one in the Municipal
+Museum at Belfast. The Academy was fortunate enough to secure a very
+fine specimen in 1912. It was found with two leaf-shaped bronze swords
+at Tempo, County Fermanagh,[14] and measures 15-1/2 inches long (fig.
+37). Judging from the associated swords, this spear-head may be dated
+about the ninth century B.C.
+
+ [14] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, sec. c, p. 91.
+
+
+MOULDS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 39.--Half of mould for casting a spear-head and
+                dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+The most important moulds for casting spear-heads found in Ireland are
+a series for casting early tanged spear-heads which were found about
+thirty years ago at Omagh, County Tyrone, and are now in the possession
+of Mr. M. J. Sullivan. These moulds are of the greatest importance in
+the history of the development of the bronze spear-head, as they show
+the evolution of the tanged blade to the socketed form, and also that
+the tanged and socketed forms were in contemporary use in Ireland. The
+form of the moulds for the socketed spear-heads shows them to be at the
+very commencement of this type; and it was probable that the tanged type
+was rapidly superseded by the improved socketed form.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 40.--Mould for casting spear-head and knife,
+                Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+These moulds are made of sandstone; and the illustrations will show
+them sufficiently. For a full description see the Journal of the Royal
+Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xxxvii, 1907, p. 181.
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 41.--MOULDS FOR PRIMITIVE SPEAR-HEADS FOUND IN THE
+                COUNTY TYRONE. (Reproduced from the Journal of the
+                Royal Society of Antiquaries.)]
+
+ [Illustration: FIG. 42.--MOULDS FOR PRIMITIVE SPEAR-HEADS FOUND IN THE
+                COUNTY TYRONE. (Reproduced from the Journal of the
+                Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland.)]
+
+Another very important find of moulds was made in 1910 at Killymeddy,
+near Ballymoney, County Antrim. This find included two complete moulds
+and a half mould for casting looped socketed spear-heads. Of the other
+moulds for casting spear-heads found in Ireland, nearly all are for
+the looped type; and the few that have been found for casting the
+leaf-shaped type are small and indeterminate in character. It is most
+probable that, with the introduction of the leaf-shaped spear-heads,
+moulds of clay or sand were introduced; and these have naturally
+perished. Fragments of a clay mould for casting a spear-head and a sword
+were found at Whitepark Bay, and portions of clay moulds for spear-heads
+have been found in Brittany, the Lake of Bienne, and other places. The
+discoveries of moulds enforce the distinction of type between the
+looped and leaf-shaped spear-heads, and the moulds from Killymeddy
+(figs. 38-40 and 43) may probably be placed at the end of the period
+when stone moulds were in use, and assigned to about 1500-1200 B.C.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 43.--Half of mould for casting spear-head and
+                dagger, Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+
+SPEAR-FERULES
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 44.--Bronze spear ferules.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 45.--Bronze spear ferule with La Tene ornament.]
+
+From time to time objects of bronze have been found in Ireland of a
+curious shape, somewhat like the handle of a door; and their use was
+considered uncertain; it is, however, clear that they were the ferules
+of spears; and in some cases the remains of the wooden shafts have been
+found inside them. The finding, moreover, of one in the Lisnacroghera
+Crannog with the whole of the shaft, measuring 8 feet in length,
+attached to it, places the matter beyond dispute.[15] It also shows
+that these objects were in use down to the early Iron Age, as most of
+the objects of the Lisnacroghera find belong to the La Tene period.
+
+ [15] Journal Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, vol. xvi, p. 395.
+
+Other ferules assume a long and graceful shape, and one is decorated
+with La Tene motives (fig. 45).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+IRISH GOLD
+
+
+Ireland's extreme richness in gold during the Bronze Age made her
+a kind of El Dorado of the western world. The gold was, no doubt,
+obtained from County Wicklow, where gold was worked down to the end
+of the eighteenth century, nuggets of 22, 18, 9, and 7 oz. being
+recorded. One exceptionally large nugget weighing 22 oz., found in
+1795 at Croghan Kinshela, Co. Wicklow, was presented to King George
+III; and its discovery caused a rush to the workings. As well as
+Wicklow there are six other counties where gold has been found. The
+very large number of gold ornaments that have been found in Ireland is
+therefore not surprising. The ancient literature of Ireland contains
+many references to gold ornaments and payments of gold by weight. It
+is interesting to note that the tradition preserved in the Book of
+Leinster, a MS. of the twelfth century, refers the first smelting
+of gold in Ireland to a district in which gold has been found in
+considerable quantities in modern times. The Leinstermen, it is
+stated, were called "Lagenians of the gold," because it was in their
+country that gold was first discovered in Erin. It is further stated
+that gold was first smelted for Tighearnmas, one of the earliest of
+the Milesian kings, in the forests standing on the east side of the
+River Liffey, by Iuchadan, a native of that district.
+
+After the discovery of native gold in Ballinvally stream at Croghan in
+1796, the Government undertook mining operations; and in three years
+collected 944 ounces worth, at the price of the day, L3,675. Since
+the workings were abandoned by the Government, the district has been
+worked at intervals by companies, and at other times by the peasants;
+the total output since 1795 is estimated at a value of L30,000. The
+knowledge of the Irish gold deposits must have been a very
+considerable factor in the foreign relations of the island in the
+Bronze Age.
+
+
+LUNULAE
+
+The earliest of the Irish gold ornaments are the flat gold collars
+known as lunulae. These have been found fairly evenly distributed over
+the country, and in astonishing numbers.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 46.--Gold Lunula found at Trenta, Carrigans,
+                Co. Donegal.]
+
+The circumstances under which the lunulae have been found have not
+often been recorded. The collection of the Royal Irish Academy in the
+National Museum, Dublin, contains no less than thirty-seven examples.
+Several of these have been found and recorded during the past three or
+four years. As a rule the lunulae are engraved on one face only with
+finely cut or scored well-recognized Bronze Age ornament, consisting
+of bands of lines, cross-hatchings, chevrons, triangles, and
+lozenges.
+
+The centres of the lunulae are plain, the exact reason of which is not
+quite apparent. The ornament is gathered to the end of the lunula and
+spaced out by bands. Two lunulae found together at Padstow, Cornwall,
+are said to have been found with a bronze celt of early type. The find
+is preserved in the Truro Museum, and is of the utmost importance as
+an indication of the early Bronze-Age date of the lunulae. It is, we
+believe, the only instance of lunulae being found with associated
+objects.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 47.--Gold Lunula found in Co. Galway.]
+
+Figures 46-49 and 51-53 illustrate the various types of ornament; it
+will be noticed that some of the smaller examples are quite plain.
+
+One lunula was found in an oak case at Newtown, Crossdoney, Co.
+Cavan. The case has greatly shrunk since it was found, as when first
+discovered it measured 10 inches by 8 inches (fig. 50).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 48.--Gold Lunula, locality not recorded.]
+
+The two expanded pieces at the ends are always turned at right angles
+to the plane of the lunula, and serve to clasp the back of the neck,
+and may have been secured by a tie. It need not, however, be pointed
+out that they are quite out of place in a head-ornament; indeed, the
+geometrical shape of a lunula is contrary to such a theory, and quite
+different from recognized diadems or head-ornaments.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 49.--Gold Lunula found at Killarney.]
+
+One example found at Volognes has a chain and sort of buckle attached
+at the ends. It has since been melted down, but a drawing of it has
+been preserved (fig. 51). The chain seems to have been ancient--at
+least it is stated to have been on it, as shown, when found; but,
+however ancient it may be, it is evident that it was more recently
+attached than the original make of the ornament. It is, however, of
+interest as indicating at some time a chain-tie to secure the ends of
+the ornament.
+
+The accompanying list of finds shows how numerous the lunulae are in
+Ireland and how rarely they have been found outside this island. The
+map shows their distribution (fig. 54).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 50.--Oak case for Lunula found at Newtown,
+                Co. Cavan.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 51.--Gold Lunula found at Valognes, Manche.]
+
+Two have been found in the West Baltic at Zealand and Funen. They have
+otherwise hardly penetrated beyond Brittany. One has recently (1912)
+been found at Hanover, and another some time ago at Fauvillers,
+Luxembourg. This failure to penetrate far beyond the coasts of England
+and Brittany may point to early raids; but the copper and tin of
+Cornwall, as well as the tin deposits of Brittany and the general
+trade with Brittany, may indicate the early seeking of the Irish gold
+deposits. We may take as a provisional date for the lunulae, 1200 to
+1000 B.C.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 52.--Gold Lunula found in Co. Londonderry.]
+
+Lunulae now existing or known to have formerly existed:--
+
+
+IRELAND (62 at least).
