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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol XI, by 
+George Brodrick and J.K. Fotheringham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Political History of England - Vol XI
+       From Addington's Administration to the close of William
+       IV.'s Reign (1801-1837)
+
+Author: George Brodrick
+        J.K. Fotheringham
+
+Release Date: September 30, 2008 [EBook #26727]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Paul Murray, Brownfox and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   _THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND_
+
+
+_Seventy-five years have passed since Lingard completed his_ HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND, _which ends with the Revolution of 1688. During that period
+historical study has made a great advance. Year after year the mass of
+materials for a new History of England has increased; new lights have
+been thrown on events and characters, and old errors have been
+corrected. Many notable works have been written on various periods of
+our history; some of them at such length as to appeal almost exclusively
+to professed historical students. It is believed that the time has come
+when the advance which has been made in the knowledge of English history
+as a whole should be laid before the public in a single work of fairly
+adequate size. Such a book should be founded on independent thought and
+research, but should at the same time be written with a full knowledge
+of the works of the best modern historians and with a desire to take
+advantage of their teaching wherever it appears sound._
+
+_The vast number of authorities, printed and in manuscript, on which a
+History of England should be based, if it is to represent the existing
+state of knowledge, renders co-operation almost necessary and certainly
+advisable. The History, of which this volume is an instalment, is an
+attempt to set forth in a readable form the results at present attained
+by research. It will consist of twelve volumes by twelve different
+writers, each of them chosen as being specially capable of dealing with
+the period which he undertakes, and the editors, while leaving to each
+author as free a hand as possible, hope to insure a general similarity
+in method of treatment, so that the twelve volumes may in their
+contents, as well as in their outward appearance, form one History._
+
+_As its title imports, this History will primarily deal with politics,
+with the History of England and, after the date of the union with
+Scotland, Great Britain, as a state or body politic; but as the life of
+a nation is complex, and its condition at any given time cannot be
+understood without taking into account the various forces acting upon
+it, notices of religious matters and of intellectual, social, and
+economic progress will also find place in these volumes. The footnotes
+will, so far as is possible, be confined to references to authorities,
+and references will not be appended to statements which appear to be
+matters of common knowledge and do not call for support. Each volume
+will have an Appendix giving some account of the chief authorities,
+original and secondary, which the author has used. This account will be
+compiled with a view of helping students rather than of making long
+lists of books without any notes as to their contents or value. That the
+History will have faults both of its own and such as will always in some
+measure attend co-operative work, must be expected, but no pains have
+been spared to make it, so far as may be, not wholly unworthy of the
+greatness of its subject._
+
+_Each volume, while forming part of a complete History, will also in
+itself be a separate and complete book, will be sold separately, and
+will have its own index, and two or more maps._
+
+The History is divided as follows:--
+
+Vol. I. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (to 1066). By
+    Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D., Fellow of University College,
+    London; Fellow of the British Academy. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. II. FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OF JOHN (1066-1216). By
+    George Burton Adams, D.D., Litt.D., Professor of History in Yale
+    University. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. III. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY III. TO THE DEATH OF EDWARD III.
+    (1216-1377). By T. F. Tout, M.A., Bishop Fraser Professor of
+    Mediæval and Ecclesiastical History in the University of Manchester;
+    formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF RICHARD II. TO THE DEATH OF RICHARD III.
+    (1377-1485). By C. W. C. Oman, M.A., LL.D., M.P., Chichele Professor
+    of Modern History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of the British
+    Academy. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. V. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VII. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VIII.
+    (1485-1547). By the Right Hon. H. A. L. Fisher, M.A., M.P.,
+    President of the Board of Education; Fellow of the British Academy.
+    With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VI. FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD VI. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH
+    (1547-1603). By A. F. Pollard, M.A., Litt.D., Fellow of All Souls'
+    College, Oxford, and Professor of English History in the University
+    of London. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VII. FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. TO THE RESTORATION (1603-1660).
+    By F. C. Montague, M.A., Astor Professor of History in University
+    College, London; formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. With 3
+    Maps.
+
+Vol. VIII. FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE DEATH OF WILLIAM III.
+    (1660-1702). By Sir Richard Lodge, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Professor
+    of History in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Fellow of
+    Brasenose College, Oxford. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. IX. FROM THE ACCESSION OF ANNE TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE II.
+    (1702-1760). By I. S. Leadam, M.A., formerly Fellow of Brasenose
+    College, Oxford. With 8 Maps.
+
+Vol. X. FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. TO THE CLOSE OF PITT'S FIRST
+    ADMINISTRATION (1760-1801). By the Rev. William Hunt, M.A., D.Litt.,
+    Trinity College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XI. FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S
+    REIGN (1801-1837). By the Hon. George C. Brodrick, D.C.L., late
+    Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and J. K. Fotheringham, M.A.,
+    D.Litt., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; Lecturer in Ancient
+    History at King's College, London. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XII. THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA (1837-1901). By Sir Sidney Low,
+    M.A., Fellow of King's College, London; formerly Scholar of Balliol
+    College, Oxford, and Lloyd C. Sanders, B.A. With 3 Maps.
+
+
+
+
+                    The Political History of England
+
+                           IN TWELVE VOLUMES
+
+                  EDITED BY WILLIAM HUNT, D.LITT., AND
+                         REGINALD L. POOLE, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+                                   XI.
+
+                         THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+                   FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO
+
+                    THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S REIGN
+
+                                1801-1837
+
+
+
+
+                                 BY THE
+
+                     HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK, D.C.L.
+
+                  LATE WARDEN OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD
+
+                        COMPLETED AND REVISED BY
+
+                    J. K. FOTHERINGHAM, M.A., D.LITT.
+
+             FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD; LECTURER IN
+                ANCIENT HISTORY AT KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON
+
+
+                            _NEW IMPRESSION_
+
+
+                         LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
+
+                       39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+
+                  FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK
+
+                      BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+
+                                  1919
+
+
+
+
+_NOTE._
+
+
+_When the late Warden of Merton undertook the preparation of this volume
+he invited the assistance of Dr. Fotheringham in the portions dealing
+with foreign affairs. At the time of the late Warden's death in 1903
+three chapters (x., xii. and xviii.) were unwritten, and one (xx.) was
+left incomplete. It was also found that the volume had to be recast in
+order to meet the plan of the series. The necessary alterations and
+additions have been made by Dr. Fotheringham, who has been scrupulous in
+retaining the expression of the late Warden's views, and, where
+possible, his words._
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                              ADDINGTON.
+                                                                       PAGE
+
+   Mar., 1801. The new ministry                                           1
+               Condition of Ireland                                       2
+               Expedition to Copenhagen                                   3
+         Sept. Egypt evacuated by the French                              6
+               French diplomatic successes                                6
+               Bonaparte's concordat with the pope                        7
+               Peace negotiations with France                             8
+               Cornwallis at Amiens                                      10
+25 Mar., 1802. The treaty of Amiens                                      12
+               Parliamentary criticism of the treaty                     14
+         July. General election                                          15
+          Nov. Colonel Despard's conspiracy                              16
+               Further aggressions of Napoleon                           17
+               His colonial policy                                       18
+               Negotiations between Whitworth and the French government  19
+ 18 May, 1803. Renewal of the war with France                            22
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                          THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+23 July, 1803. Emmet's rebellion                                         23
+               Pitt's discontent with the ministry                       24
+               Ministerial changes                                       27
+   Jan., 1804. The king's illness                                        29
+        April. Addington's resignation                                   31
+               The exclusion of Fox                                      32
+       18 May. Napoleon declared emperor                                 33
+               Pitt's ministry                                           34
+               The impeachment of Melville                               36
+         July. The third coalition                                       37
+               Nelson's pursuit of Villeneuve                            39
+21 Oct., 1805. The battle of Trafalgar                                   40
+               Napoleon marches into Germany                             41
+          Dec. Austerlitz: the peace of Pressburg                        42
+               Collapse of the coalition                                 43
+23 Jan., 1806. Death of Pitt                                             43
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+                         GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+   Feb., 1806. Formation of the Grenville ministry                       45
+      13 Sept. Death of Fox                                              46
+       14 Oct. Jena and Auerstädt                                        47
+               General election                                          48
+25 Mar., 1807. Abolition of the slave trade                              48
+               Fall of the whig government                               49
+               The Portland administration                               50
+               General election                                          50
+       7 July. The treaty of Tilsit                                      52
+               Seizure of the Danish fleet                               54
+               The "continental system" and orders in council            55
+               Fruitless expeditions                                     56
+       12 Oct. Conference of Erfurt                                      59
+               Army scandals                                             60
+               The Wagram campaign                                       63
+   July, 1809. The Walcheren expedition                                  64
+      21 Sept. Duel between Canning and Castlereagh                      67
+          Oct. Perceval's administration                                 68
+               Capture of the Ionian Isles and Bourbon                   69
+           25. Jubilee of George III.                                    69
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+                        PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+   Jan., 1810. Debates on the Walcheren expedition                       71
+        April. The arrest of Burdett                                     72
+               Appointment of the "Bullion committee"                    73
+               The king's insanity: regency bill                         74
+ 11 May, 1812. Assassination of Perceval                                 76
+      1809-11. Social reforms in his ministry                            77
+   July, 1810. Deposition of Louis Bonaparte                             78
+               Opposition in Europe to the continental system            78
+               Alliances formed by Russia and France                     81
+               Conquest of Java and Sumatra                              81
+   June, 1812. The formation of Liverpool's cabinet                      81
+      1811-12. Distress in town and country                              83
+   Oct., 1812. General election                                          85
+         1813. Confirmation of the East India Company's charter          86
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                          THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+   1807, 1808. The origin of the war                                     87
+               Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. seek the
+                   protection of Napoleon                                87
+         1808. Napoleon's plans for the conquest of Spain                88
+      24 July. Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain                 89
+       13 Aug. Landing of Wellesley                                      90
+           21. Battle of Vimeiro                                         91
+Oct., 1808.-   Expedition of Sir John Moore                              92
+   Jan., 1809.
+       16 Jan. Battle of Coruña                                          95
+               Wellesley returns to Portugal                             97
+      27 July. Battle of Talavera                                        98
+  Sept., 1810. Bussaco: the lines of Torres Vedras                      101
+               Struggle for the frontier fortresses                     103
+ 16 May, 1811. Battle of Albuera                                        103
+Jan.-April,    Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz                     105
+         1812.
+      22 July. Battle of Salamanca                                      107
+   1812, 1813. Wellington reorganises the Spanish and Portuguese armies 109
+21 June, 1813. Battle of Vitoria                                        110
+               Battle of the Pyrenees                                   113
+               Siege of St. Sebastian                                   113
+        8 Oct. Wellington crosses the Bidassoa                          115
+               Battles round Bayonne                                    115
+   Feb., 1814. The investment of Bayonne                                117
+     10 April. Battle of Toulouse                                       119
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                       THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+         1812. French treaties with Prussia and Austria                 122
+               Alliances made by Russia                                 123
+         June. Napoleon's advance into Russia                           124
+               His retreat                                              125
+               War between England and the United States                126
+               Attacks on Canada                                        129
+               American successes at sea                                131
+   Feb., 1813. Treaty of Kalisch                                        134
+               Austrian diplomacy                                       135
+    2, 21 May. Lützen and Bautzen                                       135
+    Aug., Oct. Dresden and Leipzig                                      137
+               France loses Saxony, Holland, and Switzerland            138
+               American war continued                                   138
+       1 June. Duel of the _Shannon_ and _Chesapeake_                   142
+Jan.-Mar.,     Campaign in France                                       143
+         1814.
+        April. Napoleon deposed: Louis XVIII. recalled                  145
+       24 Dec. Treaty of Ghent                                          147
+         July. Visit of Alexander and Frederick William to England      148
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+                          VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+30 May, 1814.  The first treaty of Paris                                149
+               English blockade of Norwegian ports                      150
+               Union of Sweden and Norway                               150
+               Restoration of Ferdinand VII. and Pius VII.              150
+               Attempts to abolish the slave trade                      151
+Sept., 1814-   Congress of Vienna                                       152
+   June, 1815.
+ 3 Jan., 1815. Secret treaty between England, France, and Austria       153
+      1 March. Napoleon's return from Elba                              153
+               Flight of Louis XVIII.: the _Acte Additionnel_           155
+               Plans of the allies                                      156
+               Defeat and death of Murat                                157
+         June. Wellington at Brussels: his army                         158
+           16. Ligny and Quatre Bras                                    159
+           18. Waterloo                                                 160
+         July. Paris occupied by the allies                             163
+      22 June. Second abdication of Napoleon                            165
+               His surrender to England                                 165
+               Restoration of Louis XVIII.: treaty of Vienna            166
+               Resettlement of Europe                                   166
+       20 Nov. Second treaty of Paris: English gains                    167
+      26 Sept. The Holy Alliance                                        168
+               Napoleon at St. Helena                                   169
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                        THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+         1816. Depression and discontent                                171
+               Vansittart's financial policy                            173
+               Union of British and Irish exchequers                    174
+ 2 Dec., 1816. Spa Fields riot                                          175
+               Prosecution of Hone                                      177
+         1818. General election                                         178
+16 Aug., 1819. The "Manchester massacre"                                178
+          Dec. The six acts                                             180
+   1817, 1819. Institution of savings banks: currency reform            182
+ 6 Nov., 1817. Death of Princess Charlotte                              184
+         1818. Royal marriages                                          184
+29 Jan., 1820. Death of George III.                                     185
+               Royalist reaction in Europe                              187
+         1816. Expedition against the Barbary states                    187
+         1819. Murder of Kotzebue                                       189
+30 Sept.,      Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle                            189
+         1818.
+               Spain asks for assistance from the allies                190
+               The European alliance                                    190
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+                   THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+         1820. The Cato Street conspiracy                               192
+               Dissolution of parliament                                193
+               The "queen's trial"                                      194
+ 7 Aug., 1821. Her death                                                196
+         1822. Changes in the cabinet                                   199
+       12 Aug. Death of Castlereagh                                     199
+         Sept. Canning foreign secretary                                200
+          Jan. Peel home secretary                                      201
+         1823. Reform of the navigation laws                            202
+               Agricultural discontent                                  203
+         1825. Speculative frenzy and financial panic                   205
+      1823-26. Robinson's finance                                       206
+               General election of 1826                                 207
+               Close of Liverpool's ministry                            208
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                     PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+         1820. Revolution in Spain: policy of non-intervention          210
+    July, Aug. Revolutions in the Two Sicilies and Portugal             211
+       20 Oct. Congress of Troppau                                      211
+   Jan., 1821. Congress of Laibach                                      212
+  Mar., April. Revolution in Piedmont: Austrian intervention            213
+               Insurrections in the Morea and Central Greece            214
+          Aug. "Sanitary cordon"                                        215
+               Ultra-royalist parties in France and Spain               215
+               Loss of Spanish colonies in America                      215
+         1822. Conference at Vienna                                     216
+       20 Oct. Congress of Verona                                       217
+               Offer of mediation declined                              218
+7 April, 1823. War between France and Spain                             220
+12 Oct., 1822. Independence of Brazil                                   221
+   July, 1825. Conference at London                                     222
+ 2 Dec., 1823. The Monroe doctrine                                      223
+      1824-25. Conference at St. Petersburg                             224
+ 1 Dec., 1825. Death of the Tsar Alexander I.                           225
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+                  TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+  April, 1827. Formation of Canning's ministry                          227
+               Additions to the ministry                                228
+        8 Aug. Death of Canning                                         228
+         Sept. Goderich's cabinet                                       229
+               Dissensions: resignation of Goderich                     230
+ 9 Jan., 1828. Wellington accepts office                                230
+               The Eastern question                                     232
+20 Oct., 1827. Navarino                                                 233
+         1828. Repeal of the test and corporation acts                  235
+    May, June. Changes in the ministry                                  236
+   June, July. The Clare election                                       237
+         1821. Measures for catholic relief                             239
+         1825. Further measures                                         241
+               George IV.'s opposition to catholic relief               244
+         1829. Wellington and Peel adopt catholic relief                245
+  Mar., April. Debates on the bill                                      246
+     13 April. The royal assent                                         249
+       21 Mar. Duel between Wellington and Winchilsea                   250
+               Exclusion of O'Connell from Parliament                   251
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+                          PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+10 Mar., 1826. Death of John VI. of Portugal                            253
+        2 May. Peter abdicates in favour of his daughter Maria          254
+      31 July. Miguel proclaimed king by the absolutists                254
+          Dec. England sends troops to help the Portuguese government   255
+ 3 Mar., 1828. Peter appoints Miguel regent for Maria                   258
+   Dec., 1827. The sultan defies Russia                                 260
+26 April,      Russia makes war on the Turks                            263
+         1828.
+               Negotiations for settlement of Greek question            264
+    Oct., Nov. French troops expel the Turks from the Morea             265
+               Terms of settlement agreed on at Poros and London        266
+14 Sept.,      Peace of Adrianople                                      267
+         1829.
+ 3 Feb., 1830. Greece independent: throne offered to Prince Leopold     268
+               France conquers Algiers                                  269
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+                            PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+         1830. Amalgamation of English and Welsh benches                271
+               Motions for reform                                       271
+      26 June. Death of George IV.                                      272
+               General election                                         274
+      15 Sept. Death of Huskisson                                       275
+               Wellington's opposition to reform                        277
+               Fall of his ministry                                     278
+          Nov. Grey accepts office                                      278
+               His cabinet                                              279
+               The regency bill                                         281
+   Feb., 1831. Althorp's first budget                                   283
+               Public demand for reform                                 285
+               Draft of the first reform bill                           287
+               System of representation in the unreformed house         288
+               Popular excitement: second reading of the bill           291
+               Dissolution of parliament                                292
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+                              THE REFORM.
+
+         1831. General election                                         293
+      24 June. Second reform bill introduced                            294
+        8 Oct. Rejection by the lords                                   296
+               Reform bill riots                                        296
+               Attempts at compromise in the lords                      299
+       12 Dec. Final reform bill introduced                             300
+               Gradual loss of the king's confidence in the ministry    302
+  9 May, 1832. Grey resigns                                             302
+               Wellington unable to form a ministry                     303
+               The king recalls Grey                                    304
+       4 June. Third reading of the bill                                304
+               Scotch and Irish reform bills carried                    306
+       26 Oct. The cholera epidemic                                     309
+         1831. The census                                               311
+               State of Ireland                                         312
+               O'Connell's agitation                                    312
+               The "tithe-war" in Ireland                               314
+               Legislation for Ireland                                  316
+               The Kildare Place Society                                317
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+                         FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+         1832. General election                                         318
+         1833. Irish coercion bill                                      320
+               Irish Church temporalities bill                          322
+               Ministerial changes                                      325
+               Abolition of colonial slavery                            326
+               Factory acts                                             327
+               The East India Company act                               328
+               Bank charter act                                         330
+               Formation of judicial committee of the privy council     332
+               Act for the abolition of fines and recoveries            333
+1831, 1832,    Althorp's budgets                                        334
+         1833.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+                RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+         1833. The Tractarian movement                                  336
+         1832. First meeting of the British Association                 338
+               Foundation of the Catholic Apostolic Church              339
+         1834. The "new poor law"                                       340
+               Creation of a central poor law board                     343
+               Ministerial discord                                      344
+       9 July. Grey's resignation                                       346
+               Formation of Melbourne's ministry                        347
+       16 Oct. Destruction of the houses of parliament                  349
+       14 Nov. Melbourne's resignation                                  350
+               Wellington's provisional government                      351
+          Dec. Peel's cabinet                                           352
+               The Tamworth manifesto                                   353
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                           PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+   Jan., 1835. General election                                         354
+          Feb. Abercromby elected speaker                               354
+               The "Lichfield House compact"                            356
+        April. Peel's resignation                                       356
+               Melbourne's second ministry                              357
+               Exclusion of Brougham                                    357
+               Municipal corporations act                               360
+   Jan., 1836. Cottenham lord chancellor                                363
+               Conflict with the lords on Irish bills                   365
+               Tithe commutation act (English)                          365
+               Reformed marriage law                                    366
+               Registration system                                      366
+   1835, 1836. Crusade against Orange lodges                            367
+         1836. The paper duties lowered                                 369
+               Committee on agricultural distress                       370
+   1836, 1837. Agitation in Ireland                                     371
+         1837. Irish municipal bill                                     372
+               Church rates                                             373
+               Burdett secedes from the whig party                      374
+      20 June. Death of William IV.                                     375
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+                    FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+   July, 1830. The revolution of July                                   376
+               Recognition of Louis Philippe by the Powers              377
+         Sept. Belgian provinces in revolt                              379
+       20 Dec. Protocol of London                                       381
+   June, 1831. Election of Leopold as King of the Belgians              383
+          Aug. War between Belgium and Holland                          384
+               French troops enter Belgium                              384
+          Nov. British and French fleets blockade the Scheldt           386
+   Nov., 1833. Convention between Holland and Belgium                   387
+         1830. Insurrections in Switzerland, Poland, Italy, etc.        387
+   1831, 1832. Capture of Warsaw; Polish constitution abolished         388
+7 April, 1831. Peter leaves Brazil for Portugal                         388
+               Carlist rebellion in Spain                               389
+22 April,      The quadruple alliance                                   389
+         1834.
+       26 May. Miguel renounces his claims                              390
+ 9 Oct., 1831. Capodistrias (Greek president) assassinated              392
+         1832. Otto of Bavaria becomes King of Greece                   392
+         1831. War between Ibrahim and the Sultan                       393
+         1833. Treaties of Kiutayeh and Unkiar Skelessi                 394
+       8 Sept. Secret convention at Münchengrätz                        395
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+                             BRITISH INDIA.
+
+         1801. Annexation of the Karnátik                               397
+         1803. Assaye and Argáum                                        399
+         1805. Resignation of Lord Wellesley                            399
+10 July, 1806. Mutiny at Vellore                                        400
+               Lord Minto's pacific policy                              401
+      1801-10. Treaties with Persia                                     402
+               Elphinstone in Afghánistán                               403
+         1813. Lord Moira appointed governor-general                    404
+               The Pindárí war                                          405
+         1818. Subjugation of the Pindárís                              407
+               First Burmese war                                        408
+               Abolition of satí                                        410
+               Extirpation of thagí                                     411
+               Defence of Herat                                         412
+               Communication with India                                 413
+               Burnes's mission to Kábul                                413
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+                    LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+               The "Lake school"                                        416
+               Scott's novels                                           418
+               Minor poets: philosophical works                         420
+               Newspapers and reviews                                   422
+               Essayists and historians                                 425
+               The arts: painting, sculpture                            427
+               Scientific discoveries                                   428
+               University reform                                        429
+               Formation of London University                           431
+               Improvements in agriculture                              433
+               Steam navigation                                         434
+               The first railways                                       435
+               Geographical discovery                                   436
+               Philanthropy                                             436
+               Canada                                                   437
+               South Africa                                             438
+               Convict settlements in Australia                         438
+               Development of Australia                                 439
+
+
+APPENDIX    I. On Authorities                                           443
+           II. Administrations, 1801-37                                 451
+
+
+                              MAPS.
+
+                   (AT THE END OF THE VOLUME.)
+
+1. Great Britain, showing the parliamentary representation after the
+   reform.
+2. Spain and Portugal, illustrating the Peninsular war.
+3. India.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                              ADDINGTON.
+
+
+When, early in March, 1801, Pitt resigned office, he was succeeded by
+Henry Addington, who had been speaker of the house of commons for over
+eleven years, and who now received the seals of office as first lord of
+the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer on March 14, 1801. He was
+able to retain the services of the Duke of Portland as home secretary,
+of Lord Chatham as president of the council, and of Lord Westmorland as
+lord privy seal. For the rest, his colleagues were, like himself, new to
+cabinet rank. Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards the second Earl of Liverpool)
+became foreign secretary, and Lord Hobart, son of the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire, secretary for war. Loughborough reaped the due reward
+of his treachery by being excluded from the ministry altogether; with a
+curious obstinacy he persisted in attending cabinet councils, until a
+letter from Addington informed him that his presence was not desired. He
+received some small consolation, however, in his elevation to the
+Earldom of Rosslyn. Lord Eldon was the new chancellor and was destined
+to hold the office uninterruptedly, except for the brief ministry of Fox
+and Grenville, till 1827. Lord St. Vincent became first lord of the
+admiralty, and Lord Lewisham president of the board of control.
+Cornwallis had resigned with Pitt, but it was not till June 16 that a
+successor was found for him as master general of the ordnance. It was
+then arranged that Chatham should take this office. Portland succeeded
+Chatham as lord president, and Lord Pelham, whose father had just been
+created Earl of Chichester, became home secretary instead of Portland.
+An important change was introduced into the distribution of work between
+the different secretaries of state, the administration of colonial
+affairs being transferred from the home to the war office, so that
+Hobart and his successors down to 1854 were known as secretaries of
+state for war and the colonies. Soon afterwards Lewisham succeeded his
+father as Earl of Dartmouth.
+
+Though the Addington ministry has, not without justice, been derided for
+its weakness as compared with its immediate predecessor, it is
+interesting to observe that in it one of the greatest of English judges
+as well as a future premier, destined to display an unique power of
+holding his party together, first attained to cabinet rank; and in the
+following year it was reinforced by Castlereagh, who disputes with
+Canning the honour of being regarded as the ablest statesman of what was
+then the younger generation. The weakness of the ministry must therefore
+be attributed to a lack of experience rather than a lack of talent. It
+was unfortunate in succeeding a particularly strong administration, but
+is well able to bear comparison with most of the later ministries of
+George III. Addington himself was in more thorough sympathy with the
+king than any premier before or after. Conversation with Addington was,
+according to the king, like "thinking aloud"; and with a king who, like
+George III., still regarded himself as responsible for the national
+policy, hearty co-operation between king and premier was a matter of no
+slight importance.
+
+In the early days of the new administration Pitt loyally kept his
+promise of friendly support, and it is to be deplored that Grenville and
+Canning did not adopt the same course. While the issue of peace and war
+was pending, domestic legislation inevitably remained in abeyance. In
+Ireland serious disappointment had been caused by the abandonment of
+catholic emancipation; but the disappointment was borne quietly, and the
+Irish Roman catholics doubtless did not foresee to what a distance of
+time the removal of their disabilities had been postponed. The just and
+mild rule of the new lord lieutenant, Lord Hardwicke, contributed to the
+pacification of the country. But in reality the conduct of the movement
+for emancipation was only passing into new hands; when it reappeared it
+was no longer led by catholic lords and bishops, but was a peasant
+movement, headed by the unscrupulous demagogue O'Connell. In these
+circumstances it is to be regretted that the new administration
+neglected to carry that one of the half-promised concessions to the
+catholics which could not offend the king's conscience, namely, the
+commutation of tithe. Nothing in the protestant ascendency was so
+irritating to the catholic peasantry as the necessity of paying tithe to
+a protestant clergy, and its commutation, while benefiting the clergy
+themselves, would have removed the occasion of subsequent agitation. The
+spirit of disloyalty, however, was believed to be by no means extinct
+either in Ireland or in Great Britain, and two stringent acts were
+passed to repress it. The first, for the continuance of martial law in
+Ireland, was supported by almost all the Irish speakers in the house of
+commons, where it was carried without a division, and was adopted in the
+house of lords by an overwhelming majority, after an impressive speech
+from Lord Clare. The second, for the suspension of the _habeas corpus_
+act in the whole United Kingdom was framed to remain in force "during
+the continuance of the war, and for one month after the signing of a
+definitive treaty of peace".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE HORNE TOOKE ACT._]
+
+The only other measure of permanent interest which became law in this
+session was the so-called "Horne Tooke act," occasioned by the return of
+Horne Tooke, who was in holy orders, for Old Sarum. Such a return was
+contrary to custom, but the precedents collected by a committee of the
+house of commons were inconclusive. It was accordingly enacted that in
+future clergymen of the established churches should be ineligible for
+seats in parliament, while Horne Tooke was deemed to have been validly
+elected, and retained his seat. The house of commons found time,
+however, for an important and well-sustained debate on India, in which
+among others Dundas, now no longer in office, showed a thorough
+knowledge of questions affecting Indian finance and trade.
+
+The naval expedition which had been prepared in the last days of Pitt's
+administration sailed for Copenhagen on March 12, 1801, under Sir Hyde
+Parker, with Nelson as second in command. The admiral in chief was of a
+cautious temper, but was wise enough to allow himself to be guided by
+Nelson's judgment when planning an engagement, though not as to the
+general course of the expedition. The fleet consisted of sixteen ships
+of the line and thirty-four smaller vessels; all these with the
+exception of one ship of the line reached the Skaw on the 18th. A
+frigate was sent in advance with instructions to Vansittart, the
+British envoy at Copenhagen, to present an ultimatum to the Danish
+government,[1] demanding a favourable answer to the British demands
+within forty-eight hours. For three days Parker waited at anchor
+eighteen miles from Elsinore, and it was only when Vansittart brought an
+unfavourable reply on the 23rd that he took Nelson into his counsels. He
+readily adopted Nelson's plan of ignoring the Danish batteries at
+Kronborg and making a circuit so as to attack Copenhagen at the weak
+southern end of its defences, but set aside his project of masking
+Copenhagen and making straight for a Russian squadron of twelve ships of
+the line which was lying icebound at Revel. The fair weather of the 26th
+was wasted in irresolution, and it was not till the 30th that the fleet
+was able to weigh anchor. It passed Kronborg in safety and anchored five
+miles north of Copenhagen.
+
+Parker placed under Nelson's immediate command twelve ships of the line
+and twenty-one smaller vessels, by far the greater part of the British
+fleet. With these he was to pass to the east of a shoal called the
+Middle Ground and attack the defences of Copenhagen from the south,
+while Parker with the remainder of the fleet was to make a demonstration
+against the more formidable northern defences. The wind could not of
+course favour both attacks simultaneously, and it was agreed that the
+attack should be made when the wind favoured Nelson. The nights of the
+30th and 31st were spent in reconnoitring and laying buoys. On April 1 a
+north wind brought Nelson's squadron past the Middle Ground, and on the
+next day a south wind enabled him to attack the Danish fleet, if fleet
+it may be called. At the north end of the Danish position stood the only
+permanent battery, the Trekroner, with two hulks or blockships; the rest
+consisted of seven blockships and eleven floating batteries, drawn up
+along the shore. An attack on the south end of the line was also exposed
+to batteries on the island of Amager. Nelson's intention was to close
+with the whole Danish fleet, but three of his ships of the line were
+stranded and he was obliged to leave the assault on the northern end
+entirely to lighter vessels.
+
+[Pageheading: _BATTLE OF THE BALTIC._]
+
+The Danish batteries proved more powerful than had been anticipated, and
+as time went on and the Danish resistance did not appear to lose in
+strength, Parker grew doubtful of the result of the battle and gave the
+order to cease action. The order was apparently not intended to be
+imperative, but it had the effect of inducing Riou, who commanded the
+frigate squadron, to sail away to the north. For the rest of the fleet
+obedience was out of the question. Nelson acknowledged, but refused to
+repeat the order, and, jocularly placing his glass to his blind eye,
+declared that he could not see the signal. At length the British
+cannonade told. Fischer, the Danish commander, had had to shift his flag
+twice, at the second time to the Trekroner, and all the ships south of
+that battery had either ceased fire or were practically helpless. The
+Trekroner, however, was still unsubdued and rendered it impossible for
+Nelson's squadron to retire, in the only direction which the wind would
+allow, without severe loss. He accordingly sent a message to the Danish
+Prince Regent, declaring that he would be compelled to burn the
+batteries he had taken, without saving their crews, unless firing
+ceased. If a truce were arranged until he could take his prisoners out
+of the prizes, he was prepared to land the wounded Danes, and burn or
+remove the prizes. A truce for twenty-four hours was accordingly
+arranged, which Nelson employed to remove his own fleet unmolested.
+
+The destruction of the southern batteries left Copenhagen exposed to
+bombardment, and the Danes, unable to resist, yet afraid to offend the
+tsar by submission, prolonged the time from day to day till news arrived
+which removed all occasion for hostility. Unknown to either of the
+combatants, the Tsar Paul, the life and soul of the northern
+confederacy, had been murdered on the night of March 23, ten days before
+the battle, and with his death the league was practically dissolved.
+When Nelson advanced further into the Baltic, he found no hostile fleet
+awaiting him, and the new tsar, Alexander, adopting an opposite policy,
+entered into a compromise on the subject of maritime rights. The battle
+of the Baltic is considered by some to have been Nelson's masterpiece.
+It won for him the title of viscount and for his second in command,
+Rear-Admiral Graves, the gift of the ribbon of the Bath, but the
+admiralty, for official reasons, declined to confer any public reward
+or honour on the officers concerned in it.
+
+At the same time, the French occupation of Egypt was drawing towards its
+inevitable close. Kléber, who was left in command by Bonaparte, perished
+by the hand of an assassin, and Menou, who succeeded to the command, was
+not only a weak general, but was prevented from receiving any
+reinforcements by the naval supremacy of Great Britain in the
+Mediterranean. On March 21, 1801, the French army was defeated at the
+battle of Alexandria by the British force sent out under Sir Ralph
+Abercromby, who was himself mortally wounded on the field. His
+successor, General Hutchinson, completed his work by taking Cairo,
+before the arrival of General Baird, who had led a mixed body of British
+soldiers and sepoys from the Red Sea across the desert to the Nile. The
+capitulation of Alexandria soon followed. In September the French
+evacuated Egypt, the remains of their army were conveyed to France in
+English ships, and Bonaparte's long-cherished dreams of eastern conquest
+faded away for ever--not from his own imagination, but from the
+calculations of practical statesmanship.
+
+French arms, and French diplomacy supported by armed force, were more
+successful elsewhere. The treaty of Lunéville was only the first of a
+series of treaties, by which France secured to herself a political
+position commensurate with her military glory. By the treaty of Aranjuez
+between France and Spain, signed on March 21, Spain ceded Louisiana to
+France, reserving the right of pre-emption, and undertook to wage war on
+Portugal in order to detach it from the British alliance. Spain and
+Portugal were both lukewarm in this war, and on June 6 signed the treaty
+of Badajoz, by which Portugal agreed to close her ports to England, to
+pay an indemnity to Spain, and to cede the small district of Olivenza,
+south of Badajoz. Bonaparte was intensely irritated by this treaty,
+which deprived him of the hope of exchanging conquests in Portugal for
+British colonial conquests in any future negotiations; he declared that
+Spain would have to pay by the sacrifice of her colonies for the
+conquered French colonies which he still hoped to recover. A French army
+was despatched to Portugal and enabled Bonaparte to dictate the treaty
+of Madrid, signed on September 29, whereby Portugal ceded half Guiana to
+France and undertook, as at Badajoz, to close her ports against
+England.
+
+[Pageheading: _INFLUENCES MAKING FOR PEACE._]
+
+This last condition was equally imposed on the King of the Two Sicilies
+by the treaty of Florence, concluded on March 28, and before the end of
+the year France had established friendly relations with the Sultan of
+Turkey and the new Tsar of Russia. More important still, as
+consolidating Bonaparte's power at home, was the concordat signed by him
+and the pope on July 15 recognising Roman Catholicism as the religion of
+the majority of Frenchmen, and of the consuls, guaranteeing stipends,
+though on an abjectly mean scale, to the clergy, and placing the entire
+patronage of the French Church in the hands of the first consul. Never
+since the French revolution had the Church been thus acknowledged as the
+auxiliary, or rather as the handmaid, of the state, and probably no one
+but the first consul could have brought about the reconciliation. After
+such exertions, even he may have sincerely desired an honourable peace,
+as the crown of his victories, or at least as a breathing time, to
+enable him to mature his vast designs for reorganising France. Perhaps
+he did not yet fully recognise that war was a necessity of his political
+ascendency, no less than of his own personal character. The French
+people still clung to republican institutions; and the consulate was a
+nominal republic, with all effective power vested in the first consul.
+Time was to show how largely this unique position depended on his unique
+capacity of conducting wars glorious to French arms; for the present,
+France was satisfied, and longed for peace.
+
+The English ministry, too, was impelled by strong motives to enter upon
+the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Amiens. Not only was
+Great Britain crippled by the loss of nearly all her allies, but the
+high price of bread had roused grave disaffection,[2] and intensified
+among British merchants a desire for an unmolested extension of
+commerce; above all, English statesmen now recognised the consulate,
+under Bonaparte, as the first stable and non-revolutionary government
+since the fall of the French monarchy. Both countries, therefore, were
+predisposed to entertain pacific overtures, but the very fact that these
+were in contemplation stirred both sides to further endeavours in order
+to secure better terms of peace. A French squadron, commanded by Admiral
+Linois and containing three ships of the line besides smaller boats, was
+making a movement for the Straits of Gibraltar in order to strengthen
+the force at Cadiz. Sir James Saumarez with five ships of the line and
+two smaller vessels engaged Linois off Algeciras on July 5, but the
+French ships were supported by the land batteries, and one of the
+British ships, the _Hannibal_ (74), ran aground, and Saumarez was
+eventually compelled to leave her in the hands of the enemy. This
+victory was hailed with delight throughout France, but it was fully
+retrieved a week later. The French squadron had in the meantime been
+reinforced by one French and five Spanish ships of the line, and on the
+12th it made a fresh attempt to reach Cadiz; it was, however, engaged in
+the Straits by Saumarez with five ships of the line. In the ensuing
+battle two Spanish ships blew up, and the French _Saint Antoine_ was
+captured. The remainder succeeded in reaching Cadiz, but Saumarez was
+able to resume the blockade a few weeks later.
+
+Meanwhile there was no relaxation of French preparations for an invasion
+of England, or of naval activity on the part of Great Britain. No sooner
+had Nelson returned from the Baltic than he was, on July 24, placed in
+command of a "squadron on a particular service," charged with the
+defence of the coast from Beachy Head to Orfordness. With this he not
+only blockaded the northern French ports, but assumed the aggressive,
+and bombarded the vessels therein collected. A more daring attempt to
+cut out the flotilla moored at Boulogne by a boat attack was repelled
+with some loss on the night of August 15. But couriers under flags of
+truce were already passing between London and Paris, and hostilities
+ceased in the autumn of the year 1801.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE QUESTION OF MALTA._]
+
+The history of the negotiations which ended in the peace of Amiens
+derives a special interest from the events which followed it. The
+earliest overtures for peace were made by Hawkesbury on March 21, 1801.
+At first Bonaparte refused to listen to them, but the destruction of the
+northern confederacy inclined him to more pacific counsels. On April 14
+the British government stated its demands. They mark a distinct advance
+on those which had been made in vain at Lille in 1797. France was to
+evacuate Egypt, and Great Britain Minorca, but Great Britain claimed to
+retain Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Trinidad, Essequibo, Demerara,
+Berbice, and Ceylon. She was willing to surrender the Cape of Good Hope
+on condition that it became a free port, and stipulated that an
+indemnity should be provided for the Prince of Orange. At the outset,
+Bonaparte opposed all cessions by France and her allies, but the steady
+improvement in the fortunes of England in the north and in Egypt at last
+determined him to grant some of the British demands, and as the
+evacuation of Egypt became inevitable, he was resolved to gain something
+in exchange for it before it was too late. The preliminary treaty was
+accordingly signed by Bonaparte's agent Otto on behalf of France and
+Hawkesbury on behalf of Great Britain on October 1, the day before the
+news of the French capitulation in Egypt reached England. Great Britain
+had already consented to relinquish Malta, provided that it became
+independent. She now consented to relinquish all her conquests from
+France, and with the exception of Ceylon and Trinidad all her conquests
+from the French allies, requiring, however, that the Cape should be
+recognised as a free port. The French were to evacuate not only Egypt,
+but the Neapolitan and Roman States. Malta was to be restored to the
+knights of St. John under the guarantee of a third power. Prisoners of
+war were to be released on payment of their debts, and the question of
+the charge for their maintenance was to be settled by the definitive
+treaty in accordance with the law of nations and established usage.
+
+No mention was made of the Prince of Orange, but Otto gave a verbal
+assurance that provision would be made to satisfy his claims. He also
+gave the British government to understand that France would be willing
+to cede Tobago in consideration of the expenses incurred in the
+maintenance of French and Dutch prisoners. The omission of all reference
+to the continental relations of France is conspicuous. In France it was
+interpreted as indicating that Great Britain renounced her interest in
+continental politics. The Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian
+republics, the kingdom of Etruria, and the whole east bank of the Rhine
+were, however, supposed to be already protected against French
+encroachment by the treaty of Lunéville, and Great Britain had no wish
+to impose terms involving a recognition of these new creations. Again,
+no mention was made of commercial relations apart from the Newfoundland
+and St. Lawrence fisheries, for Great Britain was too ready to believe
+that a separate commercial treaty would be practicable, and was
+naturally loth to delay the conclusion of peace by a difficult
+negotiation.
+
+Cornwallis was appointed to negotiate the definitive treaty, and had
+some hope that he might arrive at an informal understanding with
+Bonaparte at Paris before he proceeded to Amiens. But he was offended by
+Bonaparte's manner, and, dreading to be pitted against so subtle a
+diplomatist as Talleyrand, he left Paris before anything was
+accomplished, and arrived at Amiens on November 30. There France was
+represented by Joseph Bonaparte, the first consul's elder brother, and
+the negotiator of Lunéville. At Amiens, the position of the British
+government was compromised from the first by its renewed insistence on a
+point which had been omitted from the preliminary treaty, namely, the
+compensation of the Prince of Orange. This demand was accompanied by an
+endeavour to obtain compensation for the King of Sardinia. Joseph
+Bonaparte, on the other hand, entrenched himself behind the letter of
+the treaty, and acknowledged no further obligation. Any additional
+concession to Great Britain could only be purchased by British
+concessions to France. Other difficulties arose over the question of
+Malta, the payment for the maintenance of prisoners, and the inclusion
+of allies as parties to the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORNWALLIS AT AMIENS._]
+
+On the first of these questions the French would appear to have aimed
+throughout at reducing the knights to as impotent a position as
+possible. The British, on the other hand, ostensibly desiring to see the
+strength of the order maintained, were chiefly interested in securing
+its neutrality. At the time of the signature of the preliminary treaty,
+Russia was the power that seemed to Great Britain the fittest guarantor
+of the independence of the knights. On the refusal of Russia to accept
+this position, Naples appeared to be the next best alternative, but it
+was eventually agreed to substitute for the guarantee of a third power
+the obviously futile guarantee of all the powers. Neither party foresaw
+that the impossibility of obtaining such a guarantee was destined to
+leave the whole clause about Malta inoperative. After much dispute over
+the future constitution of the order, France proposed to obviate the
+chief source of difficulty by the demolition of the forts. This plan
+commended itself to Cornwallis, but was rejected by the British
+government. By the end of December it was agreed that a Neapolitan
+garrison was to occupy the islands provisionally, until the new
+organisation should be established. Great Britain proposed that this
+garrison should be maintained at the joint expense of Great Britain and
+France. It did not occur to the British government to propose any
+guarantee for the preservation of the property of the order, and this
+omission ultimately proved material. The question of including allies in
+the treaty was less complicated. France preferred a number of separate
+treaties so as to keep the British interest in Europe at a minimum.
+Great Britain, on the other hand, wished to make France a party to the
+cessions made by her allies, and successfully insisted on the
+negotiation of a single comprehensive treaty. Joseph Bonaparte granted
+this point on December 11, but, as he had not full powers to negotiate
+with any power except Great Britain, he continued to interpose delays
+till the end of the year.
+
+In the meantime France had failed in her attempts to meet the British
+claims on behalf of the Prince of Orange by demands for further
+privileges and territory in the oceans and colonies. On the whole, the
+first month's negotiations had contributed much to a settlement, without
+giving a decided advantage to either side. The lapse of time, however,
+turned the balance in favour of the negotiator who was the more
+independent of his country's desire for peace. On January 1, 1802,
+Hawkesbury wrote to Cornwallis, treating the acquisition of Tobago as
+unimportant; on the 2nd Addington expressed his readiness to accept a
+separate arrangement with the Batavian republic for the Prince of
+Orange. By the 16th Hawkesbury had yielded the claim of Portugal to be a
+party to the treaty. The refusal of the French to cede Tobago in lieu of
+payment for the French prisoners, and the difficulty of assessing the
+payment, opened a way to the evasion of compensation altogether.
+Cornwallis, preferring to sacrifice this claim rather than re-open the
+war, suggested to Joseph Bonaparte on the 22nd that the treaty should
+provide for commissioners to assess the payment, while it should be
+secretly provided that they should not be appointed. On the same day,
+Joseph Bonaparte communicated his brother's consent to a clause engaging
+France to find a suitable territorial possession in Germany for the
+Prince of Orange.
+
+If Hawkesbury and Cornwallis imagined that they had made sure of an
+early peace by these extensive concessions, they were greatly mistaken.
+Napoleon, flushed with this unexpected success, was encouraged to make
+further trial of the pliability of the British diplomatists. Two events
+occurred at this stage of the negotiations which tried the temper of
+both sides to the uttermost. On January 26, Bonaparte was elected
+president of the Cisalpine republic, to be styled henceforth the Italian
+republic. This event seems to have taken the British government by
+surprise; they thought it a distinct indication that he still
+contemplated further aggressions in spite of the series of treaties by
+which he appeared to be securing peace, and were therefore much less
+inclined than formerly to make concessions. About the same time
+Bonaparte was not unreasonably enraged at the outrageous attacks made on
+him in the press conducted in London by French exiles, especially by
+Jean Peltier, the editor of a paper called _L'Ambigu_, and he blamed the
+British government for permitting their publication. He therefore
+instructed his brother Joseph to raise further difficulties over the
+garrison and permanent organisation of Malta, as well as over the
+proposed accession of the sultan to the treaty. Vain attempts were also
+made by Joseph to retain Otranto for France till the British should have
+evacuated Malta, and to secure the inclusion of the Ligurian republic in
+the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+At last on March 8 Napoleon agreed that no important difference
+remained, and urged his brother to conclude the treaty. A little more
+time was wasted in providing for a temporary occupation of Malta by
+Neapolitan troops, and a more marked division of opinion arose as to the
+compensation for the Prince of Orange. In spite of instructions to the
+contrary from Hawkesbury, Cornwallis accepted an engagement on the part
+of France to find a compensation, not defined, for the house of Nassau,
+instead of charging it on the Dutch government; and the treaty was
+finally concluded on March 25. It was signed by Great Britain, France,
+Spain, and the Batavian republic, while the Porte was admitted as an
+accessory power. It differed from the preliminary convention in no
+important respect, except in the illusory safeguards for the claims of
+the Prince of Orange, the secret arrangement for evading the cost of the
+French prisoners, and the provisions concerning Malta, pregnant with the
+seeds of future enmity. These provisions were as follows: Malta was to
+be restored to the knights of St. John, from whose order both French and
+British were hereafter to be excluded. The evacuation was to take place
+within three months of the ratification of the treaty, or sooner if
+possible. At that date Malta was to be given up, provided the grand
+master or commissaries of the order were present, and provided the
+Neapolitan garrison had arrived. Its independence was to be under the
+guarantee of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, and Prussia.
+Two thousand Neapolitan troops were to occupy it for one year, and until
+the order should have raised a force sufficient, in the judgment of the
+guaranteeing powers, for the defence of the islands.[3]
+
+On October 29, 1801, parliament was opened with a speech from the throne
+briefly announcing the conclusion of a convention with the northern
+powers, and of preliminaries of peace with the French republic. General
+Lauriston, bearing the ratification of the preliminaries by the first
+consul, had reached London on the 10th, when he was received by the
+populace with tumultuous demonstrations of joy. Soon afterwards the
+"feast of the peace" was celebrated in Paris with equal enthusiasm.
+Short-lived as they proved to be, these pacific sentiments were
+doubtless genuine on both sides of the channel. The industrial, though
+not the military, resources of France were exhausted by her prodigious
+efforts during the last eight years; while England, suffering grievously
+from distress among the working-classes and financial difficulties,
+welcomed the prospect of cheaper provisions and easier times, as well as
+of emerging from the political difficulties originating in the French
+revolution.
+
+The preliminary treaty, however, did not escape hostile criticism in
+either house of parliament. It was the subject of discussion in the
+lords on November 3, and in the commons on the 3rd and 4th. Its most
+strenuous assailants were Lord Grenville, who had been foreign secretary
+under Pitt, and the whigs who had joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, among
+whom Lords Spencer and Fitzwilliam and above all Windham call for
+special notice. Windham's powerful and comprehensive speech contained
+more than one shrewd forecast of the future. For once, Pitt and Fox
+supported the same measure, and Pitt, dwelling on _security_ as our
+grand object in the war, specially deprecated any attempt on the part of
+Great Britain "to settle the affairs of the continent". Fox, in
+advocating peace, fiercely denounced the war against the French
+republic, and gloated over the discomfiture of the Bourbons.[4] It was
+admitted on all sides that France was stronger than ever in a military
+and political sense. She had already made treaties with Austria, Naples,
+Spain, and Portugal; other treaties with Russia and Turkey were on the
+point of being signed; while the still more important concordat with the
+pope was already ratified. On the other hand, Great Britain had largely
+increased her colonial possessions, and the chief question now discussed
+was whether she would be the weaker for abandoning some of these recent
+conquests. The general feeling of the nation was fitly expressed by
+Sheridan in the phrase: "This is a peace which all men are glad of, but
+no man can be proud of". Malmesbury, the negotiator of Lille, was absent
+from the debates; but he has recorded in his diary his disapproval both
+of the peace and of the violent opposition to it The king told
+Malmesbury on November 26 that he considered it an experimental peace,
+but unavoidable.[5]
+
+[Pageheading: _DEBATES ON TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+The debates on the definitive treaty of Amiens took place on May 13 and
+14, 1802, and though vigorously sustained, were to some extent a
+repetition of those on the preliminaries of peace. The opposition to it
+was headed by Grenville in the lords and in the commons by Windham, who
+compared it unfavourably with the preliminaries; and the stipulations
+with respect to Malta were justly criticised as one of its weakest
+points. Strange to say, Pitt took no effective part in the discussion,
+which ended in overwhelming majorities for the government. As in the
+previous session, domestic affairs, except in their bearing on foreign
+policy, received comparatively little attention from parliament. The
+income tax was repealed, almost in silence, as the first fruits of
+peace, and Addington, as chancellor of the exchequer, delivered an
+emphatic eulogy on the sinking fund by means of which he calculated that
+in forty-five years the national debt, then amounting to £500,000,000,
+might be entirely paid off. The house of commons showed no want of
+economical zeal in scrutinising the claims of the king on the civil
+list, and those of the Prince of Wales on the revenues of the duchy of
+Cornwall. Nor did it neglect such abuses as the non-residence of the
+parochial clergy, and the cruel practice of bull-baiting, though it
+rejected a bill for the suppression of this practice, after a
+characteristic apology for it from Windham, in which he dwelt upon its
+superiority to horse-racing. In this session, too, a grant of £10,000
+was voted to Jenner for his recent invention of vaccination. In
+supporting it, Wilberforce stated that the victims of small-pox, in
+London alone, numbered 4,000 annually.
+
+The parliament, which had now lasted six years, was dissolved by the
+king in person on June 28, and a general election was held during the
+month of July. The new house of commons did not differ materially from
+the old, and even in Ireland the recent national opposition to the union
+did not lead to the unseating of a single member who had voted for
+it.[6] Meanwhile the ministry was strengthened by the admission to
+office of Lord Castlereagh, already distinguished for his share in the
+negotiations precedent to the union with Ireland. On July 6 he was
+appointed president of the board of control in succession to Dartmouth,
+and was admitted to a seat in the cabinet in October. The new parliament
+did not meet till November 16. During the interval members of both
+houses, with vast numbers of their countrymen, flocked to Paris, which
+had been almost closed to English travellers since the early days of the
+revolution. Fox was presented to Napoleon, as Bonaparte, since the
+decree which made him consul for life, preferred to be styled. Napoleon
+conceived a great admiration for him, and afterwards persuaded himself
+that, had Fox survived, the friendly relations of England and France
+would not have been permanently interrupted. On the very day on which
+parliament assembled, a conspiracy was discovered, which, however insane
+it may now appear, attracted much attention at the time. A certain
+Colonel Despard with thirty-six followers, mainly labourers, had plotted
+to kill the king and seize all the government-buildings, with a view to
+the establishment of what he called the "constitutional independence of
+Ireland and Great Britain" and the "equalisation of all civic rights".
+The conspiracy had no wide ramifications, and the arrest of its leader
+and his companions brought it to an immediate end. Despard was found
+guilty of high treason and was executed on February 21, 1803.
+
+When parliament met, the king's speech referred ominously to fresh
+disturbances in the balance of power on the continent; and votes were
+passed for large additions to the army and navy, in spite of Fox's
+declaration that he saw no reason why Napoleon, satisfied with military
+glory, should not henceforth devote himself to internal improvements in
+France. Nelson, on the contrary, speaking in the house of lords, while
+he professed himself a man of peace, insisted on the danger arising from
+"a restless and unjust ambition on the part of our neighbours," and
+Sheridan delivered a vigorous speech in a like spirit. On the whole, in
+January, 1803, the prospects of assured peace and prosperity were much
+gloomier than they had been in January, 1802, before the treaty of
+Amiens. The funds were going down, the bank restriction act was renewed,
+and Despard's conspiracy still agitated the public mind. In the month of
+February a strong anti-Gallican sentiment was roused by Mackintosh's
+powerful defence of the royalist Jean Peltier, accused and ultimately
+convicted of a gross libel on the first consul. On March 8 came the
+royal message calling out the militia, which heralded the rupture of the
+peace.
+
+The renewal of the war, fraught with so much glory and misery to both
+nations, can have taken neither by surprise. The ink was scarcely dry on
+the treaty of Amiens when fresh causes of discord sprung up between
+France and Great Britain. More than one of these, indeed, had arisen
+between the signature of the preliminary convention and the actual
+conclusion of peace. During the negotiations, the first consul had, as
+we have seen, never ceased to protest against the violent attacks upon
+himself in the English press, while Cornwallis persistently warned his
+own government against the menacing attitude of France in Italy and
+elsewhere. The proclamation of the concordat in April, 1802, and the
+recognition of Napoleon as first consul for life in August, however they
+may have strengthened his position in France, were no legitimate
+subjects for resentment in England; but his acceptance of the presidency
+of the "Italian" republic in January, followed by his annexation of
+Piedmont in September, revived in all its intensity the British mistrust
+of his aggressive policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRENCH AGGRESSIONS._]
+
+The month of October witnessed a renewed aggression on Switzerland. A
+French army, commanded by Ney, advanced into the interior of the
+country, and forced the Swiss, who were in the midst of a civil war, to
+accept the mediation of Napoleon. The new constitution which he framed
+attempted, by weakening the federal government, to place the direction
+of Helvetian external relations in the hands of the French first consul.
+Our government vainly endeavoured to resist this interference by sending
+agents with money and promises. In Germany the redistribution of
+territory necessitated by the peace of Lunéville was carried out
+professedly under the joint mediation of France and Russia, but really
+at the dictation of Napoleon. The final project, which destroyed all
+except three of the spiritual principalities and all except six of the
+free cities, was proposed by France on February 23, 1803, and accepted
+by the Emperor Francis on April 27.
+
+Against these rearrangements, Great Britain could have nothing to say;
+their importance is that while the negotiations were pending, Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia all had a strong motive for standing well with
+France. Bonaparte's attitude towards Switzerland was, in so far as it
+was backed by force, an infringement of the treaty of Lunéville, to
+which, however, Great Britain was not a party. The neutrality of
+Piedmont had not been safeguarded either at Lunéville or at Amiens; it
+had already been occupied by France before the treaty was signed, and
+Napoleon claimed to have as much right to annex territory in Europe
+without the consent of Great Britain as Great Britain had to annex
+territory in India without the consent of France.
+
+Napoleon's schemes of colonial expansion, though equally within the
+letter of the treaty, were not less disconcerting. The reconquest of San
+Domingo appeared necessary in order to obtain a base for the effective
+occupation of the new French possession, Louisiana. The despatch of an
+expedition for this purpose in December, 1801, had excited grave
+suspicion, and when two-thirds of the army had died of yellow fever and
+the remainder had returned home, fresh troops were sent out to take
+their place. A new naval expedition was prepared in the Dutch port of
+Helvoetsluis, but it was impossible to persuade British public opinion
+that its real destination was San Domingo. Finally, on the eve of
+hostilities, in the spring of 1803 Napoleon, despairing of advance in
+this direction and disregarding the Spanish right of pre-emption, sold
+Louisiana to the United States for 80,000,000 francs. Still more
+embarrassing was Bonaparte's eastern policy. In September, 1802, Colonel
+Sébastiani was sent as "commercial agent" to the Levant. He was
+instructed to inspect the condition of ports and arsenals, to assure the
+sheykhs of French favour, and to report on the military resources of
+Syria, Egypt, and the north African coast. His report, which was
+published in the _Moniteur_ of January 30, 1803, set forth the
+opportunities that France would possess in the event of an immediate
+return to hostilities, and was naturally interpreted as disclosing an
+intention to renew the war on the first opportunity. Six thousand French
+would, he said, be enough to reconquer Egypt; the country was in favour
+of France. In March, 1803, Decaen left France with open instructions to
+receive the surrender of the five towns in India restored to France, but
+with secret orders to invite the alliance of Indian sovereigns opposed
+to Great Britain. On his appearance at Pondicherri, the British
+commander prepared to seize him, but he escaped to the Mauritius, which
+he put in a state of defence, and made a basis for attacks on British
+commerce which lasted from 1803 to 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAUSES OF MISTRUST AFTER AMIENS._]
+
+Ireland also was visited by political spies, passing as commercial
+agents. It may not be easy to say how far Emmet's rebellion, to be
+recorded hereafter, was the result of these visits. At all events a
+letter fell into the hands of the British government, addressed by
+Talleyrand to a French agent at Dublin, called Fauvelet, directing him
+to obtain answers to a series of questions about the military and naval
+circumstances of the district, and "to procure a plan of the ports, with
+the soundings and moorings, and to state the draught of water, and the
+wind best suited for ingress and egress". The British government
+naturally complained of these instructions, but Talleyrand persistently
+maintained that they were of a purely commercial character.[7] It is, of
+course, true that these preparations in view of a possible recurrence of
+hostilities, however obvious their intention, were not in themselves
+hostile acts. Still, they were just grounds for suspicion, and, with our
+retrospective knowledge of Napoleon's later career, we may seek in vain
+for the grounds of confidence which had made the conclusion of a treaty
+possible. Great Britain was guilty of more direct breaches of the peace
+of Amiens. Russia refused her guarantee for the independence of Malta,
+and the British government was therefore technically justified in
+retaining it. No similar justification could, however, be alleged for
+the retention of Alexandria and the French towns in India. These
+measures were, as will be seen, defended on broader grounds of public
+policy. Not the least of the causes of discontent with the new situation
+was the refusal of Napoleon to follow up the treaty of peace with a
+commercial treaty. He had even retained French troops in Holland, and
+thus shown that he meant to close its ports against British commerce.
+The hope of a renewal of trade with France had been a main cause of the
+popular desire for peace, and had reconciled the British public to the
+sacrifices with which the treaty of Amiens had been purchased. It soon
+became clear that further concessions would be made the price of a
+commercial treaty, and it was felt in consequence that the sacrifices
+already made were made in vain.
+
+In September, 1802, Lord Whitworth was sent as ambassador extraordinary
+to the French Republic. The instructions which he carried with him from
+Hawkesbury fully reflect the prevailing spirit of mistrust. He was to
+watch for any new leagues which might prejudice England or disturb
+Europe; he was to discover any secret designs that might be formed
+against the East or West Indies; he was to maintain the closest
+surveillance over the internal politics of France, but especially over
+the dispositions of influential personages in the confidence of the
+first consul, as well as over the financial resources and armaments of
+the republic.[8] Two months later, he was expressly warned in a secret
+despatch not in any way to commit His Majesty to a restoration of Malta,
+even if the provisions made at Amiens for this purpose could be
+completely executed; and the principle was laid down, from which the
+British government never swerved, that Great Britain was entitled to
+compensation for any acquisitions made by France since the treaty was
+signed. Accordingly, the retention of Malta was justified as a
+counterpoise to French extensions of territory in Italy, the invasion of
+Switzerland, and the continued occupation of the Batavian republic.[9]
+This resolution was naturally confirmed by the publication of
+Sébastiani's report.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AND WHITWORTH._]
+
+The long negotiations between Whitworth and the French government,
+during the winter of 1802 and the spring of 1803, only bring into
+stronger relief the importance of the issues thus raised, and the
+hopelessness of a pacific solution. Napoleon firmly took his stand
+throughout on the simple letter of the treaty, which pledged Great
+Britain, upon certain conditions, to place the knights of St. John in
+possession of Malta, but did not contemplate the case of further
+accessions of French territory on the continent. Although the conditions
+specified were never fully satisfied, it is abundantly clear that the
+British ministers, having at last grasped the value of Malta, created
+all the difficulties in their power, and determined to cancel this
+article of the treaty. They alleged, in self-defence, that the spirit of
+the treaty had been constantly violated by Napoleon, in repeated acts of
+hostility to British subjects, in the refusal of all redress for such
+grievances, and, above all, in that series of aggressions on the
+continent which he declared to be outside the treaty and beyond the
+province of Great Britain.[10] None of the compromises laboriously
+discussed in the winter of 1802 betoken any desire on the part of
+either government to retreat from its main position, though it does not
+follow that either sought to bring about a renewal of the war. Whitworth
+constantly reported that no formidable armaments were being prepared,
+and clung for months to a belief that Napoleon, knowing the instability
+of his own power and the ruinous state of his finances, would ultimately
+give way. On the other hand, Talleyrand and Joseph Bonaparte never
+ceased to hope that Great Britain would make concessions which might be
+accepted.
+
+Such hopes were rudely dispelled by the king's message to parliament on
+March 8, 1803, complaining of aggressive preparations in the ports of
+France and Holland, and recommending immediate measures for the security
+of his dominions. This message, with the consequent embodiment of the
+militia, startled the whole continent, and was followed five days later
+by the famous scene in which the first consul addressed Whitworth in
+phrases little short of insult. During a public audience at the
+Tuileries on the 13th, Napoleon, after inquiring whether the British
+ambassador had received any news from home, broke out with the words:
+"And so you are determined to go to war". The altercation which ensued
+is best told in Whitworth's own words[11]:--
+
+"'No, first consul,' I replied, 'we are too sensible of the advantages
+of peace.' 'We have,' said he, 'been fighting these fifteen years.' As
+he seemed to wait for an answer, I observed only, 'That is already too
+long'. 'But,' said he, 'you desire to fight for fifteen years more, and
+you are forcing me to it,' I told him that was very far from his
+majesty's intentions. He then proceeded to Count Marcoff and the
+Chevalier Azzara, who were standing together at a little distance from
+me, and said to them, 'The English are bent on war, but if they are the
+first to draw the sword, I shall be the last to put it back into the
+scabbard. They do not respect treaties. They must be covered with black
+crape.' I suppose he meant the treaties. He then went his round, and was
+thought by all those to whom he addressed himself to betray great signs
+of irritation. In a few minutes he came back to me, to my great
+annoyance, and resumed the conversation, if such it can be called, by
+something personally civil to me. He then began again, 'Why these
+armaments? Against whom these measures of precaution? I have not a
+single ship of the line in the French ports; but if you wish to arm, I
+will arm also; if you wish to fight, I will fight also. You may perhaps
+kill France, but will never intimidate her.' 'We wish,' said I, 'neither
+the one nor the other. We wish to live on good terms with her.' 'You
+must respect treaties then,' replied he; 'woe to those who do not
+respect treaties; they shall answer for it to all Europe.'"
+
+Too much stress has been laid upon this incident, so characteristic of
+Napoleon's studied impetuosity. Little more than a fortnight later he
+received the British ambassador with courtesy. Overtures now succeeded
+overtures, and much was expected on both sides from the influence of the
+Tsar Alexander, to whom France suggested that Malta might be ceded.[12]
+At the last moment, a somewhat more conciliatory disposition was shown
+by the French diplomatists; and the British government was blamed by its
+opponents, alike for having failed to break off the negotiations earlier
+on the broadest grounds, and for breaking them off too abruptly on
+grounds of doubtful validity. But we now see that national enmity,
+fostered by the press on both sides, rendered friendly relations
+impossible, and that, even had Napoleon been willing to refrain from
+aggressions, peace was impossible. On May 12, two months after the
+king's message, Whitworth, having presented an ultimatum, finally
+quitted Paris. A few days later an order was issued for the detention of
+all British subjects then resident in France, and justified on the
+ground that French seamen (but not passengers) were liable to capture at
+sea. On June 10 Talleyrand announced the occupation of Hanover and the
+treatment as enemies of Hanoverian soldiers serving under the King of
+Great Britain. Meanwhile, on May 16, the rupture of peaceful relations
+was announced to both houses of parliament; on May 18 war was declared,
+and in June volunteers were already mustering to resist invasion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] So Vansittart himself, in Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, i., 371.
+Southey and Captain Mahan have erroneously supposed that Vansittart
+accompanied the naval expedition and was sent by Parker in the frigate
+from the Skaw.
+
+[2] _Annual Register_, xliii. (1801), chapter i. The average price of
+wheat in 1800 was 112s. 8d. the quarter, whereas the highest annual
+average in the half century before the war had been 64s. 6d. On March 5,
+1801, the price of the quartern loaf stood as high as 1s. 10½d. On
+July 23 it was still 1s. 8d. The harvest of this year was, however, an
+excellent one. The price fell rapidly during August, and by November 12
+was as low as 10½d.
+
+[3] Cornwallis, _Correspondence_, iii., 382-487.
+
+[4] In a letter to Charles Carey, dated October 22, Fox went the length
+of expressing extreme pleasure in the triumph of the French government
+over the English (_Memorials of C. J. Fox_, iii., 349).
+
+[5] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 60, 62.
+
+[6] Lecky, _History Of Ireland_, v., 465.
+
+[7] Lanfrey, _Napoleon I._ (English edition), ii., 202; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 164.
+
+[8] Browning, _England and Napoleon in 1803_, pp. 1-6.
+
+[9] Browning, _ibid._, pp. 6-10.
+
+[10] See especially Hawkesbury's despatch in Browning, _ibid._, pp.
+65-68, and Whitworth's despatches, _ibid._, pp. 73-75, 78-85.
+
+[11] Whitworth's despatch of March 14, in Browning, _England and
+Napoleon_, p. 116.
+
+[12] Browning, _England and Napoleon_, p. 218.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                          THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+
+The period following the rupture of the peace of Amiens, though crowded
+with military events of the highest importance, was inevitably barren in
+social and political interest. Disappointed in its hopes of returning
+prosperity, the nation girded itself up with rare unanimity for a
+renewed contest. In July the income-tax was reinstituted and a bill was
+actually carried authorising a levy _en masse_ in case of invasion.
+Pending its enforcement, the navy was vigorously recruited by means of
+the press-gang; the yeomanry were called out, and a force of infantry
+volunteers was enrolled, which reached a total of 300,000 in August, and
+of nearly 400,000 at the beginning of the next session. Pitt himself, as
+warden of the Cinque Ports, took command of 3,000 volunteers in Kent,
+and contrasted in parliament the warlike enthusiasm of the country with
+the alleged apathy of the ministry. On July 23 a rebellion broke out in
+Ireland, instigated by French agents and headed by a young man named
+Robert Emmet. The conspiracy was ill planned and in itself
+insignificant, but the recklessness of the conspirators was equalled by
+the weakness of the civil and military authorities, who neglected to
+take any precautions in spite of the plainest warnings. The rebels had
+intended to attack Dublin Castle and seize the person of the lord
+lieutenant, who was to be held as a hostage; but they dared not make the
+attempt, and after parading the streets for a few hours were dispersed
+by the spontaneous action of a few determined officers with a handful of
+troops, but not before Lord Kilwarden, the chief justice, and several
+other persons, had been cruelly murdered by Emmet's followers. Futile as
+the rising was, it sufficed to show that union was not a sovereign
+remedy for Irish disaffection.
+
+Meanwhile the relations between the prime minister and his predecessor
+had been growing less and less cordial. Throughout the year 1801 Pitt
+was still the friend and informal adviser of the ministry, and it is
+difficult to overrate the value of his support as a ground of confidence
+in an administration, personally popular, but known to be deficient in
+intellectual brilliance. In 1802 he generally stood aloof, and though in
+June of that year he corrected the draft of the king's speech, he
+absented himself from parliament, for he was dissatisfied with the
+measures adopted by government. His dissatisfaction was known to his
+friends, and in November a movement was set on foot by Canning to induce
+Addington to withdraw in Pitt's favour; but Pitt, though willing to
+resume office, refused to allow the ministry to be approached on the
+subject. He preferred to wait till a general wish for his return to
+power should be manifested. In December he visited Grenville at
+Dropmore, and expressed a certain discontent with the government.[13] It
+was his intention still to treat the ministers with tenderness, but to
+return to parliament and criticise their policy. It is easy to see that
+his object at this date was not to drive the government from office, but
+to give rise to a desire to re-enlist his own talents in the service of
+the country, and thus prepare the way for a peaceable resumption of the
+position he had abandoned in the preceding year.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS FOR PITT'S RETURN._]
+
+No sooner had rumours of Pitt's willingness to resume office reached
+Addington in the last days of December, than he opened negotiations with
+Pitt with a view to effecting this object. Pitt did not receive his
+overtures very warmly. He doubtless wished to be brought back because he
+was felt to be indispensable, without any appearance of intrigue. Time
+was in his favour, and he allowed the negotiations to proceed slowly. As
+the proposals took shape, it became clear that Addington did not wish to
+be openly superseded by Pitt, but preferred that they should serve
+together as secretaries of state under a third person; and Addington
+even suggested Pitt's brother, the Earl of Chatham, then master-general
+of the ordnance, as a suitable prime minister. Pitt's reply,
+communicated to Addington by Dundas, now Viscount Melville, in a letter
+dated March 22, 1803, was to the effect that Pitt would not accept any
+position in the government except that of prime minister, with which was
+to be coupled the office of chancellor of the exchequer. Addington
+readily acceded to Pitt's claim to this position, but Grenville refused
+to serve in a ministry where Addington and Hawkesbury held "any
+efficient offices of real business," and Addington declined to abandon
+ministerial office for a speakership of the house of lords, which Pitt
+proposed to create for him. Finally, on April 10, Pitt at a private
+conference with Addington proposed as an indispensable condition of his
+own return to office that Melville, Spencer, Grenville, and Windham
+should become members of his cabinet. This meant a reconstruction of the
+whole ministry, and Pitt stipulated that the changes should be made by
+the king's desire and on the recommendation of the existing ministry.
+
+The situation had become an impossible one. Nothing was more reasonable
+than that Pitt, the friend and protector of the existing ministry,
+should assume the direction of affairs now that the nation appeared to
+be on the brink of war. But Pitt could not honourably desert those
+former colleagues, who had resigned with him on the catholic question.
+Two of these, however, Grenville and Windham, though doubtless men of
+the highest capacity, had bitterly attacked the existing ministry; and
+it was not to be expected that that ministry, supported as it still was
+by overwhelming majorities in both houses of parliament, supported as it
+had hitherto been by Pitt himself, should consent to admit its opponents
+to a share of office. It is highly improbable that Grenville and Windham
+would then have co-operated with Addington and Hawkesbury, and their
+admission to office would have ruined the cohesion of the cabinet,
+unless it had been accompanied by the retirement of the leading members
+of the existing ministry which Pitt's previous attitude, together with
+the actual balance of parties in parliament, rendered it impossible to
+demand. How difficult it was to induce Grenville and Windham to enter
+into any combination future years were to prove. For the present the
+ministry took not merely the wisest, but the only course open to it.
+Addington, after vainly endeavouring to induce Pitt to modify his terms,
+laid them before a cabinet council on April 13; they were immediately
+rejected, though the cabinet declared itself ready to admit to office
+Pitt himself and those of his colleagues who had hitherto acted with the
+Addington ministry. Pitt could hardly have expected any other reply. No
+ministry could have granted such terms except on the supposition that
+Pitt was indispensable, and Pitt for the present hardly claimed such a
+position.[14]
+
+But if Pitt did not consider himself indispensable, his friends did, and
+both he and others came gradually to adopt their view. The rejection of
+his terms left him free to adopt the line of policy that he had sketched
+to Grenville in the previous December. He had not to wait long for an
+opportunity, but in the opinion of Pitt's friends at least the first
+provocation came from Addington. Unable to strengthen his ministry by
+any accession from Pitt and his followers, he had turned to the "old
+opposition," the whigs who, under the leadership of Fox, had
+consistently advocated a pacific policy. These had recently supported
+the ministry against the "new opposition," as the followers of Grenville
+and Windham were called. But since 1797 Fox and the majority of the "old
+opposition" had generally absented themselves from parliament, and
+George Tierney, member for Southwark, had led what was left of their
+party.[15] He now received and accepted the offer of the treasurership
+of the navy, one of the most important of the offices below cabinet
+rank. As a speaker Tierney was a valuable addition to the government
+which was sadly deficient in debating power; he had, however, been
+particularly bitter in his attacks on Pitt, with whom he had fought a
+duel in 1798, and had provoked the sarcastic wit of Canning, in whose
+well-known parody, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-grinder"
+(1798), the original illustration by Gillray depicted the friend of
+humanity with the features of Tierney and laid the scene in the borough
+of Southwark.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHANGES IN ADDINGTON'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The appointment, which Pitt himself does not appear to have resented,
+was announced on June 1, and Tierney took his place on the treasury
+bench on the 3rd. On the same evening Colonel Patten moved a series of
+resolutions condemning, in extravagant terms, the conduct of the
+ministry in the negotiation with France. Pitt seized the opportunity to
+move the orders of the day. In other words, he proposed that the
+question should be left undecided. He expressed the opinion that the
+ministry was not free from blame, but declared himself unable to concur
+in all the charges against it. He considered further that to drive the
+existing ministers out of office would only throw the country into
+confusion, and that it was therefore inadvisable to pursue the question.
+To this the ministerial speakers replied by demanding a direct censure
+or a total acquittal, and the consequent division served only to display
+the weakness of the opposition. The Addington, Fox, and Grenville
+parties combined to oppose Pitt's motion, which was rejected by 333
+votes against 56. Pitt and Fox, and their respective followers then left
+the house, leaving the ministerial party and the Grenville party to
+decide the fate of Patten's resolutions, which were negatived by 275
+votes against 34. A comparison of the figures of the two divisions,
+allowing for tellers, gives as the voting strength of Pitt's party 58,
+of Grenville's 36, of Fox's 22, and of Addington's 277. Of these the
+Grenville party alone desired to eject the ministers from office, while
+Fox's party openly professed a preference for Addington over Pitt.
+
+During the remainder of the session Pitt seldom took any part in
+parliamentary business, and never opposed the ministry on any question
+of importance. On August 12 parliament was prorogued after a session
+lasting nearly nine months, and the prime minister embraced the
+opportunity of making some slight reconstructions in the ministry.
+Pelham, who was removed from the home office, resigned his place in the
+cabinet, and was shortly afterwards consoled with the chancellorship of
+the duchy of Lancaster, an office which was not yet definitely
+recognised as political. Charles Philip Yorke, son of the chancellor who
+died in 1770 and half-brother of the third Earl of Hardwicke, resigned
+the office of secretary at war and succeeded to the home office on the
+17th. It was also considered advisable to strengthen the ministry in the
+upper house, where Grenville's oratory gave the opposition a decided
+advantage in debating power, and Hawkesbury was accordingly summoned to
+the lords on November 16 in his father's barony of Hawkesbury. After
+this rearrangement the cabinet contained eight peers and three
+commoners, no illiberal allowance of commoners according to the ideas of
+the age. The recess was further marked by a violent war of pamphlets
+between the followers of Addington and Pitt, which began early in
+September, and which, although no politician of the first order took any
+direct part in it, did much to embitter the relations of their
+respective parties.[16] Not less irritating were the _jeux d'esprit_
+with which Canning continued to assail the ministry in the newspaper
+press.[17] The most famous of these is the couplet:--
+
+    Pitt is to Addington
+    As London is to Paddington.
+
+A more openly abusive poem, entitled "Good Intentions," described the
+prime minister as "Happy Britain's guardian gander". The following
+verses refer to the appointment of Addington's brother, John Hiley
+Addington, to be paymaster-general of the forces, and of his
+brother-in-law, Charles Bragge, afterwards succeeded by Tierney, to be
+treasurer of the navy:--
+
+    How blest, how firm the statesman stands
+      (Him no low intrigue can move)
+    Circled by faithful kindred bands
+      And propped by fond fraternal love.
+
+      When his speeches hobble vilely,
+      What "Hear him's" burst from Brother Hiley;
+      When his faltering periods lag,
+      Hark to the cheers of Brother Bragge.
+
+      Each a gentleman at large,
+      Lodged and fed at public charge,
+      Paying (with a grace to charm ye)
+      This the Fleet, and that the Army.[18]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE KING'S ILLNESS._]
+
+When parliament reassembled on November 22 the opposition was still
+disunited, and, though Windham severely condemned the inadequacy of the
+provision made for national defence, he did not venture to divide
+against the government. But during the Christmas recess a distinct step
+was made towards the consolidation of the opposition by the reunion of
+the two sections of the whig party. Grenville had conceived a chimerical
+project of replacing the existing administration by one which should
+include all statesmen possessed of real political talent, whatever their
+differences in the past might have been. True to this policy, he
+persuaded Fox in January, 1804, to join him in attempting to expel the
+Addington administration from office as an essential preliminary to any
+further action. Sheridan, however, with some of the Prince of Wales's
+friends, still refused to enter into any combination which might result
+in the return of Pitt to power. The parliamentary session was resumed on
+February 1, but the course of events was complicated by a recurrence of
+the king's malady. Symptoms of this were observed towards the end of
+January; the disease took a turn for the worse about February 12, and on
+the 14th it was made known to the public. For a short time the king's
+life appeared to be in danger; his reason was affected during a longer
+interval, but the attack was in every way milder than in 1789, and on
+March 7 Dr. Simmons reported to Addington that "the king was competent
+to perform any act of government".[19] It is true that for many months
+the king's health did not allow him to give his full attention to public
+business, but there was nothing to prevent him from attending to such
+routine work as was absolutely necessary. There could, however, be no
+question of a change of ministers till there should be a marked
+improvement in the king's health.
+
+The king's illness was made the occasion on February 27 of a motion by
+Sir Robert Lawley for the adjournment of the house of commons. This was
+parried by Addington with the statement that there was no necessary
+suspension of such royal functions as it might be necessary for His
+Majesty to discharge at the present moment.[20] The emphasis here
+obviously lay on the word "necessary". A still bolder course was adopted
+shortly afterwards by the lord chancellor. When on March 9 the king's
+assent to several bills was given by commission, Fitzwilliam raised not
+unreasonable doubts as to whether the king was capable of resuming the
+functions of government. Eldon, however, declared that, as the result of
+a private interview with the king, he had come to the conclusion that
+the royal commissioners were warranted in assenting to the bills in
+question. Whether the chancellor was justified in assuming this
+responsibility must remain doubtful; at all events Pitt seems to have
+determined that the time was now ripe for a ministerial crisis. He had
+on February 27 criticised both the military and naval defences of the
+country, but he would not directly attack the government till the king's
+health was in a better condition. At last, on March 15, the first attack
+was made. Pitt selected the weak point in the administration. St.
+Vincent's obstinacy in refusing to believe in the possibility of a
+renewal of hostility and his excessive economy had brought about a
+marked deterioration in the strength and quality of the fleet. Pitt
+accordingly moved for an inquiry into the administration of the navy.
+Fox dissociated himself from Pitt's attacks on the first lord of the
+admiralty, but supported the motion on the ground that an inquiry would
+clear St. Vincent's character. On a division the government had a
+majority of 201 against 130. On the 19th, however, Pitt refused to join
+the Grenvilles in supporting Fox's motion for the re-committal of the
+volunteer consolidation bill. On the following day Eldon made overtures
+to Pitt, and on the 23rd Pitt dined _tête-à-tête_ with the chancellor,
+but no record has been preserved of the nature of their negotiations.
+
+On the 29th Pitt, in a letter to Melville, explained his position at
+length. He intended, as soon after the Easter recess as the king's
+health should permit, to write to the king explaining the dangers which,
+in his opinion, threatened the crown and people from the continuance of
+the existing government, and representing the urgent necessity of a
+speedy change; he would prefer an administration from which no political
+party should be excluded, but was unwilling, especially in view of the
+king's state of health, to force any minister upon him; if, therefore,
+he should be invited by the king to form a ministry from which the
+partisans of Fox and Grenville were to be excluded, he was prepared to
+form one from his own followers united with the more capable members of
+the existing government, excluding Addington himself and St. Vincent;
+should this measure fail of success, he would "have no hesitation in
+taking such ground in Parliament as would be most likely to attain the
+object".[21] As it happened, the parliamentary assault preceded the
+correspondence with the king. Immediately after the recess the ministry
+laid before parliament military proposals which Pitt felt bound to
+resist. On April 16 Pitt, supported by Windham, opposed the third
+reading of a bill for augmenting the Irish militia, and expressed a
+preference for the army of reserve. He was defeated by the narrow
+majority of 128 against 107. On the 23rd Fox proposed to refer the
+question of national defence to a committee of the whole house. He was
+supported by Pitt and Windham, and defeated by 256 votes only against
+204. The division which sealed the fate of the ministry was taken two
+days later on a motion that the house should go into committee on a bill
+for the suspension of the army of reserve. This was opposed by Pitt, who
+expounded a rival plan for the diminution of the militia and increase of
+the army of reserve. Fox and Windham demanded for Pitt's scheme a right
+to consideration, and on a division the motion was carried by no more
+than 240 against 203. The division of April 16 had convinced Addington
+that a reconciliation with Pitt was necessary. On Pitt's refusing to
+confer with him, he agreed to recommend the king to charge Eldon with
+the task of discovering Pitt's views as to the formation of a new
+ministry, in case the king wished to learn them.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADDINGTON'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+The king, however, expressed no such wish, and on April 22 Pitt sent an
+unsealed letter to Eldon to be laid before the king; announcing his
+dissatisfaction with the ministry and his intention of declaring this
+dissatisfaction in parliament.[22] It was not till the 27th that Eldon
+found a suitable opportunity of communicating Pitt's letter to the king.
+Before that date Addington, who considered that he could no longer
+remain in office with dignity after the divisions of the 23rd and 25th,
+had on the 26th informed the king of his intention to resign. The king
+reluctantly consented to his resignation, which was announced to the
+cabinet on the 29th. On the following day Eldon called on Pitt with a
+request from the king for a plan of a new administration. Pitt replied
+in a letter, setting forth at great length the arguments in favour of a
+combined administration, and requesting permission to confer with Fox
+and Grenville about the construction of the ministry.[23] The letter
+irritated the king, who demanded a renewed pledge against catholic
+emancipation, with which Grenville was specially associated in his mind,
+and refused to admit Pitt to office if he persevered in his purpose of
+consulting Fox and Grenville. Pitt then declared his adherence to the
+pledge given in 1801[24] and requested an interview with the king. The
+interview, which took place on May 7, lasted three hours, and ended in a
+compromise. The king agreed to admit Grenville and his friends to
+office, but, while ready to accept the friends of Fox, he refused, as
+much on personal as on political grounds, to give Fox a place in the
+cabinet. At the same time he declared himself ready to grant him a
+diplomatic appointment. At a later date the king went the length of
+declaring that, rather than accept Fox, he would have incurred the risk
+of civil war.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RETURN TO OFFICE._]
+
+Fox readily agreed to his own exclusion, which he had fully expected,
+and urged his followers to join Pitt, but Grenville and his friends
+refused to serve without Fox, while the friends of Fox and the more
+immediate followers of Addington refused to serve without their
+respective leaders. Addington always considered that Pitt had treated
+him ungenerously in driving him from office, when it was open to him to
+return to the head of affairs with the full consent of the existing
+ministers. More recently it has been the fashion to blame Pitt for
+bringing too little pressure to bear upon the king and thus losing the
+support of Fox and Grenville. Neither charge appears to be justified.
+Through the whole length of the Addington administration Pitt showed
+himself fully sensitive of what was due to the king, with whom he had
+worked cordially for eighteen years, to Grenville who had resigned in
+his cause, and to Addington who had assumed office under his protection.
+There was no trace of faction in Pitt's attitude towards the ministry.
+He merely opposed what he believed to be dangerous to the country, and
+when he was convinced of the necessity of removing Addington from a
+share in public business, he endeavoured to effect his purpose in such a
+way as to give the minimum of offence.
+
+On the other hand, Pitt's intended combination in a supreme crisis of
+his country's destiny with his life-long antagonist, Fox, was a heroic
+experiment, perhaps, but still only an experiment. The failure of the
+ministry of "All the Talents" renders it exceedingly doubtful whether
+such an alliance would have proved successful, and Fox's lukewarm
+patriotism would have been dearly purchased at the expense of the
+alienation of the king, perhaps even of his relapse into insanity. Nor
+is it certain that the strongest pressure would have induced George III.
+to accept Fox at this date. Addington was still undefeated and might
+have remained in office if Pitt had refused to assume the reins of
+government without Fox. Grenville is undoubtedly more responsible than
+any one else for the weakness of Pitt's second administration. It was
+from a sense of loyalty to Grenville that Pitt had suffered the
+negotiations for his return to office in 1803 to fall through, and now
+when the two statesmen could return together, and when, if ever, a
+strong government was needed, either a quixotic sense of honour or a
+wounded pride induced Grenville not only to stand aloof from the new
+administration himself, but to do his utmost to prevent others from
+giving it their support.[25] The new cabinet was quickly formed. Pitt
+received the seals of office on May 10, and took his seat in parliament
+after re-election on the 18th, the very day on which Napoleon was
+declared emperor by the French senate.
+
+This event, long foreseen, was doubtless hastened by the disclosure of
+the plot formed by Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal against the
+first consul. There was no proof of Moreau's complicity in designs on
+Napoleon's life, and the mysterious death of Pichegru in prison left the
+extent of his complicity among the insoluble problems of history, but
+there can be no doubt that Cadoudal was justly executed for plotting
+assassination. Unfortunately some of the under-secretaries in the
+Addington administration had not only shared the plans of the
+conspirators so far as they aimed at a rising in France, but had
+procured for them material assistance. They appear, however, to have
+been innocent of any attempt on Napoleon's life. Drake, the British
+envoy at Munich, was, however, deeper in the plot. The evidence of
+British complicity naturally received the very worst construction in
+Paris.[26] Napoleon himself certainly believed in an Anglo-Bourbon
+conspiracy, organised by the Count of Artois and other French royalists,
+when he caused the Duke of Enghien to be kidnapped in Baden territory
+and hurried off to the castle of Vincennes. He was, however, already
+aware of his prisoner's innocence when on March 21 he had him shot there
+by torch-light after a mock trial before a military commission. All
+Europe was shocked by this atrocious assassination, and though Napoleon
+sometimes attempted to shift the guilt of it upon Talleyrand, he
+justified it at other times as a measure of self-defence, and left on
+record his deliberate approval of it, for the consideration of
+posterity. Two months later he became Emperor of the French.
+
+When Pitt resumed office on May 10, 1804, he was no longer the
+heaven-born and buoyant young minister of 1783, strong in the confidence
+of the king and the anticipated confidence of the nation, with a
+minority of followers in the house of commons, but with the brightest
+prospects of political success before him. Nor was he the leader of a
+devoted majority, as when he resigned in 1801 rather than abandon his
+convictions on the catholic question. He had been compelled to waive
+these convictions, without fully regaining the confidence of the king,
+and, while the adherents of Fox retained their deep-seated hatred of a
+war-policy, the adherents of Addington and Grenville were in no mood to
+give him a loyal support. Windham and Spencer were no longer at his
+side, and his ministry was essentially the same as that of Addington,
+with the substitution of Dudley Ryder, now Lord Harrowby, for Hawkesbury
+as foreign secretary, Melville for St. Vincent as first lord of the
+admiralty, Earl Camden for Hobart as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and the Duke of Montrose for Auckland as president of the board of
+trade. Hawkesbury was transferred to the home office, vacated by Yorke,
+and the new chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, Lord Mulgrave, was
+given a seat in the cabinet. Of Pitt's eleven colleagues in the cabinet
+Castlereagh alone, who remained president of the board of control--a
+wretched speaker though an able administrator--had a seat in the lower
+house.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RECONCILIATION WITH ADDINGTON._]
+
+Military exigencies now engrossed all thoughts, and the king's speech,
+in proroguing parliament on July 31, foreshadowed a new coalition, for
+which the murder of the Duke of Enghien had paved the way. The
+preparations for an invasion of England had been resumed, and Napoleon
+celebrated his birthday in great state at Boulogne, still postponing his
+final stroke until he should be crowned, on December 2, at Paris by the
+helpless pope, brought from Italy for the purpose.[27] A month later he
+personally addressed another pacific letter to the King of England, who
+replied in his speech from the throne on January 15, 1805, that he could
+not entertain overtures except in concert with Russia and the other
+powers. Meanwhile, Pitt, conscious as he was of failing powers, retained
+his undaunted courage, and while he was organising a third coalition,
+did not shrink from a bold measure which could hardly be justified by
+international law. This was the seizure on October 5, 1804, of three
+Spanish treasure-ships on the high seas, without a previous declaration
+of war against Spain, though not without a previous notice that
+hostilities might be opened at any moment unless Spain ceased to give
+underhand assistance to France. The excuse was that Spain had long been
+the obsequious ally of France, and, as the alliance now became open,
+Pitt's act was sanctioned by a large majority in both houses of
+parliament in January, 1805. The parliamentary session which opened in
+this month found Pitt's ministry apparently stronger than it had been at
+the beginning of the recess. Despairing of any help from Grenville,
+except in a vigorous prosecution of the war, he had sought a
+reconciliation with Addington, who became Viscount Sidmouth on January
+12 and president of the council on the 14th. Along with Sidmouth his
+former colleague Hobart, now Earl of Buckinghamshire, returned to office
+as chancellor of the duchy. To make room for these new allies, Portland
+had consented to resign the presidency of the council, though he
+remained a member of the cabinet, while Mulgrave was appointed to the
+foreign office, in place of Harrowby, who was compelled by ill-health to
+retire.
+
+But this new accession of strength was soon followed by a terrible
+mortification which probably contributed to shorten Pitt's life.
+Melville, his tried supporter and intimate friend, was charged on the
+report of a commission with having misapplied public money as treasurer
+of the navy in Pitt's former ministry. It appeared that he had been
+culpably careless, and had not prevented the paymaster, Trotter, from
+engaging in private speculations with the naval balances. Although
+Trotter's speculations involved no loss to the state they were,
+nevertheless, a contravention of an act of 1785. Melville had also
+supplied other departments of government with naval money, but was
+personally innocent of fraud. There was a divergence of feeling in the
+cabinet as to the attitude to be adopted towards Melville. Sidmouth,
+himself a man of the highest integrity, was a friend of St. Vincent, the
+late first lord of the admiralty, and had not forgiven Melville for his
+part in the expulsion of himself and St. Vincent from office. He had
+therefore both public and private grounds to incline him against
+Melville. On April 8, Samuel Whitbread moved a formal censure on
+Melville in the house of commons. Pitt, with the approval of Sidmouth
+and his friends, moved the previous question on Whitbread's motion, and
+declared his intention of introducing a motion of his own for a select
+committee to investigate the charges. In spite of the support which Pitt
+derived from the followers of Sidmouth the votes were equally divided on
+Whitbread's motion, 216 a side. Abbot, the speaker, gave his casting
+vote in favour of Whitbread, and the announcement was received by the
+whig members with unseemly exultation.[28]
+
+[Pageheading: _MINISTERIAL CHANGES._]
+
+The censure was followed by an impeachment before the house of lords,
+where Melville was acquitted in the following year. Meanwhile, he had
+resigned office on April 9, the day after the vote of censure, and his
+place at the admiralty was taken by Sir Charles Middleton, who was
+raised to the peerage as Lord Barham. The appointment gave umbrage to
+Sidmouth, to whom Pitt had made promises of promotion for his own
+followers, and he was with difficulty induced to remain in the cabinet.
+Pitt was, however, irritated by the hostile votes of Sidmouth's
+followers, Hiley Addington and Bond, on the question of the impeachment,
+and regarded this as a reason for delaying their preferment. Sidmouth
+now complained of a breach of faith, as Pitt had promised to treat the
+question as an open one, and he resigned office on July 4.
+Buckinghamshire resigned next day. Camden was appointed to succeed
+Sidmouth as lord president, Castlereagh followed Camden as secretary for
+war and the colonies, retaining his previous position as president of
+the board of control, and Harrowby, whose health had improved since his
+resignation in January, took Buckinghamshire's place as chancellor of
+the duchy. Thus weakened at home, Pitt could derive little consolation
+from the aspect of continental affairs. On May 26, Napoleon was crowned
+King of Italy in the cathedral of Milan, and the Ligurian Republic
+became part of the French empire in the following month. The ascendency
+of France in Europe might well have appeared impregnable, and it might
+have been supposed that nothing remained for England but to guard her
+own coasts and recapture some of the French colonies given up by the
+treaty of Amiens.
+
+But Pitt's spirit was still unbroken, and by the middle of July he
+succeeded in rallying three powers, Russia, Austria, and Sweden, into a
+league to withstand the further encroachments of France. Such a league
+had been proposed by Gustavus IV. of Sweden, early in 1804, but nothing
+definite was done till Pitt's ministry entered upon office. Meanwhile,
+the assassination of the Duke of Enghien had led to a rupture of
+diplomatic relations between France and Russia, though war was not
+declared. Negotiations were presently set on foot for a league, which,
+it was hoped, would be joined by Austria and Prussia in addition to
+Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden. An interesting feature in the
+negotiations was the tsar's scheme of a European polity, where the
+states should be independent and enjoy institutions "founded on the
+sacred rights of humanity," a foreshadowing, as it would seem, of the
+Holy Alliance. The discussion of details between Great Britain and
+Russia began towards the end of 1804. Difficulties, however, arose about
+the British retention of Malta and the British claim to search neutral
+ships for deserters. A treaty between the two powers was signed on April
+11, 1805; but the tsar long refused his ratification, and it was only
+given in July, after a formal protest against the retention of Malta.
+
+The object of this alliance was defined to be the expulsion of French
+troops from North Germany, the assured independence of the republics of
+Holland and Switzerland, and the restoration of the King of Sardinia in
+Piedmont; 500,000 men were to be provided for the war by Russia and such
+other continental powers as might join the coalition. Great Britain,
+instead of furnishing troops, was to supply £1,250,000 a year for every
+100,000 men engaged in the war. After the close of the war an European
+congress was to define more closely the law of nations and establish an
+European federation. At the same time the allies disclaimed the
+intention of forcing any system of government on France against her
+will. It will be observed that the number of troops specified was far in
+excess of what Russia alone could place in the field; such numbers could
+only be obtained by the adhesion of Austria and of either Prussia or
+some of the smaller German states to the coalition. So far as Austria
+was concerned, Napoleon's Italian policy rendered war inevitable.
+Already in November, 1804, the Austrian court had entered into a secret
+agreement with Russia to make war on France in the event of further
+French aggressions in Italy. The coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy
+and the annexation of Liguria were, however, more than aggressions; they
+were open violations of the treaty of Lunéville which had guaranteed the
+independence of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics. Austria hereupon
+determined on war, and secretly joined the coalition on August 9, 1805.
+Sweden, which was not a member of it, concluded separate treaties of
+alliance both with Great Britain and with Russia. Greater difficulties
+had to be surmounted in the case of Prussia. Frederick William III.
+cherished no enthusiasm for European liberty, and vacillated under the
+influence of Napoleon's offer of Hanover on the one hand and his
+numerous petty insults on the other. Prussia in consequence remained
+neutral throughout the most decisive period of the ensuing war.
+
+[Pageheading: _NELSON AND VILLENEUVE._]
+
+Long before the coalition was ready Napoleon's mind had recurred to his
+venturesome project for the invasion of England. An army, the finest
+that he ever led to victory, which, even after it had been transferred
+to another scene of action, he still saw fit to call the "army of
+England," was encamped near Boulogne. It was constantly exercised in the
+process of embarking on board flat-bottomed boats or rafts, which were
+to be convoyed by Villeneuve, admiral of the Toulon fleet, and
+Gantheaume, admiral of the Brest fleet, for whose appearance the French
+signalmen vainly scanned the horizon. In the meantime, Nelson had been
+engaged for two years, without setting foot on shore, in that patient
+and sleepless watch, ranging over the whole Mediterranean, which must
+ever rank with the greatest of his matchless exploits. At last, he
+learned in the spring of 1805, that Villeneuve, following a plan
+concerted by Napoleon himself, had eluded him by sailing from Toulon
+towards Cadiz, had there been joined by the Spanish fleet, and was
+steering for the West Indies. Nelson followed with a much smaller number
+of ships, and might have forced an action in those waters, but he was
+misled by false intelligence and missed the enemy, though his dreaded
+presence was effectual in saving the British islands from any serious
+attack.
+
+The combined fleets of France and Spain recrossed the Atlantic and in
+accordance with Napoleon's plans made for Ferrol on the coast of
+Galicia. After being repulsed with some loss off Cape Finisterre by Sir
+Robert Calder, who was court-martialled and severely reprimanded for
+neglecting to follow up his victory, they put in first at Vigo, and then
+with fifteen allied ships at Coruña. But, instead of venturing to carry
+out Napoleon's orders by challenging Admiral Cornwallis's fleet off
+Brest, and making a desperate effort to command the channel, Villeneuve
+now took advantage of his emperors recommendation to return to Cadiz in
+event of defeat, and set sail for that port in the middle of August.
+Nelson, ignorant of his movements, had vainly sought him off the Straits
+of Gibraltar, and came home to report himself at the admiralty. Arriving
+at Spithead on August 18, he was in England barely four weeks, most of
+which he spent in privacy at Merton. During this brief respite he
+received a general tribute of admiration and affection from his
+countrymen, which anticipated the verdict of posterity. On September 15
+he sailed from Portsmouth, with a presentiment of his own fate, after
+having described to Sidmouth the general design of his crowning sea
+fight: he would, he said, break the enemy's line in two places; and he
+did so. He joined Admiral Collingwood off Cadiz on the 29th, and on
+October 19 he received news that Villeneuve, smarting under the
+prospect of being superseded, had put to sea with the combined fleet.
+Complicated naval manoeuvres followed, but on the 21st the enemy was
+forced to give battle, a few leagues from Cape Trafalgar, and Nelson
+caused his immortal signal to be hoisted--"England expects that every
+man will do his duty".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR._]
+
+The French and Spanish fleet comprised thirty-three ships of the line,
+of which eighteen were French and fifteen Spanish; the British had only
+twenty-seven, but among these were seven three-deckers as against four
+on the side of the allies. It had the additional advantage of superior
+discipline and equipment, to say nothing of the genius of its commander.
+The British fleet advanced in two divisions, Nelson leading the weather
+division of twelve, and Collingwood the lee division of fifteen ships.
+According to Nelson's plan Collingwood was to attack the rear of the
+enemy's line, while he himself cut off and paralysed the centre and van.
+Both divisions advanced without regular formation, the ships bearing
+down with all the speed they could command and without waiting for
+laggards. Collingwood in the _Royal Sovereign_, steering E. by N., broke
+through the allies' line twelve ships from the rear, raking the _Santa
+Ana_, Alava's flagship, as he passed her stern, with a broadside which
+struck down 400 of her men. For some fifteen minutes the _Royal
+Sovereign_ was alone in action; then others of the division came up and
+successively penetrated the line of the allies, and engaging ship to
+ship completely disposed of the enemy's rear, their twelve rear ships
+being all taken or destroyed.
+
+Meanwhile, Nelson in the _Victory_, who had reserved to himself the more
+difficult task of containing twenty-one ships with twelve, held on his
+course, advancing so as to keep the allied van stationary and yet to
+prevent the centre from venturing to help the rear. He designed to pass
+through the end of the line in order to cut the enemy's van off from
+Cadiz, but, finding an opportunity, changed his course, passed down the
+line and attacked the centre. He passed through the line of the allied
+fleet, closely followed by four other ships of his division, and the
+five British ships concentrated their attacks on the _Bucentaure_,
+Villeneuve's flagship, the gigantic Spanish four-decker, the _Santísima
+Trinidad_, which was next ahead of her, and the _Redoutable_, which
+supported her. The centre of the allies was crushed and the van cut off
+from coming to the help of the rear, which was being destroyed by
+Collingwood.
+
+Before the battle ended, the naval force of France, and with it
+Napoleon's projects of invasion, were utterly and hopelessly ruined.
+Eighteen prizes were taken, and, though many of these were lost in a
+gale, four ships which escaped were afterwards captured, and the
+remainder lay for the most part shattered hulks at Cadiz. By this battle
+the supremacy of Great Britain at sea was finally established. Nelson,
+who, during the ship-to-ship engagement which followed his penetration
+of the enemy's line, was mortally wounded by a sharp-shooter from the
+mizzen-top of the _Redoutable_, died before the battle was over, though
+he was spared to hear that a complete victory was secure. His death is
+among the heroic incidents of history, and his last achievement, both in
+its conception and its results, was the fitting climax of his fame. The
+plan for the battle which he drew up beforehand for the instruction of
+his captains, and the changes which he made in it to meet the conditions
+of the moment are alike worthy of his supreme genius as a naval
+tactician. His arrangements were carried out by men who had learned to
+love and trust him, and who were inspired by the fire of his spirit, and
+hence it was that the allied fleet of France and Spain perished at the
+"Nelson touch".[29]
+
+Very different were the fortunes of war in central Europe, where
+Napoleon himself commanded the "army of England". It was not until the
+end of August that Napoleon knew that Villeneuve would be unable to
+appear in the Channel, but no sooner did he abandon his project of
+invasion in despair than he resolved on a campaign scarcely less
+arduous, and gave orders for a grand march into Germany. Pitt, as we
+have seen, had successfully negotiated an alliance with Russia and
+Austria, whose armies were converging upon the plains of Bavaria and
+were to have been reinforced by a large Prussian contingent. Unhappily,
+they had not effected a junction when Napoleon crossed the Rhine near
+Strassburg and the Danube near Donauwörth, while he detached large
+forces to check the advance of the Russians and the approach of
+reinforcements expected from Italy. One of these movements involved an
+open violation of Prussian territory, but he could rely on the
+well-tried servility of Frederick William. The first decisive result of
+his strategy was the surrender of Mack at Ulm, with 30,000 men and 60
+pieces of ordnance. This event took place on October 20, the very day
+before the battle of Trafalgar, and opened the road to Vienna, which the
+French troops entered on November 13, occupying the great bridge by a
+ruse more skilful than honourable, during the negotiation of an
+armistice. Vienna was spared, while Napoleon pressed on to meet the
+remainder of the Austrian army, which had now been joined by a larger
+body of Russians near Brünn. The allies numbered about 100,000 men;
+Napoleon's army was numerically somewhat less, but possessed the same
+kind of superiority as the British navy at Trafalgar. The result was the
+crushing victory of Austerlitz on December 2, followed by the peace of
+Pressburg, between France and Austria, signed on the 26th. The principal
+articles of this treaty provided for the cession of Venetia, Istria, and
+Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, and the aggrandisement of Bavaria and
+Würtemberg, whose electors received the royal title as the price of
+their sympathetic alliance with France. Russia withdrew sullenly, having
+learned the hollowness of her league with Prussia, which had basely
+temporised while the fate of Germany was at stake, and whose minister,
+Haugwitz, suppressing the _ultimatum_ which he was charged to deliver,
+had openly congratulated the conqueror of Austerlitz.
+
+Great Britain had had no direct share in the conflict in Southern
+Germany and Moravia; she had, however, joined in two expeditions, the
+one in Southern, the other in Northern Europe. In spite of a treaty of
+neutrality between France and the Two Sicilies, ratified on October 8,
+an Anglo-Russian squadron was permitted to land a force of 10,000
+British troops under Sir James Craig, and 14,000 Russians on the shore
+of the Bay of Naples. These troops effected nothing, and the violation
+of neutrality was, as we shall see, destined to involve the Neapolitan
+monarchy in ruin. The expedition to North Germany was planned on a
+larger scale. Hanover had been occupied by France since June, 1803. Its
+recovery was attempted by an Anglo-Hanoverian force under Cathcart,
+which was to have been supported by a Russian and Swedish force acting
+from Stralsund. The co-operation of Prussia was also expected. In order
+to secure this alliance the British government offered Prussia an
+extension of territory so as to include Antwerp, Liège, Luxemburg, and
+Cologne, in the event of victory. In November the expedition landed. In
+December Prussia had definitely given her protection to the Russian
+troops in Hanover and offered it to the Hanoverians. Pitt computed that
+at the beginning of the next campaign nearly 300,000 men would be
+available in North Germany. But the vacillation of Prussia ruined all.
+On December 15 Haugwitz signed the treaty of Schönbrunn, by which
+Prussia was to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with
+France and was to receive Hanover in return for Ansbach, Cleves, and
+Neuchâtel. Frederick William could not yet stoop to such a degree of
+infamy, and therefore, instead of ratifying the treaty, resolved on
+January 3, 1806, to propose a compromise, which involved among other
+provisions the temporary occupation of Hanover by Prussia. In
+consequence of this determination he sent, on January 7, a request for
+the withdrawal of the British forces, which were accordingly
+recalled.[30]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF PITT._]
+
+The collapse of his last coalition was the death-blow of Pitt, cheered
+though he was for the moment by the news of Trafalgar. The fatal
+consequences of Austerlitz were reported to him at Bath, whence he
+returned by easy stages to his villa at Putney in January, 1806. His
+noble spirit was broken at last by the defection of Prussia, and after
+lingering a while, he died on the 23rd of that month, leaving a name
+second to none among the greatest statesmen of his country. His
+sagacious mind grasped the advantage to be gained by freeing trade from
+unnecessary restrictions, and anticipated catholic emancipation,
+parliamentary reform, and the abolition of slavery. He gave the nation,
+in the union with Ireland, the one constructive measure of the first
+order achieved in his time, and only marred by the weakness of more
+pliable successors in a lesser age. His dauntless soul, which bore him
+up against the bitterest disappointments, the desertion of friends, and
+the depression of mortal disease, inspired the governing classes of
+England to endure ten more years of exhausting war, to save Europe (as
+he foretold) by their example, and to crown his own work at Waterloo.
+His lofty eloquence, which has been described as a gift independent of
+statesmanship, was indeed a product of statesmanship, for it consisted
+in no mere witchery of words, but in a luminous and convincing
+presentation of essential facts. He may have been inferior to his own
+father in fiery rhetoric, to Peel in comprehensive grasp of domestic
+policy, and to Gladstone in the political experience gained by sixty
+years of political life, but in capacity for command he was inferior to
+none. If he was not an ideal war minister, he was not a war minister by
+his own choice; his lot was cast in times which suppressed the exercise
+of his best powers; and he was matched in the organisation of war,
+though not in the field, against the greatest organising genius known to
+history. He must be judged by what he actually did and meditated as a
+peace minister; his conduct of the war must be compared with that of
+those able but not gifted men who strove to bend the bow which he left
+behind him; and we must assuredly conclude that none of his colleagues
+or rivals was his peer either in powers or in public spirit.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 242; Lewis,
+_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 225.
+
+[14] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 282-90; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 113-31; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 20-39.
+
+[15] See vol. x., p. 399.
+
+[16] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 145-47; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_,
+iv., 88-93.
+
+[17] For a list of Canning's squibs, belonging to this period, see
+Lewis, _Administrations_, p. 249, note.
+
+[18] It was not fair to hold Addington entirely responsible for the
+promotion of his brother, who had been a junior lord of the treasury
+under Pitt. The taunt came with a particularly bad grace from Canning,
+who had himself been paymaster-general in the last administration.
+
+[19] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 250.
+
+[20] _Annual Register_, xlvi. (1804), p. 34.
+
+[21] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 135-44.
+
+[22] See the letter in Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp.
+i.-iii.
+
+[23] There is preserved a sketch in Pitt's handwriting of a combined
+administration with Melville, Fox, and Fitzwilliam as secretaries of
+state, and Grenville as lord president.
+
+[24] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp. xi., xii.
+
+[25] The best account of Pitt's return to power is to be found in
+Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 113-95; appendix, pp. i.-xiii. The story
+is told in a very spirited manner by Lord Rosebery, _Pitt_, pp. 238-44.
+
+[26] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, i., 450-53.
+
+[27] Napoleon actually crowned himself, although he had originally
+intended to be crowned by the pope.
+
+[28] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 338.
+
+[29] Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar are explained in a series of
+remarkable articles in _The Times_ of September 16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30,
+and October 19, 1905. For incidents of the battle see Mahan, _Life of
+Nelson_, ii., 363 _sqq._
+
+[30] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 53-57, 63-65.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+                        GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+
+The immediate effect of Pitt's death was the dissolution of his
+government. The king turned at first to Hawkesbury, afterwards destined
+as Earl of Liverpool to hold the office of premier for nearly fifteen
+years; but he then felt himself unequal to such a burden. He next sent
+for Grenville, who insisted on the co-operation of Fox, to which the
+king assented without demur, and the short-lived ministry of "All the
+Talents" was formed within a few days. It was essentially a whig
+cabinet, but it included two tories, Sidmouth as lord privy seal, and
+Lord Ellenborough, the lord chief justice. Grenville himself was first
+lord of the treasury, Fox foreign secretary, and Erskine lord
+chancellor. Charles Grey, the future Earl Grey, was first lord of the
+admiralty. Spencer home secretary, Windham secretary for war and the
+colonies, and Lord Henry Petty, the future Marquis of Lansdowne,
+chancellor of the exchequer. Fitzwilliam was lord president, and the
+Earl of Moira master-general of the ordnance. Ellenborough owed his
+place in the cabinet to the influence of Sidmouth. The appointment was a
+departure from the established constitutional practice. Since Lord
+Mansfield, who had ceased to be an efficient member in 1765, no chief
+justice had been a member of the cabinet, and it was argued in
+parliament by the opposition that a seat in the cabinet was inconsistent
+with the independence which a common law judge ought to maintain. It is
+also important to observe that Sidmouth when accepting office gave
+express notice to Grenville and Fox that under all circumstances "he
+would ever resist the catholic question".[31]
+
+The friendly relations of the king with Fox were creditable to both of
+them, and in the last few months of his life Fox showed himself a
+statesman. Besides the abolition of the slave trade, his grand object
+was the restoration of peace on a durable basis. There were some grounds
+for believing that this was possible. France, under an emperor, seemed
+no longer to represent a new principle in European politics, and was not
+necessarily a menace to her neighbours; the coalition was fairly beaten
+on land, while British supremacy had been reasserted on sea, and
+Napoleon might well wish for peace to enable him to consolidate his
+position on land and regain the power of using the sea, just as he had
+done in 1801. Fox lost no time in renewing a pacific correspondence with
+Talleyrand, afterwards carried on through the agency of Lord Yarmouth,
+an English traveller detained in France, and Lord Lauderdale, who was
+sent over as plenipotentiary. The principle of the negotiation was that
+of _uti possidetis_, but it failed, as Whitworth's efforts had failed,
+because the pretensions of France were constantly shifting, and
+especially because France, anxious to isolate Great Britain, insisted on
+negotiating separately with Great Britain and Russia, while Fox very
+properly refused to make peace without our ally. Grey himself, now Lord
+Howick, afterwards declared that France showed no disposition to grant
+any terms which could be accepted by Great Britain. On September 13, Fox
+died, and was buried in Westminster Abbey almost side by side with his
+great rival.
+
+While he was earnestly striving for peace, there was no cessation of
+warlike movements or political changes either in Central Europe or in
+Italy. In June, 1806, Napoleon converted the Batavian Republic into the
+kingdom of Holland, over which he set his brother Louis. In July the
+discord of Germany, which had long ceased to be a nation, was
+consummated by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which
+separated all the western states from the Holy Roman empire, and united
+them under the protection and control of France. On August 6, Francis
+II., who had assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804, formally
+renounced the title of Roman Emperor, and the Holy Roman Empire became
+extinct. The King of Prussia, with singular disregard of good faith and
+national interest, finally accepted on February 15 the bribe of Hanover
+for adhesion to France, but without the offensive and defensive alliance
+offered him in the previous December, and with the additional
+humiliation of being compelled to close his ports to English ships. He
+vainly strove to conceal this shameful bargain, and was, as will be
+seen, punished by the destruction of Prussian commerce. After all, he
+found himself overreached by Napoleon in duplicity, and was at last
+provoked into risking a single-handed contest with his imperious ally.
+He declared war on October 1, and within a fortnight the army of
+Prussia, inheriting the system and traditions of the great Frederick,
+was all but annihilated in the twin battles of Jena and Auerstädt fought
+on October 14.
+
+[Pageheading: _SMALL EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+The British government, though not unwilling to forgive the perfidy of
+its former confederate, was powerless to strike a blow on his behalf
+until it was too late. Indeed, the only warlike operation undertaken by
+Great Britain in Europe during the year was in the extreme south of
+Italy. Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, had been driven out of his
+capital to make way for Joseph Bonaparte, who entered Naples on February
+15, and the exiled monarch took refuge in the island of Sicily. In
+accordance with the shortsighted policy of small expeditions, a British
+force under Sir John Stuart was landed in Calabria to raise the
+peasantry, and on July 4, defeated the French at the point of the
+bayonet in the battle of Maida. This action shook the confidence of
+Europe in the superiority of the French infantry, and saved Sicily from
+France, but the French troops remained in possession of the Italian
+mainland. The prestige of Great Britain was raised by the conquest of
+the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope in January by a naval and
+military force sent out by Pitt under the command of Sir Home Popham and
+General, now Sir David, Baird, but was damaged by a futile expedition to
+South America, undertaken by Popham without orders from the home
+government. The city of Buenos Ayres was taken, indeed, in June by
+General Beresford, but it was retaken by the Spaniards in August, and
+soldiers who could ill be spared from the European conflict now
+impending were lavished on a chimerical project on the other side of the
+Atlantic.
+
+The short administration of Grenville, so inactive in its foreign
+policy, is memorable only for one redeeming measure of home-policy--the
+abolition of the slave trade. Before Fox's death, the attention of
+parliament had been divided mainly between Windham's abortive scheme
+for a vast standing army, to be raised on the basis of limited service,
+and the secret inquiry into the conduct of the Princess of Wales. This
+resulted in her being acquitted of the more scandalous charges against
+her, but on the advice of the cabinet, she was censured by the king for
+unseemly levity of behaviour. On October 24 parliament was dissolved. It
+was a foolish dissolution, for ministerial convenience only, and aimed
+not merely at strengthening the ministry, but at weakening the tory
+section within the ministry. The election was not well managed, and the
+king withheld the subscription of £12,000 with which he was accustomed
+to assist his ministers for the time being at a general election. Still
+the ministry obtained a considerable majority.[32] The new parliament
+met on December 15, and on March 25, 1807, the abolition bill, having
+passed the house of lords in spite of strong opposition, was carried in
+the commons by 283 to 16. Thus ended a philanthropic struggle, which
+began in 1783, when the quakers petitioned against the trade. Three
+years later Clarkson began his crusade. Two bills in favour of abolition
+were carried by the house of commons before the close of the eighteenth
+century, but were thrown out in the house of lords. The same fate befell
+a bill for a temporary suspension of the slave trade, which passed the
+commons in 1804 under the spell of Wilberforce's persuasive eloquence;
+but Pitt's government caused a royal proclamation to be issued, which at
+least checked the spread of the nefarious traffic in the newly conquered
+colonies. A larger measure failed to pass the house of commons in 1805,
+but in 1806 Fox and Grenville succeeded in committing both houses to an
+open condemnation of the trade. This was followed on March 25, 1807, by
+an enactment entirely prohibiting the slave trade from and after January
+1, 1808, though it was not made felony to engage in it until a further
+act was carried by Brougham in 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _FALL OF GRENVILLE'S MINISTRY._]
+
+In default of important legislative tasks, the parliament which expired
+in 1806 devoted much attention to various features of the military
+system, as well as to proposed reforms in the public accounts. It
+sanctioned the principle of raising a great part of the war-expenses by
+special taxes rather than by loan. A property-tax of 10 per cent. was
+freely voted, and this was then represented to be its permanent limit.
+The assessed taxes were increased at the same time by 10 per cent., but
+with an allowance in favour of poorer taxpayers for every child above
+the number of two. It is worthy of notice that, while Grenville's
+ministry was in office, Whitbread brought forward an elaborate plan not
+only for reforming the poor laws but also for establishing a system of
+national education. Some changes in the cabinet were necessitated by the
+death of Fox. Howick became foreign secretary and was succeeded at the
+admiralty by Thomas Grenville, brother of the prime minister, most
+famous as a book-collector. Fitzwilliam retired at the same time on the
+ground of ill-health. He retained his seat in the cabinet, but was
+succeeded as lord president by Sidmouth, while Fox's nephew, Lord
+Holland, succeeded Sidmouth as lord privy seal.
+
+The fall of the whig government in March, 1807, was due to a cause
+similar to that which had brought about the retirement of Pitt in 1801.
+The Duke of Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, had urged the
+importance of making some concessions to Roman catholics. An Irish act
+of 1793 had opened commissions in the army as high as the rank of
+colonel to Roman catholics, and the ministry obtained the reluctant
+consent of the king to the extension of this concession to Roman
+catholics throughout his dominions. Without having fully ascertained the
+king's mind, Howick, on behalf of his colleagues, moved for leave to
+bring in a bill opening all commissions in the army and navy to Roman
+catholics. The king at once refused his sanction, and the government,
+finding that they could not carry their bill, agreed to withdraw it.
+This decision was announced to the king in a cabinet minute, drawn up at
+a meeting from which Ellenborough, Erskine, and Sidmouth, who
+sympathised with the king, were excluded, and from which Fitzwilliam and
+Spencer were absent owing to ill-health. The minute went on to record
+their adhesion to the policy embodied in the bill, reserving the right
+to advise the king on any future occasion in accordance with that
+policy. Thereupon, Sidmouth, who had already sent in his resignation,
+Eldon, Portland, and Malmesbury, with the concurrence of the Duke of
+York and Spencer Perceval, urged the king to make a stand upon his
+prerogative. He did so, by requiring the ministers who had signed the
+minute, to give him a written pledge that they would never press upon
+him further concessions, direct or indirect, to the Roman catholics.
+This pledge they properly declined, and accepted the consequence by
+resignation. Spencer was present at the meeting which arrived at this
+conclusion and concurred in the decision of his colleagues.[33]
+
+A new administration was formed by Portland, as nominal head, but with
+Perceval as its real leader and chancellor of the exchequer, Canning as
+foreign secretary, Hawkesbury as home secretary, and Castlereagh as
+minister for war and the colonies. Camden, Eldon, Westmorland, and
+Chatham resumed the offices they had held before the death of Pitt,
+Mulgrave became first lord of the admiralty, and Earl Bathurst president
+of the board of trade. In this government, too, Sir Arthur Wellesley,
+the future Duke of Wellington, who had returned in 1805 from a brilliant
+military career in India, held office outside the cabinet as chief
+secretary for Ireland. Spencer Perceval was a half-brother of the Earl
+of Egmont and brother of Lord Arden. He enjoyed a large practice at the
+bar and had made his mark as a parliamentary debater when filling the
+offices, first of solicitor-general, and then of attorney-general under
+Addington. He had held the latter office again under Pitt. Not the least
+source of his influence was his steady and determined opposition to the
+Roman catholic claims.
+
+[Pageheading: _NON-INTERVENTION._]
+
+After a short but animated debate on the important constitutional
+question raised by the circumstances of the change of ministers,
+parliament was again dissolved on April 27. The king's speech in closing
+the session was virtually a personal appeal to his people, and a
+majority was returned in favour of the new ministry. This result may be
+said to mark the last triumph of George III. in maintaining the
+principle of personal government. "A just and enlightened toleration"
+was announced as the substitute for catholic relief. Still, a certain
+revival of independent popular opinion may be traced in the return of
+Sir Francis Burdett and Lord Cochrane for Westminster. It was not until
+June 22 that parliament assembled, and the engrossing interest of
+foreign events left but little room for discussions on home-policy. A
+motion by Whitbread, however, bore fruit in a bill for establishing
+parochial schools, which Eldon successfully opposed in the house of
+lords, mainly on the ground that it would take popular education out of
+the hands of the clergy. The same not unnatural apathy about home
+affairs prevailed throughout the session of 1808, which began on January
+31, and though a large number of acts were placed on the statute book in
+this and succeeding years, the mass of them, including many relating to
+Ireland, were essentially of a local or occasional character. An
+exception must be recognised in the partial success of a motion for the
+reform of the criminal law, which was proposed by Sir Samuel Romilly,
+famous for his efforts in the cause of humanity, and which resulted in
+the abolition of capital punishment for the offence of pocket-picking.
+
+During this critical period, when Great Britain was gradually drifting
+into a position of isolation, the course of parliamentary history
+becomes inseparable from the progress of those mighty events on the
+continent, which Grenville's government would fain have treated as
+outside the sphere of British interests. For, notwithstanding Windham's
+schemes for a reconstruction of the army, that government had allowed
+the naval and military establishments of Great Britain to fall below
+their former standard. The leading idea of their policy was
+non-intervention, and at the opening of 1807, there was no longer any
+thought of sending a force to cope with Napoleon's veterans on the
+continent When in 1805 a British force was operating in North Germany,
+it was possible that if Prussia had been faithful to her engagements,
+the disaster of Austerlitz might at least have been partially retrieved.
+It was otherwise when, after the collapse of Prussia, France and Russia
+stood face to face with each other. The drawn battle of Eylau in East
+Prussia, marked by fearful carnage, was fought on February 8, 1807. This
+check, breaking the spell of Napoleon's victorious career, had a
+remarkable effect in raising the spirits of the allies, Russia, Sweden,
+and Prussia, some remains of whose army were still in the field. These
+powers now drew closer together, but they received a lukewarm support
+from Great Britain, which might have done much to save Europe by timely
+reinforcements and liberal subsidies. In reply to an urgent appeal from
+the tsar for a loan of £6,000,000, the Grenville ministry doled out
+£500,000 to Russia, and a still more pitiful gift to Prussia. No troops
+were sent to aid Sweden on the Baltic coast, although, when, at
+Napoleon's instigation, Turkey declared war against Russia, expeditions
+were despatched to Alexandria and the Dardanelles. The notion of making
+war on a large scale, in concert with allies, on the continent of
+Europe, as in the days of Marlborough, and even of Lord Granby, seems to
+have vanished from the minds of English statesmen, except Castlereagh,
+who always advocated concentrated action.