+
+ --------------+---+------------------------------------------------
+ County.       |No.|                  Reference.
+ --------------+---+------------------------------------------------
+ Donegal,      | 2 |  R.I.A. 1889: 20 (1). Trenta, Carrigans. R.I.A.
+               |   |    1909: 6 (1). Naran.
+               |   |
+ Londonderry,  | 2 |  R.I.A. W. 12 (1). R.I.A. (loan 1907: 7) (1).
+               |   |
+ Antrim,       | 3 |  Dublin Penny Journal, vol. iv, p. 295.
+               |   |
+ Down,         | 1 |  Castlereagh, Ulster Journal of Archaeology,
+               |   |    vol. ix, p. 46.
+               |   |
+ Tyrone,       | 3 |  Trillick, R.I.A. 1884: 495 (1). Carrickmore,
+               |   |    R.I.A. 1900: 50 (1). Tartaraghan, Ulster
+               |   |    Journal of Archaeology, vol. ix, p. 47 (at Cecil,
+               |   |    Augher) (1).
+               |   |
+ Mayo,         | 1 |  R.I.A. 1909.
+               |   |
+ Sligo,        | 1 |  Windele's Miscellanea, p. 206.
+               |   |
+ Fermanagh,    | 1 |  Enniskillen (Day Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Monaghan,     | 1 |  Ballybay (Day Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Galway,       | 1 |  R.I.A. W. 10 (Sirr Coll.).
+               |   |
+ Roscommon,    | 2 |  Athlone, R.I.A. W. 5, and 1893: 4.
+               |   |
+ Cavan,        | 3 |  Newtown, R.I.A. 1884: 494 (1). Bailieborough
+               |   |    (British Museum) (1). Lisanover, Bawnboy.
+               |   |    1910: 45 (1).
+               |   |
+ Westmeath,    | 2 |  Ross, R.I.A. 1896: 15 (1). Mullingar, 1884:
+               |   |    7 (1).
+               |   |
+ Kildare,      | 4 |  Dunfierth, R.I.A. W. 4, 8, 9, and 15.
+               |   |
+ Clare,        | 2 |  Porsoon Callan, R.I.A. 1877: 52 (1). Proc.
+               |   |    R.I.A., vol. viii, p. 83 (1).
+               |   |
+ Tipperary,    | 1 |  Glengall (British Museum).
+               |   |
+ Kerry,        | 5 |  Banmore, R.I.A. R., 1755, 1756, 1757 (3):
+               |   |    R.I.A., Killarney, W. 2 (1). Mangerton (Brit.
+               |   |    Mus.) (1).
+               |   |
+ Cork          | 2 |  Ballycotton (Brit. Mus.) (1), and one or perhaps
+               |   |    two in Mr. Cliborn's scrap-book in R.I.A.
+
+In addition to the foregoing there are 16 in the collection of the
+R.I.A. and 5 in the British Museum, and about 6 in private
+collections, which are known to have been found in Ireland, but of
+which the localities have not been recorded.
+
+
+ENGLAND (4).
+
+ Cornwall,     | 4 |  Penzance (1), Padstow (2), Lesnewth (1) (Arch.
+               |   |  Journ., vol. xxii, 276).
+
+
+WALES (1).
+
+ Carnavonshire,| 1 |  Llanllyfni (British Museum).
+
+
+SCOTLAND (4).
+
+ Lanarkshire,  | 2 | Southside near Coulter (Anderson, vol. i, p. 223).
+               |   |
+ Dumfriesshire,| 1 | Auchentaggart (Anderson, vol. i, p. 222).
+               |   |
+ Elginshire,   | 1 | Fochabers (Cat. Nat. Mus., Scot., p. 210).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 53.--Gold Lunula found at Athlone.]
+
+
+FRANCE (6).
+
+ Cotes du Nord,| 1 | Saint-Potan (Reinach, Revue Celtique, 1900,
+               |   |   p. 95).
+               |   |
+ Manche,       | 3 | Tourlaville (1), Valognes (1) (Reinach, R. C.,
+               |   |   1900, p. 95).
+               |   | Montebourg (1) (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905,
+               |   |   p. 301).
+               |   |
+ Vendee,       | 2 | Bourneau (1), Nesmy (1) (Reinach, R. C., 1900,
+               |   |   p. 95).
+
+
+BELGIUM (1).
+
+ Luxemburg,    | 1 | Fauvillers (Cong. Arch. de France, 1905, p. 302).
+
+
+DENMARK (2).
+
+ Zealand,      | 1 | Grevinge (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).
+               |   |
+ Funen,        | 1 | Skogshoeierup (A. f. Anth. xix, 9).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 54.--Map showing the Distribution of Lunulae in
+                Ireland and Europe.]
+
+
+GERMANY (1).
+
+ Hanover,      | 1 | Schulenburg (Leine) Springe (1911).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DAGGERS AND RAPIERS
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 55.--Stone celt, Bronze dagger with gold band,
+                and Urn found in Topped Mountain Cairn, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+As has been mentioned, as well as being parent to the spear-head, the
+small weak knife-dagger frequently found in early Bronze-Age burials
+also developed into the true dagger-blade, and in course of time into
+the sword. Bronze daggers have often been found in Ireland; there are
+about forty in the National Collection. Among the most interesting
+finds of these early daggers may be mentioned that discovered in 1897
+at an interment at Topped Mountain Cairn, County Fermanagh. This
+dagger measures 5-5/8 inches, and is covered with a beautiful blue
+patina. It is decorated with raised lines on each side of the blade,
+and has two small rivets. It was discovered in a cist in the cairn
+lying at the right side of the skull of an uncremated body, and in the
+same place was a small band of gold which appears to have been half
+of a band of that metal which was probably round the handle of the
+dagger (fig. 55). Another interesting find is the small bronze dagger
+discovered with urns and cremated bones in a cist at Annaghkeen Cairn,
+County Galway, in 1908.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 56.--Dagger and Rapier blades.]
+
+In course of time the length of the dagger-blade was increased; and
+later examples are wonderful specimens of casting. The earlier
+daggers were either attached to the handle by rivets, or else notches
+were left in the base of the blade for the attachment. The manner of
+hafting them is quite clear, as a few hafted examples have been found.
+Some had bronze handles cast separately (fig. 56); others had handles
+of horn or wood (fig. 57); but the hilts for the most part were made
+of some perishable substance, and they have consequently not been
+recovered. The scolloped mark left by the hilt is often quite plainly
+to be seen on the blade. In later times the handle was sometimes cast
+in one piece with the blade; but the division between the handle and
+the blade is always quite clearly marked. The decoration of the later
+dagger-blades takes the form of a number of triangles at the base of
+the blade, and the extreme similarity in decoration between the
+Italian and the early northern and western daggers has led Montelius
+to consider the latter as derived from the former; and this is
+enforced in the case of the Irish examples by the series of small
+hatched-triangles which have been found at the base of two well-known
+Irish examples (fig. 56).
+
+The rapiers were evolved quite naturally by lengthening the
+dagger-blade; and this form was probably influenced also, as will be
+mentioned later, by contemporary weapons in use in the Mediterranean
+lands.
+
+The longest rapier ever found in Western Europe is the splendid weapon
+found at Lissane, Co. Derry, in 1867, which measures 30-1/4 inches in
+length (fig. 59). Another very remarkable Irish example is the short
+rapier found in Upper Lough Erne, and obtained by Mr. Thomas Plunkett,
+M.R.I.A., from the finder. This weapon is a wonderfully fine piece of
+casting. It measures 16-3/4 inches in length (fig. 58).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 57.--Dagger with horn handle found at Ballymoney,
+                Co. Antrim.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 58.--Rapier found in Upper Lough Erne.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 59.--Rapier found at Lissane, Co. Derry.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 60.--Rapiers and Daggers found in Ireland.]
+
+The rapiers belong to the middle and later portions of the Bronze Age.
+This type of weapon is common in France, and is described by M.
+Dechelette as widely spread in the British Islands and the north of
+France, and as having been introduced from there into South Germany
+and the region of the Middle Rhine.[16] The rapiers of advanced
+type he places in the third division of the Bronze Age, as they have
+been found in Bronze-Age tumuli of that period, as at Staadorf, Haut
+Palatinat (1600-1300 B.C.). Montelius places the rapiers in his fourth
+period dated at the end of the fifteenth to the middle of the twelfth
+century B.C.,[17] so that his dating of these objects practically
+coincides with that of M. Dechelette. It is now well recognized that
+the swords of the AEgean-Mycenaean area were developed on parallel lines
+to those of Western Europe. We find that the long rapiers or thrusting
+swords are developed from the tanged Cypriote dagger, and that the
+true sword is a later evolution from the rapier. It is hardly to be
+doubted that some of the western forms of daggers and rapiers were
+influenced by Mycenaean types; and the discovery in Sicily of rapiers
+of Mycenaean type with pottery dated as recent Minoan III, establishes
+a direct bond between the AEgean and Western Europe.[18]
+
+ [16] "Manuel d'Archeologie," vol. ii, p. 208.
+
+ [17] "Archaeologia," vol. lxi, p. 162, and pl. xv.
+
+ [18] "Manuel d'Archeologie," vol. ii, p. 214.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+GOLD GORGETS
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 61.--Gold Gorget found in Ireland, formerly in the
+                possession of the Earl of Charleville. From Vetusta
+                Monumenta, Vol. v, Pl. xxviii.]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE II. Irish Gold Gorgets. _p. 62._]
+
+Among the most striking of the gold ornaments in the National Collection
+are the five gold gorgets or neck-collars, with the ends decorated with
+ornamented disks. These are very elaborately decorated, and of great
+massiveness. Two others mentioned as having been found in Ireland,
+one of which was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Charleville,
+were figured in "Vetusta Monumenta." Vallancey states that another was
+found in the County Longford. A few disks have also been found which may
+have been portions of these gorgets. The neck-portion of the gorgets is
+arranged in three rows of raised ridges, and these are ornamented with
+rows of small bosses, the depressions of the ridges being occupied with
+a narrow rope-shaped fillet. In some cases the ridges are left plain.
+The small disks at the terminals of the collar are remarkable; they
+measure about 2-7/8 or 3 inches in diameter, and are decorated with a
+centre and side bosses, surrounded with concentric circles. They much
+resemble in miniature the round shields or bucklers of the late Bronze
+Age, but they also show some resemblance to the so-called sun-disks
+which have been found in Ireland, and which will be described later
+on. Unfortunately the gorgets have in no case been found with any
+accompanying objects which would assist in dating them, and in fact in
+only two cases have details as to their finding been preserved, one
+found at Ardcroney, near Nenagh, County Tipperary, the other at Tony
+Hill, Croom, County Limerick. Their ornamentation, however, would seem
+to place them in the Hallstatt period, first Iron Age, which may be
+dated at about 700-600 B.C. Their form and ornamentation may be compared
+with that of the splendid gold collar from Cintra, Lisbon, now in the
+British Museum,[19] and also with the triple bronze collars common in
+Scandinavia and north Germany, all of which are referred to the
+Hallstatt period. This period is at present not well represented in
+Ireland or the British Isles; and it is doubtful whether iron came into
+general use in Ireland till about the third century B.C.
+
+ [19] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 148.
+
+One point of much interest must be noticed. In one of the gorgets
+shown in Plate II, where the disk is attached to the gorget, above
+the line where the end of the plate passes into the boss, three
+perpendicular and two cross-stitches can be seen. Some of these
+sewings are made by means of slight square wire, but in others the
+fastenings are composed of fine woollen thread, round which is twisted
+spirally a thin, flat strip of gold. These strips are one of the
+oldest specimens of woollen cordage now in existence in Ireland.
+
+
+GOLD SUN-DISKS
+
+We have already referred to the flat disks of gold, a number of which
+have been found in Ireland. There are four in the British Museum, and no
+less than fifteen in the National Collection at Dublin. In four cases
+they have been found in pairs--one pair at Ballina, County Mayo, another
+pair at Tydavnet, County Monaghan, a third at Cloyne, Co. Cork, and the
+fourth at Castle Martyr, Co. Cork. Some of these disks are ornamented
+with concentric circles; others have a cruciform ornament which
+resembles the four-spoked chariot-wheel, and is a well-known sun symbol.
+When these objects were first discovered, their origin and use were
+quite unknown; and Mr. Reginald A. Smith, of the British Museum, was the
+first to point out their resemblance to the gold disk, decorated with
+spirals, affixed to a bronze sun-chariot, found in Trundholm Moss,
+Zealand, in 1902. The bronze chariot consisted of a bronze disk mounted
+on wheels and drawn by a horse, the gold disk being affixed to the
+bronze one. The ornamentation of the Irish disks is somewhat different,
+as the spiral does not appear, its place being taken by the concentric
+circle. The Trundholm sun-chariot is dated by Prof. Sophus Muller at
+before 1000 B.C. The Trundholm disk is admittedly connected with
+sun-worship, as is also the cruciform ornament on the Irish disks. The
+spoked-wheel is a well-known solar symbol; and similar designs have been
+found on the bases of some Irish food-vessels, and may also be compared
+with some of the markings at Dowth.[20] The prevalence of sun-worship
+in the Bronze Age need not be further gone into here; but the gold disks
+are of great interest, as furnishing another point of contact between
+Ireland and Scandinavia in the Bronze Age. The finding of Irish gold
+lunulae in Denmark, and the occurrence of Scandinavian amber in Irish
+finds of the Bronze-Age, have already been mentioned.
+
+ [20] "New Grange and other Incised Tumuli," p. 59, fig. 39.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE III. Gold sun-disks. _p. 64._]
+
+
+GOLD BALLS
+
+We may also mention the large hollow golden balls of which seven are
+in the National collection, one in the possession of Mr. H. J. B.
+Clements, and another in the British Museum. Eleven of these golden
+balls were found in 1834 at Carrick-on-Shannon.[21] There has been
+much conjecture as to the use these balls were put to, and it has been
+suggested that as their large size would render them inconvenient as
+personal ornaments, they were probably used to decorate a horse. If so
+they may have been attached to the bridle like the large balls shown
+on the horses' bridles in the bronze scabbard from Hallstatt, dated La
+Tene I. See Dechelette, "Manuel d'Archeologie," vol. ii, p. 770. The
+Golden Peytrell found at Mold, Flintshire, may be instanced to show
+that gold was sometimes used to decorate horses; and if the gold balls
+were really used for this purpose, we may well endorse what the author
+of the "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide" says when he writes: "A
+discovery of this kind demonstrates in a striking manner the abundance
+of gold at the end of our Bronze period."[22]
+
+ [21] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 450.
+
+ [22] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 150.
+
+
+CLARE FIND
+
+Another type of neck-ornaments are the thin gold gorgets with
+funnel-shaped ends, many of which were found in the great Clare find.
+These gorgets are quite plain, except for a little ornamentation at
+the extreme ends near the funnel-shaped extremities. There are five of
+these objects in the National Collection, and all were found together
+in the celebrated Clare find. This find--the largest collective one of
+gold objects ever made in Western Europe--was discovered in making a
+railway-cutting for the Limerick and Ennis Railway in 1854. A gang of
+labourers were digging near an old hawthorn-bush, a little distance to
+the south of the railway bridge in Moghaun north, on the west side of
+the line of the great fort, and opposite the lough, when they
+undermined a kind of cist. The fall of one of the containing-stones
+disclosed a mass of gold ornaments--gorgets, bracelets of all sizes
+with cup-shaped ends, and a few ingots of gold. The find, from a
+numerical point of view, far surpassed anything ever made, but none
+of the objects were highly ornamented or of a special type.
+
+The fact of this immense number of gold ornaments being hidden in
+a cist in this way has given rise to many conjectures; but in the
+absence of any other explanation, it may be suggested that the objects
+had been collected together, and hidden purposely, with the idea of
+returning and regaining possession of them later. The value of the
+find has been estimated at at least L3,000. Unfortunately, most of the
+objects were sold to jewellers and melted down, but a large number
+were exhibited at the Archaeological Institute by Dr. Todd and Lord
+Talbot de Malahide in 1854, and casts of these were taken, and a set
+is now in the National Collection. There are also a small number of
+the originals in the Royal Irish Academy's collection (Plate IV).
+Otherwise such objects of the find as escaped the melting-pot were
+scattered, and have found their way into different museums and private
+collections. As has been mentioned, the objects of this find did not
+show any remarkable types, and for the most part consisted of very
+thin bracelets and penannular rings with cup-shaped ends. It is
+probable that, as well as being ornaments, they served as a kind of
+currency.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE IV. Portion of the great Clare find. _p. 66._]
+
+
+PENANNULAR RINGS AND RING-MONEY
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 62.--Gold fibulae, and other objects found together
+                at Coachford, Co. Cork.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 63.--Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+                showing Europeans holding manillas (after Read and Dalton,
+                _Antiquities of the City of Benin_).]