+
+The succession of Portland and Canning to Grenville and Howick brought
+no immediate change in our insular policy and the new government had
+been in office for above three months before a British force at last
+appeared in the Swedish island of Rügen. It arrived too late, Danzig
+surrendered in May, and on June 14 Napoleon obtained a decisive victory
+over the Russian army and its Prussian contingent at Friedland. Russia
+now gave a supreme example of that national selfishness, and contempt
+for the rights of independent states which had dominated the counsels of
+sovereigns ever since the first partition of Poland. Doubtless the tsar
+might plead that Great Britain, too, had been wasting her strength in
+selfish attempts to secure her mastery of the seas, and to open new
+markets for her trade. He also deeply resented her recent failure to aid
+him in the hour of his utmost need, while he still cherished the policy
+of the "armed neutrality," and was eager to prosecute his designs
+against Turkey. Dazzled and flattered by Napoleon, he welcomed overtures
+for peace at the expense of Great Britain, and there is no doubt that
+his imaginative nature indulged in the vision of a regenerated Europe,
+divided between himself as emperor of the east and Napoleon as emperor
+of the west. It is therefore far from surprising that he should have
+held a private interview with Napoleon, on a raft in the Niemen, which
+led to the treaty of Tilsit on July 7.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF TILSIT._]
+
+This treaty, in which the King of Prussia shared as a helpless partner,
+contained both public and secret articles, but the distinction was not
+very material, for the secret articles almost immediately became known
+to Canning. The general effect of the whole agreement was the utter
+humiliation of Prussia, the recognition by that country and Russia of
+all Napoleon's acquisitions, and their combination with France against
+the maritime claims and conquests of Great Britain. The western
+provinces of Prussia were to be incorporated with other German
+annexations to form the new kingdom of Westphalia; Prussian Poland was
+to be converted into the duchy of Warsaw under the crown of Saxony, to
+which a right of passage through Silesia was reserved; and Berlin with
+other great Prussian fortresses were to remain in the hands of the
+French until an exorbitant war indemnity should have been paid.[34] At
+one stroke Prussia was thus reduced to a second-rate power, with a
+territory little greater than it possessed before the first partition of
+Poland. The rule of Joseph Bonaparte at Naples, that of Louis in
+Holland, and the confederation of the Rhine, were solemnly confirmed.
+Above all, Russia pledged herself to join France in coercing Sweden,
+Denmark, and Portugal into an adoption of the organised commercial
+exclusion, known as the "continental system," and hostility to Great
+Britain in the event of her resistance. If Sweden refused to join this
+league, Denmark was to be compelled to declare war on her.
+
+No sooner did it receive information of this alliance than the British
+government despatched a naval armament to Denmark and landed troops,
+which were soon reinforced by those withdrawn from Rügen. There had been
+no open rupture with Denmark, though much irritation existed between
+Denmark and Great Britain with reference to neutral commerce. But there
+were the best reasons for believing that the Danish fleet, as well as
+that of Portugal, would be demanded by France and Russia, to be employed
+against Great Britain, and it was certain that Denmark could not
+withstand such pressure. The British envoy, Jackson, was accordingly
+instructed to offer Denmark a treaty of alliance, of which one condition
+was to be the deposit of her fleet on hire with the British government.
+The proposal was accompanied by a threat of force, and the crown prince,
+with a spirit worthy of admiration, refused the terms. In consequence a
+peremptory summons to deliver up her ships of war and naval stores was
+addressed to the governor of Copenhagen by the British commanders,
+Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, under whom Sir Arthur Wellesley was
+entrusted with the reserve. The surrender, if made peaceably, was to be
+in the nature of a deposit, and the fleet was to be restored at the end
+of the war. The governor returned a temporising reply, and a bombardment
+of Copenhagen followed (September 2); the fleet was brought to England
+as prize of war; and Denmark naturally became the enemy of Great
+Britain.[35] Sweden declined the proffered alliance of France and
+Russia, and actually invaded Norway, then a part of the Danish kingdom.
+The result was the loss of Finland and Swedish Pomerania. The king,
+Gustavus IV., resembled Charles XII. in quixotic temperament, but not in
+ability; and Sir John Moore, sent to his support with an army of 10,000
+men, found it hopeless to co-operate with him. Shortly afterwards, his
+subjects formed the same opinion, and he was compelled to make way for
+his uncle, who succeeded as Charles XIII. with Marshal Bernadotte as
+crown prince. In consequence of this change Sweden became reconciled to
+Russia, and estranged from Great Britain.
+
+The seizure of the Danish fleet, in time of so-called peace, roused
+great indignation throughout most of Europe, and, in some degree,
+strained the conscience of the British parliament itself. The justice
+and wisdom of it were strenuously challenged in both houses, especially
+by Grenville, Sidmouth, and Lord Darnley, who moved an address to the
+crown embodying an impressive protest against it. It was defended,
+however, by the high authority of the Marquis Wellesley, as well as by
+Canning and other ministers, on the simple ground of military necessity.
+Napoleon himself never ceased to denounce it as an international outrage
+of the highest enormity. This did not prevent his doing his best to
+justify it and to imitate it by sending Junot's expedition to Portugal,
+with instructions to seize the Portuguese fleet at Lisbon. It is strange
+that in the debates on this subject, peace with France was still treated
+on both sides as a possibility; but Canning declared that neither
+Russian nor Austrian mediation could have been accepted as impartial,
+or as affording the least hope of pacification. However, on September
+25, the king addressed a declaration to Europe, in which, after
+justifying himself in regard to Copenhagen, he professed his readiness
+to accept conditions of peace "consistent with the maritime rights and
+political existence of Great Britain".
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMERCIAL EXCLUSION._]
+
+Still more reasonable attacks, supported by strong petitions, were made
+by the opposition upon the "orders in council," whereby the British
+government retaliated against Napoleon's "continental system". This
+system was founded on a firm belief, shared by the French people, that
+Great Britain, as mistress of the seas, was the one great obstacle to
+his imperial ambition, and the most formidable enemy of French
+aggrandisement, only to be crushed by the ruin of her trade. Prussia
+had, in conformity with her treaty of February 15, 1806, issued a
+proclamation on March 28 of that year, closing her ports, which would
+now include those of Hanover, against British trade. The British
+government replied by first laying an embargo on Prussian vessels in the
+harbours of Great Britain and Ireland, and by proclaiming a blockade of
+the coast of Europe from Brest to the Elbe. This was followed on May 14
+by an order in council for seizing all vessels found navigating under
+Prussian colours. As yet the policy of commercial exclusion had not been
+carried to any great length, but the Berlin decree issued by Napoleon on
+November 21 after the battle of Jena proclaimed the whole of the British
+Isles to be in a state of blockade, prohibited all commerce with them
+from the ports of France and her dependent states, confiscated all
+British merchandise in such ports, and declared all British subjects in
+countries occupied by French troops to be prisoners of war. Howick
+replied by further orders in council in January, 1807, forbidding
+neutrals to trade between the ports of France and her allies, or between
+the ports of nations which should observe the Berlin decree, on pain of
+the confiscation of the ship and cargo. On the 27th another decree,
+issued at Warsaw, ordered the seizure in the Hanse Towns of all British
+goods and colonial produce. The reply of Great Britain was a stricter
+blockade of the North German coast.
+
+The accession of Russia to Napoleon's commercial policy at Tilsit seemed
+to have brought the combination against British trade to its furthest
+development, and it was answered by new orders in council, treating any
+port from which the British flag was excluded as if actually blockaded,
+and further limiting the carriage by neutral vessels of produce from
+hostile colonies. The Milan decree issued on December 17, and further
+orders in council published during the same winter, carried to greater
+extremes, if possible, this intolerable form of commercial warfare,
+under which neutral commerce was gradually crushed out of existence.
+Great Britain, owing to her command of the sea, was more independent of
+this kind of commerce than her rival, and both the decrees and the
+orders in council inflicted far more damage on France and her allies
+than on Great Britain. But neither party was able to enforce completely
+its policy of commercial exclusion. Europe could not dispense with
+British goods or colonial produce carried in British vessels. The law
+was deliberately set aside by a regular licensing system, and evaded by
+wholesale smuggling; neutral ships continued to ply between continental
+ports, and Napoleon did not disdain to clothe his troops with 50,000
+British overcoats during the Eylau campaign. Still, Great Britain was
+enabled to cripple, if not to destroy, the merchant shipping of all
+other countries, and the interests of consumers all over Europe were
+enlisted against the author of the continental system. On the other
+hand, a heavy blow was dealt to friendly relations between Great Britain
+and the United States, the chief victim of these belligerent
+pretensions.[36]
+
+[Pageheading: _FRUITLESS EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of Great Britain had been injured by three
+petty and abortive expeditions projected by the Grenville ministry. The
+first of these was sent out to complete the conquest of Buenos Ayres,
+the recapture of which was unknown in England. Sir Samuel Auchmuty, who
+commanded it, finding himself too late to occupy that city, attacked and
+took Monte Video by storm with much skill and spirit, on February 3,
+1807. Shortly afterwards, he was superseded by General Whitelocke,
+bringing reinforcements, with orders to recover Buenos Ayres. In this he
+signally failed, owing to gross tactical errors. The British troops were
+almost passively slaughtered in the streets, and Whitelocke agreed to
+withdraw the remains of his force, and give up Monte Video, on condition
+of all prisoners being surrendered. On his return home, he was tried by
+a court-martial and cashiered, being also declared "totally unfit to
+serve his majesty in any military capacity whatever".
+
+Equally ill-managed was the naval expedition, directed to support
+Russia, then in close alliance with Great Britain, by coercing the
+sultan into a rupture with France. Collingwood, who was not consulted,
+was required to entrust the command of this expedition, which started in
+February, 1807, to Sir John Duckworth. Everything depended on
+promptitude, and the admiral found little difficulty in forcing the
+passage of the Dardanelles, as it was then almost unfortified. Having
+reached Constantinople, he allowed himself to waste time in fruitless
+negotiations, contrary to Collingwood's earnest advice, and not only
+effected nothing but gravely imperilled his return. Instructed by the
+French minister Sébastiani, the Turks had armed their coasts, and
+erected batteries along the Dardanelles, through which the British fleet
+made its way with considerable loss. Instead of being detached from the
+French alliance, the Porte was thrown into its arms and became more
+embittered than ever against Russia. It was soon involved in a serious
+conflict with that country--for the possession of Wallachia and
+Moldavia--only to be deserted again by France under the compact made at
+Tilsit. The expedition to Egypt, planned in combination with the
+expedition to the Dardanelles, ended in a still worse disaster. Though
+General Fraser, its commander, was able to surprise Alexandria on March
+30, he awaited in vain the expected news of Duckworth's success; he
+proceeded to attack Rosetta with as little generalship as Whitelocke had
+shown at Buenos Ayres, and encountered a similar repulse. An attempt to
+besiege the town met with no better fortune: the British troops
+submitted to a capitulation, evacuated Egypt, and sailed for Sicily in
+September, 1807. In an imperial manifesto addressed to the French nation
+at the end of this year, the British failures at Buenos Ayres,
+Constantinople, and Alexandria were paraded, together with our alleged
+crime against the rights of nations at Copenhagen.
+
+In the early months of 1808 the continental system was extended by the
+establishment of French administration at Rome, and the annexation of
+the eastern ports of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy. On
+February 18 of the same year Austria under French pressure adopted the
+system. Sweden and Turkey were now the only continental countries left
+outside it, but the retention of Sicily by the Bourbon king rendered it
+easy for British commerce to enter Italy through that island. The
+irritation of neutrals increased as the area of commercial exclusion
+widened, but the United States were now the only neutral power of any
+consequence. After April 17 Napoleon took the high-handed step of
+confiscating all American shipping in his ports. In spite of this
+aggression, the president and congress of the United States continued to
+favour France against Great Britain. The story of the commercial warfare
+between Great Britain and the United States will be related more fully
+hereafter. For the present, it is sufficient to mention that an act,
+placing an embargo on foreign vessels in American ports, was passed by
+congress on December 22, 1807, and another on March 1, 1809, forbidding
+commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France and the colonies
+occupied by them.
+
+Meanwhile Great Britain continued to enforce her maritime rights,
+including that of searching American merchantmen for British-born
+sailors, and impressing them at the will of British naval officers.
+These grievances ultimately led to a war between Great Britain and
+America in 1812. The continental system, however, did not long remain so
+complete as in the beginning of 1808. Junot's expedition to Portugal had
+led to a French occupation of that country before the end of 1807. The
+conquest of Portugal was followed, as we shall see later, by a partial
+conquest of Spain. This threw the Spaniards back upon the British
+alliance and afforded an opportunity for the liberation of Portugal, so
+that from May, 1808, Great Britain once more had a large seaboard open
+to her commerce. The early success of the Spanish resistance to France,
+and other events in the peninsula hereafter to be recorded, encouraged
+Austria to arm again; and on the news of the capitulation of the French
+army at Baylen in July, she pushed forward her preparations with
+redoubled energy. A national movement arose simultaneously in North
+Germany, but the Prussian government dared not head it so long as
+Russia remained faithful to the French alliance.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ERFURT._]
+
+Notwithstanding a peremptory declaration from the tsar after the seizure
+of the Danish fleet, Russia had nothing to gain by war with Great
+Britain. She was bound to France by the prospect held forth to her at
+Tilsit of the conquest of Finland and the partition of Turkey, but she
+was inwardly desirous of peace with Great Britain. Napoleon, on the
+other hand, saw in the partition of Turkey an opportunity of striking at
+India, and had actually given orders for naval preparations to be made
+in Spain, when all thought of eastern conquest had to be postponed owing
+to the success of the Spanish patriots. After a conference between
+Napoleon and the tsar at Erfurt a secret convention was signed on
+October 12, by which France sanctioned Russian conquests in Finland and
+the Danubian provinces, and Russia recognised the Bonaparte dynasty in
+Spain and promised to assist France in a defensive war against Austria.
+The two powers despatched a joint note to Great Britain inviting her to
+make peace, on the principle of _uti possidetis_. Canning replied that
+he was prepared to negotiate if his allies, especially Sweden and the
+Spanish patriots, who were at that time in actual possession of almost
+the entire country, were included in the peace. On November 19 Napoleon
+expressed his willingness to treat with the British allies, but not with
+the Spanish "rebels," as he styled them. Alexander took up a similar
+position, speaking of the Spanish "insurgents," and expressly
+recognising Joseph as King of Spain. Thus ended these pacific overtures,
+and on November 3 the official _exposé_, annually issued in Paris,
+described Great Britain as "the enemy of the world".
+
+The year 1808 is memorable in English history for the active
+intervention of Great Britain in the affairs of Spain which developed
+into the "Peninsular war".[37] This intervention was rendered possible
+and effective by the organisation of our army system in 1807, which was
+due to Castlereagh, though he received little credit for it. Under this
+system, the old constitutional force of the militia was made the basis
+of the whole military establishment. By the militia balloting bill and
+the militia transfer bill, that force, largely composed of substitutes,
+and bound only to home-service, was practically converted into a
+recruiting-ground for the regular army, and proved sufficient to make
+good all the losses incurred during the long campaigns in Portugal and
+Spain. The army thus raised contained, no doubt, many soldiers of bad
+character, whose misdeeds, after the furious excitement of an escalade,
+or under the heart-breaking stress of a retreat, sometimes brought
+disgrace upon the British name. But these men, side by side with
+steadier comrades, bore themselves like heroes on many a bloodstained
+field; they quailed not before the conquering legions of Austerlitz and
+Wagram; they could "go anywhere or do anything" under trusted leaders;
+and they restored the military reputation of their country before the
+eyes of Europe. To have forged such an instrument of war was no mean
+administrative exploit. To have maintained its efficiency steadily on
+the whole, though sometimes with a faint-hearted parsimony, and to have
+loyally supported its commander against the cavils of a factious
+opposition superior in parliamentary ability, for a period of seven
+years, must be held to redeem the tory government from the charge of
+political weakness.
+
+[Pageheading: _PARLIAMENTARY ZEAL._]
+
+At the beginning of 1809, however, the interest of parliament was less
+concentrated on Sir Arthur Wellesley's first campaign in Portugal, or
+even on the convention of Cintra, than on the scandals attaching to the
+office of commander-in-chief, held by the Duke of York. Though an
+incapable general, the duke had shown himself, on the whole, an
+excellent administrator, and in the opinion of the best officers had
+done much for the discipline and efficiency of the British army.
+Unfortunately, Mrs. Clarke, his former mistress, had received bribes for
+using her influence with the duke to procure military appointments.
+Colonel Wardle, an obscure member of parliament, to whom Mrs. Clarke had
+temporarily transferred herself after being discarded by the duke,
+animated by a desire to damage the ministry, came forward with charges
+directly implicating him in her corrupt practices, and incidentally
+brought similar accusations against Portland and Eldon. The government
+foolishly agreed to an inquiry on the Duke of York's behalf, and it was
+conducted before a committee of the whole house, which sat from January
+26 to March 20. In the course of this inquiry, Sir Arthur Wellesley
+bore strong testimony in his favour, and the duke addressed a letter to
+the speaker, declaring his innocence of corruption. Though Wardle and
+his associates pressed for his dismissal, Perceval ultimately carried a
+motion acquitting him not only of corruption but of connivance with
+corruption. The majority, however, was small, and the duke thought it
+necessary to resign on March 20, whereupon the house of commons decided
+to proceed no further. A curious sequel of this case was an action
+against Wardle by an upholsterer, who had furnished a house for Mrs.
+Clarke by Wardle's orders, in consideration of her services in giving
+hostile evidence against her former protector. The plaintiff obtained
+£2,000 damages, and the law-suit was the means of producing a reaction
+in popular feeling in favour of the duke.
+
+This scandal in high places quickened the zeal of parliament for general
+purity of administration, and led to a disclosure of some grave abuses.
+One of these, connected with the disposal of captured Dutch property,
+dated as far back as 1795. Others were found to exist in the navy
+department and the distribution of Indian patronage; others related to
+parliamentary elections. Perceval brought in a bill to check the sale
+and brokerage of offices, nor did Castlereagh himself escape the charge
+of having procured the election of Lord Clancarty to parliament by the
+offer of an Indian writership to a borough-monger. A frank explanation
+saved him from censure, especially as it appeared that the offer had
+never taken effect. The charge was renewed, in a different form, against
+both him and Perceval, and their accusers moved for a trial at bar. But
+as it turned out that undue influence rather than corruption was their
+alleged offence, and as the avowed object of the resolution was to force
+on parliamentary reform, it was negatived by an immense majority.
+Nevertheless, the object was not wholly defeated.
+
+The removal of the Duke of York from the command of the army was
+singularly inopportune, for Sir David Dundas had scarcely been appointed
+as his successor when a juncture arose specially demanding a combination
+of energy and experience. The British government, already engaged in the
+Peninsular war, had at last resolved to take a vigorous part in the new
+and desperate struggle between France and Austria in Southern Germany.
+The latent spirit of German nationality, aroused by Napoleon's ruthless
+treatment of Prussia, and quickened into a flame by sympathy with the
+uprising in Spain, was embodied in the secret association of the
+_Tugendbund_; and Austria, smarting under a sense of her own
+humiliation, mustered up courage to assume the leadership of a national
+movement. South Germany, governed by old dynasties, which profited by
+the French alliance, displayed as yet no symptoms of disaffection to
+France; but in North Germany the old dynasties had been either humbled
+or deposed, and the general ferment among the people, needed, as the
+Austrians believed, only the presence of a regular army to break out
+into a national revolt against the foreigner. Prussia, it is true, was
+still unwilling to move, because Russia was hostile; but the Austrian
+court knew well the lukewarmness of Russia's attachment to France, and
+hoped that a national upheaval would carry the Prussian government along
+with it. No one, in fact, had played a more active part in rousing
+Northern Germany than the Prussian minister, Stein, whom Frederick
+William, by Napoleon's advice, had called to his councils after Tilsit,
+and who was now compelled to resign his office and take refuge in
+Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON IN AUSTRIA._]
+
+The British government was aware of the situation in Germany when it
+received a request in January, 1809, for the despatch of a British force
+to the mouth of the Elbe. Austria was, however, still nominally at war
+with Great Britain, and George III., perhaps not unreasonably, refused
+to give her active military assistance till peace was concluded.
+Meanwhile a subsidy of £250,000 in bullion was despatched to Trieste,
+and inquiries were set on foot as to the means of supplying such a
+military expedition as Austria desired.[38] On March 22, Dundas, who had
+only been a few days in office as commander-in-chief, reported that
+15,000 men could not be spared from home service, and, in consequence,
+no extensive preparations were made until the muster rolls in June
+showed that 40,000 troops might safely be employed abroad. This
+convinced the government that a large force could be sent without
+interfering with home defence, as Castlereagh had long contended; and
+throughout June and July the naval and military departments were busy in
+preparing for what has since left a sinister memory as the Walcheren
+expedition. Meanwhile, as if the passion of frittering away resources
+were irresistible, a smaller force was despatched, as a kind of feint,
+against the kingdom of Naples. It consisted of 15,000 British troops and
+a body of Sicilians. Bailing from Palermo early in June it captured the
+islands of Ischia and Procida and the castle of Scylla, and threw Naples
+into consternation. But the attack was not pushed, and it was too late
+to be of any assistance to the Austrians who had already been expelled
+from the Italian peninsula. At last, in July, the treaty of peace with
+Austria was signed and the great armament was ready to sail.
+
+But Napoleon had not awaited the deliberations of British statesmen.
+Hurrying back from Spain, he remained in Paris only long enough to
+organise a campaign in South Germany, and left the capital to join his
+armies on April 13. A week earlier, the Archduke Charles, having
+remodelled the Austrian army, issued a proclamation affirming Austria to
+be the champion of European liberty. On the 9th Austria declared war
+against Bavaria, the ally of France, and her troops crossed the Inn. On
+the 17th, when Napoleon arrived at Donauwörth, he found the archduke in
+occupation of Ratisbon. His presence turned the tide, and, after three
+victories, he was once more on the road to Vienna. The most important of
+these victories was that of Eckmühl, and he regarded the manoeuvre by
+which it was won as the finest in his military career. On May 13 the
+French entered Vienna, but the Archduke Charles with an army of nearly
+200,000 men was facing him on the left bank of the Danube. Napoleon's
+army crossed and encountered the Austrians on the great plain between
+Aspern and Essling. He was repulsed and fell back upon Lobau, between
+which and the Vienna side of the Danube the bridge of boats had been
+swept away by a rise of the river and by balks of timber floated down by
+the Austrians. In this dangerous position he remained shut up for
+several weeks. He finally succeeded in throwing across a light bridge by
+which his army regained the left bank on the night of July 4. Finding
+their position turned the Austrians took up their stand on the tableland
+of Wagram. On July 6 another pitched battle was fought, which, in the
+number of combatants engaged and in the losses inflicted on both sides,
+must rank with the later conflicts of Borodino and Leipzig. A hard won
+victory rested with the French, but it was not such a victory as that of
+Austerlitz or Jena, though it secured the neutrality, at least, of
+Austria for the next four years. Her army retreated into Bohemia, and on
+July 12 an armistice was signed at Znaim in Moravia, which formed the
+basis of a peace concluded at Vienna on October 14.
+
+Nothing remained for Great Britain but to abandon the auxiliary
+enterprise so long planned, but so often delayed, or to carry it through
+independently, with little hope of a decisive issue. The latter
+alternative was adopted. The very day on which the news of the armistice
+arrived witnessed the departure of the greatest single armament ever
+sent out fully equipped from the shores of Great Britain. The deplorable
+failure of the Walcheren expedition has obscured both its magnitude and
+its probable importance had it only proved successful. The command of
+the fleet was given to Sir Richard Strachan, a competent admiral; that
+of the army to Chatham, who sat in the cabinet as master-general of the
+ordnance, an incompetent general, who owed his nomination to royal
+favour. This was the first blunder; the second was the utter neglect of
+medical and sanitary precautions against the notoriously unhealthy
+climate of Walcheren in the autumn months. The armament sailed from the
+Downs on July 28, in the finest weather and with a display of intense
+national enthusiasm. It consisted of thirty-five ships of the line, with
+a swarm of smaller war-vessels and transports, carrying nearly 40,000
+troops, two battering-trains, and a complete apparatus of military
+stores. Its destination, though more than suspected by the enemy, had
+been officially kept secret at home. Castlereagh must be held largely
+responsible for the delays and for the unwise choice of a general which
+marred its success, but he showed true military sagacity in designating
+the point of attack. Inspired by him, the British government,
+distrusting the national movement in North Germany, had decided to
+strike at Antwerp, which Napoleon had supplied with new docks, and
+which, now that the mouth of the Scheldt had been reopened, threatened
+to become the commercial rival of London. The town was entirely
+unprepared, and a blow dealt here seemed the best way of doing as much
+harm as possible to France and at the same time gaining a national
+advantage for Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE WALCHEREN EXPEDITION._]
+
+Chatham had received very precise instructions from Castlereagh, the
+objects prescribed to him being, (1) the capture or destruction of the
+enemy's ships, either building or afloat at Antwerp or Flushing, or
+afloat in the Scheldt; (2) the destruction of the arsenals and dockyards
+at Antwerp, Terneuze, and Flushing; (3) the reduction of the island of
+Walcheren; (4) the rendering of the Scheldt no longer navigable to ships
+of war. These objects were named, as far as possible, in the order of
+their importance, and Chatham was specially directed to land troops at
+Sandvliet and push on straight to Antwerp, with the view of taking it by
+a _coup de main_. Napoleon, who clearly foretold the catastrophe
+awaiting the British troops in the malarious swamps of Walcheren,
+afterwards admitted that Antwerp could have been captured by a sudden
+assault. Chatham obeyed his general orders, but, instead of taking them
+in the order of importance, gave precedence to the objects which could
+most easily be accomplished. By prompt action the French fleet, which
+was moored off Flushing, might have been captured, but it was allowed to
+escape to Antwerp. By August 2 the British were in complete possession
+of the mouth of the Scheldt, and had taken Bath opposite Sandvliet,
+while Antwerp was still almost unprotected. But Chatham concentrated his
+attention on the siege of Flushing, which surrendered, after three days'
+bombardment, on August 16, contrary to Napoleon's expectation. Antwerp
+had meanwhile been put in a state of defence, and was now protected by
+the enemy's fleet, while French and Dutch troops were pouring down to
+the Scheldt. After ten days of inactivity, Chatham advanced his
+headquarters to Bath, found that further advance was impossible, and
+recommended the government to recall the expedition, leaving 15,000 men
+to defend the island of Walcheren. This advice was adopted, but the
+garrison left in Walcheren suffered most severely from fever in that
+swampy island. Eventually, on December 24, Walcheren was abandoned, the
+works and naval basins of Flushing having been previously destroyed. The
+destruction of Flushing was the sole result of this expedition.
+
+The failure of the British to make any serious impression on the French
+either in the Low Countries or in Spain induced Austria to consent to
+peace with France. By the peace of Vienna, signed on October 14, she
+ceded Salzburg and a part of Upper Austria to Bavaria, West Galicia to
+the duchy of Warsaw, and a part of Carinthia with Trieste and the
+Illyrian provinces to France. A small strip of Galicia was ceded to the
+Russian tsar, who had rendered France some very half-hearted assistance
+and was further alienated by the extension of the duchy of Warsaw.
+Austria was enslaved to the will of Napoleon. She had abandoned the
+Tyrolese peasants whose loyal insurrection against the Bavarians was the
+most heroic incident in the war, and she now joined the other nations of
+the continent in excluding the commerce of Great Britain, which had made
+a powerful diversion in Spain and an imposing though futile diversion on
+the Scheldt to save her from national annihilation.
+
+While the Walcheren expedition was preparing, two additions were made to
+the cabinet. Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, brother of the Marquis of
+Stafford, was admitted in June as secretary at war, and in July
+Harrowby, who was created an earl, became president of the board of
+control with a seat in the cabinet. After the fate of the expedition
+became known, though before its final withdrawal, a serious quarrel took
+place between Canning and Castlereagh. Personal jealousies had long
+existed between these two statesmen, both half-Irish, half-English, and
+of approximately the same age, yet widely different in character.
+Canning was the most brilliant orator of his day, and no less persuasive
+in private conversation than in public orations, gifted with an agile
+brain that leaped readily from one idea or one project to another, but
+cursed with a bitter wit which lightly aroused enduring enmities, and
+which, coupled with an excessive vanity, rendered him unpopular with his
+colleagues, and made it difficult for any one to take him seriously;
+while his rival, not less able, and much more steady and trustworthy, a
+skilful manager of men, was scarcely able to pronounce a coherent
+sentence. Early in April Canning pressed upon the Duke of Portland the
+transfer of Castlereagh to another office. Private communications
+followed between various members of the cabinet, and it was understood
+that Camden, as Castlereagh's friend, should apprise him of the
+prevailing view, which the king himself had approved under a threat of
+Canning's resignation. The duke, however, begged Camden to postpone the
+disclosure, and others of Castlereagh's friends urged Canning not to
+insist upon the change pending the completion of the Walcheren
+expedition.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUEL BETWEEN CANNING AND CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+As the scheme took shape in July Camden was to resign, and thus make
+possible a shifting of offices, which was to result in the Marquis
+Wellesley succeeding Castlereagh as secretary for war. At last, on
+September 6, the duke informed Canning of his own intention to retire on
+the ground of ill-health, and at the same time disclosed the fact that
+no steps had been taken to prepare Castlereagh for the proposed change
+in his position. Thereupon Canning promptly sent in his own resignation,
+the duke resigned the same day, and Castlereagh, learning what had
+passed, followed his example two days later.[39] Believing that Canning
+had been intriguing against him behind his back, under the guise of
+friendship, he demanded satisfaction on the 19th, and on the 21st[40]
+the duel was fought, in which Canning received a slight wound. Such
+events provoked little censure in those days, and it is pleasant to
+know that Canning and Castlereagh afterwards acted cordially together as
+colleagues. Their enmity broke up the government. The Duke of Portland
+did not long survive his withdrawal from office, and died on October 29;
+Leveson-Gower insisted on following Canning into retirement.
+
+Perceval was entrusted with the task of forming an administration, but
+the new ministry was not formed without considerable negotiation.
+Canning vainly endeavoured to impress first on his colleagues and then
+on the king his own pretensions to the highest office, while attempts,
+to which the king gave a reluctant assent, had been made to enlist the
+co-operation of Grenville and Howick, who succeeded his father as Earl
+Grey, in 1807, but they failed as all later attempts were destined to
+fail. The most influential motive governing their conduct was,
+doubtless, their feeling that they would not as ministers possess the
+king's confidence. Sidmouth's following had also been approached.
+Sidmouth himself was considered too obnoxious to some of Pitt's
+followers to be a safe member of the new cabinet, but Vansittart was
+offered the chancellorship of the exchequer and Bragge, who had taken
+the additional surname of Bathurst, the office of secretary at war. They
+refused, however, to enter the ministry, unless accompanied by Sidmouth
+himself.
+
+Perceval eventually became prime minister, retaining his former offices;
+Lord Bathurst, while remaining at the board of trade, presided
+temporarily at the foreign office, which was offered to the Marquis
+Wellesley, then serving as British ambassador to the Spanish junta at
+Seville, and taken over by him in December. Hawkesbury, now Earl of
+Liverpool, succeeded Castlereagh as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and was followed at the home office by Richard Ryder, a brother of
+Harrowby. Harrowby himself gave up the board of control in November to
+Melville's son, Robert Dundas, who, however, was not made a member of
+the cabinet. Lord Palmerston, who had been a junior lord of the
+admiralty under Portland, declined the chancellorship of the exchequer,
+and though he accepted Leveson-Gower's post as secretary at war, he was
+by his own desire excluded from the cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW BRITISH CONQUESTS._]
+
+While the close of the year 1809 was darkened by national
+disappointment and political anxieties, the honour of British arms had
+been amply vindicated in the Spanish peninsula, and the brilliant
+exploit of Lord Cochrane in Basque Roads had recalled the glories of the
+Nile. Cochrane had already achieved marvels under Collingwood in the
+Mediterranean, and notably off the Spanish coast, when he was selected
+to conduct an attack by fireships on the French squadron blockaded under
+the shelter of the islands of Aix and Oléron. This he carried out on the
+night of April 11, with a dash and skill worthy of Nelson, and unless
+checked by Gambier, the admiral in command, who had been raised to the
+peerage after the seizure of the Danish fleet in 1807, he must have
+succeeded in destroying the whole of the enemy's ships. Gambier was
+afterwards acquitted by a court martial of negligence, but the verdict
+of the public was against him. In the autumn Collingwood reduced the
+seven Ionian islands, and gained an important advantage by cutting out a
+considerable detachment of the Toulon fleet in the Bay of Genoa. In the
+course of the year, too, all the remaining French territory in the West
+Indies, as well as the Isle of Bourbon in the Indian Ocean, was captured
+by the British navy. But this unchallenged supremacy on the high seas
+did not prevent the depredations of French gunboats on British
+merchantmen in the channel. Indeed after the battle of Trafalgar, the
+French "sea-wasps" infesting the Channel were more active and
+destructive than ever.
+
+On October 25, being the forty-ninth anniversary of his accession, the
+jubilee of George III. was celebrated with hearty and sincere
+rejoicings. His popularity was not unmerited. He was politically
+shortsighted, but within his range of vision few saw facts so clearly;
+he was obstinate and prejudiced, but his obstinacy was redeemed by a
+moral intrepidity of the highest order, and his prejudices were shared
+by the mass of his people. Having lived through the seven years' war,
+the war of the American revolution, and the successive wars of Great
+Britain against the French monarchy and the French republic, he was now
+supporting, with indomitable firmness, a war against the all-conquering
+French empire--the most perilous in which this country was ever engaged.
+The colonial and Indian dominions of Great Britain, reduced by the loss
+of the North American colonies, had been greatly extended during his
+reign in other quarters of the globe. His subjects regarded him as an
+Englishman to the core; they knew him to be honest, religious, virtuous,
+and homely in his life; they justly believed him, in spite of his
+failings, to be a power for good in the land; and they rewarded him with
+a respect and affection granted to no other British sovereign of modern
+times before Queen Victoria. They had good cause to desire the
+continuance of his life and reason, knowing the character of his
+heir-apparent, and contrasting the domestic habits of Windsor with the
+licence of Carlton House.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Colchester, _Diary_ (Feb. 4, 1806), ii., 35, 36.
+
+[32] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_, ii., 91-94.
+
+[33] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party,_ ii., 173-205, 270-320;
+Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 92-115; Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 357-72;
+Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, i., 223-33; Buckingham, _Courts and
+Cabinets_, iv., 117-50. Holland accuses the king of treachery and
+duplicity, and Lewis (_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 294)
+repeats this charge in milder terms. But the documents quoted do not
+prove any want of straightforwardness, and the king's conduct was the
+logical consequence of his action in 1801.
+
+[34] In the following year Napoleon consented to evacuate all the
+Prussian fortresses except three, on condition that the Prussian army
+should not exceed a total of 40,000 men.
+
+[35] _Annual Register_, xlix. (1807), 249-70, 731-38; Rose, in _English
+Historical Review_, xi. (1896), 82-92.
+
+[36] Captain Mahan, _The Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+Revolution and Empire_, ii., 272-357, shows that the policy of the
+orders in council was essential to British safety.
+
+[37] The course of this war is related continuously in chap. v.
+
+[38] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 190, note.
+
+[39] The best account of the quarrel, especially in its relation to the
+composition of the cabinet, is to be found in Walpole's _Life of
+Perceval_, vol. i., chap. ix., and vol. ii., chap. i. Lewis,
+_Administrations_, pp. 314-15, finds a double ground for Canning's
+resignation in his failure to obtain the removal of Castlereagh from the
+war office and in the refusal of the king and cabinet to allow him to
+succeed Portland as prime minister. It is quite clear, however, that at
+the time of Canning's resignation no decision had been come to about a
+successor to Portland. Some correspondence had passed between Canning
+and Perceval, in which each had refused to serve under the other, but
+that this correspondence was unknown to the cabinet as a whole is proved
+by Mulgrave's letters to Lord Lonsdale of September 11 and 15 (Phipps,
+_Memoir of Ward_, pp. 210-17); in the former of these he discusses
+Canning's probable conduct without referring to this correspondence,
+while in the latter he only knows of such negotiations as subsequent to
+the resignations of September 6 and 8. So, too, Eldon's letter to his
+wife of September 11 (Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 88-90), places the
+whole correspondence between Canning and Perceval after Portland's
+resignation on September 6. The king was not informed of Canning's views
+as to a successor to Portland till September 13, and the cabinet minute
+of September 18, advising co-operation with Grenville and Grey, mentions
+the selection of Canning as prime minister as a course open to the king.
+
+[40] This is the date commonly given. The _Annual Register_, li. (1809),
+239, gives the 22nd, while Perceval refers to the result of the duel in
+a letter dated the 20th (Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 209). It is clear,
+however, that Canning did not receive Castlereagh's challenge till the
+morning of the 20th (see his letter in _Annual Register_, _loc. cit._,
+505, also his detailed statement to Camden, _ibid._, 525), and therefore
+the duel cannot have taken place till the 21st. Lord Folkestone in a
+letter dated the 21st refers to the duel as having been fought at "7
+o'clock this morning" (_Creevey Papers_, i., 96).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+                        PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The administration of Perceval, covering the period from October, 1809,
+to May, 1812, coincided with a lull in the continental war save in the
+Peninsula, though it saw no pause in the progress of French annexation.
+Nor was it marked by many events of historical interest in domestic
+affairs. When parliament was opened on January 23, 1810, it was natural
+that attention should chiefly be devoted to the Walcheren expedition,
+which the opposition illogically and unscrupulously contrived to use to
+disparage the operations of Sir Arthur Wellesley, now Viscount
+Wellington, in Spain. Grenville, who argued with some reason that 40,000
+British troops could have been employed to far better purpose in North
+Germany, would have been on stronger ground if he had complained that
+for want of them the British army had been unable to occupy Madrid.
+Castlereagh, indeed, had confessed to Wellesley that he could not spare
+the necessary reinforcements, after the reserves had been exhausted in
+Walcheren; but it is by no means certain that Wellesley could have
+collected provisions enough to feed a much larger force, or specie
+enough to pay for them. Liverpool was driven in reply to Grenville to
+magnify the value of the capture of Flushing, as the necessary basis of
+the naval armaments which Napoleon had intended to launch against
+England from the Scheldt. The government was also defended by the young
+Robert Peel, lately elected to parliament. As the calamity was
+irreparable, a committee of the whole house spent most of its time on a
+constitutional question, regarding a private memorandum placed before
+the king by Chatham in his own defence. So irregular a proceeding was
+properly condemned, and Chatham resigned the mastership of the ordnance,
+but the policy of the Walcheren expedition was approved by a vote of the
+house of commons. Mulgrave received the office Chatham had vacated, and
+was himself succeeded by Yorke at the admiralty.
+
+Parliament was next occupied by a question of privilege, in which Sir
+Francis Burdett, member for Westminster, then a favourite of the
+democracy, played a part resembling that of John Wilkes a generation
+earlier. Burdett had been for fourteen years a member of parliament, and
+had been conspicuous from the first for the vehemence of his opposition
+to the government, and more especially to its supposed infringements of
+the liberty of the subject. He had more recently taken an active part on
+behalf of Wardle's attack on the Duke of York and had supported the
+charges of ministerial corruption in the previous session. On the
+present occasion one John Gale Jones, president of a debating club, had
+published in a notice of debate the terms of a resolution which his club
+had passed, condemning in extravagant language the exclusion of
+strangers from the house of commons. This was treated as a breach of
+privilege, and Jones was sent to Newgate by order of the house itself.
+Burdett, in a violent letter to Cobbett's _Register_, challenged the
+right of the house to imprison Jones by its own authority, and, after a
+fierce debate lasting two nights, was adjudged by the house, on April 5,
+to have been guilty of a still more scandalous libel. Accordingly, the
+speaker issued a warrant for his committal to the Tower. Burdett
+declared his resolution to resist arrest, the populace mustered in his
+defence, the riot act was read, and he was conveyed to prison by a
+strong military escort, on whose return more serious riots broke out,
+and were not quelled without bloodshed. On his release at the end of the
+session a repetition of these scenes was prevented by the simple
+expedient of bringing him home by water. During his imprisonment he
+wrote an offensive letter to the speaker, and his colleague, Lord
+Cochrane, presented a violently worded petition from his Westminster
+constituents. In the following year he sued the speaker and the
+sergeant-at-arms in the court of king's bench, which decided against him
+on the ground that a power of commitment was necessary for the
+maintenance of the dignity of the house of commons, and its decision
+was confirmed, on appeal, by the court of exchequer chamber and the
+house of lords.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+The most important subject of internal policy discussed in the session
+of 1810 was the state of the currency. Since 1797 cash payments had been
+suspended, the issue of banknotes had been nearly doubled, and the price
+of commodities had risen enormously. Whether these results had in their
+turn promoted the expansion of foreign commerce and internal industry
+was vigorously disputed by two rival schools of economists. The one
+thing certain was the increasing scarcity of specie, and the serious
+loss incurred in its provision for the service of the army in the
+Peninsula. Francis Horner, then rising to eminence, obtained the
+appointment of what became known as the "bullion committee" to inquire
+into the anomalous conditions thus created, and took a leading part in
+the preparation of its celebrated report, published on September 20. The
+committee arrived at the conclusion that the high price of gold was
+mainly due to excess in the paper-currency, and not, as alleged, to a
+drain of gold for the continental war. They attributed that excess to
+"the want of a sufficient check and control in the issues of paper from
+the Bank of England, and originally to the suspension of cash-payments,
+which removed the natural and true control". While allowing that paper
+could not be rendered suddenly convertible into specie without
+dislocating the entire business of the country, they recommended that an
+early provision should be made by parliament for terminating the
+suspension of cash-payments at the end of two years. These conclusions
+were combated by Castlereagh and Vansittart, who afterwards, in 1811,
+succeeded in carrying several counter-resolutions, of which the general
+effect was to explain the admitted rise in the price of gold, for the
+most part by the exclusion of British trade from the continent, and the
+consequent export of the precious metals in lieu of British
+manufactures. The last resolution, while it recognised the wisdom of
+restoring cash-payments as soon as it could safely be done, affirmed it
+to be "highly inexpedient and dangerous to fix a definite period for the
+removal of the restriction on cash-payments prior to the conclusion of a
+definitive treaty of peace". These counsels prevailed, and the
+restriction was not actually removed until Peel's act was passed in
+July, 1819.
+
+The last domestic event in the inglorious annals of 1810 was the final
+lapse of the king into mental derangement in the month of November. For
+more than six years his sight had been failing, but he had suffered no
+return of insanity since 1804. Now he lost both his sight and his
+reason. This event, impending for some time, was precipitated by the
+illness and death of the Princess Amelia, his favourite daughter, and
+was perhaps aggravated by the Walcheren expedition and the disgrace of
+the Duke of York. Parliament met on November 1, and was adjourned more
+than once before a committee was appointed to examine the royal
+physicians. Acting on their report, the ministers proposed and carried
+resolutions declaring the king's incapacity, and the right and duty of
+the two houses to provide for the emergency. It was also determined to
+define by act of parliament the powers to be exercised in the king's
+name and behalf. This implied a limitation of the regent's authority,
+and was resented by the Prince of Wales and his friends. Perceval,
+however, was able to rely on the precedent of 1788, to which Grenville,
+for one, had been a party, and, after considerable opposition, the
+prince was made regent under several temporary restrictions. With
+certain exceptions, he was precluded from granting any peerage or office
+tenable for life; the royal property was vested in trustees for the
+king's benefit, and the personal care of the king was entrusted to the
+queen, with the advice of a council. In this form, the regency bill was
+passed on February 4, 1811, after a protest from the other sons of
+George III. and violent attacks upon Eldon by Grenville and Grey. On the
+5th, the regent took the oaths before the privy council, but, in
+accepting the restrictions, he delicately expressed regret that he
+should not have been trusted to impose upon himself proper limitations
+for the exercise of royal patronage. The interregnum thus established
+was to be provisional only, and was to cease on February 1, 1812, but
+the queen and her private council, with the concurrence of the privy
+council, were empowered to annul it at any time, by announcing the
+king's recovery, when he could resume his powers by proclamation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE REGENCY BILL._]
+
+The hopes of the opposition had been greatly excited by the prospect of
+a regency, and it was generally expected that a change of ministry would
+be its immediate consequence. Private communications had, in fact,
+passed between the prince and the whig lords, Grenville and Grey, but
+they were rendered nugatory by the dictatorial tone assumed by those
+lords and by the unwillingness of the prince to dispense with the advice
+of Moira and Sheridan. The two whig lords had by the prince's desire
+prepared a reply to the address from the houses of parliament,
+preparatory to the regency bill. Grenville had voted in favour of the
+restriction on the creation of peers, and it is therefore not surprising
+that the reply which he and Grey drafted appeared to the prince too weak
+in its protest against the limitations. He therefore adopted in its
+stead another reply which Sheridan had composed for him. The two lords
+thereupon addressed to the prince a remonstrance, which practically
+claimed for themselves the right of responsible ministers to be the sole
+advisers of their prince. This remonstrance provoked the ridicule of
+Sheridan, and certainly did not please the prince, who since the fall of
+the Grenville ministry had refused to be regarded as a "party man". The
+regent, accordingly, gave Perceval to understand that he intended to
+retain his present ministers, but solely on the ground that he was
+unwilling to do anything which might retard his father's recovery, or
+distress him when he should come to himself. This reason was probably
+genuine. The king appeared to be recovering; he had had several
+interviews with Perceval and Eldon, and had made inquiries as to the
+prince's intentions. Soon, however, the malady took a turn for the
+worse, and the physicians came to the conclusion that it was
+permanent.[41]
+
+Before February, 1812, when the restrictions expired, and a permanent
+regency bill was passed, the prince drifted further away from his former
+advisers, and had been pacified by the loyal attitude of Perceval and
+Eldon. Further overtures were conveyed to the whig lords through a
+letter from the prince regent to the Duke of York, in which he declared
+that he had "no predilections to indulge or resentments to gratify," but
+only a concern for the public good, towards which he desired the
+co-operation of some of his old whig friends, indicating Grenville and
+Grey. They declined in a letter to the Duke of York, alleging
+differences on grounds of policy too deep to admit of a coalition.
+Eldon, on his part, expressed a similar conviction, but the regent never
+fully forgave what he regarded as their desertion. Wellesley, who was
+strongly opposed to Perceval's policy of maintaining the catholic
+disabilities, resigned the secretaryship of foreign affairs, protesting
+against the feeble support given to his brother in the Peninsula, and
+was succeeded by Castlereagh. In April Sidmouth became president of the
+council in place of Camden, who remained in the cabinet without office;
+and in the next month, on May 11, Perceval was assassinated in the lobby
+of the house of commons by a man named Bellingham, who had an imaginary
+grievance against the government.
+
+A very general and sincere tribute of respect was paid by the house to
+Perceval's memory, for, though his statesmanship was of the second
+order, he was far more than a tory partisan; he was an excellent
+debater, and a thoroughly honest politician, and his private character
+was above all reproach or suspicion. The cabinet was bewildered by his
+death, and a fresh attempt was made to strengthen it by the simple
+inclusion of Canning as well as Wellesley. Wellesley stipulated that the
+catholic question should be left open, and that the war should be
+prosecuted with the entire resources of the country, while Canning
+declined co-operation on the ground of the catholic question alone. No
+agreement being found possible, the house of commons stepped in and
+addressed the regent, begging him to form a strong and efficient
+administration, commanding the confidence of all classes. He replied by
+sending for Wellesley, offering him the premiership and entrusting him
+with the formation of a comprehensive ministry; but Wellesley soon found
+that Liverpool and his adherents would not serve under him at all, while
+Grenville and Grey, who secretly condemned the Peninsular war, would
+only serve on conditions which he could not grant. Once more, the regent
+treated directly with these haughty whigs, now including Moira, to whom
+he committed the task of forming an administration. Grenville and Grey
+raised difficulties about the appointments in the royal household, which
+they wished to include in the political changes, and the negotiation was
+broken off. The regent at last fell back on Liverpool, a capable and
+conciliatory minister, who adopted Perceval's colleagues, and a spell of
+tory administration set in which remained unbroken for no less than
+fifteen years. Had more tact been shown on all sides, had the whigs been
+less peremptory in their demands, and had the trivial household question
+never arisen, the course of the war, if not of European history, might,
+whether for good or evil, have been profoundly modified.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL REFORMS._]
+
+During the later period of Perceval's administration, from 1811 to 1812,
+the strife of politics had been mainly concentrated on the regency
+question, the chance of ministerial changes, and the fortunes of the war
+in Spain. But it must not be supposed that social questions were
+neglected, even in the darkest days of the war, however meagre the
+legislative fruits may appear. Session after session, Romilly pressed
+forward reforms of the criminal law, the institution of penitential
+houses in the nature of reformatories, and the abolition of state
+lotteries. Others laboured, and with greater success, to remedy the
+delays and reduce the arrears in the court of chancery. Constant efforts
+were made to expose defalcations in the revenue, to curtail exorbitant
+salaries, and to put down electioneering corruption. In 1809 Erskine
+introduced a bill for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In 1810
+there were earnest, if somewhat futile, debates on spiritual
+destitution, the non-residence and poverty of the clergy, and the
+scarcity of places of worship. Moreover, early in 1811, a premonitory
+symptom of the repeal movement caused some anxiety in Ireland. It took
+the form of a scheme for a representative assembly to sit in Dublin, and
+manage the affairs of the Roman catholic population, under colour of
+framing petitions to parliament, and seeking redress of grievances. It
+was, of course, to consist of Roman catholics only, and to include Roman
+catholic bishops. The Irish government wisely suppressed the scheme, and
+Perceval justified their action, on the ground that a representative
+assembly in Dublin, with such aims in view, bordered upon an illicit
+legislature.
+
+Except for the war in the Spanish peninsula, and the war between Russia
+and the Porte on the Danube, the year 1810 was marked by undisturbed
+peace throughout the continent of Europe. France continued to make
+annexations, but they were at the expense of her allies, not of her
+enemies. Her supremacy was signalised in a striking way by the marriage
+of her _parvenu_ emperor, whose divorce the pope still refused to
+recognise, with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Though
+thirteen out of twenty-six cardinals present in Paris declined to attend
+it, this marriage was a masterstroke of Talleyrand's diplomacy; it
+secured the benevolent neutrality of Austria for the next three years,
+and weakened the counsels of the allies during the negotiations of
+1814-15. But it went far to estrange the Tsar of Russia, who, though he
+had courteously declined Napoleon's overtures for the hand of his own
+sister, was greatly offended on discovering that another matrimonial
+alliance had been contracted by his would-be brother-in-law before his
+reply could be received.
+
+It was only within the limits of the French empire that Napoleon's
+authority had been sufficient to enforce the rigorous exclusion of
+British goods. His allies, including Sweden, which closed her ports to
+British products in January, 1810, and declared war on Great Britain in
+the following November, had adopted the continental system; but
+administrative weakness, and the obvious interest that every people had
+in its infraction, rendered its operation partial. Napoleon, determined
+to enforce the system in spite of every obstacle, met this difficulty by
+placing in immediate subjection to the French crown the territories
+where British goods were imported. The first ally to suffer was his own
+brother, Louis, King of Holland. His refusal to enforce Napoleon's
+orders against the admission of British goods was followed at once by a
+forced cession of part of Holland to France and the establishment of
+French control at the custom houses, and shortly afterwards by the
+despatch of French troops into Holland and its annexation to France on
+July 9, 1810. In December the French dominion over the North Sea coast
+was extended by the annexation of a corner of Germany, including the
+coast as far as the Danish frontier, and the town of Lübeck on the
+Baltic. As a result of this annexation, the duchy of Oldenburg, held by
+a branch of the Russian imperial family, ceased to exist. The act was a
+conspicuous breach of the treaty of Tilsit, which Napoleon considered
+himself at liberty to disregard, as Russia had shown by her conduct
+during the campaign of 1809 that she was no longer more than a nominal
+ally of France. At last, on January 12, 1811, Russia asserted her
+independence in fiscal matters by an order which declared her ports open
+to all vessels sailing under a neutral flag, and imposed a duty on many
+French products. Still the course of French annexation crept onwards,
+and quietly absorbed the republic of Vallais in Switzerland, which had
+been a great centre of smuggling.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM._]
+
+Meanwhile, the restrictions and prohibitions which formed the
+continental system were made more and more severe. By the Trianon tariff
+of August, 1810, heavy duties were levied on colonial products, and by
+the Fontainebleau decree of October 18 all goods of British origin were
+to be seized and publicly burned. In November a special tribunal was
+created to try offenders against the continental system. Nevertheless,
+the fiscal and foreign policy of France at this date alike show how far
+the continental system had failed in its object, and to what extreme
+lengths it had become necessary to push it in order to give it a chance
+of success. The strain of the system on English commerce was immense,
+but the burden fell far more heavily on the continental nations.
+Colonial produce rose to enormous prices in France, Germany, and Italy,
+especially after the introduction of the Trianon tariff, and a subject
+or ally of the French emperor had to pay ten times as much for his
+morning cup of coffee as his enemy in London. The German opposition to
+Napoleon had failed in 1809 mainly through the political apathy of the
+German nation. Napoleon's fiscal measures were the surest way of
+bringing that apathy to an end, and converting it into hostility.
+
+The events of December, 1810, and January, 1811, constituted a distinct
+breach between France and Russia, which could only end in war, unless
+one party or the other should withdraw from its position. A few months
+sufficed to show that no such withdrawal would take place; but neither
+power was prepared for war, and seventeen months elapsed after the
+breach before hostilities began. The intervening period was spent in
+negotiation and preparation. Much depended on the alliances that the
+rival powers might be able to contract. Although Napoleon had bound
+himself not to restore Poland, he had by the creation and subsequent
+enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw given it a semblance of national
+unity, and had inspired the Poles with the hope of a more complete
+independence. The Polish troops were among the most devoted in the
+French army, and the position of their country rendered the support of
+the Poles a matter of great importance in any war with Russia. It
+occurred to the Tsar Alexander that he might win their support for
+himself by a restoration of Poland, under the suzerainty of Russia. He
+promised Czartoryski the restoration of the eight provinces under a
+guarantee of autonomy, and undertook to obtain the cession of Galicia.
+On February 13, 1811, he made a secret offer to Austria of a part of
+Moldavia in exchange for Galicia. Nothing came of this, but the massing
+of Russian troops on the Polish frontier in March was met by the hurried
+advance of French troops through Germany, and war seemed imminent until
+Russia postponed the struggle by withdrawing her troops.
+
+Meanwhile, other European powers looked forward to selling their
+alliance on the best possible terms. Sweden and Prussia both approached
+the stronger power first. Bernadotte, on behalf of Sweden, was prepared
+for a French alliance if France would favour the Swedish acquisition of
+Norway. Napoleon, on February 25, not only refused these terms, but
+ordered Sweden to enforce the continental system under pain of a French
+occupation of Swedish Pomerania. This threat Sweden ventured to ignore.
+Prussia, lying directly between the two future belligerents, was in a
+more dangerous position. Neutrality was impossible, because her
+neutrality would not be respected. She first offered her alliance to
+Napoleon in return for a reduction of the payments due to France and a
+removal of the limit imposed on her army. Napoleon did not reply to this
+offer at once. Meanwhile the movement of French troops already mentioned
+and the increase of the French garrisons on the Oder, though primarily
+intended for the defence of Poland, caused great alarm in Prussia and
+resulted in preparations to resist a French attack. In July Napoleon
+finally refused to discuss the Prussian terms. Ever since his marriage
+he had been inclined more and more to an Austrian alliance. On March 26
+of this year Otto, his ambassador at Vienna, had received information
+that France would support Austria if she would protest against the
+occupation of Belgrade by the Serbs. Napoleon even assured Otto that he
+was prepared to undertake any engagement that Austria desired. Rest
+was, however, essential to Austria. The military disasters of 1809 had
+been followed by national bankruptcy, and with the government paper at a
+discount of 90 per cent. she dared not incur further liabilities.
+
+Russia had an advantage over France in that she was able to free herself
+from her entanglement in Turkey, while Napoleon could not make peace
+either with Great Britain or with the Bourbon party in Spain. An
+armistice with the Porte was concluded on October 15. By that time all
+pretence of friendly intentions had been abandoned by France and Russia.
+Prussia, hoping still to save herself from an unconditional alliance
+with France, now turned to Russia, and Scharnhorst was despatched to
+seek a Russian alliance. Meanwhile Napoleon sent word to the Prussian
+court that, if her military preparations were not suspended, he would
+order Davoût to march on Berlin, and at the same time disclosed his
+offer of an unconditional alliance against Russia. Prussia, hoping for
+Russian aid still, put aside the French demands, but the Tsar Alexander
+expressed a decided preference for a defensive campaign against France,
+and refused any assistance unless the French should commit an unprovoked
+aggression on Königsberg. Scharnhorst seems to have seen the wisdom of
+this policy. He now turned to Austria, but there again a definite
+alliance was refused. Russia was equally unable to move Austria to join
+her, so that Russia and Prussia were each isolated in their opposition
+to Napoleon.
+
+In the months of August and September of this year a British force,
+commanded by Auchmuty, effected the conquest of Java, the wealthiest of
+the East Indian islands. The island had been a Dutch colony, and like
+other Dutch colonies had passed into the hands of France. Sumatra fell
+into English hands along with Java, so that the supremacy of Great
+Britain in the East Indies was fully established.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The new ministry which entered on office in June, 1812, differed largely
+in composition from that which had preceded it. Ryder and Yorke retired
+at the death of Perceval, Harrowby returned to office, and places in the
+cabinet were found for Sidmouth's adherents, Buckinghamshire,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst. Sidmouth himself succeeded Ryder as
+home secretary, while Harrowby succeeded Sidmouth as president of the
+council. Earl Bathurst took Liverpool's place as secretary for war and
+the colonies. Vansittart succeeded Perceval at the exchequer and
+Bragge-Bathurst in the duchy of Lancaster. Robert Dundas, now Viscount
+Melville, followed Yorke at the admiralty, and Buckinghamshire took
+Melville's place at the board of control, which became once more a
+cabinet office. Eldon, Castlereagh, Westmorland, and Mulgrave retained
+their former offices, while Camden remained in the cabinet without
+office. In September Mulgrave was created an earl, and Camden a marquis.
+The internal history of England during the first two years of
+Liverpool's premiership has been entirely dwarfed by the interest of
+external events. For this period comprised not only the Russian
+expedition--the greatest military tragedy in modern history--the
+marvellous resurrection of Germany, with the campaigns which culminated
+in the stupendous battle of Leipzig, and the invasion of France which
+ended in the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, but also the
+brilliant conclusion of the Peninsular war, and the earlier stages of
+the war between Great Britain and the United States.
+
+The nation was contented to leave the guidance of home and foreign
+policy at that critical time to the existing ministers, all honest,
+experienced, and high-minded statesmen, but none gifted with any signal
+ability, and inferior both in cleverness and in eloquence to the leaders
+of the opposition. Napoleon was not far wrong in regarding the British
+aristocracy, which they represented, as his most inveterate and powerful
+enemy; but he was grievously deceived in imagining that this
+aristocracy, in withstanding his colossal ambition, had not the British
+nation at its back. The electoral body, indeed, to which they owed their
+parliamentary majority, was but a fraction of the population, and the
+public opinion which supported them may seem but the voice of a
+privileged class in these days of household suffrage. But there is
+little reason to doubt that, if household suffrage had then prevailed,
+their foreign policy would have received a democratic sanction; nor is
+it at all certain that some features of their home policy, now generally
+condemned, were not justified, in the main, by the exigencies of their
+time.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL DISTRESS._]
+
+The "condition of England," as it was then loosely termed, was the
+first subject which claimed the attention of Liverpool's government.
+While Perceval was congratulating parliament on the elasticity of the
+revenue, a widespread depression of industry was producing formidable
+disturbances in the midland counties. This depression was the
+consequence partly of the continental system, crippling the export of
+British goods to European countries; partly of the revival, in February,
+1811, of the American non-intercourse act, closing the vast market of
+the United States; and partly of the improvements in machinery,
+especially those in spinning and weaving machines introduced by the
+inventions of Cartwright and Arkwright. Unhappily, this last cause,
+being the only one visible to artisans, was regarded by them as the sole
+cause of their distress. During the autumn and winter of 1811 "Luddite"
+riots broke out among the stocking-weavers of Nottingham. Their name was
+derived from a half-witted man who had destroyed two stocking frames
+many years before. Frame-breaking on a grand scale became the object of
+an organised conspiracy, which extended its operations from
+Nottinghamshire into Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, and
+Yorkshire. At first frame-breaking was carried on by large bodies of
+operatives in broad daylight, and when these open proceedings were put
+down by military force, they were succeeded by nightly outrages,
+sometimes attended by murder. Early in 1812 a bill was passed making
+frame-breaking a capital offence.
+
+In spite of this riots grew into local insurrections, and a message from
+the prince regent on June 27 recommended further action to parliament.
+It was natural, in that generation to connect all disorderly movements
+with revolutionary designs, and this belief underlies an alarmist report
+from a secret committee of the house of lords on the prevailing tumults.
+Accordingly, Sidmouth obtained new powers for magistrates to search for
+arms, to disperse tumultuous assemblies, and to exercise jurisdiction
+beyond their own districts. In November many Luddites were convicted,
+and sixteen were executed by sentence of a special commission sitting at
+York. These stern measures were effectual for a time, and popular
+discontent in the manufacturing districts ceased to assume so acute a
+form until after the war was ended.
+
+The sufferings of the poor in the rural districts, though generally
+endured in silence, were at least equally severe with those of the
+artisan class, and it is difficult to say whether a good or bad harvest
+pressed more heavily on agricultural labourers. When the price of wheat
+rose to 130s. per quarter or upwards, as it did in 1812 and other years
+of scarcity, the farmers were able to pay comparatively high wages. When
+the price fell to 75s., as it did in years of plenty like 1813, wages
+were reduced to starvation-point, but supplemented out of the
+poor-rates, under the miserable system of indiscriminate out-door relief
+graduated according to the size of families. In either case, the entire
+income of a labourer was far below the modern standard, and the
+prosperity of trade meant to him an increase in the cost of all
+necessaries except bread. As for their employers, the golden age of
+farming, which is often identified with the age of the great war, had
+really ceased long before. Not only did the high price of a farmer's
+purchases go far to neutralise the high price of his sales, but the
+excessive fluctuations in all prices, due to the opening and closing of
+markets according to the fortunes of war, made prudent speculation
+almost impossible. The frequently recurring depressions were rendered
+all the more disastrous, because in times of high prices "the margin of
+cultivation" was unduly extended.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORN LAWS._]
+
+With a view to diminish the violence of these fluctuations, a select
+committee on the corn-trade was appointed by the house of commons in
+1813, and reported in favour of a sliding-scale. When the price of wheat
+should fall below 90s. per quarter, its exportation was to be permitted;
+but its importation was to be forbidden, until the price should reach
+103s., when it might, indeed, be imported, but under "a very
+considerable duty". It was assumed, in fact, that the normal price of
+wheat was above 100s. per quarter, and the price above which importation
+should be permitted was nearly twice as high as that fixed in 1801,
+when, moreover, it was to be admitted above 50s. at a duty of 2s. 6d.,
+and above 54s. at a duty of sixpence. It is remarkable that in the
+debates of 1814 upon the report of this committee, William Huskisson, as
+well as Sir Henry Parnell, supported its main conclusions, upon the
+ground that agriculture must be upheld at all costs, and the home-market
+preferred to foreign markets. Canning and others ably advocated the
+cause of the consumers, alleging that duties on corn injured them far
+more than they could benefit landowners or farmers. Finally, a bill
+embodying a modified sliding-scale was introduced by the government,
+and, though lost by a narrow majority in 1814, became law in 1815. Under
+this act the importation of foreign corn was prohibited, so long as the
+price of wheat did not rise above 80s. Above that price it might be
+imported free. Corn from British North America might, however, be
+imported free so long as the price of wheat exceeded 67s.
+
+The parliamentary debates of 1812 chiefly turned on Spanish affairs, the
+revocation of the orders in council, the subsequent rupture with the
+United States which had anticipated this great concession, and the
+wearisome cabinet intrigues which preceded the accession of Liverpool as
+prime minister. It is noteworthy that so conservative a house of commons
+should actually have pledged itself to consider the question of catholic
+emancipation in the next session, and should have passed an act
+relieving nonconformists from various disabilities. The next session of
+this parliament, however, never came, for an unexpected dissolution took
+place on September 29. This dissolution was attributed, with some
+reason, to a wish on the part of the government to profit by an abundant
+harvest, and to the restoration of comparative quiet both in England and
+in Ireland. A new parliament assembled at the end of November. The
+prince regent's speech in opening it, though it noticed the suppression
+of the Luddite disturbances, was inevitably devoted to the great events
+in Spain and Russia, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia, and the
+American declaration of war. After the Christmas recess, Castlereagh
+presented an argumentative message from the prince fully discussing the
+points at issue between Great Britain and the United States, upon which
+Canning, though out of office, delivered a vigorous speech in defence of
+the British position. Eldon, in the house of lords, went further, boldly
+justifying the right of search, and denying the American contention that
+original allegiance could be cancelled by naturalisation without the
+consent of the mother-country. The Princess of Wales, who had long been
+separated from the prince, was the cause of more parliamentary time
+being wasted by a complaint which she addressed to the speaker against
+the proceedings of the privy council. That body had approved
+restrictions which her husband had thought fit to place on her
+intercourse with her daughter, the Princess Charlotte. Parliament,
+however, took no action in the matter.
+
+Perhaps the most important measure enacted in the session of 1813 was
+the so-called East India company's act. By this act the charter of the
+company was renewed with a confirmation of its administrative privileges
+and its monopoly of the China trade, but subject to material
+reservations: the India trade was thrown open from April 10, 1814, and
+the charter itself, thus restricted, was made terminable by three years'
+notice after April 10, 1831. In this year the naval and military
+armaments of Great Britain, considered as a whole, perhaps reached their
+maximum strength, and the national expenditure rose to its highest
+level, including, as it did, subsidies to foreign powers amounting to
+about £10,500,000. Of the aggregate expenditure, about two-thirds,
+£74,000,000, were provided by taxation, an enormous sum relatively to
+the population and wealth of the country at that period. Patiently as
+this burden was borne on the whole by the people of Great Britain, we
+cannot wonder that Vansittart, the chancellor of the exchequer, should
+have sought to lighten it in some degree by encroaching upon the sinking
+fund, as founded and regulated by Pitt. The debates on this complicated
+question, in which Huskisson and Tierney stoutly combated Vansittart's
+proposal, belong rather to financial history. What strikes a modern
+student of politics as strange is that Vansittart, tory as he was,
+should have advocated the relief of living and suffering taxpayers, upon
+the principle, then undefined, of leaving money "to fructify in the
+pockets of the people"; while the whig economists of the day stickled
+for the policy of piling up new debts, if need be, rather than break in
+upon an empirical scheme for the gradual extinction of old debts.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] For the whole crisis see Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, ii., 157-96,
+and for Sheridan's share in the transactions, Moore, _Life of Sheridan_,
+ii., 382-409.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                         THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+
+Reference has already been made to the conflict maintained for six years
+by Great Britain against France for the liberation of Spain and
+Portugal, which has since been known in history as the Peninsular war.
+It had its origin in two events which occurred during the autumn of 1807
+and the spring of 1808. The first was the secret treaty of Fontainebleau
+concluded between France and Spain at the end of October, 1807; the
+second was the outbreak of revolutionary movements at Madrid, followed
+by the intervention of Napoleon in March, April, and May, 1808. The
+treaty of Fontainebleau was a sequel of the vast combination against
+Great Britain completed by the peace of Tilsit, under which the
+continental system was to be enforced over all Europe. Portugal, the
+ally of this country and an emporium of British commerce, was to be
+partitioned into principalities allotted by Napoleon, the house of
+Braganza was to be exiled, and its transmarine possessions were to be
+divided between France and Spain, then ruled by the worthless Godoy in
+the name of King Charles IV. Whether or not the subjugation of the whole
+peninsula was already designed by Napoleon, his troops, ostensibly
+despatched for the conquest of Portugal under the provisions of the
+treaty, had treacherously occupied commanding positions in Spain, when
+the populace of Madrid rose in revolt, and, thronging the little town of
+Aranjuez, where the court resided, frightened the king into abdication.
+His unprincipled son, Ferdinand, was proclaimed in March, 1808, but
+Murat, who now entered Madrid as commander-in-chief of the French troops
+in that city, secretly favoured the ex-King Charles. In the end, both he
+and Ferdinand were enticed into seeking the protection of Napoleon at
+Bayonne. Instead of mediating or deciding between them, Napoleon soon
+found means to get rid of both. They were induced or rather compelled to
+resign their rights, and retire into private life on large pensions; and
+Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on his brother Joseph, whose
+former kingdom of Naples was bestowed on Murat.
+
+In the meantime, sanguinary riots broke out afresh at Madrid, hundreds
+of French were massacred, and the insurrection, as it was called, though
+sternly put down by Murat, spread like wildfire into all parts of Spain.
+A violent explosion of patriotism, resulting in anarchy, followed
+throughout the whole country. Napoleon was taken by surprise, but the
+combinations which he matured at Bayonne for the conquest of Spain were
+as masterly as those by which he had well-nigh subdued the whole
+continent, except Russia. He established a base of operations in the
+centre of the country, and organised four campaigns in the north-west,
+north-east, south-east, and south. Savary, who had succeeded Murat at
+Madrid, was supposed to act as commander-in-chief, but was really little
+more than a medium for transmitting orders received from Napoleon at
+Bayonne. The campaign of Duhesme in Catalonia was facilitated by the
+treacherous seizure of the citadel of Barcelona in the previous
+February. It was not long, however, before effective aid was rendered on
+the coast by the British fleet under Collingwood, and especially by Lord
+Cochrane in the _Impérieuse_ frigate; the undisciplined bands of
+Catalonian volunteers were reinforced by regular troops from Majorca and
+Minorca; the fortress of Gerona made an obstinate resistance; the siege
+of it was twice raised, and Barcelona, almost isolated, was now held
+with difficulty.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE OCCUPIES THE PENINSULA._]
+
+Marshal Moncey vainly besieged Valencia, while Generals
+Lefebvre-Desnoëttes and Verdier were equally unsuccessful before
+Zaragoza. In the plains of Leon, Marshal Bessières gained a decisive
+victory over a superior force of Spaniards under Cuesta and Blake, at
+Medina de Rio Seco, on July 14. Having thus secured the province of
+Leon, and the great route from Bayonne to Madrid, he was advancing on
+Galicia when his progress was arrested by disaster in another quarter.
+General Dupont, commanding the southern army, found himself nearly
+surrounded at Baylen, and solicited an armistice, followed by a
+convention, under which, "above eighteen thousand French soldiers laid
+down their arms before a raw army incapable of resisting half that
+number, if the latter had been led by an able man".[42] The convention,
+signed on July 20, stipulated for the transport of the French troops to
+France, but its stipulations were shamefully violated; some were
+massacred, others were sent to sicken in the hulks at Cadiz, and
+comparatively few lived to rejoin their colours. Meanwhile a so-called
+"assembly of notables," summoned to Bayonne, consisting of ninety-one
+persons, all nominees of Napoleon, assumed to act for the whole nation,
+had accepted the nomination of Joseph Bonaparte as king, and proceeded
+to adopt a constitution. On July 20, the very day of the capitulation of
+Baylen, Joseph entered Madrid, and on the 24th was proclaimed King of
+Spain and the Indies. But the military prestige of the grand army
+received a fatal blow in the catastrophe, of which the immediate effect
+was the retirement of Joseph behind the Ebro, and the ultimate effects
+were felt in the later history of the war.
+
+At this moment almost the whole of Portugal was in possession of the
+French. In November, 1807, under peremptory orders from Napoleon, Junot
+with a French army and an auxiliary force of Spaniards, but without
+money or transport, had marched with extraordinary rapidity across the
+mountains to Alcantara in the valley of the Tagus. He thence pressed
+forward to Lisbon, hoping to anticipate the embarkation of the royal
+family for Brazil, which, however, took place just before his arrival
+and almost under his eyes. With his army terribly reduced by the
+hardships and privations of his forced march, he overawed Lisbon and
+issued a proclamation that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign".
+A fortnight later a Spanish division occupied Oporto, and meanwhile
+another Spanish division established itself in the south-east of
+Portugal, but, as the French stragglers came in and reinforcements
+approached, Junot felt himself strong enough to cast off all disguise;
+he suppressed the council of regency, took the government into his own
+hands, and levied a heavy war contribution. During the early months of
+1808 he was employed in reorganising his own forces, and the resources
+of Lisbon, where an auxiliary Russian fleet of nine ships was lying
+practically blockaded. In a military sense, he was successful, but the
+rapacity of the French, the contagion of the Spanish uprising, the
+memory of the old alliance with England, and the proximity of English
+fleets, stirred the blood of the Portuguese nation into ill-concealed
+hostility. The Spanish commander at Oporto withdrew his troops to
+Galicia, and the inhabitants declared for independence. Their example
+was followed in other parts of Portugal. Junot acted with vigour,
+disarmed the Spanish contingent at Lisbon, and sent columns to quell
+disturbances on the Spanish frontiers, but he soon realised the
+necessity of concentration. He therefore resolved to abandon most of the
+Portuguese fortresses, limiting his efforts to holding Lisbon, and
+keeping open his line of communication with Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _VIMEIRO AND CINTRA._]
+
+Such was the state of affairs in the Peninsula when Sir Arthur Wellesley
+landed his army of some 12,000 men on August 13, 1808. He had been
+specially designated for the command of a British army in Portugal by
+Castlereagh, then secretary for war and the colonies, who fully
+appreciated his singular capacity for so difficult a service. Sir John
+Moore, who had just returned from the Baltic, having found it hopeless
+to co-operate with Gustavus IV. of Sweden, was sent out soon afterwards
+to Portugal with a corps of some 10,000 men. Both these eminent soldiers
+were directed to place themselves under the orders not only of Sir Hew
+Dalrymple, the governor of Gibraltar, as commander-in-chief, but of Sir
+Harry Burrard, when he should arrive, as second in command. Wellesley
+had received general instructions to afford "the Spanish and Portuguese
+nations every possible aid in throwing off the yoke of France," and was
+empowered to disembark at the mouth of the Tagus. Having obtained
+trustworthy information at Coruña and Oporto, he decided rather to begin
+his campaign from a difficult landing-place south of Oporto at the mouth
+of the Mondego, and to march thence upon Lisbon. He was opportunely
+joined by General Spencer from the south of Spain, and chose the
+coast-road by Torres Vedras. At Roliça he encountered a smaller force
+under Delaborde, sent in advance by Junot to delay his progress, and
+routed it after a severe combat. Delaborde, however, retreated with
+admirable tenacity, and Wellesley, expecting reinforcements from the
+coast, pushed forward to Vimeiro, without attempting to check the
+concentration of Junot's army. There was fought, on August 21, the first
+important battle of the Peninsular war. The British troops, estimated at
+16,778 men (besides about 2,000 Portuguese), outnumbered the French
+considerably, but the French were much stronger in cavalry, and boldly
+assumed the offensive, confident in the prestige derived from so many
+victories in Italy and Germany. Wellesley's position was strong, but the
+attack on it was skilfully designed and pressed home with resolute
+courage. It was repelled at every point of the field, and the French,
+retiring in confusion, might have been cut off from Lisbon. But Burrard,
+who had just landed and witnessed the battle without interfering, now
+absolutely refused to sanction a vigorous pursuit.
+
+On the following day he was superseded in turn by Dalrymple. The new
+commander determined to await the arrival of Moore, whose approach was
+reported, but who did not disembark his whole force until the 30th. In
+the meantime, overtures for an armistice were received from Junot, and
+ultimately resulted in the so-called "convention of Cintra," though it
+was first drafted at Torres Vedras and was ratified at Lisbon. Under
+this agreement the French army was to surrender Lisbon intact with other
+Portuguese fortresses, but was allowed to return to France with its arms
+and baggage at the expense of the British government. Having dissented
+from the military decision which had enabled Junot to negotiate, instead
+of capitulating, Wellesley also dissented from certain terms of the
+convention. He was, however, party to it as a whole, and afterwards
+justified its main conditions as securing the evacuation of Portugal at
+the price of reasonable concessions. This was not the feeling of the
+British public, which loudly resented the escape of the French army and
+insisted upon a court of inquiry. The verdict of this court saved the
+military honour of all three generals, but its members were so divided
+in opinion on the policy of the convention that no authoritative
+judgment was pronounced. Napoleon felt no such difficulty in condemning
+Junot for yielding too much, and the inhabitants of Lisbon were
+infuriated not only by the loss of their expected vengeance, but also by
+the shameless plunder of their public and private property by the
+departing French. Under a separate convention, the Russian fleet, long
+blockaded in the Tagus, was surrendered to the British admiral, but
+without its officers or crews.
+
+The capitulation of Baylen paralysed for a time the aggressive movements
+of France in Spain. Catalonia remained unconquered, even Bessières
+retreated, and Joseph, as we have seen, abandoned Madrid. Happily for
+the French, the Spaniards proved quite incapable of following up their
+advantages, and though a "supreme junta" was assembled at Aranjuez, it
+wasted its time in vain wrangling, and did little or nothing for the
+organisation of national defence. Meanwhile, Napoleon was pouring
+veteran troops from Germany into the north of Spain, where they repulsed
+the Spanish levies in several minor engagements. On October 14 he left
+Erfurt, where he had renewed his alliance with the tsar, and reached
+Bayonne on November 3. His simple but masterly plan of campaign was
+already prepared, and was carried out with the utmost promptitude. On
+November 10-11, one of three Spanish armies was crushed at Espinosa; on
+the former day another was routed at Gamonal; on the 23rd the third was
+utterly dispersed at Tudela. Napoleon himself remained for some days at
+Burgos, awaiting the result of these operations; on December 4, after a
+feeble resistance, he entered Madrid in triumph, and stayed there
+seventeen days, which he employed with marvellous activity in maturing
+fresh designs, both civil and military, for securing his power in Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADVANCE OF SIR JOHN MOORE._]
+
+Already, on October 7, Sir John Moore had taken over the command of the
+British forces. He probably owed his appointment to George III., who
+seems on this occasion to have overruled his foreign and war ministers,
+Canning and Castlereagh. In spite of his unwillingness to offer the
+appointment to Moore, Castlereagh gave him the most loyal and efficient
+support during the whole campaign; and this loyalty to Moore was one of
+the reasons for Canning's desire to remove Castlereagh from the war
+office, which, as we have seen, led to the famous duel between those two
+statesmen. It was at first intended that Moore should co-operate with
+the Spanish armies which were then facing the French on the line of the
+Ebro. For this purpose he was to have the command of 21,000 troops
+already in Portugal and of about 12,000 who were being sent by sea to
+Coruña under Sir David Baird. Burrard was to remain in Portugal with
+another 10,000. Nothing had been done before Moore was appointed to the
+command to provide the troops with their necessary equipment or their
+commander with the necessary local information. The departure of the
+troops was therefore slow. By October 18 the greater part of the British
+troops in Portugal were in motion, but the whole army had not left
+Lisbon till the 29th. The main body travelled by fairly direct routes to
+Salamanca, where Moore arrived on November 13, but he was induced by
+information, which proved to be incorrect, to send his cavalry and guns
+with a column under Hope, by the more circuitous high road through Elvas
+and Talavera. When this route was adopted it was anticipated that the
+different divisions of the British army would be able to unite at, or
+near, Valladolid. But the advance of the French rendered this
+impossible, and Hope ultimately joined Moore at Salamanca on December 4.
+
+Baird suffered from even more vexatious delays. Though the greater part
+of his convoy had arrived at Coruña on October 13, the local junta would
+not permit them to land without express orders from the central junta at
+Aranjuez. Consequently the disembarkation did not begin till the 26th
+and was only finished on November 4. Transport and equipment were
+difficult to obtain, and on November 22 Baird was still only at Astorga.
+There exaggerated reports of the French advance induced him to halt, but
+by Moore's orders he continued his march. On the 28th the news of the
+defeat of Castaños at Tudela reached Moore at Salamanca. Co-operation
+with a Spanish army now appeared impossible, and even a junction with
+Baird seemed too hazardous to attempt. Moore therefore, ordered Baird to
+retire on Coruña and to proceed to Lisbon by sea, and, while waiting
+himself at Salamanca for Hope, made preparations for a retreat to
+Portugal. On December 5, the day after his junction with Hope, Moore
+determined to continue his advance. He had received news of the
+enthusiastic preparations for the defence of Madrid but did not know of
+its fall, and he considered that the Spanish enthusiasm justified some
+risk on the part of the British troops. He accordingly recalled Baird,
+whose infantry had retired to Villafranca, though his cavalry were still
+at Astorga. On the 9th came the news of the fall of Madrid, but Moore
+believed that an attack on the French lines of communication might still
+prove useful, and on the 11th the advance was renewed. Moore himself
+left Salamanca on the 13th. On the 12th he learned for the first time
+from some prisoners the true strength of the French army, 250,000 of all
+arms, and also discovered that the enemy were in complete ignorance of
+the position of his own army. Next day an intercepted despatch showed
+him that he might possibly be able to cut off Soult in an isolated
+position at Saldaña. Having at last effected a junction with Baird's
+corps on the 19th he reached Sahagun on the 21st, and was on the point
+of delivering his attack under favourable conditions, though his triumph
+must have been short-lived.
+
+His real success was of another order. He had anticipated that Napoleon
+would postpone everything to the opportunity of crushing a British army,
+and the ultimate object of his march to Sahagun was to draw the French
+away from Lisbon and Andalusia. He was not disappointed. Napoleon at
+last divined that Moore was not flying in a south-westerly direction,
+but carrying out a bold manoeuvre in a north-easterly direction. He
+instantly pushed division after division from various quarters by forced
+marches upon Moore's reported track, while he himself followed with
+desperate efforts across the snow-clad mountains between Madrid and the
+Douro. Apprised of his swift advance, and conscious of his own vast
+inferiority in numbers, Moore had no choice but to retreat without a
+moment's delay upon Benevente and Astorga. He was now sufficiently far
+north to prefer to retire upon Galicia rather than upon Portugal. The
+retreat began on the 24th and was executed with such rapidity that on
+January 1, 1809, Napoleon gave up the pursuit at Astorga, leaving it to
+be continued by Soult. Whether he was influenced by intelligence of
+fresh armaments on the Danube, or of dangerous plots in Paris, must
+remain uncertain, but it is highly probable that he saw little honour to
+be won in a laborious chase of a foe who might prove formidable if
+brought to bay.
+
+Moore's army, disheartened as it was by the loss of a brilliant chance,
+and demoralised as it became under the fatigues and hardships of a most
+harassing retreat, never failed to repel attacks on its rear, where
+Paget handled the cavalry of the rear-guard with signal ability,
+especially in a spirited action near Benevente. In spite of some
+excesses, tolerable order was maintained until the British force, still
+25,000 strong, reached Astorga, and was joined by some 10,000 Spaniards
+under Romaña. Thenceforward, all sense of discipline was abandoned by so
+many regiments that Moore described the conduct of his whole army as
+"infamous beyond belief," though it is certain that some regiments, and
+notably those of the reserve, should be excepted from this sweeping
+condemnation. Drunkenness, marauding, and other military crimes grew
+more and more general as the main body marched "in a drove" through
+Villafranca to Lugo, where Moore vainly offered battle, and onwards to
+Betanzos on the sea-coast. There a marvellous rally was effected,
+stragglers rejoined the ranks in unexpected numbers, the _moral_ of the
+soldiery was restored as the fearful strain of physical misery was
+relaxed, and by January 12, 1809, all the divisions of Moore's army were
+safely posted in or around Coruña. Bad weather had delayed the fleet of
+transports ordered round from Vigo, but it ran into the harbour on the
+14th, and the sick and invalids were sent on board.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF CORUÑA._]
+
+Moore was advised to make terms for the embarkation of his entire
+command, but he was too good a soldier to comply. Those who took part in
+the battle of Coruña on the 16th, some 15,000 men in all, were no
+unworthy representatives of the army which started from Lisbon three
+months earlier. Soult, with a larger force, assumed the offensive, and
+made a determined attack on the British position in front of the harbour
+and town of Coruña. He was repulsed at all points, but Moore was
+mortally, and Baird severely, wounded on the field. Hope, who took
+command, knowing that Soult would soon be reinforced, wisely persisted
+in carrying out Moore's intention, evacuated Coruña, and embarked his
+army for England during the night and the following day. His losses were
+estimated by Hope at above 700, killed and wounded; those of the enemy
+were twice as great. Thus victory crowned a campaign which otherwise
+would have done little to satisfy the popular appetite for tangible
+success. The original object of supporting the Spanish resistance in the
+north had been rendered impossible of fulfilment by Napoleon's victories
+when Moore had barely crossed the Spanish frontier, and in this sense
+the expedition must be regarded as a failure, though its commander was
+in no sense responsible for its ill-success. On the other hand,
+considered as a skilful diversion, the expedition was highly successful.
+It drew all the best French troops and generals into the north-west
+corner of Spain, leaving all the other, and far richer, provinces to
+recover their power of resistance.[43]
+
+The spirit in which Napoleon had entered upon this contest is well
+illustrated in two sentences of his address to the citizens of Madrid.
+"The Bourbons," he said, "can no longer reign in Europe," and "No power
+under the influence of England can exist on the continent". The
+counter-proclamations of Spanish juntas were more prolix and equally
+arrogant, but one of them reveals the secret of national strength when
+it asserts that "a whole people is more powerful than disciplined
+armies". The British estimate of Napoleon's Spanish policy was tersely
+expressed by the Marquis Wellesley in the house of lords, "To him force
+and fraud were alike; force, that would stoop to all the base artifices
+of fraud; and fraud, that would come armed with all the fierce violence
+of force".
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY TAKES COMMAND._]
+
+For three months after the battle of Coruña, the Peninsular war, as
+regards the action of Great Britain, was all but suspended. Two days
+before that battle, a formal treaty of peace and alliance between Great
+Britain and the Spanish junta, which had withdrawn to Seville, was
+signed at London. Sir John Cradock was in command of the British troops
+at Lisbon, and took up a defensive position there, with reinforcements
+from Cadiz, awaiting the approach of Soult, who had captured Oporto by
+storm, and of Victor, who was in the valley of the Tagus. At the request
+of the Portuguese, Beresford had been sent out to organise and command
+their army. Early in 1809 the Spaniards were defeated with great
+slaughter at Ucles, Ciudad Real, and Medellin; Zaragoza was taken after
+another siege, and still more obstinate defence; and the national cause
+seemed more desperate than ever. On April 2, however, Sir Arthur
+Wellesley, who had returned home after the convention of Cintra, was
+appointed to the command-in-chief of our forces in the Peninsula.
+Before leaving England, he left with the ministers a memorandum on the
+conduct of the war which, viewed by the light of later events, must be
+accounted a masterpiece of foresight and sagacity. When it was laid
+before George III., his natural shrewdness at once discerned its true
+value, and he desired its author to be informed of the strong impression
+which it had produced on his mind.
+
+Wellesley, indeed, could not estimate beforehand the vast numerical
+superiority of the French while the rest of Europe was at peace, or the
+impotent vacillations of Spanish juntas, or the "mulish obstinacy" of
+Spanish generals, which so often wrecked his plans and spoiled his
+victories. Nor could he foresee the advantages which he would derive
+from the resources of guerilla warfare, the mutual jealousies of the
+French marshals, and the sudden recall of the best French troops for
+service in Germany and Russia. But his prescient and practical mind
+firmly grasped the dominant facts of the position--that Portugal,
+guarded by the ocean on the west and by mountain ranges on the east, was
+far more accessible to the British navy than to the French army; that,
+under British officers, its troops might be trained into an effective
+force; and that, with it as a basis, Great Britain might ultimately
+liberate the whole Peninsula. "I have always been of opinion," Wellesley
+said in this memorandum, "that Portugal might be defended, whatever
+might be the result of the contest in Spain; and that in the meantime
+the measures adopted for the defence of Portugal would be highly useful
+to the Spaniards in their contest with the French." On this simple
+principle all his detailed recommendations were founded, and he
+expressed a deliberate belief that, if 30,000 British troops were
+supported by an equal number of Portuguese regulars, and a reserve of
+militia was provided, "the French would not be able to overrun Portugal
+with less than 100,000 men". This forecast was verified, and upon its
+essential wisdom the fate of the Peninsular war, with all its
+consequences, may be said to have depended.[44]
+
+Wellesley landed at Lisbon on April 22, and was received with the utmost
+demonstrations of joy and confidence. He found not only the capital but
+the whole country in a state of tumult, if not of anarchy, due to a
+growing despair of the national cause. His arrival rekindled the embers
+of patriotism, and on May 5 he reviewed at Coimbra a body of troops
+consisting of 17,000 British and Germans, with about 8,000 Portuguese.
+The next day he marched towards the Douro, and on the 14th he effected
+the passage of that river in the face of the French army occupying
+Oporto, which the British forthwith recaptured. Soult beat a hasty and
+disorderly retreat into Galicia. Having driven Soult out of Portugal,
+the British general was encouraged to undertake a further advance into
+Spain, where Joseph with Victor and Sébastiani had collected a much
+larger army to bar the approaches to Madrid than Wellesley, relying on
+Spanish intelligence, had been led to expect. During June and the first
+days of July, he moved by Abrantes and the Tagus valley as far as
+Plasencia, little knowing that Soult was about to sweep round his rear,
+with 50,000 men, and intercept his communications with Lisbon. On July
+10 he held a conference with the Spanish general Cuesta, who insisted on
+making an aggressive movement with his own troops only, and met with a
+repulse.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TALAVERA CAMPAIGN._]
+
+On the 27th, the combined armies of Wellesley and Cuesta, numbering
+respectively about 20,000 British and 35,000 Spanish, confronted 46,000
+French troops, under Victor, in a strong position behind Talavera.[45]
+The Spanish forces occupied the right and the British the left of this
+position. Joseph was present, and disregarding the counsels of Jourdan,
+his proper military adviser, authorised Victor to assume the offensive.
+He failed in two preliminary attacks on the 27th, but renewed them on
+the 28th, when a general engagement ensued. The whole brunt of the
+battle fell upon the British troops, who gallantly withstood a desperate
+onset, first on their left and then on their centre and right, until the
+French quitted the field in confusion. The Spaniards, posted in
+entrenchments nearer Talavera itself, did and suffered comparatively
+little. Some of their regiments fled disgracefully, but the rest held
+their ground, and Wellesley in his despatch spoke favourably of their
+behaviour.[46] Perhaps the part which they played may be roughly
+estimated by their losses, amounting to 1,200, as compared with 6,268
+British and nearly 9,000 French. Wellesley, after further experience of
+Spanish co-operation, made up his mind to dispense with it altogether in
+future.
+
+The victory of Talavera won for Wellesley the rank of viscount, to which
+he was raised on September 4, with the title of Wellington. Although the
+victory revived the respect of foreign nations for the prowess of
+British arms, it was otherwise fruitless, and its sequel was fairly open
+to criticism. Wellesley found that Soult, with Ney and Mortier, had
+circumvented him, and that he must retreat through Esdremadura, on the
+south of the Tagus, upon Badajoz. Cuesta, who had advocated bolder
+counsels, undertook to guard the rear, and to protect the British
+wounded at Talavera. But he soon found it necessary to abandon that
+position. Fifteen hundred of the wounded were left behind, and were
+humanely treated by the French generals. Wellesley's retreat over the
+mountains was attended with great hardship and loss, for want of
+supplies either from Spain or from the coast, and his long encampment in
+the malarious valley of the Guadiana about Badajoz swelled the number of
+his sick to a frightful extent. It was not until December, when it got
+into better cantonments on Portuguese soil, that the British army,
+triumphant at Talavera, recovered either its health or its _moral_.
+Napoleon boasted, in a memorandum to be inserted in the Paris journals,
+that Wellington had really been beaten in Spain, and that "if affairs
+there had been properly conducted not an Englishman would have escaped".
+Without going quite so far as this, the parliamentary opposition in
+England made the least of the victory and the most of the retreat, which
+unfortunately coincided in time with the wreck of the Walcheren
+expedition. Even Wellington's best friends in England began to lose
+heart, as did many of his own officers. He remained undaunted, and
+having established his headquarters on the high ground between the Tagus
+and the Douro, meditated designs which, slowly matured, bore good fruit
+in later years.
+
+It is difficult to understand the inaction of Wellington for so many
+months after the Talavera campaign, without taking into account not only
+the difficulty of obtaining sufficient recruits and stores from England
+after the waste of both at the mouth of the Scheldt, but the greatly
+increased strength of the French in Spain during the long interval
+between the Wagram campaign and the Russian expedition. At the close of
+1809 all the fortresses of Spain had fallen into the enemy's hands, and
+all her principal armies had been defeated and dispersed in successive
+battles of which the greatest was that of Ocaña in the month of
+November. Suchet was master of Aragon and the east of Spain, nor was he
+dislodged from it until the end of the war; Andalusia was nearly
+conquered; Cadiz was only saved by the self-reliant courage of the Duc
+d'Albuquerque, baffling the intrigues and treachery of the supreme junta
+there assembled; and Napoleon was preparing a fresh army to overrun
+Portugal, under the command of Masséna. The Perceval ministry, in which
+Liverpool had taken Castlereagh's post of secretary for war and the
+colonies, adopting an optimistic tone at home, practically told
+Wellington that he must shift for himself; and he braced himself up to
+do so with extraordinary fortitude.
+
+He remained watching the gathering storm from the heights of Guarda,
+south-west of Almeida, and commanding two great roads from Spain into
+Portugal, but his thoughts were equally fixed upon the vast and famous
+lines of Torres Vedras, which he was constructing for the defence of
+Lisbon. His force, including the Portuguese regulars, did not exceed
+50,000 men; that of the French under Ney, Reynier, and Junot consisted
+of about 70,000, but they were not equally capable of being concentrated
+on a single point. The Portuguese militia, too, were being gradually
+disciplined, and the Portuguese civil authorities were being gradually
+schooled into the new lesson of sweeping their own country bare of all
+supplies before the coming French invasion. Wellington did not even
+strike a blow to save Ciudad Rodrigo, which Masséna took on July 10,
+1810. But it was no part of his plan that Almeida should capitulate, as
+it did shortly afterwards, partly owing to the accidental explosion of a
+magazine, and partly as was suspected, to an act of treachery. Still,
+Masséna delayed until urged by Napoleon, and deceived by false
+intelligence, he launched forth, at the beginning of September, on an
+enterprise which proved fatal to his reputation. Both he and Wellington
+issued appeals to the Portuguese nation, the contrast between which is
+significant. The French marshal, echoing the prevailing note of his
+master's proclamation, denounced Great Britain as the enemy of all
+Europe; Wellington called upon the Portuguese to remember their actual
+experience of French rapacity and outrage.
+
+[Pageheading: _BUSSACO AND TORRES VEDRAS._]
+
+The object of Masséna was to reach Coimbra before Wellington. His
+manoeuvres to outflank Wellington's left were skilfully devised, but
+the British army marched steadily down the valley of the Mondego,
+carrying with it the population of the district, and took its stand on
+the ridge of Bussaco, north of Coimbra, barring Masséna's progress.
+There was fought, on September 27, 1810, a battle as deadly as that of
+Talavera, and more decisive in its consequences. The French, as usual,
+were the assailants; the English and the Portuguese stood at bay. Never,
+in any of their brilliant victories, did French troops show more heroic
+daring than in this assault under Reynier on the British right, and
+under Ney on the British left. Both columns forced their way up bare
+heath-clad slopes, and reached the summit, whence they were only driven
+back after repeated charges. Their loss in killed and wounded exceeded
+4,500, that of the allies was about 1,300. The French generals threw the
+blame of defeat upon each other, but, in fact, the skill of Masséna
+converted a defeat into an episode in his victorious advance. On the
+following day, he again found a way of turning Wellington's left, and,
+in an intercepted despatch, he naturally treated this as a compensation
+for the repulse at Bussaco, which he did not disguise. Compelled to
+retire once more with a vast drove of encumbered, panic-stricken, and
+famishing Portuguese fugitives, and conscious that no reserves awaited
+him, Wellington knew, nevertheless, that he was drawing Masséna further
+and further away from his base, to encounter a terrible surprise. For,
+so useless had been the French scouts, and so worthless the information
+received from Portuguese sources, that no adequate conception of the
+obstacle presented by the lines of Torres Vedras had entered the mind of
+that experienced strategist.
+
+These elaborate works had been constructed in the course of a year by
+thousands of Portuguese labourers, directed by Colonel Fletcher of the
+royal engineers, upon a plan carefully thought out and laid down by
+Wellington himself. The first and principal chain of fortifications
+stretched for nearly thirty miles across the whole promontory between
+the river Tagus and the sea, about twenty-five miles north of Lisbon.
+The summits of hills were crowned with forts, their sides were escarped
+and protected with earthworks, their gorges were blocked with redoubts,
+a small river at the foot of them was made impassable by dams; in short,
+the utmost advantage was taken of the defences provided by nature, and
+these were supplemented by artificial entrenchments. Portuguese
+garrisons manned the greater part of the batteries, armed with guns from
+the arsenals of Lisbon; British troops were to occupy the most
+vulnerable points of attack. There was a second and third range of
+fortifications behind the first, in case these should be forced, but no
+such emergency arose. When Masséna had carefully inspected the
+stupendous barrier reared in front of him, his well-trained eye
+recognised it as impregnable: he paused for some weeks under semblance
+of blockading the British forces, while he was really scouring the
+country for the means of feeding his own; but in November he began to
+retreat upon Santarem, Almeida, and Ciudad Rodrigo, with a half-starved
+and dispirited army, greatly reduced in numbers during the campaign.[47]
+
+The year 1811 was perhaps the least interesting, yet the most critical
+in the history of the Peninsular war. Wellington had not escaped
+criticism at home for allowing Masséna to remain so long unmolested near
+Santarem. He described himself in a private letter, written in December,
+1810, as "safe for the winter at all events". More he could not have
+said, knowing, as he did, that Soult was in force before Cadiz, and
+might at any moment join Masséna. This, in fact, he did; leaving his
+fields of plunder in Andalusia under the positive orders of Napoleon, he
+defeated the Spaniards at the Gebora on February 19, and captured
+Badajoz, as well as Olivenza. In his absence, Sir Thomas Graham, who
+commanded the British troops at Cadiz, sailed thence with La Peña, the
+Spanish commander, and a combined force of about 12,000 men, to make a
+flank march, and attack the French besiegers, under Victor, in the rear.
+A brisk action followed at Barrosa, in which Graham obtained a complete
+victory, but the Spanish troops, as usual, remained almost passive; the
+beaten army was not pursued, and the siege of Cadiz was not raised.
+This city was still the seat of the Spanish national government, but the
+feeble junta had been superseded by a national cortes, fairly
+representative of the nation, which passed some liberal measures, and
+dissolved the so-called regency which assumed to represent Ferdinand.
+
+[Pageheading: _FUENTES D'ONORO AND ALBUERA._]
+
+The two great frontier fortresses of Spain, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz,
+were now in the hands of the French. Masséna had regained the Spanish
+frontier in March, after frequent combats with the pursuing enemy, and
+with heavy losses in men and horses, though he saved every gun except
+one. This retreat involved the evacuation of every place in Portugal
+except the fortress of Almeida. Wellington's pursuit would have been
+still more vigorous, but that his Portuguese troops were half-starved,
+and had lost discipline under intolerable privations. His next design
+seems to have been the recapture of the fortresses, but he was not
+without ulterior hopes--all too premature--of afterwards pushing on to
+Madrid and operating in the eastern provinces of Spain. He first
+invested Almeida, and, leaving General Spencer to continue the blockade,
+proceeded to Elvas in order to concert measures with Beresford for the
+siege of Badajoz. Thence he was suddenly recalled northward to repel a
+fresh advance of Masséna, strongly reinforced, for the relief of
+Almeida. The battle which followed at Fuentes d'Oñoro, south-east of
+Almeida, was among the most hardly contested struggles in the whole
+Peninsular war. It began on May 3, and, with a day's interval, concluded
+on the 5th. The British remained masters of the field, and claimed a
+somewhat doubtful victory, which at least secured the evacuation of
+Almeida. The garrison of that fortress blew it up by night, and
+succeeded, by masterly tactics, in joining the main French army with
+little sacrifice of life.
+
+Wellington returned to Badajoz, only to meet with disappointment.
+General Cole, acting under Beresford, had retaken Olivenza; but Soult,
+with a force of 23,000 men, was marching to succour Badajoz, when he was
+encountered by Beresford at Albuera. Beresford's force was numerically
+stronger than Soult's, but only 7,000 men were English, the rest being
+mostly Spanish. Measured by the proportion of losses to men engaged on
+both sides, this fight on May 16, 1811, must rank among the bloodiest on
+record. In four hours nearly 7,000 of the allies and 8,000 French were
+struck down. The decisive charge of the reserve was inspired and led by
+Hardinge, afterwards Governor-General of India; the French were routed,
+and Soult was checked, but little was gained by the victors.[48] The
+siege of Badajoz, indeed, was renewed, but its progress was slow for
+want of proper engines and artillery, and it was abandoned, after two
+futile attempts, on June 11. By this time, Marmont had succeeded
+Masséna, and was carrying out Napoleon's grand plan for a junction with
+Soult's army and a fresh irruption into Portugal. With marvellous
+audacity, Wellington offered battle to both marshals, who, happily
+ignorant of his weakness, declined it more than once. In truth, he was
+never more nearly at the end of his resources than when he went into
+winter quarters at the close of 1811, having failed to prevent Marmont
+from provisioning Ciudad Rodrigo, and having narrowly escaped being
+overwhelmed by a much superior force. His army was greatly reduced by
+sickness, he was very ill-supplied from England, and he received no
+loyal support from the Portuguese government. Moreover, the French had
+apparently extended their hold on Spain, both in the eastern and
+northern provinces, while it was reported that Napoleon himself, not
+content with dictating orders from afar, would return to complete the
+conquest of the Peninsula.
+
+At this juncture, he must have been cheered by the arrival of so able a
+lieutenant as Graham from Cadiz, and by the brilliant success of Hill
+against a detached body of Marmont's army south of the Tagus. There were
+other tendencies also secretly working in favour of the British and
+their allies. Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain, openly protested
+against the extortions which he was enjoined to practise on his
+subjects, and went so far as to resign his crown at Paris, though he was
+induced to resume it. Again the broken armies of the Spanish had
+reappeared in the form of guerilla bands under leaders such as Mina;
+they could not be dispersed, since they had no cohesion, and were more
+formidable through their extreme mobility than organised battalions.
+Above all, the domination of France over Europe was already undermined
+and tottering invisibly to its fall. The Tsar Alexander had, as we have
+seen, been deeply offended by the preference of an Austrian to a Russian
+princess, as the consort of Napoleon, and still more by his imperious
+annexation of Oldenburg. Sweden, following the example of Russia, had
+begun to rebel against the continental system. A series of internal
+reforms had aroused a national spirit, and stealthily created the basis
+of a national army in Prussia, and the intense hostility of all North
+Germany to France was thinly disguised by the unwilling servility of the
+Prussian court. Napoleon, who seldom laboured under the illusions
+propagated by his own manifestoes and bulletins, well knew what he was
+doing when, in August, 1811, he allowed himself to burst into a storm of
+indignation against the Russian ambassador at the Tuileries. From that
+moment he clearly premeditated a rupture with Russia, and soon he
+withdrew 60,000 of his best troops from Spain, to be employed in that
+fatal enterprise of 1812 which proved to be his doom.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAPTURE OF CIUDAD RODRIGO AND BADAJOZ._]
+
+The winter of 1811-12 was spent by Wellington in preparing, with the
+utmost secrecy, for the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, as the
+first steps in an offensive campaign. In January, 1812, he struck a
+sudden blow against the former, and captured it by an assault, attended
+with great carnage, on the 19th of that month. In this furious conflict,
+lasting but half an hour, Craufurd, the renowned leader of the light
+division, fell mortally wounded. Shameful excesses sullied the glory of
+a splendid exploit. Marmont immediately drew in his troops towards
+Salamanca, leaving Soult in the valley of the Tagus; and Hill, with his
+southern army, moved northward. Wellington, who was created an earl in
+February, transferred the greater part of his troops to Badajoz, and
+began a regular siege, but with very imperfect materials, no organised
+corps of sappers and miners, and very few officers skilled in the art of
+taking fortified towns. He was greatly delayed on the route by the lack
+of transport, and the vexatious obstinacy of the Portuguese authorities,
+while time was of the utmost consequence lest any or all of three French
+armies should come to raise the siege. Hence the extreme rapidity of his
+final operations.
+
+After the capture of an outlying fort, three breaches were made in the
+walls, and on the night of April 6, under the cover of thick darkness,
+two divisions of British troops descended into the ditch, many carrying
+ladders or sacks of hay, and advanced to the foot of the _glacis_. Here
+they were almost overwhelmed with a hurricane of fiery missiles, and in
+mounting the breaches they had to face not only hand-grenades, trains of
+powder, and bursting shells, but a _chevaux-de-frise_ of sabre-blades
+crowning the summit. None of these attacks was successful; but another
+division under Picton scaled the castle, and a brigade under Walker
+effected an entrance elsewhere. After this, the French abandoned the
+breaches; the resistance waxed fainter, and at six in the morning,
+Philippon, the governor, with his brave garrison, surrendered
+unconditionally. The loss of the British and Portuguese in killed and
+wounded was stated at the enormous figure of 4,885, and it was avenged
+by atrocities prolonged for two days and nights, worse than had followed
+the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo. Wellington ordered the provost marshal
+to execute any soldiers found in the act of plunder, but officers vainly
+attempted to check their men at the peril of their own lives.
+
+[Pageheading: _SALAMANCA._]
+
+It had been the intention of Wellington to operate next against Soult,
+and drive him, if possible, from Esdremadura and Andalusia. But, as
+appears from one of his despatches to Lord Liverpool, he was ill
+satisfied with the conduct of his allies guarding Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+returned to resume command in that region. In the same despatch he
+complains bitterly of the niggardly policy of his government in regard
+to money and supplies. The same timidity on the part of ministers at
+home appears in a letter from Liverpool, almost forbidding him to accept
+the command-in-chief of the Spanish armies, which, however, was
+conferred upon him later in this year.[49] At present, he decided to
+march against Marmont in the plains of Leon. This movement was
+facilitated by the success of Hill in surprising a body of French
+troops, and seizing the important bridge of Almaraz over the Tagus on
+May 19, thereby breaking the French lines of communication and isolating
+Marmont's army for a time. Soon afterwards, Salamanca and its forts were
+captured by Wellington, but Marmont proved a very formidable opponent,
+and, having behind him another army under King Joseph, threatened the
+British lines of communication. In the series of manoeuvres which
+ensued, Wellington's forces met with more than one reverse, but the
+French marshal was determined to win a victory on a large scale.
+Wellington had no wish to risk a battle, unless Salamanca or his own
+rear should be seriously threatened, and he stood on the defensive, a
+little south of Salamanca, with Marmont's army encamped in front of him.
+
+Early on July 22, the French seized one of two hills called the Arapiles
+which formed the key of the position and commanded the road to Ciudad
+Rodrigo. Marmont then organised complicated evolutions, of which the
+ultimate object was to envelop the British right and cut off its
+expected retreat. To accomplish this, he extended his own left so far
+that it became separated by a gap from his centre. No sooner did
+Wellington, with a flash of military insight, perceive the advantage
+thus offered than he flung half of his troops upon the French left wing,
+and made a vigorous attack with the rest upon the French centre. It was
+too late for Marmont, himself wounded, to repair the mistake, the centre
+was driven in, and, as was said, 40,000 men were beaten in forty
+minutes. General Clausel, who took Marmont's place, showed great ability
+in the retreat, but the French army could scarcely have escaped
+destruction had not the Spaniards, who were entrusted with a post on the
+river Tormes, left the passage open for the flying enemy. Nevertheless,
+the battle of Salamanca was the greatest and most decisive yet fought by
+the British in the Peninsula; it established the reputation of our army,
+and placed Wellington in the first rank of generals. Three weeks later
+he entered Madrid in triumph, and was received with the wildest popular
+acclamations. Joseph once more abandoned his capital, joined Suchet in
+Valencia, and ordered Soult against his will to withdraw from Andalusia
+and move in the same direction. This concentration relieved Wellington
+from immediate anxieties, but exposed him to a serious danger of being
+confronted before long by forces thrice as great as his own. He also
+needed reinforcements, and was in still greater want of money.
+
+To students of military history it may seem a very doubtful question
+whether, under such circumstances, it was prudent to advance farther
+into Spain from his strongholds on the Portuguese frontier. But
+Wellington, who had been created a marquis on August 18, judged it
+necessary to crush if possible the remainder of Marmont's army which had
+retired northward under Clausel. He therefore left Hill with a
+detachment to cover Madrid, and marching through Valladolid occupied the
+town of Burgos. The castle of that place remained in the hands of a
+French garrison 2,000 strong and had been carefully fortified. Here
+again we may be permitted to doubt whether, after the experience gained
+at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, Wellington did wisely in resolving to
+invest and storm a fortress so formidable, without an adequate
+siege-train, and with the knowledge that Clausel might rally his forces
+in time to relieve it. Wellington himself afterwards admitted to
+Liverpool that he had erred in not taking with him the best of his own
+troops, and that he did not possess the means of transporting ordnance
+and military stores from Madrid and Santander, where there was abundance
+of them. The siege lasted a month, from September 19 to October 18; the
+garrison offered a most obstinate resistance, inflicting great loss on
+the besiegers by sorties, and in the end the attack failed. Souham, with
+Clausel, was closing in upon Wellington from the north, Soult from the
+south-east; Hill's position at Madrid was untenable, and another retreat
+became inevitable. It was the last and most trying in Wellington's
+military career. The army which had behaved nobly at Salamanca broke
+down under the strain of suffering and depression, like that of Sir John
+Moore before Coruña. The enemy was driven back in various rear-guard
+actions, but on the march the sense of discipline vanished and shameful
+disorders occurred. A scathing reprimand from Wellington, which might
+have been written by a French critic and which ought never to have been
+made public, threw all the blame of this disorganisation on the
+regimental officers, and denied that any scarcity of provisions could be
+pleaded in excuse of it.
+
+[Pageheading: _MILITARY REFORMS._]
+
+By the middle of November the campaign ended, and Wellington's
+headquarters were at Ciudad Rodrigo. For the present, Spain was still
+dominated by the French, but its southern provinces were clear of the
+invaders, and elsewhere the tide was already on the turn. The Russian
+war cast its shadow beforehand on the Spanish peninsula; the French
+army was constantly weakened in numbers and still more in quality, as
+conscripts were substituted for veterans, and inferior generals
+succeeded to high commands; the Portuguese and Spanish contingents of
+the British army were stronger and better disciplined. Wellington
+himself, tenacious of his purpose as ever, received heartier support
+from home, where Liverpool had become prime minister in June, and had
+been succeeded by Bathurst as secretary for war and the colonies; and
+though the Marquis Wellesley, no longer in the government, complained
+that his brother's operations had been crippled by ministerial apathy,
+the Peninsular war, on the eve of its completion, was adopted with pride
+and sympathy by the nation.
+
+The last chapter of the Peninsular war opens with the operations
+culminating in the battle of Vitoria, and closes with the battle of
+Toulouse. Having accepted the office of generalissimo of the Spanish
+armies, Wellington repaired to Cadiz during the winter of 1812-13, and
+formed the lowest estimate of the make-shift government there carried on
+under the dual control of the cortes and the regency. He failed to
+obtain a reform of this system, but succeeded in effecting a
+reorganisation of the Spanish army, to be in future under his own
+command. He next addressed himself, with the aid of Beresford and the
+British minister at Lisbon, to amend the monstrous abuses, civil and
+military, of Portuguese administration. By the beginning of May, 1813, a
+great improvement was visible in the equipment and _moral_ of the
+Spanish and Portuguese troops; a vigorous insurrection against the
+French occupation had broken out in the province of Biscay, endangering
+the great road into Spain; and an Anglo-Sicilian army of 16,000 men,
+under Sir John Murray, had repulsed Suchet, hitherto undefeated, at
+Castalla on the Valencian coast, without, however, completing their
+victory, or capturing any of the French guns in the narrow defile by
+which the enemy fled. The want of unity in the command of the French
+army, and of harmony between its generals, was more felt than ever now
+that Napoleon's master-mind was engrossed in retrieving the awful ruin
+of the Russian expedition.
+
+Yet Napoleon's instructions to Joseph show that he had fully grasped the
+critical nature of the situation. He enjoined Joseph to mass all his
+forces round Valladolid, and imperatively directed that at all hazards
+the communications with France should be maintained. The Spanish
+guerillas had long rendered communications so insecure that couriers
+with despatches had to be escorted by bodies of 250 cavalry or 500
+infantry; they were now so effectually intercepted that Napoleon's own
+despatch reached Joseph more than two months late, by way of Barcelona
+and Valencia. Meanwhile, Joseph was openly accusing Soult, in a letter
+to his brother, of criminal ambition--a charge to which he laid himself
+open before in Portugal--and did not hesitate to add, "the Duke of
+Dalmatia or myself must quit Spain". In England, on the contrary,
+parties were at last united in the desire to bring the war to a
+triumphant end, and parliament grudged neither men nor money to aid
+Wellington's plan of campaign. It was, then, under happier auspices than
+in former years that he broke up from his cantonments then stationed on
+the Coa, a little to the north-west of Ciudad Rodrigo, and set forward
+with 70,000 British and Portuguese troops, besides 20,000 Spaniards, to
+drive the French out of Spain. So confident was he of success that, as
+Napier relates, he waved his hand in crossing the frontier on May 22,
+and exclaimed, "Farewell, Portugal".[50]
+
+[Pageheading: _VITORIA._]
+
+He advanced by the valley of the Douro; then, turning to the north-east,
+he compelled the French to evacuate Burgos, and passed the Ebro on June
+13. Graham in command of his left wing there joined him, after forcing
+his way by immense efforts across the mountains of the Portuguese
+frontier. Hill, commanding the right wing of his composite but united
+army, was already with him. A depot for his commissariat and a military
+hospital were established at Santander, where a British fleet was lying,
+and whence he could draw his supplies direct from home. The French army,
+under Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, fell back before him by a forced night
+march on the 19th and took up its position in front of Vitoria, in the
+province of Biscay. Here, on the plain of the river Zadorra, was fought
+on the 21st the greatest battle of the Peninsular war. Wellington had
+encountered serious physical difficulties in his passage from the valley
+of the Ebro to that of the Zadorra; but for once his plans had been
+executed with admirable precision, and all his troops arrived at the
+appointed time on the field of battle. The French, conscious of their
+impending expulsion from Spain, were encumbered by enormous
+baggage-trains containing the fruits of five years' merciless spoliation
+"not of a province but of a kingdom," including treasures of art from
+Madrid and all the provincial capitals, with no less than 5,500,000
+dollars in hard cash, besides two years' arrears of pay which Napoleon
+had sent to fill the military chest of Joseph's army. A vast number of
+vehicles, loaded with the whole imperial and royal treasure, overspread
+the plain and choked the great road behind the French position, by which
+alone such a mass of waggons could find its way into France.
+
+The French army consisted of about 60,000 men, with 150 pieces of
+cannon, but strong detachments, under Foy and Clausel respectively, had
+been sent away to guard the roads to Bilbao and Pamplona. The British
+army numbered nearly 80,000, inclusive of Portuguese and Spanish, with
+90 guns. The French were posted on strong ground, and held the bridges
+across the river. Graham, with the left column of the British, made a
+circuit in the direction of Bilbao, working round to cut off the French
+rear on the Bayonne road. Hill, with the right column, forced the pass
+of Puebla, in the latter direction, carried the ridge above it after
+much hard fighting, and made good his position on the left flank of the
+French. Wellington himself, in the centre, under the guidance of a
+Spanish peasant, pushed a brigade across one of the bridges in his
+front, weakly guarded, and thus mastered the others; his force then
+expanded itself on the plain and bore down all opposition. Graham had
+met with a more obstinate resistance from the French right, under
+Reille, but at last got possession of the great Bayonne road.
+Thenceforward a retreat of the French army, partly encircled, became
+inevitable, but it was conducted at first in good order and with
+frequent halts at defensible points. The only outlet left open was the
+mountain road to Pamplona, and this was not only impracticable for heavy
+traffic but obstructed by an overturned waggon. The orderly retreat was
+soon converted into a rout; the flying throng made its way across
+country and over mountains towards Pamplona, leaving all the artillery,
+military stores, and accumulated spoils as trophies of the British
+victory.
+
+The value of these was prodigious, but the great mass of booty, except
+munitions of war, fell into the hands of private soldiers and
+camp-followers. Wellington reported to Bathurst that nearly a million
+sterling in money had been appropriated by the rank and file of the
+army, and, still worse, that so dazzling a triumph had "totally
+annihilated all order and discipline".[51] The loss in the battle had
+been about 5,000, but Wellington stated that on July 8 "we had 12,500
+men less under arms than we had on the day before the battle". He
+supposed the missing 7,500, nearly half of whom were British, to be
+mostly concealed in the mountain villages.[52] A large number of
+stragglers afterwards rejoined their colours, but too late to aid in an
+effectual pursuit of the enemy. The immediate consequence of this great
+victory was the evacuation by the French of all Spain south of the Ebro.
+Even Suchet abandoned Valencia and distributed his forces between
+Tarragona and Tortosa. To his great credit, Wellington addressed to the
+cortes an earnest protest against wreaking vengeance on the French party
+in Spain, many of whom might have been driven into acceptance of a
+foreign yoke "by terror, by distress, or by despair". At the same time,
+he vigorously followed up his success by chasing and nearly surrounding
+Clausel's division, while Hill invested Pamplona, and Graham drove Foy
+across the Bidassoa, in his advance upon the fortress of St. Sebastian.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF THE PYRENEES._]
+
+The fortifications of St. Sebastian were in a very imperfect condition,
+but the governor, Emmanuel Rey, was nevertheless able to defend the
+place with success. Wellington, after laying siege to it, sanctioned a
+premature attempt to scale the breaches which cost Graham's force a loss
+of more than 500 men. This check was succeeded by another, still more
+serious, in the historic pass of Roncesvalles. Napoleon, hearing at
+Dresden of the battle of Vitoria, and instantly fathoming its momentous
+import, despatched Soult, as "lieutenant of the emperor," to assume
+command of all the French armies at Bayonne and on the Spanish frontier,
+still amounting nominally to 114,000 men, besides 66,000 under Suchet in
+Catalonia. Soult reached Bayonne on July 13, fortified it strongly, and
+reorganised his troops with amazing energy, inspiriting them with a
+warlike address in the well-known style of Napoleon's proclamations. On
+the 25th he set his forces in motion, with the intention of crushing the
+British right by a sudden irruption, and relieving Pamplona. He all but
+achieved his object, for, by well-concerted and well-concealed
+movements, he actually carried the passes of Roncesvalles and Maya, in
+spite of a gallant resistance and the French troops were on the point of
+pouring down the Pyrenees on the Spanish side, when Wellington arrived
+at full speed from his position before St. Sebastian.
+
+He was opportunely reinforced, and gave battle on the rugged heights in
+front of Pamplona to a force numerically superior, but for the most part
+charging uphill. Never, even at Bussaco, did the French show greater
+ardour and _élan_ in attack, and it was only after a series of bloody
+hand-to-hand combats on the summits and sides of the mountains that they
+were compelled to recoil and rolled backward down the ridge. Baffled in
+his attempt to relieve Pamplona, Soult turned westwards towards St.
+Sebastian, but was anticipated by Wellington, and faced by three
+divisions of Hill on his right. A second engagement followed, in which
+the Portuguese earned the chief honours, and 3,000 prisoners were taken.
+At last Soult gave orders for a retreat, and in the course of it was all
+but entrapped in a narrow valley where he could not have escaped the
+necessity of surrender. It is said that he was warned just in time by
+the sudden intrusion of three British marauders in uniform; at all
+events, he instantly changed his line of march, and ultimately led his
+broken army back to France, but in the utmost confusion, and not without
+fresh disasters. One of these befell Reille's division in the gorge of
+Yanzi, and another the French rear-guard under Clausel, which defended
+itself valiantly, but was driven headlong down the northern side of the
+Pyrenees from which this series of battles derives its name.
+
+The siege of St. Sebastian was immediately renewed with a far more
+powerful battering train, but its defences had also been strengthened by
+the indefatigable governor. The final assault took place on August 31,
+and rivalled the storming of Badajoz in the murderous ferocity of the
+_melée_ at the breaches, as well as in the horrors practised on the
+inhabitants by the victorious assailants, which Wellington and Graham
+vainly endeavoured to check. So desperate was the defence, and so
+insuperable appeared the obstacles to an entrance by the breaches, that
+Graham adopted the heroic expedient of causing his artillery to fire a
+few feet only over the heads of the forlorn hope, until a clear opening
+had been made, and deadly piles of combustibles had been exploded behind
+the main breach, blowing into the air 300 of the garrison. A hideous
+conflagration destroyed the greater part of the town. A few days later
+the castle, to which the governor had retired, yielded to an
+irresistible cannonade, and he surrendered at discretion with about
+1,200 men. Several hundred wounded, including a large number of British
+prisoners, were found there in the hospitals.
+
+On the 30th, the day before St. Sebastian was stormed, Soult attempted a
+diversion for its relief by crossing the Bidassoa, and on the following
+day he engaged a large body of Spaniards at St. Marcial. On this
+occasion Wellington held the British troops in reserve, and the
+Spaniards without their aid defeated the French with great slaughter. So
+ended a well-planned and well-executed effort to reconquer the Spanish
+frontier. Pamplona was still untaken, and Suchet was still in Catalonia,
+but no further offensive movement was undertaken by the French against
+Spain. Both Soult and Wellington had shown remarkable powers of
+generalship, and there was a moment when Soult might have snatched the
+prize of victory by raising the siege of Pamplona. But his ultimate
+success was hopeless, and his failure was complete. Before the fall of
+St. Sebastian and the battle of St. Marcial, Wellington estimated the
+French losses at 15,000 men, who could ill be spared in the interval
+between Napoleon's last gleam of victory at Dresden and on his signal
+defeat at Leipzig.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ENTERS FRANCE._]
+
+But the Peninsular war, in the historical sense, was not yet over.
+During the summer of 1813 a mixed force of British, Germans, Spaniards,
+and Sicilians had been carrying on an intermittent war against the
+French under Suchet in the eastern provinces. Their commander, Sir John
+Murray, who had allowed the beaten enemy to escape at Castalla, proved
+equally irresolute in an attempt to capture Tarragona, countermanded the
+assault, and re-embarked his troops on the approach of Suchet. Soon
+afterwards he was superseded by Lord William Bentinck, and Suchet after
+the battle of Vitoria was compelled to retire behind the Ebro. Bentinck
+renewed the investment of Tarragona, but permitted Suchet without a
+battle to relieve it, demolish its fortifications, and withdraw its
+garrison at the end of August. An ill-judged advance of the British
+general into Catalonia brought about another misfortune, and, upon the
+whole, the series of operations conducted against Suchet were by no
+means glorious to British arms or generalship, however important their
+effect in preventing a large body of French veterans from reinforcing
+Soult's army at a critical time in the Western Pyrenees. Wellington
+himself inclined to complete the deliverance of Spain by clearing the
+province of Catalonia of the invaders, but the British government,
+having in view the prospect of crushing Napoleon in Germany, urged him
+to undertake an immediate invasion of France. Accordingly he moved
+forward on October 7, leaving Pamplona closely blockaded, threw his army
+across the Bidassoa on the 8th by a stroke of masterly tactics, forced
+the strong French lines on the north side of it, and established himself
+on the enemy's soil. Before entering France he issued the most stringent
+proclamations against plundering, which he enforced by the sternest
+measures, and announced that he would not suffer the peaceful
+inhabitants of France to be punished for the ambition of their ruler. On
+the 31st the French garrison of Pamplona, despairing of relief,
+surrendered as prisoners of war.
+
+The prolonged defence of Pamplona gave Soult time to strengthen his
+position on the Nivelle. The lines which he constructed rivalled those
+of Torres Vedras, and the several actions by which they were at last
+forced and turned were among the most desperate of the whole war. The
+first was fought in the early part of November, and resulted in the
+occupation by Wellington's army of the great mountain-barrier south of
+Bayonne, with six miles of entrenchments along the Nivelle, and of the
+port of St. Jean de Luz. A month later Wellington became anxious to
+establish his winter-cantonments between the Nive and the Adour, partly
+for strategical reasons, and partly in order to command a larger and
+more fertile area for his supplies. On December 9, therefore, Hill with
+the right wing forded the Nive and drove back the French left upon their
+camp in front of Bayonne. Then followed three most obstinate combats on
+the 10th, 11th and 13th, in which Soult took the offensive, with Bayonne
+as the centre of his operations, and with the advantage of always moving
+upon interior lines resting upon a strong fortress. In the first of
+these attacks, he surprised and nearly succeeded in overwhelming the
+British left, under Hope, now Sir John, before Wellington could bring
+other divisions to its support. In the second, he fell suddenly on the
+same troops, exhausted by fatigue, and still more or less isolated, but
+they were rallied by Hope and Wellington in person, and remained masters
+of the field. In the third he concentrated his whole strength upon the
+British right under Hill, aided by a thick mist, and by a flood upon the
+Nive, which swept away a bridge of boats, and separated Hill from the
+rest of the army. Nevertheless, that able general, emulating the noble
+example of Hope in the earlier encounters, succeeded in repelling
+assault after assault, until Wellington himself appeared with
+reinforcements of imposing strength, and converted a stubborn defence
+into a victory.
+
+The loss of the allies since crossing the Nive had exceeded 5,000; that
+of the French was 6,000, besides 2,400 Germans who deserted to the
+British during the night of the 9th in obedience to orders from home.
+Ever since he assumed the command Soult had shown military ability of a
+rare order. Bayonne, the base of all his operations, was indefensible
+before he fortified it. A great proportion of his troops were raw
+conscripts, or demoralised by defeat, before he inspired them with his
+own courage and vigour. He was practically dependent for subsistence in
+his own country on the very system of pillage which had roused a
+patriotic frenzy of resentment in Spain and other lands ravaged by
+French armies. He now stood at bay in the south of France, as Wellington
+had so long stood at bay in Portugal, and continued there during the
+early part of 1814 a defensive campaign not unworthy of comparison with
+the prodigious exploits of Napoleon himself against the invaders of his
+eastern provinces.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INVESTMENT OF BAYONNE._]
+
+A respite of two months succeeded the battles on the Nive. During this
+interval Wellington's difficulty in paying his troops was great, owing
+to the enormous drain of specie from England into Central Europe. He was
+further embarrassed by the appearance of the Duke of Angoulême, elder
+son of Charles, Count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., at his
+headquarters. The British government was by no means committed to a
+restoration of the Bourbons, and Wellington deprecated the duke's
+appearance as at least premature. He therefore insisted upon his
+remaining incognito and as a non-combatant at St. Jean de Luz. Soult
+was in great straits, not only because he was compelled to "make war
+support war" by exorbitant requisitions upon the French peasantry, but
+also because the exigencies of Napoleon were such that large drafts of
+the best troops were drawn from the army of the south. When hostilities
+were resumed in the middle of February, 1814, the Anglo-Portuguese and
+Spanish force combined outnumbered the French by nearly five to three,
+but Soult retained the decisive advantage of having a strong _point
+d'appui_ in Bayonne at the confluence of the Nive and Adour. Careful
+preparations were made by Wellington for throwing a large force across
+the Lower Adour below Bayonne, in concert with a British fleet. Contrary
+winds and a violent surf delayed the arrival of the British gunboats,
+but on February 23 Hope sent over a body of his men on a raft of
+pontoons in the face of the enemy's flotilla, with the aid of a brigade
+armed with Congreve rockets, which had been first used at Leipzig, and
+produced the utmost consternation in the French ranks. The gunboats soon
+followed, but with the loss of one wrecked and others stranded in
+crossing the bar. By the joint exertions of soldiers and sailors a
+bridge was then constructed, by which Hope's entire army with artillery
+passed over the river, and, two days afterwards, began the investment of
+Bayonne.
+
+Meanwhile, the centre and right wing, under the command of Wellington,
+had forced a passage across the Upper Adour and threatened Bayonne on
+the other side. Leaving a garrison of 6,000 men in Bayonne, Soult took
+his stand at Orthez, with an army of about 40,000 men, on the summit of
+a formidable ridge. Wellington attacked this ridge on the 27th, with a
+force of nearly equal strength in three columns so disposed as to
+converge from points several miles distant from each other. The veterans
+of the French army, admirably handled, fought with tenacity, and all but
+succeeded in foiling the attack before Wellington could bring up his
+reserves. The conscripts, however, were not equally steady, and when
+Hill, advancing from the extreme right, pressed upon the French left,
+Soult's orderly retreat became a precipitate flight. The French loss
+greatly exceeded the British, and was soon afterwards swelled by
+wholesale desertions; the road to Bordeaux was thrown open, and the
+royalist reaction against Napoleon, stimulated by the depredation of
+the French troops, ripened into a general revolt.
+
+Meanwhile, Napoleon had lost Germany by the battle of Leipzig; early in
+1814 the allied armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia had entered
+France, and a congress was being held at Châtillon-sur-Seine, to
+formulate, if possible, terms of peace. The city of Bordeaux was the
+first to declare itself openly in favour of the Bourbons. Wellington
+sent a large detachment to preserve order, with strict instructions to
+Beresford, who commanded it, to remain neutral, in the event of Louis
+XVIII. being proclaimed, pending the negotiations with Napoleon at
+Châtillon. But the excitement of the people could not be restrained, and
+the arrival of the Duke of Angoulême evoked a burst of royalist
+enthusiasm which anticipated by a few weeks only the abdication of
+Napoleon at Fontainebleau. The defection of Bordeaux forced Soult to
+fall back rapidly on a very formidable position in front of Toulouse.
+The British army followed in pursuit, encumbered with a great artillery
+and pontoon train. After a lively action at Tarbes, it arrived in front
+of Toulouse on March 27, to find the Garonne in flood, and the French
+army strongly entrenched around the town, with a prospect of being
+joined by 20,000 or 30,000 veterans, under Suchet, from Catalonia.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TOULOUSE._]
+
+The dispositions of Wellington, ending in the battle of Toulouse, on
+April 10, have not escaped criticism. Hill, with two divisions and a
+Spanish contingent, threw a bridge across the Garonne below Toulouse,
+but discovered that he could make no progress in that direction, owing
+to the impassable state of the roads. Beresford crossed the river with
+18,000 men at another point, but a sudden flood broke up the pontoon
+bridge in his rear, and he remained isolated for no less than four days,
+exposed to an attack from Soult's whole army. Having missed this rare
+opportunity, Soult calmly awaited the attack, with a force numerically
+inferior, but with every advantage of position. On the 10th Wellington's
+troops advanced in two columns, separated from each other by a perilous
+interval of two miles. One of these, including Freyre's Spaniards and
+Picton's division, was fairly driven back after furious attempts to
+storm the ramparts of the fortified ridge held by the French. Beresford,
+however, who in this battle combined generalship with brilliant
+courage, restored the fortunes of the day by a dashing advance against
+the redoubts on the French right. Having carried these he swept along
+the ridge, which became untenable, and Soult withdrew his army within
+his second line of defences. Two days later, seeing that Hill menaced
+Toulouse on the other side, and fearing that if defeated again he would
+lose his only line of retreat along the Carcassonne road, he evacuated
+Toulouse by that route, leaving his magazines and hospitals in the hands
+of the British army. By so doing he left to Wellington the honour and
+prize of victory, but few victories have been so dearly bought, and the
+loss in killed and wounded was actually greater on the side of the
+victors than on that of the vanquished.
+
+Toulouse received Wellington on the 12th with open arms, and as news
+reached him on the same day announcing the proclamation of Louis XVIII.
+at Paris, he no longer hesitated to assume the white cockade. Soult
+loyally declined to accept the intelligence until it was officially
+confirmed, when a military convention was made on the 18th, whereby a
+boundary line was established between the two armies. Suchet had already
+withdrawn from Spain, and at last recalled the garrisons from those
+Spanish fortresses in which Napoleon had so obstinately locked up picked
+troops which he sorely needed in his dire extremity. But on the 14th, a
+week after Napoleon's abdication, the famous "sortie from Bayonne" took
+place, in which each side lost 800 or 900 men, and Hope, wounded in two
+places, was made prisoner. For this waste of life the governor of
+Bayonne must be held responsible, since he was informed of the events at
+Paris by Hope, and instead of awaiting official confirmation, like
+Soult, chose to risk the issue of a night combat, which must needs be
+deadly and could not be decisive.
+
+Thus ended the Peninsular war. This war on the British side has seldom
+been surpassed in the steady adherence to a settled purpose, through
+years of discouragement and failure, maintained by the general whose
+name it has made immortal. Neither his strategy nor his tactical skill
+was always faultless; and afterwards in comparing himself with Soult, he
+is reported to have said, that he often got into scrapes, but was
+extricated by the valour of his army, whereas Soult, when he got into a
+scrape, had no such men to get him out of it. However this might be,
+Wellington's foresight in appreciating the place to be filled by the
+Peninsular war in the overthrow of Napoleon's domination, and his truly
+heroic constancy in striving to realise his own idea will ever
+constitute his best claim to greatness. No other man in England or in
+Europe discerned as he did, that with Portugal independent and guarded
+by the power of Great Britain on its western coast and its eastern
+frontier, the permanent conquest of Spain by the French would become
+impossible. No one else saw beforehand, what Napoleon discovered too
+late, that a war in Portugal and Spain would drain the life-blood of his
+invincible hosts, and at length help towards the invasion of France
+itself. No other general would have shown equal statesmanship in
+managing Spanish juntas and controlling even Spanish guerillas, or equal
+forbearance in sparing the French people the evils which a victorious
+army might have inflicted upon them.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[42] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (3rd edition), i., 123.
+
+[43] For Moore's campaign see Napier, _Peninsular War_, i., pp.
+xxi.-xxv., lvii.-lxxvi., 330-44, 431-542, and Oman, _Peninsular War_,
+i., 486-602; and compare Moore's _Diary_, edited by Maurice, ii.,
+272-398. Sir F. Maurice has not completely answered Professor Oman's
+criticisms.
+
+[44] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 261-63 (March 7, 1809).
+
+[45] For the exact figures see Oman, _Peninsular War_, ii., 645-48.
+
+[46] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 536 (July 29, 1809).
+
+[47] For Masséna's lines of march see T. J. Andrews in _English
+Historical Review_, xvi. (1901), 474-92.
+
+[48] The battle is picturesquely described by Napier, _Peninsular War_,
+iii., 536-66. See also _ibid._, pp. xxxv.-li.
+
+[49] Wellington, _Supplementary Dispatches_, vii., 318-19.
+
+[50] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (first edition), v., 513.
+
+[51] Wellington, _Dispatches_, x., 473 (June 29, 1813).
+
+[52] _Ibid._, x., 519 (July 9, 1813).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                       THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+
+The war between France and Russia, publicly threatened in August,
+1811,[53] was long deferred. On Russia's part the adherence to a
+defensive policy delayed action until France was ready. But there was
+another reason why the preparations for war were only slowly pushed
+forward. Even at the court of St. Petersburg there was a French party
+which retarded such preparations as committing Russia too definitely to
+an open rupture. On the part of France, also, delay was necessary.
+Though deliberately provoked by himself, the war was not altogether
+welcome to Napoleon. It suited him best to have a strong but friendly
+neighbour in Russia, and victory promised him but the half-hearted
+friendship of a power to which he could no longer dare to leave much
+strength. Besides it was necessary to make far more extensive
+preparations than had been required for any of his previous campaigns.
+Russia was too poor and too thinly peopled for it to be possible for war
+to support itself, and immense supplies with correspondingly large
+transport arrangements were needed for a large army which would have to
+fight at so vast a distance from its base. It would have been impossible
+to be ready in time for a summer campaign in 1811; the country was not
+favourable to transport on a large scale during winter, and the war was
+therefore postponed till the summer of 1812. The end of May or beginning
+of June was the date originally selected for the beginning of
+operations, as it was expected that the difficulty of providing fodder
+would be greatly reduced when the grass had grown. But the preparations
+were not sufficiently advanced by that date, and hostilities were only
+opened on June 24.
+
+The interval was spent by both powers in securing allies and pacifying
+enemies. Early in the year 1812 Prussia had made a last attempt to avert
+a French alliance by inviting Russia to join in a peaceful compromise.
+After the failure of this negotiation her position was helpless, and
+resembled that of Poland before its national extinction. Russia could
+not become her active ally without exposing her own army to destruction
+at a second Friedland, and Prussia could not fight France alone.
+Frederick William, therefore, accepted the terms dictated by Napoleon.
+By a treaty concluded on February 24 he agreed to supply the emperor
+with 20,000 men to serve as a part of the French army, and was to raise
+no levies and give no orders without his consent. The king was also to
+afford a free passage and provide food and forage for the French troops,
+payment for which was to be arranged afterwards. In return for this a
+reduction was made in the war indemnity due to France. This was probably
+as much as Napoleon could have obtained without authorising a dangerous
+increase in the Prussian army.
+
+[Pageheading: _RUSSIAN ALLIANCES._]
+
+Austria was more fortunate, because an Austrian war would have been a
+serious diversion, not a step towards the invasion of Russia. She was in
+consequence able to impose her own terms on France. These terms, so far
+as the nature and extent of the Austrian assistance to France were
+concerned, had been sketched by Metternich to the British agent, Nugent,
+as far back as November, 1811, and they were accepted by France in a
+treaty of March 16, 1812.[54] Austria was to provide an army of 30,000
+men to guard Napoleon's flank in Volhynia. In return France guaranteed
+the integrity of Turkey, and secretly promised a restoration of the
+Illyrian provinces to Austria in exchange for Galicia, which was to form
+a part of a reconstituted Poland. Elsewhere Napoleon's negotiations were
+unsuccessful. In January he fulfilled his threat of occupying Swedish
+Pomerania, but it had no effect on Swedish policy, and when in March he
+offered Finland and a part of Norway as the price of an alliance, his
+terms were rejected and Sweden allied herself with Russia. On April 17
+Napoleon made overtures for peace with Great Britain, offering to
+evacuate Spain and to recognise the house of Braganza in Portugal and
+the Bourbons in Sicily, if the British would recognise the "actual
+dynasty" in Spain and Murat in Naples. The offer was certainly illusory.
+"Actual dynasty" was an ambiguous phrase, but would naturally mean the
+Bonapartes. Castlereagh declined to recognise Joseph, but declared his
+readiness to discuss the proposed basis if "actual dynasty" meant a
+recognition of Ferdinand VII. in Spain. Napoleon was enabled to say that
+his offers of peace had been rejected, and made no answer to
+Castlereagh.
+
+Russia in her turn had to conciliate the Porte, Sweden, Persia, and
+Great Britain. The Turkish negotiations were prolonged, and it was only
+in May that the treaty of Bucharest was signed, by which Russia gave up
+all her conquests except Bessarabia. Sweden had offered Russia her
+alliance in February. She was prepared to surrender Finland to Russia on
+condition that Russia should assist her in the conquest of Norway. A
+joint army was to effect this conquest and then make a descent on North
+Germany, threatening the rear of the French army of invasion. The
+adhesion of Great Britain was to be invited. On April 5 an alliance
+between Russia and Sweden was signed on the terms suggested. This was
+followed on August 28 by the treaty of Åbo, which was signed in the
+presence of the British representative, Lord Cathcart. By this treaty
+Russia was to assist Sweden with 30,000 men and a loan, Sweden undertook
+to support Russia's claim, when it should be made, for an extension of
+her frontier to the Vistula. Shortly afterwards it was agreed to
+postpone the attack on Norway till the following year, and thus at
+length the Russian army in Finland was set free. The treaties with the
+Porte and Sweden were too late to liberate troops to oppose Napoleon's
+advance, but the troops thus liberated greatly endangered his retreat.
+With Persia no peace could be made. Great Britain was still nominally at
+war both with Russia and with Sweden. Negotiations with Russia in April
+came to nothing because the British government refused to take over a
+loan of £4,000,000, but on July 18 a treaty of alliance between the
+three powers was signed, in which Great Britain promised pecuniary aid
+to Russia. A further sign of friendship was given when the tsar handed
+over the Cronstadt fleet for safekeeping to the British. The formal
+treaty was, however, only the public recognition of a friendship and
+mutual confidence which had begun with the breach between Russia and
+France. This good understanding was shared by the nominal allies of
+France, Prussia and Austria. Russia was fully informed of the military
+and political plans of Austria, and knew that her forces would not fight
+except under compulsion.
+
+At last, on June 24, Napoleon's grand army began the passage of the
+Niemen, which formed the boundary between the duchy of Warsaw and the
+Russian empire. The main body, at least 300,000 strong, was commanded by
+Napoleon himself. A northern division, including the Prussian
+contingent, was commanded by Macdonald, and, after advancing to Riga,
+which it pretended to besiege, remained idle throughout the campaign.
+The Austrians, under Schwarzenberg, formed a southern division, but they
+merely manoeuvred, and made no serious attempts to impede the
+movements of the southern Russian army on its return journey from the
+war on the Danube. Napoleon himself drove the main Russian armies before
+him in the direction of Moscow. At last Kutuzov, who had taken over the
+command of the Russians in the course of the retreat, made a stand at
+Borodino, where on September 7 one of the bloodiest battles on record
+was fought. The figures are variously given, but the French army
+probably lost over 30,000 in killed and wounded out of a force of
+125,000; and the Russians lost not less than 40,000 out of an army of
+slightly smaller dimensions. This awful carnage ended, after all, in
+little more than a trial of strength. The French gained the ground, but
+the Russians made good their retreat, and six days later Kutuzov retired
+through the streets of Moscow, taking the better part of the population
+and all the military stores with him. The French vanguard entered on the
+14th, and Napoleon himself next day. A fire, kindled either by accident
+or by Russian incendiaries, raged from the 14th to the 20th and
+destroyed three-fourths of the city.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW._]
+
+The capture of Moscow was far from being the triumph that the French
+emperor had anticipated. Deceived by his recollections of Tilsit, he had
+fully counted upon receiving pacific overtures from Alexander or at
+least upon his eager acceptance of conciliatory assurances from himself.
+But as the weeks passed and the vision of negotiation with the Russians
+proved illusory, retreat became inevitable. On the night of October 18
+the French army, now about 115,000 strong, evacuated Moscow. Kutuzov,
+who was stronger in cavalry, though perhaps still weaker in infantry,
+hung upon its rear, and, while avoiding a pitched battle, was able to
+prevent Napoleon from retreating by any other route than the now
+devastated line of his advance. It has often been questioned whether
+Kutuzov did not deliberately refrain from destroying the French army. He
+certainly informed Sir Robert Wilson on one occasion that he did not
+wish to drive Napoleon to extremities, lest his supremacy should go to
+the power that ruled the sea. The remark may have been nothing more than
+an outburst of ill-temper, but, whatever the motive, there can be no
+doubt as to the policy adopted. The retreating French army suffered
+terrible hardships from the cold, for which it was ill prepared. Twice
+it seemed on the point of falling into the hands of the Russians; at
+Krasnoe 26,000 prisoners are said to have been captured by Kutuzov's
+army, while at Borisov the southern army under Chichagov and the army
+returning from Finland under Wittgenstein joined hands, and disputed the
+French passage of the Berezina on November 26-29. According to
+Chambray's calculation, the French army numbered 31,000 combatants
+before the passage, of whom but 9,000 remained on December 1. All the
+non-combatants had been left in the hands of the enemy.
+
+This was the last direct attack made by the Russians on the relics of
+the grand army. But the worst ravages of the Russian winter had yet to
+come. On December 3 the cold became intense. As the survivors of the
+expedition dragged themselves homewards through the Polish provinces,
+they were met by large bodies of reinforcements pouring in from the
+west; these recruits, comparatively fresh, were at first appalled by the
+gaunt and famine-stricken aspect of the returning veterans, but soon
+perished themselves in nearly equal numbers. It is estimated that
+altogether only 60,000 men recrossed the frontier out of a total of
+630,000, and in the estimate of 60,000 is included Macdonald's division,
+which was exposed to comparatively little hardship. That division with
+the Prussian contingent began to fall back on December 19. On the 30th,
+however, the Prussians were reduced to neutrality by the convention of
+Tauroggen, signed by the Prussian commander, Yorck, with the Russians,
+without the sanction of his government. Had Russia been in a condition
+to press onwards at once and carry the war into French territory, it is
+possible that Europe might have been spared the misery and bloodshed of
+the next few years. But, for the moment, her strength and resources were
+exhausted, nor was it until months had elapsed that other nations, or
+even France herself, became aware of the magnitude of the catastrophe
+which had overtaken Napoleon's host. That he was able to rally himself
+after it, to carry the French people with him, to enforce a new
+conscription, and to assume the aggressive in the campaign of 1813, must
+ever remain a supreme proof of his capacity for empire.
+
+[Pageheading: _DISPUTES WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+In the year 1812 war broke out between Great Britain and the United
+States. For a time the continental warfare had led to a great increase
+in American commerce, which was free from the attacks of privateers and
+from the restrictions which the opposing parties placed on one another.
+Presently, however, both parties attempted to force the United States
+into a virtual alliance with themselves. Orders in council on the one
+side and imperial decrees on the other had, as we have seen, declared a
+blockade of the ports of the continent of Europe and of Great Britain,
+and the United States saw their commerce threatened with disabilities
+approximating to those suffered by the belligerent powers. President
+Jefferson, who was supported by the republican party, adhered to a
+policy of strict neutrality, and prepared to suffer any commercial loss
+rather than be drawn into an European war. The only action which he took
+was the defence of the river mouths with a view to resisting any
+offensive movement. The federalist party on the other hand were in
+favour of energetic action against France, so as to secure English
+favour and the great commercial privileges which the mistress of the
+seas could bestow. For a time no hostilities resulted, but constant
+irritation was caused by the British claim to a right of search and to
+the impressment of sailors of British nationality found on American
+ships, while American ships accused of infringing the blockade were
+seized by either of the European combatants. To some extent the
+differences between Great Britain and the United States depended on
+rival views of the law of allegiance. The British maintained the
+doctrine _nemo potest exuere patriam_, and regarded all British-born
+persons, unless absolved from their allegiance by the act of the
+mother-country, as British subjects. The law of the United States, on
+the other hand, permitted an alien to become a citizen after fourteen
+years' residence, and previously to 1798 had required a residence of
+five years only. In this way it often happened that sailors who had
+received the American citizenship were impressed for service on British
+ships, and sometimes sailors of actual American birth were impressed.
+But it was impossible to justify the practice to which the Americans
+resorted of receiving deserters of British nationality from British
+ships of war, who were induced by offers of higher pay to transfer
+themselves to the American service.
+
+Jefferson at first preferred to coerce the European powers by
+retaliatory legislation. As early as April, 1806, a law had been passed
+forbidding the importation of certain British wares, but was suspended
+six weeks after it came into operation. In June, 1807, irritation was
+intensified by the incident of the _Leopard_ and the _Chesapeake_. Five
+men, four of whom were British born and one an American by birth, were
+known to have deserted from the British sloop _Halifax_, lying in
+Hampton roads, and to have taken service on an American frigate, the
+_Chesapeake_. After application for their surrender had been made in
+vain to the magistrates of the town of Norfolk, where the _Chesapeake's_
+rendezvous was, and to the officer commanding the rendezvous,
+Vice-admiral Berkeley sent his flagship, the _Leopard_, carrying fifty
+guns, with an order to the British captains on the North American
+station to search the _Chesapeake_ for deserters from six ships named,
+including the _Halifax_, in case she should be encountered on the high
+seas. The _Leopard_ arrived in Chesapeake bay in time to follow the
+_Chesapeake_ beyond American waters, and then made a demand to search
+for deserters. On the captain of the _Chesapeake_ refusing compliance,
+the _Leopard_ opened fire. The _Chesapeake_ was not in a condition to
+make any effectual reply, and, after receiving three broadsides, struck
+her flag. Only one of the deserters from the _Halifax_, an Englishman,
+was found on the _Chesapeake_; but three deserters from the British
+warship _Melampus_, which had not been named in Berkeley's order, all
+Americans by birth, were removed from the _Chesapeake_, which was now
+permitted to return to port.[55] Although the British government offered
+reparation for this action, recalled Berkeley, and disavowed the right
+to search ships of war for deserters, the incident could not fail to
+make a bad impression on American opinion.
+
+But still Jefferson adhered to a policy of pacific coercion. In
+December, 1807, the act of April, 1806, was again put into force, and an
+embargo act, passed by the American congress, now cut off all foreign
+countries from trade with the United States. But the policy of embargo
+was disastrous to its promoters. It ruined the commerce and emptied the
+treasury of the United States. On March 1, 1809, a non-intercourse act,
+applying only to France, Great Britain, and their dependencies, was
+substituted for the embargo act.[56] The new act enabled the president
+to remove the embargo against whichever country should cancel its orders
+or decrees against American trade. Three days later Jefferson was
+succeeded by Madison as President of the United States. The change made
+no difference to the policy of the United States government. But the
+opposition was now much stronger and more violent than formerly; so much
+so that Sir James Craig, the Canadian governor, actually despatched a
+spy, John Henry, to sound the willingness of New England, where the
+federalist party was the stronger, to secede from the union and join
+Great Britain against the United States. This venture becomes the less
+surprising when we observe that in the previous year, 1808, John Quincy
+Adams, the future president, had predicted such a secession. Nothing,
+however, came of the attempt. Madison attempted to obtain concessions
+from the British government, but while the Perceval ministry lasted he
+met with no success. In May, 1810, the non-intercourse act expired, but
+a proviso was enacted that, if before March 3, 1811, either Great
+Britain or France should cancel her decrees against American trade the
+act should, three months after such revocation, revive against the power
+that maintained its decrees. Madison was cajoled into believing that
+Napoleon had recalled his decrees on November 1, 1810, and the
+non-intercourse act was accordingly revived against Great Britain and
+her dependencies in February, 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+Almost the first act of the Liverpool administration was to cancel the
+restrictions on American trade. But it was too late. Five days earlier
+the United States had declared war against Great Britain on June 18,
+1812. The explanation of this step must be sought in the party politics
+of the United States. While the federalists courted British alliance,
+the younger members of the republican party had conceived a hope of
+conquering Canada as a result of a victorious war against Great Britain.
+This was the reply of the national party in the United States to the
+action of the Canadian governor. Madison knew the impracticability of
+such a step, but, finding that he could only carry the presidential
+election of 1812 with the support of this section of his party, he
+declared war. Great Britain, with her best troops in the Peninsula, was
+in no condition to use her full strength in America, but the United
+States were entirely unprepared for war. Their treasury was still empty,
+and their army and navy were small, while Canada generally was contented
+and loyal to the British crown. Upper Canada was full of loyalists, who
+had been expelled from the revolted colonies, and who with their
+descendants hated the men that had driven them from their homes; lower
+Canada was half-French and had nothing in common with the United States,
+while the Roman catholic clergy threw the whole weight of their
+influence on the British side. General Hull, who commanded the forces
+employed against Canada, succeeded in crossing the river Detroit in July
+and threatened the British post of Malden. But an alliance with the
+Indians enabled the British first to possess themselves of Mackinac, at
+the junction of lakes Huron and Michigan, and afterwards to imperil
+Hull's communications through the Michigan territory.
+
+Hull accordingly fell back on Detroit. The British, with 750 men under
+Major-General Brock, together with 600 Indians, now prepared to attack
+Hull at that place. Hull, who believed his retreat to be cut off by the
+Indians, did not await the British attack, but surrendered on August 16
+with 2,500 men and thirty-three guns. The effect of the capitulation was
+to place the British in effectual possession, not merely of Detroit, but
+of the territory of Michigan, and thus to render any attack on Canada
+from that quarter extremely difficult. The advantages gained by the
+British through this success were unfortunately neutralised by the
+policy pursued by Sir George Prevost, who had succeeded Craig as
+governor of Canada. Prevost was of opinion that, when the news of the
+withdrawal of the orders in council reached Washington, the United
+States government would be ready to abandon hostilities; and he
+accordingly concluded a provisional armistice with General Dearborn, the
+commander-in-chief of the enemy's forces in the northern states. But
+President Madison, having engaged in war, was anxious to try the effect
+of another attack on Canada before negotiating for peace, and therefore
+declined to ratify the armistice. The interval enabled the United States
+to bring up reinforcements, but their new army failed in an attack on a
+British post on the Maumee river.
+
+Meanwhile a second attempt was made to invade Upper Canada, this time
+from the side of Niagara. On October 13, Brigadier-General Wadsworth,
+acting under the orders of General Van Rensselaer, led an attack on the
+British position of Queenstown on the Canadian bank of the Niagara
+river. Brock commanded the defence, but was killed early in the fight.
+The position was momentarily seized by the enemy, but was presently
+recaptured by the British, who had in the meantime been reinforced by
+Major-General Sheaffe, the son of a loyalist, with a force from Fort
+George, and before the day closed Wadsworth found himself compelled to
+surrender with 900 men. The remainder of the enemy's forces, consisting
+of militia, rather than exceed their military obligations by crossing
+the frontier, chose to leave these men to their fate. In spite of the
+ignominious surrenders with which the first two expeditions against
+Canada had terminated, a third attempt was made by Brigadier-General
+Smyth to force the Canadian frontier; but on November 28 he was repulsed
+with loss by the British under Bishopp between Chippewa and Fort Erie,
+above the Niagara Falls, and at the end of the year the Canadian
+frontier still remained unpierced.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES AT SEA._]
+
+The glory of the British military successes was unfortunately obscured
+in large measure by American successes on the sea. The maritime war
+resolved itself into a series of fights between individual frigates.
+This was the necessary result of the nature of the British force kept in
+American waters. Ever since the renewal of hostilities with France in
+1803 a species of blockade had been maintained along the coast of the
+United States by British vessels on the watch for deserters or
+contraband of war. It was also found necessary to employ ships of war
+to guard against pirates in the West Indies and to protect British
+commerce in that quarter against French privateers. For all these
+purposes speed was of more importance than strength, and the British
+force in the west contained a disproportionate number of smaller vessels
+as compared with line of battle ships. The actual numbers of British
+warships in North American waters at the beginning of 1812 were three
+ships of the line, twenty-one cruisers and frigates, and fifty-three
+small craft. The United States navy was still weaker, and amounted
+merely to seven efficient frigates and nine small craft.[57] There was
+no question of a contest between fleets, and though the numbers of the
+British warships enabled them to destroy American trade, they were ship
+for ship inferior to the American frigates, which were thus enabled to
+win an empty glory in single-ship encounters. The American frigates
+were, in fact, superior in every respect to the British ships which
+nominally belonged to the same class. They were larger and more strongly
+built, a frigate being as strong as a British seventy-four. Their crews
+were more numerous, and were recruited entirely from seamen, about
+one-third of whom would appear to have been of British nationality,
+while, as has been seen, many of them had been decoyed from British
+war-vessels by offers of higher pay. The British ships on the other hand
+were manned largely by landsmen, often impressed from the jails. A false
+economy had induced the British admiralty to impose narrow limits on the
+use of ammunition for gunnery practice. The Americans on the other hand
+were very liberal in this respect, with the result that in the early
+years of the war they were greatly superior to their enemies in point of
+marksmanship.
+
+A good example of the disproportion between the British and American
+frigates is furnished by the fight between the British frigate
+_Guerrière_ and the American frigate _Constitution_, on August 19, one
+of the first naval actions in the war. The _Guerrière_ was armed with
+twenty-four broadside guns, discharging projectiles with a total weight
+of 517 pounds; the _Constitution_ with twenty-eight broadside guns,
+discharging a weight of 768 pounds. The crew of the _Guerrière_,
+counting men only, numbered 244, that of the _Constitution_ with a
+similar limitation 460. Finally the _Guerrière's_ tonnage amounted to
+1,092, as against the _Constitution's_ 1,533. The _Guerrière's_ guns
+proved very ineffectual from the start, while the marksmanship, not only
+of the American gunners but of the riflemen in the _Constitution's_
+tops, was the wonder of the British. It is stated that none of her shot
+fell short. After a fight lasting nearly two hours the _Guerrière_
+surrendered. The ship was a complete wreck, and she had lost fifteen men
+killed and six mortally wounded as against seven killed and three
+mortally wounded on board her opponent.
+
+The effect of the engagement both on British and on American public
+opinion was altogether out of proportion to its intrinsic importance.
+The inequality in strength of the opposing frigates was not understood,
+and any defeat of the mistress of the seas seemed an event of
+considerable significance. The Americans soon met with other similar
+successes. On October 18 their sloop _Wasp_, of eighteen guns, reduced
+the British sloop _Frolic_, a weaker vessel, though of similar armament,
+to a helpless hulk after a ten minutes' cannonade. The moral effect of
+this victory was not impaired by the fact that the conqueror and her
+prize were compelled to surrender a few hours later to the British
+seventy-four _Poictiers_. On the 25th the _United States_, of forty-four
+guns, captured the _Macedonian_, of thirty-eight, after three hours'
+fighting, and on December 29 the British thirty-eight-gun frigate
+_Java_, with a very inexperienced crew, was captured by the
+_Constitution_ after a running fight of three hours and a half.[58]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+With the retreat of the French army from Russia the main scene of
+operations on the continent was shifted from Russia to Germany. Great
+Britain took little part in the actual warfare in Germany, and if she
+had a larger share in the political negotiations which ultimately
+determined the distribution of forces, still Austria and not Great
+Britain was the power whose diplomacy had most effect on the course of
+events. The upheaval of Europe against Napoleon, however, would have
+been much less effective if it had not been supported by English
+subsidies, and Austria, in the crippled state of her finances, would
+probably have had to remain inactive if she had not been able to rely on
+English gold and perhaps still more on English credit.
+
+The campaign of 1813 falls naturally into three parts. During the first,
+from the beginning of January to the latter part of April the victorious
+Russians swept over North Germany, and, carrying the Prussian monarchy
+with them, strengthened a reaction which had already begun against the
+rule of Napoleon. The second part began with the arrival of Napoleon on
+the scene of action towards the end of April and lasted to the
+conclusion of an armistice on June 4. In this period of seven or eight
+weeks the allies were forced to retire at all points and the war was
+carried into Prussian territory. The armistice, which terminated on
+August 10, preceded the opening of the third part of the campaign in
+which Russia and Prussia were joined by Austria and Sweden, and, after
+gradually drawing closer round the main French position in Saxony,
+finally inflicted a crushing defeat upon Napoleon at Leipzig in the
+middle of October. The campaign was virtually over when Napoleon secured
+his retreat by the victory of Hanau on October 30; but it is impossible
+to sever it from the events outside Germany which were directly
+occasioned by the downfall of Napoleon's German domination. These are
+the revolt of Holland in November, that of Switzerland in December, and
+the Austrian attack on Northern Italy in October and November.
+
+In the opening months of the campaign the movements were merely a sequel
+to those of the previous year. The French retreat was continued from the
+Niemen to the Vistula, the Elbe, and finally the Saale. The Russians
+entered Prussia proper a few days after Yorck's capitulation, and the
+French retired before them. Stein, the Prussian statesman who had
+received a commission from Russia to administer the Prussian districts
+occupied by her, ordered the provincial governor to convoke an assembly.
+Although some indignation was felt at such a step being taken by Russian
+orders, the assembly met and voted the formation of the Landwehr. In
+this way Prussia actually began to arm against France, while the
+Prussian government still professed to maintain the French alliance. A
+few days later King Frederick William left Berlin, which was still
+occupied by the French, for Breslau. Before the end of February he had
+concluded the treaty of Kalisch with Russia, by which the two powers
+were to conduct the war against France conjointly, and Russia was not to
+lay down her arms till Prussia should be restored to a strength equal to
+that which she had possessed in 1806. On March 2 Cathcart arrived at
+Kalisch as British ambassador to the Russian court. He actively promoted
+Russia's alliance with Prussia, from which Great Britain stood apart for
+the present. He was able to obtain from Prussia a renunciation of her
+claims on Hanover, but Frederick William was still opposed to any
+increase of Hanoverian territory. On the 17th Prussia declared war on
+France. By that time the Russians had entered both Berlin and Breslau,
+and had freed Hamburg from French dominion, thus reopening Germany to
+British commerce. The declaration of war by Prussia was accompanied by a
+convention with Russia providing for the deliverance of Germany and the
+dissolution of the confederation of the Rhine. This convention embodied
+Stein's policy. It relied on popular support and it aimed at an unified
+government, at least in the territories occupied at that date by
+adherents of France.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+But the popular upheaval in Germany was confined to the kingdom of
+Prussia, and the attempt to spread it elsewhere only provoked distrust
+in Austria and the South German states; it was not until the
+conservative elements in Germany were won over by Metternich's policy
+that the anti-Napoleonic movement became truly national. For the present
+Austria played the part of mediator. Lord Walpole, who had been sent on
+a secret errand to Vienna in December, 1812, tried in vain to win
+Austria to the side of the allies by promising the restoration of the
+Tyrol, Illyria, and Venetia.[59] Her government would probably have
+preferred a reconciliation with France, which would have arrested the
+growth of Russia and left Germany divided, to a unified Germany such as
+Stein desired; but Metternich, who directed her policy, cherished little
+hope of the success of his endeavours, though he knew when to employ
+agents more optimistic than himself. The Austrian treasury was empty,
+and it therefore suited Austria to remain neutral as long as possible,
+while in the event of a doubtful struggle this very neutrality would
+raise the price of her ultimate alliance. It was in this way that she
+came at last to exercise a decisive voice in the resettlement of
+Germany, not to say of Europe. True to this policy, the Austrian court
+concluded a truce of indefinite duration with Russia at the beginning of
+the year, and withdrew its forces within its own borders. This was
+followed by an offer of mediation made to France, which was, however,
+declined. A renewed offer was declined early in April by both France and
+Great Britain. The British still distrusted Austria, while France
+desired to buy her active co-operation and made an offer of Silesia in
+return for an army of 100,000, should Prussia or Russia open
+hostilities. Austria did not, however, abandon her project, but notified
+Prussia and Russia that she would proceed with the task of armed
+mediation, and steadily busied herself with military preparations.
+
+The vigour of the Prussians in recruiting had surprised Napoleon, but
+his own vigour was the marvel of Europe. In spite of the losses of the
+Russian campaign, he was able to take the field at the end of April with
+an army which at the lowest estimate was 200,000 strong. But his
+soldiers were for the most part mere boys, and he was sadly deficient in
+cavalry. The veterans of Austerlitz, of Jena, of Friedland, and of
+Wagram had been recklessly sacrificed on the plains of Russia. He was
+victorious at Lützen on May 2, was joined by the King of Saxony, entered
+Dresden, and thence pushed across the Elbe. On the 21st the victory of
+Bautzen enabled him to advance to the Oder and occupy Breslau. A renewed
+offer of Austrian mediation drew from him a declaration in favour of an
+armistice and a diplomatic congress. On June 4 an armistice was actually
+concluded at Poischwitz to last until August 1, and a neutral zone was
+provided to separate the combatants. On June 7 the demands of Austria
+were presented to Napoleon. They involved the renunciation by France of
+all territorial possessions, and even of a protectorate in Germany, and
+the restoration to Prussia and Austria of most of their lost provinces.
+Napoleon refused these terms, but accepted the mediation of Austria, and
+arranged for a congress which met at Prague in the middle of July. The
+armistice was prolonged till August 10. Both France and Austria were
+merely striving to gain time while they prepared for war, and there can
+be no doubt that the allies profited most by the delay. During the
+interval the news arrived of Wellington's great victory at Vitoria on
+June 21, and Napoleon, recalled to Mainz, occupied himself in arranging
+plans for the defence of the Pyrenees.
+
+During the armistice Prussia and Russia not only greatly reinforced
+their troops, but received valuable assistance from Great Britain,
+Sweden, and above all Austria. Already, on March 3, Great Britain had by
+the treaty of Stockholm given her sanction to the seizure of the whole
+of Norway by Sweden, after a vain attempt to induce Denmark to consent
+to a peaceable cession of the diocese of Trondhjem. At the same time
+Great Britain promised Guadeloupe as a personal gift to Bernadotte, and
+a subsidy of £1,000,000 for the Swedish troops fighting against
+Napoleon. A new treaty between Russia and Sweden on April 22 guaranteed
+the cession of Norway. On June 14 and 15 Cathcart, having at last
+obtained Prussia's consent to an increase in the territories of Hanover,
+signed treaties at Reichenbach with Prussia and Russia, by which Great
+Britain undertook to pay a subsidy of two-thirds of a million pounds to
+the former and a million and a third to the latter power. It was also
+agreed to issue federative paper notes to an extent not exceeding
+£5,000,000 to pay the expenses of the armies of the two powers during
+the year 1813, and Great Britain undertook the responsibility for
+one-half of these notes. Soon afterwards Austria received a promise of a
+loan of £500,000 as soon as she should join the allies. Half of this
+last sum was actually paid within a few days of the resumption of
+hostilities.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG._]
+
+When the armistice expired, French forces were threatening Austria from
+three sides--from Bavaria, Illyria, and Saxony; and Napoleon's intention
+seems to have been to amuse the Austrian court with negotiations until
+he could defeat the Prussian and Russian armies, after which he counted
+upon overwhelming the Austrians with his entire force. The task of
+defeating the Prussians was entrusted to his army in Saxony with which
+Davoût was expected to co-operate from Hamburg, retaken by the French on
+May 30. Austria, however, declared war on France the moment the
+armistice had elapsed, August 12, and the main army of the allies,
+principally composed of Austrians with large Prussian and Russian
+contingents, assembled in Bohemia. Napoleon was opposed in Silesia by an
+army of Prussians and Russians, while Bernadotte, in command of a mixed
+army, consisting mainly of Swedes, Prussians and Russians, but including
+3,000 British troops and 25,000 Hanoverians under Walmoden, operated
+against him from the north. These three armies were eventually able to
+join hands, while Davoût's army, the French armies in Italy and Illyria,
+and 170,000 French troops in various German fortresses were unable to
+render effective aid in the struggle. On August 26-27 Napoleon himself
+won the last of his great victories at Dresden over the main army of the
+allies, while his lieutenants were defeated by the northern army at
+Grossbeeren on August 23, and again at Dennewitz on September 6, and by
+the Silesian army at the Katzbach on August 26. The capitulation of
+Vandamme at Kulm, with some 10,000 men, neutralised Napoleon's victory
+at Dresden, and his enemies were increased by Austrian diplomacy. The
+treaty of Teplitz, concluded on September 9, and accepted by Great
+Britain on October 3, committed the allies to the complete independence
+of the several German states. On the 10th Bavaria renounced the French
+alliance, and on October 8, by the treaty of Ried, she engaged to join
+the allies with 36,000 men, in return for a promise that she should
+suffer no diminution of territory. On the 7th the northern and Silesian
+armies had united west of the Elbe; Napoleon, who had quitted Dresden on
+the 6th and vainly attempted to engage the separate northern army,
+arrived at Leipzig on the 14th. But it was now too late.
+
+On the 16th the allied armies, which had concentrated on Leipzig,
+compelled him to stand at bay, and to risk all upon the fortunes of a
+single battle. This battle, lasting three days, was not only one of the
+greatest but one of the most decisive recorded in modern history, for it
+finally crippled the warlike power of Napoleon, and inevitably
+determined the issue of the campaigns yet to be fought in 1814 and 1815.
+It would appear that Napoleon had under his command about 250,000 men,
+and that he lost at least 50,000 in killed and wounded on the field. The
+allied forces were much larger numerically, and their losses fully
+equalled those of the French. But their victory was crushing. One of its
+immediate results was that Napoleon was forced to abandon Saxony, and
+with it the French cause in Germany. The French garrisons were reduced
+one by one. Of the fortresses east of the Rhine, Hamburg, Kehl,
+Magdeburg, and Wesel alone held out until the conclusion of peace in
+1814. The general rising of Central Europe against French domination
+which followed the battle of Leipzig extended itself to Holland. The
+French were expelled in the middle of November, and on December 2 the
+Prince of Orange was proclaimed sovereign prince of the Netherlands. On
+the 29th the Swiss diet voted the restoration of the old constitution.
+The confederation of the Rhine was practically dissolved, but in Italy
+Napoleon's viceroy, Eugène Beauharnais, after falling back before the
+Austrian army, was able to hold the line of the Adige. On November 9 it
+was decided to offer peace to Napoleon on condition of the surrender of
+all French conquests beyond the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. These
+terms represented the policy of Metternich. The Earl of Aberdeen
+consented to them on behalf of Great Britain and Nesselrode on behalf of
+Russia, but they were not accepted by Napoleon before the date by which
+an answer was required, and the war proceeded. On December 31 the
+Prussians under Blücher crossed the Rhine near Coblenz and opened a new
+campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES._]
+
+Meanwhile the war on the American continent was carried on with varying
+success, though the balance of fortune was rather on the side of the
+United States. The operations were in the main of a desultory character,
+no permanent conquests being made. The first engagement in the year 1813
+was at Frenchtown on the Raisin River in Michigan, where Colonel
+Proctor, commanding 500 regulars and militia, and 600 Indians, defeated
+an American force of 1,000 under Brigadier-General Winchester, and took
+500 prisoners, while many of the remaining Americans fell into the hands
+of the Indians. The immediate effect of this victory was that General
+Harrison, who was leading an American force of 2,000 men against
+Detroit, determined to retrace his steps. Three months later Proctor
+made a descent upon an American position on the Maumee River in the
+north of the State of Ohio. After besieging the enemy for a few days he
+was compelled to retire, but, before he left, an engagement took place
+on May 5, in which the British forces, with a total loss of less than
+100, inflicted severe losses on their opponents and made about 500
+prisoners. A subsequent attempt to capture Fort Sandusky, near the head
+of Lake Erie, was repulsed on August 2; ninety out of 350 British troops
+were returned as killed, wounded or missing.
+
+The British had hitherto commanded the lakes, but Commodore Perry now
+occupied himself in building a fleet at Presqu'isle in Pennsylvania on
+the coast of Lake Erie. Commander Barclay, in command of such ships as
+the British possessed, was badly supported and encountered the same
+difficulties in obtaining seamen as had been experienced for the
+sea-going ships. The ships in the service of the United States were in
+consequence again the more powerful and the better manned. On September
+10 the two squadrons engaged. The British had six vessels with a
+broadside of 459 lb., while the enemy had nine vessels with a broadside
+of 928 lb. With such odds the result could not be doubtful, and the
+whole British squadron was compelled to surrender. This success enabled
+the enemy to strike with effect at the south-western end of Lower
+Canada. The British immediately evacuated the whole territory of
+Michigan with the exception of Mackinac; and Proctor, now raised to the
+rank of major-general, commenced a retreat in the direction of Lake
+Ontario. On October 5 he was attacked at Moraviantown on the Thames by
+Harrison, and the greater part of his forces were captured in an
+engagement which reflected small credit on British generalship. The
+remainder of his forces reached Burlington Heights, at the west end of
+Lake Ontario, but the whole country to the west of the Grand River had
+to be abandoned to the enemy.
+
+On Lake Ontario the fortune of war was more equally divided. The
+Americans had been gradually collecting a naval squadron at Sackett's
+Harbour and had gained command of the lake as early as November, 1812.
+The command was, however, precarious, since it might be disturbed by the
+arrival or construction of new warships. One such was building at York,
+now known as Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, when, on April 27,
+1813, the American squadron under Commodore Chauncey attacked the town
+and succeeded in landing a detachment of troops under General Dearborn.
+The British general, Sheaffe, withdrew his regular forces from the town
+without awaiting an assault, but not before he had destroyed the ship of
+which the enemy were in quest. The Americans captured some naval stores,
+but did not attempt to hold the town; they set an evil precedent,
+however, by burning the parliament house and other public buildings
+before evacuating the place. On May 27 Chauncey co-operated again with
+Dearborn in an attack on Fort George, the capture of which threw the
+whole line of the Niagara into American hands. On the same day Prevost,
+whose naval strength had been reinforced, availing himself of Chauncey's
+absence, made an attack on Sackett's Harbour. The attack, which was
+renewed on the 29th, was miserably conducted, and ended in failure,
+though the Americans were compelled to burn the naval stores captured at
+York. The reinforcements had, however, transferred to the British the
+command of the lake, which was not challenged again till the end of
+July. Meanwhile their land forces were not idle. On June 6 the Americans
+were surprised by Colonel Vincent at Burlington Heights and over 100
+prisoners, including two brigadier-generals, were taken. This defeat,
+combined with the approach of the British naval squadron under Sir James
+Yeo, induced Dearborn to abandon his other posts on the Canadian side of
+the Niagara and to concentrate at Fort George, but on the 24th another
+surprise ended in the surrender of a detachment of more than 500
+Americans to a force of fifty British troops and 240 Indians. By the end
+of July Chauncey's squadron was once more strong enough to put to sea.
+It raided York on the 31st, but did not venture to join battle with Yeo;
+though a skirmish on August 10 enabled Yeo to capture two schooners.
+
+Meanwhile on the frontier of Lower Canada the British were everywhere
+successful. On June 3 two American sloops attacked the British garrison
+of Isle-aux-noix at the north end of Lake Champlain. Both ships were
+compelled to surrender. On August 1 a British force raided Plattsburg
+and destroyed the barracks and military stores. A combined movement on
+Montreal was now made by the forces of the United States; it was mainly
+owing to the loyalty of the French Canadians that they were repulsed.
+General Hampton advancing from the south with a force 7,000 strong was
+defeated at the river Chateauguay on October 26, by 900 men belonging to
+the Canadian militia, commanded by Colonel McDonnell and Colonel de
+Salaberry. The defeated general withdrew his troops into winter quarters
+at Plattsburg. Not long after, on December 7, the American general
+Wilkinson who had sailed down the St. Lawrence to Prescott and was
+marching towards Cornwall, was defeated with heavy loss by Colonel
+Morrison at Chrystler's Farm, and made no further attempt on Canada. In
+the same month General McClure, who commanded at Fort George, retired to
+the eastern bank of the Niagara before Colonel Murray's advance. His
+retreat was disgraced by the burning of the town of Newark, where women
+and children were turned homeless into the cold of a Canadian winter. At
+the same time the American forces were withdrawn from south-western
+Canada but still retained Amherstburg at the head of Lake Erie, the sole
+conquest of the campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVAL WARFARE._]
+
+The naval warfare of 1813 was less rich in individual encounters than
+that of 1812. The British captains were better acquainted with the
+strength of the American ships and did not rashly engage vessels
+stronger than their own. There was also a marked improvement in British
+gunnery, and an increase in the strength of the British naval force in
+American waters. At first the blockade of the American coast had not
+been strictly maintained further south than New York, but as
+reinforcements arrived it was made more complete, and after June of this
+year it was only occasionally that any warship or privateer contrived to
+elude the blockading vessels. Meanwhile the British constantly raided
+and harassed the American coast, and had no difficulty in availing
+themselves of the Chesapeake and Delaware estuaries as naval bases. A
+new feature of this year's warfare was the appearance of American
+cruisers, especially privateers, in British waters, and even in the St.
+George's Channel. To such ships the French ports were a very serviceable
+naval base. The Americans would appear to have captured more of British
+commerce than the British captured of theirs, but this was no
+compensation for the almost complete cessation of their foreign trade.
+Of single ship actions the destruction of the British _Peacock_ by the
+American _Hornet_, commanded by Captain Lawrence, on February 24, the
+capture of the American _Argus_ by the British _Pelican_ not far from
+the Welsh coast on August 14, and the famous duel between the
+_Chesapeake_ and the _Shannon_ on June 1 were the most important.
+
+The British frigate _Shannon_ (38) was commanded by Captain Broke, who
+was famous not merely for the attention he paid to gun practice, but for
+the care he had bestowed on the laying of his ship's ordnance. Ever
+since the beginning of April the frigates _Shannon_ and _Tenedos_ (38)
+had been lying off Boston, where they hoped to intercept any American
+frigate that dared to leave the harbour. Two succeeded in eluding them.
+The _Chesapeake_ frigate (36) commanded by Lawrence, lay in the harbour;
+and Broke, having detached the _Tenedos_ in order to tempt her out, sent
+a challenge to Lawrence on the morning of June 1, but before it could be
+delivered the _Chesapeake_ had sailed. She steered for the _Shannon_,
+who waited for her. The fight began at 5.50 P.M. about six leagues out
+from Boston; it was brief and bloody. After ten minutes' firing the
+_Chesapeake_ fell on board the _Shannon_, and was immediately boarded.
+In four minutes more every man on board had surrendered. In this short
+fight the _Shannon_ had lost out of a crew of 352 twenty-four killed and
+fifty-nine wounded, two of the latter mortally, while the _Chesapeake_,
+according to American official figures, had lost out of 386 forty-seven
+killed and ninety-nine wounded (fourteen of the latter mortally). No
+fewer than thirty-two British deserters were found on board the
+_Chesapeake_. The victory made the best possible impression. The two
+ships had been of approximately equal strength, the American having a
+slight superiority of force, and the _Chesapeake_ had been captured in
+the way in which most turns on individual courage, by boarding. Both
+captains had distinguished themselves in the fight, and both were
+severely wounded, Lawrence, as the event proved, fatally.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAMPAIGN IN FRANCE._]
+
+The abandonment of Germany by the French at the close of 1813 left the
+outlying provinces and allies of France exposed to invasion. The
+Austrian general, Nugent, aided by British naval and military forces,
+captured Trieste on October 31. Dalmatia had been invaded by the
+Montenegrins as early as September, 1813, and was afterwards attacked by
+Austrians and British marines, but the town of Cattaro held out till it
+was taken by the British in January, 1814. On the 14th of the same
+month Denmark was compelled by the treaty of Kiel to cede Norway to
+Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania and Rügen, Sweden undertaking
+to assist Denmark in procuring a fuller equivalent for Norway at the
+conclusion of a general peace. A treaty signed between Denmark and Great
+Britain at the same time and place provided for the restitution to
+Denmark of all British conquests, with the exception of Heligoland,
+while Denmark undertook to do all in her power for the abolition of the
+slave trade. The people of Norway and their governor, Prince Christian
+of Denmark, refused to submit to the transference of their allegiance,
+and on February 19 the independence of Norway was proclaimed. At first
+the Swedish government attempted to obtain the submission of Norway by
+negotiation only, but so important a diversion of her interest and
+energies was sufficient to prevent Sweden from joining in the new
+campaign against France. In Italy on January 11 Napoleon's
+brother-in-law, Murat, whom he had made King of Naples in 1808, formed
+an alliance with Austria. The treaty was never confirmed by Great
+Britain, but the British government subsequently consented to support
+Murat, if he should loyally exert himself in Italy against Napoleon's
+forces. Although Murat did actually engage in hostilities against the
+French, the British were far from satisfied with his operations and
+considered that his remissness left them a free hand. Accordingly on
+March 9 a British fleet entered the port of Leghorn and landed 8,000
+men, of whom Lord William Bentinck took command. From Leghorn he marched
+upon Genoa which surrendered to him on April 18.
+
+Meanwhile the main forces of the allies were concentrated for a campaign
+against Napoleon in Champagne. Of the three armies which had combined at
+Leipzig the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenberg made its way through
+Switzerland, Alsace, and Franche-Comté, while Blücher's army of
+Prussians and Russians passed through the region which afterwards became
+the Rhine province and Lorraine. The two armies united in the
+neighbourhood of Brienne in Champagne. Bernadotte's army did not as a
+whole take part in the campaign; but a portion of it, consisting of
+Russians under Wittgenstein and Prussians under Bülow, was engaged in
+the conquest of Belgium and was able to invade France itself later in
+the year. Schwarzenberg's army was accompanied by the Emperors of
+Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and the leading European
+diplomatists, including Castlereagh. From the outset there was a marked
+difference between the Austrian and Russian policies. Metternich was
+content with reducing France to the natural frontiers already offered to
+her, and aimed merely at compelling Napoleon to recognise the _fait
+accompli_ in Germany, and to evacuate Italy and Spain. He was therefore
+in favour of slow advances and of giving Napoleon every opportunity for
+coming to terms. The tsar, on the other hand, wished to reduce France to
+her ancient limits, and was anxious to enter Paris as a conqueror. He
+also excited Austrian jealousy by his scheme of annexing what had been
+Prussian Poland, and compensating Prussia with Saxony. Castlereagh and
+the Prussian minister, Hardenberg, supported the tsar's policy towards
+France, but without sharing his ardour.
+
+On the first arrival of the allies in Champagne the tsar had only
+induced Metternich to advance by threatening to prosecute the war alone.
+After they had gained what appeared to be a decisive victory over
+Napoleon at La Rothière on February 1, negotiations were commenced at
+Châtillon. Napoleon insisted on continuing the war during the
+negotiations and interposed every possible delay. The allies first
+demanded that France should recede within the limits of 1791 and offered
+a partial restoration of French colonies, but refused to specify the
+colonies which they were willing to relinquish until France should
+accept the first condition. To this the French demurred, and on the 9th
+the tsar impetuously withdrew his minister. From the 10th to the 14th
+Napoleon inflicted a series of crushing blows upon Blücher's army.
+Negotiations were now resumed; they lasted till the middle of March, but
+as Napoleon would not surrender his claim to Belgium and the Rhine
+provinces they were fruitless, notwithstanding the pacific efforts of
+Caulaincourt, the French negotiator. On the 21st Napoleon tried in vain
+to detach Austria from the allies by a private letter to the Emperor
+Francis, and on March 1 a permanent basis was given to the alliance by
+the treaty of Chaumont (definitely signed on the 9th), by which the four
+allied powers bound themselves to conclude no separate peace, and not to
+lay down their arms till the object of the war should have been obtained
+by the restriction of France to her ancient frontiers. Each power was
+to maintain 150,000 men regularly in the field, and Great Britain was to
+pay the three other powers a subsidy of £5,000,000 for the current year
+and a like sum for every subsequent year of warfare. The signatory
+powers were to maintain their present concert and armaments for twenty
+years if necessary.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S FIRST ABDICATION._]
+
+After this treaty on March 4 Blücher united with Wittgenstein and Bülow
+near Soissons. On the 20th Napoleon was repulsed by Schwarzenberg's army
+at Arcis-sur-Aube, after which he attempted to cut off its
+communications by a movement to its rear. In consequence of this
+movement the allied armies advanced on Paris, while the Austrian emperor
+fled to Dijon taking Castlereagh and Metternich with him.[60] This left
+the war to be concluded under the influence of the most vigorous of the
+allied sovereigns, the Tsar of Russia. Paris capitulated on the 30th and
+on the next day was occupied by the allies. The tsar now issued "on
+behalf of all the allied powers" a proclamation in which he declared
+that they would not treat with Napoleon or his family, but were willing
+to respect the integrity of France, and to guarantee the constitution
+that the French people should adopt. This prepared the way for a
+reaction against Napoleon in France. A provisional government was formed
+on April 1; on the 3rd the French senate proclaimed the deposition of
+Napoleon, and on the 6th it published a constitution, and recalled the
+Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII., the younger brother of Louis
+XVI. On the same day Napoleon signed an unconditional abdication at
+Fontainebleau. On the 11th a treaty was signed between Napoleon and the
+sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by which he renounced all
+claim to the crowns of France and Italy, and was assigned the Isle of
+Elba as an independent principality and a place of residence, together
+with a liberal revenue charged on the French treasury, which, however,
+was never paid. The duchy of Parma was secured to the Empress Maria
+Louisa and was to descend to her son. The treaty was afterwards
+confirmed by Great Britain, with the exception of the clauses providing
+revenues for the fallen emperor and his family. The promise of Elba had
+been made by the tsar in the absence of Castlereagh and Metternich. It
+was vigorously opposed by Castlereagh's half-brother, Sir Charles
+Stewart, but the tsar considered his honour bound to it, and Napoleon
+sailed from Fréjus for Elba on the 28th.
+
+In America the war was conducted with more vigour in 1814 than in
+previous years, but with equally small effect on either side. In March
+the American general, Wilkinson, advancing from Lake Champlain, was
+repulsed by a small British garrison at La Colle Mill. In July an
+American army under Brown invaded Upper Canada across the river Niagara.
+It was attacked by General Riall, near Chippewa, on the 5th, but it
+repelled the attack and occupied that place. Brown was, however, checked
+by British regulars and Canadian militia under Sir Gordon Drummond at
+Lundy's Lane, near Niagara Falls, on the 25th. Both sides claim the
+victory, but on the reinforcement of the British troops Brown abandoned
+the invasion. After the close of the Peninsular war some of the best
+regiments of the Peninsular army, numbering about 14,000 men, were sent
+to America. But they were not commanded by any of the generals who had
+made their names illustrious in that war, and did not effect so much as
+had been expected. On August 19 and 20 General Ross landed with 5,000
+men at the mouth of the Patuxent in Chesapeake Bay. On the 24th he
+defeated a large body of militia under General Winder at Bladensburg,
+and occupied Washington, where he burned all the public buildings.
+However deplorable such an act may seem, it is well to note that it was
+a fair and even merciful reprisal after the action of the Americans at
+York and Newark. Ross did not attempt to retain the city, but evacuated
+it on the next day and re-embarked on the 30th. On September 12 he
+landed near Baltimore, but was immediately killed in an attack on the
+town. The attack had to be abandoned because it proved impossible to
+obtain adequate support from the fleet, and the troops returned to the
+ships on the 15th.
+
+On September 1 Prevost invaded New York State by Lake Champlain. He
+advanced against Plattsburg, which he bombarded on the 11th, but his
+flotilla was defeated by an American flotilla during the bombardment,
+and he felt himself compelled to retreat into Canada. At the end of the
+year Sir Edward Pakenham took command of a force operating against New
+Orleans, but on January 8, 1815, he was defeated and killed by the
+American forces under the future president, Andrew Jackson. No
+expedition was ever worse planned than this; the veterans of the
+Peninsula were mowed down by a withering fire, and, losing confidence in
+their leaders, forfeited their reputation for invincible courage in
+attack. The fighting, however, was desperate while it lasted, and was
+compared by one engaged in it with the storm of Badajoz, and the deadly
+charges at Waterloo. It was but a small compensation for these failures
+that the British were able to annex a strip of territory belonging to
+the State of Maine. On the sea no general engagement took place, nor was
+there any naval duel so famous as that between the _Shannon_ and the
+_Chesapeake_ in the previous year. The Americans lost two of their best
+frigates, but, with crews largely composed of British sailors, captured
+several British ships of war.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF GHENT._]
+
+As early as January, 1814, advances had been made towards negotiations
+for peace, but they were not actually begun till August 6. In the course
+of a few days a serious difficulty arose, as the British commissioners
+demanded the delimitation of an Indian territory which should be exempt
+from territorial acquisitions on the part of either power, and also
+claimed the military occupation of the lakes for their own government.
+The Americans thereupon suspended the negotiations, and Castlereagh
+expressed grave discontent with the conduct of the British negotiators
+in pressing these points. Late in the year negotiations were resumed,
+when the British abandoned these claims. The far more comprehensive
+questions about the rights of neutrals, which had occasioned the war,
+had ceased to be of practical importance now that peace was restored in
+Europe. They were therefore, by tacit consent, suffered to drop, and a
+treaty signed at Ghent on December 24, 1814, ended a war of which the
+Canadians alone had reason to be proud.
+
+The most dramatic incident in the domestic annals of England in this
+year was the visit of the allied sovereigns to this country, after their
+triumphal entry into Paris, and the signature of a convention, to be
+described hereafter, for the resettlement of Europe. Louis XVIII. left
+his retreat at Hartwell on April 20, and reached his capital on May 3
+to find it occupied by foreign armies, and to discover that his French
+escort, composed of Napoleon's old guard, was of doubtful loyalty. On
+July 8 the Tsar of Russia and the King of Prussia, having accepted an
+invitation from the prince regent, which the Emperor of Austria
+declined, landed at Dover, and were afterwards received with the utmost
+enthusiasm in London. Their appearance betokened the supposed
+termination of the greatest, and almost the longest, war recorded in
+European history, but it was also accepted as a tribute of gratitude for
+the unique services rendered by Great Britain, the only European power
+which had never bowed the knee to the French Republic or the French
+Empire. They attended Ascot races, were feasted at the Guildhall,
+witnessed a naval review at Portsmouth, and were decorated with honorary
+degrees at Oxford, where Blücher was the hero of the day with the
+younger members of the university. There were men of calmer minds and
+maturer age, who must have remembered the time, but seven years before,
+when Alexander swore eternal friendship with Napoleon, on the basis of
+enmity to Great Britain, and Frederick William of Prussia shrunk from no
+depths of dishonour, first to aggrandise his kingdom and then to save
+the remnants of it from destruction. Others foresaw that a restoration
+of the Bourbons portended reaction, in its worst sense, throughout all
+the continent of Europe. But such memories and forebodings were hushed
+in the sincere and general rejoicing over the return of peace, marred by
+no suspicion of the new trials and privations which peace itself was
+destined to bring with it for the working classes of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[53] See p. 105.
+
+[54] George, _Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_, p. 33.
+
+[55] James, _British Naval History_, iv., 470-84.
+
+[56] See above, p. 58.
+
+[57] See _Cambridge Modern History_, vii., 336, 338.
+
+[58] For details of the naval warfare of this year see James, _British
+Naval History_, vi., 115-202.
+
+[59] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 372.
+
+[60] For the importance of this flight of the Emperor Francis see Rose,
+_Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 418, 425. The flight did not take place till
+after the advance on Paris was begun.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+                          VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+
+After the restoration of Louis XVIII. as a constitutional king, the
+treaty of Paris between France and the allied powers was signed on May
+30, 1814. The treaty amounted to a settlement in outline of those
+territorial questions in Europe in which France was concerned, and aimed
+mainly at the construction of a strong barrier to resist further
+encroachments by France on her neighbours. The French boundaries were to
+coincide generally with the limits of French territory on January 1,
+1792, but with certain additions. The principle adopted was that France
+should retain certain detached pieces of foreign states within her own
+frontier (such as Mühlhausen, Montbéliard, and the Venaissin), while the
+line of frontier was extended so as to include certain detached
+fragments belonging to France before 1792, such as Landau, Mariembourg,
+and Philippeville, as well as Western Savoy with Chambéry for its
+capital. She was moreover allowed to regain all her colonies except the
+Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago. The Spanish portion of San Domingo was
+restored to the Spanish government. Holland was placed under the
+sovereignty of the house of Orange, and was to receive an increase of
+territory; so much of Italy as was not to be ceded to Austria was to
+consist of independent sovereign states; and Germany was to be formed
+into a confederation. Finally an European congress was to meet at Vienna
+in two months' time "to regulate the arrangements necessary for
+completing the dispositions of the treaty". At the same time secret
+articles provided that the disposition of territories was to be
+controlled at Vienna by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia;
+that Austria, was to receive Venice and Lombardy as far as the Ticino;
+and that the former territories of Genoa were to be annexed to
+Sardinia, and the late Austrian Netherlands to Holland.
+
+In the midst of the general restoration of legitimate princes
+difficulties were occasioned by the exceptional cases in which
+territories were reserved for the new dynasties that had arisen during
+the Napoleonic wars. France, Spain, and Sicily objected to the retention
+of the kingdom of Naples by Murat, Spain resented the cession of Parma
+to the Bonapartes, and Norway was in revolt against the attempt to
+subjugate it to the king of Sweden and his heir Marshal Bernadotte. The
+Norwegian government under Prince Christian vainly endeavoured to secure
+the British recognition of the independence of Norway. The British
+government, on the contrary, held itself bound to support the claims of
+Sweden, and on April 29 notified a blockade of the Norwegian ports,
+which was promptly carried into effect. Meanwhile a new constitution was
+promulgated in Norway, and Prince Christian was proclaimed king. While
+the British maintained the blockade Sweden attempted to gain its ends by
+negotiation. At last, on July 30, the Swedes invaded Norway. After some
+Swedish successes a convention was signed at Moss on August 14, which
+recognised the new Norwegian constitution, but provided for a personal
+union of the crowns of Sweden and Norway. This constitution was accepted
+by Charles XIII. of Sweden in the following November, and Norway
+retained almost complete independence, though united to Sweden.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SLAVE TRADE._]
+
+Among the last acts of Napoleon's government had been the release and
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. of Spain and of Pope Pius VII. Ferdinand,
+supported by the vast mass of Spanish opinion, declared against the
+rather unpractical constitution established in his absence, and entered
+Madrid as an absolute king on May 14. One of his first acts was the
+revival of the inquisition. There was some apprehension among British
+representatives lest the two restored Bourbon monarchies should renew
+the family compact, and also lest they should attempt to assert the
+Bourbon claims to Naples and Parma. Sir Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord
+Cowley, was, however, successful in negotiating a treaty of alliance
+between Great Britain and Spain, which made provision against any
+renewal of the family compact, restored the commercial relations of the
+two countries to the footing on which they had been before 1796, and
+promised the future consideration of means to be adopted for the
+suppression of the slave trade. Spain was in fact too dependent on
+British credit to be able to adopt a line of her own in politics. But
+the hold which Great Britain had thus gained over Spain was somewhat
+weakened by the British attitude towards the slave trade.
+
+It is remarkable how large a space the abolition of the slave trade
+occupied in the foreign policy of Great Britain, when the liberties of
+Europe were at stake. During the months preceding the meeting of the
+congress of Vienna, which had been postponed till September by the tsar,
+British diplomacy had been engaged in a strenuous effort to obtain the
+co-operation of such European powers as possessed American colonies in
+securing this philanthropic object. Sweden had already consented to it,
+and now Holland also gave her consent. Portugal agreed to relinquish the
+trade north of the equator, on condition that the other powers consented
+to impose a similar restriction on themselves. Strong pressure was
+brought to bear upon France to consent to the immediate abolition of the
+trade, and Wellington, who had been created a duke in May and who
+arrived at Paris in August in the capacity of British ambassador, was
+authorised by Liverpool to offer the cession of Trinidad or the payment
+of two or three million pounds to obtain this end. By the treaty of
+Paris only French subjects were allowed to trade in slaves with the
+French colonies, and French subjects were excluded from trading
+elsewhere; and the whole trade was to cease within French dominions
+after five years. Talleyrand, negotiating with Wellington, refused to
+consent to a general abolition, but, on being pressed to surrender the
+slave trade north of the equator, consented to abandon it to the north
+of Cape Formoso. In the following year Napoleon on his return from Elba
+ordered its immediate suppression, and this was not the least
+significant act of the Hundred Days. With Spain our diplomatists were
+less successful. The British government refused to renew its subsidy to
+Spain for the last half of 1814 except on condition that Spain
+relinquished the slave trade north of the equator at once, and consented
+to relinquish that south of the equator in five years' time; while it
+would not issue a loan except on condition that Spain abolished the
+whole trade immediately. Even these terms did not prevail with Spain,
+and the most that she would grant at the congress was to relinquish the
+trade at the conclusion of eight years.
+
+Meanwhile Talleyrand was endeavouring to induce Great Britain to combine
+with France in a joint mediation between Austria and Russia at the
+congress, in the event of Russia demanding the duchy of Warsaw.
+Wellington, while expressing himself in favour of an understanding,
+refused to accept anything which might seem equivalent to a declaration
+in favour of mediation by the two powers in every case. At the congress
+itself Great Britain was first represented by Castlereagh, who was
+succeeded in February, 1815, by Wellington. The two principal
+difficulties were the questions of Poland and Saxony. The tsar desired
+to erect the duchy of Warsaw, Prussia's share in the two partitions of
+Poland in 1793 and 1795, into a constitutional monarchy attached to the
+Russian crown, while Prussia, though not unwilling to resign her claims
+to Polish dominion, wished to increase her territory by the
+incorporation of Saxony in her monarchy. Austria was naturally averse
+from any increase of strength in the states on her northern borders, and
+she was also opposed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy
+in Poland which might serve as a centre for political discontent in her
+own dominions. Even France urged this objection to a constitutional
+Poland. Great Britain alone was willing to see an independent Poland,
+but preferred to join France, Prussia, and Austria in demanding its
+repartition between the two latter powers rather than its annexation to
+Russia. All through October Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia
+endeavoured to induce the tsar to withdraw his demand. Early in November
+he won over the King of Prussia to whom he promised the kingdom of
+Saxony, proposing to indemnify the Saxon king with a new state on that
+lower Rhine which France was not allowed to have, but which no other
+power desired.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE RETURN OF NAPOLEON._]
+
+It was no longer possible to resist Russia's claims on Poland, but
+Austria was determined not to allow Prussia to receive the proffered
+compensation. On December 10 Metternich notified the Prussian minister,
+Hardenberg, that he would not allow Prussia to annex more than a fifth
+part of Saxony. Great Britain, France, Bavaria, and the minor German
+states joined Austria in this action, and thus the attempt to effect a
+settlement of Europe by a concert of the four allied powers broke down.
+On January 3, 1815, a secret treaty was concluded between Austria,
+France, and Great Britain in defence of what their diplomatists called
+"the principles of the peace of Paris". Each of these powers was to be
+prepared, if necessary, to place an army of 50,000 men in the field.
+Bavaria joined them in their preparations for war, and many of the
+troops which occupied Paris in 1815 would have been disbanded or
+dispersed, but for the prospect of a rupture between the allies
+themselves. But a compromise was soon arranged, and on February 8 it was
+agreed that Cracow, the Polish fortress which threatened Austria most,
+should be an independent republic, and that Prussia should retain enough
+of Western Poland to round off her dominions, while the remainder of the
+duchy of Warsaw became a constitutional kingdom under the tsar. Prussia
+was to be allowed to annex part of Saxony, and was to receive a further
+compensation on the left bank of the Rhine and in Westphalia. The most
+thorny questions were now settled, and Castlereagh had left Vienna when
+the congress was electrified by the news that Napoleon had reappeared in
+France.
+
+The episode of "the Hundred Days" interrupted, but did not break up, the
+councils of the congress at Vienna. It cannot be said that Napoleon's
+escape from Elba took the negotiators altogether by surprise. They were
+already aware of his correspondence with the neighbouring shores of
+Italy, and his removal to St Helena or some other distant island had
+been proposed by the French government, though never discussed at the
+congress. Sir Neil Campbell, the British commissioner at Elba, had gone
+so far as to warn his government of Napoleon's suspected "plan," and to
+indicate, though erroneously, the place of his probable descent upon the
+Italian coast. Owing to an almost incredible want of precaution, he
+embarked on February 26 with the least possible disguise, and
+accompanied by 400 of his guards, on board his brig the _Inconstant_,
+eluded the observation of two French ships, and landed near Cannes on
+March 1. Thence he hastened across the mountains to Grenoble, passing
+unmolested, and sometimes welcomed, through districts where his life had
+been threatened but a few months before. The commandant of Grenoble was
+prepared to resist his further progress, but a heart-stirring appeal
+from Napoleon induced a regiment detached to oppose him to join his
+standard, and the rest of the garrison was brought over by Colonel
+Labedoyère, one of the officers who had conspired to bring him back.
+Thence he proceeded to Lyons, issuing decrees, scattering proclamations,
+and gathering followers at every stage. He was lavish of promises, not
+perhaps wholly insincere, that he would adopt constitutional
+government--already established by the charter of Louis XVIII.--and
+cease to wage aggressive wars. He relied unduly on the discontent
+provoked by the blind partisans of the Bourbons, who, it was said, had
+learned nothing and forgotten nothing. This was true, if the spirit of
+the restoration were to be measured by the parade of expiatory masses
+for the execution of royalists under the revolution, the ostentatious
+patronage of priests, the preference of returned _émigrés_ to well-tried
+servants of the republic and the empire, or the anticipated expulsion of
+landowners in possession of "national domains" for the purpose of
+dividing them among their old proprietors. All this naturally
+exasperated those who had imbibed the principles of the revolution, but
+it was more than compensated in the eyes of millions of Frenchmen by the
+cessation of conscription and the infinite blessings of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _"THE HUNDRED DAYS."_]
+
+The king was amongst the least infatuated of the royalists. On hearing
+of Napoleon's proclamation, he had the sense to appreciate the danger of
+such a bid for sovereignty and the magic of such a name, while his
+courtiers regarded Napoleon's enterprise as the last effort of a madman.
+He addressed the chamber of deputies in confident and dignified
+language; the Duke of Angoulême was employed to rouse the royalist party
+at Bordeaux; the Duke of Bourbon was sent into Brittany, the Count of
+Artois, with the Duke of Orléans and Marshal Macdonald, visited Lyons,
+upon the attitude of which everything, for the moment, seemed to depend.
+Most of the marshals remained faithful to the restored monarchy, and Ney
+was selected to bar the progress of Napoleon in Burgundy, and has been
+credited with a vow that he would bring him back in an iron cage. But it
+was all in vain. The Count of Artois was loyally received by the
+officials and upper classes at Lyons, but he soon found that Napoleon
+possessed the hearts of the soldiers and the mass of the people. Ney
+yielded to urgent appeals from his old chief, signed and read to his
+troops a proclamation drawn up by Napoleon himself, and was followed in
+his treason by his whole army. As Napoleon approached Paris, all armed
+opposition to him melted away. On March 19, Louis XVIII., seeing that
+his cause was hopeless, proclaimed a dissolution of the chambers, and
+retired once more into exile, fixing his residence at Ghent.
+
+Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries on the 20th, after a journey which he
+afterwards described as the happiest in his life. But his penetrating
+mind was not deceived by the manifestations of popular joy. He well knew
+that he was distrusted by the middle classes, as well as by the
+aristocracy, and threw himself more and more on the sympathy of the old
+revolutionists. When he came to fill up the higher offices, he met with
+a strange reluctance to accept them, and was driven to enlist the
+services of two regicides, the virtuous republican, Carnot, and the
+double-dyed traitor Fouché. Feeling the necessity of resting his power
+on a democratic basis, he promulgated a constitution modelled on the
+charter of Louis XVIII., and known as the _Acte Additionnel_, which,
+however, satisfied no one. The royalists objected to its anti-feudal
+spirit, the revolutionists and moderates to its express recognition of
+an hereditary peerage, and its tacit recognition of a dictatorial power.
+It was by no means with a light heart that Napoleon took leave of Paris
+on June 7, having appointed a provisional government, to place himself
+at the head of his army.
+
+Attempts had been made in the southern provinces and La Vendée to
+organise armed rebellion against the emperor, and met for a time with
+considerable success. But they were soon quelled by the overwhelming
+imperialism not only of the regular army, but of vast numbers of
+disbanded soldiers and half-pay officers, dispersed throughout France,
+and disgusted with their treatment under the restored monarchy. Even
+among the _bourgeoisie_ Napoleon had an advantage which he never
+possessed before. Disguise it as he might, all his former wars had been
+essentially wars of conquest, and, however patiently they might endure
+it, the peasantry of France, in thousands upon thousands of humble
+cottages, groaned under the exaction of crushing taxes--worst of all,
+the blood-tax of conscription--in order to enable one man, in the name
+of France, to usurp the empire of the world. Now, however, as in the
+early days of the revolution, France was put on its defence, and called
+upon to repel an invasion of its frontiers. For the news of Napoleon's
+escape, announced by Talleyrand on March 11, instantly stilled the
+quarrels and rebuked the jealousies which had so nearly proved fatal to
+any settlement at Vienna. For the moment, the designs of Russia in
+Poland, the selfish demands of Prussia, and the half-formed coalition
+between Great Britain, France, and Austria, were thrust into the
+background. Austria thought it necessary to repudiate decisively the
+audaciously false assertion of Napoleon that he was returning with the
+concurrence of his father-in-law, and would shortly be supported by
+Austrian troops. Metternich, therefore, assumed the lead in drawing up a
+solemn manifesto, dated March 13, in which Napoleon was virtually
+declared an outlaw "abandoned to public justice," and the powers which
+had signed the treaty of Paris in the preceding May bound themselves, in
+the face of Europe, to carry out all its provisions and defend the king
+of France, if need be, against his own rebellious subjects.
+
+By a further convention made at the end of March, they engaged to
+provide forces exceeding 700,000 men in the aggregate, to be
+concentrated on the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine, and the Low Countries,
+with an immense reserve of Russians to be rapidly moved across Germany
+from Poland. Wellington having succeeded Castlereagh at Vienna, was
+appointed to command the British, Hanoverian, and Belgian contingents on
+the north-east frontier of France; Blücher's headquarters were to be on
+the Lower Rhine, within easy reach of that frontier; for, whichever side
+might take the offensive, it was there that the first shock of war might
+be expected. The recent conclusion of peace with America at Ghent on
+December 24, 1814, left England free to use her whole military power.
+Enormous sums were voted by Parliament, with a rare approach to
+unanimity, for the equipment of a British army, and a sum of £5,000,000
+for subsidies to the allied powers. A small section of the opposition
+led by Whitbread opposed the renewal of war. On April 7 he moved an
+amendment to the address in reply to the prince regent's message
+announcing that measures for the security of Europe were being concerted
+with the allies, but he was only supported by 32 votes against 220. On
+April 28 his motion for an address to the prince regent, deprecating
+war with Napoleon, was defeated by 273 votes against 72. This was
+Whitbread's last prominent appearance in parliament. On July 6, during a
+fit of insanity, he died by his own hand. The subsidies to the allies
+were opposed by Bankes, but were carried on May 26 by 160 votes against
+17. There can be no doubt that the majorities in the house of commons
+correctly expressed the national sentiment. Nobody wished to dictate to
+France the form of government which she was to adopt, but it was
+generally felt that Napoleon's character rendered peace with him
+impossible.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CAMPAIGN OF 1815._]
+
+In the end, about 80,000 men were assembled in Belgium under
+Wellington's orders, but of these not half were British soldiers,
+including untrained drafts from the militia, who replaced veteran
+Peninsular regiments still detained in Canada and the United States. Yet
+Napoleon admitted the British contingent to be equal, man for man, to
+his own troops, while he estimated these to be worth twice their own
+number of Dutchmen, Prussians, or other Germans. The first blow in the
+war was struck by Murat. Already in February, dissatisfied with his
+ambiguous position, he had levied troops and summoned Louis XVIII. to
+declare whether he was at war with him. As soon as he heard of
+Napoleon's return, he invaded the Papal States, and summoned the
+Italians to rise in the cause of Italian unity and independence. Though
+disowned by Napoleon, he persevered in this plan, but he was attacked
+and twice defeated by an Austrian army. On May 22 the British and
+Austrians took the city of Naples, and Murat fled to France. In October
+he made an attempt to recover his kingdom, but was captured and shot. It
+is noteworthy that, on hearing of his fate at St. Helena, Napoleon
+showed but little sympathy with his brother-in-law.
+
+On the morning of June 12, Napoleon left Paris, saying as he entered his
+carriage that he went to match himself with Wellington. All his troops
+were already marshalled on the Belgian frontier, and numbered 124,588
+men, with 344 guns. The Imperial Guard alone was 20,954 strong, and the
+whole army was largely composed of seasoned veterans. The Prussian army
+consisted of 116,897 men, with 312 guns under Marshal Blücher, whose
+headquarters were at Namur. Though the majority of these were veterans,
+there was a considerable leaven of inferior troops, hastily raised from
+the Westphalian and Rhine militia. Between this town and Quatre Bras lay
+the Prussian line of defence, Sombreffe being the centre, with Ligny and
+St. Amand in front of it, and rather on the south-west. Wellington's
+headquarters were at Brussels, and, having no certain intelligence of
+Napoleon's movements, he kept the various divisions of his army within
+easy distance of that capital until the very eve of the final conflict.
+Of the 93,717 men under his command, 31,253 were British, two-thirds of
+whom had never been under fire; 6,387 were of the king's German legion;
+15,935 Hanoverians; 29,214 (including 4,300 Nassauers in the service of
+the Prince of the Netherlands) Dutch and Belgians; 6,808 Brunswickers;
+2,880 Nassauers; the engineers, numbering 1,240, were not classified by
+nationality. He fully expected that Napoleon would move upon Brussels
+along the route by Mons and Hal, and maintained in later days that such
+would have been the best strategical course. Napoleon thought otherwise,
+and resolved to strike in between the Prussian and British armies,
+crushing the former before the latter could be fully assembled. He very
+nearly succeeded, and, if all had gone as he hoped, he could scarcely
+have failed to win one of his greatest victories.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS._]
+
+On the evening of the 15th, Wellington was still at Brussels, with the
+great body of his army, and only a weak force of Dutch and Belgians was
+at Quatre Bras, some sixteen miles to the south. Blücher, with about
+three-fourths of his army, was at Sombreffe, a few miles south-east of
+Quatre Bras. Napoleon himself was at or close by Charleroi, ten or
+twelve miles south of Quatre Bras; the mass of his army was at Fleurus,
+south-west of Sombreffe, with Ligny and St. Amand between it and the
+Prussians; and Marshal Ney, with Reille's corps, was at Frasnes,
+opposite to and due south of Quatre Bras. On the morning of the 16th,
+Napoleon arrived from Charleroi at Fleurus, and carefully inspected his
+enemy's position, but delayed his attack upon Ligny and St Amand until
+half-past two in the afternoon. The Prussians outnumbered the French,
+and a murderous conflict ensued among the streets, gardens, and
+enclosures of these little towns, which lasted until eight or nine
+o'clock. At last Napoleon ordered his guard to advance, and the plateau
+behind Ligny was taken, with a loss to the French of 12,000, and to the
+Prussians of over 20,000. Blücher himself was unhorsed and severely
+bruised in a furious charge of cavalry, but the Prussians retired in
+good order towards Wavre, north of the battlefield.
+
+Had Ney been in a condition to obey an urgent message from Napoleon, and
+to envelop the Prussian right and rear, this defeat would have been
+overwhelming in its effect. But while the battle of Ligny was raging,
+another battle was going on at Quatre Bras, six miles distant, in which
+the French sustained a serious check. Happily for the British, Ney
+failed to bring up his divisions for an attack on Quatre Bras until two
+o'clock in the afternoon, when the Dutch and Belgians under the Prince
+of Orange were still his only opponents. The news for which Wellington
+had been waiting did not reach him until just before the memorable ball,
+given by the Duchess of Richmond at Brussels on the night of the 15th,
+which he nevertheless attended, hurrying off his troops to Quatre Bras.
+They arrived just in time to reinforce the Prince of Orange and save the
+position; but Ney, too, was receiving fresh reinforcements every hour,
+the Duke of Brunswick was killed, and a fearful stress fell on Picton's
+division and the Hanoverians, who alone were a match for Ney's splendid
+infantry and Kellermann's cuirassiers.
+
+These made a charge like that which had borne down the Austrians at
+Marengo, but the British squares were proof against it, and when a
+division of guards came up from Nivelles, the French in turn were put on
+the defensive and retreated to Frasnes. The loss on the British side was
+4,500 men; that on the French somewhat less. It is not difficult to
+imagine what the issue of the battle must have been if D'Erlon's corps
+had been brought into action. This corps was occupied in marching and
+countermarching, under contradictory orders from Napoleon and Ney,
+between the British left and the Prussian right during the whole of this
+eventful day. Its appearance in the distance just when Napoleon was
+about to launch his guard against the Prussians at Ligny, caused him to
+hesitate long, and lose the decisive moment for demolishing his enemy.
+Its failure to appear at Quatre Bras, and to roll up the wavering
+Dutch-Belgians, before Picton took up the fighting, enabled Wellington
+to hold his ground at first, to repulse Ney afterwards, and on hearing
+of Blücher's defeat at Ligny, to fall back in good order on Waterloo.
+Even then, something was due to good fortune. Had Napoleon joined Ney
+and marched direct on Quatre Bras early on the 17th, it is difficult to
+see how his advance to Brussels could have been arrested. But whether he
+was exhausted by his incessant labours since leaving Paris, or whether
+his marvellous intuition was deserting him, certain it is that he
+allowed that critical morning to slip by without an effort--and without
+a reconnaissance. He assumed that Blücher must retire upon Namur as his
+base of operations, and that Wellington, retiring towards Brussels,
+would be cut off from his allies. He therefore despatched Marshal
+Grouchy, with 33,000 men, to follow up the Prussians eastward by the
+Namur road. His assumption was unfounded. Blücher, loyal to his
+engagements, retired upon Wavre; Wellington, relying upon Blücher's
+loyalty, took his stand on the field of Waterloo; and this error on the
+part of Napoleon determined the fortunes of the campaign.[61]
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The British army retreated upon Waterloo almost unmolested. Ney was
+probably awaiting orders, and Napoleon, believing the Prussians to be at
+Namur, probably thought he might safely rest himself and his army before
+crushing Wellington at his leisure. When they realised that Wellington
+was deliberately moving his army to a position nearer Brussels, they
+both followed in pursuit along different roads converging at Quatre
+Bras, and a brisk skirmish took place near Genappe between Ney's cavalry
+and that of the British rear-guard. Heavy rain came on, and the two
+armies spent a miserable night, half a mile from each other, close to
+Mont St. Jean, and south of Waterloo. Napoleon rose before daybreak on
+the 18th, reconnoitred the British position, and convinced himself that
+Wellington intended to give battle. He expressed to his staff his
+satisfaction and confidence of victory, when General Foy, who had
+experience of the Peninsular war, replied in significant words: "Sire,
+when the British infantry stand at bay, they are the very devil
+himself". Why Napoleon did not begin the battle at eight o'clock has
+been the subject of much discussion. It is said that he waited for
+Grouchy to join him before the close of the action. But neither he nor
+Grouchy, though aware that at least a large force of Prussians had gone
+to Wavre and not to Namur, suspected that Blücher had promised
+Wellington to march with his whole army on the morning of the 18th to
+support the British at Waterloo. It is more likely that he waited for
+his men to assemble and for the ground to dry and become more
+practicable for his powerful artillery.[62]
+
+Exception has been taken to the conduct of Wellington in detaching
+17,000 men to guard the approach to Brussels at Hal, and, still more, in
+not recalling them, when he must have ascertained that nothing was to be
+feared on that side, and when such a reinforcement of his right wing
+must have been all-important. But it must be remembered that in this
+force there were only 1,500 English troops, and 2,000 Hanoverian
+militia. The rest were Dutch and Belgians. At all events, Napoleon left
+his right flank undefended, though he was already somewhat anxious about
+the Prussian movements, and Wellington fought the battle of Waterloo
+with a force numerically inferior to that under Napoleon's command,
+though it might have been rendered superior by the accession of the Hal
+contingent. The effective part of this force, numbering in all 67,661
+men, consisted of 24,000 British soldiers, 6,000 soldiers of the king's
+German legion, and about 11,000 Hanoverians. Napoleon's force numbered
+72,000 men, and it was stronger both in cavalry and in guns. It
+represented the flower of the French army; there were few, if any,
+recruits as raw as those who swelled the ranks of the British regiments;
+there were thousands upon thousands who had formed part of that _Grande
+Armée_ which had overawed the continent of Europe. It is fair, however,
+to record that, while the British rank and file suffered much for want
+of sufficient food, the French had fared still worse, and that very many
+of them could have been in no fit condition for the struggle impending
+over them.
+
+Both armies occupied ground extending from west to east, on opposite
+ridges, and crossed at right angles by the great highway running north
+and south from Charleroi to Brussels. In front of the British right were
+the château and enclosures of Hougoumont which were occupied by the
+British; nearly in front of the centre were the large farm-house and
+buildings of La Haye Sainte. Further to the left were the hamlet of
+Smohain and the farms Papelotte and La Haye. Wellington had arranged his
+brigades so as to distribute the older troops as much as possible among
+the less experienced. Sir Thomas Picton's fifth division formed the left
+of the line; to his right was Alten's second division, and beyond him to
+the right was the guards division under Cooke. Further to the right and
+partly in reserve was Clinton's second division, while Chassé's Dutch
+division on the extreme right occupied the village of Braine l'Alleud.
+Somerset's brigade of heavy cavalry and Kruse's Dutch cavalry were
+posted behind Alten's division, and Ponsonby's "union brigade,"
+consisting of the royal dragoons, Scots greys, and Inniskillings, was
+stationed in Picton's rear. The whole line lay on the inner slopes of
+the ridge with the exception of Bylandt's Dutch-Belgian brigade which
+was posted on the outer slope in front of Picton's division. D'Erlon's
+corps was opposite the British left, Reille's opposite the British
+right. Squadrons of cavalry covered the outer flank of either of the two
+French corps. The magnificent squadrons of French cavalry, 15,000
+strong, under Milhaud, Kellermann, and other famous leaders, were in the
+second line; the imperial guard, as usual, was massed in the rear.
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The battle opened about half-past eleven with a furious attack on
+Hougoumont. It was defended with desperate gallantry, mainly by the
+British guards, who reopened the old loopholes in the garden-walls, and
+closed by sheer muscular force the eastern gate of the yard, which had
+been forced open by the French. In the fruitless siege of Hougoumont, as
+it may be called, the French left wing thus wasted most of its strength,
+and incurred enormous loss. Meanwhile, the French right wing under
+D'Erlon, advanced to attack the British left, which had been assailed
+for an hour and a half by the fire of a battery with seventy-eight guns.
+The Dutch and Belgians, who in their exposed position had suffered
+severely from the French artillery fire, soon gave way; but Picton's
+division, after a single volley, charged with the bayonet and drove
+their assailants reeling backward, though Picton himself fell dead on
+the field. Without orders from Wellington, Lord Uxbridge, in command of
+the British cavalry, seized the opportunity, and launched the union
+brigade with other regiments upon the flying masses. This whirlwind of
+British horsemen swept all before it, slaughtering many of the French
+cavalry in passing, taking 3,000 prisoners, sabring the gunners of Ney's
+battery, and spiking fifteen of the guns. But their ardour carried them
+too far. By Napoleon's orders a large force of French cuirassiers and
+lancers fell upon their flank before they could take breath again, and
+their ranks were frightfully thinned in a disorderly retreat. But their
+charge had saved the day.
+
+At one o'clock, while the fate of D'Erlon's onslaught was still
+undecided, Napoleon observed Prussian troops on his right. An
+intercepted despatch proved these to be Bülow's corps. He instantly sent
+off a despatch to Grouchy, whom he supposed to be within reach, ordering
+him to attack Bülow in the rear. Then followed the memorable succession
+of charges by the whole of the French cavalry upon the squares of the
+British infantry. Not one of these squares was broken; a great part of
+the French cavalry was mown down by volleys or cut to pieces by the
+British cavalry in their precipitate retreat, and the British line
+remained unmoved, though grievously weakened, behind its protecting
+ridge. This was the crisis of the fight. Much of the British artillery
+was dismounted, and Wellington confessed to one of his staff that he
+longed for the advent of night or Blücher. Napoleon next felt himself
+compelled to detach Lobau's corps for the purpose of meeting the
+advancing Prussians. Soon afterwards Ney carried La Haye Sainte by a
+most determined assault, aided by the failure of ammunition within its
+defences, and thus captured the key of the British position. But
+Napoleon saw that his one chance of victory lay in a final _coup_ before
+the Prussians could wrest it from him. He ordered the imperial guard to
+the front, leading it himself across the valley, and then handing over
+the command to Ney. The guard was but the remnant of its original
+strength, for all its cavalry had been wrecked in wild charges against
+the British squares, and several battalions of its infantry were kept in
+reserve to hold back the Prussians and protect the baggage train.
+Nevertheless, the advance of this superb corps, the heroes of a hundred
+fights, who had seldom failed to hurl back the tide of battle at the
+most perilous junctures, was among the most impressive spectacles in the
+annals of war. They swerved a little to the left, thereby exposing
+themselves to the fire of the British footguards and of a battery in
+excellent condition. The former were lying down for shelter, but when
+the imperial guard came within sixty paces of them they started up at
+the word of command from Wellington himself. The footguards poured a
+deadly fire into the front, and the 52nd regiment into the flank of
+their columns; as they wavered under the storm of shot a bayonet charge
+followed, and the imperial guard, hitherto almost invincible, was
+dissolved into a mob of fugitives scattered over the plain.
+
+It was now past eight o'clock; Bülow's Prussians had long been engaged
+on the British left, and Blücher, with indomitable energy, was pressing
+forward with all his other divisions. Wellington first sent Vandeleur's
+and Vivian's cavalry, still comparatively fresh, to sweep away what
+remained of the French reserves, and then ordered a general advance. The
+French retreat speedily became a rout, and a rout to which there is no
+parallel except that which succeeded the battle of Leipzig. Wellington
+and Blücher met at La Belle Alliance on the high road, just south of the
+battlefield, and lately the French headquarters. The British troops were
+utterly tired out, but the Prussian cavalry never drew rein until they
+had driven the last Frenchman over the river Sambre in their relentless
+pursuit. The slaughter had been prodigious, though far short of that at
+Borodino. The British army lost 13,000 men, the Prussian 7,000, and the
+French 37,000[63] (including prisoners), besides the whole of their
+artillery, ammunition, baggage-waggons, and military train. But the
+battle was one of the most decisive recorded in history, and was the
+real beginning of a peace which lasted over the whole of Europe for
+nearly forty years. Grouchy heard the cannonade of Waterloo on his march
+from Ligny to Wavre, and was strongly urged by Gérard to hasten across
+country, with his whole force, in the direction of the firing. But he
+pleaded the letter of Napoleon's instructions, and reached Wavre only to
+find Blücher gone. After an encounter with a Prussian corps, which had
+been left behind, he received news of Napoleon's defeat, and ultimately
+escaped into France.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S SECOND ABDICATION._]
+
+The march of the allies into France after the battle of Waterloo was not
+wholly unchecked, but it was far more rapid than in 1814. The French
+could not be rallied, and in the first week of July Paris was occupied
+by Anglo-Prussian troops. The Austrians and Prussians were moving again
+upon the eastern frontiers of France, but were still far behind. The
+Prussian general and soldiers were animated by the bitterest spirit of
+vengeance, and it needed all the firmness of Wellington to prevent the
+bridge of Jena from being blown up, and a ruinous contribution levied on
+the citizens of Paris. Napoleon himself was now at Rochefort, having
+quitted Paris after a second abdication on June 22, but four days after
+the battle. No other course was open to him. When he started for his
+last campaign, he was no longer the champion of an united nation, and
+consciously staked his all on a single throw. When he returned from it,
+discomfited and without an army, he found the chambers actively hostile
+to him. Carnot, who had formerly opposed his assumption of the imperial
+title, was now the only one of his ministers to deprecate his
+abdication, but Napoleon himself saw no hope of retaining his power, or
+transmitting it to his son, without a reckless appeal to revolutionary
+passions. From this he shrank, and he represented himself at St. Helena
+as having sacrificed personal ambition to patriotism.
+
+The chamber of deputies appointed an executive commission of five,
+including the infamous Fouché, and from this body the late emperor
+actually received an order to quit Paris. He retired to Malmaison, where
+he received a fresh order to set out for Rochefort, which he reached on
+July 3. On the next day Paris capitulated to the allies, and the
+necessity for his leaving the shores of France became more urgent. Two
+frigates were assigned for his escape to America, but a British squadron
+was lying ready to intercept them. Some of his bolder companions devised
+a scheme for smuggling him on board a swift merchant ship, but it was
+foiled by the vigilant watch of the British squadron off the islands of
+Oléron and Ré. At last he surrendered himself on board the
+_Bellerophon_, relying, as he said, on the honour of the British nation,
+and claiming the generous protection of the prince regent. He was,
+however, clearly informed that he would be at the disposal of the
+government. Under an agreement with the allied powers, the ministers
+decided, and were supported by the nation in deciding, that he could not
+be detained in England, either as a guest or as a prisoner, with any
+regard to public safety or the verdict of Europe at Vienna. The proposal
+of banishing him to St. Helena, suggested in the previous year, was
+finally adopted, and he sailed thither in the _Northumberland_ on August
+8, vehemently protesting against the bad faith of Great Britain. Louis
+XVIII. was restored, and the treaty of Vienna, signed on the eve of the
+Waterloo campaign, was but slightly modified.
+
+The action of Murat had solved the difficulties which the congress had
+to face in Italy. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies reverted to the
+Bourbon, Ferdinand; and the Bourbons also acquired a right of reversion
+in Parma, where the protest of Spain against the rule of Maria Louisa
+could now be ignored. Genoa was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia; the
+pope received back the states of the Church; the Grand Duke of Tuscany
+and the Duke of Modena were restored; while Austria had to be content
+with Venetia and Lombardy as far as the Ticino. The organisation of
+Germany occupied the congress until June, and was the least durable part
+of its work. The basis of it was a confederation of thirty-eight states,
+represented and in theory controlled by a diet under the presidency of
+Austria. This diet naturally resolved itself into a mere permanent
+congress of diplomatists for the purpose of settling the mutual
+relations of the constituent states. Each state was ordered to adopt a
+constitutional form of government, but, as no provision was made for
+enforcing this clause, it remained a dead letter. Prussia regained her
+provinces on the left bank of the Rhine, with a population exceeding
+1,000,000, and was allotted the northern part of Saxony, with a
+population of 800,000, besides retaining her original share of Poland,
+with the province of Posen, which had formed part of the duchy of
+Warsaw. Most of this duchy was annexed by Russia, but Cracow was left a
+republic. Prussia also gained Swedish Pomerania. Bavaria, Hanover, and
+Denmark profited more or less by the repartition of Germany. Denmark,
+however, finally lost Norway, and Sweden paid the price of this
+acquisition by resigning Finland to Russia. The neutrality of
+Switzerland was proclaimed and her constitution simplified. The Belgian
+Netherlands were united to Holland, the two forming together the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, to which Austria ceded all her claims in the Low
+Countries.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SECOND TREATY OF PARIS._]
+
+The treaty of Vienna left the boundaries of France itself as they had
+been defined by the first treaty of Paris in 1814. The second treaty of
+Paris, however, signed on November 20, 1815, was less favourable to
+France, which had already ceded Western Savoy to Sardinia, and was now
+required to abandon Landau and other outlying territories beyond the
+frontier of 1792. She was also compelled to restore all the works of art
+accumulated during the war.
+
+Great Britain had failed to obtain from the congress any binding
+regulation on the subject of the slave trade. The most that she could
+obtain was a solemn denunciation of that trade issued on February 8,
+which declared it to be "repugnant to the principles of civilisation and
+of universal morality". The moderation of the British demands, as
+embodied in these treaties, excited not only the amazement but the
+contempt of Napoleon, who discussed the subject at St. Helena with great
+freedom. Well knowing that his paramount object throughout all his wars
+and negotiations had been to crush Great Britain, and that Great Britain
+had been the mainstay of all the combinations against him, he could find
+no explanation of our self-denial except our insular simplicity. Perhaps
+it might be attributed with greater reason to politic magnanimity; nor,
+indeed, could Great Britain, as a member of the European council,
+dictate such terms as Napoleon suggested. Still, the gains of Great
+Britain were substantial. She retained Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope,
+the Isle of France (Mauritius), Trinidad, St. Lucia, Tobago, and, above
+all, Malta. She also obtained possession of Heligoland and the
+protectorate of the Ionian Islands, both of which she has since resigned
+of her own accord. If she afterwards lost the commanding position which
+she had attained among the allied powers, it was chiefly because the
+colossal empire which she had defied was effectually shattered, because
+neither her armies nor her subsidies were any longer needed on the
+continent of Europe, and perhaps because the energies of her statesmen
+were no longer braced up by the stress of a struggle for national life.
+
+Even before the allied armies entered Paris Wellington considered it
+necessary to induce Louis XVIII. to make advances to certain politicians
+of the revolution so as to inspire national confidence in him, and to
+anticipate the risk of a "White Terror," or a continuance of the war.
+Fouché was accordingly summoned to power, and he had sufficient
+influence to prevent any national opposition to the Bourbon restoration.
+Napoleon remained at large for three weeks after his abdication, that
+is, for eight days after the allied troops had entered Paris, and the
+fear of a future Bonapartist revolution inclined the British government
+under Liverpool to entertain favourably the demand of Prussia for the
+cession of Alsace, Lorraine, and the northern fortresses. When, however,
+Napoleon had placed himself on board the _Bellerophon_, the situation
+changed. A contented France seemed preferable to an impotent France, and
+Wellington argued that the Bourbon restoration could not last, if French
+opinion connected it with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The tsar took
+this line from the first, and Wellington won for it the adhesion first
+of his own government and then of Austria. Prussia had finally to be
+contented with a provision for the cession of the outlying districts,
+which the treaty of Paris of 1814 had left to France. The second treaty
+of Paris, which embodied this stipulation, also provided for an
+indemnity of £40,000,000 to be paid by France to the allies, and for the
+temporary occupation of Northern France by the allied armies. On the
+same day Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia signed a treaty
+pledging themselves to act together in case fresh revolution and
+usurpation in France should endanger the repose of other states, and
+providing for frequent meetings of congresses to preserve the peace of
+Europe.
+
+In addition to the formal treaties of alliance signed at Chaumont,
+Vienna, and Paris, an attempt was made by the Tsar Alexander to bind
+together the European sovereigns in an union based on the principles of
+Christian brotherhood. A form of treaty was accordingly drawn up which
+gave expression to these motives, dealt with all Christians as one
+nation, and committed their sovereigns to mutual affection and
+reciprocal service. This treaty of the holy alliance was signed on
+September 26, by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. All European princes
+except the sultan were invited to adhere to it, and all except the pope
+and the sultan ultimately either accepted it or expressed their sympathy
+with its principles. But in England there was hardly a statesman who
+regarded the treaty seriously, Wellington avowed his distrust of it, the
+prince regent declined to join it, and its effective value in promoting
+the subsequent concert of the powers was less than nothing. Still,
+however visionary and extravagantly worded, it remains as an unique
+record embodying the deliberate adoption of the principle of
+international brotherhood, and the sacrifice of separate national
+interests for the sake of European peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA._]
+
+It is remarkable that so little public discussion took place on two
+questions which have since been so hotly debated--the legal _status_ of
+Napoleon after he surrendered himself, and the moral right of Great
+Britain to banish him to St. Helena. One reason for this apparent
+indifference to the fate of one who had overawed all Europe may be found
+in the fact that parliament was not sitting when the decision of the
+government was taken, and that, when it met on February 1, 1816, that
+decision was virtually irrevocable. We know, however, that the first
+question was fully considered by the allied powers and the British
+ministry before his place of exile was fixed, and Great Britain
+undertook the custody of his person. The view which prevailed was that,
+after his escape from Elba, he could neither be treated as an
+independent sovereign nor as a subject of the French king, but must be
+regarded as a public enemy who had fallen into the hands of one among
+several allied powers. Accordingly, it was by their joint mandate that
+he remained the prisoner of Great Britain, and was to be under the joint
+inspection of commissioners appointed by the other powers. Still the
+minds of Liverpool, Ellenborough, and Sir William Scott, judge of the
+court of admiralty, were not altogether easy on the legal aspect of the
+case, which Eldon reviewed in an elaborate and exhaustive memorandum.
+His conclusion was that Napoleon's position was quite exceptional, that
+he could not rightly be made over to France as a French rebel, but was a
+prisoner of war at the disposal of the British government, both on the
+broad principles of international law, and under the express terms of
+his surrender, as reported officially by Captain Maitland of the
+_Bellerophon_.
+
+It was thought expedient, however, to pass an act of parliament in the
+session of 1816 for the purpose of setting at rest any objections which
+might afterwards be raised. This measure was introduced on March 17 by
+Lord Castlereagh, who defended it on grounds of national justice and
+national policy. It met with no opposition in the house of commons, but
+Lords Holland and Lauderdale criticised it in the house of lords, not
+as sanctioning a wrong to Napoleon, but as implicitly admitting the
+right of other powers to join in arrangements for his custody. Little
+attention was then bestowed by parliament or the public on the moral
+aspect of his life-long detention at St. Helena, the restrictions to be
+there imposed upon his liberty, or the provision to be made for his
+comfort. Yet these subjects have ever since exercised the minds of
+myriads both in England and France, and have given birth to a copious
+literature for more than three generations.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[61] For the movements of June 15, 16, see Chesney, _Waterloo Lectures_,
+pp. 70-137; Ropes, _The Campaign of Waterloo_, pp. 44-196.
+
+[62] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 494, 495.
+
+[63] Oman in _English Historical Review_, xix., 693, and xxi., 132.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                        THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+
+When Parliament met on February 1, 1816, after a recess of unusual
+length, Castlereagh was received with loud acclamations from all parts
+of the house as the chief actor in the pacification of Europe. There
+was, of course, a full debate upon the treaties, but the opposition
+dwelt less upon the arbitrary partition of Europe than upon their
+alleged tendency to guarantee sovereigns against the assertion of
+popular rights and upon the manifest intention of the government to
+"raise the country into a military power". From this moment dates the
+whig and radical watchword of "Peace, Retrenchment, and Reform". The
+nation was, in fact, entering upon a period of unprecedented depression
+and discontent, which lasted through the last four years of George
+III.'s reign. At the close of 1815, however, the whole horizon was
+apparently bright. Great Britain had saved Europe by her example, and,
+however small her army in comparison with those of continental states,
+she stood foremost among the powers which had crushed the rule of
+Napoleon. Her national debt, it is true, had reached the prodigious
+total of £861,039,049, and the interest on it amounted £32,645,618, but
+the expansion of our national resources had kept pace with it. In spite
+of the continental system, the orders in council, and the American war,
+the imports and exports had enormously increased, chiefly by means of an
+organised contraband traffic; the carrying trade of the world had passed
+into the hands of British shipowners; British manufactures were largely
+fostered by warlike expenditure at home and the suspension of many
+industries abroad; while population, stimulated by a vicious poor law,
+was rapidly on the increase. In this last element, then considered as a
+sure sign of prosperity, really consisted one of the chief national
+dangers.
+
+So long as the war lasted, low as the rate of wages might be, there was
+generally employment enough in the fields or in the factories for nearly
+all the hands willing to labour. When the inflated war prices came to an
+end, and wheat fell below 80s. or even 70s. a quarter, until it reached
+52s. 6d. early in 1816, labourers were turned off and wages cut down
+still further; bread was not proportionately cheapened, and agrarian
+outrages sprang up. The continent, impoverished by the war, no longer
+required British goods for military purposes, and, as its own domestic
+industries revived, ceased to absorb British products, flung in
+profusion on its markets. Hence came a reduction of 16 per cent. in the
+export trade, and of nearly 20 per cent. in the import trade, which
+resulted in bankruptcies and the dismissal of workpeople. If we add to
+these causes of distress, the influence of over-speculation, the
+accession of disbanded soldiers to the ranks of the unemployed, and the
+substitution of the factory system with machinery for domestic
+manufactures with hand labour, we can partly understand why Great
+Britain, never harried by invading armies, should have suffered more
+than France itself from popular misery and disaffection for several
+years after the restoration of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _VANSITTART'S FINANCE._]
+
+The history of these years is mainly a history of social unrest, and
+attempts to cure social evils by legislation or coercion. Liverpool and
+his colleagues, with the possible exception of Eldon, were not bigoted
+tories, and it is sometimes forgotten that among them, together with
+Sidmouth, Castlereagh, and Vansittart, were Canning, Palmerston, and
+Peel. One of the first parliamentary struggles was on the proposal of
+the government to reduce the income tax from 10 to 5 per cent., and to
+apply this half of it, producing about £7,500,000, towards the expense
+of maintaining an army of 150,000 men. Since the income tax has become a
+favourite of democratic economists, as pressing specially upon the rich,
+we may be surprised to find that its total repeal was successfully
+advocated by Henry Brougham, the leading democrat of that day--a man
+whose noble services to progress and to humanity in the earlier part of
+his career have been obscured by the inordinate vanity and unprincipled
+egotism which he displayed in the later phases of his long public life.
+He had entered parliament in 1810, and rapidly became the most active of
+the opposition speakers. He now employed without scruple all the arts of
+agitation, petition-framing, and parliamentary obstruction to achieve
+his object, and succeeded, by the aid of bankers and country-gentlemen,
+in defeating the government by a majority of thirty-seven. This vote
+might be justified, more or less, on the principle laid down by Pitt,
+that the income tax should be held in reserve as a war tax only, or on
+the ground that it was equally wasteful and mischievous to keep up so
+large a peace-establishment, especially if it might be used to bolster
+up despotism abroad. It was also unfortunate that Castlereagh, ignoring
+the heroic efforts made by the people of England for more than twenty
+years, should have deprecated "an ignorant impatience to be relieved
+from the pressure of taxation". Still, it is remarkable that friends of
+the people and the ultra-liberal corporation of London, as it then was,
+should have concentrated their indignant protests against the financial
+policy of the government, not on the corn laws, or any other indirect
+tax, but on the income tax.
+
+Public confidence in the economic wisdom of the ministers was further
+weakened by the gratuitous abandonment of the malt tax, apparently in a
+fit of petulance, on the ground, explicitly stated, that, if another war
+tax must be raised, two or three millions more or less would make little
+difference. By a temporary suspension of the sinking fund, a deficit
+might be converted into a surplus; Vansittart, however, neglected to
+take advantage of this simple expedient, and raised £11,500,000 by loan.
+His waning reputation was almost shattered by this absurd proceeding.
+Finally, the excessive and irregular expenditure upon the civil list
+provoked a searching inquiry into its abuses, prefaced by a scathing
+attack from Brougham upon the character of the prince regent. His
+character was, in fact, indefensible, and had justly forfeited the
+respect of the nation. He was a debauchee and gambler, a disobedient
+son, a cruel husband, a heartless father, an ungrateful and treacherous
+friend, and a burden to the ministries which had to act in his name and
+palliate his misdoings. That of Liverpool carried a measure for the
+better regulation of the civil list, upon which, swollen as it was by
+the wrongful appropriation of other public funds, many official
+salaries had been charged hitherto. For these parliament now made a
+separate provision. The house of commons, which properly grudged the
+prince regent the means of reckless luxury and self-indulgence, was
+unanimous in voting £60,000 for outfit and £60,000 a year to the
+Princess Charlotte on her marriage, on May 2, to Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg, looking forward to a reign under which virtue and a sense
+of public duty would again be the attributes of royalty. In this
+session, too, it conferred a boon upon Ireland, which earned little
+gratitude, by the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers.
+Ireland was virtually insolvent before this measure was passed. With the
+union of the exchequers the union of the countries was completed. The
+administration, discredited by its financial policy, was strengthened in
+June by the acquisition of Canning, who succeeded Buckinghamshire as
+president of the board of control. In September, 1814, Wellesley Pole, a
+brother of the Marquis Wellesley and the Duke of Wellington, had been
+admitted to the cabinet as master of the mint, so that with Castlereagh,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst, there were now five members of the
+cabinet in the lower house.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL RIOTS._]
+
+The disturbances which broke out again and again during the years
+1816-19 were partly the outcome of sheer destitution among the working
+classes, and partly of a growing demand for reform, whether
+constitutional or revolutionary. The statesmen of the regency must not
+be too severely judged if they often confounded these causes of
+seditious movements, and failed to distinguish between the moderate and
+violent sections of reformers. Those who remembered the bloodthirsty
+orgies of the French revolution, ushered in by quixotic visions of
+liberty, equality, and fraternity, may perhaps be excused for
+distrusting the moderate professions of demagogues who deliberately
+inflamed the passions of ignorant mobs. Moreover, the whigs and moderate
+reformers, who privately condemned the excesses of their violent
+followers, made light of these in their public utterances, and reserved
+all their censures for the repressive policy of the government. Bread
+riots had begun before the harvest, which proved a total failure. The
+price of wheat, which was as low as 52s. 6d. a quarter in January, 1816,
+rose to 103s. 1d. in January, 1817, and to 111s. 6d. in June, 1817. And
+when rickburning set in as a consequence of agricultural depression,
+tumultuary processions as a consequence of enforced idleness in the coal
+districts, and a revival of Luddism as a consequence of stagnation in
+the various textile industries, itself due to a glut of British goods on
+the continent, the reform party, now raising its head, was held
+responsible by the government for a great part of these disorders.[64]
+The writings of Cobbett, especially his _Weekly Register_, certainly had
+a wide influence in stirring up discontent against existing
+institutions, but it must be admitted that he condemned the use of
+physical force, and pointed to parliamentary reform as the legitimate
+cure for all social evils. Reform, however, in Cobbett's meaning
+included universal suffrage with annual parliaments, and the Hampden
+clubs, all over the country, agitated for the same objects in less
+guarded language. Still, looking back at these democratic agencies by
+the light of later experience, we can hardly adopt the opinion expressed
+by a secret committee of the house of commons that their avowed objects
+were "nothing short of a revolution".
+
+It was on December 2, 1816, that the extreme section of reformers, now
+for the first time known as radicals, in alliance with a body of
+socialists called Spenceans, first came into open collision with the
+forces of the law. A meeting was announced to be held on that day in Spa
+Fields, Bermondsey, and was to be addressed by "Orator" Hunt, Major
+Cartwright, the two Watsons, and other demagogues. Hunt was a gentleman
+of Somerset, and had stood for Bristol in 1812. Though a prominent
+speaker, he in no sense directed the movement. Burdett and Cochrane, the
+orthodox leaders of London reformers, were not concerned in this
+demonstration, which, according to an informer who gave evidence, was to
+be the signal for an attack upon the Tower and other acts of atrocity.
+As it was, before Hunt chose to appear, the mob, headed by the younger
+Watson, broke into gunsmiths' shops, not without bloodshed, and marched
+through the Royal Exchange, but were courageously met by the lord mayor,
+with a few assistants, and very soon dispersed. The alarm produced in
+the whole nation by this riotous fiasco was quite out of proportion to
+its real importance, and was reawakened by an insult offered to the
+prince regent on his return from opening parliament on January 28, 1817.
+Even Canning, a life-long opponent of reform, did not scruple to magnify
+these and similar evidences of popular restlessness into proofs of a
+deep-laid plot against the constitution, and committees of both houses
+urged the necessity of drastic measures to put down a conspiracy against
+public order and private property. These measures took the form of bills
+for the suppression of seditious meetings, and for the suspension until
+July 1 of the _habeas corpus_ act, which had been uninterruptedly in
+force since its suspension by Pitt had expired in 1801. This last bill
+was passed on March 3, and, before the other became law, the so-called
+march of the Blanketeers took place at Manchester. The march was the
+ridiculous sequel of a very large meeting got up for the purpose of
+carrying a petition to London, and presenting it to the prince regent in
+person. The meeting was dispersed by the soldiers and police, after the
+riot act had been read, and a straggling crowd of some three hundred who
+began their pilgrimage, carrying blankets or overcoats, melted away by
+degrees before they had got far southward.
+
+[Pageheading: _SIDMOUTH'S UNPOPULARITY._]
+
+A far more serious outbreak at Manchester seems to have been clumsily
+planned soon afterwards, but it ended in nothing, and the enemies of the
+government freely attributed this and other projects of mob violence to
+the instigation of an _agent-provocateur_, well known as "Oliver the
+Spy". This man was also credited with the authorship of "the Derbyshire
+insurrection," for which three men were executed and many others
+transported. Here there can be no doubt that a formidable gang, armed
+with pikes, terrorised a large district, pressing operatives to join
+them in overt defiance of the law, and killing one who held back. Being
+confronted by a Nottinghamshire magistrate named Rolleston, with a small
+body of soldiers, they fled across the fields, and the bubble of
+rebellion burst at a touch. Whether they were legally guilty of high
+treason, for which they were unwisely tried, may perhaps be doubted, but
+it would certainly be no palliation of their crime if it could be shown,
+as it never was shown, that Oliver had led them to rely on a jacobin
+revolution in London. What does appear very clearly is that Sidmouth
+was greatly alarmed by the reports of his agents on the disturbed state
+of the country, but that he was highly conscientious in his instructions
+and in the use of his own powers. The great majority of those imprisoned
+for political offences at this time were liberated or acquitted, but the
+suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act was renewed at the beginning of
+July.
+
+Moreover, a circular was addressed by Sidmouth to the lords-lieutenant
+of counties, for the information of the magistrates, intimating that, in
+the opinion of the law officers, persons charged on oath with seditious
+libel might be apprehended and held to bail. No act of Sidmouth called
+forth such an outburst of reprobation as this; yet it is not
+self-evident that instigations to outrage, being criminal offences,
+should be treated by magistrates differently from other offences for
+which bail may be required, with the alternative of imprisonment. On the
+other hand, it is hardly becoming for a home secretary to interpret the
+law, and, since the forensic triumphs of Erskine, it had been declared
+by an act of parliament that in cases of libel, as distinct from all
+other criminal trials, both the law and the fact were within the
+province of the jury. At all events, William Cobbett, feeling himself to
+be at the mercy of informers and the crown, took refuge in America in
+December, 1817. Hone, an antiquarian bookseller, was thrice prosecuted
+for blasphemous libels, in which the ministers had been held up to
+contempt. All these ill-judged, if not vindictive, prosecutions ended in
+signal failure. Ellenborough, the chief justice, before whom the two
+last trials were held, strained his judicial authority to procure a
+conviction of Hone, but the prisoner, with a spirit worthy of a martyr,
+defied the intimidation of the court, and thrice carried the sympathies
+of the jury with him. His triple acquittal led to Ellenborough's
+resignation, and perceptibly shook the prestige of the government.