+
+The large number of penannular rings with cup-shaped ends which have
+been found from time to time in the island, brings us on to the
+general question of the so-called Irish fibulae. In Ireland penannular
+rings with cup-shaped ends of copper or bronze are very rare, only
+about half a dozen being known, while fibulae of gold are exceedingly
+common. The Coachford find, in which amber beads, gold fibulae, and a
+copper or bronze fibula were all found together, shows that the
+objects were contemporary; and as this find may be placed at the end
+of the Bronze Age, it shows that these objects were in use at that
+period (fig. 62). On the other hand, it is likely that their use began
+earlier and continued for a long period. These objects when made of
+gold are of two shapes--in the one case the expanded cups are large
+and flat and the connecting bar is bow-shaped, and is striated. These
+have been conjectured to have been used as brooches for fastening a
+garment; and their form was probably influenced by the Scandinavian
+spectacle-brooches, the bows of the latter having, in some cases, the
+same decoration. Except for the striations on the connecting link,
+the Irish so-called mamillary fibulae are almost always plain; but
+Vallancey has figured two examples, one of which is engraved with
+triangular, and the other with lozenge, ornaments. There is also the
+well-known example in Trinity College, Dublin, in which the surfaces
+of the cups are completely covered with concentric circle ornament,
+the inside rims of the cups being decorated with hatched triangles,
+and the neckings of what may be called the handle, with chevron and
+herring-bone pattern, while along the back of the handle is an
+ornament of lozenges. In the second type these objects assume the
+shape of a bracelet; and the expanded ends are sometimes cup-shaped
+and sometimes plain. From the extreme similarity between the shape of
+these, whether in gold or bronze, to the so-called African manillas,
+it has been conjectured the Irish examples, like the African, may have
+been used as a medium of exchange; and on the whole it seems probable
+that such was the case, the dividing line between what were used for
+ornaments and what may have been used for exchange not being at all
+easily defined (figs. 63 and 64).
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE V. Gold Fibulae. _p. 68._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 64.--Sixteenth-century bronze casting from Benin,
+                showing natives holding manillas (after Read and Dalton,
+                _Antiquities of the City of Benin_).]
+
+
+RING-MONEY
+
+The question of a medium of exchange leads us to mention the very
+small gold penannular rings, the largest being about an inch in
+diameter, frequently found in Ireland, which are known as
+'ring-money.' There are fifty-six in the National Collection; and a
+find made near Belfast of a socketed bronze celt in association with
+some of these objects shows they were in use during the late Bronze
+Age.[23] Attention has been called to the similarity of these Irish
+gold rings to the penannular copper rings plated with gold often found
+in early Japanese burials.[24]
+
+ [23] Archaeologia, lxi, p. 153.
+
+ [24] See Munro, "Pre-historic Japan," p. 435, fig. 276.
+
+Many attempts have been made to equate the weights of a series of
+these rings with some known standard; and in his valuable work "The
+Origin of Currency and Weight Standards," Professor Ridgeway devotes
+several pages of his Appendix C to a discussion of the subject, and
+gives a table of the weights arrived at by grouping the rings in
+multiples of 18.
+
+While there can be no reasonable doubt that these objects were used as
+a medium of exchange, we are not inclined, in the absence of literary
+evidence, to go any further into the question of what standard they
+may represent. Some of these rings are evidently forgeries of ancient
+times, as they are composed of bronze rings covered with a thin plate
+of gold. The rings as a rule are plain; but some are ornamented with
+small strips of darker metal let into the gold, and two examples are
+twisted like small torcs.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VI. Gold Ring-Money. _p. 70._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS
+
+
+A number of leaf-shaped bronze swords have been found in Ireland. They
+may be roughly divided into two types, those with notches just below
+the blade and above the handle, and those that are plain. The latter
+are the earlier, and belong to the late Bronze Age; the former
+correspond to the Continental swords of the Hallstatt period. The
+leaf-shaped type was the typical Bronze-Age sword of western and
+northern Europe. It was developed from the dagger, and, like it, was
+a thrusting rather than a cutting weapon. The handle is cast in one
+piece with the blade, and has rivet-holes, and in some cases a slit
+for the attachment of the hilt, which was no doubt formed of bone or
+horn plates. The pommel was probably globular, and formed of lead or
+some heavy material. A bronze sword of this type was found in a house
+on the Akropolis at Mycenae by Schliemann, and it can be dated at about
+1200 B.C.[25] The discovery of this sword may be explained either as
+the result of a raid, or as showing that invaders from the north had
+reached Greece as early as this date. A leaf-shaped sword has been
+noticed on one of the clay tablets dated as late Minoan II, and in one
+of the stone slabs from over the fifth shaft grave at Mycenae, which
+represents a figure in a chariot attacking a man on foot, the latter
+is armed with a leaf-shaped sword.[26] In any case it gives us a date
+for the period when these swords were in common use in western Europe.
+The type with notches below the blade has a tendency to become
+straighter at the sides, and to lose its leaf-shaped form. The use
+of the notches is not apparent, but it has been thought that the
+scabbards at that time were made of wood and were liable to shrink
+from exposure to weather, and that this may have prevented the sword
+from being thrust home, so that the edge was cut off by the notches
+slightly below the handle to avoid cutting the hand. The handle end of
+this latter type very frequently assumes a form like a fish's tail.
+These swords develop into the iron swords of the Hallstatt period, of
+which so far only one Irish example has been found. A bronze sword of
+the notched type formed part of the Dowris hoard, and is figured in
+the "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," plate ii. Two remarkably fine
+specimens of this type were found in 1912 with a socketed spear-head
+at Tempo, County Fermanagh.
+
+ [25] Naue, "Die Vorroemischen Schwerter," pp. 12 and 20.
+
+ [26] See Burrowes, "Discoveries in Crete," p. 183.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 65.--Leaf-shaped bronze swords, found with a
+                spear-head at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh.]
+
+No moulds for casting leaf-shaped swords of either type have been
+found in Ireland; and it is therefore probable that at the time they
+were in use sand-casting had replaced casting from stone moulds. The
+scabbards of the leaf-shaped swords were made of wood or leather,
+protected by a ferule or chape of bronze, which was fastened to it by
+rivets; the point of the weapon does not seem to have reached the end
+of the sheath. There are several examples of bronze chapes in the
+Royal Irish Academy's collection, and they display a considerable
+variety of design. Some are long and tubular in shape (fig. 66), while
+others are of the winged or boat-shaped type which is found on the
+Continent (fig. 67). Others again are of a small and simple type. The
+rivet-holes for the attachment of the sheaths can be seen in nearly
+all the Irish specimens. The casting of these objects shows a good
+deal of skill, as the metal is very thin. The winged variety are
+probably the latest, as they have been found with iron swords of
+Hallstatt type on the Continent.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 66.--Bronze chapes.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 67.--Winged chapes.]
+
+
+SHIELDS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 68.--Bronze shield, found at Lough Gur,
+                Co. Limerick.]
+
+Two circular shields or bucklers of bronze have been found in Ireland.
+There is only one in the National Collection, the fine shield
+discovered at Lough Gur, County Limerick. There is, however, a small
+shield of bronze ornamented with large bosses in the British Museum
+which was found at Athenry, County Galway.[27] These bronze shields
+have never been found in the British Islands with any objects which
+would give any definite clue to their date; but they are generally
+referred to the late Bronze Age. They belong to a common type, being
+decorated with numerous bands of small bosses separated by concentric
+circles. They appear to have been hammered out.
+
+ [27] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 30.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 69.--Alder-wood shield, found in Co. Leitrim.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 70.--Front and back of leather shield, found at
+                Clonbrin, Co. Longford.]
+
+There are two other shields of great interest in the National
+Collection. One is the remarkable alder-wood shield found 10 feet deep
+in a bog in 1863 at Annadale, County Leitrim. This shield is oval in
+shape, and has a central boss and seven raised ribs. It will be
+noticed that the ribs show an indentation at one side; but too much
+emphasis must not be placed on this, as the shield shrank a good
+deal after its removal from the bog, and the alteration may be due to
+this. This shield has a handle at the back. It is interesting to note
+that 'sciath,' one of the Irish words for 'shield,' denotes 'alder.'
+The next is the leather shield found in 1908 at Clonbrin, County
+Longford, and presented to the Royal Irish Academy's collection by
+Colonel W. H. King-Harman. This truly remarkable shield, the only one
+of its kind in Europe, is made of a solid piece of leather nearly 1/4
+of an inch thick, and measures 20-1/2 inches in length by 19-1/2
+inches across. It has an oblong centre boss pressed out of the leather
+and covered with an ornamental cap of fine leather laced on to it. The
+boss is encircled by three ribs, the inner one being gapped, and the
+two others having a curious re-entrant angle. The shield has
+twenty-four small round bosses on it which resemble those on the
+bronze shields. There is a leather handle which was laced on to the
+back. This shield appears to be complete as it stands, as there is no
+sign of any wooden supports at the back, nor is it easy to see how
+such supports could have been attached to it. According to Polybius
+round shields of bulls' hide were used by the Roman equites in the
+early days of Roman history.