+
+In the year 1818 there was a temporary improvement in the economic
+condition of the country. The depression of the preceding year was
+followed in this year by a rapid increase of revenue. The importance the
+ministry attached to finance was emphasised by the admission to the
+cabinet in January of Frederick John Robinson, afterwards prime minister
+as Lord Goderich, who had been appointed president of the board of
+trade and treasurer of the navy. The chancellor of the exchequer and the
+master of the mint were already members of the cabinet. The suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act having expired, the reform agitation revived,
+but assumed a less dangerous character, and no serious outbreak
+occurred. A bill of indemnity was passed to cover any excesses of
+jurisdiction in arresting suspected persons or in suppressing tumultuous
+assemblies. A parliamentary inquiry showed both that the disorders of
+the previous year had been exaggerated, and that, after all, the
+extraordinary powers of the home office had been used with moderation.
+Nevertheless, the early part of the session was largely occupied by
+party debates on these questions, the employment of spies, and
+apprehensions for libel. Parliament was dissolved in June, and the
+general election which followed resulted in a gain of several seats to
+the opposition.[65] The ministry was strengthened in January, 1819, by
+the appointment of Wellington to be master-general of the ordnance, in
+succession to Mulgrave, who remained in the cabinet without office.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE "MANCHESTER MASSACRE"._]
+
+Before the end of the year 1818, a strike of Manchester cotton-spinners
+was attended by the usual incidents of brutal violence towards workmen
+who refused to join in it, but a few shots from the soldiers, one of
+which killed a rioter, proved effectual in quelling lawlessness.
+Manchester, however, remained the centre of agitation, and during the
+summer of 1819 a series of reform meetings held in other great towns
+culminated in a monster meeting originally convened for August 9, but
+postponed until the 16th. The history of this meeting ending in the
+so-called "Manchester" or "Peterloo massacre," has been strongly
+coloured by party spirit and sympathy with the victims of reckless
+demagogy no less than of blundering officialism. It is certain that
+drilling had been going on for some time among the multitudes invited to
+attend the meeting of the 9th; that its avowed object was to choose a
+"legislatorial representative," as Birmingham had already done, and
+that, on its being declared illegal by the municipal authorities, who
+declined to summon it on their own initiative, its organisers
+deliberately resolved to hold it a week later, whether it were legal or
+not.
+
+The contingents, which poured in by thousands from neighbouring towns,
+seem to have carried no arms but sticks, and to have conducted
+themselves peaceably when they arrived at St. Peter's Fields, where
+Orator Hunt, puffed up with silly vanity, was voted into the chair on a
+hustings. Unfortunately, instead of attempting to prevent the meeting,
+the county magistrates decided to let the great masses of people
+assemble, and then to arrest the leaders in the midst of them. They had
+at their disposal several companies of infantry, six troops of the 15th
+hussars, and a body of yeomanry, besides special constables. The chief
+constable, being ordered to arrest Hunt and his colleagues, declared
+that he could not do so without military aid, whereupon a small force of
+yeomanry advanced but soon became wedged up and enclosed by the densely
+packed crowd. One of the magistrates, fancying the yeomanry to be in
+imminent danger, of which there is no proof, called upon Colonel
+L'Estrange, who was in command of the soldiers, to rescue them and
+disperse the mob. Four troops of the hussars then made a dashing charge,
+supported by a few of the yeomanry; the people fled in wild confusion
+before them; some were cut down, more were trampled down, and an
+eye-witness describes "several mounds of human beings" as lying where
+they had fallen. Happily, the actual loss of life did not exceed five or
+six, but a much larger number was more or less wounded, the real havoc
+and bloodshed were inevitably exaggerated by rumour, and a bitter sense
+of resentment was implanted in the breasts of myriads, innocent of the
+slightest complicity with sedition, but impatient of oligarchical rule,
+and disgusted with so ruthless an interference with the right of public
+meeting.
+
+It would have been wise if Sidmouth and his colleagues had recognised
+this widespread feeling, had seen that famine and despair were at the
+bottom of popular discontent, and had admitted error of judgment, at
+least, on the part of the Lancashire magistrates. On the contrary, they
+felt it so necessary to support civil and military authority, at all
+hazards, that they induced the prince regent to express unqualified
+approbation of the course taken, and afterwards defended it without
+reserve in parliament. Even Eldon expressed his opinion privately that
+it would be hard to justify it, unless the assembly amounted to an act
+of treason, as he regarded it; whereas Hunt and his associates were
+prosecuted (and convicted in the next year) not for treason, but only
+for a misdemeanour. At all events, the storm of indignation excited by
+this sad event, and not confined to the working classes, powerfully
+fomented the reform movement. Large meetings were held over all the
+manufacturing districts, and a requisition to summon a great Yorkshire
+meeting was signed by Fitzwilliam, the lord-lieutenant, who attended it
+in person. For these acts he was properly dismissed, but, in spite of
+inflammatory speeches, nearly all the meetings passed off quietly and
+without interference. Nevertheless, the government thought it necessary
+to hold an autumn session, and strengthen the hands of the executive by
+fresh measures of repression. These having been passed in December after
+strenuous opposition, were afterwards known as the six acts, and
+regarded as the climax of Sidmouth's despotic _régime_.
+
+Two of the six acts, directed against the possession of arms and
+military training for unlawful purposes, cannot be considered oppressive
+under the circumstances then prevailing. Nor can exception be taken on
+the ground of principle to another for "preventing delay in the
+administration of justice in cases of misdemeanour," which, indeed, was
+amended, by Holland, with Eldon's consent, so as to benefit defendants
+in state prosecutions. Two were designed to curb still further the
+liberty of the press. One of these made the publication of seditious
+libels an offence punishable with banishment, and authorised the seizure
+of all unsold copies. When we consider the extreme virulence of
+seditious libels in those days, this act does not wear so monstrous an
+aspect as its radical opponents alleged, but happily it soon became a
+dead letter, and was repealed in 1830. The other, imposing a stamp-duty
+on small pamphlets, only placed them on the same footing with
+newspapers. The last of the new measures--"to prevent more effectually
+seditious meetings and assemblies"--was practically aimed against all
+large meetings, unless called by the highest authorities in counties and
+corporate towns, or, at least, five justices of the peace. It was,
+therefore, a grave encroachment on the right of public meeting, and the
+only excuse for it was that it was passed under the fear of a
+revolutionary movement, and limited in duration to a period of five
+years.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL LEGISLATION._]
+
+Nor can it be denied that, as a whole, this restrictive code was
+successful. From a modern point of view it may appear less arbitrary
+than the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act for a whole year
+(1817-18), but it was assuredly tainted with a reactionary spirit, and
+was capable of being worked in a way inconsistent with civil liberty.
+That it was not so worked, on the whole, and caused less hardship than
+had been anticipated, was not so much the result of changes in the
+government itself, as of economic progress in the nation, aided by a
+healthier growth of public opinion. The violence which marked the early
+stages of the reform movement has been described as a safety-valve
+against anarchy; it was, in reality, the chief obstacle to a sound and
+comprehensive reform bill. While it lasted, the middle classes and
+liberals of moderate views were estranged from the cause; when it
+ceased, the demand for a new representative system became irresistible.
+
+Whatever allowance may be made for the coercive policy of the government
+during the dark period of storm and stress which succeeded the great
+war, it is hard to find any excuse for its neglect of social
+legislation. Then, if ever, was a time when the work of Pitt's best days
+should have been resumed, when real popular grievances should have been
+redressed, and when the long arrears of progressive reform should have
+been gradually redeemed. Yet very little was done to better the lot of
+men, women, and children in Great Britain, and that little was chiefly
+initiated by individuals. In 1816, on the motion of a private member, an
+inquiry was commenced into the state of the metropolitan police, which
+disclosed most scandalous abuses, such as the habitual association of
+thieves and thief-takers, encouraged by the grants of blood-money which
+had been continued since the days of Jonathan Wild. In 1817 a committee
+sanctioned by the ministers recommended a measure for the gradual
+abolition of sinecures, which then figured prominently in the domestic
+charter of reform. Their recommendations were adopted, and a large
+number of sinecure offices were swept away. But inasmuch as sinecures
+had been largely given to persons who had held public offices of
+business, it was thought necessary to institute pensions to an amount
+not exceeding one-half of the reduction. In 1816 a private member, named
+Curwen, brought forward a fanciful scheme of his own for the amendment
+of the poor laws, which in effect anticipated modern projects of old
+age pensions. He obtained the appointment of a select committee, which
+reported in 1817, but their proposals were thoroughly inadequate, and no
+sensible improvement came of them.
+
+It was also in 1816 that the cause of national education, the importance
+of which had been vainly urged by Whitbread, was taken up in earnest by
+Brougham. His motion for the appointment of a select committee was
+confined to the schools of the metropolis. It sat at intervals until
+1818, when its powers were enlarged, and its labours somewhat diverted
+into a searching exposure of mismanagement in endowed charities. The one
+direct fruit of the committee was the creation of the charity
+commission, but in the opinion of Brougham himself it was of the highest
+value in opening the whole education question. The almost universal
+prevalence of distress in 1817, and the excessive burden thrown upon
+poor rates, induced parliament to authorise an expenditure of £750,000
+in Great Britain and Ireland for the employment of the labouring poor on
+public works. A far sounder and more fruitful measure of relief owes its
+origin to the same year. It was now that the institution of savings
+banks, hitherto promoted only by single philanthropists, emerged from
+the experimental stage and claimed the attention of parliament. A bill
+for their regulation, introduced by Pitt's friend, George Rose, did not
+pass into an act; but the establishment of savings banks was now
+directly encouraged by the legislature, and there were thoughtful men
+who already dimly foresaw the manifold benefits of their future
+development.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+In the year 1819 was initiated a very important reform in the currency,
+which had long been delayed. When the bullion committee reported in
+1810, Bank of England notes were at a discount of about 13½ per cent.
+There were several reasons why this should be the case. Continental
+trade was then compelled to pass through British ports, and a large
+supply of gold was needed to serve as the medium of this trade. There
+was also a steady drain of gold to the Spanish peninsula to meet war
+expenses, while troubles in South America diminished the annual output
+of the precious metals. In 1811 Bank of England notes were made legal
+tender, but no further action was then taken, and the depreciation
+continued until 1814. The magnificent harvest of 1813, together with
+other causes, brought about a sudden fall of prices, in consequence of
+which no less than 240 country banks stopped payment in the years
+1814-16. The decrease and popular distrust of private banknotes produced
+an increased demand for Bank of England notes, which in 1817 had nearly
+risen in value to a par with gold. In 1819, when they were at a discount
+of only 4½ per cent., a committee was appointed by the house of
+commons to reconsider the policy of resuming cash payments, and Peel,
+young as he was, became its chairman. In this character he abandoned his
+preconceived views and induced the house to adopt those which had been
+advocated by Horner. It was not thought prudent to fix an earlier date
+than 1823 for the actual resumption of cash payments, but the directors
+of the Bank of England anticipated this date, and began to exchange
+notes for specie on May 1, 1821. The new standard was definitely one of
+gold. A considerable fall of prices ensued, and it is still a disputed
+question whether the return to a single standard was entirely
+beneficial.
+
+But for what is called the public, the readers of newspapers and the
+frequenters of clubs or taverns, the rivalry of party leaders or the
+incidents of court life excite a much keener interest than painful
+efforts for the good of the humbler classes. During the closing years of
+George III.'s reign there were no party conflicts of special intensity.
+The whigs acquiesced in their self-imposed exclusion from office, and
+contented themselves with damaging criticism; the radicals had not yet
+acquired the confidence or respect of the electors. Liverpool remained
+prime minister; Castlereagh, foreign secretary; Sidmouth, home
+secretary; Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer. Meanwhile there were
+startling vicissitudes in the fortunes of the royal family. The king,
+indeed, remained under the cloud of mental derangement which darkened
+the last ten years of his life, and the Princess of Wales, who had been
+the object of so much scandal, was now out of sight and residing abroad.
+The Princess Charlotte, however, the only daughter of the regent, had
+centred in herself the loyalty and hopes of the nation in a remarkable
+degree, and was credited, not unjustly, with private virtues and public
+sympathies contrasting strongly with the disposition of her father. Her
+marriage with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who bore a high character,
+had been hailed with national enthusiasm, for it was known that, like
+Queen Victoria, she had been carefully trained and had disciplined
+herself, physically and morally, for the duties of a throne. It has been
+truly said that her death in childbirth, on November 6, was the great
+historical event of 1817. The prince regent, with his constitution
+weakened by dissipation, was not expected to survive her long, and so
+long as his wife lived there was no prospect of other legitimate issue,
+unless he could procure a divorce. There was no grandchild of George
+III. who could lawfully inherit the crown, and the apprehension of a
+collateral succession became more and more generally felt.[66]
+
+In the following year four royal marriages were announced. The Princess
+Elizabeth espoused the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg; the Duke of Clarence,
+the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; the Duke of Cambridge, the
+Princess Augusta of Hesse; the Duke of Kent, the Princess Victoria Mary
+of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of Sussex was already married, but not with the
+necessary consent of the crown, and the Duke of Cumberland was
+childless, having married three years earlier a divorced widow whom the
+queen, for private reasons, declined to receive. It is a striking proof
+of the discredit into which the royal family had fallen, since the old
+king virtually ceased to reign, that parliament, in spite of its
+anxiety about the succession, displayed an almost niggardly parsimony
+when it was moved to increase the allowances of the princes about to
+marry. No application was made on behalf of the Princess Elizabeth or
+the Duke of Sussex, who was already married morganatically. The
+additional grant of £6,000 a year asked on behalf of the Duke of
+Cumberland was refused by a small majority, partly, no doubt, because
+his anti-liberal opinions and untrustworthy character were no secret to
+public men. £10,000 a year was asked for the Duke of Clarence, and
+justified by Canning as less than he might fairly have claimed, but it
+was reduced to £6,000 and declined by the duke as inadequate; he
+afterwards married without a parliamentary grant. The provision of
+£6,000 a year for the Dukes of Cambridge and Kent respectively was
+stoutly opposed but ultimately carried. Of all George III.'s sons, the
+Duke of Kent was perhaps the most respected. It has been truly said that
+if the nation could have expressed its dearest wish, in the spirit of
+prophecy, after the death of the Princess Charlotte, it would have been
+that the issue of the Duke of Kent's marriage with Prince Leopold's
+sister might succeed, as Queen Victoria, to the crown of her
+grandfather.[67]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF GEORGE III._]
+
+On November 17, 1818, Queen Charlotte died, having filled her great and
+most difficult position for nearly sixty years with sound judgment,
+exemplary moral integrity, and a certain homely dignity. The Duke of
+York succeeded her as guardian of the king's person. Little more than a
+year later she was followed to the grave by the Duke of Kent, who died
+on January 23, 1820, and by the king himself, who died on January 29, in
+the eighty-second year of his age. He was not a great sovereign, but, as
+a man, he was far superior to his two predecessors, and must ever stand
+high, if not highest, in the gallery of our kings. His venerable figure,
+though shrouded from view, was a chief mainstay of the monarchy. Narrow
+as his views were, and obstinately as he adhered to them, he was not
+incapable of changing them, and could show generosity towards enemies,
+as he ever showed fidelity to friends. His reception of Franklin after
+the American war, and of Fox after the death of Pitt, was that of a
+king who understood his kingly office; and his strict devotion to
+business, regardless of his own pleasure, could not have been exceeded
+by a merchant engrossed in lucrative trade. The many pithy and racy
+sayings recorded of him show an insight into men's characters and the
+realities of life not unworthy of Dr. Johnson. His simplicity,
+kindliness, and charity endeared him to his subjects. His undaunted
+courage and readiness to undertake sole responsibility, not only during
+the panics of the Gordon riots and of the impending French invasion, but
+in many a political crisis, compelled the respect of all his ministers,
+and his disappearance from the scenes, to make way for the regency of
+his eldest son, was almost as disastrous for English society as the
+exchange, in France, of Louis XIV.'s decorous rule for that of the
+Regent Orléans.
+
+The European concert which had been called into existence by the war
+against Napoleon, and had effected a continental settlement at Vienna,
+continued to act for the maintenance of peace. The treaty of alliance of
+1815 only bound the four powers to common action in the event of a fresh
+revolution in France which might endanger the tranquillity of other
+states. The holy alliance was more comprehensive and wider in its aims,
+but was too vague to form the practical basis of a federation. The
+settlement of Europe by the treaty of Vienna was, however, the work of
+all the powers, and they had therefore an interest in everything that
+might be likely to affect that settlement. The habit of concerted
+action, once formed, was not lightly abandoned, and the succeeding age
+was an age of congresses. But though there was a general sentiment in
+favour of concerted action it manifested itself in different ways. The
+causes of the recent struggle with France had been political in their
+origin, and it was agreed that a recurrence of disorder from France
+could be best prevented by the establishment of a government in that
+country which should be at once constitutional and legitimist. England
+favoured, and Russia, the most autocratic of states, favoured still more
+vehemently, the development of constitutions wherever it might be
+practicable, while Austria, being composed of territories with no
+national cohesion, endeavoured rather to thwart the growth of
+constitutions. But Russia was also the most active advocate of joint
+interference where a constitutional reform was effected by
+unconstitutional means. Great Britain and Austria, on the other hand,
+with a juster instinct, considered armed interference an extreme remedy
+which might often be worse than the disease of a revolution.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYALIST REACTION IN EUROPE._]
+
+The numerous restorations of 1814 and 1815 were followed by a royalist
+and aristocratic reaction in many countries of Europe. In France Louis
+XVIII. found himself confronted by an ultra-royalist chamber of deputies
+which clamoured for vengeance on the partisans of the republican and
+imperial _régimes_ and for the restoration of the privileges and estates
+of the Church. Ferdinand VII. of Spain swept away the unwieldy
+constitution of 1812 amid the rejoicings of his people, who little
+foresaw his future tyranny; and Great Britain did not venture to resist
+the action of Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies in abolishing a constitution
+which British influence had induced him to grant his island kingdom in
+1813. In Prussia the government dealt sternly with the liberal press,
+and the provincial estates opposed the institution of a national diet;
+while in Würtemberg a parliament assembled under a liberal constitution
+demanded the restoration of the ancient privileges of the nobility and
+clergy. In the Two Sicilies British influence, supported by that of
+Austria, was used to prevent outrages on the defeated party; in Spain
+the moderate counsels of Great Britain were less successful. Austria
+endeavoured to prevent future disturbance in the Italian peninsula by a
+secret treaty, which obtained the sanction of the British government,
+requiring the Two Sicilies to adopt no constitutional changes
+inconsistent with the principles adopted by Austria in the
+Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Similar treaties were concluded by Austria
+with Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and she thus gained an ascendency in
+Italy, from which only Sardinia and the papal states were exempt.
+Russian agents meanwhile began to conduct a liberal propaganda in Spain
+and Italy, and Russia was even credited with a desire to make a
+liberalised Spain a counterpoise to England on the sea.
+
+For a time, however, there were no European complications of a
+formidable nature. In 1816 a British squadron was sent out under Lord
+Exmouth lo execute the decree of the congress of Vienna against the
+Barbary states. The Dey of Algiers and the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli
+were called upon to recognise the Ionian Islands as British, to accept
+British mediation between them and the courts of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia, to restore their Christian captives, and not to authorise
+further piracy. These terms were accepted by the Beys of Tunis and
+Tripoli, and the two first demands were granted by the Dey of Algiers.
+He was allowed a delay of three months in order to obtain the sultan's
+permission for granting the remainder, but in the interval a massacre of
+Italian fishermen took place at Bona. Lord Exmouth now sailed from
+Gibraltar to attack Algiers. On his demands being again ignored, he
+bombarded that city on August 27 for more than six hours. The arsenal
+and storehouses and all the ships in the port were burned, and on the
+next day the dey accepted Exmouth's terms; peace was signed on the 30th,
+the principal terms being the abolition of Christian slavery, and the
+delivery of all slaves to Exmouth on the following day.
+
+The treaty of Vienna in placing the Ionian Islands under British
+protection had made no mention of the towns of Parga and Butrinto on the
+mainland of Epirus which had passed under British rule along with the
+islands. These places were now surrendered to Turkey in accordance with
+a former treaty, in return for the Turkish recognition of the British
+protectorate over the islands. The inhabitants of Parga were, however,
+vehemently opposed to such a transference of their allegiance, and they
+were conveyed to the Ionian Islands and compensated for the loss of
+their property. The Turks entered into occupation of Parga in 1819. In
+1817 and 1818 wild rumours of Russian aggression in the direction of the
+Mediterranean began to circulate in England. It was reported that Spain
+had promised to cede Port Mahon to Russia; and that Russia was preparing
+a great military force, to be employed, if necessary, in alliance with
+the Bourbon states, France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies, to counteract
+British and Austrian influence. This influence, with that of Prussia,
+had really been employed to keep the Dardanelles closed against Russian
+ships. Meanwhile Austria had won over Prussia to her conservative policy
+in Germany.
+
+The violent language of the liberal party, especially at the
+universities, already began to terrify the Prussian government. The
+first danger signal was given at the Wartburg festival of delegates from
+the German universities in 1817, at which the students indulged in some
+boyish manifestations of their sympathies; their proceedings made some
+stir in Germany, and Metternich declared that they were revolutionary.
+The horror of liberalism was destined to be heightened in 1819 by the
+murder of the tsar's agent, the dramatist Kotzebue, by a lunatic member
+of a political society at Giessen. Its immediate result was a conference
+of German ministers at Carlsbad, where several resolutions for the
+suppression of political agitation were passed, and afterwards adopted
+by the diet at Frankfort. This policy was embodied in the "final act" of
+a similar conference held at Vienna in the following year (1820), which
+empowered the greater states of Germany to aid the smaller in checking
+revolutionary movements. At the same time it reaffirmed the general
+principle of non-intervention, and even laid down the pregnant doctrine
+that constitutions could not be legitimately altered except by
+constitutional means. The union of Austria and Prussia on the
+conservative side had rather the effect of throwing the secondary states
+of southern Germany upon the liberal side. In the spring and summer of
+1818 Bavaria and Baden framed constitutions, and in 1819 Würtemberg once
+more essayed parliamentary government, which the reactionary policy of
+her first parliament had compelled her to abandon. The significant fact
+in European politics was that Frederick William III. of Prussia, always
+accustomed to being led, had passed from the influence of Russia to that
+of Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONFERENCE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE._]
+
+Such were the general tendencies of European politics when the
+conference of Aix-la-Chapelle assembled on September 30, 1818. The
+primary object of this conference was to consider the request of France
+for a reduction in the indemnity demanded of her and for the evacuation
+of her territories by the four allied powers. Wellington and
+Castlereagh, who represented Great Britain, earned the gratitude of
+France by readily agreeing to these requests, which were granted without
+any difficulty. This question was obviously one which required such a
+conference to settle it; but the conference, having once assembled, was
+urged to deal with other difficulties that less directly concerned it.
+One of these was a dispute between Denmark and Sweden about the
+apportionment of the Danish debt, which, in consideration of the
+annexation of Norway to Sweden, under the treaty of Kiel, was to be
+partly borne by Sweden. Denmark appealed to the four powers,
+representing that treaty as in fact a part of their own settlement of
+Europe. Sweden would not admit the right of the powers to intervene, but
+finally settled her difficulty with Denmark by a separate negotiation
+conducted by the mediation of Great Britain in 1819.
+
+A still more doubtful question was raised by the request of Spain for
+the assistance of the allied powers against her revolted colonies. The
+Spanish dependencies in America had declined to acknowledge Joseph
+Bonaparte, and had lapsed into a state of chaos; the restoration of
+Ferdinand VII. had induced most of them to return to their allegiance,
+but the three south-eastern colonies, Banda Oriental (Uruguay), La Plata
+(the Argentine), and Paraguay, continued in revolt. In 1817 fortune
+turned still further against Spain; Monte Video, the capital of Banda
+Oriental, was taken by Portugal, or rather by Brazil, and Chile revolted
+against Spain. On February 12, 1818, Chile proclaimed her independence,
+and she began at once to procure warships in England and the United
+States, of which Lord Cochrane took command. The four allied powers and
+France had protested against the seizure of Monte Video, but otherwise
+Spain had been left to herself. Great Britain seemed to have more to
+gain than to lose by the insurrection. The revolted colonies were open
+to her commerce, and by weakening Spain they had strengthened the
+maritime supremacy of Great Britain. Nevertheless Great Britain was
+willing to mediate, on condition that Spain would make reasonable
+concessions. Spain, however, refused to make any concessions at all, and
+called on the allied powers to aid her in crushing the insurrection by
+force. Great Britain did not regard an unconditional subjection of the
+colonies as either expedient or practicable, and opposed this course;
+Austria took the same view, and thus placed intervention out of the
+question.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EUROPEAN ALLIANCE._]
+
+But the principal question before the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle was
+not one relating to any particular difficulty, but the permanent form of
+the European alliance. The tsar desired a general confederacy of
+European powers, such as had signed the treaty of Vienna and the holy
+alliance. This confederacy was to guard against two evils--that of
+revolutionary agitation and that of arbitrary administration and
+sectional alliances. Such a project, though doubtless proposed in good
+faith, practically gave Russia an interest in the domestic movements,
+both reactionary and constitutional, of every country, while it forbade
+any political combination to which Russia was not a party. Castlereagh
+agreed with Metternich in thinking that such an extension of Russian
+Influence was more to be dreaded than local disorder, and Great Britain
+and Austria proposed therefore that the alliance should be based on the
+treaty of Chaumont, as renewed at Vienna and Paris, though they were
+willing to have friendly discussions from time to time without extending
+the scope of the alliance. All parties desired to include France in
+their alliance, but the tsar pertinently objected that France could not
+be admitted to an alliance aimed solely against France. A compromise was
+therefore adopted. The quadruple alliance for war, in case of a
+revolution in France, was secretly renewed, and centres for mobilisation
+were fixed, while France was publicly invited to join the deliberations
+of the allied powers. A secret protocol was then signed providing for
+the meeting of congresses from time to time, and giving the minor
+European powers a place in these congresses when their affairs should be
+under discussion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] For details of the riots see _Annual Register_, lviii. (1816),
+60-73. They were particularly numerous in May, 1816, and in the counties
+of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk. At Littleport in Cambridgeshire, on
+May 24, it was found necessary to fire on the rioters. Two men were
+killed and five were afterwards executed.
+
+[65] Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 2; Walpole, _History of England_, i., 392,
+393.
+
+[66] The curious may be interested in the following list of the names
+and ages of the persons who stood next in order of succession to the
+crown after the death of Princess Charlotte. It will be observed that of
+the fourteen who stood nearest the throne, not one was under forty years
+of age, and not one had a legitimate child:--
+
+                                          Age.    Relation to king.
+    1. George, Prince Regent                   55     Son.
+    2. Frederick, Duke of York                 54     Son.
+    3. William, Duke of Clarence               52     Son.
+    4. Edward, Duke of Kent                    50     Son.
+    5. Ernest, Duke of Cumberland              46     Son.
+    6. Augustus, Duke of Sussex                44     Son.
+    7. Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge             43     Son.
+    8. Charlotte, Queen-Dowager of Würtemberg  51     Daughter.
+    9. Princess Augusta                        48     Daughter.
+    10. Princess Elizabeth                     47     Daughter.
+    11. Mary, Duchess of Gloucester            41     Daughter,
+    12. Princess Sophia                        40     Daughter.
+    13. William, Duke of Gloucester            41     Nephew.
+    14. Princess Sophia of Gloucester          44     Niece.
+    15. Charles, Duke of Brunswick             13     Great nephew.
+
+[67] See, however, the _Creevey Papers_, i., 268-71, 284.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+                   THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The only important events of domestic interest in the year 1820, after
+the death of George III., were the Cato Street conspiracy, and the
+so-called trial of Queen Caroline. For the accession of the king, who
+had so long exercised royal functions as regent, produced no visible
+effect either on the personal composition or on the general policy of
+the government. Immediately after his proclamation he was attacked by a
+dangerous illness, but on his recovery he promptly raised two questions
+which nearly involved a change of ministry. One of these was a proposal
+to increase his private revenue, which he was induced to abandon for the
+present. The other was a demand for a divorce, which the ministers
+firmly resisted, though they ultimately agreed to a compromise, under
+which the divorce question was to be deferred, so long as the queen
+remained quietly abroad, but action was to be taken in case she returned
+to assert her rights.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATO STREET CONSPIRACY._]
+
+In the midst of these difficulties the lives of the ministers were
+threatened by a plot somewhat like those of the seventeenth century.
+Later writers have represented it as contemptible in its conception, and
+as directly provoked by the "Manchester massacre". So it may be said
+that Guy Fawkes was an insignificant person, and that his employers were
+exasperated by the severe treatment of popish recusants. The facts are
+that Arthur Thistlewood, the author of the Cato Street conspiracy, was a
+well-known confederate of the Watsons and other members of the extreme
+reform party, and that his plan for murdering the assembled cabinet in a
+private house would probably have been effectual, had it not been
+detected by the aid of an informer. This informer, Edwards, had warned
+the authorities in November, 1819, of the impending stroke, and may or
+may not have instigated Thistlewood's gang to execute it at a moment and
+place well-calculated to secure their arrest. At all events twenty-four
+conspirators armed themselves in Cato Street, near the Edgware Road,
+London, for the purpose of assassinating the ministers at a cabinet
+dinner in Harrowby's house in Grosvenor Square, and some of their
+associates were posted near the door of that house to summon them when
+the guests should have assembled. Harrowby's dinner was of course put
+off, but the watchers were deceived by the arrival of carriages for a
+dinner party next door, and failed to apprise the gang in Cato Street.
+The police rushed in upon the gang, but a body of soldiers ordered to
+support them reached the spot too late, a policeman was stabbed, and
+Thistlewood, with twelve or fourteen others, contrived to escape. He was
+captured the next morning, and executed with four of his accomplices,
+five more were transported for life, and the atrocity of the enterprise
+was naturally treated in the king's speech as a justification for the
+repressive measures in operation. In the following April a petty
+outbreak in Scotland was easily put down by a few troops at a place
+called Bonnymuir. It was, however, preceded by a treasonable
+proclamation, which spread terror among the citizens of Glasgow for
+several hours, and was sufficiently like an attempt at armed rebellion
+to confirm the alarm excited by the Cato Street conspiracy. In the face
+of such warnings, the energy of the government in stamping out disorder
+could hardly be censured.
+
+The last parliament of George III. was prorogued on February 28, 1820,
+and dissolved on the following day. One of its last debates was on Lord
+John Russell's proposal to suspend the issue of writs to the boroughs of
+Grampound, Penryn, Barnstaple, and Camelford. This was carried in the
+house of commons, but lost in the house of lords. The new parliament was
+opened by George IV. in person on April 21. Widespread excitement
+occasioned by the question of the divorce prevented the business of the
+first session from attracting much attention. A deficit in the revenue,
+coinciding with growing expenditure, compelled Vansittart to fall back
+on a fresh manipulation of the sinking fund. One measure, however, of
+the highest importance was introduced by Brougham. The committee of 1814
+on national education had amassed a great body of valuable evidence,
+and he now founded upon its report a comprehensive bill extending to the
+whole country. It placed the management and teaching of elementary
+schools entirely in the hands of Churchmen, and was dropped after the
+first reading, but the conscience of the nation was roused by it, and it
+bore fruit later. Further slight mitigations of the criminal law were
+carried as a result of attacks made by Sir James Mackintosh, upon whom
+the mantle of Romilly had fallen, and it is worthy of notice that even
+Eldon, the stout opponent of such mitigations, condemned the use of
+spring-guns, as a safeguard against poaching. The only ministerial
+change in this year was the final retirement in May of Lord Mulgrave,
+who had held high office in every ministry except that of Grenville
+since 1804, and had voluntarily surrendered his post at the head of the
+ordnance in 1818 to make room for Wellington.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUEEN CAROLINE._]
+
+The "queen's trial," as it is erroneously called, was the last act but
+one in a domestic tragedy which had lasted twenty-five years. The
+Princess Caroline of Brunswick was a frivolous and ill-disciplined young
+woman when she was selected by George III. as a wife for the
+heir-apparent, already united and really attached to Mrs. Fitzherbert.
+The princess could not have been married to a man less capable of
+drawing out the better side of her character, nor was she one to inspire
+his selfish and heartless nature with a sentiment, if not of conjugal
+love, yet of conjugal friendship. From the first there was no pretence
+of affection between them. A few years after her marriage she was
+relegated, not unwillingly, to live independently at Blackheath, where
+many eminent men accepted her hospitality. During this period, as we
+have seen, a "delicate investigation" into her conduct was instituted in
+1806. Though she emerged from it with less stain on her character than
+had been expected, she never enjoyed the respect of the royal family or
+of the nation, and there was no question of her sharing the home of her
+husband. Instead of being a bond of concord between them, the education
+of her daughter was the subject of constant discord, requiring the
+frequent intervention of the old king until he lost his reason. After
+she went abroad in 1814, she travelled widely, but her English
+attendants soon retired from her service, and she incurred fresh
+suspicion by her flighty and undignified conduct. She had no part in the
+rejoicing for the marriage, or in the mourning for the death, of the
+Princess Charlotte; and in 1818 a secret commission, afterwards known as
+the Milan commission, was sent out by the prince regent to collect
+evidence for a divorce suit. Not only Liverpool, but Eldon, who had
+formerly stood her friend, concurred in the appointment of this
+commission, promoted by Sir John Leach, and its report was the
+foundation of the proceedings now taken against her.
+
+These proceedings were immediately due to her own action in returning to
+England in June, 1820, but this action was not wholly unprovoked. She
+had long and bitterly resented her official exclusion from foreign
+courts, and when, after the king's accession, her name was omitted from
+the prayer-book, she protested against it as an intolerable insult.
+Contrary to the advice of her wisest partisans, including Brougham, she
+persisted in braving the wrath of the king and throwing herself upon the
+people. She was received at Dover with acclamations from immense
+multitudes; and her journey to and through London was a continued
+ovation. Not that her innocence was established even in the popular
+mind, but that, innocent or guilty, she was regarded as a persecuted
+woman, and persecuted by a worthless husband. The ministry fulfilled its
+promise to the king by moving the house of lords to institute an inquiry
+into the queen's conduct. Pending this, conferences took place between
+Wellington and Castlereagh, on the part of the king, and Brougham and
+Denman on that of the queen. It was at once laid down as a preliminary
+basis of the negotiation that neither should the king be understood to
+retract, nor the queen to admit, any allegation against her. The points
+upon which she inflexibly insisted were, the recognition of her royal
+status at foreign courts, through an official introduction by the
+British ambassador, and the insertion of her name in the prayer-book.
+
+The house of commons, on the motion of Wilberforce, offered to protect
+her honour (whatever that might import) on condition of her waiving this
+last point, but she courteously declined its conciliatory proposals on
+June 22. On July 4 a secret committee of the house of lords recommended
+a solemn investigation, to be carried out "in the course of a
+legislative proceeding," and on the 8th Liverpool introduced a bill of
+pains and penalties, to deprive her of her title, and to dissolve her
+marriage. The second reading of this bill was formally set down for
+August 17, and for several weeks afterwards the house of lords was
+occupied in hearing evidence in support of the charges against her. The
+whole country was deluged with the squalid details of this evidence, the
+ministers were insulted, and the sympathy of the populace with her cause
+was obtrusively displayed in every part of the kingdom. On October 3,
+after an adjournment of the lords, Brougham opened the defence in the
+most celebrated of his speeches. On November 2 the lord chancellor,
+Eldon, moved the second reading of the bill, and on the 8th it was
+carried by a majority of twenty-eight. Four days later, on the third
+reading, the majority had dwindled to nine only. Knowing the temper of
+the house of commons, Liverpool treated such a victory as almost
+equivalent to a defeat, and announced that the government would not
+proceed further with the measure.
+
+Had the queen possessed the virtue of self-respect or dignity, she would
+have been satisfied with this legislative, though not morally decisive,
+acquittal. But she was intoxicated with popular applause, largely due to
+her royal consort's vices, and, after London had been illuminated for
+three nights in her honour, she declined overtures from the government,
+and appealed for a maintenance to the house of commons, which granted
+her an annuity of £50,000 in the next session. But she never lived to
+enjoy it After going in procession to St. Paul's, to return thanks for
+her deliverance, on the 29th, and vainly attempting, once more, to
+procure the mention of her name in the prayer-book, she concentrated her
+efforts on a claim of right to be crowned with the king. No government
+could have conceded this claim, and, when it had been refused by the
+privy council, her solemn protests were inevitably vain. Even her least
+prudent counsellors would assuredly have dissuaded her from the attempt
+which she made to force an entrance into Westminster Abbey on the
+coronation day, July 19, 1821. It was a painful scene when she, who had
+so lately been the idol of the fickle populace, was turned away from the
+doors amidst conflicting exclamations of derision and pity. A fortnight
+later, on August 2, she was officially reported to be seriously ill; on
+the 7th she was no more. In accordance with her own direction her body
+was buried at Brunswick. Her ill-founded popularity was shown for the
+last time, when a riotous multitude succeeded in diverting her funeral
+procession, and forcing it to pass through the city on its way to
+Harwich. But it did not survive her long; the people were becoming tired
+of her, and the king, who had forfeited the respect of the middle and
+upper classes, was less hated by the lower classes after her death.
+
+[Pageheading: _GEORGE IV. IN IRELAND._]
+
+The personal character and opinions of George IV. seem to have
+influenced politics less during the early years of his reign than during
+his long regency. His coronation was celebrated with unprecedented
+magnificence, and amidst external demonstrations of loyalty, hard to
+reconcile with the unbounded enthusiasm which the queen had so lately
+inspired. Soon afterwards, he sailed in his yacht from Portsmouth on a
+voyage to Ireland, but put into Holyhead and there awaited news of the
+queen's expected death. This reached him at last, and probably impressed
+him, no less than his ministers, as "the greatest of all possible
+deliverances, both to his majesty and the country".[68] He proceeded to
+Dublin in one of the earliest steam-packets, and secluded himself until
+"the corpse of his wife was supposed to have left England".[69] He then
+plunged into a round of festivities, and pleased all classes of Irishmen
+by his affable and condescending manners. He was, indeed, the first
+sovereign of England who had appeared in Ireland on a mission of peace.
+John William Ward, afterwards fourth Viscount Dudley in his letters,
+describes him as having behaved like a popular candidate on an
+electioneering trip, and surmises that "if the day before he left
+Ireland, he had stood for Dublin, he might have turned out Shaw or
+Grattan ".[70] Certain it is that his visit to Ireland was regarded as
+an important political event. The same kind of success attended his
+visit to Scotland in August of the following year, 1822. Thenceforth, he
+scarcely figures in political life until the resignation of Lord
+Liverpool in 1827, and though he consented with reluctance to Canning's
+tenure of the foreign office, he did not attempt to interfere with the
+change in foreign policy consequent upon it. He was, in fact, sinking
+more and more into an apathetic voluptuary; but he could rouse himself,
+and exhibit some proofs of ability, under the impulse of his brothers,
+the honest Duke of York and the arch-intriguer, the Duke of Cumberland.
+
+The cry for retrenchment, now taken up by the country gentlemen, and not
+unmingled with suggestions for a partial repudiation of the national
+debt, compelled the government to adopt a policy of strict economy.
+Accordingly, in 1822, Vansittart introduced a scheme for the conversion
+of the so-called "Navy 5 per cents.," which resulted in a saving of
+above £1,000,000 annually. He also carried a more questionable scheme
+for the payment of military, naval, and civil pensions, which then
+amounted to £4,900,000 a year, but were falling in rapidly; the money
+required for this purpose was to be borrowed by trustees, and was to be
+repaid in the course of forty-five years at the rate of £2,800,000 a
+year; in this way an immediate saving of about £2,000,000 annually was
+effected at the cost, however, of the next generation. By means of these
+expedients, with a considerable reduction of official salaries, the
+government was enabled to repeal the additional duty on malt, to
+diminish the duties on salt and leather, and, on the whole to remit
+about £3,500,000 of taxes. When the entire credit of financial reform is
+given to Huskisson, Joseph Hume, and other economists of the new school,
+it should not be forgotten that a beginning was made by economists of
+the old school, before Huskisson joined the government in 1823, or
+Robinson took Vansittart's place as chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+From the beginning of this reign a more enlightened spirit may be traced
+in parliamentary debates. This was aided by the growth of a
+constitutional movement in favour of reform in parliament as the first
+step towards a redress of grievances. The movement left its first trace
+on the statute-book in a measure carried by Lord John Russell in the
+session of 1821 for the disfranchisement of Grampound, though the vacant
+seats were transferred to the county of York, instead of to the
+"village" of Leeds or some other of the great unrepresented cities. This
+was the first instance of the actual disfranchisement of a constituency,
+though it was not without precedent that the franchise of a corrupt
+borough should be extended to the freeholders of the surrounding
+district. A notable sign of the progressive change was the
+reconstruction of the cabinet in 1822. Liverpool, who always possessed
+the gift of working harmoniously with colleagues of different views and
+felt the weakness of his present ministry, once more attempted to bring
+about a coalition with the Grenville party in the opposition. Grenville
+had long been drifting away from his alliance with Grey, and had been a
+stout advocate of repressive legislation which the more advanced whigs
+opposed. Though he declined office for himself, several of his relatives
+and adherents were rewarded with minor appointments, his cousin, Charles
+Wynn, became president of the board of control, in succession to
+Bragge-Bathurst, who had himself succeeded Canning in the previous year,
+and his nephew, the Marquis of Buckingham, obtained a dukedom. Such
+recruits added little strength to the Liverpool government, and Holland
+well said that "all articles are now to be had at low prices, except
+Grenvilles".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+But Liverpool gained far more powerful coadjutors in the Marquis
+Wellesley, Peel, and Canning. In December, 1821, Wellesley undertook the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, which had relapsed into so disturbed a
+state that it had been proposed to make Wellington both viceroy and
+commander-in-chief. The significance of this selection was increased by
+the appointment of Plunket as attorney-general. Sidmouth, while
+retaining his seat in the cabinet, retired, by his own wish, from the
+office of home secretary, with a sense of having pacified the country,
+and was succeeded by Peel. Castlereagh, now Marquis of Londonderry,
+remained foreign secretary, but on August 12, 1822, as he was on the
+point of setting out for the congress of Verona, he died, like Whitbread
+and Romilly, by his own hand. His suicidal act was clearly due to a
+morbid fit of depression, under the stress of anxieties protracted over
+more than twenty years; and the disordered state of his mind had been
+observed, not only by Wellington, but also by the king. His successor
+was Canning, who also became leader of the house of commons.
+
+The characters and political aims of these rival statesmen have often
+been contrasted by historians of a later age, who have seldom done
+justice to Castlereagh. It is remembered that he was the author of the
+Walcheren expedition; it is forgotten that he was the advocate of
+sending a powerful force to the Baltic coast at the critical moment
+between Jena and Eylau, that he was not altogether responsible for the
+delays which rendered the Walcheren expedition abortive or for the
+choice of its incompetent commander, that his prime object was to strike
+a crushing blow at Napoleon's naval power, and that, if his
+instructions had been obeyed, this would have been effected by a rapid
+advance upon Antwerp when nearly all the French troops had been
+withdrawn from the Netherlands. It is remembered that he was at the war
+office when the operations of Wellington in the Peninsula were crippled
+for want of supplies; it is forgotten that it was he who selected
+Wellington, and that he loyally strained every nerve to keep him
+supplied with troops, provisions, and specie, when few but himself
+believed in the policy of the Peninsular war, and Sir John Moore had
+assured him that if the French dominated Spain, they could not be
+resisted in Portugal. It is remembered--or rather it is assumed--that he
+was the eager promoter of coercive and reactionary legislation at home;
+it is forgotten, or ignored, that he was among the earliest and
+staunchest advocates of catholic emancipation, and that a despotic
+temper is belied by the whole tone of his speeches. Above all, he is
+unjustly credited, in the face of direct evidence to the contrary, with
+being the champion of absolutism in the councils of Europe, the fact
+being not only that his voice was always on the side of moderation and
+conciliation, but that Canning himself, on succeeding him, dissociated
+Great Britain from the holy alliance by taking his stand upon an
+admirable despatch of Castlereagh and adopting it as his own. When he
+met with his tragical end, the brutal shouts of exultation raised by a
+portion of the crowd at his funeral were the expression of sheer
+ignorance and not of intelligent public opinion. He was a tory, in days
+when most patriots were tories, but he was a tory of the best type; and
+we of a later generation can see that few statesmen of George III.'s
+reign have left a purer reputation or rendered greater services to their
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING AND PEEL._]
+
+George Canning, his successor, has been far more favourably judged by
+posterity, and not without reason, if intellectual brilliancy is a
+supreme test of political merit. A firm adherent of Pitt, and a somewhat
+unscrupulous critic of Addington, he was probably the first
+parliamentary orator of the nineteenth century, with the possible
+exception of Sheridan. Pitt's eloquence was of a loftier and simpler
+type, Fox's was more impetuous and spontaneous; Peel's range of
+political knowledge was far wider; Gladstone excelled all, not only in
+length of experience but in readiness and dialectical resource.
+Canning's rhetoric was of a finer quality and was combined with great
+debating power, but he was a man to inspire admiration rather than
+confidence, and had not held one of the higher political offices since
+his resignation in 1809, after his quarrel with Castlereagh. He accepted
+a mission to Portugal, however, and was in Lisbon when Napoleon returned
+from Elba. In 1816, as has been seen, he became president of the board
+of control, but, having been formerly one of the queen's advisers, he
+declined to have anything to do with her trial and remained abroad
+during its continuance. In December, 1820, he returned, but persisted in
+resigning his place at the board of control on the supposed ground that
+further parliamentary discussion of the queen's case was inevitable. On
+this occasion he received a special vote of thanks from the directors of
+the East India Company for his services on the board. The king objected
+to his readmission after the queen's death, and he was a private member
+of parliament when he was offered and undertook the governor-generalship
+of India in March, 1822. But his departure was delayed until August, and
+he was on his way to bid farewell to his constituents at Liverpool when
+Castlereagh destroyed himself. It was generally felt that no other man
+was so well qualified as Canning to succeed him. But the king declared
+his "final and unalterable decision" to sanction no such change. Though
+he afterwards relented, on the remonstrances of Wellington, he did so
+with a bad grace; but there was no delay on Canning's part in accepting
+the foreign secretaryship thus offered. From his acceptance may be dated
+the most remarkable part of his career.
+
+The accession of Peel to the Liverpool ministry, in the capacity of home
+secretary; was only less important than that of Canning. Hitherto, Peel
+had mostly been known to the British public as chief secretary for
+Ireland, and as chairman of the committee which, in 1819, recommended
+the early resumption of cash payments. In both these posts he displayed
+a certain moderation and independence of mind, combined with a rare
+capacity for business, which marked him out as a great administrator.
+This promise he amply fulfilled as home secretary. He was the first
+minister of the crown who took up the philanthropic work of Romilly and
+Mackintosh, largely reducing the number of offences for which capital
+punishment could be inflicted. He was also the first to reform the
+police system of London, and to substitute for a multitude of decrepit
+watchmen, incapable of dealing with gangs of active criminals, a
+disciplined body of stalwart constables, which has since been copied in
+every county and large town of Great Britain. Above all, while he cannot
+be said to have shown a statesmanlike insight or foresight of the
+highest order, he could read the signs of the times and the temper of
+his countrymen with a sagacity far beyond that of his predecessor,
+Sidmouth, or of such politicians as Eldon and Castlereagh. In him was
+represented the domestic policy of Pitt in his earlier days, as Pitt's
+financial views were represented in Huskisson, who had actually served
+under him.
+
+Though Huskisson was only made president of the board of trade, in
+January, 1823, and not chancellor of the exchequer, it is certain that
+his mind controlled that of Robinson, who succeeded Vansittart in that
+position. Vansittart, who was created Lord Bexley, succeeded
+Bragge-Bathurst as chancellor of the duchy. The cabinet changes were
+completed in October by the removal of Wellesley Pole, now Lord
+Maryborough, from the office of master of the mint. Huskisson, if any
+man, was the leading pioneer of free trade, and there can be little
+doubt that, had he not died prematurely, its adoption would have been
+hastened by ten or fifteen years. In his first year of office he
+welcomed petitions for the repeal of the import duties on foreign wool,
+but failed to convince the wool manufacturers that it must be
+accompanied by the abolition of export duties on British wool. The
+proposed reform was, therefore, dropped, and a like fate befell his
+attempt in the same year to benefit the silk trade by abolishing certain
+vexatious restrictions upon it, including the practice of fixing the
+wages of Spitalfields weavers by an order of the magistrates. For the
+moment the ignorant outcry of the journeymen themselves prevailed over
+their real interests, but in the following year, 1824, Huskisson carried
+a much wider measure, providing that foreign silks, hitherto excluded,
+should be admitted subject to a duty of 30 per cent. in and after 1826,
+and another measure for the joint relief of wool growers and wool
+manufacturers which imposed a small duty of equal amount on the
+importation and the exportation of wool.
+
+His great achievement in 1823 was the reform of the navigation laws.
+These acts, dating from the commonwealth and the restoration, gave
+British shipowners a qualified monopoly of the carrying trade, since
+they prohibited the importation of European goods except in British
+ships or ships of the producing country, while the importation of goods
+from other quarters of the world was confined to British ships only.
+America had protested against this exclusive system, and it was
+abandoned, as regards the United States, by the treaty of Ghent in 1814.
+The mercantile states of Europe soon followed the example of America,
+and the reciprocity of duties bill, introduced by Huskisson on June 6,
+1823, conceded equal rights to all countries reciprocating the
+concession, only retaining the exclusion against such countries as might
+reject equality of trade. The change involved some hardship to
+shipowners who had built their vessels with timber bought at prices
+raised by heavy duties, but they were too shortsighted to accept the
+compromise offered by Huskisson. Before long, however, the act was
+justified, and the shipowners compensated by a rapid increase in British
+shipping.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGRICULTURAL DISCONTENT._]
+
+For nearly five years after the accession of George IV. the state of the
+country was, on the whole, more prosperous, and the industrial classes
+were more contented, than in the five years next preceding. Such
+restlessness as there was prevailed among farmers and agricultural
+labourers rather than among workmen in the manufacturing districts, and
+in 1823 every branch of manufactures was reported to be flourishing. It
+is difficult for a later generation, accustomed to consider 30s. a
+quarter a fair price for wheat, to understand the perennial complaints
+and petitions of the agricultural interest when 60s. a quarter was
+regarded as a low price for wheat, and the cultivation of wheat extended
+over a vastly larger area than it does at present. Nor is the difficulty
+lessened, when we remember the miserably low rate of wages then paid by
+farmers. A partial explanation may be found in the fact that what they
+saved in wages they lost in poor rates, and that most agricultural
+products except corn were sold at a very small profit. The high poor
+rates were the result of the disastrous system of giving allowances to
+labourers.
+
+But there were other evils caused by the vicious policy pursued by the
+government. The encouragement of home production had led to the
+enclosure of land not fit for cultivation, so that a slight fall in
+prices meant ruin to many farmers. Moreover, the corn laws, though
+framed for the purpose of arresting fluctuations in price, actually
+increased fluctuations and thus enhanced the risks attending
+agricultural enterprise. Nor were landlords who had thriven on war
+prices, and raised the scale of their establishments as if these prices
+were to be perpetual, willing to reduce their rents on the return of
+peace. Rent was said to have risen 70 per cent. since 1792; but the
+landlords were often embarrassed, because their lands had too often been
+burdened with jointures, settlements, and mortgages during the war. It
+was in their interest that the act of 1815, which aimed at maintaining
+war prices, had been passed. But the deeper reason for all this clamour
+from the rural districts was the stagnation of ideas, and incapacity of
+improvement, engendered by an artificial monopoly of the national food
+supply. This was not the special lesson impressed upon landlords or
+tenants by Cobbett, whose violent and delusive writings had a large
+circulation in the country. But his teaching was so far beneficial that
+it quickened the demand for parliamentary reform, though the fruits of
+that reform were destined to be very different from the expectations
+which he excited.
+
+[Pageheading: _SPECULATIVE FRENZY._]
+
+The spell of general prosperity which, in spite of some distress in the
+rural districts, prevailed in the years 1820-23 was somewhat broken in
+1824 by strikes and outrages in the manufacturing districts. Strikes for
+higher wages naturally arose out of the increase in mill owners'
+profits, and the ferocious spirit displayed by the strikers against
+masters and fellow-workmen was attributed by reformers to the one-sided
+operation of the combination laws. Accordingly, a committee of the house
+of commons reported in favour of repealing these laws, and also part of
+the common law which treated coercion either by trade unions or by
+masters as conspiracy. A bill founded on this report was hastily passed,
+with the natural result that strikes broke out in every quarter of the
+country; wholesale and cruel oppression was practised by trade
+unionists, and it became necessary for parliament to retrace its steps.
+Under a new act, passed in 1825, which continued in force until very
+recent times, trade unions were recognised as legal, but their worst
+malpractices were once more brought within the control of the criminal
+law.[71] So far the commercial policy of Huskisson was justified, as a
+whole, by its effects on trade, and the session of 1824 was closed on
+June 25 by a cheerful speech from the king, in which the disturbed state
+of Ireland was the only topic suggestive of anxiety. Already, however,
+the revival of commercial hopefulness at home, with the opening of new
+markets in South America, was paving the way for the most ruinous mania
+of speculation known in England since the south sea bubble. It was well
+that sound and sober-minded economists now guided the action of the
+government, and that Liverpool proved himself a worthy successor of Sir
+Robert Walpole during the great financial crisis of 1825.[72]
+
+The speculative frenzy of 1825 differed from the railway mania of the
+next generation in that it had no solid basis of remunerative
+investment. The development of the railway system, after the application
+of locomotive steam engines to iron tramways, offered a legitimate
+promise of large profits, and this promise would have been still more
+amply realised but for the shameful waste of capital on competition and
+law expenses. It was otherwise with the dupes and victims of the rage
+for speculation which possessed all classes of society in 1825, and
+arose out of an immense accumulation of wealth for which no safe
+employment could be found at home except at a modest rate of interest.
+The weakening of the hold of Spain on South America left her colonies
+open to foreign trade, but the enterprises there and elsewhere which
+absorbed the hard-won savings of humble families, by thousands and tens
+of thousands, were nearly all chimerical, and some of them grotesque in
+their absurdity. Whether or not warming-pans and skates were actually
+exported to the tropics, it is certain that Scotch dairy-women emigrated
+to Buenos Ayres for the purpose of milking wild cows and churning butter
+for people who preferred oil. The incredible multiplication of
+bubble-companies was facilitated by a marvellous cheapness of money,
+largely due to an inordinate issue of notes by country bankers, and even
+by the Bank of England, in spite of the fact that gold and silver were
+known to be leaving the country in vast quantities, especially in the
+shape of loans to France. The inevitable reaction came when the Bank of
+England contracted its issue of notes in order to arrest the drain of
+gold; goods recklessly bought up had to be sold at a fearful loss, bills
+upon which advances had been made proved to be of no value, and several
+great London banking houses stopped payment, bringing down in their fall
+a much larger number of country banks dependent on them.
+
+In the month of December, 1825, the crisis was at its height, and it is
+stated that within six or seven weeks after the failure of the banking
+firm of Pole & Company on the 5th, sixty or seventy banks had broken.
+The king's speech in July had congratulated parliament on increasing
+prosperity and had betrayed no misgivings about its stability. When the
+crash came, however, the ministers showed no want of firmness or
+resource. They could not repair the consequences of national folly, but
+they devoted themselves with intelligence to a restoration of credit.
+For this purpose they suppressed at once the further issue of small
+notes from country banks by a high-handed act of authority, for which
+they admitted that an act of indemnity might be needed. At the same time
+they rapidly increased the supply of small notes from the Bank of
+England, and of coin from the mint. Moreover, they induced the Bank of
+England to establish branches in a few provincial towns and to make
+advances upon merchants' goods to the amount of three millions. It cost
+a greater effort to break down the monopoly of the Bank of England by
+legalising joint-stock banks in the provinces, though not within a
+distance of sixty-five miles from London. Such practical expedients as
+these, seconded by the good sense of the mercantile community, proved
+sufficient to avert a catastrophe only less disastrous than national
+bankruptcy. With the subsidence of alarm, the causes of alarm also
+subsided, the recuperative powers of the country reasserted themselves,
+as during the great war, and the heart-breaking anxieties of 1825-26
+were ignored, if not forgotten, in the political excitement of 1827.[73]
+
+[Pageheading: _ECONOMIC REFORM._]
+
+The budgets of 1823-26 indeed mark a memorable advance in financial
+reform, which the commercial panic of 1825 scarcely interrupted. There
+had been a reduction of the national debt by about £25,000,000. "The
+poorer householders had been relieved from the pressure both of house
+tax and window tax. The manufacturing classes had been encouraged by
+the reduction of the duties on silk, wool, and iron. The consuming
+classes had been benefited by the reduction of duties on spirits, wines,
+coffee, and sugar."[74] Owing to Huskisson's enlightened policy the old
+navigation laws had been repealed upon the condition of reciprocity; the
+combination laws had been liberally revised; various bounties had been
+abandoned on free trade principles, and the monstrous evils of smuggling
+had been greatly abated. If the chancellor of the exchequer could show
+no surplus in 1826, he could at least boast that after so desperate a
+crisis there was no deficit, and he had no reason to be ashamed of
+Cobbett's nickname, "Prosperity Robinson," which he owed to his
+optimism, largely founded upon facts. Before the close of the year 1826,
+however, this optimism received a rude shock. The agitation against the
+corn laws assumed an acuter form than ever, and Huskisson prudently
+deprecated it on the simple ground that no effective action could be
+taken in an expiring parliament. Distress had recurred in the
+manufacturing districts; mills and power-looms were again destroyed. The
+free trade policy of Huskisson was vigorously attacked in parliament,
+but it was successfully defended in powerful speeches by Canning as well
+as by himself. Ultimately the government, having obtained limited powers
+from parliament to admit foreign corn during the temporary emergency,
+had the courage to exceed those powers and seek an indemnity from the
+next parliament.
+
+The dissolution of 1826, closing the life of one of the longest
+parliaments in modern times, was the prelude to a very eventful year.
+The general election brought into prominence the two burning questions
+of catholic relief and the corn laws, and unseated for the moment
+Brougham, Cobbett, Hunt, and Lord John Russell, but it produced no
+material change in the balance of parties. Little was done in the short
+autumn session, but when parliament met again early in February, 1827,
+great events had already cast their shadows before. The Duke of York,
+heir-presumptive to the crown, had died on January 5. He was known to be
+a strong tory in politics, but, in spite of this, and of the scandals
+which attached to his name in earlier years, he enjoyed a considerable
+share of popular confidence. Compared with his elder brother, he was
+respected; he was a true Englishman, like his father, whom he resembled
+in character; his administration of the army had survived hostile
+criticism, while a declaration which he had recently made against
+catholic emancipation had produced a profound impression on public
+opinion. Much less was known of the Duke of Clarence, who stood next in
+succession. He had already injured himself in public estimation by
+declining the increased allowance offered him, and then claiming it with
+arrears; nor did he now improve his position in the eyes of his future
+subjects by stickling for a larger addition to it than parliament was
+disposed to grant. But the Duke of York's death was followed by a far
+more important incident. Liverpool was disabled by illness from
+attending his funeral, which, occurring in the depth of winter, proved
+directly fatal to one of those who were present, and seriously weakened
+the constitutions of others, including Canning. On February 8, the first
+day of the session, Liverpool was in his place, though in broken health,
+and on the 17th he took a feeble part in the debate on the grant to the
+Duke of Clarence. On the following morning he was struck down by a
+paralytic seizure, and, though his life was prolonged for two years, he
+never recovered the use of his faculties.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLOSE OF LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+Liverpool's disappearance from the political scenes may be said to mark
+an epoch in the later history of England. Though only fifty-six years of
+age, he had been continuously in office for twenty years, and prime
+minister for fifteen, a tenure of power which none of his predecessors
+had exceeded except Walpole and Pitt. His lot was cast in the most
+critical period of the great war, and in the long night of adversity and
+anxiety which ushered in the "thirty years' peace". As foreign secretary
+he conducted the negotiations for the peace of Amiens; as home secretary
+he led the house of lords and was responsible for the government of
+Ireland; as secretary for war and the colonies he gave Wellington a
+steady, if not ardent, support in those apparently barren campaigns
+which strained the national patience; as prime minister he guided the
+ship of state in all the difficulties of foreign and domestic affairs
+which arose between 1812 and 1827. Castlereagh may have been the most
+influential minister in the earlier years of his administration, and
+Canning in the later, but he was never the mere tool of either; on the
+contrary, it Is certain that he was treated with respect and deference
+by all his numerous colleagues. In general capacity and debating power
+he was inferior to few of them; in temper, judgment, and experience he
+was superior to all.
+
+He may be said to have lived and died without "a policy," in so far as
+he forebore to identify himself with any of the great questions then
+pressing for solution. His real policy both at home and abroad was one
+of moderation and conciliation; he looked at party divisions almost with
+the eyes of a permanent official who can work loyally with chiefs of
+either party; and he succeeded in keeping together in his cabinet
+ambitious rivals who never would have co-operated under any other
+leader. This is not the road to fame, neither is it the course which men
+of imperious character like Castlereagh, or Canning, or Wellington, in
+his place, would have adopted. But Canning and Wellington actually
+proved themselves incapable of winning the confidence which Liverpool so
+long retained, and the whig government which followed them fell to
+pieces in two years. Moderation in statesmanship does not always imply
+mediocrity of ability; and if Liverpool failed to see how many
+institutions needed radical amendment, he was not so blind as some of
+his more celebrated associates. Not only was he more liberal in his
+views than Eldon and Castlereagh, but he was less opposed to free trade
+than most of his cabinet, to parliamentary reform than Canning, and to
+catholic emancipation than Wellington or Peel. His fault was that he did
+not act upon his own inward convictions with sufficient promptitude, or
+assert his own authority with sufficient energy. Had he done so, the
+beneficial measures of the last years of his administration might have
+been anticipated, and the country might have been spared much of the
+misery which darkened the close of George III.'s reign.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[68] Lord Londonderry in Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 432.
+
+[69] Harriet Martineau, _History of England During the Thirty Years'
+Peace_, i., 274.
+
+[70] _Letters to Copleston_, p. 295.
+
+[71] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_ (edit. 1903), pp. 756-59. Compare Dicey, _Law and Opinion in
+England_, pp. 190-200.
+
+[72] The graphic description of this crisis in Harriet Martineau's
+_History of the Thirty Years' Peace_, i., 355-66, deserves to be studied
+and remembered as a masterpiece of social portraiture by a contemporary.
+
+[73] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_, p. 823.
+
+[74] Walpole's _History of England_, vol. ii., p. 187.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                     PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+The events of the year 1820 subjected the European concert to a severe
+strain. An insurrection broke out in Spain on January 1, and on March 9
+the king was forced to swear fidelity to the obsolete constitution of
+1812. The result was to plunge the country into disorder, as both the
+clerical party and the extreme revolutionists refused to accept the
+constitution. Meanwhile the assassination by a working man of the Duke
+of Berry, who died on February 14, 1820, had occasioned a new royalist
+reaction in France, and had increased the general fear of the
+revolutionary party. The Bourbon succession had seemed to depend on his
+life, for his son, the Count of Chambord, was posthumous. On receiving
+the news of the Spanish revolution the tsar, already tiring of his
+liberal enthusiasm, fell back on his scheme for exercising paternal
+discipline over Europe. He proposed in April that the ambassadors at
+Paris should issue a joint remonstrance requiring the Spanish cortes to
+disavow the revolution, and to enact severe laws against sedition.
+Failing this, he proposed joint intervention, and offered for his own
+part to send an army of 15,000 men through North Italy and southern
+France to co-operate in the suppression of the revolution. To this
+Castlereagh replied that England would never consent to a joint
+intervention in Spain. Metternich was too much displeased with the
+Russian encouragement of secret societies in Italy to wish to see
+Russian troops in that country, and both Castlereagh and Metternich
+wished to keep Spain free from French influence. In the face of this
+opposition Russia could not, and France would not, do anything, and all
+thought of intervention was postponed. It was the last time that
+Castlereagh was able to assert the principle of non-intervention
+without breaking up the European concert.
+
+[Pageheading: _REVOLUTIONS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE._]
+
+July and August saw three new revolutions. A rebellion at Nola on July 2
+ended in King Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies taking the oath on the 13th
+to the Spanish constitution, then regarded as a model by the liberals of
+Southern Europe. But the grant of a constitution to Naples suggested a
+demand for independence at Palermo. On July 17-18 that city rose in
+revolt and was only subdued by the Neapolitans in the beginning of
+October. Portugal, too, was in a disturbed state. The royal family had
+been absent for nearly thirteen years, and the country had for five
+years been governed by Lord, afterwards Viscount, Beresford as marshal
+and commander of the Portuguese army. In April, 1820, he sailed for
+Brazil, intending to induce the king, John VI., to return. During his
+absence a revolution took place at Oporto on August 24, a provisional
+government was established, and all British officers were dismissed.
+This was followed by a similar revolution at Lisbon on September 15.
+Beresford on his return was forbidden to land, and retired to England.
+On November 11, the Spanish constitution was proclaimed in Portugal, but
+six days later another proclamation left the question of determining the
+constitution to the cortes which were to be elected on a popular
+suffrage.
+
+The Neapolitan revolution raised at once the question of intervention.
+In this case Castlereagh held that Austria had a right to interfere,
+because her position as an Italian power was endangered by the
+revolution, and because the revolution was a breach of the secret treaty
+of 1815 which had received the sanction of the British government. He
+still objected to any joint interference and was opposed to the
+reference of the question to a congress. Austria could not have
+interfered alone without offending the tsar, who clung to the principle
+of joint action. The question of intervention was therefore postponed
+for the present. France, however, being jealous of Austrian influence in
+Italy, demanded the meeting of a congress, and such a meeting was
+accordingly held at Troppau on October 20. To this congress Austria,
+France, Prussia, and Russia sent plenipotentiaries. Great Britain
+carried her opposition to joint interference so far as to refuse to join
+in the deliberations, though Sir Charles, now Lord, Stewart was sent to
+Troppau to watch the proceedings. Metternich, on finding that he could
+not avoid the meeting of a congress, determined to lead its proceedings,
+and, before it met, drew up a memorandum defining his own views about
+intervention. These views were accepted at the congress by Prussia and
+Russia as well as by Austria; and a protocol was issued by the three
+powers declaring that a state in which a revolution should occur was
+dangerous to other states, and ceased to be a member of the European
+alliance, until it could give guarantees for its future stability. If
+such a revolution placed other states in immediate danger, the allied
+powers were bound to intervene by peaceful means, if possible, or if
+need were, by arms. Before parting, the congress invited Ferdinand of
+the Two Sicilies to attend an adjourned meeting, to assemble early in
+the following year at Laibach.[75] Against these decisions Castlereagh
+protested in vigorous terms, and more especially against any possible
+application of the principle of intervention to England; France under
+the Duke of Richelieu joined in neither the protocol nor the protest.
+The liberal tendencies of the tsar had been quenched by recent events,
+so that, instead of a concert of Europe, there was left only a concert
+of absolute monarchs.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRIAN INTERVENTION._]
+
+In January, 1821, the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia met the
+King of the Two Sicilies at Laibach. France had vainly attempted to
+mediate between the King of the Two Sicilies and his people. But the
+Neapolitans were not satisfied with any vague promise of a constitution,
+and before allowing their king to depart for Laibach, held him pledged
+to the observance of an impossible condition, the maintenance of the
+Spanish constitution of 1812. The king's oath to preserve this
+particularly objectionable constitution was regarded by Austria as
+sufficient to preclude negotiation, and it was resolved that she should
+restore him by force as an absolute monarch, and should occupy the
+Neapolitan territory. The duration of this occupation was reserved as a
+question to be discussed at the next European congress, which it was
+intended to hold at Florence in the autumn of the next year. After a
+show of resistance at Rieti the Neapolitans submitted, and the Austrian
+army entered Naples on March 24. The restoration of absolute government
+was accompanied by severities towards the constitutionalists, but
+Austria would not allow any repetition of the bloodshed of 1799.
+
+While the Austrian army was marching southwards, a new revolution broke
+out in Piedmont. The Spanish constitution was proclaimed at Alessandria
+on March 10, and at Turin on the 12th. On the 13th, Victor Emmanuel I.,
+King of Sardinia, abdicated, appointing as regent his distant cousin
+Prince Charles Albert of Carignano, who had been in communication with
+the revolutionary party. The regent immediately accepted the Spanish
+constitution on condition of the maintenance of the line of succession
+and of the Roman catholic religion. The new king, Charles Felix, was at
+Modena when the revolt occurred. He refused to acknowledge the new
+constitution, and ordered Charles Albert to betake himself to Novara,
+where the royalist troops were collecting. On the night of the 21st,
+Charles Albert fled from Turin to Novara, but the constitutional party
+did not submit without a struggle. On April 8 the Austrians crossed the
+frontier and, uniting with the royalists, defeated the constitutionalists
+at Novara. Two days later the royalist army entered Turin. The two
+Italian revolutions had thus ended in an Austrian occupation of the two
+largest Italian states which were not ruled by members of the imperial
+house. The Papal States were now the only Italian principality of any
+size which was not dominated by Austria.
+
+So far Austria had been sufficiently powerful in the congresses of the
+powers to be able to prevent interference with other states where it was
+not to her interest, and to incline the balance in favour of it where
+intervention would strengthen her. The reopening of the Eastern question
+made her ascendency more difficult to maintain. The congress of Laibach
+had been closed, but the sovereigns had not yet departed, when the news
+arrived that a revolt, engineered by Greeks with the pretence of Russian
+support, had broken out against the Turks in Moldavia and Wallachia.
+Russia at once agreed with Austria that the principle laid down at
+Troppau applied to this revolt; the insurrectionary leaders were
+disowned by Russia, and by the end of June Turkish authority was
+restored in the Danubian principalities. So far the action of Russia had
+met with the approval not only of Austria but of Great Britain, and
+Castlereagh had written to Alexander urging him not to join the Greek
+cause, which appeared to him to be part of an universal revolutionary
+movement.
+
+Early in April, however, a more serious insurrection broke out in the
+Morea, and was followed a few weeks later by one in Central Greece. The
+war was disgraced from the first by inhuman massacres on both sides. The
+Greek patriarch at Constantinople together with three archbishops was
+executed by the Turks on Easter Sunday, April 22. A great ferment in
+Russia was the result, where the people were anxious to assist their
+co-religionists and to avenge the death of the patriarch, whom they
+regarded as a martyr. The grievances of the Orthodox religion were
+seconded by the proper grievances of Russia. Greek ships, sailing under
+the Russian flag, had been seized in the Dardanelles; the principalities
+of Moldavia and Wallachia had not been evacuated by the Turkish troops
+as was required by treaty, while an ancient treaty rendered it possible
+to regard the wrongs of the Greek Church as the political wrongs of
+Russia. A Russian ultimatum was despatched on June 28; and, while
+awaiting a reply, Russia consulted the other powers as to the course
+they would pursue in the event of war breaking out between Russia and
+Turkey, and the system with which they would propose to replace the
+Turkish domination if it came to be destroyed. The principle of joint
+intervention, adopted at Troppau, seemed to require the powers to give
+their support to Russia. Great Britain and Austria, however, refused to
+treat war with Turkey as a possibility. The Greek revolt seemed to them
+to express the principle of revolution, and the tsar himself became
+inclined to take this view of the situation when the Greeks established
+an advanced republican form of government. They accordingly
+distinguished between the treaty rights of Russia, which the four powers
+would urge Turkey to respect, and the provision of a more secure state
+of order in Turkey, which would be discussed at a European congress. The
+Russian ambassador had been withdrawn from Constantinople on August 8,
+and the negotiation was conducted mainly by Lord Strangford, the British
+ambassador at Constantinople, who was supported by Austria, France, and
+Prussia. He succeeded in inducing Turkey to evacuate the principalities
+and to open the Dardanelles to ships of all nations, but Turkish
+obstinacy deferred the conclusion of a treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish question became more critical. As time went on
+Spain grew less instead of more settled, while the ultra-royalist party
+gained strength in France. To them the position to which the Bourbon
+King of Spain had been reduced seemed at once an insult and a menace to
+France. The establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy made them long
+for French supremacy in Spain. In August, 1821, the presence of yellow
+fever in Spain was made the occasion for establishing a body of troops,
+professing to act as a sanitary cordon, upon the frontier. They were
+retained there when the fever had disappeared, and their numbers were
+gradually raised to 100,000. In December, 1821, an ultra-royalist
+ministry entered on office in France under the leadership of Villèle.
+Villèle, like King Louis XVIII., was opposed to war, but he might easily
+be forced to adopt the war policy which was popular with his party.
+Fresh evidence was given of the contagious nature of the Spanish
+revolution by the adoption, on the 27th of the preceding June, by the
+Portuguese cortes, of a constitution modelled on that of Spain. Six days
+later the Portuguese king arrived at Lisbon and was induced to sign the
+new constitution. This event was the more significant in the eyes of the
+powers, because the proclamation of the constitution had been
+accompanied by an insult to the Austrian embassy.
+
+If Spanish liberalism placed Spain in danger of a war with France, Spain
+was in equal danger of a war with Great Britain because she was not
+liberal enough. The revolution of 1820, instead of reconciling the
+revolted colonies, had served as an example to the loyal colonies to
+seek their liberty. By the summer of 1822 Upper Peru was the only part
+of the American mainland where Spain held more than isolated posts; she
+had been compelled to sell Florida to the United States, and San Domingo
+had joined the revolted French colony of Hayti. The Spanish cortes,
+however, were even more resolute than the king had been to maintain the
+authority of the mother country, and protested against the right which
+the British had claimed and exercised of trading with the revolted
+colonies. The disorderly state of these colonies encouraged the growth
+of piracy, which flourished even in the ports which still acknowledged
+the supremacy of Spain. Special irritation was caused in 1822 by the
+condemnation of the _Lord Collingwood_ for trading with Buenos Ayres, a
+place over which Spain had exercised no authority for twelve years. In
+the same year the new navigation acts greatly increased the facilities
+for trading with Great Britain enjoyed by such places in America as
+admitted British ships. In April, 1822, the United States recognised the
+independence of Colombia, but Great Britain refrained as yet from
+recognising any of the Spanish-American states, partly because of their
+unsettled condition and partly because the threat of recognition was a
+valuable diplomatic counter in negotiations with Spain.
+
+Instead of a congress being held at Florence it was finally determined
+that the Italian questions should be referred to a congress which was to
+meet at Verona in September, 1822, and was to be preceded by a
+conference at Vienna on the Eastern question; there could, however, be
+little doubt that the Spanish question would also be raised.
+Castlereagh, or as we should now call him Lord Londonderry, would have
+preferred that Great Britain should stand aloof from the Spanish and
+Italian questions, but he desired that she should participate in the
+discussion of the Eastern question; it was accordingly arranged that he
+should represent Great Britain at the conference of Vienna, and he had
+actually drawn up instructions in favour of non-intervention in Spain
+and of accrediting agents to some of the South American republics, when
+his departure was prevented by his death on August 12. He was succeeded
+by Wellington as plenipotentiary, and by Canning as foreign secretary.
+The change was, however, one of persons rather than of policies. Canning
+was less conciliatory in manner, and had less sympathy with the
+principle of European congresses, but was prepared to carry on
+Castlereagh's policy on the questions which for the time being agitated
+the world.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONGRESS OF VERONA._]
+
+The Spanish question was, as a fact, the one question which occupied the
+attention of the powers at Vienna and Verona. In consequence of the
+efforts of Strangford at Constantinople and his own growing
+dissatisfaction with the Greeks, the tsar was willing to allow the Greek
+question to drop; at the same time the kings of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia themselves desired the continuance of Austrian occupation, and
+thus postponed the Italian question. As in 1820, Austria held the
+balance between two rival policies. She had then thrown her weight on
+the side of non-intervention, and, had the Spanish question stood by
+itself, she would probably have done so again. But in Metternich's
+opinion the Spanish question was of less importance than the Eastern,
+and it was important that the tsar should not doubt her loyalty to the
+principle on which she had persuaded him to refrain from an attack upon
+the Porte.
+
+On passing through Paris on his way to Vienna, Wellington found Villèle
+desirous of avoiding war, but counting on it as a probability. He
+arrived at Vienna too late for the actual conference, but in time to
+have some conversation with Metternich and the tsar before leaving for
+Verona. So far it appeared that Montmorency, the more active of the
+French representatives, though professing to desire a peaceful
+termination to the dispute between France and Spain, advocated French
+intervention, if intervention should be necessary, but was opposed to
+the passage of foreign troops through France. Metternich and the tsar
+distrusted French troops when brought face to face with revolutionists,
+and Metternich was therefore opposed to intervention, while the tsar
+still desired to be allowed to march a Russian army on behalf of the
+combined powers through Piedmont and southern France into Spain.
+Metternich of course did not wish to see any Russian troops to dispute
+Austria's supremacy in Italy. But all three desired the suppression of
+the Spanish constitution, if they could find a trustworthy instrument.
+Wellington adhered to Castlereagh's policy of non-intervention.[76]
+
+When the congress opened at Verona on October 20, Montmorency proposed
+three skilfully drawn questions. Avoiding the direct discussion of
+hostilities, he asked whether, if France were compelled to withdraw her
+ambassador from Madrid, the other powers would do the same. Then,
+assuming their sympathy, he asked what form of moral support they would
+give her in event of war. Lastly, he propitiated Russian views of joint
+action by asking what form of material support the powers would give
+France, if she should require it. Wellington refused to consider
+hypothetical cases, but the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia
+answered the first question in the affirmative, and assured France of
+their moral, and, if necessary, of their material support. So far no
+power had abandoned its original attitude, but the promises had been
+given in a form which lent itself best to the sole interference of
+France, as the representative of the congress. Metternich now advocated
+British mediation, but this was refused by Montmorency on the ground of
+the differences between the policy adopted by Great Britain and that
+adopted by the other powers. It was then agreed that Austria, France,
+Prussia, and Russia should address notes of the same tenor to their
+ambassadors at Madrid, who should make corresponding representations to
+the Spanish government, and a _procès verbal_ was concluded between
+these four powers defining the causes which would justify the recall of
+their ambassadors.
+
+As the French king was not present at Verona, the sending of the French
+note was made conditional on the approval of the French government. The
+occupation of Spain by foreign troops was to be discussed when the King
+of Spain should have been restored to liberty. The tenor of the notes
+agreed on seemed to Wellington more likely to inflame the Spanish
+government than to win concessions, and he lost no time in informing
+Villèle through Sir Charles Stuart, the British ambassador at Paris, of
+the course of negotiations.[77] Although Wellington had been assured at
+Verona that Villèle's decision would not affect the transmission of
+notes from the other courts, he hoped and Canning believed that it was
+still in the power of Villèle to arrest the machinery that Montmorency,
+his representative at Verona, had set in motion. On November 30
+Wellington left Verona, but the emperors remained. On December 5 Villèle
+sent a message to Verona proposing to postpone sending the despatches
+till an occasion for breaking off diplomatic relations as defined in the
+_procès verbal_ should arise, and suggesting that the ambassadors at
+Paris should determine when such an occasion had occurred. This proposal
+was rejected. It was inconsistent with Russia's desire for war, while
+Austria was anxious to please Russia in the west, so long as she
+remained pacific in the east. The three eastern powers therefore
+resolved that they would only delay sending their notes till the French
+note was ready.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+While this negotiation was pending, Wellington arrived at Paris, where,
+under strong pressure from Canning,[78] he renewed his offer of
+mediation with Spain. It was declined. On the arrival of the reply from
+Verona, Wellington was informed that even if the other powers sent their
+despatches to Madrid, France would withhold hers. In the end, Villèle
+dismissed Montmorency for the independent line he had taken, and sent a
+milder note than the three eastern powers, but withdrew his ambassador
+from Madrid soon after the other ambassadors had departed. Great Britain
+was in consequence the only great power which still continued diplomatic
+relations with Spain at the end of January, 1823. In the course of the
+negotiations two curious suspicions had occurred to Canning and Villèle
+respectively. Canning imagined that France would employ the threats of
+her allies as a show of force to compel Spain to join her in an attack
+on British commerce in the West Indies, while Villèle suspected that the
+British defence of the political independence of Spain was to be
+recompensed by the cession of some Spanish colonies in America.
+
+Meanwhile, the war party before which Villèle had had to bow, was having
+its own way in France. On January 28 Louis XVIII. in opening the
+chambers announced the withdrawal of his ambassador, and declared that
+100,000 Frenchmen were ready to march to preserve the throne of Spain to
+a descendant of Henry IV., and to reconcile that country with Europe.
+The sole object of any war that might arise would be to render Ferdinand
+VII. free to give his people institutions which they could not hold
+except from him, and which, by securing their tranquillity, would
+dissipate the unrest in France. Canning protested against the apparent
+implication that no valid constitution could rest on any other basis
+than that of France did, as also against the apparent claim to interfere
+in virtue of the family relation of the dynasties of France and Spain;
+but he vainly endeavoured to persuade the Spanish government to come to
+some agreement with its king. On March 31, when war seemed imminent,
+Canning despatched a note to Paris defining the limits of British
+neutrality. The independence of Spain and integrity of its dominions
+were to be recognised; it was not to be permanently occupied by a
+military force, and France was not to attempt to gain either by conquest
+or by cession any of the revolted colonies of Spain in America. At the
+same time he disclaimed any intention of acquiring any of those colonies
+for Great Britain.[79]
+
+[Pageheading: _PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL._]
+
+War between France and Spain began with the passage of the frontier by
+the Duke of Angoulême on April 7. On May 23 he entered Madrid. On
+October 1 the Spanish constitutionalists were compelled to set their
+king at liberty to join the French, and on November 1 the war was
+terminated by the surrender of Barcelona to the royalists. The
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. to absolute power was followed by a
+furious and vindictive reaction, which Angoulême strove in vain to
+moderate. For the next five years French troops occupied the country,
+but Angoulême showed his disapproval of the method of government by
+refusing the decorations offered him by Ferdinand. The restoration of
+absolutism in Spain led to events in Portugal which forced Great Britain
+to intervene and strengthened the difference between her policy and that
+of the continental powers. The new Portuguese constitution was
+unpopular, especially in the army, and as early as February, 1823, there
+was a revolt against the constitution, but order was restored in April.
+On May 26 another absolutist revolt broke out, and the rebels were
+joined next day by the king's second son, Dom Miguel, then twenty years
+of age; on the 29th the revolt spread to Lisbon; on the 31st the king
+promised a revised constitution, and on June 2 the cortes ceased to sit.
+The government resolved itself into an absolute monarchy, which
+continued till the following year, in spite of the appointment of a
+junta under the presidency of Palmella to draw up a new constitution.
+The ambassadors of Austria, Prussia, and Russia opposed the granting of
+a new constitution, and Dom Miguel still maintained a threatening
+attitude. Palmella accordingly applied to Great Britain for troops to
+support his government. This request created no little difficulty. It
+was impossible for Great Britain to allow the government of Portugal to
+fall into the hands of a party resting for support on the absolutists
+in Spain and the French army, and it was equally impossible to employ
+British troops to maintain the cause of the King of Portugal against his
+ultra-royalist subjects when Great Britain had protested so vigorously
+against the kings of Spain and the Two Sicilies receiving foreign
+assistance against their liberal subjects; there were moreover no troops
+that could well be spared.
+
+Canning accordingly contented himself with despatching a naval squadron
+to the Tagus to act as a moral support to the king. As the event proved,
+this squadron was sufficient to determine the course of events. At the
+same time Canning refused to guarantee any constitution, though when
+France joined the eastern powers in threatening the proposed
+constitution, he intimated his readiness to resist by force of arms any
+foreign intervention in Portugal. On April 30, 1824, Dom Miguel
+attempted another _coup d'état_, and was for nine days in possession of
+Lisbon, where he made wholesale arrests of his political opponents. John
+VI. was, however, supported by all the foreign ambassadors, and on March
+9, by their advice, he went on board the British ship of war, _Windsor
+Castle_, where he summoned his son to appear before him. Dom Miguel
+thought it wisest to obey; the king sent him abroad, and the attempt at
+a revolution was over for the present. The junta appointed in the
+previous year to frame a constitution now reported in favour of a
+revival of the ancient cortes, and this proposal was accepted by the
+king. The cortes were not, however, actually assembled; still, the mere
+fact of Dom Miguel's absence left the government a little stronger.
+
+Meanwhile, the relations between Portugal and Brazil occasioned
+difficulties between the former country and Great Britain. On leaving
+Brazil, King John VI. had entrusted the government to his elder son,
+Peter, to whom he had given secret instructions to proclaim himself
+Emperor of Brazil in case he found it impossible to maintain the union
+between Brazil and the mother country. Acting on these instructions,
+Peter had proclaimed the independence of Brazil on October 12, 1822,
+adopting for himself the style of constitutional emperor. Next month
+Lord Cochrane, who had been in the service of Chile, quitted it for that
+of Brazil. Neither party in Portugal was prepared for the separation of
+Brazil, and it was therefore opposed, but without much effect, by the
+home government. By the end of 1823 Cochrane had captured all the
+Portuguese posts in Brazil, and in August, 1824, he suppressed a
+republican movement in the north of that country. On July 23 of the same
+year Great Britain signed a commercial treaty with the new empire. This
+irritated the Portuguese government. Meanwhile, Beresford, who had
+returned to Portugal in a private capacity, had been requested to resume
+the command of the Portuguese army. This he refused to do so long as the
+Count of Subsérra, a French partisan, held office at home. There was a
+difficulty in forming a ministry without him, and eventually Subsérra
+became virtual prime minister, and Beresford was excluded from office.
+In order to obtain an excuse for the introduction of French troops into
+Portugal, Subsérra sent a request to Great Britain for a force of four
+or five thousand, knowing it would be refused. Great Britain's refusal
+had not, however, the expected consequence, because the influence of the
+other powers at Lisbon was weakened by their anti-constitutional policy.
+In July, 1825, the representatives of Austria, Brazil, Great Britain,
+and Portugal assembled at London to consider the relations of Portugal
+and Brazil. While the conference was sitting it was discovered that
+Subsérra was carrying on separate negotiations with Brazil. Canning was
+now able to obtain his dismissal, which was followed by the recall of
+the French ambassador, De Neuville, who had been the principal opponent
+of British influence at Lisbon. As a result of this conference the
+Portuguese government on August 29 recognised the independence of
+Brazil.[80]
+
+The restoration of absolute government in Spain revived the question of
+Spanish America. Ferdinand VII., on recovering his authority, proposed a
+congress at Paris for the consideration of South American affairs.
+Canning, however, declined his invitation, and it was thought useless to
+hold a congress without the participation of Great Britain. The position
+in which Great Britain had been placed by the negotiations of Verona, as
+diplomatic champion of Spain, had caused her to suspend her complaints
+about the treatment of her merchant vessels trading with the revolted
+colonies; but disorder continued, and on one occasion the British
+admiral was authorised to land in Cuba to extirpate the pirates using
+the Spanish flag. Canning was determined that French force should not be
+employed to reduce the revolted colonies, and in October, 1823, he
+informed the French ambassador, Polignac, that he would acknowledge the
+independence of those colonies if France assisted Spain in her attempts
+to reduce them[81]--a somewhat empty threat, as the commercial interests
+of Great Britain would have compelled him to acknowledge them in any
+case as soon as there should be settled governments in existence with
+which he could treat. Diplomatic agents were in fact appointed in most
+of the revolted colonies before the end of this year.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE MONROE DOCTRINE._]
+
+What, however, rendered French interference hopeless was the attitude of
+the United States, as expressed in President Monroe's historic message
+to congress on December 2, 1823. In this message occur the words, since
+known as the Monroe doctrine: "With the governments who have declared
+their independence, and maintained it, and whose independence we have,
+on great consideration, and on just principles, acknowledged, we could
+not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or
+controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in
+any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition
+towards the United States." After this the recognition of the
+independence of the Spanish colonies was only a matter of time.[82]
+Great Britain recognised the independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and
+Mexico, in 1824, and the rest soon after. In spite of the temporary
+successes of Canterac, Peru, the last of the mainland provinces, was
+lost to Spain in 1825, and the other European powers did not now delay
+their recognition of the American republics. In April of that year
+France recognised the virtual independence of her own revolted colony of
+Hayti.
+
+The Eastern question advanced more slowly. On March 25, 1823, Canning
+recognised the Greeks as belligerents. After this step Great Britain
+enjoyed the advantage of being able to hold the Greek government
+responsible for piracy committed by Greek ships; but, coming as it did
+after the isolated action of Great Britain at Verona, it created a
+suspicion among the eastern powers of a desire to effect a settlement
+of the Eastern question without the co-operation of other states. In
+October, 1823, the Tsar Alexander and the Emperor Francis had a meeting
+at Czernowitz in Bukowina. Here they discussed joint intervention in
+Greece as a means of forestalling the isolated intervention of Great
+Britain. During the meeting the news arrived of the Turkish concessions
+to the Russian demands of 1821. Before the conference broke up, the tsar
+informally suggested a conference at St. Petersburg to arrange joint
+intervention on the basis of the erection of three principalities under
+Turkish suzerainty in Greece and the Ægean. In January, 1824, the same
+proposal was made formally in a Russian circular addressed to the great
+powers. Metternich and Canning both opposed the scheme, thinking that
+the principalities would fall under Russian influence.
+
+Metternich met it by a counter proposal for the complete independence of
+Greece. Canning preferred to adopt neither course, and to watch the
+sequence of events. In April, however, he consented that Great Britain
+should be represented at the conference at St. Petersburg on condition
+that no coercion should be applied to Turkey, and that diplomatic
+relations should have been previously restored between Russia and
+Turkey; in August the Greek government sent to London its protest
+against the Russian proposals, and in November Canning, finding that
+neither Greeks nor Turks would accept the decision of the conference,
+and being still opposed to violent interference, refused to take part in
+it. At the same time he offered British mediation to the Greeks in case
+it should be absolutely necessary. Early in 1825 Metternich induced
+Charles X., the new King of France, to support his proposal. Russia,
+however, would not hear of the independence of Greece, which might mean
+the creation of a rival to her influence in the Turkish dominions. The
+conference therefore merely resolved that the Porte should grant
+satisfaction to its subjects, failing which the powers offered their
+mediation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I._]
+
+Turkey refused the offer. She was in fact busily engaged in restoring
+order in her own way. In February, 1825, an Egyptian army was landed in
+the Morea, and met with rapid successes of such a nature as to arouse a
+suspicion that it was the fixed policy of its commander, Ibrahim, the
+adopted son of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, to depopulate the Morea.
+His advance upon Nauplia was checked by an order of the British
+commodore, Hamilton, and he retired towards Tripolitza and Navarino. The
+Turkish successes induced Canning to make proposals to Russia through
+Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, for a
+joint intervention of the powers on condition that there should be no
+coercion of Turkey. The tsar refused to accept the condition and made
+preparations for war. Canning meanwhile declined an offer of the Greek
+government to place itself under British protection, and on August 18
+Alexander declared that he would solve the Eastern question by himself.
+He then set out for the south of Russia, where his army had collected.
+Canning now dropped his scheme of an united intervention and opened
+negotiations for a separate intervention on the part of Great Britain
+and Russia alone. Meanwhile he informed the Greek government that he
+would allow no power to effect a settlement without British
+co-operation, and that if Russia invaded Turkey he would land troops in
+Greece. The negotiations with Russia were proceeding favourably when
+they were interrupted by the death of Alexander on December 1.
+
+One event of the year 1825 which attracted little attention at the time
+was destined to be a cause of friction at a much later date. In 1824 the
+boundary between British America and the United States had been
+partially delimited, and this was followed early in the following year
+by a treaty, which attempted to settle the boundary between British and
+Russian America. Unfortunately the words used in this treaty were
+somewhat indefinite, and, although no difficulty was experienced for two
+generations, the discovery of gold in the north-west of America
+subsequently led to a bitter dispute between Canada on the one side and
+the United States, which had acquired the rights of Russia, on the
+other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] Metternich, _Memoirs_, § 484, English translation, iii., 446.
+
+[76] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 343-48.
+
+[77] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 518-23. For a French account of
+the congress see Duvergier de Hauranne, _Gouvernement Parlementaire en
+France_, vii., 130-229.
+
+[78] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 650. Compare pp. 638, 653-57.
+
+[79] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 18, 19.
+
+[80] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., chapters x., xi.
+
+[81] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 26-33.
+
+[82] See J. W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_, pp. 442-50;
+Stapleton, _George Canning and his Times_, p. 375.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+                 TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+
+The sudden illness of Liverpool in February, 1827, disclosed the dualism
+and mutual jealousies which had enfeebled his cabinet. One section,
+represented by Canning, advocated catholic emancipation, encouraged the
+practical application of free trade doctrines, and was prepared to
+support the principle of national independence, not only in South
+America, but in Greece and Portugal. This section was dominant in the
+house of commons. The other section, led by Wellington and Peel, which
+was dominant in the house of lords, was strictly conservative on all
+these questions, though Peel was beginning to show an open mind on one,
+at least, of them. The king's known distrust of Canning, largely shared
+by his own party, naturally suggested the hope of rallying it under the
+leadership of some politician with the moderate and conciliatory temper
+of Lord Liverpool. But no such politician could be found, nor was there
+any prospect of Canning accepting a subordinate position in a new
+ministry. For nearly six weeks the premiership was in abeyance, while
+Liverpool's recovery was treated as a possible event. Canning himself
+was in broken health, but, ill as he was, he proposed and carried in the
+house of commons a sliding scale of import duties upon corn, variable
+with its market price. He also made a fierce attack on Sir John Copley,
+then master of the rolls, who had vigorously opposed a motion of Burdett
+for catholic relief. At last the king, having consulted others, made up
+his mind to send for Canning, who had been suffering from a relapse. It
+was in vain that Canning advised him, unless he were prepared for
+concession on the catholic question, to summon a body of ministers
+sharing his own convictions. There was, in fact, no alternative to
+Canning's succession, except that of Wellington or Peel. The former
+declared that he would be worse than mad to accept the premiership; the
+latter was still young for the office and deprecated as hopeless the
+formation of any exclusively "protestant" cabinet. The selection of
+Canning became inevitable, and on April 10 the king determined upon it,
+irritated by what he regarded as an attempt to force his hand in the
+choice of a minister.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+From that moment, during the short remainder of his life Canning had to
+undergo the same bitter experience as Pitt in 1804, and to suffer a
+cruel retribution for his aggressive petulance. All his strongest
+colleagues, except Huskisson, deserted him. The resignation of Lord
+Eldon, since 1821 Earl of Eldon, must have been expected, terminating,
+as it did, the longest chancellorship since the Norman conquest. But
+Canning seems to have really hoped that he might secure the support of
+Wellington by the assurance of his desire to carry out the principles of
+Liverpool's government. The duke, however, repelled his overtures with
+something less than courtesy, and even retired from the command of the
+army. Peel had already intimated privately that a transfer of the
+premiership from an opponent to a champion of emancipation would make it
+impossible for him to retain office. Three peers, Bathurst, Melville,
+and Westmorland, followed his example. Canning had no resource but to
+enlist colleagues from the ranks of the whigs. In this he was at first
+unsuccessful. Sturges Bourne was appointed to the home office, Viscount
+Dudley became foreign secretary, and Robinson, who was raised to the
+peerage as Viscount Goderich, became secretary for war and the colonies.
+Canning himself united the offices of first lord of the treasury and
+chancellor of the exchequer. The Duke of Portland became lord privy
+seal. Palmerston, the secretary at war, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+Harrowby, Huskisson, Wynn, and Bexley, retained their former posts, and
+Sidmouth, hitherto an unofficial member of the cabinet, finally retired.
+One important office outside the cabinet, that of chief secretary for
+Ireland, was given to a whig, William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne.
+It was a happy idea to make the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral
+without a seat in the cabinet, and without any power of acting
+independently of his council, while Copley (as Lord Lyndhurst) proved a
+good successor to Eldon.
+
+In May some of the whigs were induced to join the ministry. Tierney
+entered the cabinet as master of the mint and the Earl of Carlisle as
+first commissioner of woods and forests. The Marquis of Lansdowne, the
+former Lord Henry Petty, joined the cabinet without taking office. Other
+minor posts were assigned to whigs, and several whig chiefs, such as
+Holland and Brougham, while they remained outside the government,
+tendered it a friendly support. In July Lansdowne became home secretary,
+Bourne was transferred to the woods and forests department, Carlisle
+became lord privy seal, and Portland remained in the cabinet without
+office.
+
+The new cabinet was therefore still in an unsettled state when it met
+parliament at the beginning of May. It there encountered a storm of
+unsparing criticism even in the house of commons, but still more in the
+house of lords. Lord Stewart, who had succeeded his brother as Marquis
+of Londonderry, and the Duke of Newcastle denounced Canning in the most
+intemperate language; and the veteran whig, Lord Grey, who had not been
+consulted, delivered an elaborate oration against him not the less
+virulent because it was carefully studied and measured. This attack was
+so keenly felt by Canning that he was supposed to meditate the
+acceptance of a peerage, that he might reply to it in person. The climax
+of his vexations was reached when a corn bill, prepared by the late
+cabinet, and passed by the house of commons, was finally wrecked in the
+house of lords through an amendment introduced by Wellington. There was
+some excuse for the duke's action in letters which had passed between
+him and Huskisson, but Canning naturally resented his mischievous
+interposition, and unwisely declared that he must "have been made an
+instrument in the hands of others". So ended the session on July 2,
+amidst discords and divisions which boded ill for the future, but threw
+a retrospective light on the rare merits of Liverpool.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CANNING._]
+
+The days of Canning were already numbered. Before the end of July he was
+unable to attend a council, and retired for rest to the Duke of
+Devonshire's villa at Chiswick. As in the case of Castlereagh, the king
+had noticed the symptoms of serious illness, and on August 5 the public
+was informed of his danger. On the 8th he died of internal inflammation
+in the room which had witnessed the death of Fox. His loss was deeply
+felt, not only by the king who never showed him confidence, but also by
+the best part of the nation, and his funeral was attended by a great
+concourse of mourners, both whigs and tories. No one doubted that he was
+a patriot, and his noble gifts commanded the admiration of his bitterest
+opponents. He belonged to an age of transition, and it must ever be
+deplored that he missed the opportunity of showing whether his mind was
+capable of further growth in the highest office of state; for the
+inconsistencies of his opinions, obstinately maintained for years, would
+have demanded many changes of conviction or policy. He was as stout an
+enemy of reform at home as he was a resolute friend of constitutional
+liberty abroad. He detested the system of repression consecrated by the
+holy alliance, but he defended the necessity of such measures as the six
+acts and arbitrary imprisonment for a limited period. He never swerved
+in his advocacy of Roman catholic relief, but he was unmoved by
+arguments in favour of repealing the test and corporation acts.
+Probably, at the head of a coalition, embracing the ablest of the
+moderate tories and reformers, and loyally supported by his colleagues,
+he might have proved the foremost British statesman of the nineteenth
+century. But it is more than doubtful whether his proud and sensitive
+nature would have enabled him so to cancel past memories as to
+consolidate such a coalition, or to inspire such loyalty in its members.
+
+The death of Canning involved for the moment far less political change
+than might have been expected. The king at once sent for Sturges Bourne
+and Goderich, as the most intimate adherents of Canning. He then
+commanded Goderich to form, or rather to continue, a ministry of
+compromise, and this was done with little shifting of places. Wellington
+resumed the command of the army, thereby revealing his motive in giving
+it up so abruptly. But a very unwise choice was made in the appointment
+of John Charles Herries, rather than Palmerston, as chancellor of the
+exchequer, and it carried with it the seeds of an early disruption.
+Palmerston had originally been proposed for the office, but the king
+strongly favoured Herries, though he showed good sense in deferring to
+public opinion, and desiring Huskisson to take the post himself.
+Unfortunately, Huskisson preferred the colonial office, and, as neither
+Sturges Bourne nor Tierney would accept the position, royal influence
+prevailed, and Herries found himself at the exchequer. Meanwhile
+Portland succeeded Harrowby as lord president, Charles Grant succeeded
+Huskisson at the board of trade, and Lord Uxbridge, who had been created
+Marquis of Anglesey after the battle of Waterloo, and who was now
+master-general of the ordnance, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+
+In the course of November it was decided by Goderich, in concert with
+Huskisson and Tierney, that a finance committee should be appointed
+early in the next session to consider the state of the revenue. Lord
+Althorp, the son of Earl Spencer, was designated as chairman, and
+provisionally undertook to act, but the chancellor of the exchequer,
+who, contrary to all precedent, had not been taken into counsel,
+strongly protested against the nomination, as soon as he was informed of
+it. Out of this dispute arose the ignoble fall of the Goderich
+administration, though it was preceded by more serious dissensions on
+foreign policy. The king, whose activity revived with the increasing
+weakness of his ministers, committed himself, without asking their
+opinion, to a hearty approval of Codrington's action at Navarino, in
+which, as will be recorded hereafter, that admiral had co-operated in
+the destruction of the Turkish navy, though the British government
+professed to be at peace with the Porte. The king was also adverse to a
+proposal for the admission of Holland and Wellesley into the cabinet.
+Goderich in consequence resigned, but had withdrawn his resignation when
+the quarrel between Huskisson and Herries broke out afresh. Driven to
+distraction by difficulties to which he was utterly unequal, Goderich
+once more abandoned his post. The king gladly dispensed with his
+services, and after some negotiation with Harrowby sent for Wellington
+on January 9, 1828, giving him a free hand to invite any co-operation
+except that of Grey. It was stipulated, however, "that the Roman
+Catholic question was not to be made a cabinet question," and that both
+the lord chancellors, as well as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, were to
+be "protestants".[83]
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+It must ever be regretted, for the sake of the country not less than of
+his own fame, that Wellington undertook the premiership. He was beyond
+all dispute the greatest man in England, and exercised up to the end of
+his life a more powerful influence in emergencies than any other
+subject. But he had judged himself rightly when he declared that he was
+wholly unfit to be prime minister, and his administration was among the
+weakest of modern times. The firmness which had sustained him in so many
+campaigns, the political sagacity which had enabled him to grapple with
+the complications of Spanish affairs, and with the great settlement of
+Europe, equally failed him in party management and in the estimation of
+public opinion at home. He understood better than any man how to deal
+with the king, and overbore not only the king's own prejudices but the
+machinations of the Duke of Cumberland with masterly resolution. He set
+a good example in declining to regard himself as a mere party leader and
+in refusing to study the arts of popularity hunting, but he never
+grasped the principle that constitutional government ultimately rests on
+the will of the people. Still he was too good a general not to see when
+facts were too strong for him. His chief manoeuvres on the field of
+politics consisted in somewhat inglorious though not unskilful retreats;
+when he afterwards carried boldness to the point of rashness, he
+encountered a signal defeat. Nevertheless, while he utterly lost his
+political hold on the masses, and even the confidence of shrewd
+politicians, he never ceased to retain the profound respect of his
+countrymen, not only as the first of English generals, but as the most
+honest of public servants.
+
+Wellington naturally applied first to Peel, and, by his advice, attempted
+a reconstruction of the Goderich cabinet, but with the addition of certain
+new elements. Five of Canning's followers--Lyndhurst, Dudley, who had been
+created an earl, Huskisson, Grant, and Palmerston retained their old
+offices, and Palmerston gave an extraordinary proof of patience by
+cheerfully remaining secretary at war after eighteen years' service in
+that capacity. These cabinet ministers were now joined or rejoined by Peel
+as home secretary, Earl Bathurst as lord president, Henry Goulburn as
+chancellor of the exchequer, Melville as president of the board of
+control, Lord Aberdeen as chancellor of the duchy, and Lord Ellenborough,
+son of the former chief justice, as lord privy seal. Herries was
+transferred from the exchequer to the mastership of the mint. Outside the
+cabinet Anglesey became lord lieutenant of Ireland, where Lamb remained
+chief secretary. It was understood that Eldon, now in his seventy-seventh
+year, would have willingly accepted the presidency of the council, and
+felt hurt that no offer or communication was made to him. On the other
+hand, the whigs were by no means satisfied, while the inclusion of
+Huskisson equally offended extreme tories and the widow of Canning, who
+spoke of him as having become an associate of her husband's murderers.
+This association was not destined to be long lived. The formation of the
+ministry was not completed until the end of January, and very soon after
+parliament met on the 29th of that month a rupture between Huskisson and
+Wellington became imminent. For this Huskisson was mainly responsible.
+Having to seek re-election at Liverpool, and irritated by the attacks made
+upon his consistency, he delivered a very imprudent speech, in which he
+implied, if he did not state, that he had obtained from his chief pledges
+of adhesion to Canning's policy. Such a declaration from such a man was
+inevitably understood as applying at least to free trade and the conduct
+of foreign affairs. Both Huskisson and the duke in parliamentary speeches
+disclaimed the imputation of any bargain; still the rift was not closed,
+and it was speedily widened by events on which harmony between tories and
+friends of Canning was impossible.
+
+For six years the so-called war of Greek independence had been carried
+on with the utmost barbarity on both sides. The sympathies of Canning,
+as foreign secretary, had been entirely with the Greeks, as they had
+been with the South American insurgents, but he was equally on his guard
+against the armed "mediation" of Russia and her claim to be the supreme
+protector of the Greek Christians. We have seen how at last, in 1825,
+hopeless discord between the great continental powers led to overtures
+for the peaceful intervention of Great Britain, and how at this juncture
+the Tsar Alexander died on December 1, 1825. Wellington, at Canning's
+request, undertook a special embassy to St. Petersburg for the
+ostensible purpose of congratulating the new tsar, Nicholas, on his
+accession, and succeeded, during April, 1826, in concluding an
+arrangement for joint action by Russia and Great Britain with a view to
+establishing the autonomy of Greece under the sovereignty of Turkey.
+Meanwhile the impulsive enthusiasm which has so often seized the English
+people on behalf of "oppressed nationalities" had been fanned into a
+flame by the cause of Greek independence. Byron had already sacrificed
+his life to it in April, 1824; Cochrane now devoted to it an energy and
+a naval reputation only second to Nelson's; volunteers joined the Greek
+levies, and subscriptions came in freely. In the course of 1826 Canning
+succeeded in procuring the adhesion of the French government to the
+Anglo-Russian agreement. Early in 1827 the three powers demanded an
+armistice from Turkey, and, on the refusal of the Porte, signed the
+treaty of London for the settlement of the Greek question. This treaty,
+dated July 6, 1827, was almost the last public act of Canning. It was
+moderate in its terms, embodying the conditions laid down in the
+previous year at St. Petersburg, and making the self-government of
+Greece subject to a payment of tribute to the Porte. It provided for a
+combination of the British, French, and Russian fleets in the event of a
+second refusal from Turkey; but Canning died in the hope that
+hostilities might be avoided.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVARINO._]
+
+This hope was not likely, nor was it destined, to be realised. The Porte
+remained inflexible, and would grant no armistice; indeed, it had
+summoned a contingent of ships from Egypt, and a fleet of twenty-eight
+sail under Ibrahim Pasha was lying in the Bay of Navarino awaiting
+further reinforcements. Admiral Codrington, who commanded the allied
+fleet, now before Navarino, showed much forbearance. In concert with the
+French admiral, he warned Ibrahim Pasha not to leave the harbour, and
+obtained assurances which were speedily broken. Futile negotiations went
+on during the early part of October, ending in a massacre among the
+inhabitants of the coast by the direction of Ibrahim. The admirals of
+the allied fleet no longer hesitated. On the 20th the fleet entered the
+harbour. The first shots were fired by the Turco-Egyptian fleet, which
+was skilfully ranged in three lines, and in the form of a horseshoe. An
+action ensued, which lasted four hours, and resulted in the almost
+complete destruction of the Ottoman armament. Had the allied fleet at
+once proceeded to Constantinople, the Greek question might perhaps have
+been settled promptly, instead of being left to perplex cabinets for two
+years longer.
+
+The news of Navarino reached England when the ministry of Lord Goderich
+was already tottering, and caused its members far more anxiety than
+satisfaction. Probably the wisest of them foresaw that, unless
+immediate action were taken, Russia would declare war single-handed
+against Turkey and enforce her own terms, but nothing in fact was done,
+and Wellington, on coming into power, found the question of our
+relations with Turkey and Greece still open. In spite of his own share
+in bringing about the co-operation of Russia with Great Britain, he was
+by no means prepared for a crusade on behalf of Greek independence, or
+for a definite rupture with Turkey. Hence the memorable phrases inserted
+in the king's speech of January 29, 1828, which described the battle of
+Navarino as "a collision wholly unexpected by His Majesty" and as "an
+untoward event," which His Majesty hoped would not be followed by
+further hostilities. These expressions, however much in accord with the
+pacific tone of the treaty of London, provoked an outburst of
+indignation from the friends of Greece in both houses. Lords Holland and
+Althorp, Lord John Russell, and Brougham recorded earnest protests
+against any disparagement of Admiral Codrington's action. The
+infatuation of the Porte, and the consequent war with Russia, checked
+further agitation on the subject, and Wellington's government was able
+to fall back on the policy of non-intervention proposed, though not
+always practised, by Canning. But the reactionary tendency of
+Wellington's foreign policy betrayed in the king's speech had its effect
+in alienating the more liberal of his colleagues. Nor was his position
+strengthened by his irresolute home policy. During the session of 1828
+issues were raised which inevitably divided and ultimately broke up the
+cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _TEST ACTS REPEALED._]
+
+The first of these difficulties was caused by the success of Lord John
+Russell's motion for the repeal of the test and corporation acts, under
+which dissenters were precluded from holding municipal and other
+offices. It was, indeed, a grave blot on the consistency of reformers
+that, while the claims of Roman catholics, and especially of Irish Roman
+catholics, had been vehemently urged for nearly thirty years, those of
+protestant nonconformists had been coldly neglected. Their legal
+disabilities, it is true, had gradually become almost nominal, and an
+indemnity act was passed yearly to cover the constant breaches of the
+obnoxious law. Still, the law was maintained, and was stoutly defended
+by such tories as Eldon on the principle that it was an important
+outwork of the union between Church and State. Even the Canningite
+members of the government supported it against Russell's attack, but on
+the very opposite ground--that it had become a dead letter. However, the
+measure for its repeal was carried in the house of commons by a majority
+of forty-four, including some well-known Churchmen. This measure would
+assuredly have been rejected in the house of lords had not Peel
+judiciously procured the insertion of a clause substituting for the
+sacramental test a declaration binding the office-holder to do nothing
+hostile to the Church. Thus modified, it passed the house of lords, with
+the assent of several bishops, in spite of the implacable opposition of
+Lords Eldon and Redesdale, and the Duke of Cumberland. But the
+declaration was amended by the addition of the words "upon the true
+faith of a Christian," which incidentally continued the statutable
+exclusion of Jews.
+
+The enforced acceptance of this enactment was equivalent to a decisive
+reverse, and could not but injure the prestige of the government, but it
+did not actually cause a schism in the cabinet. It was otherwise when
+the duke proposed a corn bill in lieu of that rejected at his instance
+in the previous year. The difference between these measures was not very
+material, but the duke insisted upon certain regulations of detail,
+which Huskisson persistently opposed. Peel suggested a compromise which,
+after long altercation and some threats of resignation, was adopted. But
+the effect was to weaken the government still further in the eyes of the
+public, inasmuch as the principle of duties on a graduated scale had
+prevailed at last against the declared opinions of the duke. The
+inevitable rupture was only deferred for a few weeks, and arose out of
+motions for disfranchising East Retford and Penryn--a premonitory
+symptom of the great reform bill. These were among the most corrupt of
+the old "rotten boroughs," and the scandalous practices which flourished
+in both of them had more than once shocked even the unreformed
+parliament. In 1827 a bill for disfranchising Penryn had actually been
+carried by the house of commons in spite of Canning's dissent, and one
+for disfranchising East Retford would probably have been carried, but
+that it was introduced too late.
+
+The motions now introduced by Lord John Russell and Charles Tennyson
+respectively could scarcely have been thrown out by the same house, but
+squabbles arose in the cabinet, partly on the comparative guiltiness of
+the two venal constituencies, but chiefly on the disposal of the seats
+to be vacated. It was agreed at last that Penryn should be merged in the
+adjacent hundred, and the majority of the cabinet, represented by Peel,
+were for dealing in like manner with East Retford. The liberal section,
+however, represented by Huskisson, was bent on transferring its
+representation to Birmingham, and voted against Peel in the house of
+commons. Having thus vindicated his independence, Huskisson, somewhat
+too hastily, placed his resignation in the hands of the premier on May
+20. The duke, having fairly lost patience with his insubordinate
+colleagues, was equally prompt in accepting it, and declined to receive
+the explanations offered. In the end, Palmerston, Dudley, Grant, and
+Lamb, followed the fortunes of Huskisson, and Wellington's government
+was completely purged of Canning's old supporters.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLARE ELECTION._]
+
+Two military officers, without political experience, were now imported
+into the ministry. Sir George Murray succeeded Huskisson at the colonial
+office, and Sir Henry Hardinge replaced Palmerston as secretary at war,
+but was not admitted to the cabinet; Lord Aberdeen became foreign
+secretary, and Vesey Fitzgerald president of the board of trade, while
+Lord Francis Leveson Gower succeeded Lamb as chief secretary for
+Ireland. So purely tory an administration had not been formed since the
+days of Perceval. Looking back we can see that, for that very reason, it
+was doomed; but to politicians of 1828 Wellington's ascendency seemed
+assured, and it was not actually broken for above two years. By far the
+most important event of domestic history within that period was the
+crisis ending in the catholic emancipation act, and this crisis was
+immediately precipitated by the almost casual appointment of Vesey
+Fitzgerald. He was a popular Irish landlord, who had always supported
+catholic relief, and his re-election for the county of Clare was
+regarded as perfectly secure. The landlords were known to be entirely in
+his favour, and Irish tenants, miscalled "forty shilling freeholders,"
+had been used to vote obsequiously for the candidate of their landlords.
+Indeed, these counterfeit freeholds had been manufactured recklessly
+throughout Ireland for the very purpose of extending landlord influence.
+Perhaps the recent defeat of a Beresford at Waterford by a nominee of
+Daniel O'Connell, who had made himself the leader of the movement for
+Catholic relief, ought to have undeceived the Irish tories, but no one
+could have foreseen so daring an act as the candidature of O'Connell
+himself, notwithstanding that, as a catholic, he was incapable of
+sitting in the house of commons.
+
+The contest began on June 30 and lasted five days. All the gentry and
+electors of the higher class supported Fitzgerald, but all the poorer
+electors, headed by their priests, flocked to the poll and voted for
+O'Connell, who, on Fitzgerald's retirement, was triumphantly elected.
+The violence of O'Connell's language was unmeasured, and as was said by
+Sheil, "every altar became a tribune," but perfect order was maintained
+throughout. The terrorism which has since disgraced Irish elections and
+vitiated the whole representation of Ireland had no place in this
+startling victory, and the impression produced by it was thereby
+infinitely enhanced. Two conclusions were instantly drawn from it: the
+one, that electoral power in Ireland could not safely be left in the
+hands of the forty-shilling freeholders; the other, that, whether or not
+they were disfranchised, nothing short of political equality of the
+catholics of Ireland could avert the risk of civil war. It is seldom
+that momentous changes can be so clearly traced to a single cause as in
+the case of catholic emancipation. The whole interval between July,
+1828, and April, 1829, was occupied by the discussion of this question,
+or circumstances arising out of it, and it may truly be said to have
+filled the whole horizon of domestic politics. The first and final
+recognition by a responsible government of emancipation as a political
+necessity dates immediately from the Clare election.
+
+The question of catholic emancipation had been the only reason for the
+resignation of Pitt in 1801, but we have seen that he resumed office in
+1804 under a pledge not to re-open it. It is certain that he never
+contemplated a complete emancipation of the catholics without safeguards
+for the interests of the established church. Such a safeguard (though
+ineffective against a future attack through disestablishment) was
+provided by the act of union,[84] which inviolably united the Irish and
+English churches. The catholic leaders, on their part, were profuse in
+their disavowals of hostility to that establishment and to the
+protestant government in Ireland. In their first solemn memorial,
+presented by Grenville on March 25, 1805, they expressly declared that
+"they do not seek or wish, in the remotest degree, to injure or encroach
+upon the rights, privileges, immunities, possessions, and revenues
+appertaining to the bishops and clergy of the protestant religion, or to
+the churches committed to their charge". They further volunteered an
+expression of their belief that no evil act could be justified by the
+good of the Church, and that papal infallibility was no article of the
+catholic faith. Thenceforward, frequent motions in support of the
+"catholic claims" were made in both houses of parliament. In 1810 such a
+motion was proposed in a very eloquent speech by Grattan, but
+Castlereagh, though a staunch friend of the cause, deprecated it as
+inopportune, since the catholics had injured themselves by imprudent
+conduct, and fresh declarations inconsistent with their former
+assurances. The motion was therefore rejected, and a similar fate befell
+motions of the same kind in the two following years, especially in the
+house of lords, where Eldon inflexibly resisted any concession, and
+always commanded a majority.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+When Liverpool replaced Perceval as prime minister in 1812, catholic
+emancipation became an open question in the cabinet. In that year
+Canning succeeded in carrying triumphantly a resolution pledging the
+house of commons to consider the question seriously in the next session,
+and a like resolution was only lost by one vote in the house of lords.
+Accordingly, in 1813, Grattan's motion for a committee of the whole
+house on catholic disabilities was accepted, and a bill for their
+removal passed its second reading. But it was loaded with vexatious
+securities in committee and wrecked by the vigorous opposition of the
+speaker, Abbot, who on May 24 carried by a majority of four an amendment
+withholding the right to sit and vote in parliament. After this, the
+bill was of course abandoned, but another was unanimously passed
+exempting from penalties Roman catholics holding certain military and
+civil offices, to which, by a harsh construction of law, they were not
+eligible. In 1817 the question was debated at great length in the house
+of commons, and several leading men took part in it, but the motion for
+catholic relief was again defeated by a majority of twenty-four. It was
+revived in 1819 by Grattan, who delivered on this occasion one of his
+greatest speeches, and succeeded in reducing the majority to two only.
+In 1821 a further advance was made by Plunket's success in obtaining a
+committee to consider the claims of the catholics. This was carried by a
+majority of six, and followed up by two bills, removing all catholic
+disabilities with very slight exceptions, but subject to stringent and
+somewhat illusory securities for the loyalty of the priesthood.
+Ultimately on April 2 a comprehensive measure of catholic relief passed
+the house of commons by a majority of nineteen. All the most influential
+members of the lower house now voted in its favour, but the attitude of
+the upper house remained unchanged. The spirit of Eldon still ruled the
+peers, and his speech against Plunket's relief bill contains a complete
+armoury of protestant arguments. But the catholics had a still more
+doughty opponent in the Duke of York, who delivered on this occasion the
+first of his famous declarations, binding himself to life-long
+hostility. As Eldon said, "he did more to quiet this matter than
+everything else put together".[85]
+
+The year 1821 marks a turning point in the history of the catholic
+question, since the protestant cause, no longer safe in the house of
+commons, was felt by its champions to depend on the crown and the house
+of lords. But it would be an error to suppose that catholic relief was
+ever a popular cry in this country, like retrenchment and reform. On the
+contrary, the feelings of the masses in Great Britain were never roused
+in regard to it, and, if roused at all, would probably have been
+enlisted on the other side. It would be too much to say that the
+controversy was merely academical, for it was keen enough to split up
+parties and produce dualism in cabinets. But it was never a hustings
+question. It filled a much larger space in the minds of statesmen than
+in the minds of the people, and even among statesmen it was so far
+secondary that it could be treated as an open question in Liverpool's
+ministry for a period of fifteen years. No doubt the disturbed state of
+Ireland, which ultimately supplied the motive power for carrying the
+emancipation act, contributed at an earlier stage to damp the zeal of
+its advocates. Whatever the merits of the union, it had failed to pacify
+the country, thereby verifying the warning of Cornwallis, that, although
+Ireland could not be saved without the union, "you must not take it for
+granted that it will be saved by it".
+
+In 1800, the very year of the union, the _habeas corpus_ act had been
+suspended and another act passed for the suppression of rebellion.
+Though repealed in the following year, these coercive measures were
+renewed in 1803, after Emmet's abortive rising, and continued in 1804.
+In 1805, when they expired, special commissions were appointed for the
+repression of crime in the south and west of Ireland. In 1807 the
+_habeas corpus_ act was again suspended and a rigorous insurrection act
+passed which continued in force until 1810. In that year a Catholic
+Committee was formed, anticipating the more notorious Catholic
+Association. An essential part of the scheme was the formation of a
+representative assembly in Dublin, to discuss and procure redress for
+the wrongs of catholics. This project was put down by the Irish
+government, which treated it as a breach of the convention act of 1793.
+The next ten years seem to have been somewhat quieter in Ireland, and
+the disturbances which followed the peace in Great Britain had no
+counterpart in that country. Still, it was thought necessary to suppress
+another catholic convention in 1814, and to renew the insurrection act,
+which remained in force with one interval till 1817. It can well be
+imagined that a population so lawless, and so prone to horrible outrages
+which shock Englishmen more than a thousand crimes against property,
+should have excited little general sympathy by their complaints of
+political grievances. These grievances were justly denounced by party
+leaders, but in the eyes of ordinary politicians, and still more of
+electors, coercion rather than concession was the appropriate remedy for
+the ills of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+Canning, however, though suspected of lukewarmness, did not let the
+question rest in 1822. On April 30, while still out of office, he
+introduced a bill which he could scarcely have expected to become law,
+for enabling Roman catholic peers to sit and vote in the house of lords.