+
+The round shield of the late Bronze Age was succeeded by the oval
+shield which may be taken as partly transitional to the oblong shield
+of Southern Europe and also of the late Celtic type found in Britain.
+The date, therefore, of this Irish leather shield is probably to be
+placed in the Early Iron period.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TORCS
+
+
+There are twenty-four golden torcs of various types in the National
+Collection and one of bronze; but the Irish provenance of the latter
+is doubtful.
+
+The best known are the two magnificent gold torcs found in the side of
+one of the raths at Tara, and these belong to a type that has been
+found in England and France, of which the best known examples are
+those found at Yeovil, Somerset,[28] and Grunty Fen, Cambridge.[29] A
+torc of this type was also found by Schliemann in the royal treasury
+in the second city of Troy. This find has led to a good deal of
+speculative opinions varying as to whether the model of the torc was
+imported into Ireland from the south, or whether the Irish gold could
+have reached the Mediterranean in pre-Mycenaean times.[30] Torcs of
+this type were made by folding two thin ribbons of gold along the
+middle at a right angle; they were then attached with some kind of
+resinous flux, apex to apex, and twisted together. In some cases,
+instead of two folded ribbons a flat one and two halves of another
+were used, after being fastened together, the twisting being done in
+the same way. In some of the Irish examples the body of the torc is
+plain, or was grooved to simulate the appearance of the twisted torc.
+A peculiar feature of these torcs is the large hooks with which they
+are provided. It must be noted that whereas twisted torcs of bronze
+are fairly common in England and France there is only one bronze torc
+in the Irish National Collection, and, as mentioned above, the
+provenance of this is doubtful. The dating of these twisted torcs
+is a matter of difficulty, as there are only two instances of their
+having been found in association with bronze objects, one in the case
+of the Grunty Fen torc which was discovered with three bronze
+palstaves, and another found at Fresne la Mere, near Falaise,
+Normandy, which was found with a bronze razor and other objects of
+bronze. Such evidence as exists, therefore, would place them in the
+late Bronze Age, probably somewhere about 1000 B.C., but certain
+varieties of torcs, as we shall see, continued in use as late as the
+first century. The area of distribution of gold torcs of the Tara type
+in Ireland, England and France is very limited, none having been found
+in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, Holland, or Spain and
+Portugal.[31] It has been suggested that the gold of which all these
+torcs were composed came from the Wicklow Mountains,[32] and in view
+of the extreme wealth of Ireland in gold, as evinced by the number of
+gold ornaments which are still constantly found, this may be
+considered probable.
+
+ [28] Proceedings Somerset Archaeological and Natural History Society,
+      vol. lv, 1909, pt. ii, pp. 66-84.
+
+ [29] Cambridge Antiquarian Society's Communications, vol. xii, p. 96.
+
+ [30] Dechelette, "Manuel d'Archeologie," vol. ii, p. 355, note.
+
+ [31] Congres Archeologique Francais, Beauvais, 1905, p. 294.
+
+ [32] Proc. Soc. Antiquaries of London, second series, vol. xxiv, p. 42.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VII. Gold Torcs from Tara and elsewhere.
+                _p. 78._]
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE VIII. Gold Torcs. _p. 78._]
+
+Among the other types of gold torcs are two splendid examples, one of
+which appears to have been prepared for twisting and left unfinished,
+while the other is in a complete state (Plate VIII).
+
+Small torcs made by twisting a plain ribbon are fairly common, and
+some of these are so small that they must have been used as bracelets.
+
+In later times the torc was the distinguishing ornament of the Celt,
+and there are many allusions to torcs in classical writers. In 223
+B.C., when Flaminius Nepos gained his victory over the Gauls on the
+Addua, it is related that instead of the Gauls dedicating, as they had
+intended, a torc made from the Roman spoils to their god of war, the
+Romans erected a Roman trophy to Jupiter made from Gaulish torcs.
+
+The name of the Torquati, a family of the Manlia Gens, was derived
+from their ancestor, T. Manlius, who, having slain a gigantic Gaul in
+B.C. 361, took the torc from the dead body, and placed it round his
+neck.
+
+The famous statue of the Dying Gaul preserved in the Capitol at Rome
+shows a torc on the warrior's neck. This is one of a series of statues
+set up by the Greeks of Pergamos to celebrate their struggle with, and
+first victory over, the Gauls of Asia Minor, with whom they came in
+contact from about 240 to 160 B.C. The twisted torc appears to have
+been replaced in Ireland about the second century B.C. by the plain
+torc, which was probably introduced from Gaul. The fine gold torc from
+Clonmacnois (Plate IX), with La Tene decoration, is a good example of
+these torcs, and is almost identical with one from the Marne district
+now preserved in the St. Germain Museum. Probably the finest La Tene
+torc in existence is that found in the celebrated Broighter find,
+which is richly decorated with La Tene ornament (Plate IX, the inner
+torc).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+BRONZE-AGE FINDS
+
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE IX. Gold Torcs from Clonmacnois and Broighter.
+                _p. 80._]
+
+One of the greatest difficulties to be contended with in any attempt
+to arrive at a working chronology for the Prehistoric Period in Ireland
+is that, though Ireland had a rich Bronze Age, as attested by the
+magnificent collection of objects preserved in the National Collection,
+yet in very few cases have any of these objects been found in
+association. Excavation carried on under scientific supervision was
+practically unknown in Ireland until quite recent years, and though, no
+doubt, hoards of associated objects have been discovered in the country,
+yet trustworthy particulars as to their finding have hardly ever been
+preserved, and the objects themselves have generally been scattered.
+Under these circumstances it seemed useful to gather together in the
+present chapter an account of the finds--unfortunately very few--in
+which associated objects have been discovered, and of which there is
+indisputable evidence of their association:--
+
+1. Find of a socketed celt, a gouge, a pin, a razor (the last in a
+simple leather case), a portion of a woollen garment, an ornament of
+horse-hair, like a tassel, and some pieces of wood. These objects were
+found in a bog in the townland of Cromaghs, parish of Armoy, Co.
+Antrim, in May, 1904, when cutting turf[33] (Fig. 71, nos. 1-5).
+
+ [33] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, p. 119.
+
+2. A find of late Bronze-Age objects discovered in a bog in the
+townland of Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, in May, 1861. The find
+contained the following objects:--two small socketed celts, a
+disk-headed pin, a plain bronze ring, and a bronze fibula[34] (Fig.
+71, nos. 6-10).
+
+ [34] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvi, Sec. C, 124.
+
+3. Find at Mountrivers, Rylane, Coachford, Co. Cork. This find was
+made in May, 1907, and contained the following objects:--two socketed
+bronze celts, two gold fibulae, one fibula of copper or bronze, and
+eleven amber beads[35] (fig. 62).
+
+ [35] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 85.
+
+4. Find at Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, made in May, 1906, The find
+consisted of a bronze socketed celt, a socketed sickle, two chisels,
+and a gouge[36] (fig. 74).
+
+ [36] Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+      vol. xxxvii, p. 86.
+
+5. Find of moulds for casting primitive spear-heads. This find was
+made near Omagh, Co. Tyrone, about 1882, and consisted of seven blocks
+of sandstone for casting tanged and socketed spear-heads.[37] (See
+page 39.)
+
+ [37] Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland,
+      vol. xxxvii, p. 181.
+
+6. Find of moulds made in December, 1910, at Killymeddy, Ballymoney,
+Co. Antrim. The find contained two complete moulds for casting looped
+socketed spear-heads, and half a mould for a looped socketed
+spear-head, a mould for one side of a long dagger-blade, a large mould
+for casting one side of a leaf-shaped knife, two halves of a mould
+for casting a sickle, eight fragments of moulds, two sharpening
+stones, and a stone for hammering or smoothing objects.[38] (See page
+40.)
+
+ [38] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 83.
+
+7. Find made at Tempo, Co. Fermanagh. This find was made in 1912, and
+consisted of two leaf-shaped bronze swords with notches below the
+blades, and a very fine socketed spear-head[39] (figs. 65 and 37).
+
+ [39] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 91.
+
+8. Two leaf-shaped spear-heads found together at the Ford, Belturbet,
+Co. Cavan[40] (fig. 30).
+
+ [40] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxx, Sec. C, p. 93.