+This bill was passed in the commons by a majority of five, but rejected
+in the lords by a majority of forty-four, in spite of somewhat
+transparent assertions that it was not intended to prejudice the main
+issue. On April 18, 1823, an angry protest from Burdett against the
+"annual farce" of motions leading to nothing was followed by a quarrel
+between Canning and Brougham, who accused Canning, then foreign
+secretary, of "monstrous truckling for the purpose of obtaining office";
+and when Plunket moved, as usual, for the relief of catholics, a
+temporary secession of radicals took place, which left him in a
+ridiculous minority. In spite of this discomfiture, Lord Nugent
+succeeded in carrying through the commons a bill, granting the
+parliamentary franchise to Roman catholics in Great Britain. The bill
+was lost in the lords, and the question remained dormant in 1824; but in
+1825 it received a fresh impulse. This time it was Burdett who, at the
+instance of Lansdowne and Brougham, appeared as spokesman of the
+catholics. His action was in some respects inopportune, as the "Catholic
+Association," founded by O'Connell and Sheil in 1823, was now usurping
+the functions of a government, and regularly levying taxes under the
+name of "rent". The necessity of suppressing it, though not apparent to
+Lord Wellesley, the lord-lieutenant, was strongly felt on both sides of
+the house of commons. A bill for this purpose, but applicable to all
+similar associations, was rapidly carried by large majorities in both
+houses, and the opposition was fain to rely mainly on the declaration
+that it would be put in force against catholic associations only, and
+not against those of the Orangemen, as the more violent of the Irish
+protestants were called. It is needless to say that it was evaded by the
+former, but on March 1, while it was still before the house of lords,
+Burdett took courage to move another preliminary resolution in favour of
+the catholics, and obtained a majority of thirteen. A bill founded on
+this resolution was at once introduced.
+
+The debates on this bill were memorable in several respects and opened
+the last stage but one in the long history of catholic relief. In the
+first place, more than one opponent publicly avowed his conversion to
+it; in the second place, now that its "settlement" was actually within
+view, the necessity of providing a counterpoise became admitted.
+Accordingly, one independent member proposed a state grant of £250,000 a
+year for the endowment of the catholic clergy, who might thus be
+indirectly bound over to good behaviour, while another proposed the
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders. Both of these bills were read
+a second time, but held over until the fate of the main relief bill
+should be determined. That bill passed the house of commons on May 10,
+1825, by a majority of twenty-one, and Peel tendered his resignation to
+Lord Liverpool.[86] Two days later, the Duke of York, on presenting a
+petition against the bill in the house of lords, delivered another
+speech which fell like a thunder-clap on the country, and has been
+celebrated ever since as an audacious breach of constitutional usage. In
+this speech, he justified the inflexible attitude of his father, whose
+mental disorder he expressly attributed to the agitation of the catholic
+question. He concluded by declaring that his principles were the same,
+imbibed in early youth and confirmed by mature reflection, and that he
+would maintain them up to the latest moment of his existence, "whatever
+might be his situation in life". It is certain that, in thus pledging
+himself, he acted without having consulted the king, who somewhat
+resented so direct an allusion to his prospect of succession. Still, the
+sensation produced by the duke's utterance was prodigious, and he
+remained the favourite champion of the protestant cause until his death.
+Brougham attacked him with furious sarcasm in the commons, but the lords
+threw out Burdett's relief bill by a majority of forty-eight, and the
+No-popery cry influenced the general election of 1826. In that year no
+further effort was made by the friends of catholic claims, but O'Connell
+showed his growing power in Ireland by exciting a political revolt of
+the peasantry at Waterford, and procuring the defeat of Lord George
+Beresford.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+In the session of 1827, before Canning succeeded Lord Liverpool, Burdett
+renewed his motion of 1825 on the catholic question, but found himself
+defeated by four votes. The division had taken place in a full house,
+after the fierce encounter, already mentioned, between Copley and
+Canning; but it cannot be regarded as a decisive token of contrast
+between the old and the new parliament, since relief was now claimed
+without any mention of "securities". The subject was in abeyance during
+the short administrations of Canning and Goderich, but was raised again
+by Burdett in May, 1828, after the repeal of the test and corporation
+acts. The number of votes on the catholic side, 272, was the same as in
+1827, that on the protestant side, 266, was less by ten, the result
+being a majority of six for the motion. A similar resolution was lost in
+the house of lords, as a matter of course; but the language held by the
+new lord chancellor, Lyndhurst, and by Wellington himself, as prime
+minister, prepared observant men for an impending change of policy. Then
+followed the Clare election, which revealed nothing which might not have
+been foreseen, but which had the same effect in precipitating the
+removal of catholic disabilities as the Irish famine afterwards had in
+precipitating the repeal of the corn laws.
+
+We now know that Peel had made up his mind to yield shortly after the
+Clare election,[87] partly influenced by the alarming reports of
+Anglesey, the Irish lord-lieutenant, on the state of Ireland. We also
+know that Wellington himself was more than half convinced of the
+necessity of concession, and was preparing to strengthen his government
+for the coming struggle, in the event of Peel feeling bound to retire.
+Meanwhile a vacancy in the ministry had been created by the Duke of
+Clarence's resignation of his office of lord high admiral. In spite of
+the limitations imposed on his power, he had insisted on hoisting his
+flag, and assumed command. For this he was severely reprehended by the
+king and Wellington, and was virtually forced to resign office. Melville
+now became once more first lord of the admiralty, and was succeeded by
+Ellenborough at the board of control. Ellenborough retained his former
+office of lord privy seal, which Wellington was holding in reserve with
+a view to strengthening the government. But the public of those days
+remained in entire ignorance of their intentions until the meeting of
+parliament on February 5, 1829.
+
+The speech of George Dawson, Peel's brother-in-law, at Derry, on August
+12, had greatly startled protestants. As it was never publicly
+disavowed, Brunswick clubs were formed to repel the rising tide of
+sympathy with the catholics, but the only tangible indication of
+Wellington's personal sentiments favoured the belief that nothing would
+be done. The circumstances under which this indication was given were
+peculiar. The duke had written a letter to the Roman catholic archbishop
+of Dublin, an old correspondent, deprecating agitation on the catholic
+question, as likely to prejudice its future settlement, of which,
+however, the duke saw "no prospect".[88] This letter was improperly
+sent by the archbishop to O'Connell as well as to Anglesey. O'Connell
+read it to the Catholic Association as a sign of conciliatory
+inclinations; Anglesey's reply suggested, at least, that agitation might
+continue. He was promptly recalled, and his recall was rendered the more
+significant by the appointment of the Duke of Northumberland, a known
+"protestant," as his successor. What the public could not then know was
+that behind all other difficulties, political or personal, lay the
+almost insuperable difficulty of inducing the king to allow the cabinet
+to be even consulted. Indolent and unprincipled as George IV. was, he
+was still capable of rousing and asserting himself. Probably no one but
+Wellington could have prevailed against his anti-catholic prejudices,
+shared, as they were, not only by most of the peers, both spiritual and
+temporal, but also by the mass of the English people. At this juncture
+Peel informed the duke that, rather than risk the success of the
+proposed measure, he would remain at his post. His example was followed
+by his "protestant" colleagues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+During the winter of 1828-29 the strongest pressure was brought to bear
+on the king by his ministers to procure his consent to a measure of
+relief, accompanied by safeguards. Though he afterwards assured Eldon
+that he had never explicitly given such a consent, the old chancellor,
+on seeing the documents, felt obliged to express a contrary opinion. It
+is certain that he gave way most reluctantly, and probable that his
+scruples were as sincere as was consistent with his character; but he
+knew well that, if he dismissed his ministers, he would be left
+isolated, and he bowed to necessity. Indeed even the "protestant"
+members of the cabinet had urged him to yield. His assent was, in fact,
+only given by degrees; after each member of the cabinet, who had
+previously opposed catholic emancipation, had had a separate interview,
+the king consented on January 15 to the consideration of the subject by
+the cabinet, but reserved the right to reject its advice. After this no
+great difficulty was experienced in obtaining the royal assent to the
+introduction of a bill.[89] Accordingly the king's speech, delivered by
+commission on February 5, 1829, distinctly recommended parliament to
+consider whether the civil disabilities of the catholics could not be
+removed "consistently with the full and permanent security of our
+establishments in Church and State". This recommendation, however, was
+preceded by a severe condemnation of the Catholic Association and the
+expression of a resolution to put down the disorders caused by it. The
+sensation produced by the king's speech was increased by the
+simultaneous resignation by Peel of his seat for the university of
+Oxford. Considering that he was originally preferred to Canning mainly
+on protestant grounds, he could not have honourably acted otherwise.
+Many of his old friends stood by him, in spite of differences on the
+catholic question, and Eldon's grandson, who had been proposed as a
+candidate, was set aside as too weak an opponent. Ultimately Sir Robert
+Inglis was put forward by the "protestants," and was returned by 755
+votes against 609. Peel obtained a seat for the borough of Westbury,[90]
+and moved a preliminary bill for suppressing the Catholic Association.
+This passed both houses in February, but was already ineffective when it
+became law, since the association had been shrewd enough to dissolve
+itself upon the advice of its English well-wishers. The catholic relief
+bill was therefore introduced under favourable auspices.
+
+The motives which actuated Wellington and Peel in espousing the cause
+which they had so persistently opposed admit of no doubt whatever. In
+the memoir which Peel left as embodying his own defence, no less than in
+his speech introducing the emancipation bill, he affects no essential
+change of conviction. He rests his case entirely on the public danger of
+leaving the question "unsettled" after the disclosures of the Clare
+election, and argues calmly, as the agitators had been arguing for
+nearly thirty years, that no settlement was practicable short of
+complete, though not unconditional, surrender. There is no pretence of
+consistency. All the constitutional, political, and religious objections
+to civil equality between protestants and catholics in Ireland remained
+unanswered and unabated. Indeed the increasing power and defiant tone of
+the catholic demagogues might well have appeared a crowning reason for
+refusing them seats in parliament. Peel, however, had adopted, and
+pressed upon Wellington, the delusive opinion of Anglesey that by
+"taking them from the Association and placing them in the house of
+commons" they might be reduced to comparative impotence. He lamented, it
+is true, the premature announcement of a new policy by Dawson, and he
+had submitted his own resignation to the duke in the belief, apparently
+sincere, that he could render better service in an independent position.
+But he seems not to have felt the least scruple in urging the duke to
+break all his pledges to his protestant supporters, and conciliate the
+followers of O'Connell. Nor did his advice fall on unwilling ears.
+Trained in a vocation where private conscience is subordinate to
+military duty, where enemies must sometimes be welcomed as allies if it
+may further the plan of campaign, and where a masterly retreat is as
+honourable as a victory, Wellington did not shrink from undertaking the
+part of an opportunist minister. He had always regarded himself as a
+servant of the crown and the nation, rather than as a party leader, and
+he saw no personal difficulty in adopting any political measure as the
+less of two evils. Having once satisfied himself that civil war in
+Ireland was the only alternative to emancipation, he abandoned
+resistance to it as he would have abandoned a hopeless siege, and called
+upon his tory followers to change their front with him.
+
+Notice had been given of a resolution to be moved by Peel on March 5,
+preparing the way for the catholic relief bill, when the king raised
+fresh obstacles to its progress. As the day drew near, George,
+encouraged by the Duke of Cumberland, grew very excited. He had violent
+interviews with his ministers, and finally on March 3 he informed
+Wellington, Lyndhurst, and Peel that he could not assent to any
+alteration in the oath of supremacy. The three ministers accordingly
+tendered their resignations, which were accepted. But the king soon
+found that no alternative administration was possible, and on the
+following day the existing ministers received permission to proceed with
+the bill.[91]
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+Peel's great speech on March 5, in favour of his resolution, contains a
+comprehensive review of the Irish question, as well as an elaborate
+defence of his own position, resting solely on grounds of expediency. He
+advocated the measure itself as the only means of pacifying Ireland,
+reducing the undue power of the catholics, and securing the protestant
+religion. It was simple in its main outlines, applying to the whole
+United Kingdom, and purporting to open all political and civil rights to
+catholics, with a very few specified exceptions. It contained, however,
+a number of provisions, in the nature of securities against catholic
+aggression. By the new oath, to be substituted for the oaths of
+allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, a member of parliament, or holder
+of an office, was no longer required to renounce transubstantiation, the
+invocation of saints, or the sacrifice of the mass. But he was still
+obliged not only to swear allegiance, but to profess himself resolved to
+maintain the protestant settlement of the crown, to condemn absolutely
+all papal jurisdiction within the realm, and to disclaim solemnly any
+intention of subverting the existing Church establishment or weakening
+the system of protestant government. Moreover, priests were expressly
+denied the privilege of sitting in parliament. Catholics were still
+excluded from the high positions of sovereign, regent, lord chancellor
+of England or Ireland, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. They were enabled
+to become ministers of the crown, but were debarred from the power of
+advising the crown on presentations to ecclesiastical dignities or
+benefices, nor were they allowed to exercise such patronage in their
+personal capacity. They were still to be disabled from holding offices
+in the ecclesiastical courts, or in the universities, and their bishops
+were forbidden to assume diocesan titles already appropriated by the
+establishment. Other clauses were directed against the use of catholic
+vestments except in their chapels and private houses, and against the
+importation of Jesuits or members of similar religious orders, with a
+saving clause for those already resident and duly registered. Two other
+safeguards, often proposed, were deliberately omitted from the bill.
+There was no provision for a state endowment of catholic priests, or for
+a veto of the crown on the appointment of catholic bishops. These
+omissions, whether justifiable or not, were pregnant with serious
+consequences.
+
+The debates in both houses on Peel's bill, as it was rightly considered,
+are chiefly interesting as throwing light on contemporary opinion. The
+arguments for and against it had been fairly exhausted in previous
+years, and would carry no great weight in a later age. The
+constitutional objections to it, which seemed vital to Eldon, and
+weighty to every statesman of his time, were at a later date put aside,
+when they were pleaded against the dissolution of the Irish church,
+directly guaranteed by the act of union. The criticisms on the personal
+consistency of Wellington and Peel belong to biography rather than to
+history. But no one can read the speeches of leading men on either side
+without recognising the superior foresight, at least, of those who
+opposed the bill, and distrusted the efficacy of the safeguards embodied
+in it. Two assumptions underlay the whole discussion, and were treated
+as axioms by nearly all the speakers. The one was that catholic
+emancipation must be judged by its effect on the future peace of
+Ireland; the other, that it could not be justified, unless it would
+strengthen, rather than weaken, protestant ascendency, then regarded as
+a bulwark of the constitution. Posterity may contemplate it from a
+different and perhaps higher point of view; but it is certain that, if
+its consequences had been foreseen by those who voted upon it, the bill
+would have been rejected. It is no less certain that its adoption was a
+victory of the educated classes, represented by nomination-boroughs,
+over the unrepresented masses of the people.
+
+The actual result in the division lists was all that its promoters could
+have desired. Though the secret had been so well kept by the government
+that few of its supporters knew what to expect, and though piles of
+petitions showed the preponderance of protestant sentiment outside
+parliament, that sentiment was not reflected in the division lists. The
+first reading of the bill in the house of commons was carried by a
+majority of 348 to 160; the second reading by a majority of 353 to 180;
+the third reading by a majority of 320 to 142. The debates were
+enlivened on the protestant side by a brilliant speech from Michael
+Sadler, a tory friend of the working classes, returned by the Duke of
+Newcastle for Newark, and a violent invective from Sir Charles
+Wetherell, the attorney-general, who was thereupon dismissed from
+office. Peel, who had borne the brunt of these attacks, replied on March
+30, when the bill was sent up to the lords, and on April 2, the second
+reading of it in the upper house was moved by Wellington. His candid
+admission that he was driven to concession by the fear of civil war has
+since become historical, and served as the watchword of many a lawless
+agitation in Ireland. It was natural that most of the peers, and
+especially of the spiritual peers, who took part in the discussion
+should be opponents of the measure, but Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford, severed
+himself from the rest of his order, and vigorous speeches were made in
+support of it by Anglesey and Grey, neither of whom could be regarded as
+friendly to Wellington's government.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+Anglesey, who had been recently dismissed from the lord-lieutenancy of
+Ireland, went beyond the duke in the use of purely military arguments;
+Grey ventured to prophesy not only a future reign of peace in Ireland,
+but an extension of protestantism, as the consequence of catholic
+emancipation. The hopeless attempt of Lyndhurst to vindicate his own
+consistency, and a forensic duel between Eldon and Plunket, who had been
+raised to the peerage in 1827, relieved the monotony of the debate, but
+probably did not influence a single vote. The old guard of the
+anti-catholic party remained firm, but the mass of tory peers followed
+their leader in his new policy, as they had followed him in his old, and
+the relief bill was read a third time in the house of lords on the 10th,
+by a majority of 104. Three days later it received the royal assent.
+Lord Eldon had virtually encouraged the king to refuse this, at the last
+moment, though he was too honest to accept the assurance of George IV.
+that the bill was introduced without his authority. But the son of
+George III. had not inherited his father's resolute character. After a
+few childish threats of retiring to Hanover and leaving the Duke of
+Clarence to make terms with the ministry, he abandoned further
+resistance and capitulated to Wellington, as Wellington had capitulated
+to O'Connell.
+
+The disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders and the
+substitution of a ten-pound suffrage was the price to be paid for
+catholic emancipation, and no time was lost in completing the bargain.
+In days when it is assumed that every change in the electoral franchise
+must needs be in a downward direction, it may well appear amazing that
+so wholesale a destruction of privileges enjoyed for thirty-six years
+should have provoked so feeble an opposition. It is still more amazing
+that it should have passed without a protest from O'Connell himself, who
+had solemnly vowed to perish on the field or on the scaffold rather than
+submit to it. Yet so it was. These ignorant voters, it is true, had
+never ventured to call their souls their own, and had only ceased to be
+the servile creatures of their landlords in order to become the servile
+creatures of their priests. Still, it was they who, by their action in
+the Waterford and Clare elections, had forced the hand of the
+government, and achieved catholic emancipation. It may safely be said
+that after the reform act of 1832 it would have been politically
+impossible to disfranchise them; and even in the unreformed parliament
+it would have been scarcely possible if gratitude were a trustworthy
+motive in politics. On the other hand, the government could never have
+secured a majority for catholic emancipation, unless it had been
+distinctly understood to carry with it the extinction of democracy in
+Ireland. This, rather than declarations and restrictions of doubtful
+efficacy, was the real "security" on which the legislature relied for
+disarming the disloyalty of Irish catholics. For some time it answered
+its purpose so far as to keep the representation of that disloyalty
+within safe limits in the house of commons. But it naturally produced a
+contrary effect in Ireland itself, and was destined to be swept away
+before a fresh wave of agitation.
+
+A few days before the relief bill passed the house of commons an episode
+occurred which is chiefly interesting for the light which it throws on
+the ideas then prevalent in the highest society. In 1828 Wellington had
+presided at a meeting for the establishment of King's College, London,
+an institution which was to be entirely under the influence of the
+established church, and which was intended as a counterpoise to the
+purely secular institution which had been recently founded under the
+title of the "London University". The Earl of Winchilsea, a peer of no
+personal importance, but a stalwart upholder of Church and State,
+published in the _Standard_ newspaper of March 16, 1829, a virulent
+letter, describing the whole transaction "as a blind to the protestant
+and high church party," and accusing the prime minister of insidious
+designs for the introduction of popery in every department of the state.
+The duke at once sent Hardinge with a note couched in moderate language,
+demanding an apology. Winchilsea made no apology, but offered to express
+regret for having mistaken the duke's motives, if the duke would declare
+that when he presided at the meeting in question he was not
+contemplating any measure of catholic relief. Whereupon the duke
+demanded "that satisfaction which a gentleman has a right to require,
+and which a gentleman never refuses to give". A hostile meeting took
+place on March 21 in Battersea fields. The duke intentionally fired
+wide, and Winchilsea, after discharging his weapon in the air, tendered
+a written apology, in conformity with the so-called rules of honour. The
+duke was conscious that his conduct must have "shocked many good men,"
+but he always maintained that it was the only way, and proved an
+effectual way, of dispelling the atmosphere of calumny in which he was
+surrounded. It is probable that he judged rightly of his contemporaries,
+and that he gained rather than lost in reputation by an act which, apart
+from its moral aspect, risked the success of a great measure largely
+depending on the continuance of his own life. It may be noticed that he
+afterwards became not only the personal friend of his antagonist, but
+the most influential member of the Anti-Duelling Association.[92]
+
+[Pageheading: _EXCLUSION OF O'CONNELL._]
+
+Another episode, or rather sequel, of the great contest on catholic
+relief had more serious political consequences. Though O'Connell was the
+undoubted leader of the movement, and might almost have claimed to be
+the father of the act, he was most unwisely but deliberately excluded
+from its benefits. His exclusion was effected by a clause which rendered
+its operation strictly prospective, for the very purpose of shutting out
+the one catholic who had been elected under the old law. It had been
+decided by a committee of the house of commons that he was duly
+returned, the only question being whether he could take his seat without
+subscribing the oath now abolished. This question was brought to a test
+by the appearance of O'Connell in person in the house itself. The
+speaker, Charles Manners-Sutton, declared that he could not properly be
+admitted to be sworn under the new law, upon which O'Connell claimed a
+hearing. A long and futile discussion followed as to whether he should
+be heard at the table or at the bar. In the end he was heard at the bar,
+and produced a very favourable impression upon his opponents as well as
+his friends by the ingenuity of his arguments and the studied moderation
+of his tone. His case, however, was manifestly untenable from a legal
+point of view, and a new writ was ordered to be issued for the county of
+Clare.
+
+Then was shown both the folly of stirring up so needlessly the
+inflammable materials of Irish sedition and the futility of imagining
+that catholic emancipation, right or wrong, would prove a healing
+measure. Having exhibited the better side of his character in his speech
+before the house of commons, O'Connell exhibited its worst side without
+stint or shame in his addresses to the Irish peasantry. Skilfully
+avoiding the language of sheer treason, he set no bounds to his coarse
+and outrageous vituperation of the nation which had sacrificed even its
+conscience to appease Ireland; nor did he shrink from denouncing
+Wellington and Peel as "those men who, false to their own party, can
+never be true to us". The note which he struck has never ceased to
+vibrate in the hearts of the excitable people which he might have
+educated into loyal citizenship, and the spirit which he evoked has been
+the evil genius of Ireland from his day to our own. He openly unfurled
+the standard of repeal, but the repeal he demanded did not involve the
+creation of an Irish republic. Ireland was still to be connected with
+Great Britain by "the golden link of the crown," and though agitation
+was carried to the verge of rebellion, the great agitator never actually
+advised his dupes to rise in arms for a war of independence. Short of
+this he did all in his power, and with too much success, to inflame them
+with a malignant hatred of the sister country. If the promoters of
+catholic emancipation had ever looked for any reward beyond the inward
+satisfaction of having done a righteous act, they were speedily and
+wofully undeceived.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[83] Wellington to Peel, January 9, 1828, in Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_,
+ii., 27.
+
+[84] Lecky, _History of Ireland_, v., 358-60, _n._; Stapleton, _Life of
+Canning_, ii., 131-34.
+
+[85] Eldon to Sir William Scott, Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 416. For
+Eldon's Speech, see Twiss, iii., 498-512.
+
+[86] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, i., 372-75.
+
+[87] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 54-60.
+
+[88] Wellington to Curtis, December 11, 1828, Wellington, _Despatches,
+etc._, v., 326.
+
+[89] For the king's qualified assent see Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+82-85; Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 297, 298, 310.
+
+[90] See Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 3, for his unpopularity at Westbury.
+
+[91] Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 343-49; Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 189, 190,
+201, 202.
+
+[92] See Maxwell, _Life of Wellington_, ii., 231-36, for the incident.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+                          PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+
+It is now time to turn to the general course of foreign policy during
+the closing years of the reign of George IV. The only foreign problems
+which gave serious trouble during this period were the Eastern and
+Portuguese questions. The influence which the former exercised on
+domestic policy has rendered it necessary to trace its course as far as
+the battle of Navarino in the last chapter. We must now take up the
+other question where we left it, at the recognition of the independence
+of Brazil and the expulsion of the Spanish troops from the mainland of
+America.
+
+Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, though an independent sovereign, was still
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, and the ultra-royalists hoped
+that, in spite of the provisions of the Brazilian constitution, his
+succession to his ancestral crown would restore the unity of the
+Portuguese dominions. The death of King John VI. on March 10, 1826,
+brought the matter to a crisis. Four days before his death he had
+appointed a council of regency which was to be presided over by his
+daughter, Isabella Maria, but from which the queen and Dom Miguel, then
+twenty-three, were both excluded. By this act the absolutist party were
+deprived of power until they should be restored to it by the action of
+the new king, or by a revolution. The regency wished the new king to
+make a speedy choice between the two crowns; and it was anticipated that
+he would abdicate the Portuguese crown in favour of his seven-year-old
+daughter, Maria da Gloria. The absolutists on the other hand hoped that
+the king might by procrastination avoid the separation of the crowns.
+
+What was their surprise when they discovered that the king had indeed
+determined to procrastinate, but in such a way as to displease the
+absolutists as much as the friends of constitutional government? No
+sooner had the news of his father's death reached Peter at Rio Janeiro,
+than he issued a charter of 145 clauses, conferring a constitution on
+Portugal. This constitution which was destined to alternate for nearly a
+generation with absolute monarchy or with the revolutionary constitution
+of 1821, had the advantage of being the voluntary gift of the king. It
+was, however, composed in great haste, and, except that it retained the
+hereditary nobility as a first chamber in the cortes, was almost
+identical with the constitution established in Brazil in the previous
+December. Among other provisions it subjected the nobility to taxation
+and asserted the principle of religious toleration. A few days later, on
+the 2nd of May, King Peter executed an act of abdication in favour of
+his daughter Maria, providing, however, that the abdication should not
+come into effect until the necessary oaths had been taken to the new
+constitution and until the new queen should have been married to her
+uncle, Dom Miguel.
+
+[Pageheading: _CIVIL WAR IN PORTUGAL._]
+
+This compromise pleased nobody. It is true that it seemed to make
+permanent the separation of Brazil from Portugal, since the former state
+was destined for Peter's infant son, afterwards Peter II.; but the
+Brazilian patriots would have preferred a more definite abandonment of
+the Portuguese throne, and Peter's half-measure of abdication was one of
+the main causes of the discontent which drove him to resign the
+Brazilian crown five years later. The Portuguese liberals were alarmed
+at the prospect of a restoration of Dom Miguel to power, while the
+absolutists were indignant at the imposition of a constitution. From the
+very first it encountered opposition. The new constitution was indeed
+proclaimed on July 13, and the necessary oaths were taken on the 31st.
+But on the same day a party, consisting mainly of Portuguese deserters
+in Spanish territory, proclaimed Miguel as king and the queen-mother as
+regent during his absence. Miguel, however, gave no open support to this
+party; on October 4 he actually took the oath to the new constitution,
+and on the 29th he formally betrothed himself at Vienna to the future
+Queen of Portugal. But the Portuguese insurgents were not deterred by
+the apparent defection of the prince whose claim to reign they
+asserted, and they received a thinly disguised encouragement from the
+Spanish government, which certainly did nothing to interfere with their
+organisation in Spanish territory. On the 10th the last insurgents had
+been expelled from Portuguese territory, but in November they were
+openly joined by some Spanish soldiers, and on the 22nd of that month
+they invaded the Portuguese province of Traz-os-Montes. Another division
+made a simultaneous irruption into the province of Alemtejo. This latter
+body was quickly expelled from the kingdom and marched through Spanish
+territory to join its more successful comrades in Northern Portugal. The
+whole province of Traz-os-Montes had fallen into the hands of the
+absolutists in a few days, and its defection was followed by that of the
+northern part of Beira, when the arrival of British forces gave the
+constitutional party the necessary encouragement to enable them to
+arrest the progress of the insurrection.
+
+As in 1823, the Portuguese government, represented in London by
+Palmella, applied for British assistance against the ultra-royalists at
+home. But on the present occasion Portugal was able to appeal to
+something more than the general friendship of Great Britain. By the
+treaties of 1661 and 1703, renewed as recently as 1815, Great Britain
+was bound to defend Portugal against invasion, and Portugal now claimed
+the fulfilment of these treaties. The formal demand was received by the
+British ministry on December 3, but it was not till Friday, the 8th,
+that official intelligence was received of the invasion. Not a moment
+was lost in despatching 5,000 troops to Portugal. This resolution was
+formed by the cabinet on the 9th, approved by the king on the 10th, and
+communicated to parliament on the 11th. On the evening of the 12th
+Canning was able to inform the house of commons that the troops were
+already on the march for embarkation.
+
+The debate in the house of commons on the address in answer to the royal
+message announcing the request of the Portuguese government, was the
+occasion of two of the most famous speeches that Canning ever delivered.
+After recounting the treaty obligations of this country to Portugal, and
+the circumstances of the Portuguese application for assistance, and
+disclaiming any desire to meddle with the domestic politics of
+Portugal, he referred to a previous anticipation that the next European
+war would be one "not so much of armies as of opinions". "Not four
+years," he proceeded, "have elapsed, and behold my apprehension
+realised! It is, to be sure, within narrow limits that this war of
+opinion is at present confined: but it is a war of opinion that Spain
+(whether as government or as nation) is now waging against Portugal; it
+is a war which has commenced in hatred of the new institutions of
+Portugal. How long is it reasonable to expect that Portugal will abstain
+from retaliation? If into that war this country shall be compelled to
+enter, we shall enter into it with a sincere and anxious desire to
+mitigate rather than exasperate, and to mingle only in the conflict of
+arms, not in the more fatal conflict of opinions. But I much fear that
+this country (however earnestly she may endeavour to avoid it) could
+not, in such case, avoid seeing ranked under her banners all the
+restless and dissatisfied of any nation with which she might come in
+conflict. It is the contemplation of this new power in any future war
+which excites my most anxious apprehension. It is one thing to have a
+giant's strength, but it would be another to use it like a giant. The
+consciousness of such strength is undoubtedly a source of confidence and
+security; but in the situation in which this country stands, our
+business is not to seek opportunities of displaying it, but to content
+ourselves with letting the professors of violent and exaggerated
+doctrines on both sides feel that it is not their interests to convert
+an umpire into an adversary."
+
+In his reply at the close of the debate Canning vindicated his
+consistency in resisting Spanish aggression upon Portugal, while
+offering no resistance to the military occupation of Spain by France,
+which had not yet terminated. He pointed out that the Spain of his day
+was quite different from "the Spain within the limits of whose empire
+the sun never set--the Spain 'with the Indies' that excited the
+jealousies and alarmed the imaginations of our ancestors". He admitted
+that the entry of the French into Spain was a disparagement to the pride
+of England, but he thought it had been possible to obtain compensation
+without offering resistance in Spain itself. Then came the famous
+passage: "If France occupied Spain, was it necessary, in order to avoid
+the consequences of that occupation, that we should blockade Cadiz? No.
+I looked another way--I sought materials of compensation in another
+hemisphere. Contemplating Spain, such as our ancestors had known her, I
+resolved that if France had Spain, it should not be Spain 'with the
+Indies'. I called the new world into existence to redress the balance of
+the old."[93]
+
+[Pageheading: _TROOPS SENT TO PORTUGAL._]
+
+The two speeches were greeted with applause both in parliament and in
+the country, but their vanity was excessive. So far from "creating the
+new world," Canning had merely recognised the existence of states which
+had already won their own independence, and even so he was only
+following the example of the United States. It was not only extremely
+foolish, but altogether disingenuous, to maintain that the recognition
+of the South American republics had been resolved on as a counterpoise
+to French influence in Spain. The reasons which prompted this
+recognition were commercial, not political, and it had been announced to
+the powers as our ultimate policy before any invasion of Spain had taken
+place. The king had only consented to the step on condition that it was
+not to be represented as a measure of retaliation, and Canning himself
+when he delivered these speeches knew that the French had promised to
+evacuate Spain in the following April.[94] But however little justified
+by facts, the two speeches made a profound impression throughout Europe.
+Whatever Canning might desire, it was quite clear that he contemplated
+the possibility of a military alliance between this country and the
+revolutionary factions on the continent, and the impression gained
+ground that he desired to pose as the champion of liberalism against
+legitimate government.
+
+The first detachment of the British army reached Lisbon on Christmas
+day. It was not destined, however, to play an active part in the
+Portuguese struggle. The insurgent army was as greatly discouraged as
+the loyal troops were elated by its arrival, and the government was
+moreover enabled to employ a larger force on the scene of hostilities.
+The insurgents were in consequence driven out of the province of Beira
+and the greater part of Traz-os-Montes. A new invasion from Spanish
+territory, supported by some Spanish soldiers and Spanish artillery,
+took place during January, 1827. The greater part of the province of the
+Minho fell into the hands of the rebels, and on February 2 they captured
+the important town of Braga. But the forces of the regency proved too
+strong for them, and early in March the insurgents evacuated Portugal
+altogether. The Spanish government, now that little could be effected by
+further assistance to the Portuguese refugees, determined at length to
+perform the duties of a neutral power, and disarmed them.
+
+The British troops remained in Portugal till March, 1828. By that time
+the disturbances had assumed a purely domestic character, and it was
+ultimately decided to recall them. But a firmer policy than that
+actually followed would have been necessary in order to extricate Great
+Britain from the strife of Portuguese factions, in which her recent
+action had given a decided advantage to the constitutional party. That
+party had been driven into opposition before the British troops were
+recalled. On July 3, 1827, King Peter had issued a decree appointing Dom
+Miguel his lieutenant, and investing him with all the powers which
+belonged to him as king under the charter. Miguel, after visiting
+London, arrived at Lisbon on February 22, 1828, and was sworn in as
+regent four days later. As he was twenty-five years old, and therefore
+of full age according to Portuguese law, he could not with any show of
+equity have been kept out of the regency longer. Miguel's installation
+as regent was followed by a series of riots as well on the part of the
+absolutists, who desired to make him king, as on the part of the
+constitutionalists who feared that he would make himself king. It was
+not long before he definitely identified himself with the absolutist
+party.
+
+[Pageheading: _MIGUEL'S USURPATION._]
+
+On March 14 the cortes were dissolved. On May 3 Miguel summoned the
+ancient cortes in his own name, and on June 26 they acknowledged him as
+king. The immediate result of this act was that all the ambassadors,
+except those of Spain and the Holy See, quitted Lisbon, and the lapse of
+time did not induce them to change their attitude towards Miguel. A
+further complication was introduced by Peter's definite abdication in
+favour of his daughter on March 3, executed before he had any suspicion
+of Miguel's designs, which placed Miguel in the position of regent for
+his infant niece instead of for his brother. After this formal
+abdication Peter despatched his daughter to Europe, intending that she
+should proceed to Vienna. When, however, she arrived at Gibraltar on
+September 2, her conductors, hearing of Miguel's usurpation, determined
+to take her to England, and she landed at Falmouth on the 24th. Peter,
+on hearing of Miguel's usurpation, naturally considered the regency
+terminated, and claimed to act as the guardian of the infant queen; the
+Brazilian ministers in Europe acted as his agents, while his partisans
+assembled in England and attempted to use this country as a basis for
+warlike operations in Portuguese territories.
+
+The situation of 1826 was thus reversed. Instead of an ultra-royalist
+party resting on Spain, a constitutionalist party resting on Brazil and
+attempting to rest on England was now threatening the established
+government at Lisbon. Wellington was anxious to maintain a strict
+neutrality, but he failed to prevent a ship of war and supplies of arms
+and ammunition going from Plymouth to Terceira in the Azores, where
+Donna Maria was acknowledged as queen. He succeeded, however, in
+preventing a larger armament, which had been raised under the name of
+the Emperor of Brazil, with Rio Janeiro as its nominal destination, from
+landing at Terceira. This action, though the logical consequence of the
+British opposition to the conduct of Spain in 1826, was severely
+criticised in England as equivalent to an intervention on behalf of
+Miguel.
+
+Meanwhile Canning's attempt to prevent the separate action of Russia in
+the Eastern question had been doomed to disappointment. The destruction
+of the Turkish navy at Navarino was naturally regarded at Constantinople
+as an outrage, and the Porte demanded satisfaction from the ambassadors
+of the allied powers. This they refused to grant on the ground that the
+Turks had been the aggressors, and they in their turn demanded an
+armistice between the Turkish troops and the Greek insurgents. As the
+Porte remained obdurate, the ambassadors of France, Great Britain, and
+Russia, acting in accordance with their instructions, left
+Constantinople on December 8, 1827. But though war seemed imminent, the
+tsar still disowned all idea of conquest, and professed to desire
+nothing further than the execution of the treaty of London. A protocol
+was accordingly signed on the 12th by which the three powers confirmed
+a clause in the treaty, providing that, in the event of war, none of
+them should derive any exclusive benefit, either commercial or
+territorial.
+
+The British government imagined that the powers might still effect their
+object by diplomacy, and that it would not be necessary to abandon the
+Turkish alliance. But any such idea must have been rudely shaken by the
+hati-sherif of December 20. In that document the sultan enlarged on the
+cruelty and perfidy of the Christian powers and summoned the Muslim
+nations to arms: he denounced Russia in particular as the prime mover of
+the Greek rebellion, the instigator of the other powers, and the
+arch-enemy of Islam; and he declared the treaty of Akkerman, by which
+the outstanding disputes between Russia and the Porte had been settled
+in October, 1826, to have been extorted by force and only signed in
+order to save time. This defiance of Russia, if not of all Christendom,
+was followed by a levy of Turkish troops and the expulsion of most of
+the Christian residents from Constantinople. No course was now open to
+Russia but to make war. It remained to be seen whether any other power
+would join her. On January 6, 1828, a Russian despatch announced the
+tsar's intention of occupying the Danubian principalities, and suggested
+that France and Great Britain should force the Dardanelles and thus
+compel the Porte to comply with the provisions of the treaty of London.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON'S EASTERN POLICY._]
+
+It is possible that if the direction of British foreign policy had
+remained in the hands of Goderich and Dudley, our government might have
+lent its support to a settlement of the Eastern question which would in
+effect have been the work of Russia only. The more daring policy of
+Canning, by which Great Britain had attempted to take the lead as
+opportunity offered, either in active co-operation with Russia or in
+active opposition to her, could only be directed by a more versatile
+statesman than the nation now possessed. The accession to office of
+Wellington, though it left Dudley at the foreign office, was really
+marked by a return to the policy of Castlereagh, a policy which, if not
+brilliant, was at least honourable, consistent, and considerate, and
+which in the hands of Wellington was managed with a sufficient measure
+of firmness, though with less tact and insight than had been shown by
+Castlereagh. The first object of this policy was to keep the special
+grievances of Russia distinct from the complaints which Europe at large
+or, in the present situation, the three allied powers were able to bring
+against the Porte. By so doing the British government hoped to prevent
+Russia from dragging other powers into a war for her private benefit,
+and also to render it impossible for Russia to use her special
+grievances as a lever by which she might effect a separate settlement of
+the general question. For some years this policy was successful. Russia
+did indeed wage a separate war with the Turks, but the Greek question
+was settled by the three powers conjointly, and Great Britain rather
+than Russia took the lead in the settlement. It was only after
+Palmerston had succeeded to the direction of our foreign policy in 1830,
+that it was discovered how far the victory of Russia in war had placed
+her in a position to dictate the general policy of the Ottoman court.
+
+Wellington experienced no difficulty in striking out a line of policy
+along which he could carry France with him. On February 21 De la
+Ferronays, who had been recalled from the French embassy at St.
+Petersburg to occupy the post of foreign minister in the new liberal
+administration, which had been formed in France in December, 1827,
+despatched a note urging the immediate employment of energetic measures
+against the Porte. He saw that the hati-sherif gave special occasion of
+war to Russia, and he was naturally anxious to anticipate her isolated
+action by combined measures of coercion. He had, however, nothing better
+to suggest than the execution of the Russian proposals of January 6.
+Wellington, in his reply, dated the 26th, rightly minimised the
+seriousness of the hati-sherif, and characterised the proposed measures
+of coercion as destined to be ineffectual. He also expressed the fear
+that if the three powers combined to make war on the Turks there would
+be a general insurrection of the subject races in the Turkish dominions
+which might last indefinitely. He therefore proposed first to settle the
+Greek question by local pressure, after which he anticipated no serious
+trouble about events at Constantinople. On the same day he drafted a
+memorandum to the cabinet in which he proposed that the allied squadrons
+should proceed to the Archipelago, blockade the Morea and Alexandria,
+destroy the Greek pirates, stop the warfare in Chios and Crete, and call
+upon the Greek government to withdraw the forces which were operating
+in western and eastern Greece respectively under the command of two
+foreign volunteers, General Church and Colonel Fabvier. In other words,
+he proposed to coerce not the Porte but the actual combatants, Greece
+and Egypt, and to check each party where it was the aggressor. If the
+prime object of the government in the eastern question was the
+maintenance of order, these proposals were excellent. The one capital
+defect of the whole scheme was that it ignored the Russian desire for
+war, which rendered it impossible for the tsar to postpone the
+settlement of his own grievances until an arrangement should be come to
+on the Greek question; on the other hand, by isolating the Greek
+question, it left it possible for the western powers to proceed with its
+solution in spite of the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and the
+Turks.[95]
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY._]
+
+Russia's determination to act singly was, however, already made. On the
+same day, February 26, on which Wellington sketched his policy,
+Nesselrode issued a despatch declaring that war was inevitable,
+including among his reasons the repudiation of recent treaties by the
+Porte and the proclamation by it of a holy war. At the same time he
+endeavoured to disarm any possible opposition on the part of the powers
+by an invitation to them to make use of the coming war to carry out the
+treaty of London. In any case Russia would execute the treaty, but if
+she were left to herself, the manner of execution would be determined by
+her own convenience and interest.[96] So far Russia had done nothing
+directly inconsistent with the maintenance of her concert with France
+and Great Britain, whose representatives had been sitting in conference
+with hers at London since January, 1827. But the reference in this last
+note to the possibility of a settlement of the Greek question according
+to the convenience and interest of Russia appeared like a threat of
+breaking up the alliance in case France and Great Britain refused to
+send their fleets to the Mediterranean. At least Wellington so
+understood it, and, rather than be a party to the war, he dissolved the
+conference of London in the middle of March. But he soon found that by
+so doing he lost the co-operation of France, and he was therefore
+compelled to accept the assurances of Russia that she intended to keep
+within the limits of the treaty of London, and to regard the
+Mediterranean as a neutral area. The conference was in consequence
+reopened at the beginning of July. Meanwhile hostilities had actually
+begun between Russia and the Turks. Russia declared war on April 26. On
+May 7 her troops crossed the Pruth. They rapidly overran the Danubian
+provinces, and on June 7 crossed the Danube into Bulgaria. They were
+destined, however, to spend more than a year between the Danube and the
+Balkans before they could force their way into Rumelia.
+
+During the interval considerable progress was made with the settlement
+of the Greek question. The treaty of London in providing for the
+autonomy of Greece had specified no boundaries, and the first problem
+demanding the attention of the powers that had assumed the task of the
+settlement of Greece was to determine the limits within which that
+settlement was to be effected. It might be urged that all the Greeks who
+had accepted the armistice imposed by the powers in consequence of the
+treaty of London had a right to share in the settlement at which that
+treaty aimed. But the armistice had been broken by Greek attacks on
+Chios and Crete, and Wellington held that the powers were, in
+consequence, free from any obligation imposed by the nominal acceptance
+of the armistice. He, accordingly, desired to adopt the simple principle
+of granting the proposed autonomy to those parts of Greece in which the
+insurrection had proved successful, namely, the Morea and the Ægean
+Islands, and refusing it in Northern and Central Greece, where the
+Turkish forces still held their own. But the British cabinet was far
+from being unanimous; many, among whom Palmerston was specially
+prominent, urged the concession of a greatly increased territory. The
+changes which took place in the British ministry towards the end of May,
+1828, deprived Palmerston of his share in its deliberations, and by
+substituting Aberdeen for Dudley at the foreign office, placed our
+foreign relations under the direction of a man of talent and experience,
+who had already exercised an important influence on British policy and
+who was more in sympathy with the policy of the prime minister than
+Dudley had been, but who was not content, like Dudley, to be a mere
+cipher in the department over which he was called to preside. Aberdeen,
+though opposed to the narrow boundaries which Wellington wished to
+assign to liberated Greece, was no less antagonistic than his chief to
+any attempt to make the new Greek state politically important; and he
+was even of opinion that the Russian declaration of war had released
+Great Britain from any further obligation under the treaty of London.
+
+Such were the composition and policy of the British government when the
+conference of London reassembled in July. The differences between the
+powers had prevented any active intervention in Greece, since the battle
+of Navarino. The ports in the Morea, still occupied by Ibrahim, had
+indeed been blockaded, but it had been found impossible to induce
+Austrian vessels to acknowledge a blockade of such questionable
+legality, and the allied fleets had even permitted the embarkation of
+Ibrahim's sick and wounded together with 5,500 Greek prisoners, who were
+sold into slavery on their arrival at Alexandria. The renewal of the
+concert of the three powers was followed by a rapid change in the
+situation. On the 19th it was decided that France should send an
+expedition to expel the Turco-Egyptian troops from the Morea, while
+Great Britain should render her any naval assistance that might be
+necessary. This step was valued by the British government as definitely
+committing France to a share in the settlement of the Greek question,
+and therefore interesting that power in opposition to any attempt at a
+separate settlement by Russia. It also furnished a safe outlet for
+French military ardour, disappointed by the results of the Spanish
+expedition. In fact, the evacuation of Spain, which was in progress at
+the date when this agreement was concluded, materially reduced the
+strain which the new undertaking imposed upon the French government.
+France immediately prepared to send out a force amounting to nearly
+22,000 men. But before they could arrive, the greater part of their task
+had been performed by other hands.
+
+[Pageheading: _TURKS EXPELLED FROM THE MOREA._]
+
+Codrington's conduct in permitting the embarkation of the Turkish sick
+and wounded with their prisoners had given great dissatisfaction at
+home, and the cabinet had resolved on his recall before the ministerial
+crisis of the latter part of May. That crisis occasioned a fortnight's
+delay, and, in consequence, Codrington was able, before his successor
+arrived, to make a naval demonstration before Alexandria and on August 6
+to obtain the consent of Mehemet Ali to the following proposals: an
+exchange of prisoners was to take place, involving the liberation of
+the recently enslaved Greeks, and the Egyptian army was to be withdrawn
+from the Morea, but Ibrahim was to be allowed to leave behind 1,200
+Egyptian troops to help to garrison five fortresses which were held by
+the Turks. Before either the new London protocol or the Alexandria
+convention could be carried into effect, further differences had arisen.
+Russia had proclaimed a blockade of the Dardanelles and ordered her
+admiral to carry it out. This proceeding was regarded by the British
+government as a breach of faith and a menace to British commerce. It
+was, however, impossible to abandon co-operation with Russia for fear
+that the Greek question might become involved in the issues at stake
+between her and the Porte. Wellington, in consequence, contented himself
+with obtaining certain exemptions from the operation of the blockade on
+behalf of British subjects trading with Turkey, and with the exclusion
+of the Russian fleet from the operations conducted in the Mediterranean
+in accordance with the orders of the London conference. The French force
+for expelling the Egyptians from the Morea arrived almost simultaneously
+with the Egyptian transports for removing them. On October 5 Ibrahim set
+sail for Egypt, with 21,000 men, leaving 1,200 behind in the five
+fortresses in accordance with the terms settled at Alexandria. The
+French began their attack on the remaining fortresses two days later,
+and by the end of November had expelled all the Turks from the Morea. By
+the terms of their engagements, they ought now to have departed. But it
+was hardly to be expected that France would so readily abandon the
+advantage that the presence of her troops gave her in the settlement of
+the eastern question.
+
+Meanwhile the negotiations made slow progress. On November 16 a protocol
+was issued placing the Morea with the neighbouring islands under the
+guarantee of the powers. Wellington had opposed any extension of the
+guarantee to Central Greece on the ground that the allies had to provide
+both the necessary military force and the cost of maintaining the Greek
+government, so that any undertaking beyond the Morea would involve heavy
+expense without rendering lighter the task of maintaining order. But the
+real decision of the question lay not with the diplomatists at London,
+but with the diplomatists on the spot. Representatives of the three
+powers had been sent to Poros to make detailed arrangements in
+accordance with the terms of the treaty of London. Stratford Canning,
+who represented Great Britain, was one of the supporters of an extended
+frontier, and in the end the ambassadors at Poros drew up a protocol in
+favour of erecting Greece south of a line connecting the Gulfs of Arta
+and Volo into a hereditary principality, which was also to include
+nearly all the islands. Even Samos and Crete were recommended to the
+benevolent consideration of the courts. All Mohammedans were to be
+expelled from this territory. The tribute payable to Turkey was to be
+fixed at 1,500,000 piastres, but this was to be paid not to the Turkish
+government, but to those who might suffer pecuniary loss by the
+confiscation of lands hitherto owned by Mohammedans.
+
+[Pageheading: _PEACE OF ADRIANOPLE._]
+
+The spring of 1829 was marked by events which went far to cancel the
+arguments on which Wellington had based his case for a restricted
+frontier. Not only the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth but Acarnania
+and Ætolia were liberated by the Greek forces under Sir Richard Church
+the castle of Vonitza falling on March 17, Karavasara shortly
+afterwards, Lepanto on April 30, and Mesolongi on May 17.[97] Meanwhile
+the terms agreed upon at Poros had been adopted and further defined by
+the conference at London on March 22. It was now provided that the
+future hereditary prince was to be chosen by the three powers and the
+sultan conjointly, and that the terms were to be offered to the Porte by
+the British and French ambassadors in the name of the three powers; any
+Turkish objections were to be weighed.[98] It was not till June that
+Robert Gordon and Guilleminot, representing Great Britain and France
+respectively, were able to lay these proposals before the Porte, and it
+was only after a Russian army under Diebitsch had crossed the Balkans
+that the Porte on August 15 accepted them, and even then only with
+extensive modifications. These limited the new state to the Morea and
+the adjacent islands, and left the tribute assigned to the same purposes
+as before the revolt; a limit was to be set to the military and naval
+forces of Greece, and Greeks were not to be allowed to migrate from
+Turkish dominions to the new state.
+
+Wellington was of opinion that these concessions were adequate. He
+attached great importance to the consent of the Porte, to dispense with
+which seemed to him a sure method of encouraging a general revolt in the
+Turkish dominions; and he also advocated a limited frontier in the
+interests of the Ionian Islands. He doubted whether it would be found
+possible to remove Capodistrias, who had been elected president of
+Greece for a period of seven years on April 14, 1827, from his office to
+make room for a hereditary prince, and he felt sure that if Capodistrias
+were once granted Central Greece he would not hesitate to attempt the
+conquest of the Ionian Islands. Capodistrias had in fact refused to
+accept any of the arrangements proposed by the London conference, and
+was still engaged in the vigorous prosecution of the war. Wellington did
+not, however, succeed in inducing France and Russia to remain content
+with the Turkish concessions. Diebitsch's successful march through
+Rumelia encouraged Russia to demand more, and filled the minds of the
+French ministers with the wildest schemes of aggression. They actually
+proposed to Russia that the northern part of the Balkan peninsula should
+be divided between Austria and Russia while the whole peninsula south of
+the Balkans, with Bulgaria to the north, was to be formed into a new
+state under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands, whose
+hereditary dominions were in their turn to be divided between France,
+Great Britain, and Prussia.
+
+Such chimerical projects were based on the assumption that
+Constantinople lay at the mercy of the army of Diebitsch; and this was
+believed to be the case not only by the court of Paris, but by that of
+London, and even by that of Constantinople. But no one knew better than
+Diebitsch how precarious his situation was, and, if Russia wished to
+obtain advantageous terms, it was necessary for her to make the most of
+the illusion while it lasted. On September 14 the peace of Adrianople
+was signed, which established the virtual independence of the
+principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia and secured for all powers at
+peace with Turkey a free passage for merchant ships through the
+Bosphorus and Dardanelles; Russia received a small addition to her
+Asiatic territories, and Turkey accepted both the treaty of London of
+July 6, 1827, and the protocol of London of March 22, 1829. The
+difficulties raised by Turkey's opposition to the full terms of the
+protocol were thus swept aside, and it was now clear that, if that
+protocol was to be further modified, it would be modified out of regard
+for the interests of Europe not by way of concession to Turkey. France
+and Great Britain were naturally averse from a settlement of the
+question by Russia alone, even when that settlement was on lines to
+which they had given their consent, and they might have been expected to
+propose some alteration in the scheme. But the conciliatory action of
+Russia rendered such proposals needless. On September 29, only fifteen
+days after the treaty, Aberdeen received a formal proposal from Russia
+that Turkey should be offered a restriction of the Greek boundary in
+return for a recognition of the total independence of Greece.[99] This
+proposal removed Wellington's fear that the new principality might be
+used as a basis for an attack on the Ionian Islands; while the
+maintenance of Turkish suzerainty seemed less important after the
+apparent prostration of Turkish military power in the recent war.
+
+It now remained for the allied powers to select a prince to whom the new
+crown should be offered. This subject engaged their attention from
+October, 1829, to January, 1830. Finally, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
+widower of the Princess Charlotte, was selected, greatly to the
+annoyance of King George IV. On February 3 Prince Leopold was formally
+offered the sovereignty of Greece as an independent state, bounded on
+the north by a line drawn from the mouth of the Aspropotamo to
+Thermopylæ. Before accepting the crown he made an effort to obtain a
+stronger position for its future prince. He asked for a complete
+guarantee of independence from the three powers, some security for the
+Greek inhabitants of Crete and Samos, an extension of the boundary to
+the north, and financial and military support. The powers on February 20
+decided to grant the guarantee and a loan of £2,400,000, and to allow
+the French troops to remain in Greece for another year, but refused the
+extension of territory and would not recognise the right of the Greek
+state to interfere in the affairs of Crete and Samos. Leopold accepted
+the crown on these conditions on February 24, and they were accepted by
+the Porte on April 24. Capodistrias, who had no desire to make way for
+another ruler, invited Leopold to the country, but suggested that he
+would not be well received and that he would have to change his
+religion.[100] These considerations, combined with other causes, induced
+him to renounce the crown on May 21.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE CONQUERS ALGERIA._]
+
+One other foreign event exercised the minds of Wellington's cabinet
+during the last months of George IV.'s reign. This was the French
+punitive expedition to Algiers, which resulted In the conquest of that
+state. The expedition was originally planned in concert with Mehemet Ali
+of Egypt, and appeared to Wellington to be prompted by the idea that the
+defeat of the Turks by Russia afforded a convenient opportunity for a
+partition of Turkish territory. The British government was able by means
+of diplomatic pressure to induce Mehemet Ali to refrain from
+co-operating, but it could not deny the justice of the French expedition
+or prevent it from sailing.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[93] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, iii., 220-25, 227-35.
+
+[94] See Lloyd, _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_, N.S.,
+xviii. (1904), 77-105.
+
+[95] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, iv., 270-79.
+
+[96] _Ibid._, pp. 280-86.
+
+[97] So S. Lane-Poole, writing from Church's papers, _English Historical
+Review_, v., 519.
+
+[98] Hertslet, _Map of Europe by Treaty_, p. 142.
+
+[99] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, vi., 184.
+
+[100] See the letters in the _Annual Register_, lxxii. (1830), 389-401.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+                           PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+
+The year that elapsed between the prorogation of parliament on June 24,
+1829, and the death of George IV., on June 26, 1830, was barren in
+events of domestic importance. While Ireland was torn by faction, and
+the Orangemen of Ulster rivalled in lawlessness the catholics of the
+other provinces, England was undergoing another period of agricultural
+and commercial depression. The harvest of 1829 was late and bad; the
+winter that followed was the severest known for sixteen years; and a
+fresh series of outrages was committed by the distressed operatives,
+especially by the silk weavers in the east of London and the mill hands
+in the midland counties. In the district of Huddersfield, where the
+people bore their sufferings with admirable patience, a committee of
+masters stated as a fact that "there were 13,000 individuals who had not
+more than twopence half-penny a day to live on". When parliament met on
+February 4, 1830, the prevailing distress was recognised in the king's
+speech, but in guarded terms, and the ministers attributed it in the
+main, probably with justice, to unavoidable causes. This gave the
+enemies of free trade and currency reform an opportunity of renewing
+their protests against Peel's and Huskisson's financial policy. They
+failed to effect their object, but Goulburn, the chancellor of the
+exchequer, initiated a considerable reduction of expenditure and
+remission of taxes. The excise duties on beer, cider, and leather were
+now totally remitted, those on spirits being somewhat increased. The
+government even deliberated on the proposal of a property tax, and,
+stimulated by a motion of Sir James Graham, actually carried out large
+savings in official salaries. On the whole, this session was the most
+fruitful in economy since the conclusion of the peace. The system of
+judicature, too, was subjected to a salutary revision throughout Great
+Britain by the amalgamation of the English and Welsh benches, and the
+concentration of courts in Scotland. As the charter of the East Indian
+Company was about to expire, a strong committee was appointed to
+consider the whole subject of its territorial powers and commercial
+privileges. This committee was not the least beneficial result of a
+session which has left no great mark on the statute-book.
+
+[Pageheading: _MOVEMENT FOR REFORM._]
+
+The weakness of Wellington's position had long since become apparent to
+all. By his conduct in regard to catholic emancipation he had estranged
+a powerful section of his tory followers. By his jealousy and haughty
+attitude towards his whig allies, he had forfeited their good-will,
+never very heartily given. By his treatment of Huskisson, a small but
+able body of politicians was thrown into the ranks of a discordant
+opposition. No one else could have induced the king to give way on
+catholic emancipation, but the king had not forgiven him, and submitted
+to him out of fear rather than out of confidence. Though singularly
+deficient in rhetorical power, he still maintained his ascendency in the
+house of lords by the aid of more eloquent colleagues, but Peel was his
+only efficient lieutenant in the house of commons. The vacancy in the
+office of lord privy seal, occasioned by the transference of
+Ellenborough to the board of control, had at last been filled in June,
+1829, by the appointment of Lord Rosslyn, nephew of the first earl, who,
+however, added nothing to the strength of the ministry. In the meantime,
+reform had succeeded catholic emancipation as the one burning question
+of politics, but with this all-important difference that it roused
+enthusiasm in the popular mind. Political unions, like the branches of
+the catholic association, were springing up all over the country, and a
+series of motions was made in the house of commons which feebly
+reflected the feverish agitation in all the active centres of
+population. One of these, brought forward by the Marquis of Blandford,
+who had made a similar motion in the previous year, was really prompted
+by enmity against the author of catholic emancipation. Another,
+introduced by Lord Howick, son of Earl Grey, called for some general and
+comprehensive measure to remedy the admitted abuses of the electoral
+system. A third, and far more practical, attempt was made by Lord John
+Russell to obtain the enfranchisement of Manchester, Leeds, and
+Birmingham. A fourth, and perfectly futile proposal, was made by
+O'Connell, in the shape of a bill for triennial parliaments, universal
+suffrage, and vote by ballot, to which Russell moved a statesmanlike
+amendment, in favour of transferring members from petty boroughs to
+counties and great unrepresented towns. All these motions were defeated
+by larger or smaller majorities, but no one doubted that parliamentary
+reform was inevitable, and few can have imagined that Wellington was
+either willing or competent to grapple with it.
+
+While domestic affairs were in this state, George IV. died. His
+constitution, weakened by many years of self-indulgence, had been
+further depressed by a growing sense of loneliness and by the long
+struggle with his ministers over catholic emancipation. On April 15 his
+illness had been made public, and on May 24 it had been necessary to
+bring in a bill, authorising the use of a stamp, to be affixed in his
+presence in lieu of the royal sign manual. A month later, the disease of
+the heart from which he suffered took a fatal turn, and on June 26 he
+passed away, not without dignity, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
+Perhaps no other English king has been so harshly judged by posterity,
+nor is it possible to acquit him of moral vices which outweighed all his
+merits, considerable as they were. The Duke of Wellington, who knew him
+as well as any man, declared that he was a marvellous compound of
+virtues and defects, but that, on the whole, the good elements
+preponderated. Peel, who had become by his father's death Sir Robert,
+testified in Parliament that he "never exercised, or wished to exercise,
+a prerogative of the crown, except for the advantage of his people".
+These estimates assuredly err on the side of charity, and are quite
+inconsistent with other statements of the duke himself.
+
+George IV., it is true, possessed many royal gifts. He was a man of no
+ordinary ability, with a fine presence, courtly manners, various
+accomplishments, and clear-sighted intelligence on every subject within
+the sphere of his duties. But all these kingly qualities were marred by
+a heartlessness which rendered him incapable of true love or friendship,
+and a duplicity which made it impossible for him to retain the respect
+of his ministers. His private life was not wholly unlike that of the
+Regent Orléans and had much the same influence on the society of the
+metropolis. He was an undutiful son, a bad husband, a perfidious friend,
+with little sense of truth or honour, and destitute of that public
+spirit which atoned for the political obstinacy of his father. No one
+sincerely regretted his death, except the favourites who had been
+enriched by his extravagance, and actually succeeded in carrying off a
+large booty out of the valuables that he had amassed. Nevertheless, his
+regency is identified with a glorious period in our military history,
+and his reign ushered in a new age of reform and national prosperity. In
+the great struggle against Napoleon and the pacification of Europe he
+gave his ministers a cordial and effective support. To catholic
+emancipation he was honestly opposed, but he kept his opposition within
+constitutional limits, and his intense selfishness did not exclude a
+certain sentiment of philanthropy and even of patriotism.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+His successor, William IV., was greatly inferior to him intellectually,
+and infinitely less conversant with the business of state. Most of this
+prince's early life was spent at sea, where he saw a fair share of
+service, and became the friend of Nelson, but incurred his father's
+displeasure by infringing the rules of discipline. Having been created
+Duke of Clarence in 1789, he was rapidly promoted in the navy, but
+remained on shore without employment for some forty years before his
+accession, taking an occasional part in debates of the house of lords,
+and generally acting with the whig party. During this long period he was
+little regarded by his future subjects, and led a somewhat obscure life,
+at first in the company of Mrs. Jordan, by whom he had a numerous
+family. After his marriage with the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen
+in 1818, he became a more important personage, and, as we have seen, was
+made lord high admiral by Canning, but held office for little more than
+a year. He was thus entirely destitute of political training, and was
+living in privacy when he was called to ascend the throne on the eve of
+a singularly momentous crisis.
+
+The session was prolonged until July 23, when parliament was prorogued
+by the new king in person, and on the following day a dissolution was
+proclaimed, the writs being made returnable on September 14. During the
+month that elapsed between the death of George IV. and the prorogation,
+no serious business was done, but the leaders of opposition in both
+houses moved to provide for a regency, in view of a possible demise of
+the crown before a fresh parliament could be assembled. This course was
+clearly dictated by the highest expediency, for, had the king's life
+been cut short suddenly, the young Princess Victoria, then eleven years
+old, would have become sovereign with full powers, but without
+protection against the baleful influence of her uncle, the Duke of
+Cumberland, the least trustworthy person in the realm. In advocating it,
+however, the whigs showed an evident disposition to win the favour of
+William IV., who had never broken away, like his predecessor, from his
+whig connexion. These motions were defeated, but the opposition gained
+popularity at the expense of the government, by raising debates on
+certain state prosecutions for libel, and on the question of colonial
+slavery. Their position was further strengthened by a widespread
+impression that the king himself was a reformer at heart, and would
+seize an early opportunity of declaring his sentiments. His weakness had
+not yet disclosed itself, while his kindliness earned him golden
+opinions, as he "walked in London streets with his umbrella under his
+arm, and gave a frank and sailor-like greeting to all old
+acquaintances".
+
+The election of 1830, following close on the revolution of July in
+Paris, was the death-blow of the old tory rule in England. The
+widespread sympathy which the original uprising of 1789 had excited
+among Englishmen, but which the atrocities of jacobinism had quenched,
+was now revived by the comparatively bloodless victory of constitutional
+principles and the accession of a citizen-king in France. The growing
+enthusiasm for reform, thus stimulated, exercised a decisive effect in
+all the constituencies except the pocket-boroughs. Brougham was returned
+without opposition for Yorkshire, and Hume by a large majority for
+Middlesex, two brothers of Sir Robert Peel lost their seats, and Croker
+was defeated for Dublin University. Distrust of the government was
+equally shown in the counties and in the great cities, but in some
+instances ultra-tories were elected, in revenge for catholic
+emancipation or for alleged neglect of agricultural interests. It was
+calculated that fifty seats, in all, had changed hands, and the
+parliament which assembled in October 26 was very different in
+constitution and temper from any of those which supported tory
+ministries with unshaken constancy during the great war and the long
+period of agitation consequent on the peace.
+
+The losses of the government in Great Britain, partly due to its Irish
+policy, were not compensated by any gain in Ireland, which did not fail
+to display the ingratitude so often experienced by its benefactors.
+Catholic emancipation was now treated as a vantage ground on which the
+battle of repeal might be waged. Association after association was
+formed by O'Connell, only to be put down by proclamation and to
+re-appear under another name. The worst passions of the people were
+effectually roused, assassinations became frequent, and Peel's
+correspondence with Hardinge, then chief secretary, shows that he fully
+recognised the failure of his experiment, as a cure for Irish
+anarchy.[101] In the course of this new agitation, O'Connell used most
+offensive expressions for which Hardinge called him to account. The
+chief secretary's act may have been unjustifiable, but the shuffling and
+faint-hearted conduct of O'Connell in declining this and later
+challenges provoked by his foul language was fatal to his reputation for
+courage. The most insolent of bullies, he never failed to consult his
+own personal safety, by professing conscientious objections to duelling,
+as well as by keeping just outside the meshes of the criminal law.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF HUSKISSON._]
+
+A few weeks before parliament met a tragical accident closed the life of
+Huskisson, whose death was rendered all the more impressive by its
+circumstances. In 1825 the idea of railways for the rapid conveyance of
+goods and passengers bore fruit in an act for the construction of a line
+between Liverpool and Manchester. It was not in itself a new idea, for
+tramways had long been in use, and so far back as 1814 George Stephenson
+had constructed a locomotive engine for a colliery. But it was generally
+believed that such engines must always be limited to a speed of a few
+miles an hour, and even the great engineer, Telford, giving evidence
+before a committee in 1825, did not venture to speak of a higher maximum
+speed than fifteen or twenty miles an hour. Few indeed were far-sighted
+enough to credit this estimate, and the incredulity of ignorance was
+aided by the forces of self-interest, for the profits of canals,
+stage-coaches, and carriers' vans were directly threatened by the
+innovation of railways. However, George Stephenson quietly persevered,
+and from the moment that his pioneer engine, the "Rocket," won the prize
+in a great competition of locomotives, "the old modes of transit were
+changed throughout the whole civilised world". On September 15, 1830,
+the first public trial of this and other engines was made at the opening
+of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. Wellington, Peel, and other
+eminent personages were present, among whom was Huskisson, just returned
+for Liverpool. Two trains proceeded towards Manchester on parallel
+lines, and stopped at the Parkgate station. There several passengers got
+out, and Huskisson was making his way to shake hands with the duke when
+he was struck by a carriage of the other train, already in movement,
+fell upon the rails, and was fatally crushed. He bore his sufferings
+with great fortitude, but died during the night at a neighbouring
+vicarage to which he was carried. He could ill be spared by his party,
+for, though he was not the man to ride the storm which raged over the
+reform bill, his counsels might have saved the whigs from the just
+reproach of financial incapacity and have hastened the advent of free
+trade.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ON REFORM._]
+
+The winter session of 1830 opened with an ominous calm. It was believed
+that private negotiations were going on between the ministry and the
+survivors of Canning's following, which might result in a moderate
+scheme of parliamentary reform. These expectations were utterly
+discomfited by the king's speech delivered on November 2. It has
+unjustly been described as "the most offensive that had been uttered by
+any monarch since the revolution". On the contrary, it was tame and
+colourless for the most part, recording his majesty's resolution to
+uphold treaties and enforce order in the United Kingdom, but welcoming
+the new French monarchy in terms which Grey emphatically commended. It
+gave offence to liberals by describing the revolutionary movement in
+Belgium as a "revolt"; but what called forth an immediate outburst of
+popular resentment was its significant reticence on the subject of
+reform. This resentment was aggravated tenfold by the Duke of
+Wellington's celebrated speech in the lords, declaring against any
+reform whatever. The duke always refused to admit that this declaration
+was the cause of his subsequent fall, which he attributed, by
+preference, to his adoption of catholic emancipation. Speaking
+deliberately in reply to Grey, who had indicated reform as the only true
+remedy for popular discontent, the duke stated that no measure of reform
+yet proposed would, in his opinion, improve the representative system
+then existing, which, he said, "answered all the good purposes of
+legislation" to a greater degree than "any legislature in any country
+whatever". He went further, and avowed his conviction not only that this
+system "possessed the full and entire confidence of the country," but
+also that no better system could be devised by the wit of man. Its
+special virtue, according to him, consisted in the fact of its producing
+a representative assembly which "contained a large body of the property
+of the country, and in which the landed interests had a preponderating
+influence". Finally, he protested that he would never bring forward a
+reform measure himself, and that "he should always feel it his duty to
+resist such measures when proposed by others".
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the duke had consulted any of his
+colleagues before making this declaration. Indeed, it is known that Peel
+had just before received a confidential offer of co-operation in
+carrying a moderate reform bill from Palmerston, Edward Stanley,
+grandson of the Earl of Derby, Sir James Graham, and the Grants; nor had
+these overtures been definitely rejected.[102] Some lame attempts were
+made to clear the cabinet, as a whole, from responsibility for their
+chief's outspoken opinions, and Peel cautiously limited himself to a
+doubt whether any safe measure of reform would satisfy the reformers.
+But he would not separate himself from Wellington, and Wellington's
+ultimatum remained unretracted.
+
+Brougham at once gave notice of his intention to bring forward the
+question of parliamentary reform in a fortnight. In the meantime the
+duke had committed a mistake which irritated the people, and especially
+the inhabitants of London. It happened that the king and queen, with the
+ministers, were engaged to dine with the lord mayor on November 9. Three
+days earlier, the lord mayor-elect warned the prime minister that a riot
+was apprehended on that occasion, that an attempt would probably be
+made to assassinate him, and that it would be desirable to come attended
+by a strong military guard. Upon this intimation, confirmed by others,
+the cabinet most unwisely decided not to surround the mansion house with
+a large armed force, but to put off the king's visit to the city. A
+panic naturally ensued, consols fell three per cent. in an hour and a
+half, and the disorderly classes achieved a victory without running the
+smallest risk. There were local disturbances in the evening, and the
+duke arranged to join Peel at the home office, in case decisive measures
+should be required, but the new police were too strong for the mob, and
+the whole affair passed off quietly, though not without involving the
+government in some ridicule. The Marquis Wellesley, now in opposition to
+his brother, declared the postponement of the dinner to be "the boldest
+act of cowardice" within his knowledge.
+
+If Wellington sought to conciliate the ultra-tories by his unfortunate
+speech, he was soon undeceived. While Brougham's motion was pending, the
+government proposed a revision of the civil list which purported to
+effect slight economies for the benefit of the public. It was objected,
+however, that a greater reduction of charges should have been
+contemplated, and that parliament should have been invited to deal with
+the revenues derived from the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster, which,
+as Peel explained, formed no part of those placed at the disposal of
+parliament. Sir Henry Parnell moved to refer the civil list to a select
+committee; the chancellor of the exchequer directly opposed the motion,
+and, after a short discussion, a division was taken on November 15. The
+result, which had been foreseen, was a majority of twenty-nine against
+the government in a house of 437 members. There were many defections
+among the discontented tories, and the Wellington ministry preferred to
+fall on an issue of minor importance, rather than await a decisive
+contest on the reform question. On the following day, therefore, both
+the duke and Peel announced the acceptance of their resignations, and it
+was known that Grey had received the king's command to form a new
+administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _GREY ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+Grey was the inevitable head of any cabinet empowered to carry
+parliamentary reform. His dignified presence, his stately eloquence, his
+unblemished character, and his parliamentary experience, marked him out
+for leadership, and disguised his want of practical acquaintance with
+the middle and lower classes of his countrymen. His political career,
+ranging over forty-four years, though not destitute of errors, had been
+perfectly consistent. From the first he was a staunch adherent of Fox;
+he was among the managers who conducted the prosecution of Warren
+Hastings; his connexion with the Society of the Friends of the People,
+and his advocacy of reform during Pitt's first administration are
+described in the preceding volume of this history. On Pitt's death he
+became closely associated with Grenville; it will be remembered that he
+joined his short-lived government, originally as first lord of the
+admiralty, and afterwards as Fox's successor at the foreign office. It
+was he who carried through the house of commons the bill for the
+abolition of the slave trade, and it may truly be said that, in
+opposition, he was equally persistent in supporting every measure in
+favour of liberty, political or commercial, and in resisting every
+measure, necessary or otherwise, which could be interpreted as
+restricting it. We have seen how he more than once declined overtures
+for a coalition with his opponents, and showed a bitter personal
+antipathy to Canning, whom he was more than suspected of despising as a
+brilliant plebeian adventurer. This suspicion of aristocratic prejudice,
+ill harmonising with democratic principles, had never been quite
+dispelled, and was now to be confirmed by the composition of his own
+cabinet.
+
+All the members of this cabinet, with four exceptions, sat in the house
+of lords. No cabinet had contained so few commoners since the
+reconstruction of Liverpool's ministry in 1822. Of the four who now sat
+in the house of commons, Lord Althorp was heir-apparent to an earldom;
+Lord Palmerston was an Irish peer; Graham was a baronet of great
+territorial influence; Charles Grant was still a commoner, though he was
+afterwards raised to the peerage. In the distribution of offices, full
+justice was done to Canning's followers. Three of these occupied posts
+of the highest importance, Palmerston at the foreign office, Lamb, who
+had succeeded his father as Viscount Melbourne in 1828, at the home
+office, and Goderich at the colonial office, while Grant became
+president of the board of control. The selection of Graham as first lord
+of the admiralty did not escape criticism, but was due to his tried
+energy in financial reform, and was justified by the result. Lansdowne
+was made president of the council, and Holland chancellor of the duchy
+of Lancaster. Both of these had been Grey's colleagues in the
+administration of "All the Talents". Althorp, who succeeded Goulburn at
+the exchequer, and Carlisle, who accepted a seat in the cabinet without
+office, were both whigs of tried fidelity. But the Duke of Richmond, the
+new postmaster-general, was a deserter from the tory ranks, and Lord
+Durham, the premier's son-in-law, the new lord privy seal, was a radical
+of the most aggressive type, well qualified, as the event proved, to
+disturb the peace of any council to which he might be admitted. Three
+occupants of places outside the cabinet remain to be mentioned. One of
+these, the Marquis Wellesley, had been a warm supporter of catholic
+emancipation when the Duke of Wellington stoutly opposed it, and his
+brother's conversion on that question had not affected his own relations
+with the whig party, which now welcomed him as lord steward. Lord John
+Russell, the new paymaster of the forces, had identified himself as
+prominently as Grey himself with the promotion of parliamentary reform,
+and Stanley, the new chief secretary for Ireland, was probably selected
+for his brilliant powers in debate, as the natural and most worthy
+antagonist of the great demagogue, O'Connell.
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM BECOMES CHANCELLOR._]
+
+But the most formidable of all the "radical reformers" still remained to
+be conciliated, and provided with a post which might satisfy his
+restless ambition. At the end of 1830 Brougham was in the plenitude of
+his marvellous powers, and in the zenith of his unique popularity. As
+member for the great county of York, returned free of expense on the
+shoulders of the people, he already occupied the foremost position among
+British commoners, and it was feared that he might use it for his own
+purposes in a dictatorial spirit. He had recently declared in Yorkshire
+that "nothing on earth should ever tempt him to accept place," and that
+he was conscious of the power to compel the execution of measures which,
+before that democratic election, he could only "ventilate". So late as
+November 16, he assured the house of commons that "no change in the
+administration could by any possibility affect him," adding that he
+would bring forward his motion for parliamentary reform on the 25th,
+whatever might then be the state of affairs, and whatever ministers
+should then be in office. The great whig peers were most anxious to
+keep him out of the cabinet without losing his support, or, still worse,
+provoking his active hostility. With this view, Grey indiscreetly
+offered him the attorney-generalship, and we cannot be surprised that
+Brougham rejected the offer with some indignation and disdain. It was no
+secret that his supreme desire was to become master of the rolls--an
+office compatible with a seat in the house of commons--but his future
+colleagues well knew that, in that case, they would be at his mercy in
+the house. Thereupon it was suggested, probably by the king himself,
+that it might be the less of two dangers to entrust him with the great
+seal, which Lord Lyndhurst was quite prepared to resume under a fourth
+premier. Accordingly, it was known on November 20 that Brougham was to
+be the whig lord chancellor, and on the 22nd he actually took his place
+on the woolsack. His title was Baron Brougham and Vaux, but, though he
+lived to retain it for nearly forty years, he always preferred, with
+pardonable vanity, to sign his name as "Henry Brougham".
+
+Before the close of 1830 the new ministers found time to carry a regency
+bill, whereby the Duchess of Kent (unless she married a foreigner) was
+to be regent in the event of the Princess Victoria succeeding to the
+crown during her minority. Having adopted the watchword of "Peace,
+Retrenchment, and Reform," they gave an earnest of their zeal for
+retrenchment by instituting a parliamentary inquiry into the possible
+reduction of official salaries, including their own. The defeat of
+Stanley by "Orator" Hunt at Preston was a warning against undue reliance
+on popular confidence, for Preston was already a highly democratic
+constituency, largely composed of ignorant "potwallopers". A similar but
+more emphatic warning came from Ireland, where O'Connell did his utmost
+to insult and defy Anglesey, the new lord-lieutenant, in spite of his
+sacrifices for catholic emancipation, and his well-known sympathy with
+the cause of reform. In the southern counties of England, too, violent
+disturbances had broken out, and were marked by all the ferocity and
+terrorism characteristic of luddism in the manufacturing districts. They
+spread from Kent, Sussex, and Surrey into Hampshire, Wiltshire,
+Berkshire, and Buckinghamshire. In these four counties there was a
+wanton and wholesale destruction of agricultural machinery, of
+farm-buildings, and especially of ricks, as if the misery of labourers
+could possibly be cured by impoverishing their only employers. The
+rioters moved about in large organised bodies, and their anarchical
+passions were deliberately inflamed by the writings of unscrupulous men
+like Cobbett and Carlile.
+
+Happily, the ministers showed no sign of the weakness upon which the
+ringleaders had probably calculated. They promptly issued a proclamation
+declaring their resolution to put down lawless outrage, and promised
+effective support to the lords-lieutenant of the disturbed counties.
+Acting upon this assurance, Wellington himself went down to Hampshire,
+and took a leading part in quelling disorder. The government next
+appointed a special commission, which tried many hundreds of prisoners
+and sentenced the worst to death, though few were executed. This vigour
+soon overawed the organised gangs which, in one or two instances, had
+only been dispersed by military force. Finally, they prosecuted Carlile
+and Cobbett for instigating the poor labourers to crime. The former was
+convicted at the Old Bailey, and condemned to a long term of
+imprisonment, with a heavy fine. The trial of Cobbett was postponed
+until the following July, when the frenzy of reform was at its height.
+He defended himself with great audacity in a speech of six hours,
+calling the lord chancellor with other leading reformers as witnesses,
+and succeeded in escaping conviction by the disagreement and discharge
+of the jury.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S FIRST BUDGET._]
+
+Two other questions engaged the attention of parliament on the eve of
+the great struggle over the reform bill. One of these was the settlement
+of the civil list, which the Duke of Wellington's ministry had failed to
+effect. William IV. was not an avaricious sovereign, nor did he share
+the spendthrift inclination of his brother. But he was disposed to
+stickle for the hereditary rights of the crown, both public and private,
+and he greatly disliked the details of his expenditure being scrutinised
+by a parliamentary committee. Now, Grey and his colleagues stood pledged
+to such a committee, and could not avoid promoting its appointment. They
+propitiated the king, however, by excluding the revenues of the Duchy of
+Lancaster from the inquiry, and ultimately succeeded in persuading the
+house of commons to grant a civil list of £510,000 a year. But the
+publication of a return containing a complete list of sinecure offices
+and pensions was turned to good account by the economists, and produced
+an outburst of public indignation, which was by no means unreasonable.
+Great results were expected from the report of the select committee on
+the civil list, which revised the salaries of officials in the royal
+household, as well as the emoluments of pensioners. It was even demanded
+that no regard should be paid to vested interests, but Grey firmly
+supported the private remonstrances of the king against such an act of
+confiscation. In fact, the savings recommended by the committee were so
+trifling that it was thought better to waive the question for the time,
+and the first economical essay of the new _régime_ ended in failure.
+
+The budget introduced by Althorp soon after the meeting of parliament on
+February 3, 1831, and in anticipation of the reform bill, was equally
+unsuccessful as a specimen of whig finance. Finding that, after all, he
+could not effect a saving of more than one million on the national
+expenditure, as reduced by his capable predecessor, Goulburn, he
+nevertheless proposed to repeal the duties on coals, tallow candles,
+printed cottons, and glass, as well as to diminish by one half the
+duties on newspapers and tobacco. To meet the deficit thus created, he
+designed an increase of the wine and timber duties, new taxation of raw
+cotton, and, above all, a tax of ten shillings per cent. on all
+transfers of real or funded property. This last proposal was at once
+denounced by Goulburn, Peel, and Sugden, the late solicitor-general, as
+a breach of public faith between the state and its creditors. Their
+protests were loudly echoed by the city, and the obnoxious transfer duty
+was abandoned. The same fate befell the proposed increase of the timber
+duties, and Althorp only carried his budget after submitting to further
+modifications. Those who had relied on his promises of economical reform
+were signally disappointed, and, had not parliamentary reform
+overshadowed all other issues, the credit of the government would have
+been rudely shaken in the first session after its formation. But this
+great struggle, now to be described, so engrossed the attention of the
+country, that little room was left for the consideration of other
+interests, until it should be decided.
+
+It is probable that no great measure was ever preceded by so thorough a
+preparation of the public mind as the reform bills of 1831-32. Ever
+since the early part of the eighteenth century the abuses of the
+representative system had been freely acknowledged, and no one attempted
+to defend them in principle. The multitude of close boroughs, the
+smallness of the electoral body, the sale of seats in parliament, the
+wide prevalence of gross bribery, and the enormous expense of
+elections--these were notorious evils which no one denied, though some
+palliated them, and few ventured to assail them in earnest by drastic
+proposals, lest they should undermine the constitution. So far back as
+1770 Chatham had denounced them, and predicted that unless parliament
+reformed itself from within before the end of the century, it would be
+reformed "with a vengeance" from without. In 1780 the Duke of Richmond
+had introduced a bill in favour of universal suffrage, and Pitt had
+brought forward bills or motions in favour of parliamentary reform as a
+private member in 1782 and 1783, and as prime minister in 1785. But the
+French revolution persuaded him that the time was not favourable to
+reform, and he successfully opposed Grey's motion for referring a number
+of petitions in favour of reform to a committee in 1793.
+
+After this, a strong reaction set in, and the reform question had little
+interest for the governing classes during the continuance of the great
+war. It was never allowed to sleep, however, and in 1809, a bill
+introduced by Curwen to pave the way for reform by preventing the return
+of members upon corrupt agreements, actually passed both houses, though
+in so mutilated a form that it was practically a dead letter. Still, the
+cause was indefatigably pleaded by Brand, and Burdett, who in 1819 made
+himself the spokesman of the violent reform agitation then spreading
+over the country. Unfortunately, this violence, and the extravagance of
+the demands put forward by the democratic leaders, were themselves fatal
+obstacles to a temperate consideration of the question, and threw back
+the reform movement for several years. In 1821, when Grampound was
+disfranchised, it assumed, as we have seen, a more constitutional form,
+and motions in favour of reform were proposed by Russell in 1822, 1823,
+and 1826, and by Blandford in 1829. Had Canning placed himself at the
+head of the movement the course of domestic history during the reign of
+George IV. might have been very different. As it was, the number of
+petitions in favour of reform sensibly fell off in the last half of the
+reign, and its tory opponents vainly imagined that the movement had
+spent itself. We now know that, in the absence of noisy demonstrations,
+it was really and constantly gaining strength in the minds of thoughtful
+men until it reached its climax at the end of 1830.
+
+[Pageheading: _PUBLIC OPINION AND REFORM._]
+
+The first act of the great political drama which occupied the next
+eighteen months may be said to have opened with the fall of Wellington,
+and the formation of the whig ministry. These events, together with the
+success of the Paris revolution, supplied the motive power needed to
+combine the great body of the middle classes with the proletariat in a
+national crusade against the political privileges long exercised by a
+powerful landed aristocracy. It is true that reform, unlike catholic
+emancipation, had always appealed to broad popular sympathies, and had
+been advocated by men like Grey and Burdett as carrying with it the
+redress of all other grievances. But Canning was by no means the only
+liberal statesman who heartily dreaded it, and even the advanced
+reformers had not fully grasped the comprehensive meaning of the idea
+which they embraced, or the far-reaching consequences involved in it.
+The palpable anomaly of Old Sarum returning members to parliament, while
+Birmingham was unrepresented, was shocking to common sense, and so was
+the monopoly of the franchise by a handful of electors in some of the
+larger boroughs, especially in Scotland. But few appreciated how
+seriously constitutional liberty had been curtailed by the growth of
+these abuses (unchecked by the Commonwealth) since the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, how effectually home and foreign policy was
+controlled by a small circle of noble families dominant in the lower as
+well as in the upper chamber, how vast a transfer of sovereignty from
+class to class would inevitably be wrought by a thorough reform bill,
+and how certainly men newly entrusted with power would use it for their
+own advantage, whether or not that should coincide with the advantage of
+the nation. Such general aspects of the question are seldom noticed in
+the earlier debates upon it, and economical reform sometimes appears to
+occupy a larger space than parliamentary reform in the liberal
+statesmanship of the Georgian age.
+
+With Wellington's declaration against any parliamentary reform, this
+apathy vanished, and the movement, gathering up into itself all other
+popular aspirations thenceforward filled the whole political horizon.
+Reform unions sprang up everywhere, and instituted a most active
+propaganda. So rapid was its spread and so wild the promises lavished by
+radical demagogues, that Grey and his wiser colleagues soon felt
+themselves further removed from their own extreme left wing than from
+the moderate section of the conservatives. It is abundantly clear that
+Grey himself, faithful as he was to reform, never dreamed of
+inaugurating a reign of democracy. He often declared in private that
+such a bill as he contemplated would prove, in its effect, an
+aristocratic measure, and he doubtless believed that it would be
+possible to bring the new constituencies and the new electoral bodies
+under the same conservative influences which had been dominant for so
+many generations. He did not foresee, as Palmerston did thirty years
+later, that, even if the political actors remained the same, they "would
+play to the gallery" instead of to the pit or boxes. He would, indeed,
+have repudiated the maxim: "Everything for the people, and nothing by
+the people"; he was fully prepared to place the house of commons in the
+hands of the people, or at least of the great middle class, but he
+regarded the crown and the house of lords as almost equal powers, and he
+never doubted that property and education would practically continue to
+rule the government of the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRAFT OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+When the whigs came into office they were singularly fortunate in the
+high character and consistency of their chief, no less than in the
+divisions of their opponents, whose right wing showed almost as mutinous
+a spirit as their own left wing. Even between Wellington and Peel there
+was a want of cordial harmony and confidence, yet Peel was the only tory
+statesman of eminent capacity in the house of commons. The attitude of
+the king, too, was not only strictly constitutional but friendly, though
+it afterwards appeared that he relied too implicitly on Grey and Althorp
+to protect him against the machinations of the radicals. The letters
+written by his orders, though mostly composed by his private secretary,
+Sir Herbert Taylor, display marked ability together with a very shrewd
+and just conception of the situation. His loyal adoption of a moderate
+reform policy was a most important element of strength to his ministers
+at the outset of their great enterprise, and, if he afterwards held
+back, it was in deference to scruples which several of them shared in
+their hearts. Nor was the violence of the ultra-radicals, or the
+scurrilous language of O'Connell by any means an unmixed source of
+weakness to men engaged in framing and carrying a temperate reform bill.
+Their firm resistance to extravagant demands reassured many a waverer
+and showed how carefully their comprehensive plan had been matured. On
+the other hand, they had to contend against difficulties not yet fully
+revealed. One of these was their own want of administrative experience,
+contrasting unfavourably with the statesmanlike capacity of Peel.
+Another was the intractable character of two at least within their own
+innermost councils--Durham and Brougham. A third was the inflexible
+conservatism of a great majority in the house of lords, who, unlike the
+people at large, clearly understood that the impending conflict was a
+life-and-death struggle for political supremacy between themselves and
+the commons--the greatest that had been waged since the revolutions of
+the seventeenth century.
+
+It was privately known that a committee had been empowered to draft the
+bill awaited with so much impatience. This committee consisted of two
+members of the cabinet, Durham and Graham, together with two members of
+the administration not of cabinet rank, the Earl of Bessborough's eldest
+son, Lord Duncannon, then chief whip of the whig party, and Russell, who
+was second to none as a staunch and judicious promoter of parliamentary
+reform. In spite of his vanity and petulance, Durham deserves the credit
+of having drawn up the report, highly appreciated by the king, upon
+which the projected measure was founded. It originally included vote by
+ballot, and it is rather strange that on this point Durham was
+powerfully supported by Graham, but opposed by Russell. It is still more
+strange that Brougham, whose scheme of reform was locked up in his own
+breast, was honestly disturbed by the radicalism of his colleagues and
+specially objected to so large a disfranchisement of boroughs as they
+contemplated. Upon the whole, however, the bill was the product of an
+united cabinet, and received the express approval of the king in all its
+essential features. The elaborate letter which he addressed to Grey on
+February 4, 1831, betrays a sense of relief on finding that universal
+suffrage and the ballot were not to be pressed upon him In declaring
+that he never could have given his consent to such revolutionary
+innovations, he insists strongly on the necessity of maintaining an
+"equilibrium" between the crown, the lords, and the commons, as well as
+between the "representation of property" and that of numbers.
+
+The reform bill of 1831, which differed only in detail from the act
+passed in 1832, cannot be understood without some knowledge of the
+system which that act transformed. This system has been well described
+as "combining survivals from the middle ages with abuses of the
+prerogative in later times". The counties remained as they had remained
+for centuries; Rutland, for instance, returned as many representatives
+as Yorkshire, until in 1821 the two seats taken from Grampound were
+added to those already possessed by Yorkshire. On the other hand, the
+old franchise of the 40s. freeholders was more widely diffused since the
+value of money had been greatly depreciated. Still, the influence of the
+great county families was almost supreme, and they were firmly
+entrenched in the nomination boroughs, where there was scarcely a
+pretence of free election. The crown had originally a discretion in
+summoning members from boroughs, and used it by issuing writs to all the
+wealthiest as better able to bear taxation and more competent to
+sanction it. The poorer boroughs, too, were also glad to escape
+representation in order to save the expense of their members' wages. The
+discretionary power of the crown was afterwards used in creating petty
+boroughs such as "the Cornish group," for the purpose of packing the
+house of commons with crown nominees. This practice, however, ceased in
+the reign of Charles II., and these petty boroughs fell by degrees into
+the hands of great landowners, who dictated the choice of
+representatives.
+
+The result has been concisely stated as follows: "The majority of the
+house of commons was elected by less than fifteen thousand persons.
+Seventy members were returned by thirty-five places with scarcely any
+voters at all; ninety members were returned by forty-six places with no
+more than fifty voters; thirty-seven members by nineteen places with no
+more than one hundred voters; fifty-two members by twenty-six places
+with no more than two hundred voters. The local distribution of the
+representation was flagrantly unfair.... Cornwall was a corrupt nest of
+little boroughs whose vote outweighed that of great and populous
+districts. At Old Sarum a deserted site, at Gatton an ancient wall sent
+two representatives to the house of commons. Eighty-four men actually
+nominated one hundred and fifty-seven members for parliament. In
+addition to these, one hundred and fifty members were returned on the
+recommendation of seventy patrons, and thus one hundred and fifty-four
+patrons returned three hundred and seven members."[103] Household
+suffrage prevailed in a few boroughs, and here barefaced corruption was
+common. Seats for boroughs, appropriately called "rotten," were
+frequently put up to sale; otherwise, they were reserved for young
+favourites of the proprietor. Neither yearly tenants, nor leaseholders,
+nor even copyholders, had votes for counties. Of Scotland it is enough
+to say that free voting had practically ceased to exist both in counties
+and in boroughs, as the borough franchise was the monopoly of
+self-elected town councils, and the county franchise of persons, often
+non-resident, who happened to own "superiorities".
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+The reform bill of the whig ministry, drawn on broad and simple lines,
+struck at the root of this system. Its twofold basis was a liberal
+extension of the suffrage with a very large redistribution of seats. The
+elective franchise in counties, hitherto confined to freeholders, was to
+be conferred on £10 copyholders and £50 leaseholders; the borough
+franchise was to exclude "scot and lot" voters, "potwallopers" and most
+other survivals of antiquated electorates, but to include ratepaying £10
+householders. The qualification for this franchise had originally been
+fixed at £20, and the king deprecated any reduction, but the omission of
+the ballot reconciled him and other timid reformers to an immense
+increase in the lower class of borough voters. Sixty boroughs of less
+than 2,000 inhabitants, returning 119 members, were to be disfranchised
+altogether; forty-seven others, with less than 4,000 inhabitants, were
+to be deprived of one member, and Weymouth was to lose two out of the
+four members which it returned in combination with the borough of
+Melcombe Regis. Fifty-five new seats were allotted to the English
+counties, forty-two to the great unrepresented towns, five to Scotland,
+three to Ireland, and one to Wales. Altogether the numerical strength of
+the house of commons was to be reduced by sixty-two, and this entirely
+at the expense of England. Both the county and borough franchises in
+Scotland were to be assimilated generally to those established for
+England, and the £10 borough franchise was extended to Ireland. The bill
+contained many other provisions designed to amend the practice of
+registration, the voting power of non-resident electors, and the
+cumbrously expensive machinery of elections. It is important to notice
+that it also limited the duration of each parliament to five years--a
+concession to radicalism afterwards abandoned and never since adopted.
+
+On February 3 parliament met after the adjournment, and Grey stated that
+a measure of reform had been framed, but the nature of it was not
+disclosed to the house of commons until March 1, and during the interval
+the secret was kept with great fidelity. The task of explaining it was
+entrusted to Russell, whose thorough mastery of its letter and spirit
+fully justified the choice, partly suggested by his aristocratic
+connexions and historical name. His speech was remarkable for clearness
+and cogency rather than for rhetorical brilliancy, and he was careful to
+rest his case on constitutional equity and political expediency of the
+highest order rather than on vague and abstract principles of popular
+rights. The debate on the motion for leave to bring in the bill lasted
+seven nights, and was vigorously sustained on both sides. The drastic
+and sweeping character of the measure took the whole house by surprise,
+while its authors justly claimed some credit for moderation in rejecting
+the radical demands of universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and
+triennial, if not annual, parliaments. Not only inside but outside the
+walls of St. Stephen's the statement of the government had been awaited
+with the utmost impatience, and it was universally felt that an issue
+had now been raised which hardly admitted of compromise. The king
+himself, though much engrossed by minor questions affecting the civil
+list and the pension list, heartily congratulated Grey on the favourable
+reception and prospects of the measure, which he regarded as a safeguard
+against more democratic schemes. His great fear was of a collision
+between the two houses, and the sequel proved that it was not unfounded.
+For the present, however, all promised well. Peel denounced the bill
+with less than his usual caution, but declined to give battle upon it,
+and it passed the first reading on March 9 without a division. Indeed,
+the chief danger to the stability of the government arose from its
+defeat on the timber duties. This and other vexatious rebuffs so
+irritated Grey that he actually contemplated a dissolution, lest the
+reform bill itself should meet with a like fate. But the king would not
+hear of it, and the cabinet wisely decided to follow the example of Pitt
+and ignore an adverse division on a merely financial proposal, however
+significant of parliamentary feeling.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND READING OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+Between the 9th and the 21st, the date fixed for the second reading,
+popular excitement rose to a formidable height. Monster meetings were
+held in the great centres of population, and the political unions put
+forth all their strength. Nevertheless, the efforts of the
+"borough-mongers" were all but successful, and after only two nights
+debate the bill passed its second reading by a bare majority of one, 302
+voting for it, and 301 against it. After this demonstration of strength
+on the part of its opponents, no one could expect that it would survive
+the ordeal of discussion in committee, and a letter of Lord Durham,
+written in anticipation of the event, sums up with great force the
+reasons for an early dissolution. The crisis was precipitated by the
+action of General Gascoyne, member for Liverpool, who moved before the
+house could go into committee that in no case should the number of
+representatives from England and Wales be diminished. In the hope of
+conciliating some wavering members, the ministry framed certain
+modifications of their original scheme, but they do not seem to have
+entertained the idea of accepting Gascoyne's proposal in its entirety.
+In the division, which took place on April 19, they were defeated by 299
+votes to 291, and on the following morning advised the king to dissolve.
+In spite of his former refusal, more than once repeated, the king
+yielded to necessity, feeling that another change of government, in the
+midst of European complications, and in prospect of revolutionary
+agitation in the country, would be a greater evil than a general
+election.
+
+The opposition, flushed with victory, pressed its advantage to extremes,
+and successfully resisted a motion for the grant of supplies. Urged by
+Althorp, the cabinet promptly resolved on recommending that the
+dissolution should be immediate, and the king, roused to energy by
+indignation, eagerly adopted their recommendation. Indeed, on hearing
+that Lord Wharncliffe intended to move in the house of lords for an
+address to the crown against a dissolution, he strongly resented such an
+attempt to interfere with his prerogative, and declared himself ready to
+start at once and dissolve parliament in person. Difficulties being
+raised about preparing the royal carriages in time, he cut them short by
+remarking that he was prepared to go in a hackney-coach--a royal saying
+which spread like wildfire over the country. Both houses were scenes of
+confusion and uproar when he arrived, preceded by the usual discharges
+of artillery, which excited the angry disputants to fury. Lord
+Mansfield, who was supporting the motion for an address, continued
+speaking as the king entered, until he was forcibly compelled to resume
+his seat. Even Peel was only restrained by like means from disregarding
+the appearance of the usher of the black rod who came to summon the
+commons from the bar of the house. The king preserved his composure, and
+announced an immediate prorogation of parliament with a view to its
+dissolution, and an appeal to the country on the great question of
+reform. Such an appeal could only be made to constituencies under threat
+of thorough reconstruction or total extinction, but from this moment the
+ultimate issue ceased to be doubtful.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[101] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 160-62.
+
+[102] Arbuthnot to Peel, Nov. 1, 1830, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+163-66.
+
+[103] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 320.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+                              THE REFORM.
+
+
+The general election which took place in the summer of 1831 was perhaps
+the most momentous on record. The news of the sudden dissolution,
+carrying with it the assurance of the king's hearty assent to reform,
+stirred popular enthusiasm to an intensity never equalled before or
+since. From John o' Groat's to the Land's End a cry was raised of _The
+bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill_. This cry signified more
+than appears on the surface, and was not wholly one-sided in its
+application. No doubt it was a passionate and defiant warning against
+any manipulation or dilution of the bill in a reactionary sense, but it
+was also a distinct protest against attempts by the extreme radicals to
+amend it in an opposite direction. Now, as ever, the impulse was given
+by the middle classes, and they were in no mood to imperil their own
+cause by revolutionary claims. They could not always succeed, however,
+in checking the fury of the populace, which had been taught to clamour
+for reform as the precursor of a good time coming for the suffering and
+toiling masses of mankind. The streets of London were illuminated, and
+the windows of those who omitted to illuminate or were otherwise
+obnoxious were tumultuously demolished by the mob, which did not even
+spare Apsley House, the town residence of the Duke of Wellington. But,
+except in Scotland, no formidable riots occurred for the present, and
+some good resulted from the new experience of popular opinion gained by
+candidates even from unreformed constituencies hitherto obedient to
+oligarchical influence, but animated for the moment by a certain spirit
+of independence.
+
+Having sanctioned the dissolution, the king addressed an elaborate
+letter to Grey, in which he did not disguise his own misgivings about
+the perilous experiment of reform. Chiefly dreading a collision between
+the two houses, he never ceased to press on his ministers the expediency
+of making all possible sacrifices consistent with the spirit of the bill
+in order to conciliate opposition in the house of peers. Grey's constant
+reply was that no concessions would propitiate men bent on driving the
+government from office, and that no measure less efficacious than that
+already introduced would satisfy the just expectations of the people.
+Both of these arguments were perfectly sound, and the constitutional
+triumph ultimately achieved was largely due to the admirable tenacity of
+purpose which refused to remodel the original reform bill in any
+essential respect to please either the borough-mongers or the radicals.
+The elections were conducted on the whole in good order. Seventy-six out
+of eighty-two English county members (including the four Yorkshire
+members), and the four members for the city of London, were pledged to
+vote for the bill. Several notable anti-reformers were among the many
+county representatives who failed to obtain re-election; even some of
+the doomed boroughs did not venture to return anti-reformers; and the
+government found itself supported by an immense nominal majority. The
+new bill, introduced on June 24 by Lord John Russell, who had recently
+been admitted in company with Stanley to the cabinet, differed little
+from the old one. The number of boroughs to be totally disfranchised was
+slightly greater, that of boroughs to be partially disfranchised
+slightly less, but the net effect of the disfranchising and
+enfranchising schedules was the same, and the £10 rental suffrage was
+retained. The measure was allowed to pass its first reading after one
+night's discussion. The debates on the second reading lasted three
+nights, but the bill passed this stage on July 8 by a majority of 136 in
+a house of 598 members.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND REFORM BILL._]
+
+The victory, however, though great, was far indeed from proving
+decisive. By adopting obstructive tactics, of a kind to be perfected in
+a later age, the opposition succeeded in prolonging the discussion in
+committee over forty nights, until September 7. Though Peel separated
+himself from the old tories, and steadily declined to cabal with
+O'Connell's faction against the government, such an unprofitable waste
+of time could not have taken place without his tacit sanction. Only one
+important alteration was made in the bill. This was the famous "Chandos
+clause," proposed by Lord Chandos, son of the Duke of Buckingham,
+whereby the county suffrage was extended to all tenants-at-will of £50
+rental and upwards. A very large proportion of tenant farmers thus
+became county voters, and for the most part followed the politics of
+their landlords. It may be doubted whether Grey seriously lamented
+Chandos's intervention; at all events it went far to verify his own
+prediction that aristocratic dominion would not be undermined by
+reform.[104] Meanwhile, the country was naturally impatient of the
+vexatious delay, and a somewhat menacing conference took place between
+the political unions of Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow. Happily
+public attention was diverted to some extent by the coronation, which
+took place on the 8th. The bill was carried more rapidly through its
+later stages, and was finally passed in the house of commons on the
+21st, though by a reduced majority of 345 to 236.
+
+On the following day the bill reached the house of lords and was set
+down for its second reading on October 3. Thenceforth all the hopes and
+fears of its friends and enemies were concentrated on the proceedings in
+that house, whose ascendency in the state was at stake. The question:
+"What will the lords do?" was asked all over the country with the
+deepest anxiety. The debate lasted five nights, and is admitted to have
+been among the finest reported in our parliamentary history. All the
+leading peers took part in it, and several of them were roused by the
+occasion to unwonted eloquence, but the palm was generally awarded to
+the speeches of Grey, Harrowby, Brougham, and Lyndhurst. The first of
+these occupied a position which gave increased weight to his counsels,
+since he was the veteran advocate of reform and yet known to be a most
+loyal member of the nobility which now stood on its trial. In his
+opening speech he appealed earnestly to the bench of bishops, as
+disinterested parties and as ministers of peace, not to set themselves
+against the almost unanimous will of the people. Brougham's great
+oration on the last night of the debate contained a masterly review of
+the whole question, and, in spite of its theatrical conclusion, when he
+sank upon his knees, extorted the admiration of his bitterest critics as
+a consummate exhibition of his marvellous powers.
+
+But very few of the peers were open to persuasion; the votes of
+anti-reformers were mainly guided by a shortsighted conception of their
+own interests, and Eldon did not shrink from contending that nomination
+boroughs were in the nature of property rather than of trusts. A
+memorable division ended in the rejection of the second reform bill on
+the 8th by 199 votes to 158. Twenty-one bishops voted against it. The
+king lost no time in reminding Grey of his own warning against
+submitting the bill, without serious modifications, to the judgment of
+the house of lords. He also intimated beforehand that he could not
+consent to any such creation of peers as would convert the minority into
+a majority. Grey at once admitted that he could not ask for so
+high-handed an exercise of the royal prerogative, and undertook to
+remain at his post, on condition of being allowed to introduce a third
+reform bill as comprehensive as its predecessor. Thereupon the king
+abandoned his intention of proroguing parliament by commission, and came
+down in person to do so on the 20th when he delivered a speech clearly
+indicating legislation on reform as the work of the next session.
+
+[Pageheading: _REFORM BILL RIOTS._]
+
+During the interval between the 8th and the 20th it became evident that
+the reform movement, quickened by the action of the upper house, would
+rise to a dangerous height. A vote of confidence in the government,
+brought forward by Lord Ebrington, eldest son of Earl Fortescue, was
+carried by a majority of 131, and speeches were made in support of it
+which encouraged, in the form of prediction, every kind of popular
+agitation short of open violence. In the course of this debate Macaulay,
+the future historian of the English revolution, delivered one of those
+highly wrought orations which adorn the political literature of reform.
+The excitement in London was great, but kept for the most part within
+reasonable bounds, partly by the firm and sensible attitude of Melbourne
+as home secretary. The mob, however, vented its rage in window breaking
+and personal assaults on some prominent anti-reformers, one of whom,
+Lord Londonderry, was knocked off his horse by a volley of stones. In
+the provinces more serious disturbances broke out. At Derby the rioters
+actually stormed the city jail, releasing the prisoners, and were only
+repelled in their attack on the county jail by the fire of a military
+force. At Nottingham they wreaked their vengeance on the Duke of
+Newcastle by burning down Nottingham Castle, which belonged to him, and
+were proceeding to further outrages when they were overawed by a
+regiment of hussars. A great open-air meeting of the political union was
+held at Birmingham, while the bill was still before the house of lords,
+at which a refusal to pay taxes was openly recommended in the last
+resort, and votes of thanks were passed to Althorp and Russell. The
+former, in acknowledging it, wisely condemned such lawless proceedings;
+the latter unwisely made use of a phrase which gravely displeased the
+king: "It is impossible that the whisper of faction should prevail
+against the voice of a nation". Both were called to account in the house
+of commons for holding correspondence with an illegal association, but
+disclaimed any recognition of the Birmingham union as a body, and fully
+admitted the responsibility of the government for the maintenance of
+order.
+
+This assurance was about to be tested by the most atrocious outbreak
+which disgraced the cause of reform. On Saturday, the 29th, Wetherell,
+as recorder of Bristol, entered the city to open the commission on the
+following Monday. Of all the anti-reformers, he was perhaps the most
+vehement and unpopular, but his visit to Bristol was in discharge of an
+official duty, and had been sanctioned expressly by the government.
+Nevertheless, the cavalcade which escorted him was assailed by a furious
+rabble on its way to the guildhall, and from the guildhall to the
+mansion house, where he was to dine. For a while, they were kept back or
+driven back by a large force of constables, but, on some of these being
+withdrawn, their ferocity increased, and threatened a general assault on
+the mansion house. In vain did the mayor address them and read the riot
+act; they overpowered the constables, and carried the mansion house by
+storm, the mayor and the magistrates escaping by the back premises,
+while the recorder prudently left the city. At last the military were
+called upon to act, and two troops of cavalry were ordered out. But the
+military as well as the civil authorities showed a strange weakness and
+vacillation in presence of an emergency only to be compared with the
+Lord George Gordon riots of a by-gone generation. After making one
+charge and dispersing the populace for the moment, the cavalry were sent
+back to their barracks, and when one troop was recalled on the following
+(Sunday) morning, the rioters were all but masters of the city. Many of
+them, having plundered the cellars of the mansion house, were infuriated
+by drink; they broke into the Bridewell, the new city jail, and the
+county jail, set free the prisoners, and fired the buildings. They next
+proceeded to burn down the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the
+custom-house, and the excise-office. The cathedral is said to have been
+saved by the resolute stand of a few volunteers hastily rallied by one
+of the officials. In the midst of all this havoc, the cavalry were
+almost passive, Colonel Brereton, the commanding officer, waiting for
+orders from the magistrates, and actually withdrawing a part of his
+small force when it was most needed, because it had incurred the special
+hatred of the criminals.
+
+On the morning of Monday, the guardians of law and order seemed to have
+recovered their courage; at all events, the cavalry, no longer forbidden
+to charge, and headed by Major Mackworth, soon cleared the streets,
+fresh troops poured in, and the police made a number of arrests. The
+reign of anarchy was at an end, having lasted three days. When a return
+of casualties was made up, it showed that only twelve were known to have
+lost their lives, besides ninety-four disabled, most of whom were the
+victims of excessive drunkenness or of the flames kindled by themselves.
+But, though the riot was quelled, it was some proof of its deliberate
+promotion, and of the aims which its ringleaders had in view, that
+parties of them issuing out from Bristol attempted to propagate sedition
+in Somersetshire. A special commission sent down to Bristol condemned to
+death several of the worst malefactors; four were hanged and
+eighty-eight sentenced either to transportation or to lighter
+punishments; and Colonel Brereton destroyed himself rather than face the
+verdict of a court-martial.
+
+On the same Monday, the 31st, Burdett took the chair at a meeting in
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, called for the purpose of forming a "National
+Political Union" in London. Soon afterwards, however, he retired from
+the organisation, on the nominal ground that half of the seats on its
+council were allotted to the working classes, but more probably because
+he was beginning to be alarmed by the violence of his associates. His
+fears were justified by a manifesto summoning a mass meeting of the
+working-classes to assemble at White Conduit House on November 7, for
+the purpose of ratifying a new and revolutionary bill of rights. This
+time the government was on its guard, and Melbourne plainly informed a
+working-class deputation that such a meeting would certainly be
+seditious, and perhaps treasonable, in law. The plan was therefore
+abandoned, and soon afterwards a royal proclamation was issued,
+declaring organised political associations, assuming powers independent
+of the civil magistrates, to be "unconstitutional and illegal". The
+political unions proposed to consider themselves outside the scope of
+the proclamation, which had little visible effect, though it was not
+without its value as proving that the government was a champion of order
+as well as of liberty.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS WITH WAVERERS._]
+
+During the short recess of less than six weeks political discontent,
+constantly growing, was aggravated by industrial distress and gloomy
+forebodings of a mysterious pestilence, already known as cholera. A
+voluminous correspondence was carried on between the king and Grey on
+the means of silencing the political unions and smoothing the passage of
+a new reform bill. It was not in the king's nature to conceal his own
+conservative leanings, especially on the imaginary danger of increasing
+the metropolitan constituencies, and Grey complained more than once of
+these sentiments being confided, or at least becoming known, to
+opponents of the government. At the same time attempts were being made
+not only by the king himself, but also by peers of moderate views to
+arrange a compromise which might save the honour of the government, and
+yet mitigate the hostility of the tory majority in the upper house. In
+these negotiations behind the scenes, Howley, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+and Carr, Bishop of Worcester, took part, as representing the episcopal
+bench, while Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, in temporary concert with
+Chandos, professed to speak for the "waverers" among peers. As little of
+importance resulted from their well-meant efforts, and as nearly all the
+supposed "waverers," including the bishops, drifted into open
+opposition, it is the less necessary to dwell at length on a very
+tedious chapter in the history of parliamentary reform. Suffice it to
+say that when parliament reassembled on December 6, 1831, the prospects
+of the forthcoming bill were no brighter than in October, except so far
+as the danger of rejecting it had become more apparent.
+
+The final reform bill introduced by Lord John Russell on the 12th was
+identical in its principle and its essential features with the former
+ones. The chief alteration was the maintenance of the house of commons
+at its full strength of 658 members. This enabled its framers not only
+to reduce the number of wholly disfranchised boroughs (schedule A) from
+sixty to fifty-six, and that of semi-disfranchised boroughs (schedule B)
+from forty-six to thirty, but to assign a larger number of members to
+the prosperous towns enfranchised. The bill was at once read a first
+time and passed its second reading after two nights' debate on the 16th
+by a majority of 324 to 162, or exactly two to one. But, after a short
+adjournment for the Christmas holidays, a debate of twenty-two nights
+took place in committee, and the opposition made skilful use of the many
+vulnerable points in the new scheme. Every variation from the original
+bill, even by way of concession, was subjected to minute criticism, and
+especially the fact that the schedules were now framed, not on a scale
+of population only, but on a mixed basis, partly resting on population,
+partly on the number of inhabited houses, and partly on the local
+contribution to assessed taxes.
+
+It was easy to pick such a compound scale to pieces, to uphold the
+claims of one venal borough against another equally venal, and even to
+reproach the government with inconsistency in relying on the census of
+1831, instead of on that of 1821--a course which the opposition had
+specially urged upon them. But it was not so easy to combat the
+irresistible arguments in favour of the bill on its general merits, to
+ignore the reasonable concessions on points of detail which it embodied,
+or to explain away the patent fact that no measure less stringent would
+satisfy the people. There was therefore an air of unreality about this
+debate, spirited as it was, nor is it easy to understand what practical
+object enlightened men like Peel could have sought in prolonging it. He
+well knew, and admitted in private correspondence, that reform was
+inevitable; he must have known that a sham reform would be a stimulus to
+revolutionary agitation; yet he strove to mutilate the bill so that it
+might pass its second reading in the house of lords, and there undergo
+such further mutilation as would destroy its efficacy as a settlement of
+the question. For the present he yielded. No attempt was made to
+obstruct the bill on its third reading, when the division showed 355
+votes to 239, and it passed the commons on March 23 without any
+division.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE THIRD REFORM BILL._]
+
+Such a result would have been conclusive in any parliament during the
+second half of the nineteenth century. A house of commons elected by the
+old constituencies, and under the old franchises, had declared in favour
+of a well-considered reform bill. The same constituencies voting under
+the same franchises had returned an increased majority in support of the
+same, or very nearly the same measure; this measure, with slight
+variations, had been adopted by an immense preponderance of votes in the
+new house of commons: yet its fate in the house of lords was very
+doubtful. Ever since the autumn of 1831, the expedient of swamping the
+house of lords had been seriously contemplated. It was supremely
+distasteful to the king, and Grey himself, in common with a majority of
+the cabinet, was strongly averse from it. Then came the intervention of
+Harrowby and Wharncliffe, the failure of which strengthened the hands of
+the more determined reformers in the cabinet, and induced the king to
+give way. Having already created a few peers on the coronation, he
+consented to a limited addition in the last resort, but with the
+reservation that eldest sons of existing peers should be called up in
+the first instance, and upon the assurance that, reform once carried,
+all further encroachments of the democracy should be resisted by the
+government. He even authorised Grey to inform Harrowby that he had given
+the prime minister this power, in the hope that it would never be
+needed, and that at least the second reading of the bill would be
+carried in the house of lords without it. His objection to a permanent
+augmentation of the peerage remained unshaken, and Grey promised to
+propose no augmentation at all before the second reading.
+
+This compact, if it can be so called, was fulfilled in the letter, for
+the bill was read a first time without a division, and it passed the
+second reading on April 14 by a majority of 184 to 175. To all
+appearance a notable process of conversion had been wrought among the
+peers, seventeen of whom actually changed sides, while ten opponents of
+the former bill absented themselves, and twelve new adherents were
+gained. However encouraging these figures might be, the ministers were
+under no illusion. They had the best reason for expecting the worst
+from the struggle in committee, and they were conscious of gradually
+losing the king's confidence. The very demonstrations of popular
+enthusiasm for reform which impressed others with a sense of its
+necessity impressed him with a sense of its danger; the political unions
+and the Bristol riots alarmed him extremely; and the foreign policy of
+the government elicited from him so outspoken a protest that Grey
+tendered his resignation. The difficulty was overcome for the moment,
+but recurred in a more serious form when parliament reassembled on May
+7. Lyndhurst at once proposed in committee to postpone the consideration
+of schedule A; in other words, to shelve the most vital provisions of
+the bill until the rest should have been dissected in a hostile spirit.
+This proposal is supposed to have been concerted with Harrowby and
+Wharncliffe, if not to have received the sanction of the Duke of
+Wellington. It was adopted by 151 votes to 116, and the cabinet, on May
+8, courageously determined to make a decisive stand. They firmly advised
+the king to confer peerages on "such a number of persons as might ensure
+the success of the bill". The principle thus expressed had, as has been
+seen, been reluctantly approved by the king himself, but he recoiled
+from the application of it when he learned that it would involve at
+least fifty new creations. After a day's thought, he closed with the
+only alternative, and accepted the resignation of his ministry. He then
+sent for Lyndhurst, who of course at once communicated with the duke.
+
+The king, as we have seen, had never been able to understand the real
+force of the reform movement, and his leading idea was that the demand
+for reform might be satisfied by a moderate reform bill, which the house
+of lords would not reject or reduce to nullity. Wellington shared this
+impression, and, though an implacable opponent of reform, was willing to
+undertake office for the purpose of carrying, not merely a mild
+substitute for the whig reform bill, but the whig reform bill itself
+with little modification. Such an act might appear immoral in a
+statesman whose integrity was more open to question, but the duke's
+political _moral_ appears to have been of a less delicate type than that
+which is commonly expected in party politicians. As a general, he
+considered, first of all and above all, what manoeuvres would best
+advance his plan of campaign. As a political leader, he regarded
+himself not as the chief of a party, still less as the exponent of a
+creed, but rather as a public servant to whom his followers owed
+allegiance, whether in office or in opposition. As a public servant he
+felt bound to obey the king's summons, and conduct the administration,
+honestly and efficiently, but without much concern for personal
+convictions. He was also anxious to preserve the house of lords from
+being swamped and so rendered ridiculous by an extensive creation of
+peers.[105]
+
+[Pageheading: _ATTEMPTS TO FORM A TORY MINISTRY._]
+
+But Wellington knew that he was powerless to manage the house of commons
+without the aid of Peel, and Peel, though pliable in the case of
+catholic emancipation, was inflexible in the case of reform. He drew a
+distinction between these cases, and absolutely rejected the advice of
+Croker that he should grasp the helm of state to avert the worse evil of
+the whigs being recalled. "I look," he wrote, "beyond the exigency and
+the peril of the present moment, and I do believe that one of the
+greatest calamities that could befall the country would be the utter
+want of confidence in the declarations of public men which must follow
+the adoption of the bill of reform by me as a minister of the
+crown."[106] This language, repeated under reserve in the house of
+commons, after a direct appeal from the king, strongly contrasts with
+that of the duke who roundly asserted that he should have been ashamed
+to show his face in the streets if he had refused to serve his sovereign
+in an emergency. The marked divergence of views and conduct between the
+two leaders of the conservative party led to a temporary estrangement
+which materially weakened their counsels, and was not finally removed
+until a fresh crisis arose two years later.
+
+While Lyndhurst and the duke were vainly endeavouring to patch up a
+government without Peel or his personal adherents, Goulburn and Croker,
+the house of commons and the country gave decisive proofs of their
+resolution. A vote of confidence in Grey's ministry, proposed by
+Ebrington, was carried on May 10 by a majority of eighty. Petitions came
+in from the city of London and Manchester, calling upon the commons to
+stop the supplies, and the reckless populace clamoured for a run upon
+the Bank of England. A mass meeting convened by the Birmingham
+political union had already hoisted the standard of revolt against the
+legislature, unless it would comply with the will of the people; the
+example was spreading rapidly, and events seemed to be hurrying on
+towards a fulfilment of Russell's prediction that, in the event of a
+political deadlock, the British constitution would perish in the
+conflict. The duke was credited, of course unjustly, with the intention
+of establishing military rule, and doubts were freely expressed whether
+he could rely either on the army or on the police to put down insurgent
+mobs. The excitement in the house of commons itself was scarcely less
+formidable, and it soon became evident that high tories were almost as
+much incensed by the prospect of a tory reform bill as radicals and
+whigs by the vote on Lyndhurst's amendment.
+
+On the 14th Manners Sutton and Alexander Baring, Lyndhurst's trusted
+confidants, plainly informed the duke that his self-imposed task was
+hopeless, and on the next day the duke advised the king to recall Grey.
+The king, who had apparently grasped the position earlier, acquiesced in
+this solution of the question. He agreed to recall Grey and his
+colleagues, and to use his own personal influence in persuading tory
+peers to abstain from voting. He attempted to impose upon his old
+ministers the condition of modifying the bill considerably, but they
+continued to insist on maintaining its integrity, and on swamping the
+upper house, unless its opposition should be withdrawn. It was, happily,
+unnecessary to resort to such extreme measures. A letter from the king,
+dated the 17th, informed Wellington that all difficulties would be
+removed by "a declaration in the house of lords from a sufficient number
+of peers that they have come to the resolution of dropping their further
+opposition to the reform bill". On that night, after stating what had
+passed, the duke retired from the house, followed by about 100 peers,
+and absented himself from the discussion of the bill in committee. A
+stalwart minority remained, and took issue on a few clauses, but their
+numbers constantly dwindled, and when the report was received on June 1
+only eighteen peers recorded their dissent in a protest. Grey himself,
+though suffering from illness, moved the third reading on the 4th, when
+it was carried by 106 to 22. His last words did not lack the dignity
+which had marked his bearing throughout, and expressed the earnest hope
+that, in spite of sinister forebodings, "the measure would be found to
+be, in the best sense, conservative of the constitution".
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+The amendments made in the house of lords were slight, and the house of
+commons adopted them without any argument on their merits. Peel, who had
+made a convincing defence of his recent conduct, and who afterwards took
+a statesmanlike course in the reformed parliament, declared, with some
+petulance, that he would have nothing to do with the consideration of
+provisions or amendments passed under compulsion, and that he was
+prepared to accept them, _en bloc_, whatever their nature or
+consequences. The bill, therefore, received the royal assent on the 7th,
+but the king could not be induced to perform this ceremony in person.
+Though his scruples had been respected in framing the scheme of reform,
+though he was consulted at every turn and clearly recognised the
+necessity to which he bowed, and though he was spared the resort to a
+_coup d'état_ which he abhorred, he could not but feel humiliated by the
+ill-disguised subjection of the crown and the nobility to a single
+chamber of the people. It is greatly to his honour that, with limited
+intelligence, and strong prejudices, he should have played a
+straightforward and strictly constitutional part in so perilous a
+crisis.
+
+By the great reform bill, as it was still called even after it became an
+act, the whole representative system of England and Wales was
+reconstructed. Fifty-six nomination boroughs, as we have seen, lost
+their members altogether; thirty more were reduced to one member, and
+Weymouth which, coupled with Melcombe Regis, had returned four members,
+now lost two. Twenty-two large towns, including metropolitan districts,
+were allotted two members each; twenty smaller but considerable towns
+received one member each; the number of English and Welsh county members
+was increased from ninety-four to one hundred and fifty-nine, and the
+larger counties were parcelled out into divisions. All the fanciful and
+antiquated franchises which had prevailed in the older boroughs were
+swept away to make room for a levelling £10 household suffrage, the
+privileges of freemen being alone preserved. The rights of 40s.
+freeholders were retained in counties, but they found themselves
+associated with a large body of copyholders, leaseholders, and
+tenants-at-will paying £50 in rent. The general result was to place the
+borough representation mainly in the hands of shopkeepers, and the
+county representation mainly in those of landlords and farmers. The
+former change had a far greater effect on the balance of parties than
+the latter. The shopkeepers, of whom many were nonconformists, long
+continued to cherish advanced radical traditions, partly derived from
+the reform agitation, and constantly rebelled against dictation from
+their rich customers. The farmers, dependent on their landlords and
+closely allied with them in defending the corn laws, proved more
+submissive to influence, and constituted the backbone of the great
+agricultural interest.
+
+The enactment of the English reform bill carried with it as its
+necessary sequel the success of similar bills for Scotland and Ireland.
+In Scotland electoral abuses were so gross that reform was comparatively
+simple, and that proposed, as Jeffrey, the lord advocate, frankly said,
+"left not a shred of the former system". The nation, as a whole, gained
+eight members, since its total representation was raised from forty-five
+to fifty-three seats, thirty for counties and twenty-three for cities
+and burghs. Two members were allotted to Edinburgh and Glasgow
+respectively; one each to Paisley, Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, and
+Greenock, as well as to certain groups of boroughs. Both the county and
+burgh electorates were entirely transformed. The "old parchment
+freeholders" in counties, many of whom owned not a foot of land, were
+superseded by a mixed body of freeholders and leaseholders with real
+though various qualifications. The electoral monopoly of town councils
+was replaced by the enfranchisement of householders with a uniform
+qualification of £10. A claim to representation on behalf of the
+Scottish universities was negatived in the house of lords. The number of
+representatives for Ireland was raised from 100 to 105. The
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders was maintained against the
+strenuous attacks of O'Connell and Sheil, but the introduction of the
+£10 borough franchise amply balanced the loss of democratic influence in
+counties. On the whole the transfer of power from class to class was
+greater in Scotland and Ireland than in England itself, and in Ireland
+this signified a corresponding transfer of power from protestants to
+catholics. The rule of the priests was almost as absolute as ever until
+it was checked for a while by a purely democratic movement, and the
+Irish vote in the house of commons was generally cast on the radical
+side.
+
+[Pageheading: _RETROSPECT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT._]
+
+A calm retrospect of the reform movement, culminating in the acts of
+1832, compels us to see how little the course of politics is guided by
+reason, and how much by circumstances. Every argument employed in that
+and the preceding year possessed equal force at the end of the
+eighteenth century, and the benefits of reform might have been obtained
+at a much smaller cost of domestic strife; nor can we doubt that, but
+for the French revolution, these arguments would have prevailed. Whether
+or not the sanguinary disruption of French society furthered the cause
+of progress on the continent, it assuredly threw back that cause in
+Great Britain for more than a generation. Not only did its horrors and
+enormities produce a reaction which paralysed the efforts of liberals in
+this country, but the wars arising out of it engrossed for twenty years
+the whole energy of the nation. Had it been possible for Pitt to pass a
+reform bill after carrying the Irish union, the current of English
+history would have been strangely diverted. The sublime tenacity of that
+proud aristocracy which defied the French empire in arms, and nerved all
+the rest of Europe by its example and its subsidies, would never have
+been exhibited by a democratic or middle class parliament, and it is
+more than probable that Great Britain would have stood neutral while the
+continent was enslaved or worked out its own salvation. On the other
+hand, in such a case, Great Britain might have been spared a great part
+of the misery and discontent which, following the peace, but indirectly
+caused by the war, actually paved the way for the reform movement. It
+remained for a second French revolution, combined with the infatuation
+of English tories, to supply the motive power which converted a party
+cry into a national demand for justice. The reform act was, in truth, a
+completion of the earlier English revolution provoked by the Stuarts.
+Considering the condition of the people before its introduction, and the
+obstinacy of the resistance to be overborne, we may well marvel that it
+was carried, after all, so peacefully, and must ever remember it as a
+signal triumph of whig statesmanship.
+
+It was the crowning merit of the reform act, from a whig point of view,
+that it stayed the rising tide of democracy, and raised a barrier
+against household suffrage and the ballot which was not broken down for
+a generation more. It put an end to an oligarchy of borough-owners and
+borough-mongers; it was a charter of political rights for the
+manufacturing interest and the great middle class. But it did nothing
+for the working classes in town or country; indeed, by the abolition of
+potwallopers and scot-and-lot voters in a few boroughs, they forfeited
+such fragmentary representation as they had possessed. Hence the seeds
+of chartism, already sown, were quickened in 1832; but socialism was not
+yet a force in politics, and it was still hoped that, under the new
+electoral system, the sufferings of the poor might be mostly remedied by
+act of parliament. The effect of the reform act on the balance of the
+constitution was not, at first, fully appreciated. The grievance of
+nomination-boroughs had been all but completely redressed, and that of
+political corruption greatly diminished, but the hereditary peerage
+remained, and the right of the lords to override the will of the commons
+had ostensibly survived the conflict of 1831-32. But far-sighted men
+could not fail to perceive that, in fact, the upper house was no longer
+a co-ordinate estate of the realm. The peers retained an indefinite
+power of delaying a measure, but it soon came to be a received maxim
+that on a measure of primary importance such a power could only be
+exercised in order to give the commons an opportunity of reconsideration
+or to force an appeal to the country at a general election, and that a
+new house of commons, armed with a mandate to carry that measure, though
+once rejected by the peers, could not be resisted except at the risk of
+revolution.
+
+The best safeguard against collision, however, was to be found in the
+latent conservatism of the house of commons itself. Reformed as it was,
+it had not ceased to be mainly a house of country gentlemen, and the
+non-payment of members was a security for its being composed, almost
+exclusively, of men with independent means and a stake in the country. A
+very large proportion of these had been educated at the great public
+schools, or the old English universities. They might accept on the
+hustings the doctrine, against which Burke so eloquently protested, that
+a representative is above all a delegate, and must go to parliament as
+the pledged mouthpiece of his constituency. But in the house itself they
+could not divest themselves of the sentiments derived from their birth,
+their education, and their own personal interests; nor was it found
+impossible, without a direct violation of pledges, to act upon their own
+opinions in many a critical division. Still, it has been well pointed
+out that, with the flowing tide of reform there arose a new and
+one-sided conception of statesmanship as consisting in progressive
+amendment of the laws rather than in efficient administration, so that
+it is now popularly regarded as a mark of weakness on the part of any
+government to allow a session to pass without effecting some important
+legislative change.[107]
+
+[Pageheading: _CORONATION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+The supreme interest of the reform bill and its incidents naturally
+dwarfed all other political questions, and the legislative annals of
+1831-32 are otherwise singularly devoid of historical importance. The
+coronation of William IV., which, as has been seen, took place on
+September 8, 1831, was hardly more than an interlude in the great
+struggle, yet it served for the moment to assuage the animosities of
+party warfare. The king himself, who disliked solemn ceremonials, and
+the ministers, deeply pledged to economy, were inclined to dispense with
+the pageant altogether. It was found, however, that not only peers and
+court officials but the public would be grievously disappointed by the
+omission of what, after all, is a solemn public celebration of the
+compact between the sovereign and the nation. The coronation was,
+therefore, carried out with due pomp and all the time-honoured
+formalities, but without the profuse extravagance which attended the
+enthronement of George IV. There was no public banquet, and the public
+celebration ceased with the ceremony in Westminster Abbey. The Duke of
+Wellington and other leading members of the opposition had been duly
+consulted by the government; there was a welcome respite from
+parliamentary warfare; the king's returning popularity was confirmed;
+and all classes of the people were satisfied.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CHOLERA EPIDEMIC._]
+
+Two months later, the appearance of the cholera at Sunderland added
+another grave cause of anxiety to all the difficulties created by the
+defeat of the reform bill in the house of lords, and the ominous riots
+at Bristol. A similar but distinct and infinitely milder disease had
+long been known under the name of _cholera morbus_, or more correctly
+_cholera nostras_. Asiatic cholera, as the new disease was called, had
+no affinity with any other known disease, and excited all the greater
+terror by its novelty, as well as by the suddenness of its fatal effect.
+It was first observed by English physicians in 1817, when 10,000 persons
+fell victims to it in the district of Jessor in Bengal. About the same
+time it attacked and decimated the central division of the army of Lord
+Hastings, advancing against Gwalior. Before long it spread over the
+whole province of Bengal, and eastward along the coasts of Asia as far
+as China and Timur in the East Indies, crossed the great wall, and
+penetrated into Mongolia. In 1818 it broke out at Bombay, and during the
+next twelve years continued to haunt, at intervals, the cities of Persia
+and Asiatic Turkey, with the coasts of the Caspian Sea. It was not until
+1829 that it reached the Russian province of Orenburg, by way of the
+river Volga, visiting St. Petersburg and Archangel in June, 1830. Thence
+it travelled slowly but steadily westward through Northern Europe, as
+well as southward into the valleys of the Danube and its tributaries,
+until it made its appearance at Berlin and Hamburg in the summer of
+1831. Long before this, and while the reform crisis was in its acutest
+stage, the probability of its advent was fully realised in England, and
+orders in council were issued in June, 1831, placing in quarantine all
+ships coming from the Baltic. Notwithstanding the outcry against
+meddling with trade, men of war were appointed to enforce these orders,
+and when the news came that Marshal Diebitsch had died of the disease in
+Poland, the alarm increased and all regulations against plague were made
+applicable to cholera. Whether or not these precautions were
+ineffective, it swooped upon Sunderland on October 26, and prevailed
+there for two months, though its true character was very unwillingly
+recognised.[108]
+
+The conflict between the newly created board of health and the merchants
+importing goods caused the government no little perplexity. The protests
+of the latter were strengthened by the somewhat remarkable fact that,
+once established at Sunderland, the cholera seemed to be arrested in its
+course and for a while spread no further. There seemed to be some ground
+for the belief that it was partly due to extreme overcrowding and
+neglect of all sanitary rules in that town, but this belief was soon
+dissipated by its appearance at Newcastle and progress over the
+north-eastern counties even during the winter months. Seven cases of it
+occurred on the banks of the Thames just below London early in February,
+1832, and though its virulence in England was alleged to be less than on
+the continent, further experience hardly justified that opinion. The
+appalling violence of its first onslaught on some vulnerable districts
+may be illustrated by the example of Manchester, where a whole family
+just arrived from an infected locality was swept away within twenty-four
+hours. The government did its duty by disseminating instructions for its
+prevention and treatment among the local authorities, but the prejudices
+of the lower orders were against all interference for their benefit, and
+scenes of brutality were sometimes enacted such as may still be
+witnessed in oriental cities scourged by the plague. After a temporary
+decline, the visitation recurred in all its severity, and in July the
+deaths of a few persons in the highest circles occasioned a panic in the
+west end of London. Still the declared number of deaths in the
+metropolitan area was only 5,275, showing a far lower rate of mortality
+in London than in Paris at the same time, and much lower than in London
+itself during the epidemic of 1849, when statistics were more
+trustworthy. None of the cholera epidemics, however, approached in
+deadliness the plagues of 1625 and 1665. In the latter year the number
+of deaths in London from plague alone represented about one-fifth of the
+entire resident population--a proportion equivalent to a mortality of
+above 200,000 in the London of 1831-32. This comparative immunity was
+partly due to improved sanitation, the vigorous development of which may
+be said to date from the first visitation of cholera.
+
+The census taken in 1831 revealed an increase of population, which,
+though not equal to that of the preceding decade, indicated a most
+satisfactory growth of wealth and employment. It was found that Great
+Britain contained about 16,500,000 inhabitants, but of these, as might
+be expected, a smaller percentage was employed in agriculture and a
+larger percentage in manufacturing industry than in 1821. It has been
+calculated that since the end of the great war the accumulation of
+capital had been twice as rapid as the multiplication of the people,
+but, in spite of this, pauperism, as measured by poor law expenditure,
+had increased almost continuously since 1823, and emigration received a
+startling impulse in 1831-32. Rick burning and frame breaking were the
+joint result of childish ignorance, miserable wages, mistaken taxes on
+the staple of food, and poor laws administered as if for the very
+purpose of encouraging improvidence and vice. All these causes were
+capable of being removed or mitigated by legislation, for even the rate
+of wages was kept down by the ruinous system of out-door relief. But it
+was only a few thoughtful persons who then appreciated either the extent
+or the real sources of the mischief, and the disputes which soon arose
+about the proper remedies to be applied have been handed on to a later
+age.
+
+Next to parliamentary reform the state of Ireland was by far the most
+important subject which engaged the attention of the legislature in
+1831-32. The population had increased from 6,801,827 in 1821 to
+7,767,401 in 1831, and the increase, unlike that in England, had been
+almost exclusively in the agricultural districts. While the political
+motive for multiplying small freeholds had ceased, the motives for
+multiplying small tenancies were as strong as ever, and were felt by
+landlords no less than by cottiers. This class, often inhabiting huts
+like those of savage tribes and living in a squalor hardly to be seen
+elsewhere in western Europe, chiefly depended for their subsistence on
+potatoes--the most uncertain and the least nutritious of the crops used
+for human food. Many hundred thousands of them had no employment in
+their own country and no means of livelihood except the produce of the
+scanty patches around their own turf cabins. Tens of thousands flocked
+to England annually seeking harvest work, and a small number emigrated
+to Canada or the United States, the passage money for an emigrant being
+then almost prohibitive. Those who could not pay rent were liable to
+eviction, and eviction was a more cruel fate then than now, since there
+was no poor law in Ireland. Fever was rife in their miserable abodes,
+following in the steps of hunger, and for relief of any kind they could
+rely only on the mercy of their landlords or the charity of their
+neighbours. Under such conditions of life crime and disaffection could
+not but flourish, and the Irish peasant could hardly be blamed if he
+listened eagerly to the counsels of O'Connell. For him catholic
+emancipation had no meaning except so far as it gave him a hope that
+parliament, swayed by the great Irish demagogue, would abolish tithes,
+if not rent, and find some means of making Irishmen happy in their own
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _ANGLESEY LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND._]
+
+Had O'Connell been a true patriot, or even an honest politician, he
+would have devoted his vast powers and influence to practical schemes
+for the good of Ireland, and specially to a solution of the agrarian
+question. Unhappily, smarting under a not unfounded sense of injustice,
+when he was disabled from taking his seat for Clare, he threw his whole
+energy into a new campaign for the repeal of the union, which occupied
+the rest of his life. So far from acknowledging any gratitude to the
+whigs, through whose support emancipation had been carried, he exhausted
+all the resources of his scurrilous rhetoric upon them, lavishing the
+epithets "base, brutal, and bloody," with something like Homeric
+iteration. In December, 1830, Anglesey had returned to succeed the Duke
+of Northumberland, and Stanley occupied the post of chief secretary, in
+place of Hardinge. The ministers were privately advised to buy O'Connell
+at any price, and it was intimated that he would not object to become a
+law officer of the crown, or at least would not refuse a judicial
+appointment. It may well be doubted whether the offer of such a bargain
+to such a man could have been justified by success; it is more than
+probable that it would have failed, and it is quite certain that failure
+would have brought infinite discredit upon the government. At all events
+the attempt was not made, and other catholic aspirants to legal
+promotion were passed over with less excuse.
+
+Lord Anglesey proved a resolute viceroy, and proclaimed the various
+associations, meetings, and processions organised by O'Connell, with
+little regard for his own popularity. O'Connell's policy, carried out
+with the cunning of a skilful lawyer, was to obey the law in the letter,
+but to break it almost defiantly in the spirit. At last, however, he
+went a step too far by advising the people who had come for a prohibited
+meeting to reassemble and hold it elsewhere. He was arrested on January
+18, 1831, and pleaded "Not guilty," but on February 17, when his trial
+came on, he allowed judgment to go by default against him on those
+counts of the indictment which charged him with a statutable offence,
+provided that other counts, which charged him with a conspiracy at
+common law, should be withdrawn. The attorney-general assented, and the
+case was adjourned until the first day in Easter term. Before that day
+arrived, however, the reform bill had been introduced, and O'Connell had
+made a powerful speech in support of it. In the desperate struggle which
+ensued, the ministers shrunk from estranging so formidable an ally, a
+further adjournment of the case was allowed, a sudden dissolution of
+parliament took place, the act under which O'Connell was to be sentenced
+expired with the parliament, and no further action was taken.
+
+[Pageheading: _"TITHE-WAR" IN IRELAND._]
+
+During the year 1831, the agitation for repeal which O'Connell had set
+on foot, as soon as the emancipation act had been passed, was for a
+while thrust into the shade by the fiercer agitation against tithes.
+This agitation was connected, in theory, with the demand for the
+abolition or reduction of the Irish Church establishment, but was, in
+fact, entirely independent of that or any other constitutional movement.
+It may seem inexplicable to political students of a later age that Irish
+questions of secondary importance, and eminently capable of equitable
+treatment, should have convulsed the whole island and disturbed the
+whole course of imperial politics, during the reign of William IV. The
+rebellion against tithes or "tithe-war," as it was called, had not the
+semblance of justification in law or reason. Every tenant who took part
+in it had inherited or acquired his farm, subject to payment of tithes,
+and might have been charged a higher rent if he could have obtained it
+tithe-free. The tithe was the property of the parson as much as the land
+was the property of the landlord, and the wilful refusal of it was from
+a legal point of view sheer robbery. On the other hand, the mode of
+collection was extremely vexatious, perhaps involving the seizure of a
+pig, a bag of meal, or a sack of potatoes; and a starving cottier,
+paying fees to his own priest, was easily persuaded by demagogues that
+it was an arbitrary tribute extorted by clerical tyrants of an alien
+faith.
+
+Thus it came to pass that the history of the Irish "tithe-war" exhibits
+the Irish peasantry in their very worst moods, and it is stained with
+atrocities never surpassed in later records of Irish agrarian
+conspiracy. It is among the strange and sad anomalies of national
+character that a people so kindly in their domestic relations, so little
+prone to ordinary crime, and so amenable to better influences, should
+have shown, in all ages, down to the very latest, a capacity for
+dastardly inhumanity, under vindictive and gregarious impulses, only to
+be matched by Spanish and Italian brigands among the races of modern
+Europe. Yet so it is, and no "coercion" (so-called) ultimately enforced
+by legal authority was comparable in severity with the coercion which
+bloodthirsty miscreants ruthlessly applied to honest and peaceable
+neighbours, only guilty of paying their lawful debts. It is not too much
+to say that anarchy prevailed over a great part of Ireland, especially
+of Leinster, during the years 1831 and 1832. The collection of tithes
+became almost impossible. The tithe-proctors were tortured or murdered;
+the few willing tithe-payers were cruelly maltreated or intimidated; the
+police, unless mustered in large bodies, were held at bay; cattle were
+driven, or, if seized and offered for sale, could find no purchasers;
+and the protestant clergy, who had acted on the whole with great
+forbearance, were reduced to extremities of privations. Five of the
+police were shot dead on one occasion; on another, twelve who were
+escorting a tithe-proctor were massacred in cold blood. A large number
+of rioters were killed in encounters with the police, which sometimes
+assumed the form of pitched battles and closely resembled civil war.
+Special commissions were sent down into certain districts, and a few
+executions took place, but in most cases Irish juries proved as
+regardless of their oaths as they ever have on trials of prisoners for
+popular crimes. O'Connell, and even Sheil, tacitly countenanced these
+lawless proceedings, and openly palliated them in the house of commons.
+
+The whig government, engaged in a life-and-death contest with the
+English borough-mongers, hesitated to crush the Irish insurgents by
+military force, or to initiate a sweeping reform of the Irish Church.
+Early in 1832, however, committees of both houses reported in favour of
+giving the clergy temporary relief out of public funds, and of
+ultimately commuting tithes into a charge upon the land. A preliminary
+bill for the former purpose was promptly carried by Stanley, and made
+the government responsible for recovering the arrears. The committee,
+pursuing their inquiries, produced fuller reports, and again recommended
+a complete extinction of tithes in Ireland. But the method proposed and
+embodied in three bills introduced by Stanley in the same year, was too
+complicated to serve as a permanent settlement, and was denounced as
+illusory by the Irish members. The first bill was, in fact, a compulsory
+extension of acts already passed in 1822 and 1823, the former of which
+had permitted the tithe-owner to lease the tithe to the landlord, while
+the latter permitted the tithe-owner and tithe-payers of each parish to
+arrange a composition. Unfortunately, the act of 1823 had provided that
+the payment in commutation of tithe should be distributed over
+grass-lands hitherto tithe-free in Ireland as well as over land hitherto
+liable to tithe. The act was in consequence unpopular with a section of
+farmers, while at the same time the bishops resented the commutation, as
+likely to diminish the value of beneficies. But in spite of this
+opposition the act of 1823 had been widely adopted. Stanley's bill to
+render such commutations compulsory passed, but his other two bills,
+providing a new ecclesiastical machinery for buying up tithes, were
+abandoned at the end of the session. Of course the substitution of the
+government for the clergyman as creditor in respect of arrears had no
+soothing effect on the debtors. The reign of terror continued unabated,
+and O'Connell contented himself with pointing out that without repeal
+there could be no peace in Ireland. We may so far anticipate the
+legislation of 1833 as to notice the inevitable failure of the
+experiment which converted the government into a tithe-proctor. It was
+then replaced by a new plan, under which the government abandoned all
+processes under the existing law, advanced £1,000,000 to clear off all
+arrears of tithe, and sought reimbursement by a land tax payable for a
+period of five years.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDUCATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+It reflects credit on the unreformed house of commons that in its very
+last session, harassed by the irreconcilable attitude of the catholic
+population in Ireland, it should have found time and patience not only
+for the pressing question of Irish tithes, but for the consideration of
+a resolution introductory to an Irish poor law, of a bill (which became
+law) for checking the abuses of Irish party processions, and of a grant
+for a board to superintend the mixed education of Irish catholic and
+protestant children. The discussion of Sadler's motion in favour of an
+Irish poor law was somewhat academic, and produced a division among the
+Irish members, O'Connell, with gross inconsistency, declaring himself
+vehemently opposed to any such measure. The ministers professed
+sympathy with its principle, but would not pledge themselves to deal
+immediately with so difficult and complicated a subject, perhaps
+foreseeing the necessity of radical change in the English poor law
+system. The processions bill was vigorously resisted on behalf of the
+Orangemen, as specially aimed at their annual demonstrations on July 12,
+but it was so manifestly wise to remove every wanton aggravation of
+party spirit in Ireland, that it was passed just before the prorogation.
+
+The experiment of mixed education in Ireland had already been made with
+partial success, first by individuals, and afterwards by an association
+known as the Kildare Place Society. On the appointment of Dr. Whately to
+the archbishopric of Dublin, it received a fresh impulse, and Stanley,
+as chief secretary, definitely adopted the principle, recommended by two
+commissions and two committees, of "a combined moral and literary and
+separate religious instruction". A board of national education was
+established in Dublin, composed of eminent Roman catholics as well as
+protestants, to superintend all state-aided schools in which selections
+from the Bible, approved by the board, were to be read on two days in
+the week. Though provision was made for unrestricted biblical teaching,
+out of school hours, on the other four days, protestant bigotry was
+roused against the very idea of compromise. A shrewd observer remarked,
+"While the whole system is crumbling to dust under their feet, while the
+Church is prostrate, property of all kind threatened, and robbery,
+murder, starvation, and agitation rioting over the land, these wise
+legislators are debating whether the brats at school shall read the
+whole Bible or only parts of it".[109] The opponents of the national
+board failed to defeat the scheme in parliament, and it was justly
+mentioned with satisfaction by the king in his prorogation speech of
+August 16. But its benefits, though lasting, were seriously curtailed by
+sectarian jealousy. Most of the protestant clergy frowned upon the
+national schools, as the Roman catholic priesthood had frowned upon the
+schools of the Kildare Place Society, and a noble opportunity of
+mitigating religious strife in Ireland was to a great extent wasted.
+Thus ended the eventful session of 1832.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] See Professor Dicey's observations on this clause, _Law and
+Opinion in England_, p. 54, _n._
+
+[105] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, viii., 206; Parker, _Sir Robert
+Peel_, ii., 207.
+
+[106] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 206.
+
+[107] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 354; Dicey, _Law and Opinion
+in England_, p. 85.
+
+[108] C. Creighton, _History of Epidemics in Britain_, ii., 768, 793-97,
+860-62.
+
+[109] Greville, _Memoirs_ (March 9, 1832), ii., 267.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+                         FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+
+It was assumed in 1832, and has been held ever since, that a
+redistribution act must be speedily followed by a dissolution, so as to
+give the new constituencies the power of returning new members.
+Accordingly, parliament, having been prorogued until October 16, was
+further prorogued until December 3, and then finally dissolved. The
+general election which followed, though awaited with much anxiety, was
+orderly on the whole, and produced less change than had been expected in
+the _personnel_ of the house of commons. The counties, for the most
+part, elected men from the landed aristocracy, the great towns elected
+men of recognised distinction, and few political leaders were excluded,
+though Croker abjured political life and refused to solicit a seat in
+the reformed house of commons. The good sense of the country asserted
+itself; while Cobbett was returned for Oldham, "Orator" Hunt was
+defeated at Preston, and no general preference was shown for violent
+demagogues by the more democratic boroughs. The age of members in the
+new house was higher, on the average, than in the old; its social
+character was somewhat lower, and the high authority of William Ewart
+Gladstone, who now entered parliament for the first time, may be quoted
+for the opinion that it was inferior, in the main, as a deliberative
+assembly. But it was certainly superior as a representative assembly, it
+contained more capable men of business, and its legislative productions,
+as we shall hereafter see, claim the gratitude of posterity. A certain
+want of modesty in the new class of members was observed by hostile
+critics, and was to be expected in men who had won their seats by
+popular oratory and not through patronage. The house of commons had
+already ceased to be "the best club in London," and later reforms have
+still further weakened its title to be so regarded, but they have also
+shown the wonderful power of assimilation inherent in the atmosphere of
+the house itself, and the spirit of freemasonry which springs up among
+those who enter it by very different avenues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST REFORMED PARLIAMENT._]
+
+The change wrought by the reform act in the strength and distribution of
+parties was immediate and conspicuous. The ancient division of whigs and
+tories, which had become well-nigh obsolete in the reign of George IV.,
+had been revived by the great struggle of 1831-32. It was now superseded
+to a great extent by the combination of the radicals with O'Connell's
+followers into an independent section, and by the growth of a party
+under Peel, distinct from the inveterate tories and known by the name of
+"conservative," which first came into use in 1831.[110] The
+preponderance of liberalism, in its moderate and extreme forms, was
+overwhelming. It was roughly computed that nearly half the house were
+ministerialists and about 190 members radicals, Irish repealers, or free
+lances, while only 150 were classed as "conservatives," apparently
+including tories.[111] In such circumstances the attitude to be adopted
+by Peel was of the highest constitutional importance. It is some proof
+of the respect for statesmanship instinctively felt by the new house of
+commons that Peel, as inexorable an opponent of reform as Canning
+himself, should at once have assumed a foremost position and soon
+obtained an ascendency in an assembly so largely composed of his
+opponents.
+
+But Peel himself was no longer a mere party leader. Unlike Wellington
+and Eldon, he saw the necessity of accepting loyally the accomplished
+fact and shaping his future course in accordance with the nation's will.
+He, therefore, took an early opportunity of declaring that he regarded
+the reform act as irrevocable, and that he was prepared to participate
+in the dispassionate amendment of any institution that really needed it.
+In a private letter to Goulburn he stated that, in his judgment, "the
+best position the government could assume would be that of moderation
+between opposite extremes of ultra-toryism and radicalism," intimating
+further that "we should appear to the greatest advantage in defending
+the government" against their own extreme left wing.[112] In this
+policy he persevered; his influence did much to quell the confusion and
+disorder of the first debate, and his followers swelled the government
+majorities in several of the early divisions. When he came to review the
+first session of the reformed parliament he remarked in a private letter
+that what had been foreseen took place, that "the popular assembly
+exercised tacitly supreme power," and, without abolishing the crown or
+the house of lords, overawed the convictions of both.[113]
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH COERCION BILL._]
+
+The passion for reform, far from spending itself in remodelling the
+house of commons, filled the statute-book with monuments of remedial
+legislation. No session was more fruitful in legislative activity than
+that of 1833. But the way of legislation was at first blocked against
+all projects of improvement by the urgent necessity of passing an Irish
+coercion bill. This had been indicated in the king's speech, and on
+February 15, 1833 Grey introduced the strongest measure of repression
+ever devised for curbing anarchy in Ireland. It combined, as he
+explained, the provisions of "the proclamation act, the insurrection
+act, the partial application of martial law, and the partial suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act". But the barbarities and terrorism which it
+was designed to put down were beyond precedent and almost beyond belief.
+The attempt to collect the arrears of tithe, even with the aid of
+military force, had usually failed, and less than an eighth of the sum
+due was actually levied. The organised defiance of law was not, however,
+confined to refusal of tithes; it embraced the refusal of rent and
+extended over the whole field of agrarian relations. The Whiteboys of
+the eighteenth century reappeared as "Whitefeet," and other secret
+associations, under grotesque names, enforced their decrees by wholesale
+murder, burglary, arson, savage assaults, destruction of property, and
+mutilation of cattle. In two counties, Kilkenny and Queen's County,
+nearly a hundred murders or attempted murders were reported within
+twelve months, and the murderous intimidation of witnesses and jurors
+secured impunity to perpetrators of crimes. No civilised government
+could have tolerated an orgy of lawlessness on so vast a scale, and
+nothing but the exigencies of the reform bill can excuse Grey and his
+colleagues for not having grappled with it earlier. Nor does it appear
+that any remedy less stern would have been effectual. Where unarmed
+citizens have not the courage either to protect themselves or to aid the
+constabulary employed for their protection, soldiers, accustomed to face
+death and inflict it upon others under lawful command, must be called in
+to maintain order. Where civil tribunals have become a mockery, summary
+justice must be dealt out by military tribunals. Force may be no remedy
+for grievances, but it is the one sovereign remedy for organised crime,
+and this was soon to be proved in Ireland.
+
+The viceroy, Anglesey, true to his liberal instincts, would have
+postponed coercion to measures of relief, such as a settlement of the
+church question. Stanley, on the other hand, insisted on the prompt
+introduction of a stringent peace preservation bill, and his energetic
+will prevailed. The bill contained provisions enabling the
+lord-lieutenant to suppress any meeting, establishing a curfew law in
+disturbed districts, and placing offenders in such districts under the
+jurisdiction of courts martial with legal assessors. It passed the house
+of lords with little discussion on the 22nd, and was laid before the
+house of commons a few days later by Althorp, who had already brought in
+an Irish Church temporalities bill. The debate on the address had
+already given warning of the reception which the Irish members would
+accord to any coercion bill, and of their malignant hostility to
+Stanley. Efforts were made to delay its introduction, and full advantage
+was taken of Althorp's statement that one special commission had been
+completely successful. His opening speech, tame and inconclusive,
+discouraged his own followers. The fate of the bill appeared doubtful,
+but Stanley, who had twice staked the existence of the ministry on its
+adoption, reversed the whole tendency of the debate by a speech of
+marvellous force and brilliancy, which Russell afterwards described as
+"one of the greatest triumphs ever won in a popular assembly by the
+powers of oratory".[114] It was in this speech that he proved himself at
+least a match for O'Connell, whom he scathed with fierce indignation as
+having lately called the house of commons a body of scoundrels. It cost
+many nights of debate to carry the bill, with slight amendments, but
+Stanley's appeal had a lasting effect, and it became law in April, to
+the great benefit of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH CHURCH TEMPORALITIES BILL._]
+
+Meanwhile, the Irish Church temporalities bill was pressed forward as a
+counterpoise to coercion. It imposed a graduated tax upon all episcopal,
+capitular, and clerical incomes above £200 a year, and placed the
+proceeds, estimated at £60,000 or £70,000 a year, in the hands of
+commissioners, to be expended in the repairs of churches, the erection
+of glebe-houses, and other parochial charges. In this way Irish
+ratepayers might be relieved of the obnoxious "vestry cess," a species
+of Church rate, at the expense of the clergy. A further saving of
+£60,000 a year or upwards was to be effected by a reduction of the Irish
+episcopate, aided by a new and less wasteful method of leasing Church
+lands attached to episcopal sees. Two out of four Irish archbishoprics
+and eight out of eighteen bishoprics were doomed to extinction, as
+vacancies should occur. Dioceses and benefices were to be freely
+consolidated, clerical sinecures were to cease, and the more scandalous
+abuses of the Irish Church were to be redressed.
+
+As a scheme for ecclesiastical rearrangement within the Church itself,
+the bill was sound and liberal, but it was utterly futile to imagine
+that it would be welcomed, except as a mere instalment of conciliation,
+by Roman catholics who looked upon the protestant Church itself as a
+standing national grievance. The only boon secured to them was exemption
+from their share of vestry cess, for, though Althorp intimated that the
+ultimate surplus to be realised by the union of sees and livings would
+be at the disposal of parliament, they well knew how many influences
+would operate to prevent its reaching them. Not even O'Connell, still
+less the ministry, ventured to propose "concurrent endowment" as it was
+afterwards called, and the very idea of diverting revenues from the
+protestant establishment to Roman catholic uses was disclaimed with
+horror. More than a century earlier, a partition of these revenues
+between the great protestant communions had been seriously entertained,
+and Pitt had notoriously contemplated a provision for the Roman catholic
+priests out of state funds. But no such demand was now made, and the one
+feature of the bill which commanded the vigorous support of O'Connell
+and his adherents was the 147th section, or "appropriation clause,"
+which enabled parliament to apply the expected surplus of some £60,000
+in income, or some £3,000,000 in capital, to whatever purposes, secular
+or otherwise, it might think fit to approve. The far-reaching importance
+of this principle was fully understood on both sides. To radicals and
+Roman catholics it was the sole virtue of the bill; to friends of the
+Irish Church and tories it was a blot to be erased at any cost.
+
+The progress of the measure was not rapid. Its nature had been explained
+by Althorp on February 12, but it was not in print on March 11 when,
+notwithstanding the reasonable protest of Peel, he induced the house to
+fix the second reading for the 14th. It was then found that, owing to
+its form, it must be preceded by resolutions, in order to satisfy the
+rules of the house. These resolutions, containing the essence of the
+bill, were proposed on April 1, but were not adopted without a long
+debate, and the debate on the second reading did not begin until May 6.
+It ended in a majority of 317 to 78 for the government, chiefly due to a
+moderate speech from Sir Robert Peel, who, however, denounced the policy
+of "appropriation". The discussion in committee was far more vehement,
+and radicals like Hume did not shrink from avowing their desire to pull
+down the Irish establishment, root and branch. The attack on the
+conservative side was mainly concentrated on the appropriation clause.
+In vain was it argued that a great part of the expected surplus was not
+Church property, inasmuch as it would result from improvements in the
+system of episcopal leases to be carried out by the agency of the state.
+Every one saw that, however disguised, and whether legitimate or not,
+appropriation of the surplus for secular purposes would be an act of
+confiscation, and must needs be interpreted as a precedent.
+
+The cabinet itself was divided on the subject, and despaired of saving
+the bill in the house of lords, without sacrificing the disputed clause.
+On June 21, therefore, Stanley announced in the house of commons that
+the appropriation clause would be withdrawn, and that any profits
+arising out of financial reforms within the Church would be allowed to
+fall into the hands of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The fury of
+O'Connell was unbounded, and not so devoid of excuse as many of his
+passionate outbreaks. He treated the Church bill as the stipulated
+price to be paid for the coercion bill, and the appropriation clause as
+the only part of it, except relief from vestry cess, which could possess
+the smallest value for Irish Roman catholics. There was no valid answer
+to his argument, except that another collision with the house of lords
+must be avoided at any tolerable cost, for, as Russell bluntly said,
+"the country could not stand a revolution once a year". Thus lightened,
+and slightly modified in the interest of Irish incumbents, the bill
+passed through committee and was read a third time by very large
+majorities, the minority being mainly composed of its old radical
+partisans. Peel's letters show how anxious he was to "make the reform
+bill work," by protecting the government against this extreme
+faction,[115] and the parliamentary reports show how much he did to
+frustrate the attempt to intimidate the lords by a resolution of the
+commons.
+
+The debate in the upper house lasted three nights in July, but is almost
+devoid of permanent interest. The appropriation question being dropped,
+there was little to discuss except the historical origin of Irish
+dioceses, the precedents for their consolidation, and the economical
+details of the scheme for equalising, in some degree, the incomes of
+Irish clergymen. Two or three peers, headed by the Duke of Cumberland,
+took their stand once more on the coronation oath, and Bishop Phillpotts
+of Exeter availed himself of this objection in one of the most powerful
+speeches delivered against the bill. On the other hand, Bishop Blomfield
+of London, and the Duke of Wellington, now acting in concert with Peel,
+gave it a grudging support, as the less of two evils. After passing the
+second reading by a majority of 157 to 98, it was subjected to minute
+criticism in committee, and one amendment was carried against the
+government, but Grey wisely declined to relinquish it except on some
+vital issue. The majority on the third reading was 135 to 81, and on
+August 2 the commons agreed to the lords' amendments, O'Connell
+remarking that, after all, the peers had not made the bill much worse
+than they found it. More than a generation was to elapse before this
+"act to alter and amend the laws relating to the temporalities of the
+Church in Ireland" was completed by an act severing that Church from
+the state. But the ulterior aims of those who first challenged the
+sanctity of Church endowments were not concealed, and the more than
+Erastian tendency of the liberal movement was henceforth clearly
+perceived by high Churchmen. We know, on the authority of Dr. Newman,
+that he and his early associates regarded the Anglican revival of which
+they were the pioneers as essentially a reaction against liberalism, and
+liberalism as the most formidable enemy of sacerdotal power.
+
+[Pageheading: _STANLEY COLONIAL SECRETARY._]
+
+Long before the Irish church bill had passed the house of commons
+Stanley exchanged the chief secretaryship of Ireland for the higher
+office of colonial secretary, to which he was gazetted on March 28. His
+uncompromising advocacy of the coercion bill, and his known hostility to
+direct spoliation of the Church, alike provoked the hatred of Irish
+Roman catholics, and Brougham had already advised his retirement from
+Ireland. His promotion was facilitated by the resignation of Durham,
+nominally on grounds of health, but also because he was in constant
+antagonism to his own father-in-law, Grey, and his moderate colleagues
+in the cabinet. He received an earldom, and was succeeded as lord privy
+seal by Goderich, who became Earl of Ripon. This opened the colonial
+office to Stanley, who instantly found himself face to face with a
+question almost as intractable as the pacification of Ireland. Sir John
+Hobhouse became chief secretary for Ireland, but without a seat in the
+cabinet. He resigned in May, and was succeeded by Edward John Littleton,
+who was married to a natural daughter of the Marquis Wellesley.
+
+Among the statutes passed in 1833, there are several, besides those
+relating to Ireland, of sufficient importance to confer distinction upon
+any parliamentary session. One of these is entitled "an act for the
+better administration of justice in His Majesty's privy council"; a
+second, "an act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
+colonies, for promoting the industry of the manumitted slaves, and for
+compensating the persons hitherto entitled to the services of such
+slaves"; a third, "an act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, and
+for the substitution of more simple methods of assurance"; a fourth, "an
+act to regulate the trade to China and India"; a fifth, "an act for
+giving to the corporation of the governor and company of the Bank of
+England certain privileges, for a limited period, under certain
+conditions"; a sixth, "an act to regulate the labour of children and
+young persons in the mills and factories of the United Kingdom". Not one
+of these salutary measures was forced upon the legislature by popular
+clamour, every one of them represents a sincere zeal for what has been
+ridiculed as "world-bettering," and the parliament that passed them must
+have been thoroughly imbued with the spirit of reform.
+
+Foremost of these measures, as a monument of philanthropic legislation,
+will ever stand the act for the abolition of colonial slavery. No class
+in the country was concerned in its promotion; the powerful interests of
+the planters were arrayed against it; and humanity, operating through
+public opinion, was the only motive which could induce a government to
+espouse the anti-slavery cause. Stanley had not occupied his new office
+many weeks when on May 14 it became his lot to explain the ministerial
+scheme in the house of commons. Its essence consisted in the immediate
+extinction of absolute property in slaves, but with somewhat complicated
+provisions for an intermediate state of apprenticeship, to last twelve
+years. During this period negroes were to be maintained by their former
+masters, under an obligation to serve without wages for three-fourths of
+their working hours, and were to earn wages during the remaining fourth.
+All children under six years of age were to become free at once, and all
+born after the passing of the act were to be free at birth. The
+proprietors were to receive compensation by way of loan, to the extent
+of £15,000,000, and additional grants were promised for the institution
+of a stipendiary magistracy and a system of education.
+
+Several resolutions embodying the scheme were carried, with little
+opposition, though some abolitionists, headed by Mr. Fowell Buxton, a
+wealthy brewer and eminent philanthropist, who sat for Weymouth, took
+strong exception to compulsory apprenticeship, as perpetuating the
+principle of slavery, however mitigated by the recognition of personal
+liberty and the suppression of corporal punishment. It was found
+expedient, however, in deference to a very strong remonstrance from West
+Indian proprietors, to convert the proposed loan of £15,000,000 into an
+absolute payment of £20,000,000, and this noble donation, for
+conscience' sake, was actually ratified by parliament and the country.
+The bill founded on the resolutions met with no serious opposition, but
+an amendment by Buxton for adopting free labour at once was lost by so
+narrow a majority that Stanley consented to reduce the period of
+apprenticeship to an average of six years. In this instance the lords
+followed the guidance of the commons, and a measure of almost quixotic
+liberalism was endorsed by them without hesitation. It must be confessed
+that experience has not verified the confident prediction that free
+labour would prove more profitable than slave labour, but Great Britain
+has never repented of the abolition act, and its example was followed,
+thirty years later, by the United States.
+
+[Pageheading: _FACTORY ACTS._]
+
+The first of the general factory acts was marked by the same
+philanthropic character, but here the manufacturing capitalists,
+introduced by the reform act, were induced by self-interest to oppose
+it. Ever since the beginning of the century the sufferings and
+degradation of children in factories had occasionally engaged the
+attention of parliament, but the full enormity of the factory system was
+known to few except those who profited by it. It seems incredible, but
+it was shown afterwards by irresistible evidence, that children of seven
+years old and upwards were often compelled to work twelve or fourteen
+hours a day, with two short intervals for meals, in a most unwholesome
+atmosphere, exposed not only to ill-treatment but to every form of moral
+corruption. A very partial remedy was applied by a law passed in 1802
+which restricted the hours of labour to twelve for mills in which
+apprentices were employed. The same limit of hours was extended to
+cotton mills generally in 1816, and, but for the resistance of the house
+of lords, it would have been reduced to ten, as a select committee had
+recommended on the initiative of the first Sir Robert Peel. A few years
+later the question was revived by Sir John Hobhouse, but left unsettled.
+In 1831 Sadler introduced a ten hours bill for children, and obtained a
+select committee, before which disclosures were made well calculated to
+shock the country. At the general election of 1832, Sadler was defeated
+by Macaulay for the new borough of Leeds, but his mantle fell on Lord
+Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the noblest
+philanthropists of modern times.
+
+Early in the session of 1833 Ashley introduced a ten hours bill,
+applicable, like that of Sadler, to all young persons under eighteen
+years of age working in factories. It also prohibited the employment of
+children under nine, and provided for the appointment of inspectors. It
+was strongly opposed by the Lancashire members as interfering with
+freedom of labour even for adults, since mills could not be kept running
+without the labour of boys under eighteen. They also objected to the
+evidence already reported as one-sided, and succeeded in procuring the
+appointment of a royal commission. This commission prosecuted its
+inquiries with unusual despatch, but its report was not in the hands of
+members on July 5, when the bill came on for its second reading. Though
+Althorp, unwilling to offend the manufacturing interest, pleaded for
+deliberation and urged that a select committee should frame the
+regulations to be adopted, the majority of the house was impatient of
+delay, and he encountered a defeat. The question now resolved itself
+into a choice between a greater or less limitation of hours. On this
+question, a compromise proposed by Althorp prevailed, and Ashley
+resigned the conduct of the bill into his hands. It was further modified
+in committee, but ultimately became law in a form which secured the main
+objects of its promoters. No child under nine years of age could be
+employed at all in a factory, after two years none under thirteen could
+be worked more than eight hours, and no young person under eighteen
+could be required to work more than sixty-nine hours a week, while the
+provisions for inspection were retained along with others which
+contained the germ of education on the half-time system.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EAST INDIA COMPANY._]
+
+The trading monopoly of the East India Company, though confined to China
+by the act of 1813, had been regarded ever since with great jealousy by
+the mercantile community. As the revised charter was now on the point of
+expiring, it was for the government to frame terms of renewal which
+might satisfy the growing demand for free trade. Their scheme, which few
+were competent to criticise, met with general approval, and the only
+determined opposition to it was offered in the house of lords by
+Ellenborough, who lived to come into sharp collision with the court of
+directors as governor-general. It was embodied in three simple
+resolutions, the first of which recommended the legislature to open the
+China trade without reserve, the second provided for the assumption by
+the crown of all the company's assets and liabilities but with the
+obligation of paying the company a fixed subsidy, while the last
+affirmed the expediency of entrusting the company with the political
+government of India. Grant, who moved these resolutions, as president of
+the board of control, had no occasion to defend the policy of setting
+free the China trade which no one disputed; but he undertook to show
+that it had declined in the hands of the company, and that private
+competition had already crept in on a large scale. He also dwelt on the
+advantage of bringing the political relations arising out of commercial
+intercourse more directly under the control of the government. His
+reasoning was sound, and the China trade rapidly developed, nor could he
+be expected to foresee the course of events whereby the government
+afterwards became embroiled with the Chinese empire, on the importation
+of opium, and other economical questions. As compensation for the loss
+of its exclusive privileges, the company was to receive an annuity of
+£630,000, charged on the territorial revenues of India.
+
+The policy of continuing the company's rule in India for twenty years
+longer would have excited more earnest discussion in a session less
+crowded with legislative projects. The way had been paved for the
+concession of complete free trade in the eastern seas by the reports of
+select committees and parliamentary debates under former governments.
+The consumers of tea, numbered by millions, promised themselves a better
+quality at a lower price, and a keen spirit of enterprise was kindled by
+the idea of breaking into the unknown resources of China. But public
+interest in the administration of India was languid. It might well have
+appeared that a board sitting in Leadenhall Street was fitter to conduct
+shipping and mercantile operations than to govern an imperial dependency
+like British India. But the contrary alternative was almost tacitly
+accepted. The directors were "to remain princes, but no longer merchant
+princes," and Ellenborough complained that whereas "hitherto the court
+had appeared in India as beneficent conquerors, henceforth they would be
+mortgagees in possession". Perhaps the ministry shrunk from provoking
+the storm of obloquy which must have resulted from placing the vast
+patronage of the company in the hands of the crown. At all events, it
+was agreed, with little dissent, that under the new charter the company
+should nominally retain the reins of power, checked, however, by Pitt's
+"board of control," the president of which, in reality, shared a
+despotic authority with the governor-general of Bengal, who was
+hereafter to be in name what he had long been in fact, governor-general
+of India. The bill strengthened his council, and enabled him to
+legislate for all India.
+
+At the same time Europeans were permitted to settle and hold land in
+India without the necessity of applying for a licence. Lastly, the
+principle was laid down, pregnant with future consequences, that all
+persons in India, without distinction of race or creed, should be
+subject to the same law and eligible for all offices under the
+government. Such was the last charter of the great company. It is
+interesting to observe that Grant, in admitting that the government of
+India under its sway had not been prone "to make any great or rapid
+strides in improvement," paid a just tribute to its eminently pacific
+character. "It excited vigilance," he said, "against any encroachment of
+violence or rapacity; it ensured to the people that which they most
+required--repose, security, and tranquillity." The immense annexations
+of territory and far-reaching reforms which have created the British
+India of the twentieth century were either most reluctantly sanctioned
+by the court of directors or have been carried out since its dominion
+was transferred to the crown. Irrevocable as they are, and beneficent as
+they may be on the whole, they have certainly imposed difficulties of
+portentous magnitude upon the rulers of India, nor would it be
+surprising if some native survivors of the olden days in far-off
+recesses of the country should remember with sad regret the paternal,
+though unprogressive, despotism of the sovereign company.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BANK CHARTER ACT._]
+
+The bank charter act of 1833, having been superseded by that of 1844,
+fills a less important place than it otherwise would in the history of
+legislation on currency. The bill was founded, however, on the report of
+a secret committee which embraced Peel as well as Althorp and several
+other members of high financial repute or great experience in the city.
+Since the subject of it was familiar to a large section of members
+engaged in business, and touched the pockets of bankers all over the
+country, it was discussed in the house of commons far more earnestly
+than the bill renewing the charter of the East India Company. In the end
+two provisions were dropped, which directly encouraged the increase of
+joint stock banks. The rest were passed, and contained important
+modifications of the banking system as it then existed. The main
+privileges of the Bank of England were continued, in spite of a strong
+opposition and of protests against the one-sided inquiry said to have
+been conducted by the secret committee. These privileges embraced the
+exclusive possession of the government balances, the monopoly of limited
+liability, then refused to other banks, and the right, shared by no
+other joint stock bank, of issuing its own notes. Though private London
+banks might have legally exercised this power they did not actually do
+so, and nearly all of them deposited their reserves with the Bank of
+England.
+
+Another part of the scheme, which even Peel condemned, was thus briefly
+stated in a preliminary resolution: "That, provided the Bank of England
+continued liable, as at present, to defray in the current coin of the
+realm all its existing engagements, it was expedient that its promissory
+notes should be constituted a legal tender for sums of £5 and upwards".
+In other words, country bankers would no longer be compelled to cash
+their own notes, or pay off their deposits in gold, but might use Bank
+of England notes instead, above the value of £5. The Bank of England,
+however, and all its branches, remained liable to cash payments, as
+before, so that, as Baring argued, only one intermediate stage was
+interposed between the presentation of a country note and the exchange
+of it for specie. Peel's objection, which did not prevail, chiefly
+rested on the danger of the Bank of England closing its branches in its
+own interests, in order to check the demand for cash. Though his fears
+were not literally realised, experience disclosed the danger of country
+banks multiplying unduly, and, by their over-issue of notes, causing a
+severe drain upon the Bank of England for gold. For the present,
+however, the critics of the measure were less concerned in forecasting
+such remote consequences than in protesting against the charge to be
+made by the bank for managing the public debt. This charge was, in fact,
+to be reduced by £120,000 a year, but one-fourth part of the advances
+made by the bank to the public (or £3,671,700) was to be paid off, and
+the proposed remuneration was denounced as exorbitant. Althorp hardly
+denied that it was a good bargain for the bank, though he persuaded the
+house of commons to endorse the arrangement, rather than incur the
+dislocation of national finance and commercial business certain to ensue
+if the bank should withdraw from its connexion with the government and
+use its vast influence for its own interest alone.
+
+[Pageheading: _LEGAL REFORMS._]
+
+Two great law reforms close the series of important remedial measures
+passed in the first session of the reformed parliament--a session, be it
+remembered, which embraced all the furious and protracted debates on the
+Irish coercion act and the Irish Church temporalities act. The first of
+these was Brougham's valuable bill constituting a permanent "judicial
+committee of the privy council," and transferring to it the judicial
+functions theoretically belonging to "the king in council," but
+practically exercised by committees selected _ad hoc_ on each occasion.
+Charles Greville, to whose memoirs all historians of this period are
+greatly indebted, and who in 1833 was clerk of the council, was inclined
+to disparage the proposed change as one of Brougham's fanciful projects,
+designed to gratify his own self-importance.[116] Even Greville,
+however, saw reason to modify his view, and the new court has ever since
+commanded general respect, except from those high Churchmen who resented
+its assumption of the appellate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes,
+formerly vested, along with a similar jurisdiction in admiralty causes,
+in the king in chancery, and exercised by a "court of delegates,"
+usually consisting of three common law judges and three or four
+civilians selected _ad hoc_.
+
+The essential defects of such a court were fully stated in the report of
+a very strong commission, including six bishops, appointed in 1830.
+Probably the expediency of reforming the jurisdiction of the privy
+council for the purpose of hearing these ecclesiastical appeals may have
+suggested to Brougham the idea of constructing a standing appellate
+tribunal within the privy council, for the purpose of hearing all
+appeals that might come before that body. Accordingly, after carrying a
+bill in 1832 whereby the privy council, as such, took over the powers of
+the "court of delegates," he introduced the general bill whereby the
+judicial committee was created, and under which it still acts. It was to
+consist of the lord chancellor, with the present and past holders of
+certain high judicial offices, and two privy councillors to be
+appointed by the sovereign; to whom prelates, being privy councillors,
+were to be added for ecclesiastical appeals. The system thus founded,
+and since developed, is capable of indefinite expansion, in case still
+closer relations should be established between Great Britain and the
+colonies.
+
+The act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, though scarcely
+intelligible except to lawyers, was a masterpiece not only of
+draughtsmanship, but of honest law amendment. It swept away grotesque
+and antiquated forms of conveyance, which had lost their meaning for
+centuries, and which nothing but professional self-interest kept alive.
+Had it been followed up by legislation in a like spirit on other
+departments of law, the profits of lawyers and the needless expenses of
+clients might have been reduced to an extent of which the unlearned
+public has no conception. As it was, it simplified the process of
+selling land in a remarkable degree, though it left untouched the
+complications of title and transfer affecting real property, which no
+lord chancellor since Brougham has been courageous enough to attack in
+earnest, and which remain the distinctive reproach of English law. It is
+not without shame that we read in the king's prorogation speech,
+delivered on August 29, 1833, the assurance that he will heartily
+co-operate with parliament in making justice easily accessible to all
+his subjects. He adds that, with this view, a commission has been issued
+"for digesting into one body the enactments of the criminal law, and for
+inquiring how far, and by what means, a similar process may be extended
+to the other branches of jurisprudence". Seventy years have since
+elapsed, yet this royal promise of codification is not even in course of
+fulfilment. On the other hand, Brougham's scheme for establishing local
+courts in certain parts of the kingdom was destined to bear ample fruit
+in the next reign. It was described by Eldon as "a most abominable
+bill," and, being generally opposed by the law lords, was rejected by a
+small majority, but it was the germ of the county courts, which have
+since done so much to bring justice within the reach and the means of
+poor suitors.
+
+Notwithstanding its legislative exploits, the whig government was
+declining in popularity at the end of 1833, and was beginning to
+discover how vain it is to rely on political gratitude. Other reforming
+governments have since undergone the same bitter experience, the causes
+of which are by no means obscure. No reform can be effected without
+"harassing interests," and the sense of resentment in the sections of
+the community thus harassed is far stronger and more efficacious than
+any appreciation of the benefits reaped by the general public at home,
+or by mankind at large. Again, the expectations excited by the agitation
+of such a question as parliamentary reform are far beyond the power of
+any legislature to satisfy. Grey and his colleagues were too well aware
+of this, and Stanley, for one, manfully championed the government
+measures on their own merits, disdaining to flatter the radicals, but
+his discretion was not equal to his valour, and every debate brought
+into stronger relief the more statesmanlike capacity and moderation of
+Peel. There was no tory reaction, but a growing distrust of heroic
+remedies for national disorders, and a growing faith in the possible
+development of a liberal policy in a conservative spirit. Even the Duke
+of Wellington found himself restored insensibly to popular favour, and
+was again received in the streets with marks of public respect.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S THIRD BUDGET._]
+
+Of all the ministers, no one enjoyed a greater share of confidence both
+in and out of parliament than Althorp. He was not a great financier, but
+he was an honest and prudent chancellor of the exchequer, a free-trader
+by conviction, and incapable of those artifices by which a plausible
+balance-sheet may be made out at the cost of future liabilities. Yet his
+budgets of 1831, 1832, and 1833 undoubtedly helped to shake the credit
+of the government. The first had been far too ambitious, and became
+almost futile, when the proposed tax on transfers was abandoned, and the
+timber duties left undisturbed. The second was modest enough, and was
+saved from damaging criticism by the absorbing interest of the reform
+bill. Considerable reductions were made in the estimates, the revenue
+yielded somewhat more than had been expected, and Althorp was enabled to
+present a favourable account in 1833. He anticipated a surplus of about
+a million and a half, out of which he was prepared to abolish certain
+vexatious duties and to decrease others. But the country gentlemen,
+headed by Ingilby, member for Lincolnshire, insisted on a reduction of
+the malt duty by one-half, while the borough members, headed by Sir John
+Key, clamoured for a repeal of the house tax and window tax. The former
+motion was actually carried against the government by a small majority,
+but its effect was annulled, and the latter motion was defeated, by a
+skilful manoeuvre. This consisted in the proposal by Althorp of a
+counter-resolution, declaring that, if half of the malt tax and the
+whole tax on windows and houses were to be taken off, it would be
+necessary to meet the deficiency by a general income tax. Such a
+prospect was equally alarming to the landed interest and the
+householders, whose rival demands were mutually destructive, the result
+being that Althorp's amendment was carried by a large majority, and the
+government escaped humiliation, though not without some loss of
+prestige.
+
+It was perhaps to be expected that private members in the first session
+of the reformed parliament should be eager to gain a hearing for their
+special projects of improvement. So it was, but two only of these
+projects deserved historical mention. One of these was the abortive
+attempt of Attwood, the radical member for Birmingham, to reverse the
+policy of 1819 by inducing parliament to initiate the return to a paper
+currency. Cobbett actually followed up this failure by moving for an
+address praying the king to dismiss Sir Robert Peel from his councils, a
+motion defeated by a majority of 295 to 4.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] _The Croker Papers_, ii., 198.
+
+[111] Mahon to Peel (Jan, 8, 1833), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 209.
+
+[112] Jan. 3, 1833, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 213.
+
+[113] Peel to Croker (Sept. 28, 1833), _ibid._, p. 224.
+
+[114] Russell, _Recollections and Suggestions_, p. 113.
+
+[115] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 212-16.
+
+[116] Greville, _Memoirs_, ii., 364, 365.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+                RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+
+The year 1833, so fruitful in legislation, may be said to have witnessed
+the birth of a religious movement which has profoundly affected the
+character of the national Church. The neo-catholic revival, which
+afterwards took its popular name from Pusey but drew its chief
+inspiration from Newman, was in a great degree the outcome of the reform
+act and a reaction against the more than Erastian tendencies of the
+reformed parliament. In the early part of the century, as we have seen,
+personal and practical religion was mainly represented by the
+evangelical or low Church party, which did admirable service in the
+cause of philanthropy, as well as in reclaiming the masses from
+heathenism. The high Church party was comparatively inactive, but
+co-operated with its rival in opposition to catholic emancipation. The
+clergy, as a body, were hostile to reform, and the bishops incurred the
+fiercest obloquy by voting against the first reform bill, which had
+unfortunately been rejected by a majority exactly corresponding with the
+number of their votes.[117] The democratic outcry against the Church
+became louder and louder, as the evils of nepotism, pluralism, and
+sinecurism were exposed to public criticism, and a growing disposition
+was shown to deal with Church endowments both in England and in Ireland,
+if not as the property of the state, yet as under its paramount control.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT._]
+
+The recent infusion of Irish Roman catholics into the house of commons,
+following that of Scotch presbyterians a century earlier, rendered it
+less and less fit, in the opinion of high Churchmen, to legislate for
+the Church of England, and every concession to religious liberty shocked
+them as a step towards "National Apostasy". This was, in fact, the
+impressive title of a sermon preached by John Keble, in July, 1833,
+before the university of Oxford. From this sermon Newman himself dated
+the origin of the Oxford or "Tractarian" movement, but its inward source
+lay deeper. Having lost all confidence in the state and even in the
+Anglican hierarchy as a creature of the state, a section of the clergy
+had already been looking about for another basis of authority, and had
+found it in theories of apostolical succession and Church organisation.
+The university of Oxford was a natural centre for such a reaction, and
+it was set on foot with the deliberate purpose of defending the Church
+and the Christianity of England against the anti-catholic aggressions of
+the dominant liberalism. It was not puritanism but liberal secularism
+which Newman always denounced as the arch-enemy of the catholic faith.
+For, as Wesley's sympathies were originally with high Church doctrines,
+so Newman's sympathies were originally with evangelical doctrines, nor
+were they ever entirely stifled by his ultimate secession to the Roman
+Church.
+
+The later development of this movement, which had its cradle in the
+common room of Oriel College, belongs rather to ecclesiastical history,
+and to the reign of Queen Victoria. But from the first it rallied a
+considerable body of support. Many who were not influenced by the
+movement, shared its earlier aspirations. Shortly after the formation of
+an association, under Newman and Keble's auspices, seven or eight
+thousand of the clergy signed an address to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, insisting upon the necessity of restoring Church discipline,
+maintaining Church principles, and checking the progress of
+latitudinarianism. A large section of the laity ranged themselves on the
+side of the revival, and meetings were held throughout England. The king
+himself volunteered a declaration of his strong affection for the
+national Church now militant, and prepared to assert itself, not merely
+as a true branch of the catholic Church, but as a co-ordinate power with
+the state. In the autumn of 1833, Newman and one of his colleagues
+launched the first of that series of tracts from which his followers
+derived the familiar name of Tractarians. From that day he was their
+recognised leader, yet he claimed no allegiance and issued no commands.
+He felt himself, not the creator of a new party, but a loyal son of the
+old Church, at last awakened from her lethargy. The spell which he
+exercised over so many young minds was due to a personal influence of
+which he was almost unconscious, but which spread from the pulpit of St.
+Mary's Church and his college rooms at Oriel over a great part of the
+university and the Church. It was broken some years later, when he gave
+up the _via media_ which he had so long been advocating, accepted the
+logical consequences of his own teaching, and reproached others for not
+discovering that Anglicanism was but a pale and deformed counterfeit of
+the primitive Christianity represented, in its purity, by the Church of
+Rome.
+
+Looking back at this movement across an interval of seventy years, we
+may well feel astonished that it satisfied the aspirations of
+inquisitive minds in contact with the ideas of their own times. For this
+was the age of Benthamism in social philosophy and "German neology" in
+biblical criticism. Though national education was in its infancy, a new
+desire for knowledge, and even a free-thinking spirit, was permeating
+the middle classes, and had gained a hold among the more intelligent of
+the artisans. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
+established by Brougham, circulated a mass of instructive and
+stimulating literature at a cheap rate; popular magazines and
+cyclopædias were multiplying yearly; and the British Association, which
+held its first meeting at Oxford in 1832, brought the results of natural
+science within the reach of thousands and tens of thousands incapable of
+scientific research. The _Bridgwater Treatises_, which belong to the
+reign of William IV., are evidence of a widespread anxiety to reconcile
+the claims and conclusions of science with those of the received
+theology. Thoughtful and religious laymen in the higher ranks of society
+were earnestly seeking a reason for the faith that was in them, and
+pondering over fundamental problems like the personality of God, the
+divinity of Christ, the reality of supernatural agency, and the awful
+mystery of the future life. Yet the tractarians passed lightly over all
+these problems, to exercise themselves and others with disputations on
+points which to most laymen of their time appeared comparatively
+trivial.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH._]
+
+To them Church authority was supreme, and every catholic dogma a
+self-evident truth. What engrossed their reason and consciences was the
+discussion of questions affecting Church authority, for example, whether
+the Anglican Church possessed the true note of catholicity or was in a
+state of schism, whether its position in Christendom was not on a par
+with that of the monophysite heretics, whether its articles could be
+brought into conformity with the Roman catholic doctrines expressly
+condemned by them, or whether its alliance with Lutheranism in the
+appointment of a bishop for Jerusalem did not amount to ecclesiastical
+suicide. Their message, unlike that of the early Christian or methodist
+preachers, was for the priestly order, and not for the masses of the
+people; their appeals were addressed _ad clerum_ not _ad populum_; still
+less were they suited to influence scientific intellects. But their
+propaganda was carried on by men of intense earnestness and holy lives,
+few in number but strong in well-organised combination, and they carried
+with them for a time many to whom any "movement" seemed better than
+lifeless "high and dry" conformity. Herein consisted the secret of their
+early success. Their subsequent failure was inevitable when they were
+fairly confronted with protestant sentiment and with the independent
+spirit of the age. How their aims were taken up and partially realised
+in a new form by new leaders and through new methods, is an inquiry
+which must be reserved for a later chapter in the history of the English
+Church.
+
+The strange religious movement which resulted in the foundation of the
+so-called Catholic Apostolic Church was of somewhat earlier date, and
+its author had already been disavowed as a minister by the presbyterian
+Church before the _Tracts for the Times_ began to startle the religious
+world. The most brilliant part of Edward Irving's career falls within
+the reign of George IV., when his chapel in London was crowded by the
+fashionable world, and even attended occasionally by statesmen like
+Canning. According to all contemporary testimony he was among the most
+remarkable of modern preachers, and his visionary speculations in the
+field of biblical prophecy failed to repel hearers attracted by his
+wonderful religious enthusiasm. Compared with the adherents of the
+methodist or of the neo-catholic revival, his followers were a mere
+handful, and his name would scarcely merit a place in history but for
+the impression which he made upon men of high ability and position. What
+brought him into discredit with his own communion and with the public
+was his introduction into his services of fanatics professing the gift
+of speaking with "unknown tongues". These extravagances led to his
+deposition in 1832, and probably hastened his early death in 1834. But
+his creed did not die with him, and a small body of earnest believers
+has carried on into the twentieth century a definite tradition of the
+gospel which he taught.
+
+Far deeper and more lasting in its effects was the change wrought in
+current ideas by the almost unseen but steady advance of science in all
+its branches. During this epoch perhaps the most formidable enemy of
+orthodoxy was the rising study of geology, challenging, as it did, the
+traditional theories of creation. The discoveries of astronomy--the law
+of gravitation, the rotation of the earth, its place in the solar
+system, and, above all, the infinite compass of the universe--were in
+themselves of a nature to revolutionise theological beliefs more
+radically than any conclusions respecting the antiquity of the earth.
+But it may be doubted whether it was so in fact; at all events,
+theologians had slowly learned to harmonise their doctrines with the
+conception of immeasurable space, when they were suddenly required to
+admit the conception of immeasurable time, and staggered under the blow.
+The pioneers of English geology were careful to avoid shocking religious
+opinion, and Buckland devotes a chapter of his famous _Treatise on
+Geology_ to showing "the consistency of geological discoveries with
+sacred history". His explanation is that an undefined interval may have
+elapsed after the creation of the heaven and the earth "in the
+beginning" as recorded in the first verse of Genesis; and he rejects as
+opposed to geological evidence "the derivation of existing systems of
+organic life, by an eternal succession, from preceding individuals of
+the same species, or by gradual transmutation of one species into
+another". But speculations of this order were utterly ignored by such
+religious leaders as Newman and Irving, whose spiritual fervour, however
+apostolical in its influence on the hearts of their disciples, was
+confined within the narrowest circle of intellectual interests.
+
+[Pageheading: _POOR LAW._]
+
+The great event of parliamentary history in 1834, and the crowning
+achievement of the first reformed parliament, was the enactment of the
+"new poor law," as it was long called. No measure of modern times so
+well represents the triumph of reason over prejudice; none has been so
+carefully based on thorough inquiry and the deliberate acceptance of
+sound principles; none has so fully stood the conclusive test of
+experience. It is not too much to say that it was essentially a product
+of the reform period, and could scarcely have been carried either many
+years earlier or many years later. In the dark age which followed the
+great war, contempt for political economy, coupled with a weak sentiment
+of humanity, would have made it impossible for a far-sighted treatment
+of national pauperism and distress to obtain a fair hearing. After the
+introduction of household suffrage, and the growth of socialism, any
+resolute attempt to diminish the charge upon ratepayers for the
+immediate relief but ultimate degradation of the struggling masses would
+have met with the most desperate resistance from the new democracy. The
+philosophical whigs and radicals, trained in the school of Bentham, and
+untainted as yet by a false philanthropy, found themselves in possession
+of an opportunity which might never have recurred. They deserved the
+gratitude of posterity by using it wisely and courageously.
+
+The irregular development of the poor laws, from the act of Elizabeth
+down to that of 1834, belongs to economic rather than to general
+history. It is enough to say here that in later years, and especially
+since the system of allowances adopted by the Berkshire magistrates at
+Speenhamland in 1795 had become general, the original policy of
+relieving only the destitute and helpless, and compelling able-bodied
+men to earn their own living, had been entirely obscured by the
+intrusion of other ideas. The result was admirably described in the
+report of a commission, appointed in 1832, with the most comprehensive
+powers of investigation and recommendation. The commissioners were the
+Bishops of London (Blomfield) and Chester (Sumner), Sturges Bourne,
+Edwin Chadwick, and four others less known, but well versed in the
+questions to be considered. A summary of the information collected by
+them, ranging over the whole field of poor-law management, was published
+in February, 1834. It astounded the benighted public of that day, and it
+still remains on record as a wonderful revelation of ruinous official
+infatuation on the largest possible scale. The evil system was found to
+be almost universal, but the worst examples of it were furnished by the
+southern counties of England. There, an actual premium was set upon
+improvidence, if not on vice, by the wholesale practice of giving
+out-door relief in aid of wages, and in proportion to the number of
+children in the family, legitimate or illegitimate. The excuse was that
+it was better to eke out scanty earnings by doles than to break up
+households, and bring all their inmates into the workhouse. The
+inevitable effect of such action was that wages fell as doles increased,
+that paupers so pensioned were preferred by the farmers to independent
+labourers because their labour was cheaper, and that independent
+labourers, failing to get work except at wages forced down to a minimum,
+were constantly falling into the ranks of pauperism.
+
+Had some theorists of a later generation witnessed the social order then
+prevailing in country districts, they would have found several of their
+favourite objects practically attained. There was no competition between
+the working people; old and young, skilled and unskilled hands, the
+industrious and the idle, were held worthy of equal reward, the actual
+allowance to each being measured by his need and not by the value of his
+work; while the parochial authorities, figuring as an earthly
+providence, exercised a benevolent superintendence over the welfare and
+liberty of every day-labourer in the village community. The fruits of
+that superintendence were the decline of a race of freemen into a race
+of slaves, unconscious of their slavery, and the gradual ruin of the
+landlords and farmers upon whom the maintenance of these slaves
+depended.[118]
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW POOR LAW._]
+
+The evidence laid before the commissioners not only showed how
+intolerable the evil had become in many counties, but also how purely
+artificial it was. While the aggregate amount of the poor rate had risen
+to more than eight millions and a half, while some parishes were going
+out of cultivation and in others the rates exceeded the rental, there
+were certain oases in the desert of agricultural distress where
+comparative prosperity still reigned. These were villages in which an
+enlightened squire or parson had set himself to strike at the root of
+pauperism, and to initiate local reforms in the poor-law system. It was
+clearly found that, where out-door relief was abolished or rigorously
+limited, where no allowances were made in aid of wages, and where a
+manly self-reliance was encouraged instead of a servile mendicity, wages
+rose, honest industry revived, and the whole character of the village
+population was improved. Fortified by these successful experiments, the
+commissioners took a firm stand on the vital distinction, previously
+ignored, between poverty and pauperism. They did not shrink from
+recommending that, after a certain date, "the workhouse test" should be
+enforced against all able-bodied applicants for relief, except in the
+form of medical attendance, and even that women should be compelled to
+support their illegitimate children. They also advised a liberal change
+in the complicated and oppressive system of "parish settlement," whereby
+the free circulation of labour was constricted. They further proposed a
+very large reform in the administrative machinery of the poor laws, by
+the formation of parishes into unions, the concentration of workhouses,
+the separation of the sexes in workhouses, and, above all, the creation
+of a central poor-law board, to consist of three commissioners, and to
+control the whole system about to be transformed.
+
+A bill framed upon these lines, and remedying some minor abuses, was
+introduced by Althorp on April 17, having been foreshadowed in the
+speech from the throne, and carefully matured by the cabinet. So wide
+and deep was the conviction of the necessity for some radical treatment
+of an intolerable evil that party spirit was quelled for a while, and
+the bill met with a very favourable reception, especially as its
+operation was limited to five years. It passed the second reading by a
+majority of 299 to 20 on May 9, notwithstanding a violent protest from
+De Lacy Evans, an ultra-radical, who had displaced Hobhouse at
+Westminster. The keynote of the radical agitation which followed was
+given by his declaration that "the cessation of out-door relief would
+lead to a revolution in the country," and by Cobbett's denunciation of
+the "poor man robbery bill". The _Times_ newspaper, already a great
+political force, took up the same cry, and had not Peel, with admirable
+public spirit, thrown his weight into the scale of sound economy, a
+formidable coalition between extremists on both sides might have been
+organised. He stood firm, however; radicals like Grote declined to
+barter principle for popularity, and the bill emerged almost unscathed
+from committee in the house of commons. It passed its third reading on
+July 2 by a majority of 157 to 50. Peel's example was followed by
+Wellington in the house of lords, and Brougham delivered one of his most
+powerful speeches in support of the measure. With some modification of
+the bastardy clauses and other slighter amendments it was carried by a
+large majority, and received the royal assent on August 4.
+
+No other piece of legislation, except the repeal of the corn laws, has
+done so much to rescue the working classes of Great Britain from the
+misery entailed by twenty years of war. Its effect in reducing the rates
+was immediate; its effect in raising the character of the agricultural
+poor was not very long deferred. Happily for them, though not for the
+farmers, bread was cheap for two years after it came into force. Still,
+the sudden cessation of doles and pensions in aid of wages could not but
+work great hardship to individuals in thousands of rural parishes, and
+there was perhaps too little disposition on the part of the
+commissioners to allow any temporary relaxation of the system. The
+rigorous enforcement of the workhouse test, and the harsh management of
+workhouses, continued for years to shock the charitable sensibilities of
+the public, and actually produced some local riots. When the price of
+bread rose the clamour naturally increased, and petitions multiplied
+until a committee was appointed in 1837 to review the operation of the
+act. In the end the committee found, as might have been expected, that,
+however painful the state of transition, the change had permanently
+improved the condition of the poor in England.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUESTION OF APPROPRIATION._]
+
+While the bill was still in the house of commons the ministry which
+framed it was torn by dissensions; before it came on for its second
+reading in the lords Grey had ceased to be premier. The disruption of
+his government had been foreseen for months, but it was directly caused
+by hopeless discord on Irish policy. Anglesey had been forced by
+ill-health to resign the vice-royalty, and the Marquis Wellesley, who
+succeeded him, was more acceptable to Irish nationalists. But the king's
+speech at the opening of the session contained a stern condemnation of
+the repeal movement. O'Connell at once declared war, and the angry
+feelings of his followers were inflamed by a personal and public quarrel
+between Althorp and Sheil. Another incident, in itself trivial,
+disclosed the discord prevailing in the cabinet on Irish affairs, and,
+though O'Connell was defeated on a motion against the union by a
+crushing majority of 523 to 38, the disturbed state of Ireland continued
+to distract the ministerial councils. The ingenious devices of Stanley
+and Littleton for solving the insoluble Irish tithe question had proved
+almost abortive; the government officials employed to collect tithe were
+almost as powerless to do so as the old tithe-proctors, and a new
+proposal to convert tithe into a land tax was naturally ridiculed by
+O'Connell as delusive. He made a speech so conciliatory in its tone as
+to startle the house, but no words, however smooth, could now conjure
+away the irreconcilable difference of purpose between those who regarded
+Church property as sacred and those who regarded it not only as at the
+disposal of the state, but as hitherto unjustly monopolised by a single
+religious communion. It was reserved for Lord John Russell to "upset the
+coach" by openly declaring his adhesion to "appropriation," in the sense
+of diverting to other objects, secular or otherwise, such revenues of
+the established Church as were not strictly required for the benefit of
+its own members. After this act of mutiny against the collective
+authority of the cabinet Grey's ministry was doomed.
+
+Its ruin was consummated by a motion of Henry Ward, member for St.
+Albans, which expressly affirmed the right of the state to regulate the
+distribution of Church property and the expediency of reducing the Irish
+establishment. This motion was supposed to have been instigated by
+Durham, who had never been loyal to his colleagues. The government was
+notoriously divided upon it; Brougham suggested a commission of inquiry,
+by way of compromise; other ministerialists were in favour of meeting
+the difficulty by moving the previous question. Peel was prepared to
+support the conservative section of the government, and deprecated in
+strong terms "all manoeuvring, all coquetting with radicals" in order
+to snatch a temporary party triumph.[119]
+
+Ward's resolution was introduced on May 27, 1834, and seconded by Grote,
+but Althorp, instead of replying, announced the receipt of sudden news
+so important that he induced the house to adjourn the debate. This news
+was the resignation of Stanley, Graham, Richmond, and Ripon, whose views
+on appropriation, as afterwards appeared, were shared by Lansdowne and
+Spring Rice. The ministry was reconstructed by the accession of Lord
+Conyngham as postmaster-general, without a seat in the cabinet, and of
+Lord Auckland, son of Sidmouth's colleague, as first lord of the
+admiralty, by the appointment of Carlisle (already in the cabinet) to be
+lord privy seal, and the substitution of Spring Rice for Stanley at the
+colonial office. Edward Ellice, the secretary at war, was included in
+the cabinet, and James Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, a son of
+the famous general, Sir Ralph Abercromby, became master of the mint with
+a seat in the cabinet. Poulett Thomson became president of the board of
+trade, and minor offices were assigned to Francis Baring, and other whig
+recruits. Grey himself, sick of nominal power, was dissuaded with
+difficulty from retiring; Althorp, conscious of failing authority, was
+retained in his post only by a high sense of duty. Unfortunately, he was
+very soon entangled by his colleague Littleton in something like an
+intrigue with O'Connell, which precipitated the final resignation of
+Grey together with his own temporary secession.
+
+The details of this affair may be passed over in a few words. What is
+clear is that Brougham and Littleton, without the knowledge of Grey, had
+persuaded Lord Wellesley, as viceroy of Ireland, not to insist on a
+renewal of the coercion act in its full severity, and especially to
+sanction an abandonment of clauses suppressing public meetings. Having
+obtained Wellesley's consent behind the backs of Grey and the rest of
+the cabinet, Littleton with the cognisance of Althorp, proceeded to
+bargain with O'Connell for an abatement, at least, of his opposition to
+all coercion. The cabinet as a body declined to ratify any such
+agreement, O'Connell denounced Littleton as having played a trick upon
+him, and Althorp, disdaining to advocate provisions which he was almost
+pledged in honour to drop, resigned his office and the leadership of the
+commons. Grey, who could not have remained in office without the support
+of Althorp's great popularity in the commons, at once resolved to follow
+his example, and on July 9 took leave of political life in a dignified
+and pathetic speech. As for Ward's motion, the original cause of Grey's
+desertion by Stanley and his subsequent fall, it had been rejected by an
+enormous majority in favour of "the previous question" before Althorp's
+disappearance from his old position. Meanwhile Stanley availed himself
+of his liberty to make one of his most dashing but least prudent
+speeches, and permanently compromised his reputation for
+statesmanship.[120]
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+No other whig possessed the prestige derived by Grey from nearly fifty
+years of consistent public service. Althorp commanded an extraordinary
+degree of confidence in the house of commons and the country, but his
+intellectual capacity was not of the highest order, and many expected
+that Peel might receive a summons from the king, whose sympathy with the
+whigs, never very deep, had given place to mistrust. His choice,
+however, fell upon Melbourne, whom he desired, if possible, to form a
+coalition with Peel, Wellington, and Stanley against the radicals. But
+neither Melbourne nor Peel would accept such a coalition, and they both
+showed their wisdom in declining it. The king then empowered Melbourne
+to patch up the whig ministry. In deference to a requisition signed by
+liberals of all sections, Althorp was induced to withdraw his
+resignation, and resumed his leadership in the commons with no apparent
+diminution of popularity. Duncannon, who was created a peer, succeeded
+Melbourne at the home office; Lord Mulgrave, son of the first earl,
+became lord privy seal in place of Carlisle; and Hobhouse entered the
+cabinet as first commissioner of woods and forests. The rest of the
+session was mainly spent in discussing the budget and the two Irish
+questions which for so many years were the curse of English politics. A
+surplus of two millions enabled Althorp to propitiate an importunate
+class of taxpayers by repealing the house tax.
+
+It would have been more statesmanlike to repeal the window tax or reduce
+indirect taxation, but relief was given, as usual, to those who raised
+the loudest clamour, and the vindication of sound finance was reserved
+for a conservative administration. A second and milder Irish coercion
+bill was carried by a large majority, with the fatal proviso, which has
+marred the effect of so many later measures, that it should continue in
+operation for a year only. A far more serious conflict arose on the new
+Irish tithe bill. A complicated plan had been proposed whereby
+four-fifths of the tithe would have been ostensibly secured to the
+church by conversion into a rent-charge, the remaining fifth being
+sacrificed for the sake of peace and security. O'Connell succeeded in
+inducing the house of commons to adopt a counter-plan, of a very
+sweeping nature, whereby two-fifths of the existing tithe would have
+been abandoned, and the tithe owner partly compensated out of the
+revenues of suppressed bishoprics, aided by a state grant. The bill thus
+amended was rejected by a majority of 189 to 122 in the house of lords.
+Peel still cherished the idea of settling the question by a system of
+voluntary commutation, but, after the peremptory action of the lords, no
+compromise was likely to be acceptable, and there is some ground for the
+opinion that in that division the Irish Church establishment received
+its death-blow.
+
+On August 15 parliament was prorogued, and the belief of Peel in the
+stability of the government may be inferred from the fact that he left
+England for Italy on October 14. During the vacation, however, two
+incidents occurred, trivial in themselves, but pregnant with important
+consequences. One of these was Brougham's triumphant progress through
+Scotland, where he was enthusiastically received as the saviour of his
+country, and assumed the air of one who not only kept the king's
+conscience but controlled the royal will. The story of this famous tour
+exhibits alike the greatness of his powers and the littleness of his
+character.[121] The homage paid to him was not undeserved, for he was
+assuredly the foremost gladiator of the whig party, and had given proofs
+of more varied ability than any living politician or lawyer. But the
+dignified eloquence of which he was capable on rare occasions was here
+submerged in a flood of egotistical rhetoric, which carried him away so
+far that he assumed a political independence which his colleagues deeply
+resented, and even spoke of the king in a tone of patronage. Having
+lowered himself in public opinion by these speeches, especially at
+Inverness and Aberdeen, he attended a banquet in honour of Grey at
+Edinburgh, where he provoked a passage at arms with Durham. The press,
+and especially the _Times_ newspaper, which had formerly loaded him with
+extravagant praises, now turned against him, and ridiculed him as a
+political mountebank. But his worst enemy was the king. William IV.'s
+ill-concealed impatience of whig dictation had at last been quickened
+into disgust by this and other sources of irritation, when the sudden
+death of Althorp's father, Earl Spencer, on November 10, gave him an
+opportunity which he eagerly seized.
+
+[Pageheading: _DESTRUCTION OF HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT._]
+
+By a strange fatality, this event almost coincided with the destruction
+by fire of the houses of parliament on October 16. This calamity was the
+result of a carelessness, which it is easy to condemn after the event on
+the part of some subordinate officials and the workmen employed by them.
+Down to 1826, accounts had been kept at the exchequer by means of wooden
+tallies, which were stored in what was called the tally-room of the
+exchequer. This room was required in order to provide temporary
+accommodation for the court of bankruptcy, and an order was given to
+destroy the tallies. The officials charged with the task decided to burn
+them in the stoves of the house of lords, and the work of burning began
+at half-past six in the morning of October 16. The work, hazardous in
+any case, was conducted by the workmen with a rapidity that their orders
+did not justify; the flues used for warming the house were overheated,
+and though the burning of the tallies was completed between four and
+five, the woodwork near the flues must have smouldered till it burst
+into flame about half-past six in the evening. In less than half an hour
+the house of lords was a mass of fire. About eight a change in the wind
+threw the flames upon the house of commons. That house was almost
+completely destroyed. The walls of the house of lords and of the painted
+chamber remained standing, while the house of lords library, the
+parliament offices, and Westminster Hall escaped. The king offered the
+parliament the use of Buckingham Palace, but it was found possible to
+fit up the house of lords for the commons and the painted chamber for
+the lords. When the legislature reassembled on February 9, 1835, a
+conservative ministry was in office, though not, indeed, in power.
+
+It is difficult for a later age to understand why the accession of
+Althorp to a peerage should have afforded even a plausible reason for a
+change of ministry. The position which Althorp held in the house of
+commons is puzzling to a later generation.[122] It is well known that
+Gladstone recorded the very highest estimate of his public services. Yet
+he was not only no orator but scarcely in the second order of speakers,
+he made no pretence of far-sighted statesmanship, he was not a
+successful financier, and he made several blunders which must have
+damaged the authority of any other man. The influence which he obtained
+in leading the unreformed as well as the reformed house of commons was
+entirely due to his character for straightforward honesty, perhaps
+enhanced by his social rank, and his reputation for possessing all the
+virtues of a country gentleman. The national preference for amateurs
+over professionals in politics, no less than in other fields of energy,
+found an admirable representative in him, and he was all the more
+popular as a political leader because it was believed that he had no
+desire to be a political leader at all. At all events, he inspired
+confidence in all, and it was no mere whim of the king which treated his
+removal from the commons to the lords as an irreparable loss to
+Melbourne's administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+It is often stated that "without a word of preparation" the king got rid
+of his whig ministers on November 14, 1834, and it must be admitted that
+he afterwards took credit to himself for their dismissal as his own
+personal act. But this view is not altogether borne out by contemporary
+evidence. A published letter, of the 12th, from Melbourne to the king
+shows that, as premier, he took the initiative in representing that,
+whereas "the government in its present form was mainly founded upon the
+personal weight and influence possessed by Earl Spencer in the house of
+commons," it was for the king to consider whether, as "that foundation
+is now withdrawn," a change of ministry was expedient.[123] It also
+appears from a letter placed by the king in Melbourne's hands that a
+"very confidential conversation" took place between them at Brighton, in
+consequence of which the king resolved to send for Wellington.[124] In
+the course of this conversation Melbourne informed the king that, in the
+opinion of the cabinet, Lord John Russell should be selected for the
+leadership of the house of commons. The king, incensed by Lord John's
+action on the Irish Church question, would not hear of this arrangement,
+especially as he thought Lord John "otherwise unequal to the task," and
+disparaged the claims of other possible candidates.[125] He also
+strongly resented the recent conduct of Brougham. In the end, he parted
+kindly and courteously from Melbourne, who actually undertook to convey
+the king's summons to Wellington. Another memorandum by the king, of the
+same date, proves that a fear of further encroachments on the church was
+really uppermost in his mind, and that he anticipated, not without
+reason, "a schism in the cabinet" on this very subject.[126]
+
+Wellington acted with his customary promptitude, and with his customary
+obedience to what he regarded as a call of public duty. A certain degree
+of mistrust had existed between him and Peel, arising, in part, out of
+circumstances preceding the duke's election to the chancellorship of
+Oxford University. This suspension of cordiality had now passed away,
+and Wellington strongly urged the king to entrust Peel, then at Rome,
+with the formation of a new government. Hudson, afterwards known as Sir
+James Hudson, delivered the despatch recalling him on the night of the
+25th. Peel started from Rome on the 26th and, travelling with a speed
+then considered marvellous, reached Dover within twelve days on the
+night of December 8. He was in London on the 9th, and, without
+consulting any one else, immediately placed his services at the king's
+disposal. In the meantime, Wellington had stepped into the gap, and
+actually held all the secretaryships of state in his own hands, pending
+the arrival of Peel.
+
+The king had been encouraged to hustle his ministers unceremoniously out
+of office by a paragraph which appeared in the _Times_ of November 15.
+On the previous evening Brougham had been informed by Melbourne in
+confidence that the king had accepted his suggestion of resignation, and
+he carried the news to the _Times_, which, without giving Brougham's
+name, published his message in his own words. It stated that the king
+had turned out the ministry, and ended with the words: "The queen has
+done it all". After this the king was determined to be done with his
+ministers as quickly as possible. It is certain that neither Wellington
+nor Peel wished to be thought responsible for their dismissal, the
+propriety of which they both secretly doubted. The king, however, had
+acted within his strict rights, and the outgoing ministers, as a whole,
+were not ill pleased to be relieved from the burdens of office.
+
+Peel, though by no means hopeful of ultimate success, endeavoured to
+construct a cabinet on a comprehensive basis. He first obtained the
+king's "ready assent" to his inviting the co-operation of Stanley, who
+had succeeded to the courtesy title of Lord Stanley, and Sir James
+Graham. These overtures were declined in friendly terms, and both
+promised independent support. But Stanley explicitly declared that, in
+his judgment, "the sudden conversion of long political opposition into
+the most intimate alliance would shock public opinion, would be ruinous
+to his own character," and would rather injure than strengthen the new
+government.[127] After this failure, Peel felt his task well-nigh
+hopeless, and though he spared no effort to procure an infusion of fresh
+blood, he complained that after all "it would be only the duke's old
+cabinet".[128] There was, in fact, no man of known ability in it, except
+himself, the Duke of Wellington (as secretary for foreign affairs), and
+Lyndhurst, the chancellor; for the capacity of Aberdeen, who had been
+foreign secretary under Wellington, and who now became secretary for war
+and the colonies, and Ellenborough, who returned to the board of
+control, had not yet been generally recognised. Peel himself became
+first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer; Goulburn was
+home secretary, Rosslyn lord president, and Wharncliffe lord privy seal.
+Earl de Grey, elder brother of the Earl of Ripon, was made first lord of
+the admiralty, Murray became master-general of the ordnance, Alexander
+Baring president of the board of trade and master of the mint, Herries
+secretary at war, and Sir Edward Knatchbull paymaster of the forces. It
+was fully understood that a conservative government, even purged of
+ultra-tory elements, could not face the first reformed house of commons,
+and the dissolution which took place at the end of the year had been
+regarded by all as inevitable.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TAMWORTH MANIFESTO._]
+
+In anticipation of this event, Peel issued an address to his
+constituents which became celebrated as the "Tamworth manifesto". It is
+somewhat cumbrous in style, but it embodies with sufficient clearness
+the new conservative policy of which Peel was the real author and
+henceforth the leading exponent. It opens with an appeal to his own
+previous conduct in parliament, as showing that, while he was no
+apostate from old constitutional principles, neither was he "a defender
+of abuses," nor the enemy of "judicious reforms". In proof of this, he
+cites his action in regard to the currency and various amendments of the
+law; to which he might have added his adoption of catholic emancipation.
+He then declares, absolutely and without reserve, that he accepts the
+reform act as "a final and irrevocable settlement of a great
+constitutional question," which no friend to peace and the welfare of
+the country would seek, either directly or indirectly, to disturb. He
+approves of making "a careful review of institutions, civil and
+ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper," with a view to "the
+correction of proved abuses, and the redress of real grievances," and
+that "without mere superstitious reverence for ancient usages". He lays
+stress on his recorded assent to the principle of corporation reform,
+the substitution of a treasury grant for Church rates, the relief of
+dissenters from various civil disabilities (but not from university
+tests), the restriction of pensions (saving vested interests), the
+redistribution of Church revenues and the commutation of tithes, but so
+that no ecclesiastical property be diverted to secular uses. After these
+specific pledges, the Tamworth manifesto concludes with more general
+professions of a progressive conservatism equally removed from what are
+now called "advanced radicalism" and "tory democracy".[129] It was, of
+course, too liberal for the followers of Eldon, and was ridiculed as
+colourless by extreme reformers, but its effect on the country was
+great, and it did much to win popular confidence for the new ministry.
+If such a policy must be called opportunism, it was opportunism in its
+best form; and opportunism in its best form, under the conditions of
+party government, is not far removed from political wisdom.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] If all the bishops present had not merely abstained, but actually
+voted in favour of the measure, it would have been carried by one vote.
+
+[118] Sir George Nicholls, _History of the English Poor Law_, vol. ii.,
+see especially pp. 242, 243.
+
+[119] Peel to Goulburn (May 25, 1834), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+244.
+
+[120] Hatherton, _Memoir_; Creevey, _Memoirs_, ii., 285-88.
+
+[121] See Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 446-57.
+
+[122] Compare Walpole, _History of England_, iii., 478.
+
+[123] _Lord Melbourne's Papers_, p. 220.
+
+[124] _Ibid._, pp. 222, 223.
+
+[125] Stockmar, _Memoirs_ (English translation), i., 330.
+
+[126] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 235.
+
+[127] Stanley to Peel (Dec. 11, 1834), Peel's _Memoirs_, ii., 39, 40.
+
+[128] Croker to Mrs. Croker, _Croker Papers_, ii., 219.
+
+[129] Peel, _Memoirs_, ii., 58-67.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                           PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+
+The general election which took place in January, 1835, was hotly
+contested, and in the second reformed parliament the conservatives
+mustered far stronger than in the first. The party now consisted of some
+270 members, chiefly returned by the counties. But they were still
+outnumbered by the whigs, radicals, and Irish repealers combined, and it
+was certain that an occasion for such a combination would soon arise. It
+was found at once in the election of a speaker, when the house of
+commons met on February 9, 1835. Sutton, now Sir Charles Manners Sutton,
+was proposed for re-election by the government; the opposition candidate
+was Abercromby. The number of members who took part in the division was
+the largest ever assembled, being 622, and Abercromby was elected by a
+majority of ten. It would have been larger, had not the government been
+supported by some waverers, but its significance was appreciated by the
+ministers, and still more by the king. He expressed his displeasure in a
+very outspoken letter to Peel, declaring that, if the leaders "of the
+present factious opposition" should be forced upon him by a refusal of
+the supplies, he might, indeed, tolerate them, but could never give them
+his confidence or friendship. Two days later, the 24th, the king's
+speech was delivered, reflecting the spirit of the Tamworth
+manifesto.[130]
+
+[Pageheading: _PEEL'S POLICY._]
+
+The government was again defeated by seven on an amendment to the
+address, notwithstanding the loyal aid of Graham and Stanley, whose
+attitude during the general election had excited Peel's mistrust. In the
+course of this debate, the prime minister, abandoning his usual reserve,
+definitely pledged himself not only "to advance, soberly and cautiously,
+in the path of progressive improvement," but to bring forward specific
+measures. "I offer you," he said, "reduced estimates, improvements in
+civil jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical law, the settlement of the
+tithe question in Ireland, the commutation of tithe in England, the
+removal of any real abuse in the Church, the redress of those grievances
+of which the dissenters have any just ground to complain." Nor were
+these offers illusory or barren. On March 17, he brought in a bill to
+relieve dissenters from disabilities in respect of marriage, which met
+with general approval. It was founded on the simple principle, since
+adopted, of giving legal validity to civil marriages duly solemnised
+before a registrar, and leaving each communion to superadd a religious
+sanction in its own way. The marriages of Churchmen in a church were to
+be left on their old footing, but Churchmen were of course to be granted
+the same liberty as other citizens of contracting a purely civil
+marriage.
+
+Still more important, as examples of conservative reform, were Peel's
+efforts to purge the established Church of abuses, and to introduce a
+voluntary commutation of tithes. His correspondence amply shows how
+large a space these remedial measures occupied in his mind, and one of
+his first acts was to appoint an ecclesiastical commission, with
+instructions to institute a most comprehensive inquiry into every
+subject affecting the distribution of church revenues. Compared with the
+petty squabbles over the appropriation of an imaginary surplus to be
+derived from Irish tithes which it was impossible to collect, the
+schemes of Peel for purifying and strengthening the Church of England
+assume heroic proportions. The report of the ecclesiastical commission
+originated by him, with its startling disclosures of pluralism and
+non-residence, became the basis of legislation which has wrought a
+veritable revolution in the financial and disciplinary administration of
+the church. His tithe bill, abortive as it was in 1835, was reproduced,
+with little alteration, in the tithe commutation act of 1836.
+
+But the whig-radical allies of 1835 had not the smallest intention of
+giving Peel a fair trial; nor indeed had they any other object beyond
+the recovery of power. His appeals to his opponents, though by no means
+without effect in the country, fell upon deaf ears in the house of
+commons, and further humiliations followed rapidly. One of these was the
+successful outcry against the appointment of Londonderry, who had
+excited much hostility as an uncompromising enemy to reform, to the
+embassy at St. Petersburg, in consequence of which he, very honourably,
+relieved the government from obloquy by declining the post. A motion to
+repeal the malt tax was decisively defeated, and soon afterwards a
+motion in favour of granting a charter to the University of London was
+carried against the government by a large majority. Then came a defeat
+on a motion for adjournment, and the arts of obstruction were
+obstinately practised in debates on the estimates. At last the
+inevitable crisis arrived, and, as might be expected, the final issue
+was taken upon an Irish question.
+
+The influence of O'Connell and his "tail," as his followers were called,
+had been neutralised, since the reform act, by the overwhelming strength
+of the whigs, and the public-spirited action of Peel, who, as leader of
+the conservative opposition, actually supported the whig government in
+sixteen out of twenty most important contests on domestic policy. A very
+different spirit was now shown by the whig opposition, and an evil
+precedent, pregnant with disastrous consequences, was set by the famous
+"Lichfield House compact". This was a close alliance between O'Connell
+and those whom he had so fiercely denounced as "the base, brutal, and
+bloody whigs". It bore immediate fruit in a motion of Russell for a
+committee of the whole house to consider the temporalities of the Irish
+Church. After a debate of four nights, the resolution was carried, on
+March 30, by a majority of thirty-three. On April 5, a further
+resolution was carried by a majority of twenty-five for applying any
+surplus-funds "to the general education of all classes of the people
+without religious distinction," and was more emphatically affirmed two
+days later by a majority of twenty-seven.
+
+Peel had long been conscious of the hopelessness of his position and
+impatient of maintaining the struggle. He felt the constitutional danger
+of allowing the executive government to become a helpless instrument in
+the hands of a hostile majority in the house of commons. Nothing but the
+earnest remonstrances of the king and his tory friends, including
+Wellington, had induced him to retain office so long, and, after the
+division of the 7th, he firmly resolved to resign. On doing so, he
+received from the whole conservative party, of which he was the
+creator, a most cordial address of thanks and confidence. Though his
+short administration had consolidated the whig forces for the moment,
+and given them a new lease of power, it showed him to be the foremost
+statesman in the country, and paved the way for his triumphant return to
+office. As Guizot said, he had proved himself "the most liberal of
+conservatives, the most conservative of liberals, and the most capable
+man of all in both parties".
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S SECOND MINISTRY._]
+
+The king now discovered the fatal mistake which he had made in
+"dismissing" his whig cabinet, as he boasted, instead of waiting for it
+to break down under the stress of internal dissensions. His first idea
+was to fall back on Grey, who had already betrayed his growing mistrust
+of radicalism, but Grey declined to enter the lists again. There was no
+resource but to recall Melbourne, whom the king personally liked, and to
+put up with the elevation of Russell to a position which all admitted
+him to have fairly earned. He became home secretary, as well as leader
+of the house of commons, and the new whig cabinet differed little from
+the old. Palmerston, Lansdowne, Auckland, Thompson, and Holland returned
+to their former offices. Grant was made secretary for war and the
+colonies, Duncannon became lord privy seal, Spring Rice chancellor of
+the exchequer, Hobhouse president of the board of control, and Viscount
+Howick, son of Earl Grey, was appointed secretary at war. Outside the
+cabinet, Viscount Morpeth, son of the Earl of Carlisle, became Irish
+secretary. The most significant difference between the two cabinets lay
+in the omission of Brougham, which was effected by the expedient of
+placing the great seal in commission. This negative act was, in reality,
+the boldest and most perilous in Melbourne's political life. A
+correspondence between Brougham and Melbourne in February must have made
+clear to the ex-chancellor that he would be excluded from office, and he
+reluctantly acquiesced in Melbourne's decision, hoping that it would be
+merely temporary, and that he would soon resume his place on the
+woolsack as the dominant member of the cabinet, but his exclusion was
+destined to be final, and the close of a career to which English history
+in the nineteenth century presents no parallel.[131]
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM._]
+
+Brougham was called to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-one, having
+already given proof of brilliant ability and rare versatility at the
+University of Edinburgh. He was the youngest and most prolific of the
+original writers in the _Edinburgh Review_, then a very powerful organ
+of whig opinion, and his contributions to it ranged over some thirty
+years after its first appearance in 1802. He was already twenty-nine
+when he joined the English bar in 1808, and though he never rivalled
+Eldon as a lawyer or Scarlett as a persuasive advocate, he soon became
+an acknowledged master of the highest forensic eloquence. His fame was
+already established by his argument before parliament against the orders
+in council when he entered the house of commons in 1810. There his
+passionate oratory and power of invective made him the most formidable
+of party speakers, and it was said that Canning alone could face him on
+equal terms in debate. Except during four years, 1812-16, when he was
+out of parliament, his prodigious energy and versatility were the
+greatest intellectual force on the liberal side throughout all the
+political conflicts under the regency and the reign of George IV. His
+speeches embraced every question of foreign, colonial, or domestic
+policy, and it may truly be said that no salutary reform was carried
+during that period of which he was not either the author or the active
+promoter. The suppression of the slave-trade which had revived after the
+great war, the liberty of the press, the cause of popular
+education--these were among the almost innumerable objects, outside the
+common run of politics, and largely philanthropic, to which he devoted
+his restless mind, before it was engrossed for a while by parliamentary
+reform. There, as we have seen, he showed a moderation which had not
+been expected of him, nor is it too much to say that, both as a leader
+of the bar and as chancellor, he made good his claim to be the greatest
+of law reformers.
+
+His famous speech of February 7, 1828, had quickened the germs of many
+legal improvements carried out in a later age, and the four years of his
+chancellorship actually produced great constructive amendments of the
+law, such as the institution of the central criminal court and the
+judicial committee of the privy council. Other reforms, in bankruptcy,
+criminal law, and equity, were mainly due to his initiative, and it was
+he who originated the county courts, though his bill was recklessly
+thrown out by the house of lords on party grounds. His public life, up
+to the year 1835, was perhaps the most brilliant and the most useful of
+the century, yet it was hopelessly marred in the end by a certain
+eccentric vanity, and want of loyalty to colleagues, not inconsistent
+with the higher ambition of leaving the world better than he found it.
+For some years after his fall he retained his astounding energy, and
+even his ascendency in the house of lords, where Lyndhurst, his only
+possible rival, was astute enough to court his co-operation. Never was
+his fertility in debate more conspicuously shown than in the session of
+1835, while he was still nominally a supporter of the whig government.
+The last stage of his life, extending over more than thirty years,
+belongs to another chapter of English history; it is enough here to
+notice that, whatever his political aberrations, he continued in his
+isolation and old age to work zealously for those social reforms which
+he sincerely had at heart. The popularity which had been to him as the
+breath of life never, indeed, returned to him, and his figure no longer
+occupies a foremost place in the gallery of our statesmen, but the
+results of his noble services to humanity remain, and the memory of them
+ought not to be obscured by the sad record of his failings.
+
+The new Melbourne administration came in with unfavourable omens.
+Russell failed to secure his re-election in South Devon, but a seat was
+found for him at Stroud, and though the premier emphatically denied that
+he had made any bargain with O'Connell, the Irish people believed it.
+Accordingly, they received the whig lord-lieutenant, Mulgrave, with a
+tumultuous procession, as if his advent portended the repeal of the
+union and extinction of tithes. An attempt to solve the insoluble tithe
+question was, in fact, among the earliest efforts of the government, and
+Morpeth, as chief secretary, introduced a very reasonable measure,
+differing little, except in details, from that of his predecessor. Like
+other proposals for agrarian settlements in Ireland, it involved a
+certain sacrifice on the part of the tithe-owner for the sake of
+security, and a subsidy from the state to relieve of arrears the
+defaulting and rebellious tithe-payers. Peel stated his intention of
+supporting these provisions for commutation, if they could be separated
+from other provisions for "appropriation," coupled with them under the
+influence of political necessity rather than of sound policy. The
+proposals for appropriation were so moderate that little would have been
+lost by dropping or gained by carrying them, but, moderate as they were,
+they embodied a principle on which either party was resolved to stand or
+fall. The consequence might have been foreseen. The bill, as a whole,
+was passed in the house of commons, and even read a second time in the
+house of lords, after which the appropriation clauses were rejected in
+that assembly by a large majority. Thereupon Melbourne withdrew the
+scheme altogether. Thus a question of third-rate importance, having been
+the chronic difficulty of four Irish secretaries, was left to stand over
+for three years longer, and ultimately to be settled on the very basis
+which Stanley and Peel had accepted from the first. A greater waste of
+parliamentary time has perhaps never been recorded.
+
+[Pageheading: _MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS BILL._]
+
+The session of 1835, however, was rendered memorable by the enactment of
+one beneficent measure of the first magnitude. This measure--the
+municipal corporations act--was preceded, like the new poor law, by a
+thorough and exhaustive inquiry. A committee of the house of commons,
+followed by a commission, had been appointed in 1833. The commission
+prosecuted careful researches into the local conditions of each
+municipality, and did not conclude its labours until 1835. Its report
+laid bare not merely grotesque anomalies, but the grossest abuses of
+election and administration in boroughs ruled by small, corrupt, and
+irresponsible oligarchies which then abounded in England, and, still
+more, in Scotland.[132] The reform act had paved the way for the
+purification of such urban communities, by disfranchising the smallest
+and most venal of them, by extending the boundaries of many others, by
+enfranchising great towns which had remained outside the pale of
+representation, and by conferring the suffrage, theretofore monopolised
+by freemen and other privileged classes, on the unprivileged mass of
+ten-pound householders.
+
+The municipal corporations bill, in its ultimate form, rested on the
+same broad lines of policy. It imposed upon all boroughs, with the
+exception of the city of London and a few of minor importance, one
+constitutional form of government, identical in all its essential
+features with those which a few model boroughs already possessed. The
+governing body was to consist of a mayor, aldermen, and councillors,
+together forming a town council. The councillors were to be elected
+directly by ratepaying occupiers, with a saving for the prescriptive
+rights of existing freemen. They were to hold office for three years;
+the aldermen were to be elected by the councillors for six years, with a
+provision for retirement by rotation. The mayor was to be elected
+annually by the town council. The elementary powers of local government,
+such as the control of lighting and the constabulary force, were to be
+transferred (subject to certain exceptions) from the hands of committees
+into those of the one recognised and supreme municipal authority. Other
+clauses provided for a division of the larger boroughs into wards, for
+the abolition of exclusive trading privileges, for the public management
+of charity estates, and for the appointment, at the option of each
+borough, of a recorder, for the purposes of jurisdiction.
+
+Such were the main outlines of the great measure introduced by Russell,
+to which Peel heartily gave his adhesion. It was a natural, and almost
+necessary, sequel of the reform act, which had already broken up many
+nests of jobbery, curtailed the lucrative exercise of the elective
+franchise by freemen, and undermined the influence of those self-elected
+rulers who, in the worst boroughs, had become gangs of public thieves.
+Supported by Peel, the bill was read a second time in the house of
+commons, on June 15, without a division. Several conservative amendments
+were defeated in committee by small majorities, and the bill was sent up
+to the lords on July 21. There its fate was far different. Though
+Wellington himself was not disposed to obstruct it, he entirely failed
+to check the obstructive tactics of Lyndhurst who, on this occasion,
+outdid himself in the deliberate mutilation of a bill approved by the
+late conservative premier. Lord Campbell, no partial judge of Brougham,
+has left on record his belief that, but for his faithful and vigorous
+support, the scheme of municipal reform must have been utterly
+wrecked.[133] It was allowed to be read a second time, but with the
+full concurrence of Eldon and all the ultra-tory peers, Lyndhurst
+succeeded in pulling it to pieces in committee. For instance, one of the
+amendments imported into it perpetuated proprietary rights which it was
+a chief object of the bill to abolish; another gave aldermen a
+life-tenure of their offices; a third retained a part of the old town
+councillors on the new town councils. Proud as he was of his destructive
+exploits, as a triumph of toryism over conservatism, Lyndhurst soon
+found that he could not so lightly override the wiser counsels of Peel.
+When the lords' amendments came to be considered in the commons, Russell
+prudently advised the acceptance of the less important, and the
+disallowance of those inconsistent with the principle of the bill. He
+was followed by Peel who, professing to uphold the independence of the
+upper house, declared against the more obnoxious amendments, and
+stickled only for points which the ministry was not unwilling to
+concede. His action proved decisive. The commons stood firm on the main
+issues, and the hostile party in the lords, who had vowed to mar this
+reform, flinched at the last moment. Many of them abstained from
+attendance. Wellington and even Lyndhurst recommended concession;
+conferences took place between the houses, at which Russell played the
+part of moderator, and on September 9 the corporation bill became law,
+not in its entirety, but in all its essential features.
+
+In spite of this pacific compromise, popular feeling ran higher than
+ever against the house of lords which, under the evil influence of
+Lyndhurst, seemed bent on thwarting every liberal measure. John Roebuck,
+member for Bath, a prominent radical, who acted independently of party
+connexions, took a lead in denouncing their conduct, and went so far as
+to propose giving them a merely suspensory, instead of an absolute, veto
+on legislation. A sweeping reform in their constitution was loudly
+advocated in the press. O'Connell, exasperated by their wanton rejection
+of a Dublin police bill, spent a part of the parliamentary recess in a
+tour over the north of England and Scotland, exhausting the stores of
+his scurrilous invective in pouring contempt on the 170 tyrants who
+could dare to withstand the will of the people. But O'Connell's
+eloquence, marvellous as it was, never stirred British audiences as it
+stirred the Irish masses, and it happened that at this moment he was
+somewhat discredited by accusations of corruption afterwards proved to
+be false. The house of lords not only survived his attacks, but was
+instigated by Lyndhurst to further acts of obstruction in the following
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _COTTENHAM, LORD CHANCELLOR._]
+
+His most powerful opponent was about to disappear from the political
+scenes for the present, and in the future to be converted into an ally.
+When the great seal was entrusted to commissioners, Brougham had
+affected to regard the arrangement as a temporary makeshift to
+propitiate William IV., and hoped that he would inherit the reversion of
+the chancellorship. With this expectation he not only patronised but
+warmly supported the whig ministry in 1835. But his wayward and petulant
+egotism had set all his old colleagues against him, and Melbourne had
+made up his mind that "it was impossible to act with him". The
+interruption of legal business caused by the constant withdrawal of
+three judges from their proper duties, to act as commissioners, was
+severely criticised by the press, and Sir Edward Sugden, who had been
+lord chancellor of Ireland under Peel, published an effective pamphlet
+entitled, "What has become of the great seal?" It was thought necessary
+to appoint a new chancellor, and in January, 1836, Sir Charles Pepys,
+then master of the rolls, was raised to that dignity as Lord Cottenham.
+Foreseeing the implacable indignation of Brougham, the ministry decided
+to confer a peerage on Henry Bickersteth, the new master of the rolls,
+who became Lord Langdale, and who was supposed capable of confronting
+the ex-chancellor in debate. No expectation could have been more
+unfounded or delusive, but the sense of disappointment and desertion so
+preyed on the health and nerves of Brougham that he forsook the house of
+lords for a whole session. Campbell does not shrink from saying that he
+was "atrociously ill-used" on this occasion,[134] and assuredly he
+should not have been left to learn from a newspaper that he was thrust
+aside in favour of a man of vastly inferior gifts and services.
+
+One other change was made in the cabinet during the recess. The Earl of
+Minto became first lord of the admiralty in succession to Auckland who
+had been appointed governor-general of India. When parliament met on
+February 4, 1836, the prospects of the whig government were more
+favourable than on their first accession to office. The factious
+conduct of the house of lords in the last session had disgusted the
+country, while the statesmanlike moderation of Peel secured them
+fair-play in the house of commons, though it was gradually building up a
+strong conservative party. Ireland again blocked the way for a while
+against useful legislation for Great Britain, and the first encounter of
+parties was on an amendment to the address condemning the anticipated
+reform of Irish corporations on the principles already adopted for
+England. This amendment, unwillingly moved by Peel, was defeated by a
+majority of forty-one, and the Irish municipal bill was introduced on
+the 16th. Like its English prototype, it was founded on the report of a
+commission which had disclosed the grossest possible abuses in Irish
+municipalities, chiefly dominated by protestant oligarchies. A similar
+measure substituting elective councils for these corrupt bodies had
+actually passed its third reading in the commons before the end of the
+last session, but the attempt to carry it further was then abandoned.
+The debates on the bill of 1836 for the same purpose inevitably turned
+on broad issues which continued to disturb Irish politics and to perplex
+English statesmen for the rest of the century. On the one hand, no one
+could justify "government by ascendency" in Ireland, or the shameful
+malpractices incident to an exercise of power under no sense of
+responsibility. On the other hand, no one acquainted with Irish history
+and Irish character could honestly regard the people as yet qualified
+for local self-government. In the social and some of the moral virtues
+they might be favourably compared with Englishmen and Scotchmen; in the
+political virtues, upon which civil institutions must rest, they were
+several generations behind their fellow-subjects in Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH BILLS._]
+
+All were agreed on the necessity of sweeping away or expurgating the
+existing Irish corporations, but the whole strength of the conservative
+party in both houses was enlisted against the experiment of elective
+town councils, especially after the evidence lately taken before the
+so-called "intimidation committee" in the house of commons. Peel's
+scheme was to vest the executive powers and property of Irish
+corporations, at least for the present, in officers appointed by the
+crown. An amendment framed in this sense was defeated by a large
+majority, and the bill passed the commons with little further
+opposition. When it reached the lords it was stoutly contested by
+Lyndhurst, now fortified by Peel's concurrence, on the not unreasonable
+ground that it would make the radicals and repealers predominant in
+every Irish municipality, and create "seats of agitation" for
+revolutionary purposes in the new town councils. Being converted into a
+bill "for the abolition of municipal corporations" in Ireland, it was
+returned in that form to the house of commons. Russell vainly attempted
+to meet the lords half-way by another compromise, and the measure was
+abandoned only to be adopted, in a very modified shape, after the lapse
+of four years. A like course was pursued by the upper house when a new
+Irish tithe bill, with an appropriation clause, was sent up to them. Had
+the whig government been well advised they would scarcely have
+challenged a needless collision between the two houses by reviving this
+burning question so early. It would have been possible to settle the
+Irish tithe system on equitable lines, without prejudicing the future
+application of superfluous Church revenues, and it was a somewhat
+perverse obstinacy which persisted in coupling the two objects year
+after year. The ingenuity of Lyndhurst in wrecking sound reforms should
+have been left without excuse; whereas, in this case, the peers could
+not have accepted what they regarded as a confiscation bill without a
+sacrifice of conviction and self-respect.
+
+Happily the commutation of tithes in England presented no political
+difficulties of the same nature. The payment of tithes in kind, though
+founded on immemorial usage, had, indeed, produced constant discord
+between the parish clergyman and his flock, while landlords and farmers
+justly complained that it impeded the improvement of agriculture. In
+many localities the pressure of these evils had led to voluntary
+compositions between tithe-owners and tithe-payers, which, being
+temporary, lacked the force of law. The permissive tithe bills of
+Althorp and Peel were designed to render general a practice which
+already prevailed in a thousand parishes, and that now introduced by
+Russell was little more than an extension of the same principle. Its
+mainspring was the appointment of commissioners with compulsory powers
+in the last resort, and the provision of a self-acting machinery for
+assessing the reduced annual rent charge payable in lieu of tithes, so
+as to vary with the average price of wheat, barley, and oats in the
+seven preceding years. This practical solution of the question was
+adopted cheerfully by the wearied legislature, and the commissioners
+succeeded before long in effecting universal commutation. Amendments in
+detail have of course been found necessary, but the system established
+by 6 and 7 William IV., cap. 61, has stood the test of long experience,
+and although tithe-owners have been impoverished by the fall of prices,
+the payment of tithes in England has ceased to be a grievance, except
+with those who absolutely condemn the endowment of a Church.
+
+[Pageheading: _REGISTRATION ACTS._]
+
+An equally valuable and permanent legacy of this session is contained in
+two cognate acts regulating marriages and registration in England. By
+the first of these acts two new modes of celebrating marriage were
+provided, without interfering with the old privileges of the established
+Church in regard to marriage by licence or banns. While the essential
+conditions of notice and publicity were carefully secured, the
+superintendent registrar of each district was empowered either to
+authorise the celebration of marriage in a duly registered place of
+worship, but in presence of a district registrar, or to solemnise the
+ceremony himself, without any religious service, in his own office.
+Clergymen of the Church of England were constituted registrars for
+marriages celebrated by themselves, and were bound to furnish the
+superintendent registrars with certified entries of such marriages. The
+act was complicated by a variety of safeguards, enforced by heavy
+penalties, against fraud and evasion, but its leading features were
+simple and have proved effectual for their purpose. It marked an advance
+on the earlier marriage bill of Russell, since it not only allowed
+dissenters to marry in their own chapels, but to marry without having
+their banns published in the parish church. It went beyond the marriage
+bill of Peel, since it not only recognised marriage as a civil contract,
+but utilised the new poor law organisation, and posted in each district
+a civil official before whom that contract could legally be solemnised.
+
+The rules laid down by the first act for the registration of marriages
+were an integral part of a general registration system established by
+the second act, and embracing births and deaths as well as marriages.
+This system, rendered possible by the division of the country into
+unions, brought under effective control the old parochial registers
+which had been loosely kept for three centuries. The statistical value
+of the returns thus checked and digested in a central department is now
+fully recognised, but can only be appreciated by students of social
+history, which, indeed, is now largely founded on reports of the
+registrar-general. The special provisions for the registration of deaths
+are also of the utmost service in the prevention of disease and crime.
+Not until after this act of 1836 was it realised by the mass of the
+people, not only that a sudden death would properly be followed by a
+coroner's inquest, but that every death, with its circumstances, must be
+treated as a matter of public concern and duly notified. Still more
+important in its results has been the requirement of a medical statement
+on the cause of death--a requirement which has brought about the
+discovery of numerous murders and greatly checked the commission of
+others. If the marriage act relieved a large class of the community from
+vexatious disabilities, the whole community assuredly owes the second
+reformed parliament a debt of gratitude for the registration act which,
+like so many of the best acts in the statute book, provoked but little
+discussion.
+
+A far keener party interest was excited by the crusade against the
+Orange lodges in Great Britain and Ireland which Hume and Finn, an Irish
+member, carried on with great energy in the sessions of 1835 and 1836.
+These societies then had an importance which they no longer possess, and
+were the more open to radical attacks because the Duke of Cumberland was
+grand master of the order. It was said, with some justice, that while
+the catholic association was nominally put down, the Orange lodges in
+Ireland were openly spreading, with the connivance at least of the Irish
+authorities. Their officials included noblemen of high position;
+Goulburn, when chief secretary, was an Orangeman, and special efforts
+had been made to enrol members in the army. Their principles were
+strictly loyal, but their demonstrations were naturally resented by the
+Roman catholics, and were not far removed from preparations for civil
+war. They hailed the accession of Peel's short ministry with tumultuous
+enthusiasm, but when the legality of their organisation and proceedings
+was challenged in the house of commons, during the session of 1835,
+their advocates felt compelled to support a committee of inquiry. The
+evidence taken before this committee, and the debate raised by Hume on
+the formation of Orange lodges in the army, damaged their cause in the
+eyes of the public, and seriously compromised the Duke of Cumberland. It
+was shown that his brother, the Duke of York, had resigned the grand
+mastership, and on being convinced of their illegality had forbidden
+Orange lodges in the army, whereas the Duke of Cumberland had accepted
+the grand mastership and directly promoted military lodges.
+
+An address condemning them was carried; the king undertook to discourage
+them, and the commander-in-chief issued a stringent order for their
+suppression. The struggle, however, was continued by the pertinacity of
+the radicals in demanding a more extended inquiry, and the obstinacy of
+the Orangemen in defying both the house of commons and the horse guards.
+Early in the session of 1836 Finn and Hume renewed their assaults, and
+the latter moved for an address, to be framed in the most sweeping
+terms, and calling upon the crown to dismiss all persons in public
+employment, from the highest to the lowest, who should belong to Orange
+societies. Russell, who had been gradually rising in public estimation,
+showed the qualities of a true statesman on this occasion by a firm yet
+conciliatory speech which commanded assent on both sides. He exposed the
+extravagant and impracticable nature of Hume's demand, but condemned the
+Orange societies, and proposed an address urging the crown to use its
+influence for "the effectual discouragement of Orange lodges, and
+generally all political societies, excluding persons of different faith,
+using signs and symbols, and acting by associated branches". This
+resolution was adopted without opposition, the king heartily endorsed
+it, even the Duke of Cumberland acquiesced in it, and the Orange
+societies quietly dissolved themselves, for a while, throughout the
+United Kingdom.