+
+9. Large hoard found at Dowris, King's Co., about 1825. A small
+portion of this hoard, consisting of two bronze trumpets, seven
+crotals, five socketed spear-heads, and a socketed gouge, are
+preserved in the Royal Irish Academy's collection in the National
+Museum. There are other portions of this hoard in the British Museum
+and at Birr Castle.[41]
+
+ [41] "British Museum Bronze-Age Guide," p. 28.
+
+10. Bronze socketed celt, large bronze ring, two smaller rings with
+lateral-shaped trumpet projections, and a small flat ring all found
+together near Glenstal, Co. Limerick, about 1901.
+
+11. Large find of objects, formerly in St. Columba's College
+Collection, all stated to have been found together, in 1830, in a bog
+at Derryhall, County Antrim. The find comprises fourteen disk-headed
+bronze pins of late Bronze-Age type, and two bronze pins, with
+cup-shaped heads, a bronze dagger and two bronze knives (one of the
+latter being socketed), a socketed celt, nine bronze rings, a bronze
+ring with side perforations and a double ring, a bronze fibula with
+three beads; also two late brooches, and two late pins, which are said
+to have proved part of this find, but whose association with the
+remaining objects is very doubtful.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 71.--Two Late Bronze-Age Finds.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 72.--Late Bronze-Age horse-hair Fabrics from
+                Armoy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+12. Bronze fibula, and twenty-two bronze rings, found together,
+about 1876, at Broca, Rochford Bridge, County Westmeath.
+
+13. Socketed bronze celt, bronze fibula, bronze ring, and disk-headed
+Bronze-Age pin. All found together at Lapoudin, Tulla, County Clare.
+
+14. Three large, seventeen small, eight double bronze rings, and one
+fragment, probably all found together.
+
+15. Bronze fibula, bronze gouge, and three rings, found together, but
+locality unrecorded.
+
+16. Six copper celts found together at Cappeen, County Cork.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 73.--Bronze Implements, Co. Tipperary.]
+
+17. Seven halberds found together at Hillswood, County Galway.[42]
+
+ [42] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxvii, Sec. C, p. 97.
+
+18. Two bronze rings, a small leaf-shaped spear-head, a socketed celt,
+and a small gold bulla, said to have been found together in Kinnegoe
+bog, County Armagh, in 1840. St. Columba's College Collection.
+
+19. Three bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog in the
+barony of Moyarta, County Clare.
+
+20. Six bronze trumpets, one in two parts, found in a bog close to
+Chute Hall, in the townland of Clogher, Clemin, three miles from
+Tralee, County Kerry.
+
+21. Two trumpets, one in two parts, probably found together in a bog
+at Carrick O'Gunnell, County Limerick. (These are probably two of
+those described by Mr. R. Ousley, in the Trans. R.I.A., 1788.)
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 74.--Bronze Implements found at Kilfeakle,
+                Co. Tipperary.]
+
+22. Three trumpets found at Carraconway, near Cloughouter Castle,
+County Cavan.[43]
+
+ [43] Wilde's Catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection, p. 626.
+
+23. Two trumpets found at Macroom, County Cork.
+
+24. Four trumpets found in the bog of Drumabest, Kilraughts, County
+Antrim, in 1840.[44]
+
+ [44] _Ibid._
+
+25. Two trumpets found in County Cork. (Londesborough collection.)
+
+26. Two trumpets and a part of a third found together, but locality
+unknown.
+
+27. Two trumpets probably found together, from Trinity College,
+Dublin, collection.
+
+28. A socketed bronze celt and gold ring-money found together near
+Belfast.[45]
+
+ [45] Archaeologia, vol. lxi, p. 153.
+
+29. Four gold lunulae, found together at Dunfierth, Carbury, County
+Kildare.[46]
+
+ [46] "Wilde's Catalogue of Gold Antiquities," p. 18.
+
+30. A large spear-head, a round bronze shield, with a central boss for
+the hand, and two circles of smaller bosses, found in a mound or rath,
+at Athenry, County Galway.[47]
+
+ [47] Horae Ferales. pl. xi, fig. 1.
+
+With the exception of Nos. 4, 5, 27, and 30, the above-mentioned finds
+are preserved in the Royal Irish Academy's collection, in the National
+Museum, Dublin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+BRONZE TRUMPETS
+
+
+Numerous trumpets of cast bronze have been found in Ireland, both in
+the south and the north. They are rare in Britain. Two or more
+trumpets have often been found together; eight were found at
+Dungannon, County Tyrone, in 1713, and thirteen or fourteen near Cork
+in 1750. The Irish trumpets may be divided into three types--(1) in
+the shape of a horn, open at both ends, having the mouth-piece and
+trumpet cast in one piece; (2) of similar shape, but closed at the
+narrow end, with an aperture for the mouth at the side near the closed
+end; (3) also horn-shaped, but with a long straight tube attached to
+the narrow end of the carved portion, the upper end of the tube having
+four rivet-holes, to which another tube or mouth-piece may have been
+fixed. There are references in classical authorities to the trumpets
+used by the Celts. Polybius, describing the defeat of the Celts by the
+Romans at the battle of Telemon, B.C. 225, speaks of the innumerable
+horns and trumpets of the Celts (Gaesatae, Insubres, Taurisci, and
+Boii).
+
+Dr. F. Behn, of the Mainz Museum, has recently written an account of
+the music in the Roman army, in which he has brought together much
+information about the early bronze trumpets; and he includes a short
+description of the Irish type.[48] The Irish trumpets, which are
+furnished with the straight tubular piece, much resemble the Roman
+lituus; and, as a whole, the Irish type is very closely allied to the
+lituus and carnyx, the difference between the lituus and carnyx being
+that the expanded end of the carnyx takes the form of some fantastic
+animal's head. Trumpets have been found in the Dowris hoard, with
+socketed spear-heads, and other objects of the late Bronze Age, and
+they must be dated to that period; on this account the Etruscan
+lituus can hardly have been derived from Irish trumpets; so that it is
+probable that the Irish trumpets, like those of Gaul, were derived
+from the south.
+
+ [48] Die Musik im roemischen Heere "Mainzer Zeitschrift," 1912, p. 36.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE X. Bronze Trumpets. _p. 88._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 75.--Mould for casting a sickle, found at
+                Killymeddy, Co. Antrim.]
+
+
+SICKLES
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 76.--Bronze sickles.]
+
+Socketed bronze sickles have been found fairly frequently in different
+parts of Ireland. Those in the National Collection have generally been
+referred to the late Bronze Age. These sickles are all very small, and
+it has been thought that the Irish, like the Gauls, cut only the ear
+of the corn, and burnt the stalk. A recent find of moulds in County
+Antrim contained a mould for casting a sickle without a socket like
+the Continental examples, and shows that this type was also known in
+Ireland in the later Bronze Age (fig. 75). The bronze sickles have an
+important bearing on the question of agriculture in Ireland. An
+opinion has recently been expressed that corn was not introduced into
+England until the Roman invasion, and was introduced into Ireland even
+later than this.[49] However, there are instances of ears of corn
+being found within the walls of food-vessels of early Bronze Age date
+in Scotland; and it is probable that corn was also grown in Ireland
+during the Bronze Age. There is evidence that the ox was domesticated
+during this period. The excellence of the metal-casting and the high
+degree of skill shown in casting implements and weapons during the
+Bronze Age lead us to believe that the civilization, and with the
+civilization the art of agriculture and material comfort, had reached
+a fairly high level.
+
+ [49] Proc. Royal Irish Academy, vol. xxxi (Clare Island Survey, Part 5).
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 77.--Bronze sickles.]
+
+
+DISK-HEADED PINS
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 78.--Bronze disk.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 79.--Bronze button.]
+
+In the late period of the Irish Bronze Age, bronze pins with
+disk-shaped heads having a conical projection in the centre are
+fairly common. The disk-heads in many instances are ornamented with
+concentric circles and other simple kinds of decoration. They are
+bent at right angles to the pin, though in some cases the pin comes
+straight from the head. The pins are very long, some measuring as much
+as 12 inches. In the very interesting find at Armoy, County Antrim (p.
+81), it will be remembered that one of these pins was found together
+with a woollen garment, and there is no doubt they were used to fasten
+the dress. The fact of a razor being one of the objects of this find
+indicates that the pins were used by men, though no doubt they may
+also have been worn by women. The use of such long pins seems to point
+to the wearing of some kind of cloak-like garment probably fastened
+in the front; and the ornamental heads of the pins indicate that they
+were worn in a conspicuous place.