+
+If the session of 1836 had produced no other legislative fruits it could
+not be regarded as wasted. But several minor reforms of great social
+benefit also date from this year, and prove that, however checked by
+political blunders, the energy kindled by the reform act had not yet
+exhausted itself. After repeated efforts of legal philanthropists, a
+bill was now passed for the first time allowing prisoners on trial for
+felony to be defended by counsel. It was brought in by William Ewart, a
+private member, who sat for Liverpool, but was supported by the highest
+legal authorities in the house of lords, including Lyndhurst himself,
+who openly recanted his former opinions, and declared the old law to be
+a barbarous survival, inconsistent with the practice of other civilised
+nations. In the same house an interesting debate took place on the
+management of jails, which had been placed under a system of inspection
+by an act of the previous year. The reports of the inspectors disclosed
+gross abuses, not only in the smaller county jails but in Newgate
+itself. Lansdowne, in pledging the government to deal with the larger
+question, intimated that Russell, as home secretary, was considering the
+means of separating juvenile offenders from hardened criminals by
+establishing places of detention in the nature of what have since been
+known as reformatories.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUTY ON NEWSPAPERS LOWERED._]
+
+A still more notable contribution to social improvement was made by
+Spring Rice, the chancellor of the exchequer, in consolidating the paper
+duties on a reduced scale, and lowering the stamp duty on newspapers
+from fourpence to one penny. These were the only controversial elements
+in a budget otherwise modest and acceptable. The battle over paper
+duties and "taxes upon knowledge" raised in the debates of 1836 was
+destined to rage many years longer, but the relief granted by Spring
+Rice gave a powerful impulse to journalism and periodical literature. It
+was opposed by all the familiar arguments against a cheap press, but
+that which most endangered its success was a rival proposal to apply any
+surplus revenue to cheapening soap. Soap, it was plausibly contended,
+was a necessary, reading newspapers or periodicals was only a luxury,
+and a luxury, too, far move capable of being abused than expenditure on
+soap. When the penny stamp on newspapers was at last preferred to
+reduced soap duties it was said that, "so far as financial arrangements
+were concerned, everything went to supply the essential elements of low
+political clubs, _viz._, cheap gin, cheap newspapers, filthy hands, and
+unwashed faces".[135]
+
+The legislative record of 1836 was creditable to the government, nor was
+the action of the upper house in amending certain of their bills so
+purely mischievous as it has been described. For instance, a strange
+clause had found its way into the newspaper stamp bill, requiring all
+the proprietors of newspapers, however numerous, to be registered at the
+stamp office. This clause was struck out in the house of lords, at the
+instance of Lyndhurst, though Melbourne declared it to be a vital part
+of the measure, which, however, passed without it, and was the better
+for the loss of it. But the same cannot be said of Lyndhurst's conduct
+at the "open conference" between the two houses on a supplementary bill
+for remedying defects in the operation of the municipal corporations
+act. There no question of principle was involved, and the only motive
+for resisting every attempt to improve the new machinery already
+established by law was one unworthy of a statesman. At the close of the
+session, Lyndhurst delivered a masterly vindication of his own
+proceedings, but he was answered by Melbourne in a speech of great
+ability, and the position now occupied by the whigs appeared stronger
+than when they came into office in 1835.
+
+In this year complaints of agricultural distress once more became
+urgent, and a committee was appointed by the house of commons, as in
+1833, to inquire into its cause. Strange to say, the immediate occasion
+for the second inquiry was the occurrence of three magnificent harvests
+in succession, which brought down the average price of wheat from 58s.
+8d. in 1832 to 53s. in 1833, 46s. 2d. in 1834, and 39s. 4d. in 1835,
+whence it rose to 48s. 6d. after the harvest of 1836. The average
+gazette price of 1835 was the lowest touched in the nineteenth century
+until 1884, and was simply due to excess of production. It was stated
+before the committee of 1836, by the comptroller of corn returns, that
+in the period between 1814 and 1834 the quantity of home-grown wheat
+only fell short of the consumption, on the average, by about 1,000,000
+quarters a year, of which at least half was contributed by Ireland. The
+committee published its evidence without making a report, but this fact
+is highly significant as marking the later revolution in British
+agriculture. If the area then devoted to wheat crops almost sufficed to
+feed an estimated population of 14,500,000, when the yield per acre was
+relatively small, we may safely infer, in the absence of trustworthy
+statistics, that it must have been very much greater than at present.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGITATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+At the opening of 1837 there was a marked stagnation in home politics,
+mainly due to an equipoise of parties and serious divisions in the ranks
+of the ministerialists as well as of the opposition. Not only was there
+a very strong conservative majority in the house of lords, with a
+sufficient though dwindling liberal majority in the house of commons,
+but neither majority was amenable to party discipline. The aggressive
+policy and vexatious tactics of Lyndhurst were distasteful to his
+nominal leader, the Duke of Wellington, and still more so to Peel, the
+only possible conservative premier, who eschewed the very name of tory.
+There was greater unity of counsels between Melbourne and Russell, but
+Russell, who had learned moderation, was dependent on the support of his
+extreme left, composed of violent radicals and Irish repealers. The
+king, though he did not carry his repugnance to his ministers so far as
+he once threatened, yet almost excluded them from social invitations,
+and made no secret of his preference for the opposite party. During the
+winter of 1836-37 O'Connell and his satellites were busy in organising
+monster meetings to demand the abolition of tithes and municipal reform.
+A national association was formed on this basis, and a certain number of
+protestants were induced to join it. The government dared not show
+vigour in checking it lest they should estrange their Irish allies, and
+Mulgrave, the lord-lieutenant, was openly accused of favouring sedition
+and discouraging loyalty by his exercise of patronage and the royal
+prerogative of pardon. At last, a very large and influential meeting was
+held in Dublin, at which the discontent of loyalists and patriots was
+expressed with truly Irish vehemence. Still, Ireland was less disturbed
+than in several previous years. About the same time, Peel, having been
+elected lord rector of Glasgow University, was entertained there at
+dinner by a company including many old reformers, and made one of his
+greatest speeches. Its spirit was that of his Tamworth manifesto, but he
+was far more outspoken in his declaration of unswerving adhesion to the
+protestant cause and to the independence of the upper house.
+
+Such were the political conditions when parliament met on January 31.
+The king's speech, delivered by commission, though singularly
+colourless, indicated the importance of legislating on Irish tithes,
+Irish corporations, and Irish poor relief. The debate on the address was
+enlivened by a furious attack of Roebuck on the whigs, but was
+otherwise devoid of importance. On February 7, however, Russell
+introduced a new Irish corporations bill, invoking the authority of Fox
+for the doctrine that "Irish government should be regulated by Irish
+notions and Irish prejudices," and avowing a faith in the efficacy of
+unlimited concession which has not been justified by later experience.
+He further intimated the resolution of the government to stand or fall
+by this measure. No serious resistance was offered by the opposition to
+its first or second reading, but Peel took occasion to protest against a
+transparent inconsistency which seems to beset the advocacy of Irish
+claims. It is generally assumed, and with too much justice, that Ireland
+is so backward and helpless a country as to require exceptional
+treatment; in short, that it must be governed by Irish ideas, with
+little regard to English principles of sound policy or economy. Such
+was, in effect, Fox's contention, adopted by Russell; and yet, like
+future supporters of "Ireland for the Irish," he argued in the same
+breath that every liberal institution suitable to Englishmen, with their
+long training in self-government and instinctive reverence for law, must
+needs be extended to Irishmen, with their long training in anarchy and
+instinctive propensity to lawlessness. He prevailed, however, in the
+house of commons, where a hostile amendment was decisively rejected, and
+the bill, having passed rapidly through committee, was read a third time
+by a large though reduced majority.
+
+Had it been possible to isolate the Irish municipal bill, and to compel
+the house of lords to deal with it singly, the peers might possibly have
+shrunk from another collision with the commons. But it had been coupled
+in the king's speech with two other projects of Irish legislation, a new
+tithe bill, and an Irish poor law. Both of these were, in fact,
+introduced, the former by Russell in February, the latter by Morpeth
+early in May. The course to be taken by the conservative party was the
+subject of anxious consultation between Peel and Wellington, and that
+ultimately adopted had the full sanction of both. They regarded the
+separate presentation of the municipal bill as a "manoeuvre," and,
+while they overruled the wish of Lyndhurst to defeat it by an adverse
+vote on the second reading, they resolved to meet it by a
+counter-manoeuvre. Accordingly Wellington induced the house of lords
+to postpone the committee on the municipal bill until they should have
+the other two bills before them, and Peel not only approved of his
+action but stated reasons for regarding them as essentially connected
+with each other. June 9 was originally fixed as the date for going into
+committee, but this stage was afterwards deferred until July 3, before
+which unforeseen events arrested all further progress.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHURCH RATES._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of the government had been weakened by the
+failure of their scheme for abolishing Church rates. The dissenters, no
+longer content with religious liberty, were beginning to demand
+religious equality. In the forefront of their grievances was that of
+paying rates for the repair of parish churches which they did not
+attend, except as members of the annual "vestry," where they could
+object to a rate but might be out-voted by a majority of their
+fellow-parishioners. Althorp had proposed a scheme for the removal of
+this grievance in 1834, involving a parliamentary grant of £250,000.
+Setting aside this alternative, as well as that of a special
+contribution, voluntary or otherwise, from members of the Church, Spring
+Rice now proposed a solution of his own. It consisted in vesting the
+property of bishops and chapters in a commission which, by improved
+management, might raise the necessary sum for church repairs, without
+impairing the incomes of these ecclesiastical dignitaries. Before the
+government plan was discussed in the house of commons, Howley,
+archbishop of Canterbury, entered a strong protest against it in the
+house of lords on the ground that it would reduce the bishops and
+chapters from the position of landowners to that of "mere annuitants".
+Melbourne complained of his protest somewhat angrily as premature, and
+provoked a vehement reply from Blomfield, bishop of London, who, though
+a member of the ecclesiastical commission, denounced any such diversion
+of revenues as "a sacrilegious act of spoliation". In the elaborate
+debates on the resolutions moved by Spring Rice in the house of commons
+Peel took his stand partly on financial objections and partly on the
+injustice of taking away from the Church a fund belonging to it by
+immemorial usage, and in the main willingly contributed. Amendment after
+amendment was proposed by members of the opposition, and, though each
+was defeated, the government resolutions were ultimately carried by so
+narrow a majority in May that no further action was taken.
+
+The conservative reaction, now in visible progress, was typified by the
+open secession of Burdett from the ranks of the reformers. This sincere
+but indiscreet radical, who had once enjoyed a popularity similar to
+that of Wilkes as a political martyr, became estranged from his party
+when it accepted O'Connell as an auxiliary, if not as an ally. Having
+failed in procuring the exclusion of the great Irish demagogue from
+Brooks's club, in 1835, he withdrew his own name. Soon afterwards he
+became irregular in his parliamentary attendance, and more than lukewarm
+in his allegiance. Early in 1837 he was, like Stanley and Graham, so
+much suspected of gravitating towards conservatism, that some of his
+Westminster constituents publicly called upon him to resign. He took up
+the challenge, and was re-elected against a radical opponent by a
+substantial majority. It was his last re-election for a borough which he
+had represented for thirty years. In the Church-rate debate he rose from
+the opposition side of the house, and lamenting his separation from his
+old associates, did not spare them either reproaches or hostile
+criticism.
+
+Another desertion from the whig camp took place during this session, but
+in an opposite direction. Roebuck, originally one of the philosophical
+radicals, had become more and more violent in his attacks on his own
+leaders, whom he accused of having deceived the people. According to
+him, they were "aristocratic in principle, democratic in pretence," and
+all the resources of his incisive rhetoric were exhausted in exposing
+their incapacity, in a motion for a committee to consider the state of
+the nation. This motion, so advocated, met with no support, and gave
+Russell the opportunity of once more vindicating the wisdom of
+moderation in statesmanship. But there were many besides Roebuck who
+were eager to complete the work of the reform act by further organic
+changes, and the notice book of the house of commons in 1837 embodied
+several proposals of this kind. One was Grote's annual motion for the
+ballot, on which an interesting debate took place. Among the others were
+two motions of Sir William Molesworth for a reform of the upper house
+and for the abolition of a property qualification for the lower house, a
+motion of Tennyson, who had taken the additional name of D'Eyncourt, for
+the repeal of the septennial act, and another of Hume for household
+suffrage, overshadowing that of Duncombe for repealing the rate-paying
+clauses of the reform act itself. Nearly all of these contained the
+germs of future legislation, but they formed no part of the whig
+programme, nor could any whig government have carried them against so
+powerful an opposition, with an invincible reserve in the house of
+lords, during the last session of William IV. Only seventeen public acts
+were actually passed in this session.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+There were, indeed, other reasons for declining to provoke a grave
+contest at this juncture. The king's health was known to be failing, his
+death under the law then in force would involve a general election, and
+no one could desire his successor, a girl of eighteen, to begin her
+reign in the midst of a political crisis. In May his illness assumed an
+alarming aspect, early in June the medical reports satisfied the country
+that his case was hopeless, on June 19 he received the last sacrament,
+and on the 20th he died at Windsor Castle. Something more than justice
+was done to his character by the leaders of both parties in parliament,
+but something less than justice has been done to it by later historians.
+He was inferior in strength of will to his father, in ability to his
+eldest brother, and in the higher virtues of a constitutional sovereign
+to his niece, who succeeded him. But he was not only a kindly and
+well-meaning man, a good husband to Queen Adelaide and a good father to
+his natural children, faithful to his old friends, and bountiful in his
+charities; he was also a loyal servant of the state, with a genuine
+sense of public duty, a natural love of justice, an independent
+judgment, and a noble indifference to personal or selfish objects. His
+lot was cast in almost revolutionary times, and he was called upon to
+reign at an age when few men are capable of shaking off old prejudices,
+yet he deserved well of his people in supporting the ministry of Grey
+through all the stages of the reform movement, in spite of his own
+declared sympathies, but in deference to his own conviction of paramount
+obligation under the laws of the land. He was quite as liberal in
+opinions as Peel, whose hearty interest in the poorer classes he fully
+shared, and far more liberal than the tory majority in the house of
+lords. Great he certainly was not, and he never affected the royal
+dignity which partially concealed the littleness of his predecessor. But
+in honesty and simplicity he was no unworthy son of George III., and the
+greater pliability of his nature contributed, at least, to make the
+seven years of his reign more fruitful in reforms than all the sixty
+years during which the old king occupied the throne of England.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[130] The king to Peel (Feb. 22, 1835), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+287-89.
+
+[131] See Melbourne's letters to Brougham, _Melbourne Papers_, pp.
+257-64.
+
+[132] The abuses in the Scottish municipalities had, however, been
+already removed by an act conferring the municipal franchise on £10
+householders. Not the least important result of this act was the
+increased strength which it gave to the "evangelical" party in the
+general assembly of the Church of Scotland, which was partly elected by
+the municipalities.
+
+[133] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 470.
+
+[134] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 476.
+
+[135] _Annual Register_, lxxviii. (1836), p. 244
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+                    FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+
+In 1830 the closing months of Wellington's administration were disturbed
+by the French and Belgian revolutions. The former of these was
+occasioned by the publication on July 25 of three ordinances,
+restricting the liberty of the press, dissolving the chambers, and
+amending the law of elections. The Parisian populace rose against this
+infringement of the constitution. In the course of a three days'
+street-fight (the 27th to the 29th) the troops were driven out of Paris.
+On the 30th a few members of the chambers, who had continued in session,
+invited Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, to assume the office of
+lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and he was proclaimed on the
+following day. On August 7 the chamber of deputies offered him the
+crown, which he accepted, and on the 9th he was proclaimed "King of the
+French". On the 2nd Charles X. and the dauphin had renounced their
+rights in favour of the young Duke of Bordeaux, and on the 16th they
+sailed from Cherbourg to England. The change of dynasty was accompanied
+by a transference to the _bourgeoisie_ of such political influence as
+had hitherto belonged to the clergy and _noblesse_. It remained to be
+seen whether it would also be accompanied by a change of foreign policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RECOGNITION OF LOUIS PHILIPPE._]
+
+The new French revolution occasioned no slight perturbation in the
+European courts. To say nothing of the fear of the precedent being
+followed in other lands, there was no longer any guarantee that France
+would respect the arrangements effected by the treaties of Vienna and
+Paris. Austria, Prussia, and Russia agreed not to recognise Louis
+Philippe, and entered into a convention for mutual aid in the event of
+French aggression. Aberdeen, the British foreign secretary, declared
+that the time had come for applying the treaty of Chaumont, which, as
+extended at Paris, pledged Great Britain and the three eastern powers to
+act together in case fresh revolution and usurpation in France should
+endanger the repose of other states. Wellington, however, saw that the
+cause of the elder Bourbon line was hopeless, and held now, as in 1815,
+that if France was not to menace the peace of Europe, her political
+position must be one with which she could be contented. He considered
+that the arguments which justified the admission of France to the
+councils of the powers at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 applied with no less
+cogency to the government of Louis Philippe than to that of Louis XVIII.
+He therefore determined to acknowledge the new French government at an
+early date after the notification of its assumption of power. Nor were
+the other powers slow in taking the same course. It is true that
+Metternich suggested a closer bond between Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
+partly to restore amicable relations between Austria and Russia, partly
+to oppose any possible designs of France on Italy. Prussia, fearing war,
+resisted the proposal, and preferred to draw France into a guarantee of
+the _status quo_ by recognising Louis Philippe. Russia was last of the
+great powers to acknowledge the new _régime_ in France, and she only did
+so on condition that the powers should hold the French king responsible
+for the execution of the international engagements of the fallen
+dynasty. Louis Philippe was certainly not the man wilfully to embroil
+France in a war with her neighbours, and, had he been independent of
+French public opinion, there would have been no reason to fear French
+aggression.
+
+The state which had most to fear from an aggressive France was the new
+kingdom of the Netherlands. Trusting for protection to the great powers
+rather than to its own forces, the Netherlands government had adopted a
+system which left it almost entirely without troops except during the
+military exercises of September and October. Wellington, who knew the
+pacific character of the new French government, advised the garrisoning
+of certain isolated points on the frontier, but thought no further
+preparation necessary. A few weeks were however to prove that the new
+French revolution had aroused a more implacable enemy, against whom the
+house of Orange would have needed all the troops it could summon to its
+aid. The union of Holland and Belgium had been resolved on by the
+powers at Paris in 1814, mainly for military reasons. Austria had been
+unwilling to resume the heavy burden of guarding the Belgian Netherlands
+and southern Germany against French aggression, and the powers had
+consequently resolved on strengthening those smaller states on whom the
+duty of resistance would fall. In these days, accustomed as we are to
+the distinction between the Teutonic and Latin races, it might seem
+reasonable that two countries in which the prevailing languages are low
+German should be subject to the same government. But it was not yet
+customary to turn the principles of comparative philology into arguments
+for the rearrangement of political boundaries. The French language and
+culture had moreover made considerable progress among the upper and
+middle classes of Belgium, while religious differences alienated the
+clergy from the house of Orange. In the states-general of the
+Netherlands the Dutch had half the votes, and, as the Orange party was
+strong in Antwerp and Ghent, commanded a majority. The fiscal system
+adopted by the government favoured the Dutch rather than the Belgian
+population. Dutchmen were generally preferred for state offices, and an
+attempt to control the education of the clergy was deeply resented as an
+attack on the Roman catholic religion. Belgium in consequence presented
+the curious spectacle of the liberal and clerical parties working on the
+same side, united against the Dutch government.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIAN REVOLUTION._]
+
+The example afforded by France turned a discontent which might have led
+to local riots into a national conflagration. On August 25 there was a
+rising of the populace at Brussels, which the troops proved unable to
+quell. On the 27th it was suppressed by a body of burgher guards, a
+volunteer force drawn from the _bourgeoisie_ of the town. The
+_bourgeoisie_ finding themselves in possession of the Belgian capital,
+at first presented a series of minor demands to the king, but on
+September 3 they went the length of demanding a separate administration
+for Belgium. The king undertook to lay this proposal before the states,
+which assembled on the 13th. But before the states could come to any
+conclusion the question had assumed a new aspect. All the leading towns
+of Belgium had followed the example of Brussels by forming burgher
+guards and had thus joined in the revolution; and on the 20th a fresh
+rising of the populace of Brussels had overthrown the burgher guard and
+instituted a provisional government. This was followed by an attempt on
+the part of Prince Frederick of Orange, a younger son of the King of the
+Netherlands, to occupy Brussels with a military force. After five days'
+fighting he was compelled to retire, and when on the 30th the
+states-general gave their consent to the proposal for a separate
+administration, their decision fell upon deaf ears. All the Belgian
+provinces were in revolt.
+
+It was now clear to everybody that the national party in Belgium would
+not consent even to a personal union with Holland. As the union of the
+two countries formed a part of the treaty of Vienna, every European
+power had a legal right to employ force to prevent its disruption, and
+Russia and Prussia both desired active intervention. In France, on the
+other hand, there was a loud popular demand for the reannexation of
+Belgium to France, of which it had formed a part from 1794 to 1814.
+Louis Philippe saw that he could not resist this demand if the Belgian
+insurgents were coerced on the side of Prussia, and therefore announced
+that Prussian aggression would be met by a French expedition to Belgium
+to keep the balance even, until the question should be settled by a
+congress of the powers. On September 25 Talleyrand had arrived in
+England. He quickly obtained the adhesion of Wellington to the principle
+of non-intervention. The duke had been among the first to grasp the fact
+that reconciliation of Dutch and Belgians was impossible, and that the
+intervention of the powers would necessitate a European war, to avoid
+which the union of the two countries had originally been designed. He
+agreed therefore to a separation of the countries on condition that
+France should bind herself to observe the arrangements of the congress
+of Vienna in 1815 and should take no separate action in Belgium.
+
+On Talleyrand's suggestion it was decided to refer the question to the
+conference already sitting in London for the purpose of settling the
+Greek question, which would of course have to be reinforced by
+representatives of Austria and Prussia for the present purpose. Molé,
+the French foreign minister, would have preferred Paris as the seat of
+the congress, but the King of the Netherlands absolutely refused to
+entrust his cause to a conference meeting in a city where opinion ran so
+strongly against him. On October 5 he made a formal appeal to the
+powers for the aid guaranteed him by treaty, but the demand came too
+late to induce Wellington to swerve from the policy of non-intervention,
+and on November 4 the conference of London began its labours by
+proposing an armistice in Belgium, which was accepted by both parties.
+This left Maastricht and the citadel of Antwerp in the hands of Dutch
+garrisons, and Luxemburg in the hands of a garrison supplied by the
+German confederation. Every other place in Belgium was in the hands of
+the insurgents. But the further solution of the question was reserved
+for other hands. On the 3rd Louis Philippe was compelled to accept a
+revolutionary ministry, and on the 22nd Wellington and Aberdeen had to
+make way for a whig ministry with Grey as premier, and Palmerston as
+foreign secretary.
+
+The new foreign secretary had served a long political apprenticeship as
+secretary at war in the successive administrations of Perceval,
+Liverpool, Canning, Goderich, and Wellington, and under the three
+last-mentioned premiers he had enjoyed a seat in the cabinet. It will be
+remembered that he had been a warm champion of Greece, and had resigned
+office along with Huskisson, Dudley, and Grant. He now returned in
+company with Grant as a member of a whig cabinet. Although this change
+of party involved the adoption of a domestic policy far removed from
+Canning's, Palmerston's foreign policy remained rather Canningite than
+whig. The interest and the honour of England ranked with Palmerston as
+with Canning before all questions which concerned the maintenance of
+European peace. But instead of Canning's versatile diplomacy he
+displayed too often a reckless disregard of the susceptibilities of
+foreign governments, and, if, like Canning, he lent the moral support of
+Great Britain to the liberal party in every continental country, it was
+not, as it had professedly been with Canning, because their success
+would promote the interests of Great Britain, but because he had a
+genuine sympathy with their cause. It is impossible to deny that in his
+earlier years at least Palmerston's policy met with a success such as
+Castlereagh and Wellington had not attempted to gain; real or imaginary
+dangers at home left the foreign governments too weak to oppose the will
+of the one strong man of the moment. Yet it is doubtful whether any
+resultant benefits were not more than counterbalanced by the distrust
+and ill-will with which the greater nations of Europe have learned to
+regard the British government and people.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROPOSED DIVISION OF THE NETHERLANDS._]
+
+During the first few weeks of the new administration, the Belgian
+question advanced far towards a settlement. On November 10 a Belgian
+national congress assembled at Brussels; on the 18th it voted the
+independence of Belgium; on the 22nd it resolved that the new state
+should be a constitutional monarchy, and on the 24th it proclaimed the
+total exclusion of the house of Nassau. Finally the outbreak of a Polish
+insurrection at Warsaw made it clear that Prussia and Russia would be
+too busily occupied in the east to be able to interfere effectively in
+the Belgian question. On December 20 a protocol was signed at London by
+the representatives of the five powers, providing for the separation of
+Belgium from Holland. When however the protocol was sent to the tsar for
+ratification, he would only ratify it subject to the condition that its
+execution should depend on the consent of the King of the Netherlands.
+Meanwhile the London conference was engaged in settling the boundary of
+the new kingdom. For the most part it went on the principle of leaving
+to Holland the districts that had belonged to the United Provinces
+before the wars of the French revolution. The remainder of the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, consisting chiefly of the former Austrian
+Netherlands, but including also territories which had belonged to
+France, Prussia, the Palatinate, the bishopric of Liège, and some minor
+ecclesiastical states, was assigned to Belgium. An exception was,
+however, made in the case of the grand duchy of Luxemburg. Luxemburg was
+reputed to be, next to Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in Europe. It
+was regarded as the key to the lower Rhine; it formed a part of the
+German confederation, and was garrisoned by German troops. Although
+Holland had no historical claim to its possession, the treaty of Vienna
+granted it to the Dutch branch of the house of Nassau, as compensation
+for its former possessions, merged in the duchy of Nassau; and it was
+now felt that a place so important to the safety of Germany could not
+safely be handed over to a state which seemed likely to fall under
+French influence. The powers therefore determined that this duchy should
+continue to belong to the king of the Netherlands.
+
+There was also some difficulty over the apportionment of the debt.
+Belgium was the more populous and the richer of the two countries, but
+the greater part of the debt had been contracted by Holland before the
+union. Belgium was, however, already responsible for its share of the
+whole debt, and the powers can hardly be accused of injustice when they
+determined to divide the debt in the proportion in which the
+debt-charges had been borne in the three previous years, assigning
+sixteen thirty-firsts to Belgium, and fifteen thirty-firsts to Holland.
+Belgium was moreover to possess the right of trading with the Dutch
+colonies and to contribute towards their defence. These provisions were
+embodied in two protocols which were issued at London on January 20 and
+27, 1831. As compared with the _status quo_ the Dutch were slightly the
+gainers. The protocol permitted them to keep Maastricht and Luxemburg,
+but required them to abandon the citadel of Antwerp; while the Belgians
+were required to surrender those less important places which they had
+occupied in Dutch Limburg and in the grand duchy of Luxemburg.
+Talleyrand considered the present a favourable opportunity for claiming
+for France the cession of Mariembourg and Philippeville which she had
+been compelled to surrender to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815.
+Palmerston, however, absolutely refused to hear of any extension of
+French territory, for fear of imperilling the security of Europe. The
+two protocols were accepted by Holland on February 13 but rejected by
+Belgium. Though Talleyrand had signed the protocol of January 20, it was
+repudiated by Sébastiani, the French foreign minister, on the ground
+that the object of the conference was to effect a mediation, not to
+dictate a settlement.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIUM CHOOSES A KING._]
+
+Meanwhile the national congress at Brussels had attempted to elect a
+king. At first the most favoured candidate was Auguste Beauharnais, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, the grandson of Napoleon's first consort. Louis
+Philippe naturally objected to the establishment on his frontier of a
+prince so closely connected with the house of Bonaparte. The pliant
+Belgians accordingly transferred their preference to the Duke of
+Nemours, the second son of Louis Philippe. It was in vain that
+Sébastiani declared that France could not allow such a selection, as it
+would be interpreted by the powers as evidence of a French design to
+reincorporate Belgium in France. On February 3, 1831, the Duke of
+Nemours was actually elected king by the Belgian national congress. But
+the conference of London had, two days earlier, adopted a resolution,
+excluding from the Belgian throne all members of the reigning dynasties
+of the five powers. Still there was a strong party in France, including
+Laffitte, the revolutionary premier, who advocated the claims of
+Nemours. Louis Philippe, however, stood firm on the side of European
+peace, and on the 17th definitively declined the crown offered to his
+son. The French now recommended the Prince of Naples, but the Belgians
+declined to accept him, and on the 25th the national congress appointed
+a regent to hold office till a king should be elected. On March 13 the
+accession to office of an anti-revolutionary ministry in France rendered
+the complete co-operation of the powers easier.
+
+On April 17 France declared her adhesion to the protocol of January 20,
+and by a new protocol the other four powers consented to the demolition
+of some of the Belgian fortresses on the French frontier. Another
+protocol of the same date ordered the Belgians to evacuate the grand
+duchy of Luxemburg. On May 10 a further protocol even threatened Belgium
+with the rupture of diplomatic relations in case she did not by June I
+accept the protocol of January 20. But the powers soon adopted a more
+conciliatory attitude. France and Great Britain desired that Prince
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who in the previous year had resigned the crown
+of Greece, should now be offered that of Belgium. Prince Leopold would
+not accept the crown so long as Belgium continued to defy the powers,
+and on the other hand there was no chance of securing his election by
+the Belgian congress unless he undertook to maintain the Belgian claim
+to the possession of Luxemburg. Lord Ponsonby, the British minister at
+Brussels, succeeded in inducing the London conference to sign a new
+protocol, undertaking to negotiate with Holland for the cession of
+Luxemburg to Belgium, in return for an indemnity elsewhere, provided
+that Belgium should first accept the protocol of January 20. The Belgian
+congress gathered that the acceptance of Prince Leopold was regarded by
+the powers as more important than the maintenance of the terms of that
+protocol, and they accordingly elected him as their king on June 4
+without accepting the protocol. In answer to Dutch complaints Ponsonby
+and General Belliard, the French minister, were recalled from Brussels
+as the protocol of May 10 required. Leopold refused to accept the crown
+until the conference should have offered better terms, and on the 26th
+the conference signed another protocol, which differed from that of
+January 20 in that it left the Luxemburg question open for future
+negotiation, and rendered Holland liable for the whole of the debt that
+it had incurred before the union of the two countries. On the same day
+Leopold accepted the Belgian crown. The Belgian congress accepted this
+last protocol on July 7, and on the 21st Leopold was proclaimed king,
+and immediately recognised by Great Britain and France. The other great
+powers were not long in following their example.
+
+It was now Holland's turn to feel aggrieved. She refused to recognise
+the changes proposed by the powers in the terms which she had already
+accepted. On May 21 she had declared that if the protocol of January 20
+were not accepted by June 1 she would consider herself free to act on
+her own account, and on July 12 that the acceptance in Belgium of a king
+who had not agreed to that protocol would be an act of hostility.
+Feeling herself betrayed by the conference she gave notice on August 1
+that the armistice which had existed since the previous November would
+terminate on the 4th. It was soon seen how much Holland had lost in the
+preceding year by being found in a state of military unpreparedness.
+When hostilities began the Dutch carried everything before them. On the
+8th the Belgians were routed at Hasselt, and on the 13th Leopold in
+person was compelled to surrender Louvain. But Holland was now arrested
+in the full tide of her success. The opportunity that French patriots
+had long desired had presented itself, and Louis Philippe would only
+have endangered his own throne if he had failed to come to the
+assistance of Belgium against Holland. On the 4th he received Leopold's
+appeal for assistance; on the 12th the first French division reached
+Brussels, and on the following day the Prince of Orange, who led the
+main Dutch army, received orders from the Hague to retire within the
+Dutch frontier.
+
+[Pageheading: _COERCION OF HOLLAND._]
+
+The conference had in fact found it necessary to join in measures of
+coercion. On the first news of the outbreak of hostilities it severely
+reproached Holland for the breach of the armistice, and ordered the
+Dutch forces to retire. By a protocol of the 6th it accepted and
+justified the French expedition, which, it knew, could not safely be
+recalled, and tried to minimise the danger by forbidding the French to
+cross the Dutch frontier and requiring them to return to France as soon
+as the Dutch should return to Holland. At the same time a semblance of
+joint action was created by the despatch of a British fleet to the
+Downs. If the Dutch invasion of Belgium created excitement in France,
+the French expedition had a similar effect in England, and Palmerston
+found it necessary to insist sternly on the immediate evacuation of
+Belgium upon the withdrawal of the Dutch troops. The French government
+naturally desired to point to some tangible triumph of French arms, and
+requested that the troops should be allowed to remain till the frontier
+fortresses should have been demolished in accordance with the protocol
+of April 17. In a somewhat insulting message Palmerston threatened a
+general war sooner than allow the French troops to remain. The most that
+France could obtain was that 12,000 men might remain a fortnight longer
+than the rest and that a number of French officers might enlist in the
+Belgian service.
+
+The conference now returned to the task of effecting a settlement in
+accordance with the terms of the protocol of June 26. On October 15 it
+provided for the partition of the grand duchy of Luxemburg between
+Holland and Belgium and for the indemnification of Holland with a larger
+portion of Limburg than had belonged to her in 1790. At the same time
+provision was made for the freedom of the Scheldt, and the debt was
+reassessed, 8,400,000 florins of _rentes_[136] being assigned to Belgium
+and 19,300,000 to Holland. Along with this protocol a letter was sent to
+the Belgian plenipotentiary, promising that if Belgium accepted it, the
+powers would undertake to obtain the consent of Holland. The protocol
+was converted into a treaty by the adhesion of Belgium on November 15.
+Meanwhile the King of the Netherlands had appealed to the tsar against
+the action of the western powers and of the Russian plenipotentiaries at
+London, and the tsar had in consequence refused to ratify the treaty
+till the King of the Netherlands should have given his consent. That
+consent was slow in coming. It was only on June 30, 1832, that Holland
+agreed to the exchange of territories and the reduction of Belgium's
+share of the debt, and even then questions remained as to the dues on
+the Scheldt and the transit of goods through Dutch Limburg. The Belgians
+refused to negotiate further until the citadel of Antwerp should be
+surrendered; the Dutch on the other hand refused to surrender it till a
+definite treaty should be signed and ratified. On October 1 France, with
+the approval of the British government, proposed to suspend the payment
+of the Belgian share of the interest on the debt until the citadel of
+Antwerp should be surrendered, and to deduct from the share of the
+principal payable by Belgium, 500,000 florins of _rentes_ for each week
+that should elapse before the surrender. The three eastern powers
+refused to agree to any coercion of Holland, and, in consequence, Great
+Britain and France determined to act alone.
+
+On the 22nd they signed a convention providing for the coercion of
+Holland by an embargo and by the despatch of a squadron to the Dutch
+coast. If any Dutch troops should be still in Belgium on November 15, a
+French force was empowered, subject to the consent of the Belgian
+government, to advance into Belgium and expel the Dutch troops from the
+country. The French were, however, to retire as soon as the Dutch
+evacuation was complete. The first result of this convention was the
+suspension of the conference. On the 29th the two powers made their
+demand. As the Dutch refused compliance, a joint French and British
+fleet sailed on November 4 to blockade the Scheldt, and the embargo was
+proclaimed on the 6th. On the 15th a French army of 56,000 men,
+commanded by Gérard, entered Belgium. On December 4 it opened fire on
+the citadel of Antwerp, which surrendered after a nineteen days'
+bombardment on the 23rd. The French army returned to its own country
+before the end of the year, leaving the Dutch in possession of two small
+forts on the Belgian side of the frontier, which were more than
+compensated by the positions held by the Belgians in Dutch Limburg. Even
+the fall of the citadel of Antwerp did not induce Holland to accept the
+settlement proposed by the powers, and Great Britain and France now
+attempted to effect a working agreement pending negotiations on the
+details of the treaty. It was in vain that Holland asked that Belgium
+should evacuate the Dutch provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg and pay
+her share of the interest on the Dutch debt. Palmerston and Talleyrand
+refused to include these provisions in a preliminary convention. Finally
+on March 21, 1833, a convention was signed between Great Britain,
+France, and Holland, which terminated the embargo and provided for the
+free navigation of the Scheldt and Maas. A similar convention was signed
+between Holland and Belgium on November 18. Six years, however, were to
+elapse before the Dutch government would consent to the conditions drawn
+up by the powers in 1831. Meanwhile the Belgians were free from their
+share of debt, held the greater part of Limburg and Luxemburg, and
+enjoyed the free navigation of the Maas and the Scheldt, over and above
+the terms granted them in 1831.
+
+[Pageheading: _POLISH REBELLION._]
+
+It is inconceivable that the Belgian question should have been left so
+entirely in the hands of the two western powers, and that the settlement
+should have taken the form of a foreign coercion of a legitimate king
+for his unreadiness to make concessions to his revolted subjects, had
+not the attention of the three absolutist powers of eastern and central
+Europe been directed to another quarter. Just as the revolution of 1820
+had spread through southern Europe in spite of Castlereagh's attempt to
+maintain that it was not of a contagious order, so that of 1830 awakened
+similar outbursts not only at Brussels but in various German states, in
+Switzerland, in Poland, and in Italy. The Polish insurrection was, like
+the Belgian, a national revolt, and the consequent military operations
+were of the nature of a war between Poland and Russia. The revolt broke
+out at Warsaw on November 29, 1830, and on January 25, 1831, the Polish
+diet proclaimed the independence of Poland. On February 5 a Russian army
+crossed the Polish frontier. In France there was a loud popular demand
+for intervention. But even the Laffitte ministry would not move without
+the co-operation of Great Britain, though the French ambassador at
+Constantinople tried to stir up the Porte to hostilities. The ministry
+of Casimir-Perier, which came into office in March, proposed a joint
+mediation of France and Great Britain, but to this Palmerston would not
+assent. He remonstrated with Russia on her violations of the Polish
+constitution, which Great Britain, along with the other powers, had
+guaranteed at the congress of Vienna, but he could not support the
+Polish claim to independence, since Great Britain had made herself a
+party to the union of the two countries. As it happened, the
+remonstrance was simply a cause of annoyance, which subsequent events
+were destined to intensify. It was only on September 8, 1831, that the
+Russians under Paskievitch captured Warsaw, an event which was followed
+on February 26, 1832, by the abolition of the Polish constitution.
+Palmerston protested again but with no more success than in the previous
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _DOM MIGUEL AND DON CARLOS._]
+
+In the Portuguese, as in the Belgian question, Palmerston drifted from
+the position of a neutral into that of a partisan. Ever since the year
+1828, British subjects accused of political offences had been brutally
+ill-treated in Portugal, and as time went on the excesses increased. By
+despatching six British warships to the Tagus Palmerston succeeded in
+obtaining a pecuniary indemnity and a public apology on May 2, 1831.
+Similar insults to France were not so readily redressed. A threat of
+force on the part of the French government was followed by an appeal
+from Dom Miguel for British assistance. This Palmerston refused to
+grant, and in July a French squadron under Admiral Roussin forced the
+passage of the Tagus, and carried off the best ships of the Portuguese
+navy. Meanwhile much irritation had been caused in Brazil by Peter's
+advocacy of his daughter's claim to Portugal, which was considered
+inconsistent with his professed adherence to the separation of the two
+countries. On April 6, Peter abdicated the crown of Brazil in favour of
+his infant son, Peter II., and on the following day sailed for Europe in
+order to assert his daughter's right to the Portuguese throne. He
+arrived in Europe towards the end of May, and visited both England and
+France.
+
+Though neither government assisted him directly, he was permitted to
+raise troops and even to secure the services of naval officers, and in
+December a force of 300 men sailed from Liverpool to Belleisle, which he
+had appointed as the rendezvous. Palmerston had thus, unlike Wellington,
+adopted the same attitude towards the Portuguese liberals that Ferdinand
+VII. had adopted towards the absolutists. Peter's expedition gathered
+further strength at the Azores and sailed for Portugal on June 27, 1832.
+On July 8, the fleet, commanded by Admiral Sartorius, a British officer,
+appeared off Oporto, which submitted on the following day. The town was,
+however, blockaded by Miguel's forces and Peter's cause made no headway
+until in June, 1833, the command of the fleet was transferred to Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Charles) Napier. On the night of June 24, he
+landed at Villa Real a force of 2,500 men who conquered the province of
+Algarve in a week, and on July 5 he annihilated Miguel's navy in an
+engagement off Cape St. Vincent. After a further battle near Lisbon,
+Peter's forces entered the capital on the 24th, and subsequently
+repulsed a Miguelite attack upon the city. Miguel still held out in
+northern Portugal, when another train of events caused the western
+powers to substitute direct for indirect interference.
+
+Ferdinand VII. of Spain had fallen so entirely under the influence of
+his fourth and last queen, Maria Christina of Naples, as to repeal by a
+pragmatic sanction the Salic law which the treaty of Utrecht had
+established as the rule of succession in Spain. The result of this edict
+was to leave the succession to his infant daughter Isabella instead of
+his brother Don Carlos, the leader of the Spanish absolutists. When
+Ferdinand died on September 29, 1833, Don Carlos was absent from the
+kingdom, supporting the cause of his fellow-pretender Dom Miguel.
+Isabella received the hearty support of the constitutional party and was
+almost universally acknowledged as queen. It was only in Biscay, where
+the centralising tendency of the Spanish constitution, published on
+April 10, 1834, seemed to entrench upon local liberty, that Don Carlos
+met with much active support. His cause, like that of Miguel in
+Portugal, was the more popular, but his adherents were as yet almost
+entirely devoid of organisation. Peter's partisans had already made
+substantial progress towards a complete victory, and Santha Martha, the
+Miguelite commander-in-chief, had surrendered in the beginning of April,
+when on April 22 a triple alliance, already signed between Great
+Britain, Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, and Peter, as regent of
+Portugal, was converted into a quadruple alliance by the adhesion of
+France. This treaty provided for the co-operation of Spain and Portugal
+to expel Dom Miguel and Don Carlos from the Portuguese dominions. Great
+Britain was to assist by the employment of a naval force, and France was
+to render assistance, if required, in such manner as should be settled
+afterwards by common consent of the four contracting powers. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, immediately crossed the frontier. He met with no
+resistance, and on May 26 Miguel signed a convention at Evora, by which
+he accepted a pension, renounced his rights to the Portuguese throne,
+and agreed to quit the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CARLIST WAR._]
+
+Don Carlos, however, refused to renounce his rights to the Spanish
+throne, and all that the British navy could do was to convey the two
+pretenders, Carlos to England and Miguel to Genoa. Although Miguel, on
+June 20, repudiated his abdication, the Portuguese question was really
+at an end. The Spanish question was, however, merely entering on its
+critical stage. Don Carlos secretly left London on July 1, and nine days
+later appeared at the Carlist headquarters in Spain. Here he had the
+assistance of the ablest general of this war, Zumalacarregui.
+Melbourne's succession to the premiership in July left Palmerston at the
+foreign office, and was followed by no change in foreign policy. On
+August 18 an additional article to the quadruple alliance provided that
+France was to prevent reinforcements or warlike stores from reaching Don
+Carlos from the French side of the frontier, while Great Britain was to
+supply arms and stores to the Spanish royalists and, if necessary,
+intervene with a naval force. The short interlude of conservative
+government, with Peel as premier and Wellington as foreign secretary,
+was not marked by any change of policy nor yet by any new aggressions.
+Wellington's only interference with the course of hostilities was the
+mission of Lord Eliot to Navarre, which induced the combatants to
+abandon for the time being those cruelties to prisoners which had been
+the disgrace of the Spanish civil wars.
+
+Shortly after the return of Melbourne and Palmerston to power,
+Zumalacarregui won a victory in the valley of Amascoas on April 21 and
+22, 1835, which opened to him the road to Madrid. The Madrid government
+now appealed to France to send 12,000 men to occupy the Basque
+provinces. By the terms of the quadruple alliance the assent of Great
+Britain and Portugal was necessary in order to determine the manner in
+which France was to render assistance. Thiers, on behalf of Louis
+Philippe, suggested a separate French expedition on the lines of that of
+1823. Palmerston, like Canning before him, refused to sanction such an
+expedition, though he was prepared to allow France to make the
+expedition on her own responsibility. He suggested in return that Great
+Britain should intervene. But Louis Philippe was equally opposed to the
+separate action of his own country and of Great Britain, and the result
+was that neither government sent any troops. The Spanish government was,
+however, permitted to enlist volunteers, and actually received the
+assistance of an English legion, a French legion, and 6,000 Portuguese.
+The immediate danger was averted by the obstinacy of Don Carlos, who
+refused to permit Zumalacarregui to march on Madrid till the conquest of
+Biscay was complete. The Carlist general turned aside in consequence to
+the siege of Bilbao, in which a few weeks later he met his death.
+
+In February, 1836, some changes in the French ministry increased the
+power of Thiers, who had so recently advocated the policy of
+intervention. Palmerston now proposed a French expedition to the Basque
+provinces, while the British were to occupy St. Sebastian and Pasages.
+Thiers did not, however, feel strong enough to accept this offer, and
+Palmerston determined to act alone. A British squadron under Lord John
+Hay was despatched to the Spanish coast with instructions to assist the
+royalist forces. This squadron is probably entitled to the principal
+share in the credit for the successful resistance of Bilbao to the
+Carlist armies. In May, however, a conservative government entered upon
+office in Spain, and France became more ready to grant assistance.
+Isturiz, the new Spanish premier, persuaded Louis Philippe to send some
+troops to Spain; but by leaning on foreign support Isturiz had
+overreached himself. Spanish indignation found vent in a revolutionary
+movement, accompanied by bloodshed; one town after another declared for
+the constitution of 1812, which the queen-regent was forced to sign on
+August 13, and on the following day a progressist ministry was installed
+in office. Austria, Prussia, and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from
+Madrid after the riots of the 13th, and Louis Philippe recalled the
+forces he had sent to the assistance of the Spanish government. Had Don
+Carlos listened to the advice of the eastern powers and given such
+assurances as might have won over the more moderate of Isabella's
+supporters, he would probably have proved successful. As it was the war
+dragged on, but De Lacy Evans, who was in command of the British legion,
+left Spain on June 10, 1837, and most of his men followed soon after.
+The question of intervention had, however, put an end to that cordial
+co-operation of Great Britain and France which had existed ever since
+the July revolution, and left Great Britain as isolated in the counsels
+of Europe as she had been when Canning and Wellington dissociated
+themselves from the other powers at Verona.
+
+The settlement of the Greek question proceeded very slowly. While the
+powers were seeking a possible king, Capodistrias exercised an
+autocratic sway as president. However, in the spring of 1831, the
+Mainots of southern Laconia and the Hydriots revolted against him, and
+got possession of the Greek fleet. Capodistrias appealed to Russia for
+assistance, and a Russian squadron was sent to blockade the Greek fleet
+at Poros. But Miaoulis, the Greek admiral, sank his ships in order to
+save them from the Russians. The situation was simplified by the
+assassination of Capodistrias on October 9, which left two rival
+national assemblies struggling for the mastery. The French troops failed
+to maintain order, and the way was clear for a king who would have the
+prestige of an international treaty and an independent revenue to
+support his position. This was the situation when on February 13, 1832,
+a protocol was signed at London, offering the Greek crown to Otto, the
+second son of King Lewis of Bavaria, a boy of seventeen. The boundary
+was to be fixed where Palmerston, while still a member of the Wellington
+administration, had wished to fix it, along a line running from the Gulf
+of Arta to that of Volo. King Lewis would not, however, agree to accept
+the crown for his son unless he should be granted the title of king,
+instead of prince, and should be guaranteed a loan to enable him to meet
+the expenses of his position. On May 7, 1832, the London protocol was
+embodied in a treaty of London; the crown was definitely conferred on
+Otto, who was given the title of king, guaranteed a loan, not exceeding
+£2,400,000, and allowed to take out 3,500 Bavarian troops with him. The
+Turkish consent to the proposed boundary was given on July 21; Greece
+accepted the treaty in August, and the new king left for his kingdom in
+December.[137]
+
+[Pageheading: _VICTORIES OF IBRAHIM._]
+
+Greece now disappears from the eastern question. But Ibrahim Pasha,
+whose successes in Greece had induced Canning to interfere, had already
+disclosed a new phase of that question by successes gained in another
+quarter. Mehemet Ali had quickly repaired the losses which his fleet and
+army had sustained in the Peloponnese. Meanwhile he demanded from
+Sultan Mahmud that Ibrahim should be compensated with a part of Syria
+for the loss of the Morea, which had been promised him as a reward for
+his services in Greece. The sultan refused to grant this insolent
+demand, and Mehemet Ali determined to conquer the province for himself.
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, had taken under his protection some fugitive
+peasants, and Mehemet Ali, in spite of the sultan's prohibition, sent
+Ibrahim with an army of 30,000 men against him. He laid siege to Acre on
+December 9, 1831, and took it on May 27, 1832. On July 8 he routed a
+Turkish army at Homs; on the 29th he routed a larger army at the pass of
+Beilan, and on the 31st he entered Antioch. In November he was at
+Konieh. The Tsar Nicholas had, with Palmerston's approval, already sent
+Lieutenant-General Muraviov on a mission to Constantinople, offering
+military and naval support; but the sultan preferred to seek British
+assistance first.
+
+Unfortunately the message came at a time when the British fleet was
+preparing to blockade the coasts of the Netherlands, and could not be
+spared for service In the Mediterranean. An appeal to France was equally
+unsuccessful. She had by this time formed the siege of the citadel of
+Antwerp, and was moreover naturally averse from a struggle with Ibrahim,
+whose army had been organised and trained by French officers. The sultan
+therefore decided to avail himself of the offers made by Russia. Indeed
+he had no choice, for the news now came that on December 21 Ibrahim had
+completely defeated the Turkish general, Reshid, at Konieh and that
+there was no army between him and Constantinople. Muraviov was sent on a
+vain mission to Alexandria with authority to cede Acre to Mehemet Ali if
+he would surrender his fleet to the sultan. Ibrahim advanced to Kiutayeh
+and his advance-guard came as far as Broussa. The sultan on February 2,
+1833, requested the assistance of the Russian navy, and on the 20th a
+Russian squadron appeared at Constantinople.
+
+The powers that had refused to move to save Turkey from Ibrahim were
+quick enough to interfere when the danger was from Russia and not from
+an oriental. Ibrahim might have been expected to make a stronger ruler
+than the sultan, whose fall seemed imminent. A Russian protectorate was
+a different matter. Roussin, the French ambassador at Constantinople,
+protested against the Russian alliance and threatened to leave
+Constantinople. A French envoy was, at his suggestion, permitted to
+offer Mehemet the governorship of the Syrian pashaliks of Tripoli and
+Acre. On March 8 Mehemet rejected these terms, and declared that if his
+own terms were not accepted within six weeks his troops would march upon
+Constantinople. The sultan then turned to Russia again and asked for
+troops. Fifteen thousand Russians were in consequence landed on the
+shores of the Bosphorus, and in the beginning of April an army of
+24,000, which had remained in Moldavia ever since the war of 1828-29,
+prepared to march southwards. Constantinople at least was thus rendered
+safe from Ibrahim, and there was therefore more hope that Mehemet would
+come to terms. The British, French, and Austrian ambassadors spared no
+effort to induce the Porte to offer terms that might be accepted, and
+their representations were probably rendered the more persuasive by the
+appearance of British and French fleets in the Ægean. Roussin especially
+urged that it was better to surrender Syria than to reconquer it by
+Russian troops. At last the sultan yielded, and on April 10 a peace was
+signed at Kiutayeh, though not ratified by the sultan till May 15. This
+treaty granted to Mehemet Ali Syria and Cilicia, but restored the bulk
+of Asia Minor to the Porte.
+
+[Pageheading: _CONFERENCE OF MÜNCHENGRÄTZ._]
+
+Turkey had been saved by the western powers, but only because they
+dreaded the possibility of her being saved by Russia. A few weeks later
+their worst fears seemed on the point of realisation. The Russian troops
+on the Bosphorus were a sure guarantee of the predominance of Russian
+influence at Constantinople, and this was illustrated in a marked degree
+by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, signed on July 8, which provided for a
+defensive alliance for eight years between Russia and the Porte. Russia
+was, when required, to provide the sultan with both military and naval
+forces, to be provisioned by him, but otherwise maintained by Russia. A
+secret article, soon made known, provided that Russia would not ask for
+material aid if at war, but that in that event the Porte would close the
+Dardanelles to the warships of other nations. Great Britain had already
+obtained the rights of the most favoured nation, so far as the passage
+of the Dardanelles was concerned, and therefore maintained that the
+treaty did not affect her right to pass those straits; and France
+joined her in presenting identical notes declaring their intention of
+ignoring the treaty in event of war. British public opinion, already
+wounded by the conquest of Poland, was even more vehemently affected
+than British policy. The treaty was regarded as the establishment in
+Turkey of a Russian protectorate, which it was necessary for Great
+Britain to destroy, and the antagonism thus produced has lasted to our
+own day. Matters were not improved when the tsar asked for the cession
+of the Danubian principalities, which were still occupied by Russia, in
+return for a remission of the war indemnity owing since 1829. Austria,
+France, and Great Britain protested against this proposal, and in
+consequence nothing came of it.
+
+Austria then assumed the _rôle_ of mediator. A friendly request for
+explanation elicited a declaration from Russia, disclaiming all
+intention of self-aggrandisement, and promising to accept the mediation
+of Austria in any case where the treaty could be invoked. Austria in
+consequence endeavoured to persuade the western powers that there was no
+immediate danger, and that she would use her mediation to remove any
+danger that might arise. Meanwhile she endeavoured to allay distrust of
+Russia by inducing that power to evacuate the Danubian principalities.
+But before this result could be accomplished the negotiations between
+Austria and Russia had taken a turn which gave Austria, in English eyes,
+the appearance of an accomplice rather than of a mediator. The
+revolutionary movements of 1830 and following years had produced grave
+apprehensions in the minds of the rulers of the three eastern powers,
+Austria, Prussia, and Russia; and the coercion of Holland and Portugal
+caused them to feel a deep distrust of the policy of Great Britain and
+France, and to grasp the necessity of united action against the
+revolutionary forces at work in Europe. For this purpose it was
+considered necessary to revive Metternich's policy of 1820 as defined at
+Troppau. The three powers had for some time been drawing together, and
+in September, 1833, the Emperors Francis and Nicholas and the Crown
+Prince of Prussia met at Münchengrätz in Bohemia, where a secret
+convention was signed on the 18th. They refused to recognise Isabella as
+Queen of Spain in the event of Ferdinand's death; they arranged for
+mutual assistance against the Poles; and agreed to combine to resist
+any change of dynasty in Turkey and any extension of Arab rule into
+Europe. In the event of a collapse of the Ottoman empire, Austria and
+Russia were to act together in settling the reversion. On October 15 the
+three powers signed a further convention at Berlin, containing one
+public and two secret articles. The latter recognised the right, already
+asserted at Troppau, of intervention in the internal affairs of a
+country whose sovereign expressed a desire for foreign assistance. There
+can be little doubt that Austria and Russia were in earnest in their
+professed desire to maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions, but
+an opinion gained ground in England that they had already agreed to
+partition them between themselves.
+
+On January 29, 1834, Austrian mediation bore fruit in a definite treaty
+for the evacuation of the Danubian principalities. Russia merely
+reserved to herself the appointment of the first hospodar of each
+principality. The first act, however, of Alexander Ghika, the new
+hospodar of Wallachia, was to forbid any change of statute without the
+consent of Russia. Silistria alone remained in Russian hands till a
+third part of the indemnity should be paid. The remaining two-thirds
+Russia consented to abandon. A revolt among the Syrian mountaineers gave
+Russia an opportunity of demonstrating her pacific intentions. The
+sultan supported the revolt and also sent troops to conquer Urfa which
+Ibrahim had neglected to surrender. Russia, however, refused to support
+the sultan in an aggressive war, and the powers negotiated a peace. The
+Syrian revolt was quelled, and Urfa surrendered to the sultan. In 1835
+the Tsar Nicholas and the new Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, met at
+Teplitz where they renewed the agreements concluded at Münchengrätz.
+Metternich proposed a conference at Vienna to settle the eastern
+question, but the tsar, who really possessed the decisive voice so long
+as the question remained open, refused to hear of this. Finally in
+September, 1836, the Russian evacuation of Silistria was obtained by a
+payment of 30,000,000 piastres, borrowed, for the most part, in England.
+The Eastern question now seemed to have entered upon a quieter phase,
+and the military reforms which European officers, including Moltke,
+afterwards famous in a different region, were carrying out in Turkey,
+gave promise that she might be able to hold her own in future against
+domestic foes.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[136] The debt was, according to the French practice, expressed in terms
+of the interest payable annually (_rentes_), not in terms of a nominal
+principal as in this country.
+
+[137] Finlay, _History of Greece_, vol. vii., chapters ii., iii.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+                             BRITISH INDIA.
+
+
+When Pitt resigned office in 1801, the Marquis Wellesley had already
+reached the climax, though by no means the close, of his brilliant
+proconsulate. This remarkable man, whose fame has been unduly eclipsed
+by that of his younger brother, may justly be considered the second
+founder of our Indian Empire. This empire, recognised at last, in the
+vote of thanks passed by the house of commons on the fall of
+Seringapatam, was soon to be aggrandised by three important accessions
+of dominion. The first of these was the annexation of the Karnátik on
+the well-founded plea that its nabob was too weak even for the semblance
+of independence, that he was incapable of governing tolerably, and that
+he had been in correspondence with Tipú. The effect of this and two
+minor annexations was to place the entire south-western and
+south-eastern coasts of the Indian peninsula under the British rule. The
+next step was the system of subsidiary treaties, whereby the British
+government assumed a protectorate over native states, providing a fixed
+number of troops for their defence and receiving an equivalent in
+subsidies. The Nizám of Haidarábád was already in a condition little
+removed from vassalage, and now surrendered considerable districts in
+lieu of a pecuniary tribute.
+
+A similar course was taken with the Nawáb Wazír of Oudh whose territory
+was threatened on one side by the Afghán king, Zemán Sháh, and on
+another by the Maráthá lord, Daulat Ráo Sindhia, who had gained
+possession of Delhi. By forcible negotiations Wellesley obtained from
+him the cession of all his frontier provinces, including Rohilkhand, and
+consolidated the power of the Indian government along the whole line of
+the Jumna and Ganges. The last and greatest object of the
+governor-general's ambition was the conquest of the confederate Maráthá
+states, and for this a pretext was not long wanting. His forward policy,
+it is true, had already excited alarm and criticism at home, while the
+peace of Amiens had ostensibly removed the chief justification of
+it--the necessity of combating the aggressive designs of France. But, in
+the case of India, far more than of the American colonies, "months
+passed and seas rolled between the order and the execution"; for in
+those days ships conveying despatches occupied at least four or five
+months on their voyage, and decisions taken in Leadenhall Street might
+be utterly stultified by accomplished facts before they could be read in
+Calcutta.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY AND LAKE._]
+
+The Peshwá, at Poona, still maintained a show of independent authority
+over the other great Maráthá chieftains, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Rájá
+of Nágpur or Berár. But the real military power of the Maráthás rested
+with these leaders, and their predatory troops of horsemen terrorised
+all Central India. Happily for Wellesley's purpose, they were often at
+feud with each other, and the Peshwá, though aided by Sindhia, was
+utterly defeated by Jaswant Ráo Holkar. He fled to Bassein near Bombay,
+where, on December 31, 1802, a treaty was signed by which not only the
+Peshwá but the Nizám of Haidarábád was placed under British protection.
+The Peshwá was conducted back to Poona by a British force under Arthur
+Wellesley in May, 1803, but the other Maráthá chiefs naturally resented
+this fresh encroachment on their independence, and a league was shortly
+formed between the Rájá of Nágpur and Sindhia, which it was hoped that
+Holkar would ultimately join. By this time, a rupture of the peace with
+France was known to be impending, and Lord Wellesley eagerly seized the
+opportunity to crush Sindhia, while he urged the home government to
+seize the Cape of Good Hope and the Mauritius. Two expeditions were
+directed against Sindhia's territory, the one under Arthur Wellesley,
+moving from Poona in the west towards the Nizám's frontier; the other,
+under General Lake, operating on the north-west against the highly
+trained forces, under French officers, assembled before Delhi. Both
+campaigns were eminently successful. Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar on
+August 11, encountered the combined armies of Sindhia and the Rájá of
+Nágpur at Assaye on September 23, and, after a desperate conflict,
+obtained a decisive victory. Twelve hundred of the Maráthás were left
+dead on the field and 102 guns were captured. He then advanced into
+Berár and completely defeated the army of the Nágpur Rájá at Argáum.
+Lake marched from Cawnpur, took Delhi and Agra, assuming custody of the
+Mughal emperor, and inflicted a final defeat on a powerful Maráthá army,
+no longer under French officers, at Laswári. Large cessions of territory
+followed. The treaty of Bassein was recognised by Sindhia and the Rájá
+of Nágpur. Gujrát, Cuttack, and the districts along the Jumna passed
+into British possession, and the East India Company became the visible
+successor, though nominally the guardian, of the Mughal emperor.
+
+Meanwhile, Holkar remained a passive spectator of the contest. Jealous
+as he was of Sindhia, he was by no means prepared to acquiesce in the
+subjection of the great Maráthá power. Having taken up a threatening
+position in Rájputána, and defied Lake's summons to retire, he was
+treated as an enemy, and proved a very formidable enemy. Instead of
+relying, like Sindhia, on disciplined battalions, he fell back on the
+old Maráthá tactics, and swept the country with hordes of irregular
+cavalry who lived by pillage. In 1804 a British force of 1,200 troops
+under Colonel Monson was lured away from its base of supplies by a
+feigned retreat and incurred a very serious reverse; scarcely a tenth of
+them, utterly broken, "straggled, a mere rabble, into Agra". This
+disaster was soon afterwards retrieved by other divisions of Lake's
+army, but three attempts to storm the strong fortress of Bhartpur were
+repulsed by the rájá, Ranjít Singh, an ally of Holkar. Though Holkar's
+bands were at last dispersed, a new dispute arose with Sindhia about the
+ownership of Gwalior and Gohad, which remained unsettled when Lord
+Wellesley resigned early in 1805, not so much because his policy was
+disapproved by the court of directors, for whom he always professed a
+sovereign contempt, as because he was no longer cordially supported by
+the home government.
+
+In his despatch to the secret committee of the East India Company after
+the conclusion of the war with Sindhia, Wellesley describes the
+consolidation of the British empire and the pacification of all India,
+as the supreme result of his beneficent rule.[138] That rule was
+followed by ten years of comparative repose, if not of reaction, but two
+events, occurring within this period, threw a significant light on the
+inherent danger of relying too much on a native army under British
+officers. Sepoy regiments had been raised and had served loyally on both
+sides in the struggles between the French and English during the
+eighteenth century. The Bengal sepoys were mostly Rájputs and showed the
+highest military qualities in many a wearisome march and hard fought
+field, from the days of Clive to those of Lake and Arthur Wellesley. But
+outbreaks bordering upon mutiny had occasionally taken place in the
+native armies of all the presidencies, and on July 10, 1806, a most
+formidable mutiny, ending in a massacre at Vellore, west of Madras,
+produced a sense of insecurity throughout all India. It was instigated
+by the family of Tipú who had been quartered in that fortress, and its
+immediate origin was the issue of certain vexatious regulations about
+uniform which offended native prejudices of caste. The European force,
+numbering some 370, was surprised and surrounded by a much larger body
+of sepoys, half of them were killed or wounded, and Tipú's standard was
+hoisted. Within a few hours, however, cavalry and artillery arrived from
+Arcot, the mutineers were slaughtered by hundreds, and the disaffected
+regiments were broken up. Three years later, a serious mutiny broke out
+among the company's own officers at Madras, caused by a petty grievance
+affecting their profits on tent-contracts. It was appeased rather than
+suppressed, and, notwithstanding these discouraging symptoms of
+insecurity, the Company's army retained its separate organisation for
+half a century longer.
+
+[Pageheading: _MINTO'S PACIFIC POLICY._]
+
+Lord Cornwallis, the successor of Lord Wellesley, was opposed by
+conviction to a progressive expansion of British territory, and
+represented not only the cautious views of the home government, but the
+financial anxieties of the East India Company, which always valued a
+steady revenue more highly than imperial supremacy. Wellesley had
+virtually reconstructed the map of India on lines destined to endure
+until a fresh period of annexation set in some forty years later. These
+lines were not disturbed by Cornwallis, who died on October 5, 1805,
+three months after his arrival, but he clearly indicated his desire to
+let the system of protectorates and subsidiary treaties fall gradually
+into abeyance. His correspondence with Lake, whose victories had won him
+the rank of baron, contains a somewhat peremptory warning against fresh
+engagements contemplated by that enterprising officer, whose vigorous
+remonstrance he did not live to receive.[139] Sir George Barlow, who
+became acting governor-general for two years, adopted the same passive
+attitude, and forebore to carry out a projected alliance with Sindhia,
+though he would not allow any interference with our paramount influence
+at Poona and Haidarábád. Lord Minto, father of the Earl of Minto who
+presided at the admiralty under Melbourne, arrived as governor-general
+in 1807. He was imbued with similar ideas, and was fortunate in finding
+the Maráthás too much weakened to be dangerous neighbours. His rule was,
+therefore, essentially pacific, but he did good service in maintaining
+internal order, and especially in putting down the organised brigandage,
+known as "dakáiti," which had been the curse of rural districts. The
+distinctive feature of his career, however, was a permanent enlargement
+of the horizon of Indian statesmanship to a sphere beyond the confines
+of India and even of Asia, a change due to new movements in the vast
+international conflict then engrossing the energies of Europe.
+
+However chimerical the designs of Napoleon against British India may now
+appear, there is no doubt that such designs were seriously entertained
+by him, nor is it self-evident that what Alexander the Great found
+possible would have proved impossible to one who combined with
+Alexander's superhuman audacity the command of resources beyond anything
+known in the ancient world. At all events, after the battle of Friedland
+and the peace of Tilsit, an expedition to be launched from Russian
+territory upon the north-west frontier of India, with the support of
+Persia on the flank, became a contingency which an Indian
+governor-general could not afford to neglect. It is, indeed, strange
+that a march across Europe and half of Asia should have appeared to
+Napoleon more practicable than a voyage across the English Channel, and
+it is highly improbable that he would have cherished the idea of it, if
+he could have foreseen the perils of the Russian expedition. But his
+conversations at St. Helena prove that it was not a mere vision but a
+half-formed design, and, even after it had been discouraged by Russia,
+he sent a preliminary mission to Persia. Minto lost no time in sending
+counter-missions, not only to Tihran, but to Lahore, Afghánistán, and
+Sind.
+
+The Persian court was already in diplomatic relations with the Indian
+government. Colonel Malcolm, afterwards Sir John Malcolm, had been sent
+by Wellesley as envoy to the sháh at the end of 1800, and in January,
+1801, a treaty had been signed, establishing free trade between India
+and Persia, and binding the sháh to exclude the French from his
+dominions, while the company undertook to provide ships, troops, and
+stores, in case of French invasion. This treaty, however, neither was
+nor could have been actively carried out on either side. Early in 1806
+the sháh, who had become embroiled with Russia, appealed to Calcutta for
+aid, regardless of the fact that hostilities with Russia were not a
+_casus foederis_. Failing to obtain it, he appealed to France.
+Napoleon despatched General Gardane, who arrived in December, 1807. He
+obtained a treaty under which the sháh engaged to banish all Englishmen
+on demand of the French emperor. Thereupon Malcolm was entrusted by
+Minto with a fresh mission, but never reached the Persian capital, where
+French influence was still paramount, and the peremptory tone of
+Malcolm's letters was resented. Meanwhile, Sir Harford Jones had been
+sent out by the British foreign office, and was received at Tihran in
+February, 1809, the peace of Tilsit having destroyed the Persian hope of
+French support against Russia. For a while, the right of negotiating
+with the sháh was in dispute between the Indian government and the
+foreign office, and Sir John Malcolm reappeared at Tihran in the spring
+of 1810, as the representative of the former. In the end, however, he
+co-operated loyally with Jones, and a fresh treaty was signed, though
+both these rival emissaries were soon afterwards superseded by Sir Gore
+Ouseley as permanent ambassador.
+
+[Pageheading: _ELPHINSTONE IN AFGHÁNISTÁN._]
+
+Two other envoys selected by Minto left names which are famous in
+Anglo-Indian history, and one achieved an important success. Charles
+Metcalfe, Minto's envoy to Lahore, succeeded with the advantage of an
+armed force within easy reach of the Sikh frontier, in converting into
+an ally the redoubtable Ranjít Singh (not to be confounded with Ranjít
+Singh of Bhartpur), who had gathered into his own hands the Sikh
+confederacy and acquired sovereignty over the whole Punjab. He was now
+induced not only to accept the Sutlej river as the boundary line of his
+dominion, but to conclude a treaty of perpetual amity with the British
+government. This treaty remained unbroken until his death, and stood us
+in good stead during the perilous crisis of the first Afghán war. The
+embassy of Mountstuart Elphinstone to Afghánistán was comparatively
+fruitless, chiefly owing to the unsettled state of that mysterious
+country. Sháh Shujá, its titular amír, so far from being in a condition
+to resist French invasion, had lost possession of Kábul and Kandahár,
+and was only anxious to obtain British aid against his elder brother
+Mahmúd. Elphinstone, of course, had no authority to entangle the Company
+in a civil war far beyond the Indian frontier and was obliged to content
+himself with a worthless treaty empowering Great Britain to defend
+Afghánistán against France. This treaty had scarcely been ratified when
+Sháh Shujá himself was driven into exile, to play an ignoble part thirty
+years later in the great tragedy of the first Afghán war.
+
+However pacific Minto's policy was, he did not shut his eyes to the
+necessity of guarding the coasts and commerce of India against the enemy
+who still dominated Europe, and had not wholly abandoned his visions of
+eastern conquest. We have seen already that the "half way" naval station
+at the Cape of Good Hope had been retaken from the Dutch in 1806, the
+year in which the Berlin decree was issued. In 1810 the French were
+expelled from Java by an expedition despatched under Minto's orders,
+though it was soon to be restored to Holland. In the same year the
+islands of Mauritius and Bourbon were captured from the French and the
+sea route to India was finally secured. Lord Minto, who was recalled in
+1813 and raised to the dignity of an earl, left India after six years of
+peaceful government in a state of tranquillity such as it had never
+before enjoyed, and the settlement of the country under British
+suzerainty appeared to have been assured. Yet the seeds of fresh trouble
+were already working, and his successor was to prove himself a second
+Wellesley, and add new territories of great extent to British India.
+
+Lord Moira, better known by his later title as Marquis of Hastings,
+displayed qualities as governor-general of which his previous career had
+given no indication. He had already proved himself a good soldier, but
+he was a court favourite as well as a somewhat impracticable politician,
+and owed his appointment to other influences than his own merit. His
+arrival in India nearly coincided with the charter of 1813, which threw
+open the India trade, and virtually ushered in a new social era. He was
+at once confronted with an empty treasury, on the one hand, and, on the
+other, with alarming reports both from the northern frontier and from
+the central provinces, still under independent princes of doubtful
+fidelity. The earlier part of his nine years' residence in India was
+engrossed by most harassing operations against the Nepálís and the
+Pindárís, but these operations resulted in perfect success, and Hastings
+was able to show before he left India that he was eminent alike in civil
+and in military administration.
+
+The mountainous region of Nepál, lying on the slopes of the Himálayas
+north of Bengal and Oudh, had been occupied by the warlike nation, still
+known as the Gúrkhas, whose capital was at Khátmándu. Like the Maráthás,
+they had been in the habit of pillaging British territory as well as
+Oudh, and when part of Oudh was annexed by Wellesley, frontier disputes
+were added to former grounds of hostility. Minto remonstrated with them
+sharply but in vain, and Moira lost no time in declaring war against
+them. The first campaign of 1814, which followed, though skilfully
+conceived by Moira, who held the office of commander-in-chief, was
+carried out with little generalship, and was marked by disasters highly
+damaging to British prestige. Three out of four armies launched against
+the hill-tribes met with serious reverses, chiefly due to a contempt for
+the enemy, and a persistence in making frontal assaults on strong
+positions without practicable breaches, which have proved so fatal in
+many a later conflict between British troops and undisciplined foes.
+During the cold season, however, on the extreme north-west, the cautious
+but irresistible advance of General Ochterlony penetrated the hill
+ranges which had baffled all the other commanders, and retrieved the
+fortunes of the war. The Gúrkhas were far, indeed, from being subdued,
+but Ochterlony's success among their strongest fastnesses, aided by
+that of Colonels Gardner and Nicholls in the district of Kumáun,
+induced them to sue for peace, and offer territorial cessions. The loss
+of the Tarái, or belt of forest interspersed with pastures at the foot
+of the Himálayas, was the most onerous of the conditions imposed upon
+them by the treaty of Almora, signed in 1815. Rather than submit to it,
+the Gúrkha chiefs refused to ratify the treaty, and resumed their arms.
+After two defeats, however, in February, 1816, they abandoned further
+resistance, and Moira afterwards wisely consented to a modification of
+the frontier-line. Retaining but a remnant of their dominions in the
+lowlands, the Gúrkhas have ever since preserved their independence with
+their military training in the highlands, and have contributed some of
+the best fighting material to the British army in India.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE PINDÁRÍS._]
+
+While the war in Nepál was still undecided, fresh troubles broke out in
+Central India, where Wellesley's settlement had left no permanent
+security for peace. The very submission of the great Maráthá powers had
+set free large bands of irregular troops, with no livelihood but
+pillage, and ever ready, like the Italian _condottieri_ of the later
+middle ages, to enlist in the service of any aggressive state. These
+mounted freebooters, now called the Pindárís, were secretly encouraged
+by the Maráthá chiefs, who looked upon them as useful auxiliaries in the
+future, either against the government of India or against other native
+princes. Several of these still remained in a more or less dependent but
+restless condition, and the great leaders of the Maráthá confederacy,
+Sindhia, Malhár Ráo Holkar, son and successor of Jaswant Ráo, the
+Peshwá, and the Rájá of Nágpur, retained a large share of their former
+sovereignty. Of these subject-allies, the one most directly under
+British guidance and protection was the Peshwá, but even he took
+advantage of hostile movements among his neighbours to join in a
+combination against British rule, supported by the predatory raids of
+the Pindárís. He had long been discontented with the subordinate
+position which he had occupied since the treaty of Bassein. The
+assassination in 1815 of an envoy of the Gáekwár of Baroda, who had been
+sent to Poona on a special mission under British guarantees, nearly
+provoked hostilities. But in June, 1817, a treaty was concluded, by
+which the Peshwá accepted an increased subsidiary force, ceded part of
+his territory, renounced his suzerainty over the Gáekwár and undertook
+to submit all further disputes to the decision of the British
+government. In November, however, chafing under the restrictions imposed
+by this treaty, he broke out into hostility, burnt the British
+residency, and after vainly attacking the British troops, fled from
+Poona. Almost simultaneously Holkar and the Rájá of Nágpur rose. Holkar
+was defeated in a pitched battle at Mehidpur in Málwá, while the sepoys
+successfully held their own against the Rájá's troops at Nágpur. The
+fugitive Peshwá was energetically pursued, and captured, and was
+stripped of his dominions. The greater part of these was annexed by the
+East India Company, but a portion was reserved for the heir of the old
+Maráthá kings who was established at Sátára. The Rájá of Nágpur was also
+compelled to cede a large portion of his dominions, and at the same time
+the Company acquired the overlordship of Rájputána. Henceforth, the
+British government claimed a control over all the foreign relations of
+native Indian states, whose internal government was to be carefully
+watched by a British resident, and whose military forces were to be
+practically under the supreme command of the paramount power.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE END OF THE PINDÁRÍS._]
+
+Lord Moira, created Marquis of Hastings in 1816, was at last free to
+hunt down the Pindárís, with the sullen acquiescence of the Maráthá
+governments, and he executed his task with extraordinary vigour. He
+would have undertaken it, at the instigation of Metcalfe, then resident
+at Delhi, a year earlier, but for the peremptory orders of Canning, at
+that time president of the board of control, who positively forbade him
+to embark on a new war. These orders were greatly relaxed after the
+bloodthirsty raid of Chítu, the famous Pindárí leader, who in 1816
+desolated vast tracts of Central India. Still no effective action
+against the Pindárís was possible until the Maráthá lords who harboured
+and encouraged them had been crippled and overawed. With their
+connivance, a second Pindárí raid, accompanied by shocking cruelties,
+was made in the same year, but in 1817, when Holkar's followers were
+severely defeated at Mehidpur, the secret coalition between these
+bandits and our nominal allies was thoroughly broken up. Even then it
+proved a most difficult enterprise to root out the Pindárís, who were
+not a race, or a tribe, or a sect, but bands of lawless men of all
+faiths; for they met and vanished like birds of the air, outstripping
+regular cavalry by the length and rapidity of their marches, and
+carrying off their booty almost under the eyes of their pursuers. But
+the resolute tactics of Hastings prevailed in the end. Amír Khán, their
+most powerful leader, disbanded his troops; and hemmed in on all sides,
+cut off from every place of shelter, and chased by successive
+detachments of horsemen almost as fleet as his own, Chítu became a
+hopeless fugitive, with a handful of faithful adherents, who shared his
+desperate efforts to escape, but advised him to surrender. He could not
+bring himself to do so, possessed, it is said, with an unspeakable
+horror of being transported across "the black sea," and he actually
+remained at large or in hiding for a year after his lair was discovered.
+Nor was he ever captured, for, by a strange fate, this ruthless scourge
+of the Deccan, after baffling human vengeance, found his last refuge in
+a jungle and died, a tiger's prey. By this time, all the wild bands
+which sprung into existence out of the Maráthá war had been extirpated
+or dispersed, and after the year 1818 the dreaded name of Pindárí was
+heard no more in history.
+
+The suppression of civil war and anarchy in Central India, which
+completed the work of Wellesley, was the greatest achievement of
+Hastings. One remarkable incident of it was a portentous outbreak of
+cholera in 1817, during a campaign in Gwalior conducted by Hastings in
+person. There had been several minor visitations of this disease in
+India. But it now first established itself as an endemic disease, and it
+has ever since infested the valley of the Ganges. So virulent was its
+onslaught, and so fearful the mortality in Hastings' army, that it was
+only saved by shifting its quarters, and the governor-general himself
+made preparations for his own secret burial, in case he should be among
+the victims. As we have seen already,[140] it was propagated from this
+centre through other regions of Asia, until it spread to Western Europe,
+and the "Asiatic cholera" of 1831-32 may be lineally traced back to the
+last Maráthá war.
+
+The position of Hastings in Indian history closely resembles that of
+Wellesley. Disregarding the instructions of the board of control, as
+well as of the board of directors, he forced upon them, like Wellesley,
+a large extension of their empire. But it cannot be doubted that his
+policy, dictated by exigencies beyond the ken of authorities sitting in
+London, was eminently successful and beneficent in its results. It went
+far to establish a "Pax Britannica" in the Indian Peninsula, and, if it
+took little account of dynastic rights, it broke the rod of oppression,
+and relieved millions upon millions from tyranny and intimidation which
+overshadowed their whole lives. He retired in 1823, after seven years'
+tenure of office, and died in 1826 as governor of Malta. Canning had
+been designated as his successor, and, having accepted the post, was on
+the eve of starting for Calcutta, when the tragical death of Castlereagh
+recalled him to the foreign office, and opened to him the most brilliant
+stage in his career. Thereupon Lord Amherst was appointed
+governor-general, with every prospect of a pacific vice-royalty, whereas
+it is now chiefly remembered for the annexation of new provinces on the
+south-east of Bengal, and the capture of Bhartpur.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST BURMESE WAR._]
+
+The first Burmese war arose out of persistent aggressions by the new
+kingdom of Ava or Burma on what is now the British province of Assam,
+but was then an independent, though feeble, state. There had been
+earlier frontier disputes between the Indian government and Burma about
+the districts lying eastward of Chittagong along the Bay of Bengal, but
+it was not until Burma conquered Arakan, invaded Assam, and occupied
+passes on the north-east overlooking the plains of Bengal, that serious
+action was felt to be necessary. Indeed, while Hastings was engaged with
+the war in Nepál and the suppression of the Pindárís, even he was in no
+mood to embark on a fresh campaign beyond the borders of India. The
+incursions of the Burmese, however, became more and more threatening
+both on the coast line and on the mountains above the Brahmaputra river,
+and in February, 1824, Amherst resolved to check the extension of their
+dominion. Notwithstanding the experience recently gained in Nepál, the
+first operations of the Anglo-Indian troops were conducted with little
+knowledge of the country, and met with very doubtful success. Rangoon
+was easily captured, but the expedition was disabled from advancing up
+the river Irawadi by the want of adequate supplies and the deadliness of
+the climate. Part of the Tenasserim coast was subdued, but a British
+force was defeated in Arakan. These reverses were retrieved in the
+following year, 1825, when one army under Sir Archibald Campbell made
+its way up the river to Prome, while another army conquered Arakan, and
+a third, moving along the valley of the Brahmaputra, established itself
+in Assam. The Burmese now abandoned further resistance. Assam, Arakan,
+and the Tenasserim provinces were ceded to the company, whose
+protectorate was also recognised over other territories upon the course
+of the Brahmaputra. It was not until February, 1826, that the King of
+Ava could be induced to sign the treaty embodying these cessions, and
+many years were to elapse before the port of Rangoon was opened to
+British commerce.
+
+The strong fortress of Bhartpur, in the east of Rájputána, and near to
+Agra, had acquired an unique importance, in the eyes of all India by its
+successful resistance to Lake's assaults during the Maráthá war of 1805.
+It was still held until 1825 by its own petty rájá, the son of Ranjít
+Singh, who remained on terms of respectful amity with the Indian
+government, though his little principality was a notorious focus of
+native disaffection. In that year he died, and his child, after being
+acknowledged by the Indian government as his successor, was forcibly
+ousted by a usurper. Sir David Ochterlony, the hero of the Nepálese war,
+then resident in Málwá and Rájputána, undertook to support the
+legitimate heir, but was overruled by orders from Amherst. On his
+resignation he was succeeded by Metcalfe, who had become Sir Charles
+Metcalfe by his brother's death in 1822, and who now obtained authority
+to carry out Ochterlony's policy, if necessary, by armed intervention.
+As negotiation failed, Lord Combermere, as commander-in-chief, proceeded
+to reduce the virgin fortress, not by the slow process of siege, but by
+a well-organised assault. Having cut off the water supply, and mined the
+mud walls, he poured in a storming party and overpowered the garrison.
+The feat was probably not so great, from a military point of view, as
+many that have left no record, but its effect on the superstitious
+native mind was prodigious, especially as it nearly coincided with the
+victorious issue of the Burmese war. Nevertheless, Amherst was shortly
+afterwards recalled, and left India in 1828. His annexation of Burmese
+territory and the increase of expenditure under his rule displeased both
+the Company and the home government, so often foiled in the attempt to
+enforce a pacific and economical policy. His successor was Lord William
+Bentinck, who had been compelled to retire from the governorship of
+Madras after the mutiny of Vellore.
+
+Like Hastings, Bentinck showed a firmness and wisdom in his Indian
+administration strongly contrasting with the restless self-assertion of
+his earlier career. His lot was cast in an interval of tranquillity
+after a long period of warfare, and his name is associated with internal
+reforms and social progress in India, not unconnected with a like
+movement in England. The measure upon which his fame chiefly rests was
+the abolition of "satí," that is, the practice of Hindoo widows
+sacrificing themselves by being burned alive on the funeral pile of
+their husbands. This practice, which specially prevailed in Bengal, has
+been explained by a false interpretation of certain texts in sacred
+books of the Hindus, by the selfish eagerness of the husband's family to
+monopolise all his property, and by the utterly desolate condition of a
+childless widow in native communities. At all events, it was deeply
+rooted in Hindu traditions, and no previous governor had dared to go
+beyond issuing regulations to secure that the widow should be a willing
+victim. Bentinck had the courage to act on the conviction that
+inhumanity, however consecrated by superstition and priestcraft, has no
+permanent basis in popular sentiment. With the consent of his council,
+he prohibited "satí" absolutely, declaring that all who took any part in
+it should be held guilty of culpable homicide; and the native population
+acquiesced in its suppression.
+
+But this was only one of Bentinck's reforms. Armed with peremptory
+instructions from the home government, he effected large retrenchments
+in the growing expenditure of the Indian services, both civil and
+military, and a considerable increase in the Indian revenue. It may be
+doubted whether one of these retrenchments, involving a strict revision
+of officers' allowances known as "batta," was considerable enough to be
+worth the almost mutinous discontent which it provoked. Another,
+affecting the salaries of civilians, was aggravated, in their eyes, by
+the admission of natives to "primary jurisdiction," in other words, by
+enabling native judges to sit in courts of first instance. This
+important change had been gradually introduced before the arrival of
+Bentinck, but it was he who most boldly adopted the idea of governing
+India in the interest and by the agency of the natives. On the other
+hand, it was he who, supported by Macaulay's famous minute, but contrary
+to official opinion in Leadenhall Street, issued the ordinance
+constituting English the official language of India. In a like spirit,
+he promoted the work of native education, partly for the purpose of
+developing the political and judicial capacity of the higher orders
+among the Hindus, but partly also for the purpose of making the English
+language and literature the instrument of their elevation. He earnestly
+desired to raise the standard of Indian civilisation, but he equally
+desired to fashion it in an English mould.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EXTIRPATION OF "THAGÍ"._]
+
+Under the rule of Bentinck, the revenue was largely augmented by a
+reassessment of land in the north-western provinces, where an increasing
+number of zamíndárs had fraudulently evaded the payment of rent, and by
+the imposition of licence-duties on the growers of opium in Málwá, who
+had carried on a profitable but illicit trade through foreign ports. But
+the social benefit of the people was ever his first concern, and not the
+least of his claims to their gratitude was the final extirpation of
+"thagí". This institution was a secret association of highway robbers
+and murderers who had plagued Central India almost as widely as the
+roving troops of Pindárís. Their victims were travellers whom they
+decoyed into their haunts, plundered, strangled, and buried on the spot.
+For years they carried on their infamous trade with impunity, and no
+member of the conspiracy had turned informer. At last, however, a clue
+was found by a skilful and resolute agent of the government, and the
+spell of mutual dread which held together the murderous confederacy was
+effectually broken in India. Meanwhile, the same period of peaceful
+development witnessed the execution of important public works, the
+relaxation of restrictions on the liberty of the press, and a general
+advance towards a more paternal despotism, coincident with the progress
+of liberal ideas at home. These benign influences were favoured by the
+continuance of peace and the maintenance of non-intervention, disturbed
+only by the minor annexations of Cachar and Coorg, to which may be added
+the assumption of direct control over Mysore.
+
+When the charter of 1833 transformed the "company of British merchants
+trading to the east" into the "East India Company," with administrative
+powers only, Bentinck was in failing health, and he soon afterwards
+returned home. On his resignation in 1835, Metcalfe became provisional
+governor-general, but his liberal policy displeased the court of
+directors, and Lord Heytesbury was selected by the short-lived
+government of Peel as Bentinck's successor. Palmerston, however, on
+resuming the foreign office, was believed to have used his influence to
+set aside this nomination, and to procure the appointment of Lord
+Auckland, then first lord of the admiralty. The supposed objection to
+Heytesbury was his known sympathy with Russia, at a moment when distrust
+of Russia's designs on the north-west frontier was about to become the
+keynote of Anglo-Indian statesmanship. During the interregnum between
+Bentinck's retirement and Auckland's accession, three more remedial
+measures were carried into effect, the wisdom of which is not even yet
+beyond dispute. These were the complete liberation of the Indian press,
+the abolition of the exclusive privilege whereby British residents could
+appeal in civil suits to the supreme court at Calcutta, and the definite
+introduction of English text-books into schools for the people. For all
+these reforms Macaulay was largely responsible, but the impulse had been
+given by Bentinck, and was accelerated by Metcalfe.
+
+During the years 1835-37 domestic affairs occupied much less space in
+the counsels of Indian statesmen than schemes for counteracting the
+growth of Russian influence at Tihran, and securing the predominance of
+British influence in Afghánistán. For a time their anxiety was
+concentrated on Herat, which the Sháh of Persia was besieging, with the
+intention of penetrating into the heart of Afghán territory, while the
+Afghán rulers themselves were suspected of secretly conspiring with
+Persia against our ally, Ranjít Singh. Since Persia, having again lost
+faith in British support, was drifting more and more into reliance on
+Russia, this forward movement was regarded as the first step of the
+Russian advance-guard towards India. The fate of India was felt to
+depend on the defence of Herat under Pottinger, a young British officer,
+who volunteered his services without instructions from home. The siege,
+conducted under Russian officers, lasted ten months, and its ultimate
+failure was hailed as a triumph of British policy, for Herat was
+recognised, since the days of Alexander the Great, as the western gate
+of India.
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA._]
+
+About the same time the question of a shorter route to India attracted
+much attention both in Russia and in England. The first project was
+that, ultimately adopted, of a sea passage by Malta to Alexandria, a
+land transit across Egypt to Suez, and a second voyage by the Red Sea to
+Indian ports. The alternative line was more properly described as an
+"overland route," since it was proposed to make the journey from some
+port in the eastern Levant across Syria and by the Euphrates to the
+Persian Gulf. Colonel Chesney was sent out in 1835 as the pioneer of an
+expedition by this route, and parliament twice voted money for its
+development, but it was vigorously opposed by Russia, and abandoned as
+impracticable owing to physical difficulties in navigating the
+Euphrates, then considered as a necessary channel of communication with
+the sea. The scheme has since been revived on a much grander scale in
+the form of a projected railway traversing Asia Minor to Baghdad, and
+running down the valley of the Tigris. In the meantime, the Red Sea
+route, at first discredited, has far more than justified the hopes of
+its promoters. With the aid of steam-vessels, since 1845, and of the
+Suez Canal, since 1869, it has reduced the journey to India from a
+period of four months to one of three weeks, and profoundly affected its
+relations with Great Britain.
+
+It would be well if the premature, but not unfounded, fear of Russian
+invasion had produced no further effects on Anglo-Indian policy.
+Unhappily, those who justly perceived the importance of Afghánistán, as
+lying between Persia and the Punjab, were possessed with the delusion
+that it would prove a more solid buffer as a British dependency than as
+an independent state. In their ignorance of its internal condition and
+the sentiments of its unruly tribes, the Indian government despatched
+Sir Alexander Burnes to Kábul, nominally as a commercial emissary, but
+not without ulterior objects. They could not have chosen a more capable
+agent, for he added to a knowledge of several languages a minute
+geographical acquaintance with Central Asia and an insight into the
+character of its inhabitants which probably no other Englishman
+possessed. He was to proceed by way of Sind to Pesháwar, and in passing
+through Sind he received news of the siege of Herat, the significance
+of which he was not slow to appreciate. Thenceforward his mission
+inevitably assumed a political complexion, since the future of
+Afghánistán became a practical question. His rash negotiations with Dost
+Muhammad, the Amír of Kábul, and his brother at Kandahár, his return to
+India, his second mission to Afghánistán in support of a policy which he
+had deprecated, and his tragical death in the Kábul insurrection,--these
+are events which belong to a later chapter of history. But, though
+Burnes cannot be held responsible for the first Afghán war, there can be
+no doubt that his travels in disguise through Central Asia, and
+confidential reports on the border countries between the Russian and
+British spheres of influence, were the immediate prelude to a campaign
+the most ill-advised and the most disastrous ever organised by the
+Indian government and sanctioned by that of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[138] Despatch of July 13, 1804, _Selection from Wellesley's
+Despatches_, ed. Owen, pp. 436-41. See Sir A. Lyall, _British Dominion
+in India_, p. 260.
+
+[139] Cornwallis to Lake, Sept. 19, 1805, _Cornwallis Correspondence_,
+iii., 547-55.
+
+[140] See p. 310 above.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+                    LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+
+The period which elapsed between the resignation of Pitt and the battle
+of Waterloo was hardly less eventful in the history of British
+civilisation than in the history of British empire. To some, the
+boundary line between the society of the eighteenth and that of the
+nineteenth century appears to be marked by the outbreak of the French
+revolution, and the far-reaching effects of that catastrophe upon ideas,
+manners, and politics in Great Britain, as well as upon the continent,
+are too evident to be denied. But it is equally certain that, before the
+French revolution, an intellectual and industrial movement was in
+progress which must have given a most powerful impulse to civilisation,
+even if the French revolution had never taken place. In this country,
+especially, the great writers, philanthropists, scientific leaders,
+inventors, engineers, and reformers of various types, who adorned the
+latter part of George III.'s reign, largely drew their inspiration from
+an age, just preceding the French revolution, which is sometimes
+regarded as barren in originality.
+
+When the nineteenth century opened, the classical authors of that
+pre-revolutionary age had mostly passed away. Hume died in 1776, Johnson
+in 1784, Adam Smith in 1790, Gibbon in 1794, Burns in 1796, Burke in
+1797, Cowper in 1800. John Howard, the great pioneer of prison reform,
+became a martyr to philanthropy in 1790. The most remarkable of those
+manufacturing improvements and mechanical inventions upon which the
+commercial supremacy of England is founded date from the same period,
+and have been described in a previous volume. Steam navigation was still
+untried, but preliminary experiments had already been made on both sides
+of the Atlantic before 1789. The application of steam to locomotion by
+land had scarcely been conceived, but the facilities of traffic and
+travelling had been vastly developed in the first forty years of George
+III.'s reign.
+
+It may truly be said, however, that English literature in the early
+party of the nineteenth century bears clear traces of the influence
+exercised on receptive minds by the French revolution. Three of the
+leading poets, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, were deeply infected
+by its spirit, and indulged in their youth fantastic dreams of a social
+millennium; Wordsworth, especially, who in his maturer years could be
+justly described as the priest of nature-worship and the poet of rural
+life, had imbibed violent republican ideas during a residence of more
+than a year in France. These were passing off in 1798, when he
+published, jointly with Coleridge, the volume of _Lyrical Ballads_
+containing the latter's immortal tale of the _Ancient Mariner_. In the
+following year he settled in the English lake-country, where Coleridge
+established himself for a while, and Southey for life. Hence the popular
+but very inaccurate title of the "Lake School," applied to a trio of
+poets who, except as friends, had little in common with each other.
+Indeed, after Wordsworth had developed his theory of poetical realism in
+the preface to a volume published in 1800, Coleridge rejected and
+criticised it as wholly untenable. All three, however, may be considered
+as comrades in a revolt against the conventional diction of eighteenth
+century poetry, from which Coleridge's "dreamy tenderness" and mystical
+flights of fancy were as remote as Wordsworth's rusticity and almost
+prosaic studies of humble life.
+
+[Pageheading: _COLERIDGE AND SCOTT._]
+
+Although Coleridge survived to 1834 and Wordsworth to 1850, both seem to
+have lost at an early date that power of imagination, whether displayed
+in sympathy or in creation, in which their greatness consisted.
+Wordsworth wrote assiduously during the whole of this period; in 1807 he
+published a volume of poems, including the famous _Ode on the
+Intimations of Immortality_ and several of his finest sonnets; but of
+his later work only an occasional lyric deserves to be ranked beside the
+poems published in 1800 and 1807. Coleridge, indeed, published two of
+his finest poems, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, in 1816, but they were
+written long before, _Christabel_, partly in 1797 and partly in 1801,
+and _Kubla Khan_ in 1798. Even the new metre of _Christabel_, which is
+not the least of Coleridge's contributions to English poetry, had, as
+early as 1805, been borrowed in the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ by Scott,
+to whom Coleridge had recited the poem. Nevertheless, Coleridge
+continued to exercise a great influence, partly through the charm of his
+conversation and partly through his prose works, in which he introduced
+to a British public, as yet unused to German literature, a vision of
+that mystical German thought which finds its father in Kant, and was
+represented at that day by Hegel in philosophy and Goethe in poetry. It
+is uncertain how far the general ignorance of German literature in
+England was responsible for the influence exercised in their own day by
+the few English or Scottish thinkers, such as Coleridge, Hamilton, and
+Carlyle, who had either fallen under the spell or learned the secret of
+the German mystics. The most important of Coleridge's prose works was
+_Aids to Reflection_, which appeared in 1828, and whatever be its
+literary value, it deserves the notice of the historian, as the least
+unsystematic treatise of an author who gave the principal philosophical
+impetus to the Oxford movement.
+
+Two other poets, eminently the product of their age, though not the
+offspring of the French revolution, Scott and Byron, were equally in
+revolt against conventional diction. Scott elevated ballad-poetry to a
+level which it had never before attained, and composed some of the most
+beautiful songs in the English language. If it be remembered that he was
+cramped by the drudgery of legal offices during the best years of his
+life, that he was nearly thirty when he made his first literary venture,
+that he was crippled by financial ruin and broken health during his
+later years, that his anonymous contributions to periodicals would fill
+volumes, and that he died at the age of sixty-one, his fertility of
+production must ever be ranked as unique in the history of English
+literature. Already known as the author of various lyrical pieces, and
+the _Border Minstrelsy_, he published the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ in
+1805, _Marmion_ (with its fine stanzas on Pitt and Fox) in 1808, the
+_Lady of the Lake_ in 1809, _Don Roderick_ in 1811, and _Rokeby_ in
+1813, as well as minor poems of high merit. He is said to have abandoned
+poetry in deference to Byron's rising star, and it is certain that he
+now fills a higher place in the roll of English classics as a prose
+writer than as a poet. His first novel, _Waverley_, appeared in 1814,
+and was followed In the next four years by six of the greatest "Waverley
+Novels," as the series came to be called--_Guy Mannering_, the
+_Antiquary_, the _Black Dwarf_, _Old Mortality_, _Rob Roy_, and the
+_Heart of Midlothian_. It is not too much to say that by these works,
+both in poetry and in prose, he created the historical romance in Great
+Britain. The legends of chivalry and the folk-lore of his native land
+had deeply stirred his soul, and fired his imagination from childhood,
+and though later "research" has far outstripped the range of his
+antiquarian knowledge, no modern writer has ever done so much to awaken
+a reverence for olden times in the hearts of his countrymen. The easy
+flow of his style, the vivid energy of his thought, the graphic power of
+his descriptions, his shrewd and robust sympathy with human nature, and
+the evident simplicity of his own character, not unmingled with flashes
+of true poetical insight, justly rendered him the most popular writer of
+his time.
+
+Byron was born in 1788, and first sprang into notice as the author of
+_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, a fierce and bitter reply to
+critics who had disparaged his first essay in poetry. This satire
+appeared in 1809, when he was just of age, after which he travelled with
+Hobhouse, and it was not until 1812 that he "woke to find himself
+famous," on publishing the first two cantos of _Childe Harold_. During
+the next three years, he poured forth a succession of characteristic
+poems, including the _Giaour_, the _Bride of Abydos_, the _Corsair_,
+_Lara_, and the _Siege of Corinth_. His later work was of a more
+finished order, including the remaining cantos of _Childe Harold_,
+_Manfred_, _Cain_, and _Mazeppa_, and when he died at Mesolongi in 1824,
+he left unfinished what is, in some ways, the most remarkable of his
+works, _Don Juan_. Long before his death he had become the prophet and
+hero of a pseudo-romantic school, composed of young Englishmen dazzled
+by his intellectual brilliancy, and attracted rather than repelled by a
+certain Satanic taint in his moral sentiments. But he also won the
+admiration of Goethe, and the reaction against his fame in a later
+generation is as exaggerated as the idolatry of which he was the object
+under the regency. His morbid egotism, his stormy rhetoric, and his
+meretricious exaltation of passion, have lost their magical effect, but
+his poetical gifts would have commanded homage in any age. The message
+which he professed to deliver was a false message, but few poets have
+surpassed him in daring vigour of imagination, in descriptive force, in
+wit, or in pathos. His style was eminently such as to invite imitation,
+yet no one has successfully imitated him. Had he been a better man, and
+had his life been prolonged, he might perhaps have towered above his
+literary contemporaries as Napoleon did among the generals and rulers of
+Europe.
+
+[Pageheading: _KEATS, SHELLEY, TENNYSON._]
+
+Yet among these contemporaries were Keats and Shelley, whom some critics
+of a younger generation would place above him in poetical originality.
+Their chief merit lay neither in thought nor in strength, but in an
+exquisite sweetness of expression, which in the case of Shelley at least
+was quite independent of the subject-matter. Keats, though junior to
+Shelley, has been described as his poetical father, but his chief poem,
+_Endymion_, did not appear until several years after Shelley had formed
+his own distinctive style. He died in 1821 at the age of twenty-six,
+leaving a poetical inheritance of the highest quality, which, though
+limited in quantity and unequal in workmanship, has gained an enduring
+reputation. Nevertheless his work lent itself readily to imitation, and
+he exercised a marked influence on the style of later poets, not only in
+this period, but in the Victorian age as well. The rebellious spirit of
+Shelley had already shown itself at an early age in his poetry, and
+especially in _Queen Mab_, printed in 1812. His ethereal fancy, his
+dreamy obscurity, and his witchery of language, designated him from the
+first as a master of lyrical poetry; though he wrote longer pieces, his
+fame rests on the numerous short poems which continued to appear till
+his death in 1822.
+
+Perhaps the greatest master of melody was one who was only coming to the
+front at the close of this period, Alfred Tennyson, born in 1809,
+contributed with two of his brothers to a collection of verses,
+misleadingly entitled _Poems by Two Brothers_, which appeared in 1826.
+At Cambridge his _Timbuctoo_ won the chancellor's prize, but the first
+proof of his powers was given by a volume of short poems published in
+1830, followed by a similar volume two years later. By far the greater
+part of his work lies in the next period, but the volume of 1833 already
+included some of his best known poems.
+
+Among minor poets of this period the highest rank must perhaps be
+assigned to Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore as authors of some of the
+most stirring and graceful lyrics in the English language. The former
+had attained celebrity by the _Pleasures of Hope_, published before the
+end of the eighteenth century, but his choicest poems, such as _Ye
+Mariners of England_, the fine verses on Hohenlinden and Copenhagen, and
+_Gertrude of Wyoming_, appeared between 1802 and 1809. The series of
+Moore's Irish melodies, on which his poetical fame largely rests, was
+begun in 1807, though not completed until long afterwards. They were
+followed by other lyrical pieces of great merit, and by a series of
+witty and malicious lampoons, collected in 1813 into a volume called the
+_Twopenny Post Bag_. _Lalla Rookh_, his most ambitious effort, was not
+published until 1817.
+
+Two prose writers of the same epoch, Southey and Bentham, claim special
+notice, though Southey may also be numbered among the poets. Having
+established himself close to Keswick in 1804, he prosecuted a literary
+career with the most untiring industry until his mental faculties at
+last failed him some thirty-six years later. During this period he
+produced above a hundred volumes in poetry and prose, besides numerous
+scattered articles and other papers. Most of these were of merely
+ephemeral interest, but the _Life of Nelson_, published in 1813, may be
+said to have set a standard of simplicity, purity, and dignity in
+English prose which has been of permanent value. Bentham's style, on the
+contrary, was so wanting in beauty and perspicuity that one at least of
+his chief works is best known to English readers in the admirable French
+paraphrase of his friend Dumont. This is his famous _Introduction to the
+Principles of Morals and Legislation_, in which the doctrines of the
+utilitarian philosophy are rigorously applied to jurisprudence and the
+regulation of human conduct. Several of his numerous treatises had been
+planned, and others actually composed, before the end of the eighteenth
+century, but his practical influence, ultimately so great, first made
+itself felt in the early part of the nineteenth century. This influence
+may be compared within the sphere of social reform to that of Adam Smith
+within the sphere of economy. Many amendments of the law, an improved
+system of prison discipline, and even the reform of the poor law, may
+be directly traced to his counsels, and it was he who inspired the
+leading radicals when radicalism was not so much a destructive creed as
+a protest against real and gross abuses.
+
+[Pageheading: _MALTHUS._]
+
+Perhaps, next to Bentham, no writer of this period influenced educated
+opinion so powerfully as Malthus, whose _Essay on Population_, first
+published anonymously in 1798, attracted comparatively little attention
+until 1803, when it was republished in a maturer form. No work has ever
+been more persistently misrepresented. While he shows that population,
+if unchecked, will surely increase in a ratio far outstripping any
+possible increase in the means of subsistence, he also shows, by
+elaborate proofs, that it will inevitably be checked by vice and misery,
+whether or not they are aided by moral restraint. Later experience has
+done little to weaken his reasoning, but it has proved that "moral
+restraint" (in the most general sense) operates more widely than he
+ventured to expect, and that larger tracts of the earth's surface than
+he recognised could be brought under profitable cultivation. With these
+modifications, his theory holds the field, and the people of Great
+Britain only escape starvation by ever-growing importations of grain
+from countries whose production--for the present--exceeds their
+consumption.
+
+Several other writers of eminence, such as Sheridan and Paley, who lived
+in the latter days of George III. are more properly to be regarded as
+survivors of eighteenth century literature. Horne Tooke was returned for
+Old Sarum in 1801, and enjoyed a reputation in society until his death
+in 1812, but his old-fashioned radicalism had long since been superseded
+by a newer creed. Dugald Stewart continued to lecture on moral
+philosophy until 1809, and was fortunate in numbering among his pupils
+Palmerston, Lansdowne, and Russell. A younger student of philosophy was
+Richard Whately, who was born in 1787, and elected to a fellowship at
+Oriel College, Oxford, in 1811. He soon began to play an active part in
+university life, and, after being principal of St. Alban Hall, was
+removed to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831. Though not a great
+philosopher, he was an acute logician, and his _Logic_, published in
+1826, entitled him to a high place among the thinkers of his generation.
+But it was not merely as a teacher and writer that Whately promoted the
+cause of philosophy in Oxford. He was one of the leaders in that
+organisation of studies which made philosophy one of the principal
+studies, if not the principal study, of the abler students in that
+university, and gave elementary logic a place in the ordinary
+"pass-man's" curriculum.
+
+The best work of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen appeared in the early
+part of the nineteenth century. Maria Edgeworth's novel, _Castle
+Rackrent_, was published in 1800, and rapidly followed by other tales
+descriptive of Irish life; four of Jane Austen's novels, _Sense and
+Sensibility_, _Pride and Prejudice_, _Mansfield Park_, and _Emma_, were
+published between 1811 and 1816, while _Northanger Abbey_ and
+_Persuasion_ appeared after her death in 1817. All her work displays a
+power of minute analysis of character shared by few, if any, of our
+other novelists. Both authors deserve gratitude not only for having
+inspired Scott with a new idea of novel-writing, but for having
+exercised a purifying influence on the moral tone of English romance.
+
+The most typical feature of English literature in the earlier years of
+the nineteenth century was the extraordinary development of the
+periodical and newspaper press. The eighteenth century was the golden
+age of pamphlets. When the "governing classes" represented but a
+fraction of the population, mostly concentrated in London, the practical
+effect of such political appeals as those issued by Swift or Burke was
+incredibly great, and not to be measured by their limited circulation.
+The rise of journalism as a power in politics may be roughly dated from
+the notoriety of Wilkes' _North Briton_, and of the letters of "Junius"
+in the _Public Advertiser_. Thenceforward, newspapers, at first mere
+chronicles of passing events, inevitably grew to be organs of political
+opinion, and had now almost superseded pamphlets, as addressed to a far
+larger circle of readers. Notwithstanding the heavy stamp duties, as
+well as duties on paper and advertisements, six daily journals were
+published in London, of which the _Times_ was already the greatest.
+Cobbett's _Weekly Political Register_, commenced in 1802, was diffusing
+new ideas among the middle classes, but it was not yet committed to
+radicalism, and did not win its way into cottages until its price was
+greatly reduced in 1816. After Cobbett's death in 1835, it ceased to
+appear. Still the ice was broken, and, as the educated public recovered
+from the panic caused by the French revolution, the newspaper press
+became a potent and independent rival of parliament and the platform.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDINBURGH AND QUARTERLY REVIEWS._]
+
+But the influence of the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_ was perhaps
+even greater among readers of the highest intelligence. The first of
+these was founded in 1802 by Jeffrey, Brougham, Horner, and Sydney
+Smith, but was supported at first by Scott and other able contributors.
+So remarkable a body of writers must have commanded attention in any
+age, but at a time when the only periodicals were annuals and
+miscellanies, the literary vigour and range of knowledge displayed by
+the new review carried all before it. For several years it had an unique
+success, but, as it identified itself more and more with the whig party,
+Canning, with the aid of Scott, determined to challenge its supremacy by
+establishing a new review to be called the _Quarterly_. Scott was
+finally estranged from the _Edinburgh_ by an article against the war of
+independence in Spain, and the first number of the _Quarterly_ appeared
+in February, 1809, with three articles by him. It was published by John
+Murray, and edited by Gifford, on much the same lines as the
+_Edinburgh_, but with a strong tory bias, and with somewhat less of
+literary brilliancy. _Blackwood's Magazine_ followed a few years later,
+and the almost classical dualism of the _Quarterly_ and _Edinburgh_ has
+long since been invaded by a multitude of younger serials.
+
+After the loss of its early monopoly of talent, the _Edinburgh Review_
+still retained Jeffrey and Sydney Smith, and it was abundantly
+compensated for the loss of Scott by the acquisition in 1825 of the
+fluent pen of Macaulay. Born in 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay, who
+like many other philanthropists was on the tory side, he was early
+converted to the whig party. He was well fitted to be a popular writer.
+His thought, never deep, is always clear and vivid. None knew better how
+to seize a dramatic incident or a picturesque simile, or to strike the
+weak points in his adversary's armour. It has been said of him that he
+always chose to storm a position by a cavalry charge, certainly the most
+imposing if not the most effective method. Many of his contributions to
+the _Edinburgh Review_ were afterwards republished as _Essays_, and
+already in those earlier essays which appeared before 1837, we can see
+him assuming the _rôle_ of the historical champion of the whigs. Widely
+read and with a marvellous memory, he was generally accurate in his
+facts, but his criticism of Gladstone applies with even greater force to
+himself: "There is no want of light, but a great want of what Bacon
+would have called dry light. Whatever Mr. Gladstone sees is refracted
+and distorted by a false medium of passions and prejudices." The critic
+is sunk in the advocate, and even a good cause is spoiled by a too
+obvious reluctance to admit anything that comes from the other side.
+Perhaps his happiest, though far from his greatest, work is to be found
+in the stirring ballads of _Ivry_ and the _Armada_, the precursors of
+the _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Deservedly popular and full of patriotic
+fire, the class of literature to which they belong renders questions of
+fairness or unfairness beside the point.
+
+Another contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, also famous as a
+historian, was Thomas Carlyle. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in
+Dumfriesshire, and wrote for Brewster's _Encyclopædia_ and the _London
+Magazine_ as well as the _Edinburgh_. In 1826 he married Jane Welsh, and
+in 1828 he retired from journalism to live humbly on her means. It was
+now that he began to produce his best work. _Sartor Resartus_ appeared
+in 1833-34, and the _History of the French Revolution_ in 1837. Even in
+the latter of these works he is as much a preacher as a historian.
+Perhaps no other writer of the age exercised a greater direct influence,
+and in his own country, which seems specially amenable to the preacher's
+powers, his message has been as effective in favour of broader views as
+the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843 was in favour of the
+old orthodoxy. His teaching has its roots in a German soil, but it bears
+the mark of his own strong personality. His style, with a wilful
+ruggedness, displays the German taste for the humour of an incongruous
+homeliness, where the subject seems to call for a more dignified
+treatment. Perhaps this obvious falseness of expression only relieves
+the weight of his stern earnestness of purpose and makes us the more
+ready to join in his constant denunciation of everything hollow and
+pretentious.
+
+[Pageheading: _LAMB._]
+
+Two new magazines appeared in or about 1817, _Blackwood's_ and the
+_London_. Brilliant as the leading contributors to the former were, none
+of them perhaps can claim a place in the front rank of English
+literature. Of the contributors to the _London_ Lamb is doubtless
+entitled to the first place. Born in 1775, he was employed as a clerk in
+the East India House from 1792 to 1825. He was a schoolfellow of
+Coleridge and contributed to his earlier volume of poems It is, however,
+to the _Essays of Elia_ that he owes his fame. These appeared in the
+_London Magazine_ and were published in a collected form after his death
+in 1834. Few authors that have been so much admired have exercised so
+little influence. The reason for this is not far to seek. His style
+defies imitation, and he would have been the last man to endeavour to
+win disciples to his opinions. Another essayist who belongs to the same
+group of writers as Coleridge and Lamb is Thomas de Quincey. He wrote
+both for _Blackwood's_ and for the _London Magazine_, in the latter of
+which appeared in 1821 his best known work, the _Confessions of an
+English Opium Eater_. He excelled in what was the dominant
+characteristic of English prose of this period, in imagery, a quality
+which is conspicuous in the light fancy of Coleridge's most famous
+poems, and which gives life to an author so uniformly in dead earnest as
+Macaulay. Viewed historically, this taste for imagery is the English
+side of the romantic movement, which in Germany reacted against the
+conventional, not only in works of the imagination, but in the heavier
+form of new philosophical systems. But these systems, in spite of
+Coleridge, never became native in England. The growth of the scientific
+spirit has made such thought and such language seem unreal in serious
+literature, and prevents a later generation from imitating, though not
+from admiring, the brilliance of the early essayists.
+
+Hazlitt's genius was of a heavier type. As an essayist his work breathes
+the spirit of an earlier age; but as a literary critic he is a leader,
+and displays an inwardness in his appreciation that makes him in a sense
+the model of the new age in which criticism has so largely supplanted
+creation. It may be doubted, however, whether the abnormal growth of
+criticism, as a distinct branch of English letters, has been a benefit
+on the whole to our literature. Certainly it has tended to substitute
+the elaborate study of other men's thoughts for original production,
+and, after all, the greatest critics have been those who, being more
+than critics, have shown themselves capable of constructive efforts.
+
+Two statesmen-novelists, Bulwer and Disraeli, are among the most
+interesting literary characters of the end of this period. The former of
+these, like his French contemporary Victor Hugo, had a remarkable gift
+for expressing each successive phase of popular taste. He resembled
+Disraeli in acquiring a pre-eminent position in letters in early youth,
+which was followed by political success at a later age. Though neither
+rose to cabinet rank before a time of life which must with literary men
+rank as "middle age," Bulwer had, in the midst of an active
+parliamentary career, been an active novelist, in fact the most popular
+novelist of his day. Disraeli, on the other hand, only entered
+parliament after the close of the period dealt with in this volume, and
+it is to this period, while he was still unknown to politics, that the
+greater part of his literary work belongs. One other resemblance between
+these writers is perhaps not less interesting to the historian than to
+the critic. Both made use of literature to establish for themselves a
+reputation as "men of the world," an ambition which Bulwer's social
+position might easily justify, and without which it would be impossible
+to understand the career of Disraeli. Born in 1803 and 1804
+respectively, both made their mark with their first novels in 1827,
+Bulwer with _Falkland_, Disraeli with a work in which his own career has
+been supposed to be foreshadowed--_Vivian Grey_. One other great
+novelist had appeared before the close of the reign of William IV. In
+1836 Charles Dickens produced _Sketches by Boz_ and began the _Pickwick
+Papers_, but he belongs properly to the next reign.
+
+Among the historians of this period the first place undoubtedly belongs
+to Henry Hallam. Born in 1788, he produced his _View of the State of
+Europe during the Middle Ages_ in 1818, and his _Constitutional History
+of England_ in 1827, while his _Introduction to the Literature of
+Europe_ began to appear in 1837. Like Macaulay he represents the whig
+attitude towards politics, but does so less consciously and less
+emphatically than his younger contemporary. There is a sense in which no
+constitutional historian has adopted so strictly legal an attitude. It
+is not merely that his interest centres on the legal side of the
+constitution, but, lawyer-like, he judges every constitutional issue of
+the past in the light of the legal system which the law of his own day
+presupposes for the date in question. No one can deny the validity of
+this principle in a court of justice, but no one gifted either with
+historical imagination or with historical sympathy could wish to
+introduce it into a historical work. Yet the very narrowness of his
+outlook made it easier for him to adopt the impartiality of a judge; his
+criterion of justice is too definite to allow him to indulge in special
+pleading or to twist facts to suit his theories; and the student still
+turns to Hallam with a sense of security which he does not feel in
+reading Macaulay or Carlyle.
+
+[Pageheading: _FINE ART._]
+
+The fine arts cannot be said to have flourished in England during the
+period of the great war, and architecture was certainly at a low ebb,
+but several eminent names belong to this period. Sir Thomas Lawrence was
+by far the foremost English portrait painter, and fitly represents the
+elegance of the regency, while Raeburn enjoyed an equal reputation in
+Scotland. Turner, however, was painting in his earlier manner and
+showing originality even in his imitations of old masters. Constable,
+too, was producing some of those quiet English landscapes which, though
+little appreciated at the time, have since made him famous. Two other
+English landscape painters, Callcott and the elder Crome, were also in
+their prime, and Wilkie executed several of his best known masterpieces
+at this time. David Cox and Prout did not earn celebrity till a little
+later. The Water-Colour Society was founded in 1804. Soon afterwards
+Flaxman was in the zenith of his fame, being elected professor of
+sculpture by the Royal Academy in 1810, and Chantrey was beginning to
+desert portrait painting for statuary.
+
+Science, especially in its practical applications, made greater strides
+than art in the early years of the nineteenth century. It was now that
+Jenner's memorable discovery of vaccination, dating from 1796, was
+generally adopted by the medical profession. In 1802 his claim to
+priority was recognised by a parliamentary committee, with the result
+that £10,000 were then voted to him, and a further grant of £20,000 was
+made in 1807, when vaccination was established at the Small-pox
+Hospital. In 1814, George Stephenson, after many preliminary
+experiments, made a successful trial of his first locomotive engine. In
+1812, Bell's steamboat, the _Comet_ made its first voyage on the Clyde,
+and the development of steam navigation proceeded more rapidly than that
+of steam locomotion by land. Sir Humphry Davy began his researches in
+1800, and took part in that year, with Count Rumford and Sir Joseph
+Banks, in founding the Royal Institution. His invention of the safety
+lamp was not matured until 1815.
+
+But if the principal contributions of England to physical science in the
+early years of the century were mainly in the direction of practical
+application, her contributions to pure theory under the regency and in
+the reign of William IV. were no less distinguished. Sir John Herschel,
+following in the footsteps of his father, began in 1824 his observations
+on double stars and his researches upon the parallax of fixed stars,
+while Sir George Airy published in 1826 his mathematical treatises on
+lunar and planetary theory. In Michael Faraday England possessed at once
+an eminent chemist and the greatest electrician of the age. The
+discovery of benzine and the liquefaction of numerous gases were
+followed by an investigation of electric currents, and in 1831 by the
+crowning discovery of induction. Not less valuable perhaps than these
+discoveries of his own were the fertile suggestions which he left to
+others. William Smith, sometimes called the father of modern English
+geology, vigorously followed up the work of James Hutton by publishing
+in 1815 his great map of English _strata_ as identified by fossils.
+Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ marks a great advance in
+geological science. In this book, which appeared in 1833, the author
+advanced the view, now universally accepted, that the great geological
+changes of the past are not to be explained as catastrophes, followed by
+successive creations, but as the product of the continuous play of
+forces still at work. This theory contained all that was vital in the
+doctrine of evolution; but it was only at a later date, when the
+doctrine had become the property of zoologists as well as geologists and
+had been popularised by Darwin, that it came to exercise an influence
+over non-scientific thought.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY REFORM._]
+
+A review of the literary and scientific progress of this period would be
+incomplete without some notice of progress in higher education. The
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge with their numerous colleges had in
+the eighteenth century lapsed into that lethargic condition which seemed
+to be the common fate of all corporations. They had to a certain extent
+ceased to be seats of learning. At Oxford the limitations imposed upon
+colleges by statute or custom in elections to fellowships and
+scholarships ensured the mediocrity of the teachers and gave the
+preference to mediocrities among the students. Where emoluments were not
+so restricted they were generally awarded by interest rather than by
+merit; and it was even the case that a scholarship at Winchester,
+carrying with it the right to a fellowship at New College, was often
+promised to an infant only a few days old. The Oxford examination system
+had not been reformed since the time of Laud, and the degree
+examinations had degenerated into mere formalities until the university
+in 1800 adopted a new examination statute, mainly under the influence of
+Dr. Eveleigh, provost of Oriel. The new statute, which came into
+operation in 1802, granted honours to the better students of each year.
+The number of candidates to whom honours were granted, at first very
+small, rapidly increased till in 1837 about 130 received honours in a
+single year. The attention which the examination system received from
+the hebdomadal board, so often accused of sluggishness, is proved by the
+frequent changes in the regulations, which among other things
+differentiated between honours in "Literæ Humaniores" and in mathematics
+in 1807, and separated the honours and pass examinations in 1830. The
+same desire to encourage meritorious students showed itself in the
+institution of competitive examinations for fellowships, in which Oriel
+led the way. It was followed in 1817 by Balliol, which in 1827 threw
+open its scholarships as well. It was not, however, till the reign of
+Queen Victoria that the college statutes as a whole were so modified as
+to make open competition possible in more than a very few instances.
+
+Cambridge suffered less than Oxford from restrictions as to the choice
+of fellows. In fact the majority of the fellowships, more especially of
+those which carried with them a vote in the government of the colleges,
+were, so far as the statutes went, open to all comers. Though the course
+of study was still nominally regulated by statutes dating from the Tudor
+period, which it would often have been ludicrous to enforce, an
+effective stimulus was given to mathematical studies by the mathematical
+tripos, which had existed from the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and to which in 1824 a classical tripos was added. The ground covered by
+these honour examinations was certainly narrower than that which lay
+within the scope of the corresponding examinations at Oxford, but at
+both places the studies of most undergraduates were still directed more
+by the judgment of their tutors than by the regulations of the
+university.
+
+These two universities were, however, subject to two limitations, which
+prevented them from providing a higher education for all aspiring
+students. The expense of living at Oxford and Cambridge, and the close
+connexion of both universities with the Church of England, rendered them
+difficult of access to many. These limitations were emphasised by the
+fact that Scotland possessed five universities which were the opposite
+of the English in both respects, and not a few English students could
+always be found at the Scottish seats of learning. The reform ministry
+made a serious effort to remove or alleviate the grievances of
+dissenters. Among other reforms mooted was the abolition of theological
+tests for matriculation and graduation. In 1834 a bill, which proposed
+to effect this change, but which left intact such tests as existed for
+fellowships and professorships, passed its second reading in the commons
+by a majority of 321 against 174, and its third reading by 164 against
+75. It was, however, thrown out on the second reading in the lords by
+187 votes against 85. Though in this particular case the demands of the
+dissenters were moderate, they were themselves opposed to other measures
+introduced for their benefit, and the question of tests at Oxford and
+Cambridge was not unnaturally allowed to rest for another twenty years.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY OF LONDON._]
+
+It was only in the reign of George IV. that anything was done to provide
+a university education for those who were unable to proceed to the
+ancient seats of learning. But the movement, once started, progressed
+rapidly. The oldest of the university colleges, as they are now called,
+is St. David's College, Lampeter, which was founded in 1822, mainly
+through the exertions of Dr. Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St. David's, who
+was supported by many others among the Welsh clergy. The college was
+opened in 1827, but at first it had no power of conferring degrees, and
+contented itself with the education of candidates for holy orders. A
+more important movement was initiated in 1825. In a public letter
+written by the poet Campbell to Brougham, the project of founding a
+university of London, which should be free from denominational
+restrictions, was advocated. The scheme was warmly embraced by many
+whose names are found associated with other movements of the times.