+
+As well as the pins a few bronze buttons have been found consisting of
+disks with the same conical projection, but having the pin replaced by
+a small bar at the back. One remarkable example in the National
+Collection measures 4-3/4 inches in diameter (fig. 78). This object
+was probably either attached to a leathern belt or possibly may have
+been a portion of a horse's furniture. The smaller buttons have been
+found on the Continent, and are fairly numerous in the Continental
+lake-dwellings or finds of the late Bronze Age.
+
+One is tempted to see in the Irish examples a derivation of the button
+from the pin.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BRONZE-AGE POTTERY
+
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 80.--Incense cup.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 81.--Cinerary urn.]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 82.--Food-vessel with cover, Danesfort,
+                Co. Kilkenny.]
+
+In Ireland the pottery of the Bronze Age is principally represented
+by the type of vessel known as a food-vessel. We may commence with
+these, as there has only been one undoubted find of beakers made: this
+consisted of the remains of three vessels found together at Moytura,
+County Sligo, and preserved in the National Collection. A beaker is
+stated to have been found at Mount Stewart, County Cavan; but the
+vessel is not extant, and the evidence as to its discovery is not
+perfectly satisfactory. The Irish food-vessel is derived directly
+from the round-bottomed vessel of Neolithic times. Some of these
+round-bottomed bowls have been found with Neolithic remains at
+Portstewart, County Down, and there is one in the National Collection
+described as found in a cavern associated with stone implements beside
+the moat of Dunagore, near the town of Antrim. The development from
+the Neolithic bowl can be clearly traced in the Irish series. The
+earliest are flat, almost saucer-shaped bowls, which are generally
+covered all over with ornament, and often have a cruciform pattern on
+the base which has been thought to indicate that the vessels were
+turned mouth downwards when not in use.[50]
+
+ [50] Abercromby, "Bronze-Age Pottery," vol. i, p. 121.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 83.--Cinerary urn, Carballybeg, Co. Waterford.]
+
+These bowls have a very pleasing effect; and, as Dr. Abercromby says:
+"The small native women, sometimes under five feet high, who made
+these little vessels, had certainly a fine sense of form and a
+delicate perception of the beauty of curved forms. The care and
+precision with which the ornament was effected, and the richness of
+the effect produced by simple means, may excite our admiration."[51]
+
+ [51] Abercromby, _op. cit._, p. 121.
+
+ [Illustration: PLATE XI. Food-vessels in the order of their
+                development. _p. 96._]
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 84.--Model of cinerary urn, showing its position
+                in cist over burnt bones and small vessel, Greenhills,
+                Co. Dublin.]
+
+In the next stage a slight indentation about the centre of the
+vessel can be noticed, the ornament being arranged on either side
+above and below this; next two small ridges develop out of this, which
+are at first close together, but are afterwards placed further apart,
+and in the later stages the vessel becomes considerably higher, the
+base assuming the form of a cone, and the upper portion having an
+everted lip. Some of these latter vessels have a number of small ribs
+encircling them. Plate XI shows a series of food-vessels placed in
+the order of their evolution. The decoration can be well seen. It
+consists for the most part of chevron, herring-bone, and other linear
+ornament, but wavy lines can be seen in some examples. In some rare
+cases the food-vessels were provided with lids (fig. 82). All of these
+vessels were made by hand; and though the baking of the pottery
+varies, it was evidently done over a fire.
+
+ [Illustration: Fig. 85.--Cinerary urn, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone.]
+
+The food-vessels, which are found both with unburnt and burnt
+interments, continued in use during the greater part of the Bronze
+Age, and the name food-vessel is hardly appropriate in Ireland, as in
+many cases these vessels have been found containing cremated bones,
+having apparently served the purpose of cinerary urns.
+
+The so-called cinerary urns are large vessels which have been usually
+discovered containing human bones; they have often been found inverted
+over cremated remains. They can be conveniently divided into several
+types, of which the type with the overhanging rim may be mentioned
+first. In this type the vessel consists of two portions, a lower
+flower-pot-like cone, on which is placed a larger truncated cone,
+which forms the overhanging rim. This type is widely distributed in
+England, and in Ireland has been found in the Counties of Antrim,
+Down, and Tyrone. The cordoned or hooped type is developed from the
+preceding type by replacing the overhanging rim by a moulding, both
+types being contemporary. In the encrusted type the urn, which is of
+the flower-pot shape, is decorated with strips of clay in the form of
+chevrons and bosses, the ornamentation assuming a rope-like form. Urns
+of this type have been found at Greenhills, Tallaght, County Dublin;
+Gortnain, Broomhedge, County Antrim; Tullyweggin, Cookstown, County
+Tyrone; Closkett, Drumgooland, and Glanville, Newry, County Down.
+
+Very small vessels, of usually about 2 to 2-1/2 inches in height, are
+often found in interments associated with the large cinerary urns, and
+occasionally, when the latter are inverted, are found inside them. The
+exact use of these small vessels, which are called "incense-cups" or
+"pygmy-cups," is a matter of speculation; several theories have been
+advanced to explain the purpose of placing them in graves, but none of
+them are altogether satisfactory.[52]
+
+ [52] See Abercromby, _op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 24, who discusses these
+      small vessels at length.
+
+Like the other vessels, they can be divided into different types, of
+which some are peculiar to England, and even there confined to
+certain counties. In Ireland several of these small cups have
+perforated walls, while some have handles. One remarkable specimen
+found at Knocknacoura, Co. Carlow, is covered all over with ornament.
+
+In the fine cist discovered at Greenhills, County Dublin, and now set
+up in the National Museum, a very remarkable little cup was found
+inside the large inverted cinerary urn (fig. 84). The form of this
+small cup appears to be originally derived from a metal prototype, and
+exactly resembles pottery-vessels of Iron-Age date found in the
+cemetery at Marne.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+BRONZE-AGE ORNAMENTATION IN IRELAND
+
+
+The ornament of the Bronze Age in Ireland consists of chevrons, hatched
+triangles, lozenges, etc., combined with some wavy patterns, and later
+in some instances with the spirals introduced from Scandinavia,[53]
+where this motive had penetrated early from the AEgean along the amber
+route. This early type of ornament can be seen on some of the bronze
+celts, and also on the pottery, notably the food-vessels, which are
+often most tastefully decorated. The ornamentation, however, can be
+most fully studied on the inscribed stones in the great monuments of
+the New Grange group. These monuments, perhaps the most remarkable in
+Western Europe, have justly aroused the interest of generations of
+archaeologists, and many interpretations have been placed upon their
+decoration. Having dealt so fully with this subject in a recent book,
+"New Grange and other Incised Tumuli in Ireland," 1912, it is not
+proposed to go into the question again, but there are one or two points
+that may be noticed.
+
+ [53] See Hoernes, "Jahrbuch fuer Altertnmskunde," Band vi, p. 163.
+
+The most remarkable feature about the ornamentation at New Grange is
+the occurrence of the spiral motive; and it is the presence of this
+distinctive motive which has led to so much speculation.
+
+It may be stated at once that the general view at present held by
+those who have studied the question is that the spiral was introduced,
+and that in the case of Ireland it was derived from Scandinavia.
+
+The similarity between New Grange and the tholos tombs of the mainland
+of Greece is so striking that it is at least likely that the former
+may have been derived from the latter.
+
+In examining the monument of New Grange, the author had been led by
+long study, and the comparison with motives common in the AEgean at
+about the same period, to explain the ornamentation, notably in the
+cases of the large stones illustrated in the book, p. 75, as derived
+from combinations of ornaments commonly found on AEgean pottery, these
+motives being themselves connected with the symbolism of sun-worship.
+In the case of other markings, it was considered these were possibly
+derived from the decoration of certain objects of Scandinavian origin.
+In an article in _L'Anthropologie_, vol. xxiii, p. 29, dealing with
+the subject, M. J. Dechelette has put forward other views with regard
+to the markings at New Grange. M. Dechelette sees in the markings at
+New Grange a degenerated copy of the female idols of neolithic times,
+carvings of which in a more or less rudimentary form have been found
+in the Iberian peninsula, Italy, France, England, and Scandinavia. It
+may be mentioned that from the occurrence of carvings of this idol on
+sepulchral monuments it is to be connected with funeral rites. M.
+Dechelette supports his contentions with a wealth of illustrations
+drawn from the tattooed idols of Greece, Portugal, and Aveyron, the
+engraved chalk cylinder from Madrid, the incised lines from
+Almizaraque, the sculptures from the artificial grottos of Marne, the
+vase fragments of Charantaise, the chalk drum from Folkton Wold
+(Yorkshire), and the engravings from the dolmens of Locmariaquer.
+
+On p. 43 M. Dechelette gives a scheme of the evolution of the pattern
+of the idol, starting from fairly well-defined eyes, eyebrows, and
+nose, with chevron marks imitating tattooing. The face becomes
+stylized by the substitution of a mere arched line for the eyebrows,
+and concentric circles for the eyes, the tattooing marks becoming a
+conventional pattern of regular chevrons. In the Irish examples the
+spiral replaces the concentric circles for the eyes, and the pattern
+below is further enriched by lozenges, and finally we arrive at a form
+in which the spiral has an eyebrow above and a single lozenge below,
+and this form M. Dechelette compares to the engravings on the slabs at
+New Grange. The shield-like figure on the roofing stone of the right
+recess at New Grange is compared by M. Dechelette to the engravings on
+the dolmen of Pierres-Plates at Locmariaquer, which also appear to be
+a stylized form of the idol.
+
+M. Dechelette compares the very remarkable boundary-stone at Dowth,
+with the engraving of suns on it, to the vases from Millares, province
+d'Almerie, which are ornamented with raised circles, these in their
+turn being derived from a degenerate form of the idol.
+
+M. Dechelette applies the same explanation to the scribings at
+Gavir'inis, the spiral ornamentation of which is to be regarded as
+derived from Ireland.
+
+This very brilliant and original interpretation of the scribings at
+New Grange seems to fit the case exceedingly well, and M. Dechelette's
+theory may be regarded as a very probable one for the origin of the
+markings, but it must be remembered that there is some difficulty
+caused by the fact that the similarity in plan between New Grange
+and the tholos tombs, as has been pointed out, is too great to be
+neglected. Now if New Grange is derived from this source, it cannot
+well be placed earlier than 1000 B.C. The idol, on the other hand, is
+neolithic in date, and must have survived a considerable time to have
+influenced the Irish carvings. It must also be borne in mind that no
+other forms of this idol have been met with in Ireland.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ A
+
+ Abercromby, Hon. John, 2, 96.
+
+ Amber found in Ireland, 2, 65, 68.
+
+ Annadale, Co. Leitrim, wooden shield found at, 75.
+
+ Annaghkeen, Co. Galway, burial at, 1, 57.
+
+ Anvil and hammers, 27, 28.
+
+ Armoy, Co. Antrim, find made at, 81.
+
+ Athenry, Co. Galway, bronze objects found at, 87.
+
+
+ B
+
+ Bann, River, Co. Antrim, 21.
+
+ Beakers found in Ireland, 95.
+
+ Belfast, find of gold ring-money and bronze celt at, 87.
+
+ Belmore Mountain, Co. Fermanagh, interment at, 1.
+
+ Belturbet, bronze spear-heads found at, 33, 82.
+
+ Birr, King's Co., celts found at, 7.
+
+ Broighter find, 80.
+
+ Bronze Age in Ireland, chronology of, 3-5;
+   1st period of, 23-27;
+   finds of, 80-87;
+   ornamentation, characteristic of, 101-103.
+
+ Bronze celts, evolution of, 23;
+   hafting of, 24, 25;
+   ornamentation of, 25, 26.
+
+
+ C
+
+ Cappeen, Co. Cork, copper celts found at, 8, 85.
+
+ Carraconway, Co. Cavan, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Carrick O'Gunnell, Co. Limerick, trumpets found at, 86.
+
+ Carrowkeel, Co. Sligo, interments at, 1.
+
+ Chapes of bronze for swords, 72, 73.
+
+ Chute Hall, Co. Kerry, trumpets found at, 85.
+
+ Cinerary urns, 99, 100.
+
+ Clare find of gold ornaments, 65, 66.
+
+ Clements, Mr. H. J. B., 65.
+
+ Clonbrin, Co. Longford, leather shield found at, 77.
+
+ Clonmacnois, gold torc found at, 80.
+
+ Clontoo, Co. Kerry, copper celts found at, 8.
+
+ Coachford, Co. Cork, objects found at, 68, 81.
+
+ Copper, counties in which obtained, 6.
+
+ Copper celts, list of counties in which these have been found, 10-12.
+
+ Copper Period in Ireland, 6-23.
+
+ Cork, Co., trumpets found in, 87.
+
+ Crumlin, Co. Dublin, urn found at, 2.
+
+ Cullinagh, Co. Kerry, celts found at, 7.
+
+
+ D
+
+ Daggers and Rapiers, 56-61.
+
+ Dechelette, M. J., 58, 65, 102, 103.
+
+ Disk-headed pins, 81, 92, 93.
+
+ Dowris hoard, 82.
+
+ Drumabest, Co. Antrim, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Dublin, copper celts found in, 8.
+
+ Dunfierth, Co. Kildare, gold lunulae found at, 87.
+
+
+ F
+
+ Finds of copper celts, 7, 8, 10-12.
+
+ Finds of Bronze-Age implements and weapons, 80-87.
+
+ Food-vessels, description of, 95-99.
+
+
+ G
+
+ Glenstal, Co. Limerick, find of bronze objects at, 82.
+
+ Gold balls found at Carrick-on-Shannon, 65.
+
+ Gorgets, gold, 62-64.
+
+ Gowland, Prof. W., 4.
+
+
+ H
+
+ Halberds, 12-23;
+   analyses of, 17.
+
+ Hallstatt Period in Ireland, 5, 63.
+
+ Hillswood, Co. Galway, halberds found at, 85.
+
+
+ I
+
+ Incense cups, 99.
+
+ Irish gold deposits, 46, 47.
+
+ Iron sword of Hallstatt type found in Ireland, 72.
+
+
+ K
+
+ Kilfeakle, Co. Tipperary, bronze implements found at, 81.
+
+ Killymeddy, Co. Antrim, find of moulds at, 40, 81.
+
+ Kinnegoe bog, Co. Armagh, bronze objects found at, 85.
+
+ Knocknague, Co. Galway, celts found at, 7.
+
+
+ L
+
+ Lahardoun, Tulla, Co. Clare, find of bronze objects at, 81.
+
+ Leaf-shaped swords, 71-73.
+
+ Lisnacroghera crannog, 45.
+
+ Lissane, Co. Derry, rapier found at, 58.
+
+ Lough Gur, Co. Limerick, bronze shield found at, 74.
+
+ Lunulae, gold, 47-55.
+
+
+ M
+
+ Macroom, Co. Cork, trumpets found at, 87.
+
+ Manillas, African, similarity to Irish gold fibulae, 70.
+
+ Montelius, Dr. Oscar, 3, 23, 58, 61.
+
+ Moulds for casting spear-heads, 39-44;
+   absence of, for casting leaf-shaped swords, 72;
+   for casting flat celts, 6, 9.
+
+ Mountrivers, Coachford, Co. Cork, find at, 81.
+
+ Moyarta, Co. Clare, trumpets found at, 85.
+
+ Much, Dr., 22.
+
+ Muller, Prof. S., 64.
+
+ Mycenae, leaf-shaped swords found at, 71.
+
+
+ N
+
+ Naas, Co. Kildare, excavation at, 1.
+
+ Neolithic pottery found in Ireland, 95.
+
+ New Grange, 3-5;
+   ornamentation at, 101-103.
+
+
+ O
+
+ Omagh, Co. Tyrone, moulds found at, 81.
+
+
+ P
+
+ Padstow, Cornwall, gold lunulae found at, 48.
+
+ Palstaves with double loops, 27.
+
+ Penannular rings and ring-money, 67-70.
+
+ Polybius quoted, 77.
+
+ Pottery of the Bronze Age, 94-100.
+
+
+ R
+
+ Ridgeway, Prof. W., 70.
+
+ Ring-money, 70.
+
+
+ S
+
+ Schmidt, Herr Hubert, 23.
+
+ Shields, bronze, 74, 75;
+   wood, 75;
+   leather, 77.
+
+ Sickles, 90, 91;
+   mould for casting, 90.
+
+ Smith, Mr. R. A., 64.
+
+ Spain, halberds from, 19.
+
+ Spear-heads, 29-38;
+   spear-ferules, 44, 45.
+
+ St. Columba's College, collection, 82.
+
+ Sullivan, Mr. M. J., 39.
+
+ Sun-disks, gold, 64, 65.
+
+
+ T
+
+ Tempo, Co. Fermanagh, swords found at, 82.
+
+ Topped mountain cairn, find of objects made at, 56.
+
+ Torcs, 78-80.
+
+ Trumpets, 88, 89;
+   finds of, in Ireland, 85-87.
+
+
+ W
+
+ Wicklow, gold obtained from, 46.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Bronze Age in Ireland, by George Coffey
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