+Among them were Hume, Grote, Zachary Macaulay, Dudley, and Russell. A
+large proportion of the promoters of the new university had been
+educated at Scottish universities, and had therefore a clear idea of the
+type of university which they might establish, and the movement,
+although started primarily in the interests of dissenters, received the
+support of many who still valued the connexion of the universities with
+the Church. The "London University," as it was called, was opened in
+1828, when classes were formed in arts, law, and medicine, but not in
+divinity. It was technically a joint-stock company, and the attempt of
+the shareholders to obtain a charter of incorporation was successfully
+resisted by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Meanwhile some of the original supporters of the movement, regarding the
+non-religious character of the new university with suspicion, had
+decided to transfer their support to a new college, where the doctrine
+and worship of the Church of England should be recognised. The Duke of
+Wellington took a lively interest in this movement, and King George
+IV.'s patronage gave the new institution the name of "King's College".
+There seemed every reason to expect that the foundation would be on a
+munificent scale, when Wellington's acceptance of catholic emancipation
+offended many of the subscribers so deeply that they immediately
+withdrew from the undertaking, and the college was in consequence left
+almost entirely without endowment. State recognition, however, was given
+it from the first. It was incorporated in 1829, and opened in 1831. In
+1835 the demand of "London University" for a charter received the
+support of the house of commons, and Lord Melbourne's government decided
+to propose a compromise, by which the so-called "London University" was
+to be converted into University College, and an examining body was to be
+created under the title of the University of London, while the work of
+teaching was to be performed by University College, King's College, and
+other colleges, which might from time to time be named by the crown.
+These terms were accepted by the existing "university," and charters
+were given to the new university and to University College, London, in
+1836. It was thus left open to students or their parents to select
+either a denominational or an undenominational college, according to
+their preference.
+
+Meanwhile another university had been founded in the north of England.
+The dean and chapter of Durham had determined to set aside a part of
+their emoluments for the foundation of a university, and the bishop had
+undertaken to assist them by attaching prebendal stalls in the cathedral
+to some of the professorships. An act of parliament was obtained in
+1832, authorising the establishment of the new university, which was
+opened in October, 1833, and was incorporated by a royal charter on June
+1, 1837. As an ecclesiastical foundation, the university of Durham was
+of course in the closest connexion with the established Church.
+
+None of these new foundations could compare in respect of endowments
+with the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, yet it was not
+altogether without reason that the founders of University College,
+London, hoped to give as good an education at a greatly reduced cost. It
+must be remembered that only a small fraction of the endowments of the
+old universities and their colleges was at this time applied to strictly
+educational purposes, and, until they should either be reformed or
+become more sensible of their opportunities, there was a fair field for
+an energetic rival.
+
+The beginning of the nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous expansion
+of manufacturing industry, not so much caused by new discoveries as by
+the energetic application of those made at the end of the last century,
+by the growth of the factory-system, and, above all, by the monopoly of
+English-made goods during the great war. The innovation of
+machine-spinning and weaving by power-looms had an instant effect in
+stimulating and cheapening the production of cottons, but that of
+woollens, cramped by heavy duties on the raw material, languished for
+some time longer under traditional methods of handspinning. When
+stocking-frames and other forms of machinery penetrated at last into its
+strongholds in the West Riding of Yorkshire and in the midland counties,
+the demand for "hands" was inevitably reduced, and "frame-breaking"
+riots ensued, which lasted for several years. From this period dates the
+industrial revolution which gradually abolished domestic industries,
+separated mill-owners and mill-hands into almost hostile classes,
+undermined the system of apprenticeship, and brought about a large
+migration of manufactures from centres with abundant water-power to
+centres in close proximity to coal-fields.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE._]
+
+The progress of British agriculture during the period under review was
+almost as marked as that of British manufactures. Under the impulse of
+war prices, and of the improvements adopted at the end of the eighteenth
+century, the home-production of corn almost kept pace with the growing
+consumption, and between 1801 and 1815 little more than 500,000 quarters
+of imported corn were required annually to feed the population. No
+doubt, when the price of bread might rise to famine-point, the
+consumption of it fell to a minimum per head; still, the rural
+population continued to multiply, though not so rapidly as the urban
+population, and neither could have been maintained without a constant
+increase in the production of the soil. This result was due to a
+progressive extension of enclosure and drainage, as well as to wise
+innovations in the practice of agriculture. Not the least important of
+such innovations was the destruction of useless fences and straggling
+hedge-rows, the multitude and irregular outlines of which had long been
+a picturesque but wasteful feature of old-fashioned English farming.
+This was the age, too, in which many a small farm vanished by
+consolidation, and many an ancient pasture was recklessly broken up,
+some of which, though once more covered with green sward, have never
+recovered their original fertility. Happily, the use of crushed bones
+for manure was introduced in 1800, and the efforts of the national board
+of agriculture, aided by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, brought
+about a far more general application of chemical science to agriculture,
+partly compensating for the exhaustion of the soil under successive
+wheat crops. Not less remarkable was the effect of mechanical science in
+the development of new agricultural implements, which, however, retained
+a comparatively rude form of construction. The Highland Society of
+Scotland took a leading part in encouraging these gradual experiments in
+tillage, as well as in the breeding of sheep and cattle, with a special
+regard to early maturity. Had the farmers of Great Britain during the
+great war possessed no more skill than their grandfathers, it would have
+been impossible for the soil of this island to have so nearly supported
+its inhabitants before the ports were freely thrown open.
+
+The great triumphs of engineering in the fifteen years before the battle
+of Waterloo were mainly achieved in facilitating locomotion, and are
+specially associated with the name of Telford. It was he who, following
+in the footsteps of Brindley and Smeaton, constructed the Ellesmere and
+Caledonian Canals; he far eclipsed the fame of General Wade by opening
+out roads and bridges in the highlands, and first adopted sound
+principles of road-making both in England and Wales, afterwards to be
+applied with marvellous success by Macadam. It is some proof of the
+impulse given to land-travelling by such improvements that 1,355 public
+stage-coaches were assessed in 1812, and that a rate of speed little
+short of ten miles an hour was attained by the lighter vehicles. But
+Telford's labours were not confined to roads or bridges; they extended
+also to harbours and to canals, which continued to be the great arteries
+of heavy traffic until the development of railways. The new power
+destined to supersede both coaches and barges was first recognised
+practically when Bell's little steam vessel the _Comet_ was navigated
+down the Clyde in 1812, to be followed not many years later by a
+steamship capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean. In a few years steam
+packets were numerous, but it was not till well into the reign of
+Victoria that steam navigation was used in the royal navy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RAILWAYS._]
+
+The most conspicuous improvement in the social and economic condition of
+the country between 1815 and 1837 is undoubtedly the invention of the
+steam locomotive engine. A few steam locomotives had been invented
+before the former date, but they had met with little success and were as
+yet more costly than horse traction. It was only in or about the year
+1815 that George Stephenson, enginewright in Killingworth colliery,
+succeeded in inventing a locomotive engine which was cheaper than
+horse-power. The value of railways was by this time better understood.
+Short railways worked by horses were common in the neighbourhood of
+collieries, and a few existed elsewhere. In 1821 Edward Pease obtained
+parliamentary powers to construct a railway between Stockton and
+Darlington. A visit to Killingworth persuaded him to make use of
+steam-power. In 1823 an act authorising the use of steam on the proposed
+railway was carried, and in 1825 the railway was opened. In 1826 an act
+was passed for the construction of a railway between Liverpool and
+Manchester. Stephenson was employed as engineer to make the line, and
+his success as a road-making engineer proved equal to his brilliance as
+a mechanical inventor.
+
+In 1829 the line was completed. The directors were at first strongly
+opposed to the use of steam-locomotion, but were induced by Stephenson,
+before finally rejecting the idea, to offer a reward of £500 for the
+best locomotive that could be made. Of four engines which were entered
+for the competition, Stephenson's _Rocket_ was the only one that would
+move, and it proved able to travel at the rate of thirty-five miles an
+hour. The opening of the railway in 1830, and the fatal accident to Mr.
+Huskisson which attended it, have been noticed already. The accident did
+more to attract attention to the power of the locomotive than to
+discredit it. The opposition to railways was not, however, at an end. A
+proposal for a railway between London and Birmingham was carried through
+parliament, only after a struggle of some years' duration, but the
+construction of the line was at length authorised in 1833. The English
+railway system now developed with great rapidity, and by the end of the
+reign of William IV. lines had been authorised which would when complete
+form a system, joining London with Dover, Southampton, and Bristol, and
+both London and Bristol with Birmingham, whence lines were to run to the
+most important places in Yorkshire and Lancashire, and on to Darlington.
+Numerous small lines served other portions of the country, partly in
+connexion with these, but more often independently.
+
+Among the more conspicuous metropolitan improvements of this age may be
+mentioned the introduction of gas and the incipient construction of new
+bridges over the Thames, in which the engineer Rennie took a leading
+part. Before the end of the eighteenth century the workshops of Boulton
+and Watt had been lit by gas, and Soho was illuminated by it to
+celebrate the peace of Amiens. By 1807 it was used in Golden Lane, and
+by 1809, if not earlier, it had reached Pall Mall, but it scarcely
+became general in London until somewhat later. At the beginning of the
+century the metropolis possessed but three bridges, old London bridge
+and the old bridges at Blackfriars and Westminster. The first stone of
+the Strand Bridge (afterwards to be called Waterloo Bridge) was laid on
+October 11, 1811, and Southwark Bridge was commenced in 1814, but these
+bridges were not completed till 1817 and 1819 respectively. The existing
+London Bridge, designed by Rennie, but built after his death, was
+completed in 1831. In 1812, the architect Nash was employed in laying
+out the Regent's Park, and in 1813 an act was passed for the
+construction of Regent Street, as a grand line of communication between
+it and Carlton House, the residence of the regent.
+
+The work of geographical discovery had been well commenced before the
+end of the eighteenth century, and was inevitably checked during the
+great war. The wonderful voyages of Cook had revealed Australia and New
+Zealand; Flinders had carried on the survey of the Australian coast;
+Vancouver had explored the great island which bears his name with the
+adjacent shores; Rennell had produced his great map of India; Bruce had
+published his celebrated travels in Abyssinia; and an association had
+been formed to dispel the darkness that hung over the whole interior of
+Africa. Among its first emissaries was Mungo Park, who afterwards was
+employed by the British government, and died in the course of his second
+expedition in 1805-6. The idea of Arctic discovery was revived early in
+the nineteenth century, and was no longer confined to commercial aims,
+such as the opening of a north-east or north-west passage, but was
+rather directed to scientific objects, not without the hope of reaching
+the North Pole itself. Meanwhile, the ordnance survey of Great Britain
+itself was in full progress, and that of British India was commenced in
+1802, while the hydrographical department of the admiralty, established
+in 1795, was organising the system of marine-surveying which has since
+yielded such valuable fruits.
+
+The progress of philanthropy, based on religious sentiment was very
+marked during the later years of the war. The institution of Sunday
+schools between 1780 and 1790 had awakened a new sense of duty towards
+children in the community, and the growing use of child-labour, keeping
+pace with the constant increase of machinery, forced upon the public
+the necessity of legislative restrictions, which have been noticed in an
+earlier chapter. Banks of savings, the forerunners of savings banks
+under parliamentary regulation, had been suggested by Jeremy Bentham,
+and one at least was instituted in 1802. The idea of penitentiaries, for
+the reformation as well as for the punishment of criminals, had
+originated with the great philanthropist, John Howard. It was adopted
+and popularised by Jeremy Bentham, and might have been further developed
+but for the introduction of transportation, which promised the
+well-conducted convict the prospect of a new life in a new country.
+Meanwhile, prison reform became a favourite study of benevolent
+theorists in an age when the criminal law was still a relic of
+barbarism, when highway robbery was rife in the neighbourhood of London,
+when sanitation was hardly in its infancy, when pauperism was fostered
+by the poor law, and when the working classes in towns were huddled
+together, without legal check or moral scruple, in undrained courts and
+underground cellars. So capricious and shortsighted is the public
+conscience in its treatment of social evils.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANADA._]
+
+At the opening of the nineteenth century the colonial empire of Great
+Britain was in a transitional state. The secession of thirteen American
+colonies had not only robbed the mother country of its proudest
+inheritance, but had also shattered the old colonial system of
+commercial monopoly for the supposed benefit of British interests. Its
+immediate effect was to annul the navigation act as affecting American
+trade, which became free to all the world, and by which Great Britain
+itself profited largely. Canada at once gained a new importance, and a
+new sense of nationality, which Pitt recognised by dividing it into two
+provinces, and giving each a considerable measure of independence, both
+political and commercial. It was troubled by the presence of a conquered
+race of white colonists side by side with new colonists of English
+blood, who were, however, united in their resistance to the revolted
+colonies in the war of 1812-14. After the war a steady stream of
+immigration poured into Canada. In 1816 the population was estimated at
+450,000; between 1819 and 1829 Canada received 126,000 immigrants from
+England, and during the next ten years 320,000. The result was that the
+French element ceased to be preponderant, except in Lower Canada. The
+French Canadians felt that they did not enjoy their share of the
+confidence of government; the home government, ready enough to grant any
+favour that home opinion would permit, was trammelled by a public
+opinion, which suspected all who were of a French origin of a desire to
+restore the supremacy of the Roman Catholic religion and to assert
+political independence. A vacillating policy was the result, which only
+increased suspicions, and led in the first year of the reign of Victoria
+to a civil war.
+
+In the Mauritius and the West Indies the one event of importance in this
+period is the abolition of slavery. It was found impossible to obtain
+from free negroes as much work as had been obtained from slaves, and
+their place had to be supplied by Indian coolies in the Mauritius, and
+by Chinese in Jamaica. At the same time the West Indies had begun to
+suffer from the competition of the United States.
+
+The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was still peopled almost entirely by
+blacks or by the descendants of Dutch settlers, known as _boers_, or
+peasants. Four thousand British colonists went out in 1820 to Algoa Bay,
+but these were a mere handful compared with the Dutch. Unfortunately the
+government adopted a line of policy which produced great irritation in
+the Dutch population. They were granted no self-government, and in 1826
+English judicial forms were introduced, and English was declared the
+sole official language. The reform administration made matters worse by
+defending the blacks against the boers. In 1834 it set free the slaves,
+offering £1,200,000, payable in London, very little of which ever
+reached the boers, as compensation for slaves valued at £3,000,000. A
+Kaffir war in 1834 had led to the conquest of Kaffraria, but in 1835 the
+home government restored the independence of the Kaffirs, and appointed
+a lieutenant-governor to defend their rights. After this the boers
+considered their position intolerable, and in 1835 began their first
+"trek" into the country now known as Natal.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRALIA._]
+
+Meanwhile, the great discoveries of Captain Cook, and the first
+settlement of New South Wales, brought within view a possible extension
+of our colonial dominion, which might go far to compensate for its
+losses on the North American continent. Governor Phillip had been sent
+out by Pitt to Botany Bay in 1787-88, but it was many years before the
+earliest of Australian colonies outgrew the character of a penal refuge
+for English convicts. The first convict establishments were at Sydney
+and Norfolk Island, but another settlement was founded on Van Diemen's
+Land in 1805, and in 1807, after this island had been circumnavigated by
+Flinders and Bass, it became the headquarters of that convict system,
+whose horrors are not yet forgotten. Between 1810 and 1822 the resources
+of New South Wales were vastly developed by the energetic policy of
+Governor Macquarie. While his efforts to utilise convict labour, and to
+educate convicts into free men, may have retarded the influx of genuine
+colonists, he prepared the way for settlement by constructing roads,
+promoting exploration, and raising public buildings, so that when he
+returned home the population of New South Wales had increased fourfold,
+and its settled territory in a much greater proportion. This territory
+comprised all English settlements on the east coast, and included large
+tracts of what is now known as Queensland, which did not become a
+separate colony until 1859.
+
+The early history of Australia, it has been said, is chiefly a tale of
+convict settlements, bush-ranging, and expeditions of discovery. There
+is much truth in this saying, but the real basis of Australian
+prosperity was the introduction of sheep-farming on a large scale, after
+the merino-breed had been imported and acclimatised by Macarthur at the
+beginning of the century. Long before the region stretching northward
+from the later Port Phillip grew into the colony of Victoria,
+sheep-owners were spreading over the vast pastures of the interior,
+though many years elapsed before the explorer Sturt opened out the great
+provinces further westward.
+
+The development of Australia made rapid progress during the generation
+following the great war. Though Australia itself and Van Diemen's Land,
+now called Tasmania, were still in the main convict settlements, free
+settlers had been arriving at Sydney for some time, and in 1817 they
+began to arrive in moderate numbers in Van Diemen's Land. In 1825 that
+island had sufficiently progressed to be recognised as a separate
+colony. The attempt to found a colony in western Australia in 1829 was,
+on the other hand, an almost complete failure. But in 1824 a new centre
+of colonisation in New South Wales had been established at Port
+Phillip. Meanwhile a sharp cleavage of parties had arisen. The convicts
+and poorer colonists were opposed to the large sheep-owners, who were
+endeavouring to form an aristocracy. Governor Macquarie favoured the
+convicts, and Governor Darling (1825-31) the sheep-owners. In 1823 a
+legislative council, consisting of seven officials, had been instituted;
+in 1828 it was developed into one of fifteen members, chosen entirely
+from among the wealthiest colonists.
+
+Gibbon Wakefield's _Letter from Sydney_, published in 1829, marks an
+epoch in the history of Australian colonisation. In this work he
+proposed that the land should be sold in small lots at a fairly high
+price to settlers, and that the proceeds of the sales should be used to
+pay the passage of emigrants going out as labourers. This idea had
+hardly been published when it was adopted by the home government, and
+five shillings an acre was fixed as the minimum price of land. The
+number of emigrants increased rapidly, but the new system threatened
+ruin to the owners of sheep-runs. Unable to pay the stipulated price,
+they only moved further into the interior and occupied fresh land
+without seeking government permission, an unlicensed occupation which
+has left its mark upon the language in the word "squatter". At last in
+1837 a compromise was arranged, by which the squatters were to pay a
+small rent for their runs, the crown retaining the freehold with the
+right to sell it to others at some future date. In 1834 the British
+government sanctioned the formation of a new colony, that of South
+Australia. It was to be settled from the outset on the Wakefield system,
+and no convicts were ever sent to it. The first lots were sold as high
+as twelve shillings an acre, and in 1836 a company of emigrants went out
+and founded Adelaide.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDICES.
+
+                     I. ON AUTHORITIES.
+
+                    II. ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX I.
+
+                          ON AUTHORITIES.[141]
+
+
+(1) General histories of England for the period 1801-1837: MASSEY,
+_History of England during the Reign of George the Third_ (4 vols., 2nd
+ed., 1865), closes with the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and therefore
+barely touches this period. There is still room for a general history of
+England on an adequate scale between 1802 and 1815. After that date we
+have HARRIET MARTINEAU, _History of England during the Thirty Years'
+Peace_ (1816-1846, 2 vols., 1849, 1850). This was begun by Charles
+Knight, the publisher, who brought it down to 1819. From 1820 onwards it
+is Miss Martineau's own work. It is too nearly contemporary to depend on
+any authorities except such as were published at the time, and it
+represents in the main the popular view of public events and public men
+held by liberals at the time. Sir SPENCER WALPOLE'S _History of England
+from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815_ (6 vols., revised ed.,
+1890), a work of high quality and thoroughly trustworthy, full of
+references to the best published authorities, sympathises with the whigs
+and more liberal tories. Reference is sometimes made in this volume to
+GOLDWIN SMITH, _The United Kingdom, a Political History_ (2 vols.,
+1899), but the work is too slight to be regarded as an authority. Sir T.
+E. MAY'S (Lord Farnborough) _Constitutional History of England from 1760
+to 1860_ (3 vols., 10th ed., 1891) is also useful.
+
+(2) The _Annual Register_ is probably the most useful authority for this
+period. In addition to more general information, it contains a very full
+report of the more important parliamentary debates and the text of the
+principal public treaties and of numerous other state papers. The
+narrative is not often coloured by the political partisanship of the
+writer, but allowance must be made for the strong tory bias of the
+volumes dealing with the reign of William IV. The _Parliamentary
+History_ closes in 1803, at which date Cobbett's _Parliamentary
+Debates_ had begun to appear. After 1812 Cobbett ceased to superintend
+the work and his name was dropped, and in 1813 and afterwards the
+title-page acknowledged that the work was "published under the
+superintendence of T. C. Hansard," who had also been the publisher of
+Cobbett's series and of the _Parliamentary History_.
+
+[Pageheading: _MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE._]
+
+(3) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence. The
+following have been noticed among the authorities for volume x.: PELLEW,
+_Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, Viscount Sidmouth_ (3 vols.,
+1847), very full wherever Sidmouth was directly concerned, written with
+a strong bias in favour of the subject of the biography. Lord STANHOPE,
+_Life of Pitt_ (4 vols., 3rd ed., 1867). The appendix to the last volume
+contains Pitt's correspondence with the king in the years 1804-1806.
+Lord ROSEBERY, _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen Series, 1891), brilliant
+but not always sound. Lord JOHN (Earl) RUSSELL, _Memorials and
+Correspondence of C. J. Fox_ (4 vols., 1853-1854), and _Life and Times
+of C. J. Fox, 1859-1866_. _Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of George
+III._ (4 vols., 1853-1855; 1801 falls in vol. iii.), continued in
+_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Regency_ (2 vols., 1856),
+_Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (2 vols., 1859), and _Memoirs of
+the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols., 1861;
+1837 is reached in vol. i.); these volumes, edited by the Duke of
+Buckingham, contain the correspondence of the Grenville family. The
+first series alone, which contains many important letters of Lord
+Grenville, is of first-rate importance. The editing is often inaccurate.
+_Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury_ (4 vols.,
+1844), edited by the third earl (vol. iv. extends from February, 1801,
+to July, 1809), authoritative and useful, especially for the crisis of
+1807. _Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis_ (3 vols., 1859), edited by
+C. Ross, valuable for the negotiations at Amiens and for Cornwallis's
+brief second governor-generalship of India. The notes are full of useful
+biographical material concerning the persons mentioned in the
+correspondence. _Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose_ (2 vols.,
+1860), edited by L. V. Harcourt. _The Diary and Correspondence of
+Charles Abbot, Lord Colchester_, edited by his son (3 vols., 1861,
+extending from 1795 to 1829), with interesting notices of Perceval, and
+generally useful from 1802-1817, when Abbot was Speaker. Lord HOLLAND,
+_Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (2 vols., 1852), edited by his son, Lord
+Holland. These memoirs do not extend beyond the year 1807. Volume ii.,
+which covers the period during which Holland was a member of the
+Grenville cabinet, is of special importance. His memory is not always
+accurate, and he writes with a whig bias which makes him a harsh judge
+of George III. Holland's _Further Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1807-1821_,
+edited by Lord Stavordale, the present Lord Ilchester (1905),
+interesting, and, like the earlier volumes, full of personal detail, but
+of less value, since Holland was not in office again till 1830.
+
+Similar in character to the above, but only of importance after 1801 are
+the following: _Life of Perceval_ (2 vols., 1874), by his grandson, Sir
+Spencer Walpole, written largely from the Perceval papers, especially
+valuable for the ministerial crisis of 1809. The _Memoirs and
+Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh_ (12 vols., 1850-1853), edited by
+his brother the third Marquis of Londonderry, consisting mainly of
+military and diplomatic correspondence. Sir ARCHIBALD ALISON, _Lives of
+Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, the Second and Third
+Marquesses of Londonderry_ (3 vols., 1861), much more political than
+biographical; valuable and appreciative, but not rich in documents. _The
+Dispatches of the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in
+India, Denmark [etc.], from 1799 to 1818_ (12 vols., 1834-1838),
+compiled by Lieut.-Colonel GURWOOD (really extending to 1815 only);
+_Supplementary Despatches and Memoranda of the Duke of Wellington_ (15
+vols., 1858-1872), edited by his son, the second Duke of Wellington,
+extending from 1797 to 1818; _Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda
+of the Duke of Wellington_ (8 vols., 1867-1880), by the same editor,
+extending from 1819 to 1832. The second and third of these series
+contain not only the duke's despatches, but the vast mass of political
+correspondence which passed through his hands. In spite of the great
+size of the collection, very little that can be considered trivial is
+included. It is our most important authority for all foreign relations
+between 1815 and 1827, and between 1828 and 1830. Sir HERBERT MAXWELL,
+_The Life of Wellington_ (2 vols., 1899). HORACE TWISS, _Life of Eldon_
+(3 vols., 1844). C. PHIPPS, _Memoir of R. Plumer Ward_ (2 vols., 1850),
+containing important political correspondence from 1801 onward, and
+Ward's diary from 1809 to 1820. Ward held numerous minor offices in the
+government and was on terms of intimacy with Perceval and Mulgrave.
+MOORE, _Life of Sheridan_ (2 vols., 1826), valuable for the crisis of
+1811. _The Greville Memoirs; a Journal of the Reigns of King George IV.
+and King William IV._ (3 vols.), edited by Henry Reeve. References are
+to the first edition, 1874. New edition, also including 1837-1860 in 8
+vols. (1888). Greville was clerk to the privy council from 1821 to 1859,
+and as such possessed exceptional opportunities for making himself
+acquainted with secret political transactions and with the personal
+qualities of successive statesmen. _The Creevey Papers_ (2 vols., 1903),
+edited by Sir Herbert Maxwell, not of first-rate historical importance,
+full of gossip and scandal. Creevey was a whig member of parliament,
+1802-1818, 1820-1828 and 1831-1832, and treasurer of the ordnance,
+1830-1834. STAPLETON, _The Political Life of George Canning (from
+September 1822 to August 1827)_ (3 vols., 1831), very full and valuable,
+especially for foreign relations; strikingly deficient in documents and
+dates. _George Canning and His Times_ (1859), by the same author,
+largely written from memory and therefore untrustworthy. YONGE, _Life
+and Administration of Lord Liverpool_ (3 vols., 1868). _Memoirs of Sir
+Robert Peel_ (2 vols., 1856-1857), prepared by Peel himself, and dealing
+with the Roman Catholic question, the administration of 1834-1835, and
+the repeal of the corn laws. The memoirs, which are of the highest
+importance, consist mainly of correspondence and are studiously fair.
+PARKER, _Sir Robert Peel_ (3 vols., 1891-1899), a large collection of
+Peel's correspondence with a brief connecting narrative by the editor,
+of great value even for the periods covered by the _Memoirs_. _The
+Correspondence of King William IV. and Earl Grey, from November 1830 to
+June 1832_ (2 vols., 1867), edited by Henry, Earl Grey, valuable for the
+history of the reform. _The Melbourne Papers_ (1889), edited by Sanders,
+throw light on Melbourne's relations with William IV. and with Brougham.
+TORRENS, _Memoirs of Melbourne_ (2 vols., 1878), polemical, and sadly
+deficient in documents. Lord HATHERTON, _Memoir and Correspondence
+relating to June and July, 1834_ (published 1872), edited by H. Reeve,
+on events connected with the fall of Grey's ministry. _The Croker
+Papers_ (3 vols., 1884), edited by L. J. Jennings. Croker was secretary
+to the admiralty from 1809 to 1830. The papers, which are very full from
+1809 onwards, consist of correspondence and selections from Croker's
+journals and correspondence. L. HORNER, _Memoir of Francis Horner_
+(1843). E. HERRIES, _Public Life of J. C. Herries_ (1880), a defence of
+Herries against the sneers of whig writers. Lord DUDLEY, _Letters to the
+Bishop of Llandaff_ (Copleston), (1840), and _Letters to Ivy_ (1905,
+edited by Romilly), interesting and often vivacious, but not of
+first-rate importance. Sir HENRY BULWER (Lord Dalling), _Life of
+Palmerston_ (2 vols., 1870), extending to 1840. The first chapter of a
+third volume, edited by Evelyn Ashley (1874) makes good a few omissions
+belonging to this period. The work consists mainly of correspondence and
+extracts from Palmerston's journal. _Memoirs of Baron Stockmar_ (2
+vols., 1872-1873), by his son Baron E. von Stockmar, edited by F. Max
+Müller. Stockmar was a confidential agent of Leopold, King of the
+Belgians. The memoirs contain a narrative by William IV. of the
+political history of his reign to 1835, including the circumstances of
+Melbourne's resignation in 1834. CAMPBELL, _Lives of the Chancellors_ (8
+vols., 1848-1869). The last volume contains excellent sketches of
+Lyndhurst and Brougham, based largely on personal knowledge.
+_Correspondence of Princess Lieven and Earl Grey, 1824-1834_, edited by
+G. le Strange (1890). _Letters of Dorothea, Princess Lieven during Her
+Residence in London, 1812-1834_, edited by L. G. Robinson (1902).
+_Letters of Harriet, Countess Granville, 1810-1845_ (2 vols., 1894).
+
+(4) Miscellaneous books. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _Administrations of Great
+Britain (1783-1830)_, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, has been mentioned
+among the authorities for volume x. It is a valuable history of the
+inner political life of England, but suffers from a strong whig bias.
+LECKY, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 vols., 1892),
+though nominally closing at the union, throws light on Irish history at
+the beginning of the nineteenth century. A. V. DICEY, _Lectures on the
+Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth
+Century_ (1905), is very suggestive. HALÉVY, _La formation du
+radicalisme philosophique_ (3 vols., 1901-1904), and Sir L. STEPHEN,
+_The English Utilitarians_, vols. i., ii. (1900), are valuable for the
+history of the radical party. C. CREIGHTON, _History of Epidemics in
+Britain_ (2 vols., 1894), contains an excellent account of the cholera
+epidemic.
+
+[Pageheading: _ON THE GREAT WAR._]
+
+(5) Books dealing with the great war are numerous. The following have
+been already noticed among the authorities for volume x.: Dr. HOLLAND
+ROSE, _Life of Napoleon I._ (2 vols., 1904), our most trustworthy guide
+for the career of the French emperor. The book has gained not a little
+from its author's independent researches at the British Foreign Office.
+Captain MAHAN, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and
+Empire_ (2 vols., 1893), and _Life of Nelson_ (2 vols., 1897), valuable
+for their general view of the naval warfare and commercial policy of the
+period. JAMES, _Naval History of Great Britain, 1793-1820_ (6 vols., ed.
+1826; vols. iii.-vi. extend from 1801-1820), very full and accurate,
+largely used in this volume for the American war. Sir JOHN LAUGHTON,
+_Nelson_ (English Men of Action Series, 1895), and articles in the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_.
+
+To these must be added ALISON'S _History of Europe from the Commencement
+of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in
+1815_ (20 vols., 1847, 1848), an uncritical but still a standard work.
+The reaction against Alison is probably due in large measure to
+political causes. In addition to the European history which gives its
+title to the book, it contains a narrative of the American war of
+1812-1814. The classical though far from trustworthy narrative on the
+French side is THIERS, _Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire_ (21 vols.,
+1845-1869), translated into English by Campbell and Stebbing (12 vols.,
+1893-1894). See also LANFREY'S incomplete _History of Napoleon I._,
+English translation (4 vols., 1871-1879), bitterly anti-Napoleonic. The
+negotiations precedent to the outbreak of war in 1803 are to be found in
+Mr. O. BROWNING'S _England and Napoleon in 1803_, containing despatches
+of Whitworth and others, published in 1887, and in P. COQUELLE,
+_Napoleon and England, 1803-1813_, translated by G. D. KNOX (1904),
+based on the reports of Andréossy, the French ambassador at London. Sir
+H. BUNBURY'S _Narrative of Certain Passages, etc._ (1853) is of the
+highest value for the war in the Mediterranean. The _Times_ of September
+16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, and October 19, 1905, contains an excellent
+series of articles on Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar. For the Moscow
+campaign, the Marquis DE CHAMBRAY'S _Histoire de l'Expédition de Russie_
+(3 vols., 1839) is perhaps the most reliable of contemporary narratives.
+There is a good account of the campaign in the Rev. H. B. GEORGE'S
+_Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_ (1899). For the Peninsular war, W.
+NAPIER'S _History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of
+France_ (6 vols.; vols. i.-iii., ed. 1835-1840; iv.-vi., 1834-1840) is
+of the highest literary as well as historical value. C. OMAN'S _History
+of the Peninsular War_ (in progress, vols. i., ii., 1902-1903, extending
+at present to September, 1809) makes good use of Spanish sources of
+information. The _Wellington Dispatches_ have been noticed already in
+section 3. The _Diary of Sir John Moore_, edited by Sir J. F. Maurice (2
+vols., 1904), is of value for the campaign of 1808-1809. For Waterloo,
+in addition to Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, and Rose's _Life of
+Napoleon I._, Chesney's _Waterloo Lectures_, 1868; W. O'CONNOR MORRIS,
+_The Campaign of 1815_ (1900), and J. C. ROPES, _The Campaign of
+Waterloo_, may be studied with profit. Morris's work must, however, be
+discounted for his extravagant admiration of Napoleon's genius and his
+faith in the Grouchy legend. For the disputes with the United States and
+war of 1812-1814, see chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_ (vol.
+vii., 1903); BOURINOT, _Canada_ (Story of the Nations), (1897); J.
+SCHOULER, _History of the United States of America under the
+Constitution_ (6 vols., 1880-1889); and MAHAN, _Sea Power in Its
+Relations to the War of 1812_ (2 vols., 1905).
+
+[Pageheading: _ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS._]
+
+(6) For European politics and foreign relations generally, in addition
+to some of the books mentioned in the last section, we have C. A.
+FYFFE'S _History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878_ (ed. 1895), a very
+readable book, which includes the results of some original study, and
+SEIGNOBOS, _Political History of Contemporary Europe_, English
+translation (2 vols., 1901), an useful but not always accurate book. The
+great French work, _Histoire générale du IVe Siècle à nos jours_ (vols.
+ix., x., 1897-1898), by numerous authors, edited by MM. Lavisse and
+Rambaud, is naturally of varying merit; the chapters on France and
+Russia are the best, and there is a very full bibliography at the close
+of each chapter. The _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ix., _Napoleon_
+(1906), is a similar compilation by English writers. ALFRED STERN'S
+_Geschichte Europas seit den Verträgen von 1815_ (3 vols., 1894-1901, to
+be continued to 1871) is perhaps the best general history of the period
+following the great war. _The Memoirs of Prince Metternich_ (5 vols.,
+English translation, 1881-1882, edited by Prince Richard Metternich,
+extending to 1835) contain much that is valuable for diplomatic history.
+For French history see DUVERGIER DE HAURANNE, _Histoire du gouvernement
+parlementaire en France_ (1814-1848, 10 vols., 1857-1872), which, in
+spite of the title, does not extend beyond 1830. For the Greek revolt,
+vols. vi. and vii. of G. FINLAY'S _History of Greece_ (7 vols., ed.
+1877) are important. American policy is treated by J. W. FOSTER, _A
+Century of American Diplomacy_ (1901). Sir EDWARD HERTSLET'S _Map of
+Europe by Treaty_ (4 vols., 1875-1891), while professedly confined to
+the treaties dealing with boundaries, contains the majority of those of
+general historical interest. It covers the period 1815-1891. LE COMTE DE
+GARDEN, _Histoire générale des traités de paix_ (14 vols., 1848-1888,
+vols. vi.-xv., extending to 1814), and F. DE MARTENS, _Recueil des
+traités et conventions, conclus par la Russie_ (tomes xi., xii.
+(Angleterre), 1895-1898), contain the principal treaties belonging to
+the period. The _Castlereagh_ and _Wellington_ _Despatches_ have been
+noticed under section 3.
+
+(7) For Indian history: JAMES MILL and WILSON, _History of British
+India_ (10 vols., 1858), vols. vi.-ix., noticed as an authority for
+volume x., ends in 1835; Sir ALFRED C. LYALL'S _Rise and Expansion of
+the British Dominion in India_ (1894) contains a brief and masterly
+sketch of the subject. See also _A Selection from the Despatches,
+Treaties and Other Papers of the Marquess Wellesley_ (1877), well edited
+by S. J. Owen; the first two series of the _Wellington Dispatches_,
+noticed under section 3; and the vast mass of information collected in
+Sir W. W. HUNTER'S _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (14 vols., 1885-1887).
+
+(8) For social and economic history: Dr. W. CUNNINGHAM'S _The Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times_, vol. iii., _Laissez
+Faire_ (1903), extending from 1776 to 1850, is now the standard work.
+Reference has also been made to G. R. PORTER, _Progress of the Nation_
+(1847), a work abounding more in statistics than in narrative, and to
+Sir GEORGE NICHOLLS, _History of the English Poor Law_ (2 vols., 1854).
+Nicholls took an active interest in social and economic questions from
+1816 till his death in 1857. He probably understood the working of the
+poor-law better than any other man of that date, and the poor-law
+legislation of 1834 and 1838 was largely founded on his suggestions. He
+was one of the poor-law commissioners of 1834, and was permanent
+secretary to the poor-law board from 1847 to 1851. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _The
+Government of Dependencies_ (1891), edited by C. P. Lucas, and LUCAS,
+_Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vols. i.-v. (1888-1901),
+are of value. For literary history, SAINTSBURY'S _History of Nineteenth
+Century Literature, 1780-1895_, (1896), is an excellent guide. For
+educational progress at Oxford University reference may be made to the
+_Report of H.M.'s Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State,
+etc., of the University and Colleges of Oxford_ (1852), which contains a
+good historical summary. The report of the similar commission appointed
+for Cambridge hardly touches the progress of studies, and is therefore
+of less value to the historical student.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[141] The dates given are, as far as possible, those of the editions
+used by the authors of this volume.
+
+
+
+
+                                APPENDIX II.
+
+                         ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+                         1. ADDINGTON, MARCH, 1801.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        H. Addington.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       Duke of Portland.
+                  {              Lord Pelham, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Secretaries of   {              C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803.
+  state_          { _foreign_    Lord Hawkesbury.
+                  { _war and  }  Lord Hobart.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Chatham.
+                                 Duke of Portland, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Earl St. Vincent.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham, _appointed_ June, 1801.
+_Board of trade_                 Lord Auckland.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Lewisham (July, 1801, Earl of
+                                    Dartmouth), _in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+                                    1802, _admitted to cabinet_ Oct., 1802.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               C. P. Yorke, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 C. Bragge, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+
+
+                         2. PITT, MAY, 1804.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        W. Pitt
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       Lord Hawkesbury.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Lord Harrowby.
+  state_          {              Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl Camden.
+                  { colonies_ }  Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+                                    1805.
+_Lord president_                 Duke of Portland (after Jan., 1805,
+                                    _without office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth (_before_ H. Addington),
+                                    _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+                                 Earl Camden, _succeeded_ July, 1805.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Viscount Melville (_before_ H. Dundas).
+                                 Lord Barham, _succeeded_ May, 1805.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_                 Duke of Montrose.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Castlereagh.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Mulgrave, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl of Buckinghamshire (_before_ Lord
+                                    Hobart), _succeeded_ Jan., 1805, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Lord Harrowby, _succeeded_ July, 1805, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl Powis, _succeeded_ Nov., 1805, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               W. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         3. GRENVILLE, FEBRUARY, 1806.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Lord Grenville.
+                  { _home_       Earl Spencer.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    C. J. Fox.
+  state_          {              Viscount Howick, _succeeded_ Sept.
+                  { _war and  }  W. Windham
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Fitzwilliam (after Oct., _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Erskine.
+_Lord privy seal_                Viscount Sidmouth.
+                                 Lord Holland, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Lord H. Petty.
+_Admiralty_                      C. Grey (April, Viscount Howick).
+                                 T. Grenville, _succeeded_ Sept.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Moira.
+_Chief justice, King's bench_    Lord Ellenborough, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Bedford, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               R. Fitzpatrick, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         4. PORTLAND, MARCH, 1807.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Portland.
+                  { _home_       Lord Hawkesbury (1808 Earl of Liverpool).
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    G. Canning.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Viscount Castlereagh.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Camden.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chanc. exchequer and }          S. Perceval.
+  duchy of Lancaster_ }
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Mulgrave.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl Bathurst, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_               R. S. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl of (_before_ Lord) Harrowby,
+                                    _succeeded_ July, 1809, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Sir J. Pulteney, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Lord G. Leveson Gower, _succeeded_ June,
+                                    1809, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         5. PERCEVAL, OCTOBER, 1809.
+
+_First lord of treasury,   }
+  chanc. exchequer and     }     S. Perceval.
+  duchy of Lancaster_[142] }
+                  { _home_       R. Ryder.
+                  { _foreign_    Earl Bathurst.
+_Secretaries of   {              Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1809.
+  state_          {              Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ March,
+                  {                 1812.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl of Liverpool.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Camden (after April, 1812, _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ April,
+                                    1812.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Mulgrave.
+                                 C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+                                 Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         6. LIVERPOOL, JUNE, 1812
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Earl of Liverpool.
+                  { _home_       Viscount Sidmouth (after Jan., 1822,
+                  {                 _without office in cabinet_).
+                  {              R. Peel, _succeeded_ Jan., 1822.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Castlereagh (1821 Marquis of.
+  state_          {                 Londonderry).
+                  {              G. Canning, _succeeded_ Sept., 1822.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl Bathurst.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon (1821 Earl of Eldon).
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        N. Vansittart.
+                                 F. J. Robinson, _succeeded_ Jan., 1823.
+_Admiralty_                      Viscount Melville (_before_ R. S. Dundas).
+_Ordnance_                       Lord Mulgrave (Sept., 1812, Earl of
+                                    Mulgrave), (from 1818-May, 1820,
+                                    _without office in cabinet_).
+                                 Duke of Wellington, _succeeded_ Jan.,
+                                    1819.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 F. J. Robinson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan.,
+                                    1818, _in cabinet_.
+                                 W. Huskisson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan., 1823,
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_               Earl of Buckinghamshire, _in cabinet_.
+                                 G. Canning, _succeeded_ June, 1816, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 C. B. Bathurst, _succeeded_ Jan., 1821,
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+                                 C. W. Wynn, _succeeded_ Feb., 1822, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Master of the mint_             Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 W. W. Pole (1821 Lord Maryborough),
+                                    _succeeded_ Sept., 1814, _in cabinet_.
+                                 T. Wallace, _succeeded_ Oct., 1823, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             C. B. Bathurst (_before_ C. Bragge).
+                                 N. Vansittart (March, 1823, Lord Bexley),
+                                    _succeeded_ Feb., 1823.
+_Without office_                 Earl Camden (Sept., 1812, Marquis Camden),
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Whitworth (1815 Earl Whitworth),
+                                    _succeeded_ Aug., 1813, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Earl Talbot, _succeeded_ Oct., 1817, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1821,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         7. CANNING, APRIL, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        G. Canning.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       W. S. Bourne.
+                  {              Marquis of Lansdowne (_before_ Lord H.
+_Secretaries of   {                 Petty), _succeeded_ July.
+  state_          { _foreign_    Viscount Dudley.
+                  { _war and  }  Viscount Goderich (_before_ F. J.
+                  { colonies_ }     Robinson).
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Duke of Portland (_after_ July, _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ July.
+_Lord high admiral_              Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           W. Huskisson.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_             T. Wallace, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 G. Tierney, _succeeded_ May, _in cabinet_.
+                       {         C. Arbuthnot, _not in cabinet_.
+_First commissioner of {         Earl of Carlisle _succeeded_ May, _in
+  woods and forests_   {            cabinet_.
+                       {         W. S. Bourne, _succeeded_ July, _in
+                       {            cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Bexley.
+_Without office_                 Marquis of Lansdowne, May-July, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         8. GODERICH, SEPTEMBER, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Goderich.
+                  { _home_       Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Earl (_before_ Viscount) Dudley.
+  state_          { _war and  }  W. Huskisson.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Duke of Portland.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Carlisle.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        J. C. Herries.
+_Lord high admiral_              Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Ordnance_                       Marquis of Anglesey, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. Grant.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_             G. Tierney.
+_First commissioner of }         W. S. Bourne.
+  woods and forests_   }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Bexley.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston.
+
+
+9. WELLINGTON, JANUARY, 1828.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Wellington.
+                  { _home_       R. (May, 1830, Sir R.) Peel.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Earl Dudley.
+  state_          {              Earl of Aberdeen, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+                  { _war and  }  W. Huskisson.
+                  { colonies_ }  Sir G. Murray, _succeeded_ May, 1828.
+_Lord president_                 Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Ellenborough.
+                                 Earl of Rosslyn, _succeeded_ June, 1829.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        H. Goulburn.
+_Admiralty_                      Duke of Clarence (_lord high admiral_),
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Melville, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1828, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. Grant.
+  treasurer of navy_ }           W. V. Fitzgerald, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Melville.
+                                 Lord Ellenborough, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1828.
+_Master of the mint_             J. C. Herries.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Earl of Aberdeen, _in cabinet_.
+                                 C. Arbuthnot, _succeeded_ June, 1828, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis of Anglesey, Feb., 1828, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Duke of Northumberland, _succeeded_ Feb.,
+                                    1829, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir H. Hardinge, _succeeded_ May, 1828,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         10. GREY, NOVEMBER, 1830.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Earl Grey (_before_ Viscount Howick).
+                  { _home_       Viscount Melbourne.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+  state_          { _war and  {  Viscount Goderich.
+                  { colonies_ {  E. G. Stanley, _succeeded_ March, 1833.
+                  {           {  T. S. Rice, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Durham.
+                                 Earl of Ripon (_before_ Viscount Goderich)
+                                    _succeeded_ April, 1833.
+                                 Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_                      Sir J. R. Graham.
+                                 Lord Auckland, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of trade_                 Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 C. P. Thomson, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of control_               C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_                 Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 J. Abercromby, _succeeded_ June, 1834, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Postmaster-general_             Duke of Richmond, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis of Conyngham, _succeeded_ June,
+                                    1834, _not in cabinet_.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Lord J. Russell, _admitted to cabinet_
+                                    June, 1831.
+_Without office_                 Earl of Carlisle (to June, 1834).
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis of Anglesey, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1833, _not in cabinet_.
+_Chief secretary for Ireland_    E. G. Stanley, _admitted to cabinet_ June,
+                                    1831.
+                                 Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ March,
+                                    1833, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 E. J. Littleton, _succeeded_ May, 1833,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               C. W. Wynn, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir H. Parnell, _succeeded_ April, 1831,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir J. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ Feb., 1832,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 E. Ellice, _succeeded_ April, 1833,
+                                    _admitted to cabinet_ June, 1834.
+
+
+                         11. MELBOURNE, JULY, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Melbourne.
+                  { _home_       Viscount Duncannon.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+  state_          { _war and  }  T. S. Rice.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Mulgrave.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Auckland.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. P. Thompson.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_                 J. Abercromby.
+_First commissioner of }         Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _in cabinet_.
+  woods and forests_   }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Lord J. Russell.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               E. Ellice.
+
+
+                    PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATION, NOVEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Wellington.
+                  { _home_       Duke of Wellington.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Duke of Wellington.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Duke of Wellington.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Lord Denman.
+
+
+                         12. PEEL, DECEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        Sir R. Peel.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       H. Goulburn.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Duke of Wellington.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Earl of Aberdeen.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Rosslyn.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Wharncliffe.
+_Admiralty_                      Earl de Grey.
+_Ordnance_                       Sir G. Murray, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and   }          A. Baring.
+  master of the mint_ }
+_Board of control_               Lord Ellenborough.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Sir E. Knatchbull.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Haddington, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               J. C. Herries.
+
+
+                         13. MELBOURNE, APRIL, 1835.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Melbourne.
+                  { _home_       Lord J. Russell.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+     state_       { _war and  }  C. Grant (May, 1835, Lord Glenelg).
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Great seal in commission.
+                                 Lord Cottenham, _appointed_ Jan., 1836.
+_Lord privy seal_                Viscount Duncannon.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        T. S. Rice.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Auckland.
+                                 Earl of Minto, _succeeded_ Sept., 1835.
+_Board of trade_                 C. P. Thompson.
+_Board of control_               Sir J. C. Hobhouse.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Mulgrave, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Howick.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[142] On May 23, 1812, after Perceval's death, the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
+
+[143] Also treasurer of the navy.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+Abbot, Charles (afterwards Lord Colchester), speaker, 36, 61, 72, 85, 238.
+
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, 393.
+
+Abercromby, James (afterwards Lord Dunfermline), master of the mint, 346;
+  speaker, 354.
+
+Abercromby, Sir Ralph, general, 6, 346.
+
+Aberdeen, 306, 348.
+
+Aberdeen, Earl of (Gordon), 138;
+  chancellor of the duchy, 231;
+  foreign secretary, 236, 263, 264, 268, 352, 376, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 352.
+
+Åbo, treaty of, 123.
+
+Abolition of slavery, acts for the, 46-48, 325-327, 438.
+
+Abolition of slave trade, 48, 143, 151, 152, 167, 188, 274, 279, 358, 438.
+
+Abrantes, 98.
+
+Abyssinia, 436.
+
+Academy, Royal. See London.
+
+Acarnania, 266.
+
+Acre, 393, 394.
+
+_Acte Additionnel_, the, 155.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, 128.
+
+Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), 25, 39, 50, 54, 68, 200,
+      202, 346;
+  first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 1, 2, 11, 15, 16, 27,
+      34;
+  relations with Pitt, 2, 24-29;
+  attacked by Pitt, 30, 31;
+  resignation, 31, 32;
+  his adherents, 34, 36, 68, 81;
+  becomes Viscount Sidmouth and lord president of the council, 35;
+  resignation, 37;
+  lord privy seal, 45;
+  lord president of the council, 49;
+  resignation, 49;
+  lord president of the council, 76, 82;
+  home secretary, 81, 83, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183;
+  in cabinet without office, 199;
+  retirement, 227.
+
+Addington, John Hiley, M.P., 28, 36.
+
+Adelaide, 440.
+
+Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen (afterwards queen of William IV.),
+      184, 273, 277, 351, 375.
+
+Adige, river, 138.
+
+Adour, river, 115, 117.
+
+Adrianople, peace of, 267, 268.
+
+Ægean islands, the, 263;
+  sea, 224, 394.
+
+Ætolia, 266.
+
+Afghánistán, 397, 402, 403, 412-414;
+  treaty with East India Company, 403;
+  first Afghán war, 403, 414.
+
+Africa, interior of, 436.
+
+Agra, 399, 409.
+
+Agriculture, condition of, 84, 433, 434.
+
+Ahmadnagar, 398.
+
+Airy, Sir George, 428.
+
+Aix, island, 69.
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of, 189-191, 377.
+
+Akkerman, treaty of, 260.
+
+Alava, Spanish admiral, 40.
+
+Albuera, battle, 103, 104.
+
+Albuquerque, Duke of, 100.
+
+Alcantara, 99.
+
+Alemtejo, province, 255.
+
+Alessandria, 213.
+
+Alexander the Great, 401, 413.
+
+Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, 5, 7, 23, 37, 52, 59, 66, 78, 80, 81, 92,
+      104, 105, 124, 144-148, 151-153, 168, 189-191, 210-212, 214, 216-218,
+      224, 225, 232.
+
+Alexandria, 261, 264, 265, 393, 413;
+  battle and capitulation of, 6;
+  retention by England, 19;
+  expeditions to, 52, 57, 264;
+  convention of, 264, 265.
+
+Algarve, province, 389.
+
+Algeciras, 8.
+
+Algiers, Dey of, 187, 188;
+  bombardment of, 188;
+  conquest of, 269.
+
+Algoa bay, 438.
+
+Alliance, La Belle, 164.
+
+"All the Talents" ministry. See ministries, Grenville's.
+
+Almaraz, 106.
+
+Almeida, 100, 102, 103.
+
+Almora, treaty of, 405.
+
+Alps, the, 138.
+
+Alsace, 143, 168.
+
+Alten, Count, 162.
+
+Althorp, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Spencer), 230, 234;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 279, 280, 283, 286, 291, 297, 321-323, 328,
+      330, 334, 335, 343-345;
+  resignation, 346;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 347, 349, 350, 373.
+
+Amager, island, 4.
+
+Amascoas, battle, 390.
+
+_Ambigu, L'_, newspaper, 12.
+
+Amelia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 74.
+
+America, British North, 85, 225.
+  See also Canada.
+
+America, South, 205, 226.
+  See also Spain and Portugal.
+
+Amherst, Earl, governor-general of Bengal, 408, 409.
+
+Amherstburg, 141.
+
+Amiens, 10;
+  treaty of, 16, 17, 19, 20, 208, 398;
+  negotiations, 7-12;
+  preliminary treaty, 9, 13, 14;
+  definitive treaty, 12, 13, 435.
+
+Amír Khán, Pindárí leader, 407.
+
+Andalusia, 94, 100, 102, 106, 107.
+
+Anglesey, Marquis of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+Angoulême, Duke of. See Louis Antoine, dauphin.
+
+Ansbach, 43.
+
+Anti-Duelling Association, 251.
+
+Antioch, 393.
+
+Antwerp, 43, 64, 65, 200, 378, 380, 382, 386.
+
+Apsley House. See London.
+
+Aragon, 100.
+
+Arakan, 408, 409.
+
+Aranjuez, 87, 92, 93;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Arapiles hills, the, 107.
+
+Archangel, 310.
+
+Archipelago, the, 261.
+
+Arcis-sur-Aube, battle, 145.
+
+Arcot, 400.
+
+Arden, Lord (Perceval), 50.
+
+Argáum, battle, 399.
+
+Argentine, the (La Plata), 190.
+
+_Argus_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Arkwright, Sir Richard, 83.
+
+Arta, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Artois, Count of. See Charles X. of France.
+
+Ascot races, 148.
+
+Ashley, Lord (Ashley-Cooper), afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, 327, 328.
+
+Asia Minor, 394, 413.
+
+Aspern, 63.
+
+Aspropotamo, river, 268.
+
+Assam, 408, 409.
+
+Assaye, battle, 399.
+
+Astorga, 93-95.
+
+Attwood, Thomas, M.P., 335.
+
+Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, 56, 81.
+
+Auckland, first Lord (Eden), president of the board of trade, 34, 346.
+
+Auckland, second Lord (Eden), afterwards Earl of, first lord of the
+      admiralty, 346, 357;
+  governor-general of India, 363, 412.
+
+Auerstädt, battle, 47.
+
+Augusta, Princess of Hesse, 184.
+
+Augusta, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Austen, Jane, 422.
+
+Austerlitz, battle, 42, 43, 51, 60.
+
+Australia, 436, 438-440;
+  New South Wales, 438, 439;
+  Queensland, 439;
+  South Australia, 440;
+  Victoria, 439;
+  West Australia, 439.
+
+Austria, 17, 54, 58, 59, 62, 78, 80, 124, 214, 215, 220, 264, 267, 391;
+  guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+  treaty with France, 14;
+  third coalition, 37, 38, 41;
+  Ulm and peace of Pressburg, 42;
+  struggle with France, 61-64;
+  treaty with England, 63;
+  war with Bavaria, 63;
+  piece of Vienna, 64, 66;
+  national bankruptcy, 81;
+  treaty with France, 122;
+  attacks North Italy, 133;
+  diplomacy, 132, 134-137, 144, 187-189, 217;
+  truce with Russia, 135;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  war with France, 137, 142;
+  alliance with Murat, 143;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 166, 167, 186, 188-190, 376, 379, 381,
+      388;
+  secret treaty of Vienna, 153;
+  acquires Venetia and Lombardy, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  holy alliance, 168;
+  treaties with the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Modena and Parma, 187;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 223;
+  army in Italy, 212, 213, 216;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at London, 222;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  joins conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+  secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Ava. See Burma.
+
+Azores, islands, 259, 388.
+
+Azzara, Chevalier, 21.
+
+
+Bacon, Lord, 424.
+
+Badajoz, 99, 102-106, 108, 113, 147;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Baden, 34, 189.
+
+Baghdad, 413.
+
+Bailey, Old. See London.
+
+Baird, David (afterwards Sir David), general, 6, 47, 93-95.
+
+Balkans, the, 263, 266, 267.
+
+Baltic, the, 52, 78, 90, 199, 310.
+
+Baltic, battle of the, 4, 5, 420.
+
+Baltimore, 146.
+
+Banda Oriental. See Uruguay.
+
+Bank charter acts, 325, 326, 330, 331.
+
+Bank of England, 183, 205, 206, 303;
+  notes made legal tender, 182.
+
+Bank restriction act, 16.
+
+Bankes, Henry, M.P., 157.
+
+Banks, Sir Joseph, 428.
+
+Barcelona, 88, 110, 220.
+
+Barclay, Commander, 139.
+
+Barham, Lord (Sir Charles Middleton), first lord of the admiralty, 36.
+
+Baring, Alexander (afterwards Lord Ashburton), 304;
+  president of board of trade and master of the mint, 352.
+
+Baring, Francis (afterwards Lord Northbrook), 346.
+
+Barlow, Sir George, governor-general of Bengal, 401.
+
+Barnstaple, 193.
+
+Baroda, Gáekwár of, 405, 406.
+
+Barrosa, 102.
+
+Basque provinces, 390, 391.
+
+Basque roads, 69.
+
+Bass, George, 439.
+
+Bassein, treaty of, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Batavian republic. See Holland.
+
+Bath, 43, 362.
+
+Bath (Holland), 65.
+
+Bathurst, Charles Bragge-. See Bragge, Charles.
+
+Bathurst, Earl, president of the board of trade, 50, 68;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 82, 109, 112;
+  resignation, 227;
+  lord president of the council, 231.
+
+Battersea Fields. See London.
+
+Bautzen, battle, 135.
+
+Bavaria, 41, 42, 66, 136, 152, 153, 166, 189, 392;
+  war with Austria, 63;
+  treaty of Ried, 137.
+
+Baylen, 58, 88, 89, 92.
+
+Bayonne, 88, 89, 92, 112, 115-117, 119;
+  road to, 111.
+
+Beachy Head, 8.
+
+Beauharnais, Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+Beauharnais, Eugène, viceroy of Italy, 138.
+
+Bedford, Duke of (Russell), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 49.
+
+Beilan, pass, 393.
+
+Beira, province, 255, 257.
+
+Belgium, 143, 144, 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 200, 377;
+  Prince of Orange proclaimed, 138;
+  troops, 156;
+  Waterloo campaign, 157-164;
+  united to Holland, 166;
+  revolution, 276, 376-382;
+  elects Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, 383;
+  war with Holland, 384-386, 393;
+  convention with Holland, 387.
+
+Belgrade, 80.
+
+Bell, Henry, 427, 434.
+
+Belleisle, 388.
+
+_Bellerophon_, the, British ship, 165, 168, 169.
+
+Belliard, French general, 383, 384.
+
+Bellingham, John, 76.
+
+Benevente, 94, 95.
+
+Bengal, 310, 330, 400, 404, 408, 410.
+
+Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 341, 420, 421, 437.
+
+Bentinck, Lord William, 114, 143;
+  governor-general of India, 410-412.
+
+Berár, 399.
+  See Nágpur.
+
+Berbice, 9.
+
+Beresford, Lord George, 242.
+
+Beresford, William (afterwards Lord and later Viscount), 47, 96, 103, 109,
+      118, 119, 211, 222.
+
+Berezina, river, 125.
+
+Berkeley, Vice-admiral, 127.
+
+Berkshire, 281, 341.
+
+Berlin, 53, 81, 134, 310;
+  convention at, 396.
+
+Berlin decree, the, 55, 403.
+
+Bernadotte, Marshal (afterwards Charles XIV. of Sweden), 54, 80, 136, 137,
+      143, 150.
+
+Berry, Duke of, 210.
+
+Bessarabia, 123.
+
+Bessborough, Earl of (Ponsonby), 287.
+
+Bessières, Marshal, 88, 92.
+
+Betanzos, 95.
+
+Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart, Nicholas.
+
+Bhartpur, 399, 403, 408, 409.
+
+Bickersteth, Henry (afterwards Lord Langdale), 363.
+
+Bidassoa, river, 112, 114, 115.
+
+Bilbao, 111, 391.
+
+Birmingham, 178, 236, 272, 285, 295, 297, 304, 335, 435.
+
+Biscay, province, 109, 389, 391.
+
+Bishopp, British officer, 130.
+
+Blackburn, Francis, attorney-general for Ireland, 313, 314.
+
+Blackfriars. See London.
+
+Blackheath. See London.
+
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, 423-425.
+
+Bladensburg, battle, 146.
+
+Blake, Spanish general, 88.
+
+Blandford, Marquis of (Churchill), afterwards Duke of Marlborough, 271,
+      284.
+
+Blanketeers, the, 176.
+
+Blomfield, bishop of London, 324, 341, 373.
+
+Blücher, Marshal, 138, 143-145, 148;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-161, 163-164.
+
+Bohemia, 64, 137.
+
+Bombay, 310, 398.
+
+Bona, 188.
+
+Bonaparte, Joseph, 10-12, 21;
+  King of Naples, 47, 53;
+  King of Spain, 59, 88, 89, 92, 98, 104, 106, 107, 109-111, 122, 123, 190.
+
+Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon), 382.
+
+Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 46, 53, 78.
+
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, 6, 19, 39, 41, 42, 51, 53-56, 58, 62, 64-66, 78,
+      80-82, 87-89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99-102, 104, 105, 109-112, 114, 115,
+      117, 119, 120-126, 128, 143, 145, 148, 150, 168, 171, 186, 199, 382;
+  concordat with the pope, 7;
+  refuses overtures of peace, 8;
+  meets Cornwallis, 10;
+  elected president of the Italian republic, 12, 17;
+  plans for the invasion of England, 8, 35, 38, 41, 71;
+  attacked by French exiles in London, 12, 17;
+  consul for life, 15, 17;
+  Fox presented to him, 15, 16;
+  annexes Piedmont, 17;
+  mediates in Switzerland and Germany, 17;
+  schemes of colonial expansion, 18;
+  Whitworth, 20-22;
+  declared emperor, 33, 34;
+  plots against his life, 33, 34;
+  coronations, 35, 37, 38;
+  Ulm and Austerlitz, 42, 64;
+  Jena and Auerstädt, 47, 55, 64;
+  Eylau, 51, 56;
+  Friedland, 52, 122, 401;
+  meets Alexander, 52;
+  "continental system," 53, 55-58, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 171, 403;
+  manifesto, 57;
+  at Erfurt, 59;
+  Eckmühl and Wagram, 60, 63;
+  Borodino, 63, 124;
+  Leipzig, 63, 114, 118, 133, 137, 138;
+  marriage with Maria Louisa, 78;
+  fiscal policy, 79;
+  first abdication, 82, 118, 145;
+  in Spain, 92, 94;
+  war with Russia, 121-126, 402;
+  campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+  Lützen and Bautzen, 135;
+  Dresden, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 143-145;
+  La Rothière, 144;
+  Arcis-sur-Aube, 145;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  Elba, 145, 146, 153, 201;
+  "The Hundred Days," 151, 153-165;
+  Ligny, 158, 159;
+  Quatre Bras, 159;
+  Waterloo, 160-165;
+  second abdication, 165;
+  St. Helena, 166, 167, 169, 170, 402;
+  designs on India, 401-403.
+
+Bond, Nathaniel, M.P., 36.
+
+Bonnymuir, 193.
+
+Bordeaux, 118, 154;
+  road to, 117.
+
+Bordeaux, Henry, Duke of. See Chambord, Count of.
+
+Borisov, battle, 125.
+
+Borodino, battle, 63, 124, 164.
+
+Bosphorus, the, 267, 394.
+
+Boston (United States), 142.
+
+Botany Bay, 438.
+
+Boulogne, 8, 35, 38.
+
+Boulton, Matthew, 435.
+
+Bourbon, island, 69, 403.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of, 154.
+
+Bourne, W. Sturges, 341;
+  home secretary, 227;
+  first commissioner of woods and forests, 228, 229.
+
+Braga, 258.
+
+Bragge, Charles (afterwards Bragge-Bathurst), 28, 68, 202;
+  chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 81, 82, 174;
+  president of the board of control, 199.
+
+Brahmaputra, the, 408, 409.
+
+Braine l'Alleud, Belgian village, 162.
+
+Brand, M.P., 284.
+
+Brazil, 89, 190, 211, 221, 222, 253, 254, 259, 388;
+  commercial treaty with England, 222.
+
+Brereton, Colonel, 298.
+
+Breslau, 134, 135.
+
+Brest, 39, 55.
+
+Brewster's _Encyclopædia_, 424.
+
+_Bridgwater Treatises_, the, 338.
+
+Brienne, 143.
+
+Brighton, 350.
+
+Brindley, James, 434.
+
+Bristol, 175, 297, 298, 302, 309, 435.
+
+British Association, the, 338.
+
+Brittany, 154.
+
+Brock, Major-general, 129, 130.
+
+Broke, Captain, 142.
+
+Brooks's club. See London.
+
+Brougham, Henry (afterwards Lord Brougham and Vaux), 48, 172, 173, 182,
+      193-196, 207, 228, 234, 241, 242, 274, 277, 278, 280, 357-359, 363,
+      423, 431;
+  lord chancellor, 281, 282, 287, 295, 325, 338, 343, 345, 346, 348, 351;
+  legal reforms, 332, 333, 358, 359, 361.
+
+Broussa, 393.
+
+Brown, American commander, 146.
+
+Bruce, Michael, 436.
+
+Brünn, 42.
+
+Brunswick, 196.
+
+Brunswick (Charles), Duke of, 184 n.
+
+Brunswick (Frederick William), Duke of, 159.
+
+Brunswick, troops, 158.
+
+Brunswick clubs, 243.
+
+Brussels, 158-161, 378, 379, 381, 383, 384, 387.
+
+_Bucentaure_, the, French ship, 40.
+
+Bucharest, treaty of, 123.
+
+Buckingham, Marquis of (Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville),
+      afterwards Duke of, 199, 295.
+
+Buckingham palace. See London.
+
+Buckinghamshire, 281.
+
+Buckinghamshire, third Earl of (Hobart), 1.
+
+Buckinghamshire, fourth Earl of. See Hobart, Lord.
+
+Buckland, William, Dean of Westminster, 340.
+
+Buenos Ayres, 47, 56, 57, 205, 216, 223.
+
+Bukowina, 224.
+
+Bulgaria, 263, 267.
+
+Bull-baiting, 15.
+
+"Bullion committee," the, 73.
+
+Bülow, Frederick William von, General, afterwards Count, 143, 145, 163,
+      164.
+
+Bulwer, Edward Lytton (afterwards Lord Lytton), 426.
+
+Burdett, Sir Francis, M.P., 51, 72, 175, 226, 240-242, 284, 285, 298, 374.
+
+Burgess, Thomas, bishop of St. Davids, 430.
+
+Burgos, 92, 108, 110.
+
+Burgundy, 154.
+
+Burke, Edmund, 308, 415, 422.
+
+Burlington Heights, 139, 140.
+
+Burma, first Burmese war, 408, 409;
+  treaty with East India Company, 409.
+
+Burnes, Sir Alexander, 413, 414.
+
+Burns, Robert, 415.
+
+Burrard, Sir Harry, general, 90, 91, 93.
+
+Bussaco, 101, 113.
+
+Butrinto, 188.
+
+Buxton, Thomas Fowell, M.P., 326, 327.
+
+Bylandt, Dutch general, 162.
+
+Byron, Lord, 233, 417-419.
+
+
+Cachar, 411.
+
+Cadiz, 8, 39-41, 89, 96, 100, 102-104, 109, 256.
+
+Cadoudal, Georges, 33.
+
+Cairo, capture of, 6.
+
+Calabria, 47.
+
+Calcott, Sir Augustus, 427.
+
+Calcutta, 398, 402, 408, 412.
+
+Calder, Sir Robert, 39.
+
+Caledonian canal, 434.
+
+Cambridge. See Universities.
+
+Cambridge (Adolphus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Cambridgeshire, 175 n.
+
+Camden, Earl (Pratt), afterwards Marquis Camden, secretary for war and
+      colonies, 34, 37;
+  lord president of the council, 37, 50, 66, 67;
+  in cabinet without office, 76, 82.
+
+Camelford, 193.
+
+Campbell, Lord, 361, 363.
+
+Campbell, Sir Archibald, 409.
+
+Campbell, Sir Neil, 153.
+
+Campbell, Thomas, 420, 431.
+
+Canada, 128, 147, 157, 225, 312, 437, 438;
+  attacked by the United States, 129, 130, 139-141, 146.
+
+Candia. See Crete.
+
+Cannes, 153.
+
+Canning, George, 2, 24, 68, 76, 84, 85, 172, 209, 231, 232, 238, 240, 245,
+      279, 284, 285, 319, 339, 358, 423;
+  _jeux d'esprit_, 26, 28;
+  foreign secretary, 50, 52-54, 59, 66, 92;
+  resignation, 67;
+  president of the board of control, 174, 176, 185, 199, 201, 406;
+  foreign secretary, 197, 199-201, 207, 208, 216, 218-226, 232-235, 241,
+      242, 255-257, 259, 260, 390, 392, 408;
+  first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 227, 228,
+      273, 380;
+  death, 228, 229.
+
+Canning, Sir Stratford (afterwards Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), 225,
+      266.
+
+Canterac, Spanish general, 223.
+
+Canterbury, archbishop of (Howley), 299, 337, 373.
+
+Cape Finisterre, 39.
+
+Cape Formoso, 151.
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 9, 47, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Cape St. Vincent, battle, 389.
+
+Cape Trafalgar, battle, 40, 43, 69.
+
+Capodistrias, Greek president, 267, 268, 392.
+
+Carcassonne, road to, 119.
+
+Carinthia, 66.
+
+Carlile, agitator, 282.
+
+Carlisle, sixth Earl of (Howard), first commissioner of woods and forests,
+      228, 357;
+  lord privy seal, 228;
+  in cabinet without office, 280;
+  lord privy seal, 346, 347.
+
+Carlos, Don. 389-391.
+
+Carlsbad, 189.
+
+Carlton House. See London.
+
+Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 424.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 417, 434, 427.
+
+Carnot, French statesman, 155, 165.
+
+Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales (afterwards queen of George IV.),
+      48, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197, 200.
+
+Carr, R. J., bishop of Worcester, 299.
+
+Cartwright, Edmund, 83.
+
+Cartwright, Major, 175.
+
+Casimir-Perier, French premier, 387.
+
+Caspian Sea, 310.
+
+Castalla, 109, 114.
+
+Castaños, Francisco Xavier de, 93.
+
+Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), afterwards second Marquis of Londonderry,
+      2, 68, 71, 73, 100, 201, 202, 208, 209, 228, 238;
+  president of the board of control, 15, 34;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 37, 50, 52, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65-67, 90,
+      92, 200;
+  resignation, 67;
+  foreign secretary, 76, 82, 85, 123, 144-147, 153, 156, 169, 171-173, 183,
+      189, 191, 195, 199, 210-212, 214, 217, 260, 387;
+  death, 199-201, 216, 408.
+
+Catalonia, 88, 92, 112, 114, 115, 118.
+
+Cathcart, Lord (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of), 43, 54, 123, 134, 136.
+
+Catholic Apostolic Church, 339.
+
+Catholic Association, 240, 241, 244-246.
+
+Catholic emancipation, 49, 76, 200, 207, 226, 230, 236-249, 431;
+  abandoned, 2, 34;
+  opposition to, 32, 34, 45, 50, 208, 227;
+  carried, 249.
+
+Cato Street conspiracy, 192, 193.
+
+Cattaro, 142.
+
+Caulaincourt, French diplomatist, 144.
+
+Cawnpur, 399.
+
+Census, 300, 311, 312.
+
+Ceylon, 9, 167.
+
+Chadwick, Edwin, 341.
+
+Chambéry, 149.
+
+Chambord, Count de, 210, 376.
+
+Chambray, Marquis de, 125.
+
+Champagne, 143, 144.
+
+Champlain, lake, 140, 146.
+
+Chandos, Marquis of (Brydges-Chandos-Temple-Grenville), afterwards second
+      Duke of Buckingham, 295, 299;
+  "Chandos clause," 295.
+
+Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 427.
+
+Charity Commission, 182.
+
+Charleroi, 158, 161.
+
+Charles, Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France), 34, 116, 154,
+      224, 376.
+
+Charles IV., King of Spain, 87, 88.
+
+Charles XII., King of Sweden, 54.
+
+Charles XIII., King of Sweden and Norway, 54, 150.
+
+Charles, Archduke, 63.
+
+Charles Albert, Prince, of Carignano (afterwards King of Sardinia), 213.
+
+Charles Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, 10.
+
+Charles Felix, King of Sardinia, 213.
+
+Charlotte, Princess (daughter of the Prince Regent), 86, 174, 183-185, 194,
+      195, 268.
+
+Charlotte, Queen-dowager of Würtemburg (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Charlotte, queen of George III., 74, 184, 185.
+
+Charlotte, queen of John VI. of Portugal, 253, 254.
+
+Chartism, 308.
+
+Chassé, D. H., Dutch general, 162.
+
+Chateauguay, battle of river, 141.
+
+Chatham, Earl of (John Pitt), lord president of the council, 1;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 1, 24, 50, 64, 65, 71;
+  resignation, 72.
+
+Châtillon-sur-Seine, congress at, 118, 144.
+
+Chaumont, treaty of, 144, 145;
+  extended at Paris, 168, 186, 191, 377.
+
+Chauncey, Commodore, 140.
+
+Cherbourg, 376.
+
+Chesapeake Bay, 146;
+  estuary, 141.
+
+_Chesapeake_, the, American frigate, 127, 142, 147.
+
+Chesney, Francis Rawdon, colonel, 413.
+
+Chester, bishop of (Sumner), 341.
+
+Chichagov, Russian general, 125.
+
+Chichester, first Earl of (Pelham), 1.
+
+Chile, 190, 221.
+
+China, 86, 310, 325, 328, 329;
+  coolies, 438.
+
+Chios, island, 261, 263.
+
+Chippewa, 130, 146.
+
+Chiswick, 228.
+
+Chittagong, 408.
+
+Chítu, Pindárí leader, 406, 407.
+
+Cholera, 299, 309, 311, 407.
+
+Christian, Prince (afterwards Christian VIII. of Denmark), 143, 150.
+
+Chrystler's Farm, battle, 141.
+
+Church, Sir Richard, general, 262, 266.
+
+Church, Irish, temporalities act, 321-325.
+
+Church rates, 373, 374.
+
+Church, Scottish, 360 n., 424.
+
+Church, states of the. See Papal states.
+
+Cilicia, 394.
+
+Cinque Ports, 23.
+
+Cintra, convention of, 60, 91.
+
+Cisalpine republic (Italian republic), 9, 12, 17, 38.
+
+Ciudad Real, 96.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 100, 102-108.
+
+Civil list, 15, 173, 174, 192, 278, 282, 283, 290.
+
+Clancarty, Earl of (Le Poer-Trench), 61, 68.
+
+Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313.
+
+Clare, Earl of (Fitzgibbon), 3.
+
+Clarence (William), Duke of. See William IV.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 60, 61.
+
+Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, 48.
+
+Clausel, General, 107, 108, 111-113.
+
+Cleves, 43.
+
+Clinton, Sir Henry, general, 162.
+
+Clive, Lord, 396.
+
+Clyde, the, 428, 434.
+
+Coa, river, 110.
+
+Cobbett, William, 177, 207, 282, 318, 335, 343, 423;
+  _Weekly Register_, 72, 175, 204, 422, 423.
+
+Coblenz, 138.
+
+Cochrane, Lord (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), 51, 69, 72, 88, 175, 190,
+      221, 222, 233.
+
+Codrington, Admiral, 230, 233, 234, 264.
+
+Coercion acts (Irish), 330-322, 324, 325, 346, 347.
+
+Coimbra, 98, 101.
+
+Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, Charles.
+
+Cole, General (afterwards Sir) G. L. 103.
+
+Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 416, 417, 425.
+
+Colle, La, Mill, 146.
+
+Collingwood, Admiral, 39, 40, 41, 57, 69, 88.
+
+_Collingwood, the Lord_, British ship, 216.
+
+Cologne, 43.
+
+Colombia, 216, 223.
+
+Combermere, Lord (Cotton), afterwards Viscount, 409.
+
+Combination laws, 204, 207.
+
+_Comet_, the, steamboat, 427, 434.
+
+Concordat, the, 7.
+
+Congreve rockets, 117.
+
+"Conservative," origin of name, 319.
+
+Constable, John, 427.
+
+Constantinople, 57, 214, 216, 233, 259, 261, 267, 387, 393, 394.
+
+_Constitution_, the, American frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Continental system, the, 33, 55-58, 66, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 126, 128, 171,
+      403.
+
+Convention act (Irish), 240.
+
+Conyngham, Marquis of, 346.
+
+Cook, Captain, 436, 438.
+
+Cooke, General, 162.
+
+Coorg, 411.
+
+Copenhagen, 3-5, 54, 55, 57.
+  See Baltic, battle of the.
+
+Copley, Sir John (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), 226, 242, 281, 295, 302-304,
+      359, 361-363, 365, 369-372;
+  lord chancellor, 227, 231, 243, 246, 249, 352.
+
+Corn, price of, 7 n., 84, 85, 172, 174, 203, 370.
+
+Corn laws, 85, 173, 204, 207, 243, 306.
+
+Cornwall, 288.
+
+Cornwall (Canada), 141.
+
+Cornwall, revenues of duchy of, 15, 278.
+
+Cornwallis, Admiral, 39.
+
+Cornwallis, Marquis, 239;
+  master-general of ordnance, 1;
+  negotiates treaty of Amiens, 10-12;
+  warns England, 17;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 400, 401.
+
+Corporation act, 229, 334, 235, 242.
+
+Corporation act (Irish), 372.
+
+Coruña, 39, 90, 92, 93;
+  battle, 95, 96, 108.
+
+Cottenham, Lord. See Pepys, Sir Charles.
+
+Countries, the Low. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Cowper, William, 415.
+
+Cox, David, 427.
+
+Cracow, 153, 166.
+
+Cradock, Sir John, 96.
+
+Craig, Sir James, 42;
+  governor of Canada, 128, 129.
+
+Craufurd, Robert, general, 105.
+
+Crete, 261, 263, 266, 268.
+
+Criminal law, reform of, 51, 77, 194, 201, 369.
+
+Croker, John Wilson, 274, 303, 318.
+
+Crome, John, the elder, 427.
+
+Cronstadt fleet, 123.
+
+Cuba, 222.
+
+Cuesta, Spanish general, 88, 98, 99.
+
+Cumberland (Ernest), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185, 197, 231, 235,
+      246, 274, 324, 367, 368.
+
+Curtis, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin, 243, 244.
+
+Curwen, John Christian, M.P., 181, 182, 284.
+
+Cuttack, 399.
+
+Czartoryski, Prince Adam, 80.
+
+Czernowitz, 224.
+
+
+Dakáiti, 401.
+
+Dalmatia, 42, 142;
+  Duke of. See Soult, Marshal.
+
+Dalrymple, Sir Hew, general, 90, 91.
+
+Danube, the, 41, 63, 77, 94, 124, 263, 310.
+
+Danubian principalities. See Moldavia and Wallachia.
+
+Danzig, surrender of, 52.
+
+Dardanelles, the, 55, 57, 188, 214, 215, 260, 265, 267, 394, 395.
+
+Darling, Governor, 440.
+
+Darlington, 435.
+
+Darnley, Earl of (Bligh), 54.
+
+Dartmouth, Earl of. See Lewisham, Viscount.
+
+Darwin, Charles, 428.
+
+Daulat Ráo Sindhia. See Sindhia.
+
+Davoût, Marshal, 81, 136, 137.
+
+Davy, Sir Humphry, 428, 433.
+
+Dawson, George, M.P., 243, 246.
+
+"Days, the Hundred." See Bonaparte, Napoleon.
+
+Dearborn, American general, 130, 140.
+
+Decaen, French general, 18.
+
+Deccan, the, 407.
+
+Delaborde, French officer, 90.
+
+Delaware, estuary, 141.
+
+Delhi, 397-399, 406.
+
+Demerara, 9.
+
+Denman, Thomas (afterwards Lord Denman), 195.
+
+Denmark, 3-5, 53-55, 59, 69, 136, 190;
+  treaties of Kiel, 143, 189;
+  loses Norway, 166.
+
+Dennewitz, battle, 137.
+
+De Quincey, Thomas, 425.
+
+Derby, 296.
+
+Derby, twelfth Earl of (Smith-Stanley), 277.
+
+Derbyshire, 83.
+
+Derry, 243.
+
+Desnoëttes, General Lefebvre-, 88.
+
+Despard, Edward Marcus, colonel, 16.
+
+Detroit, 129, 138.
+
+Devonshire, 359.
+
+Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), 228.
+
+D'Eyncourt. See Tennyson, Charles.
+
+Dickens, Charles, 426.
+
+Diebitsch, Russian general, 266, 267, 310.
+
+Dijon, 145.
+
+Disraeli, Benjamin (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield), 426.
+
+Dissenters, 306;
+  disabilities of, 85, 234, 235, 353, 355, 430.
+
+Donauwörth, 41, 63.
+
+Dost Muhammad, Amír of Kábul, 414.
+
+Douro, the, 94, 98, 99, 110.
+
+Dover, 148, 195, 351, 435.
+
+Downs, the, 64.
+
+Drake, British envoy, 33.
+
+Dresden, 112, 114, 135;
+  battle, 137.
+
+Dropmore, seat of Lord Grenville, 24.
+
+Drummond, Sir Gordon, 146.
+
+Dublin, 19, 77, 197, 240, 317, 371;
+  castle, 23;
+  police bill, 362;
+  archbishop of (Whately), 317, 421, 422;
+  Roman Catholic archbishop of (Curtis), 243, 244.
+
+Duckworth, Sir John, admiral, 57.
+
+Dudley, Viscount and Earl of. See Ward, J. W.
+
+Duhesme, French general, 88.
+
+Dumont, Pierre Étienne Louis, 420.
+
+Duncannon, Viscount (Ponsonby), afterwards Earl of Bessborough, 287;
+  home secretary, 347;
+  lord privy seal, 357.
+
+Duncombe, Thomas S., M.P., 374.
+
+Dundas, Sir David, commander-in-chief, 61, 62.
+
+Dundas, Henry (afterwards first Viscount Melville), 3, 24, 25, 30, 32, 68;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 34;
+  impeachment, 36.
+
+Dundas, Robert S. (afterwards second Viscount Melville), president of board
+      of control, 68;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 82;
+  resignation, 227;
+  president of board of control, 231;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 243.
+
+Dundee, 306.
+
+Dupont, General, 88.
+
+Durham. See Universities.
+
+Durham, Lord (Lambton), afterwards Earl of, 345, 348;
+  lord privy seal, 280, 287, 291;
+  resignation, 325.
+
+
+East India Company. See India.
+
+East Retford, 235, 236.
+
+Ebrington, Viscount (Fortescue), afterwards second Earl Fortescue, 206,
+      303.
+
+Ebro, the, 89, 92, 110, 114.
+
+Ecclefechan, 424.
+
+Ecclesiastical commission, 355, 373.
+
+Eckmühl, battle, 63.
+
+Edgeworth, Maria, 422.
+
+Edgware Road. See London.
+
+Edinburgh, 306, 348.
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, the, 358, 423, 424.
+
+Education, national, 49, 51, 182, 193, 194, 358;
+  Irish, 316, 317.
+
+Edwards, George, informer, 192.
+
+Egmont, Earl of (Perceval), 50.
+
+Egypt, 6, 9, 18, 57, 224, 225, 233, 262, 264, 265, 269, 396, 413;
+  convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+  peace of Kiutayeh, 394.
+
+Elba, island, 145, 146, 151, 153, 169, 201.
+
+Elbe, the, 55, 62, 133, 135, 137.
+
+Eldon, Lord (Scott), afterwards Earl of Eldon, 232, 234, 235, 238, 239,
+      244, 248, 249, 296, 319, 333, 353, 358, 362;
+  lord chancellor, 1, 29, 30, 31, 49, 50, 51, 60, 67 n., 74-76, 82, 85,
+      169, 172, 179, 180, 194-196, 202, 209;
+  resignation, 227.
+
+Elections, general. See Parliament.
+
+Eliot, Lord (afterwards Earl of St. Germans), 390.
+
+Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n., 185.
+
+Ellenborough, first Lord (Law), lord chief justice, 45, 49, 169, 177.
+
+Ellenborough, second Lord, afterwards Earl (Law), 328, 329;
+  lord privy seal, 231;
+  president of the board of control, 243, 271, 352.
+
+Ellesmere canal, 434.
+
+Ellice, Edward, secretary at war, 346.
+
+Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 403.
+
+Elsinore, 4.
+
+Elvas, 93, 103.
+
+Embargo act (United States), 128.
+
+Emmet, Robert, 18, 23, 240.
+
+Empire, Holy Roman, dissolved, 46;
+  treaty of Lunéville, 6, 17.
+
+Enghien, Duke of, murder of, 34, 35, 37.
+
+England, negotiates with France, 7-12;
+  conquests, 9, 14, 47, 69, 81, 398, 403;
+  signs treaty of Amiens, 12, 13, 398;
+  industrial and agricultural depression, 13, 83, 171, 172, 174-180,
+      205-207, 270, 299, 312, 370;
+  fresh discord with France, 16, 17;
+  war declared against France, 22;
+  preparations for invasion, 23;
+  third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41, 52;
+  treaty with Russia, 37:
+  treaty with Sweden, 38;
+  expeditions to Naples, 42, 47, 63;
+  Anglo-Hanoverian expedition to North Germany, 42, 43, 51;
+  negotiations with France, 46;
+  state of army in 1806, 51;
+    in 1807, 59, 60;
+    in 1813, 86;
+  troops in Sweden, 52;
+  troops in Denmark, 53, 54;
+  orders in council, 55, 56, 126, 130, 171;
+  commercial warfare, 58;
+  Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 129, 182;
+  treaty with Spanish junta, 96;
+  Walcheren expedition, 62-66, 99:
+  treaty with Austria, 63;
+  Sweden declares war on, 78;
+  treaties with Russia and Sweden, 85, 123, 136;
+  war with United States, 58, 82, 126-132, 138-142, 146, 147, 156, 171;
+  treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+  treaties of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  treaty of Kiel, 143;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+  visit of the allied sovereigns, 147, 148;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  treaty with Spain, 150;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 376, 379,
+      381, 388;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+  expedition against the Barbary States, 187, 188;
+  conferences of Vienna, 189, 216, 217;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-215, 395, 396;
+  the Eastern question, 213, 216, 232-234, 259-269, 392;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  assists Portugal, 220, 221, 255-258;
+  commercial treaty with Brazil, 322;
+  conferences of London, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty with United States, 225;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  treaties with Portugal, 255;
+  convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+  convention with France and Holland, 387;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389-391;
+  treaties with Indian states, 398, 399;
+  treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+Epirus, 188.
+
+Erfurt, 59, 92.
+
+Erie, lake, 139, 141.
+
+Erlon, d', French general, 159, 162, 163.
+
+Erskine, Lord, 77, 177;
+  lord chancellor, 49.
+
+Esdremadura, 99, 106.
+
+Espinosa, battle, 92.
+
+Essequibo, 9.
+
+Essex, 175 n.
+
+Essling, 63.
+
+Etruria, kingdom of, 9.
+
+Euphrates, the, 413.
+
+Evans, De Lacy (afterwards Sir de Lacy), 343, 391.
+
+Eveleigh, Dr., 429.
+
+Evora, convention at, 390.
+
+Ewart, William, M.P., 369.
+
+Exchange, Royal. See London.
+
+Exeter, bishop of (Phillpotts), 324.
+
+Exmouth, Lord (Pellew), afterwards Viscount, 187, 188.
+
+Eylau, battle, 51, 199;
+  campaign, 56.
+
+
+Fabvier, Colonel, 262.
+
+Factory acts, 326-328.
+
+Falmouth, 259.
+
+Faraday, Michael, 428.
+
+Fath Ali, Sháh of Persia, 402.
+
+Fauvelet, French agent, 19.
+
+Fawkes, Guy, 192.
+
+Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 396.
+
+Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, 166.
+
+Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, 7, 47, 58, 166, 187, 211, 212,
+      216, 221.
+
+Ferdinand VII., King of Spain, 87, 88, 103, 123, 150, 187, 190, 210, 215,
+      218, 222, 388, 389, 395.
+
+Ferrol, 39.
+
+Ferronays, De la, French foreign minister, 261.
+
+Finance, 15, 48, 49, 86, 172, 173, 198, 201-204, 206, 207, 226, 238, 235,
+      270, 283, 291, 334, 335, 347, 356, 369;
+  income and property tax, 15, 23, 48, 49, 172, 173;
+  currency reform, 74, 182, 183.
+
+Fines, act for abolition of, 325, 333.
+
+Finland, 54, 59, 122, 123, 125, 166.
+
+Finn, W. F., M.P., 367, 368.
+
+Fischer, Danish commander, 5.
+
+Fitzgerald, Vesey, M.P., 236, 237.
+
+Fitzherbert, Mrs., 194.
+
+Fitzwilliam, Earl, 14, 29, 32, 180;
+  lord president of the council, 45;
+  in cabinet without office, 49.
+
+Flaxman, John, 427.
+
+Fletcher, Colonel, 101.
+
+Fleurus, 158.
+
+Flinders, Matthew, 436, 439.
+
+Florence, 212, 216;
+  treaty of, 7.
+
+Florida, 215.
+
+Flushing, 65, 71.
+
+Fontainebleau, 82, 118, 145;
+  decree 79;
+  treaties of, 87, 145, 146.
+
+Fort Erie, 130.
+
+Fortescue, first Earl, 296.
+
+Fort George, 130, 140, 141.
+
+Fort Sandusky, 139.
+
+Fouché, French politician, 155, 165, 168.
+
+Fox, Charles James, 14-16, 26, 27, 29-34, 200, 279, 372, 417;
+  relations with George III., 32, 33, 45, 46, 185;
+  foreign secretary, 45, 46;
+  abolition of slave trade, 46, 48;
+  death, 46, 47, 49, 228.
+
+Foy, French general, 111, 112, 160.
+
+France, 13, 14, 17, 21, 39-41, 47, 54, 58, 64, 65, 69, 79, 88, 105, 119,
+      128, 130, 145, 150-153, 186, 187, 189-191, 205, 210, 212, 221, 223,
+      377, 398;
+  treaties of Lunéville and Aranjuez, 6, 17;
+  treaty of Florence, 7;
+  negotiations resulting in treaty of Amiens, 7, 13;
+  proposed invasion of England, 8;
+  war declared against England, 22;
+  alliance with Spain, 35;
+  encroachments in Europe, 37;
+  war with Austria, 38, 41, 42;
+  war with Russia, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+  "army of England," 38, 42;
+  peace of Pressburg, 42;
+  treaty with the Two Sicilies, 42;
+  treaty of Schönbrunn, 43;
+  treaty with Prussia, 46, 55;
+  war with Prussia, 47, 52;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 78, 87, 401, 402;
+  secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+  Milan decree, 56;
+  Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+  war with Austria, 61-64;
+  peace of Vienna, 64, 66;
+  loss of foreign possessions, 69, 81, 215, 223, 403;
+  annexations, 77-79;
+  breach with Russia, 79-81, 105, 108;
+  treaty with Prussia, 122;
+  war with Russia, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 402;
+  campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+  war with Prussia, 134;
+  war with Austria, 137, 142, 143;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  the allies enter, 118, 143;
+  congress at Châtillon-sur-Seine, 118, 144;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 167, 186, 188, 190, 379, 381,
+      388;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  dispute with Spain, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  the Eastern question, 259-269, 392-395;
+  conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  conquest of Algiers, 269;
+  revolution of July, 274, 276, 285, 376, 378;
+  assists Belgium, 384-386;
+  convention with England and Holland, 387;
+  attacks Portugal, 388;
+  quadruple alliance, 389-391;
+  officers in India, 398;
+  treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+France, Isle of. See Mauritius, the.
+
+Franche-Comté, 143.
+
+Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor (afterwards Francis I., Emperor of
+      Austria), 17, 46, 78, 144, 145, 148, 218, 224, 395.
+
+Francis IV., Duke of Modena, 166.
+
+Frankfort, 189.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 185.
+
+Fraser, General, 57.
+
+Frasnes, 158, 159.
+
+Frederick, Prince Regent of Denmark (afterwards Frederick VI.), 5, 53.
+
+Frederick, Prince, of Orange, 379.
+
+Frederick II., the Great, King of Prussia, 47.
+
+Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony, 135.
+
+Frederick Joseph, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 184.
+
+Frederick William III., King of Prussia, 38, 42, 43, 46, 47, 52, 62, 122,
+      134, 144, 147, 148, 152, 189.
+
+Frederick William, Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Frederick William
+      IV.), 395.
+
+Fréjus, 146.
+
+Frenchtown, 138.
+
+Freyre, English officer, 118.
+
+Friedland, battle, 52, 122, 401.
+
+_Frolic_, the, British sloop, 132.
+
+Fuentes d'Oñoro, battle, 103.
+
+
+Gáekwár. See Baroda, Gáekwár of.
+
+Galicia, 39, 66, 80, 88, 90, 94, 98, 122.
+
+Gambier, Admiral (afterwards Lord), 54, 69.
+
+Gamonal, battle, 92.
+
+Ganges, the, 398, 407.
+
+Gantheaume, French admiral, 39.
+
+Gardane, French general, 402.
+
+Gardner, Colonel, 405.
+
+Garonne, the, 118.
+
+Gascoyne, General, M.P., 291.
+
+Gatton, 289.
+
+Gebora, river, 102.
+
+Genappe, 160.
+
+Genoa, 143, 149, 166, 390;
+  bay of, 69.
+
+George III., 2, 14, 22, 31, 32, 34, 48-50, 55, 62, 66-68, 71, 92, 96, 171,
+      194, 208, 242, 375;
+  insanity, 29, 74, 83;
+  relations with Fox, 32, 33, 45, 46;
+  jubilee, 69;
+  family, 184;
+  death, 185, 192;
+  character, 185, 186, 249, 273.
+
+George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), his friends, 29;
+  regent for George III., 74-76, 83, 85, 148, 156, 157, 165, 168, 176, 179,
+      186;
+  marriage relations, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197;
+  character, 173, 174, 183, 184, 194, 197, 208, 244, 282, 375;
+  king, 192, 199, 201, 226-231, 242-244, 246, 249, 268, 271;
+  coronation, 196, 197, 309;
+  death, 272, 273.
+
+Gérard, General (afterwards Marshal), 164, 386.
+
+Germany, 38, 41-43, 46, 47, 55, 58, 59, 61-64, 71, 79, 80, 82, 92, 97, 105,
+      115, 118, 123, 132-138, 142, 144, 149, 152, 156, 188, 189, 381, 387,
+      424, 425;
+  redistribution of territory, 17, 53, 78, 153;
+  forces in the Peninsula, 98, 114, 116;
+  organisation of, 166.
+  See also Austria, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, etc.
+
+Gerona, 88.
+
+Ghent, 155, 378;
+  treaty of, 147, 156, 203.
+
+Ghika, Alexander, Hospodar of Wallachia, 396.
+
+Gibbon, Edward, 415.
+
+Gibraltar, 188, 259, 381;
+  governor of, 90;
+  straits of, 8, 39.
+
+Giessen, 189.
+
+Gifford, William, 423.
+
+Gillray, James, 26.
+
+Gladstone, William Ewart, 44, 200, 318, 350, 424.
+
+Glasgow, 193, 295, 306, 371.
+
+Glenelg, Lord. See Grant, Charles.
+
+Gloucester (William), Duke of (nephew of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Goderich, Viscount. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Godoy, Spanish statesman, 87.
+
+Goethe, Wolfgang von, 417, 418.
+
+Gohad, 399.
+
+Golden Lane. See London.
+
+Gordon, Robert, diplomatist, 266.
+
+Goulburn, Henry, 284, 303, 319;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 231, 270, 278, 280;
+  home secretary, 352, 367.
+
+Gower, Lord Francis Leveson (afterwards Earl of Ellesmere), 236.
+
+Gower, Lord Granville Leveson- (afterwards Earl Granville), secretary at
+      war, 66;
+  retirement, 68.
+
+Graham, Sir James, 270, 277, 352, 354, 374;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 279, 287;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Graham, Sir Thomas (afterwards Lord Lynedoch), 102, 104, 110-113.
+
+Grampound, 193, 198, 284, 288.
+
+Granby, Marquis of (Manners), 52.
+
+Grand, river, 139.
+
+Grant, Charles (afterwards Lord Glenelg), 277;
+  board of trade, 230, 231;
+  resignation, 236, 380;
+  president of the board of control, 279, 329, 330, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 357.
+
+Grattan, Henry, M.P., 197, 238.
+
+Graves, Rear-admiral, 5.
+
+Greece, 379, 380, 383;
+  revolts against Turkey, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-226, 232-234, 253,
+      259-267, 393;
+  independent, 268;
+  boundary fixed, 392.
+
+Greenock, 306.
+
+Grenoble, 153.
+
+Grenville, Thomas, first lord of the admiralty, 49.
+
+Grenville, Lord, 2, 14, 24-26, 29, 33, 35, 54, 56, 67 n., 68, 74-76, 109,
+      238, 279;
+  his followers, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34;
+  first lord of the treasury, 45, 47-49, 51, 52;
+  resignation, 49, 50;
+  opposition to Peninsular war, 71, 76.
+
+Greville, Charles, 332.
+
+Grey, Charles (afterwards Viscount Howick and later second Earl Grey), 46,
+      67 n., 68, 74-76, 199, 228, 230, 249, 271, 276, 277, 348, 357;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 45;
+  foreign secretary, 49, 52, 55;
+  opposition to Peninsular war, 76;
+  first lord of the treasury, 278-283, 285-287, 290, 291, 293-296, 299,
+      301-304, 320, 321, 324, 325, 334, 375, 380;
+  resignation, 344-347.
+
+Grey, Earl de, first lord of the admiralty, 352.
+
+Grossbeeren, battle, 137.
+
+Grosvenor Square. See London.
+
+Grote, George, 341, 345, 374, 431.
+
+Grouchy, Marshal, 160, 163, 164.
+
+Guadeloupe, 136.
+
+Guadiana, the, 99.
+
+Guarda, 100.
+
+_Guerrière_, the, British frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Guildhall. See London.
+
+Guilleminot, French diplomatist, 266.
+
+Guizot, French statesman, 357.
+
+Gujrát, 399.
+
+Gúrkhas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, 37, 54, 90.
+
+Gwalior, 310, 399, 407.
+  See Sindhia.
+
+
+_Habeas corpus act_, suspension of, 3, 176-178, 181, 240, 320.
+
+Hague, the, 384.
+
+Haidarábád, 40;
+  Nizám of, 397, 398;
+  treaty of Bassein, 398, 399.
+
+Hal, 158, 161.
+
+_Halifax_, the, British sloop, 127.
+
+Hallam, Henry, 426, 427.
+
+Hamburg, 134, 136, 138, 310.
+
+Hamilton, English commodore, 225.
+
+Hamilton, Sir William, philosopher, 417.
+
+Hampden clubs, 175.
+
+Hampshire, 281, 282.
+
+Hampton, General, 140, 141.
+
+Hampton roads, 127.
+
+Hanau, battle, 133.
+
+_Hannibal_, the, British ship, 8.
+
+Hanover, 22, 38, 42, 43, 46, 55, 134, 136, 166, 249.
+
+Hanoverian troops, 137, 158, 159, 161.
+
+Hanse Towns, the, 55.
+
+Hardenberg, Prussian minister, 144, 152.
+
+Hardinge, Henry (afterwards Sir Henry and later Viscount Hardinge), 104;
+  secretary at war, 236, 250, 275, 313.
+
+Hardwicke, Earl of (Yorke), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 2, 23, 27.
+
+Harrison, American general, 138, 139.
+
+Harrowby, Lord (Dudley Ryder), afterwards Earl of Harrowby, 68, 193, 295,
+      299, 301, 302;
+  foreign secretary, 34;
+  retirement, 35;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 37;
+  president of the board of control, 66;
+  lord president of the council, 81, 82, 227, 230.
+
+Hartwell, Bucks, 147.
+
+Harwich, 197.
+
+Hasselt, 384.
+
+Hastings, Marquis of. See Moira, Earl of.
+
+Hastings, Warren, 279.
+
+Haugwitz, Prussian minister, 42, 43.
+
+Hawkesbury, Lord (Jenkinson), afterwards Earl of Liverpool, foreign
+      secretary, 1, 8, 9, 11, 12, 19, 20, 25, 34, 228;
+  called to the house of lords, 27;
+  home secretary, 34;
+  declines office as first lord of the treasury, 45;
+  home secretary, 50;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 68, 71, 82, 100, 106;
+  first lord of the treasury, 77, 82, 83, 85, 108, 109, 151, 168, 169, 172,
+      173, 183, 195-199, 205, 238, 239, 242, 279, 380;
+  resignation, 208, 209, 226.
+
+Hay, Lord John, 391.
+
+Haye, La, farm, 162.
+
+Haye Sainte, La, farm, 162, 163.
+
+Hayti, 215, 223.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 425.
+
+Health, board of, 310.
+
+Hegel, Georg, 417.
+
+Heligoland, 143, 167.
+
+Helvetian republic. See Switzerland.
+
+Helvoetsluis, 18.
+
+Henry IV., King of France, 219.
+
+Henry, John, 128.
+
+Herat, 412-414.
+
+Herries, J. C., chancellor of the exchequer, 229, 230;
+  master of the mint, 231;
+  secretary at war, 352.
+
+Herschel, Sir John, 428.
+
+Hesse, Princess' Augusta of (Duchess of Cambridge), 184.
+
+Heytesbury, Lord, 412.
+
+Hill, Rowland (afterwards Sir Rowland and later Viscount Hill), 104-106,
+      108, 110-113, 115-117, 119.
+
+Himálayas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Hobart, Lord (afterwards fourth Earl of Buckinghamshire), secretary for war
+      and colonies, 1, 2, 34;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 35;
+  resignation, 37;
+  president of the board of control, 81, 82, 174.
+
+Hobhouse, Sir John Cam (afterwards Lord Broughton), 325, 327, 343, 418;
+  first commissioner of woods and forests, 347;
+  president of the board of control, 357.
+
+Hohenlinden, battle, 420.
+
+Holkar, Jaswant Ráo Holkar, 398, 399, 405;
+  Malhár Ráo Holkar, 405, 406.
+
+Holland (Batavian republic), 9, 11, 18 19, 21, 38, 53, 61, 81, 149-151,
+      156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 199, 377;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  Louis Bonaparte, king of, 46;
+  loss of Cape of Good Hope, 47, 403;
+  Walcheren expedition, 65;
+  annexed by France, 78;
+  revolts, 133, 138;
+  Prince of Orange proclaimed King of the Netherlands, 138;
+  Dutch at Waterloo, 158, 161, 162;
+  united to Belgium, 166;
+  separation from Belgium, 376-386, 393;
+  convention with Great Britain and France, 387;
+  convention with Belgium, 387;
+  settlers in South Africa, 438.
+
+Holland, Lord (Vassall-Fox), 170, 180, 199, 228, 230, 234;
+  lord privy seal, 49;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 280, 357.
+
+Holy Alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 200, 229.
+
+Holyhead, 197.
+
+Homs, 393.
+
+Hone, William, 177.
+
+Hope, John (afterwards Sir John, later Lord Niddry and Earl of Hopetoun),
+      93, 95, 116, 117, 119.
+
+Horner, Francis, M.P., 73, 183, 423.
+
+_Hornet_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Hougoumont, 161, 162.
+
+Howard, John, 415, 437.
+
+Howick, Viscount. See Grey, Charles.
+
+Howick, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Grey), 271;
+  secretary at war, 357.
+
+Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, 299, 337, 373.
+
+Huddersfield, 270.
+
+Hudson, James (afterwards Sir James Hudson), 351.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 426.
+
+Hull, American general, 129.
+
+Hume, David, 415.
+
+Hume, Joseph, 198, 274, 323, 367, 368, 374, 431.
+
+Hunt, "Orator," 175, 179, 207, 281, 318.
+
+Huron, lake, 129.
+
+Huskisson, William, 84, 86;
+  president of the board of trade, 198, 202, 203, 205, 207, 227, 228;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 229-232, 235, 270, 271;
+  resignation, 236, 380;
+  death, 275, 276, 435.
+
+Hutchinson, General, 6.
+
+Hutton, James, 428.
+
+Hydriots, the, 392.
+
+
+Ibrahim, Pasha, 224, 225, 233, 264, 265, 392-394, 396.
+
+Illyrian provinces, 66, 122, 134, 137.
+
+_Impérieuse_, the, British frigate, 88.
+
+_Inconstant_, the, Napoleon's brig, 153.
+
+Indemnity acts, 234.
+
+India, 3, 18, 50, 59, 61, 104, 329, 330, 397-414, 436;
+  French towns in India, 18, 19;
+  East India Company, 201, 271, 399, 400, 406, 409;
+  acts and charters relating to East India Company, 86, 325, 328-330, 404,
+      411, 412;
+  treaties, 398, 399, 402, 403-406, 409, 412;
+  coolies, 438.
+
+Indians (America), 129, 138, 147.
+
+Indies, East, 20, 81, 310.
+
+Indies, West, 20, 39, 69, 131, 219, 326, 438.
+
+Indore. See Holkar.
+
+Ingilby, Sir W. A., M.P., 334.
+
+Inglis, Sir Robert, M.P., 245.
+
+Inn, river, 63.
+
+Insurrection act, 240, 320.
+
+Inverness, 348.
+
+Ionian islands, 69, 167, 187, 188, 267, 268.
+
+Irawadi, the, 408.
+
+Ireland, 16, 51, 55, 85, 197, 208, 242, 246, 247, 281, 289, 290, 312, 316,
+      317, 359, 360, 367, 368, 370-373;
+  condition of, in 1801, 2, 3;
+    in 1821, 199, 239;
+    in 1824, 205;
+    in 1828, 243;
+    in 1829, 270;
+    in 1830, 275;
+    in 1831-32, 312-317;
+    in 1833, 320, 321;
+    in 1834, 345;
+    in 1837, 371;
+  French spies, 18, 19, 23;
+  Emmet's rebellion, 18, 23, 240;
+  scheme for representative assembly, 77;
+  union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+  Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313;
+  disfranchisement of forty shilling freeholders, 241, 249;
+  famine, 243;
+  reform bill, 306, 307;
+  agitation against tithe, 313-316, 320;
+  church, 315-317, 322;
+  processions act, 316, 317;
+  education, 316, 317;
+  coercion act, 320-322, 324, 325, 332;
+  church temporalities act, 321-325, 332;
+  second coercion act, 347;
+  municipal corporations bill, 364, 365.
+
+Irving, Edward, 339, 340.
+
+Isabella II., Queen of Spain, 389, 395.
+
+Isabella Maria, Regent of Portugal, 253.
+
+Ischia, island, 63.
+
+Isle-aux-noix, 140.
+
+Istria, 42.
+
+Isturiz, Spanish premier, 391.
+
+Italy, 42, 58, 63, 79, 133, 137, 138, 143-145, 149, 153, 157, 166, 187,
+      210, 211, 213, 215-217, 348, 377, 387;
+  Napoleon crowned King of Italy, 37, 38.
+
+Italian republic. See Cisalpine republic.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew (afterwards President of the United States), 147.
+
+Jackson, Francis J., British envoy, 53.
+
+Jails, 369, 437.
+
+Jaswant Ráo Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Java, 81, 403.
+
+_Java_, the, British frigate, 132.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, President of the United States, 58, 127, 128.
+
+Jeffrey, Francis (afterwards Lord), 423.
+
+Jena, battle, 47, 199.
+
+Jenner, Dr. Edward, 15, 427.
+
+Jessor, 310.
+
+Jesuits, 247.
+
+Jews, disabilities of, 235.
+
+John VI., King of Portugal, 211, 215, 220, 221, 253, 254.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 186, 415.
+
+Jones, Sir Harford (afterwards Brydges), 402.
+
+Jones, John Gale, 72.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 273.
+
+Jourdan, Marshal, 98, 110.
+
+Jumna, river, 398, 399.
+
+Junot, Duke of Abrantes, 54, 58, 89-91, 100.
+
+
+Kábul, 403, 413, 414.
+
+Kaffraria, 438.
+
+Kalisch, treaty of, 134.
+
+Kandahár, 403, 414.
+
+Kant, Immanuel, 417.
+
+Karavasara, 266.
+
+Karnátik, the, 397.
+
+Katzbach, the, battle, 137.
+
+Keats, John, 419.
+
+Keble, John, 337.
+
+Kehl, 138.
+
+Kellermann, French general, 159, 162.
+
+Kent, 23, 281.
+
+Kent (Edward), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Kent (Victoria Mary), Duchess of 184, 185, 281.
+
+Keswick, 420.
+
+Key, Sir John, M.P., 334.
+
+Khátmándu, 404.
+
+Kiel, treaty of, 142, 143, 189.
+
+Kilkenny, murders in, 320.
+
+Killingworth colliery, 434, 435.
+
+Kilwarden, Viscount (Wolfe), 23.
+
+King's College. See London.
+
+Kiutayeh, 393;
+  peace of, 394.
+
+Kléber, French general, 6.
+
+Knatchbull, Sir Edward, paymaster of forces, 352.
+
+Knights of St. John, 9, 10, 13;
+  property of the order, 11.
+
+Konieh, 393.
+
+Königsberg, 81.
+
+Kotzebue, murder of, 189.
+
+Krasnoe, battle, 125.
+
+Kronborg, 4.
+
+Kruse, Dutch officer, 162.
+
+Kulm, 137.
+
+Kumáun, district of, 405.
+
+Kutuzov, Russian general, 124.
+
+
+Labedoyère, Colonel, 154.
+
+Laconia, 392.
+
+Laffitte, French premier, 383, 387.
+
+Lahore, 402.
+
+Laibach, treaty of, 212, 213.
+
+Lake, General (afterwards Lord and later Viscount Lake), 398-401, 409.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 425.
+
+Lamb, William (afterwards Viscount Melbourne), 227, 231, 236;
+  home secretary, 279, 296, 299;
+  first lord of the treasury, 347, 350;
+  resignation, 351;
+  first lord of the treasury, 357, 359, 360, 363, 370, 371, 373, 390, 401,
+      431.
+
+Lampeter, St. David's College, 430.
+
+Lancashire, 83, 179, 435.
+
+Lancaster, revenues of duchy of, 278, 282.
+
+Landau, 149, 167.
+
+Langdale, Lord. See Bickersteth, Henry.
+
+Lansdowne, Marquis of. See Petty, Lord Henry.
+
+Laswári, battle, 399.
+
+Laud, William, 429.
+
+Lauderdale, Earl of (Maitland), 46, 170.
+
+Lauriston, General (afterwards Marshal), 13.
+
+Lawley, Sir Robert, M.P., 29.
+
+Lawrence, Captain, 141, 142.
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 427.
+
+Leach, Sir John, 195.
+
+Leadenhall Street. See London.
+
+Leeds, 198, 272, 327.
+
+Leghorn, 143.
+
+Leicestershire, 83.
+
+Leinster, 315.
+
+Leipzig, battle, 63, 82, 114, 117, 118, 133, 137, 138, 143, 164.
+
+Leon, plains of, 88, 106.
+
+_Leopard_, the, British flagship, 127.
+
+Leopold, Prince, of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians), 174,
+      183, 185, 268, 269, 383, 384.
+
+Lepanto, 266.
+
+L'Estrange, Colonel, 179.
+
+Levant, the, 18, 413.
+
+Lewis I., King of Bavaria, 392.
+
+Lewisham, Viscount (Legge), afterwards Earl of Dartmouth, president of the
+      board of control, 1, 15.
+
+"Lichfield House Compact," 356.
+
+Liège, 43, 381.
+
+Ligny, 158, 164;
+  battle, 158-160.
+
+Ligurian republic, 9, 12, 37, 38.
+
+Lille, negotiations at, 9, 14.
+
+Limburg, province, 382, 385-387.
+
+Lincolnshire, 334.
+
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. See London.
+
+Linois, French admiral, 8.
+
+Lisbon, 54, 89-91, 93-98, 100, 102, 109, 201, 211, 215, 220-222, 257-259,
+      389.
+
+Littleport, 175 n.
+
+Littleton, Edward John (afterwards Lord Hatherton), 325, 345, 346.
+
+Liverpool, 201, 232, 275, 276, 291, 369, 388, 435.
+
+Liverpool, Earl of. See Hawkesbury, Lord.
+
+Lloyd, Charles, bishop of Oxford, 249.
+
+Lobau, island, 63.
+
+Lobau, Prince of, 163.
+
+Lombardy, 149, 166, 187.
+  See also Cisalpine republic.
+
+London, 195, 196, 201, 202, 206, 270, 277, 278, 296, 303, 311, 435, 437;
+  bishop of (Blomfield), 324, 341, 373.
+
+London:--
+  Apsley House, 293.
+  Battersea Fields, 251.
+  Blackheath, 194.
+  Bridges: Blackfriars, London, Southwark, Strand (Waterloo), Westminster,
+      436.
+  Brooks's Club, 374.
+  Buckingham Palace, 349.
+  Carlton House, 70, 436.
+  Cato Street, 193.
+  Corporation of, 173.
+  Edgware Road, 193.
+  Golden Lane, 435.
+  Guildhall, 148.
+  Grosvenor Square, 193.
+  King's College, 250, 431.
+  Leadenhall Street, 329, 398, 411.
+  Lincoln's Inn Fields, 298.
+  "London University," 250, 356, 431;
+    university of London, 431, 432.
+  Newgate, 72, 369.
+  Old Bailey, 282.
+  Pall Mall, 435.
+  Regent Street and Park, 436.
+  Royal Academy, 427.
+  Royal Exchange, 175.
+  St. Paul's, 196.
+  Small-pox Hospital, 427.
+  Southwark, 26.
+  Spa Fields, Bermondsey, 175.
+  Spitalfields, 202.
+  Tower, 72, 175.
+  University College, 431, 432.
+  Westminster, 51, 72, 343.
+  Westminster Abbey, 46, 196, 309.
+  Westminster Hall, 349.
+  White Conduit House, 298.
+
+London, conferences of, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  protocols of, 265, 267, 381-385, 392;
+  treaties of, 96, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266-268, 385, 392.
+
+_London Magazine_, the, 424, 425.
+
+Londonderry, second Marquis of. See Castlereagh, Viscount.
+
+Londonderry, third Marquis of. See Stewart, Sir Charles.
+
+Lonsdale, Earl of (Lowther), 67 n.
+
+Lorraine, 143, 168.
+
+Loughborough, Lord (Wedderburn), afterwards first Earl of Rosslyn, 1, 271.
+
+Louis XIV., King of France, 186.
+
+Louis XVI., King of France, 145.
+
+Louis XVIII., King of France, 118, 119, 145, 147, 149, 154-157, 166, 167,
+      169, 187, 215, 218, 219, 377.
+
+Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (afterwards dauphin), 116, 118, 154, 220,
+      376.
+
+Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans (afterwards King of France), 154, 274, 376,
+      377, 379, 380, 382-384, 390, 391.
+
+Louisiana, 6, 18.
+
+Louvain, 384.
+
+Low Countries. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Lübeck, 78.
+
+Luddite riots. See Riots.
+
+Lugo, 95.
+
+Lundy's Lane, battle, 146.
+
+Lunéville, treaty of, 6, 10, 13, 17, 38.
+
+Lützen, battle, 135.
+
+Luxemburg, grand duchy of, 43, 380-387.
+
+Lyell, Charles (afterwards Sir C.), 428.
+
+Lyndhurst, Lord. See Copley, Sir John.
+
+Lyons, 154.
+
+
+Maas, river, 387.
+
+Maastricht, 380, 382.
+
+Macadam, John Loudon, roadmaker, 434.
+
+Macarthur, John, 439.
+
+Macaulay, Thomas Babington (afterwards Lord Macaulay), 296, 327, 411, 412,
+      423-427.
+
+Macaulay, Zachary, 423, 431.
+
+Macdonald, Marshal, 124, 125, 154.
+
+_Macedonian_, the, British ship, 132.
+
+Mack, Austrian general, 42.
+
+Mackinac, 129, 139.
+
+Mackintosh, Sir James, 16, 194, 201.
+
+Mackworth, Major, 298.
+
+Macquarie, Governor, 439, 440.
+
+Madison, James, President of the United States, 128-130.
+
+Madras, 400, 410.
+
+Madrid, 71, 87-89, 92-94, 96, 98, 103, 107, 108, 111, 150, 217-220, 390,
+      391;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Magdeburg, 138.
+
+Mahmúd, Amír of Afghánistán, 403.
+
+Mahmud II., Sultan of Turkey, 57, 168, 188, 266, 393, 394, 396.
+
+Maida, battle, 47.
+
+Maine, state, 147.
+
+Mainots, the, 392.
+
+Mainz, 136.
+
+Maitland, Captain, 169.
+
+Majorca, 88.
+
+Malcolm, Sir John, colonel, 402.
+
+Malden, 129.
+
+Malhár, Ráo Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Malmaison, 165.
+
+Malmesbury, Earl of (Harris), 14, 49.
+
+Malta, possession of, 9-13, 20, 22, 37, 408, 413;
+  independence guaranteed, 13;
+  parliamentary debate on, 14;
+  retention by England, 19, 20, 167.
+
+Malthus, Thomas Robert, 421.
+
+Málwá, 406, 409, 411.
+
+Manchester, 176, 178, 179, 272, 275, 276, 295, 303, 311, 435.
+
+Mansfield, first Earl of (Murray), 45.
+
+Mansfield, third Earl of (Murray), 292.
+
+Maráthá wars, 398, 399, 406, 407.
+
+Marcoff, Count, 21.
+
+Marengo, battle, 159.
+
+Maria II., da Gloria, Queen of Portugal, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388.
+
+Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, 389, 391.
+
+Maria Louisa, empress of Napoleon I., 78, 145, 150, 166.
+
+Mariembourg, 149, 382.
+
+Marlborough, Duke of (Churchill), 52.
+
+Marmont, Marshal, 104-108.
+
+Marriage reform bills, 355;
+  act, 366, 367.
+
+Martinique, 9.
+
+Mary, Duchess of Gloucester (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Masséna, Marshal, 100-104.
+
+Maumee, river, 130, 138.
+
+Mauritius, the (Isle of France), 18, 149, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Maya, pass, 113.
+
+McClure, General, 141.
+
+McDonnell, Colonel, 141.
+
+Medellin, 96.
+
+Medina de Rio Seco, 88.
+
+Mediterranean, the, 39, 69, 188, 262, 265, 393.
+
+Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 224, 225, 264, 269, 392-394.
+
+Mehidpur, battle, 406.
+
+_Melampus_, the, British warship, 127.
+
+Melbourne, Viscount. See Lamb, William.
+
+Melcombe Regis, 289, 305.
+
+Melville, first Viscount. See Dundas, Henry.
+
+Melville, second Viscount. See Dundas, Robert S.
+
+Menou, 6.
+
+Merton, Surrey, 39.
+
+Mesolongi, 266, 418.
+
+Metcalfe, Charles (afterwards Sir Charles and later Lord Metcalfe), 402,
+      403, 406, 409, 411, 412.
+
+Methodist revival, the, 339.
+
+Metternich, Prince, 122, 134, 138, 144-146, 152, 156, 189, 191, 210, 217,
+      218, 224, 377, 395, 396.
+
+Mexico, 223.
+
+Miaoulis, Greek admiral, 393.
+
+Michigan, lake, 129;
+  state, 138, 139.
+
+Middle Ground shoal, 4.
+
+Middleton, Sir Charles. See Barham, Lord.
+
+Miguel, Dom (afterwards King of Portugal), 220, 221, 253-255, 258, 259,
+      388-390;
+  convention at Evora, 390.
+
+Milan, 37;
+  decree, 56;
+  commission, 195.
+
+Milhaud, French officer, 162.
+
+Militia, the, 16, 21, 31.
+
+Militia balloting bill, 59.
+
+Militia transfer bill, 60.
+
+Mina, guerilla leader, 104.
+
+Minho, province, 258.
+
+Ministries: Addington's, 1-31;
+  Pitt's, 33-44;
+  Grenville's (All the Talents), 45-50;
+  Portland's, 50-67, 87-99;
+  Perceval's, 68-76, 99-106;
+  Liverpool's, 77-86, 107-226, 253-258;
+  Canning's, 227, 228, 258;
+  Goderich's, 229, 230, 259, 260;
+  Wellington's, 230-252, 260-278, 376-380;
+  Grey's, 278-347, 380-390, 392-396;
+  Melbourne's, 347-351;
+  provisional administration, 351;
+  Peel's, 352;
+  Melbourne's, 357-375, 390-392.
+
+Minorca, 9, 88.
+
+Minto, second Earl of (Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound), first lord of the
+      admiralty, 363, 401.
+
+Minto, Lord (Elliot), afterwards first Earl of Minto, governor-general of
+      Bengal, 401-404.
+
+Modena, 213;
+  treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Moira, Earl of (Rawdon-Hastings), afterwards Marquis of Hastings, 75, 76,
+      310;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 45;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 404-408.
+
+Moldavia, 57, 59, 80, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 394-396.
+
+Molé, French foreign minister, 379.
+
+Molesworth, Sir William, M.P., 374.
+
+Moltke, 396.
+
+Moncey, Marshal, 88.
+
+Mondego, river, 90, 101.
+
+Mongolia, 310.
+
+_Moniteur_, newspaper, 18.
+
+Monroe, James, President of the United States, 223;
+  Monroe doctrine, 223.
+
+Mons, 158.
+
+Monson, Colonel, 399.
+
+Montbéliard, 149.
+
+Montenegrins, the, 142.
+
+Monte Video, 56, 57, 190.
+
+Montmorency, French diplomatist, 217, 218.
+
+Montreal, 140.
+
+Montrose, Duke of (Graham), president of the board of trade, 34.
+
+Mont St. Jean, 160.
+
+Moore, Sir John, general, 54, 90-95, 108, 200.
+
+Moore, Thomas, 420.
+
+Moravia, 42, 64.
+
+Moraviantown, 139.
+
+Morea, the, 214, 224, 225, 261, 263-266, 393.
+
+Moreau, General, 33.
+
+Morpeth, Lord (afterwards seventh Earl of Carlisle), 357, 359, 372.
+
+Morrison, Colonel, 141.
+
+Mortier, Marshal, 99.
+
+Moscow, 124.
+
+Moss, convention of, 150.
+
+Mughal emperor, 399.
+
+Muhammad, Sháh of Persia, 412.
+
+Mühlhausen, 149.
+
+Mulgrave, Lord (Phipps) (afterwards first Earl of Mulgrave), 347;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 34;
+  foreign secretary, 35;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 50, 67 n.;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 72, 82;
+  in cabinet without office, 178;
+  retirement of, 194.
+
+Mulgrave, second Earl of (Phipps), lord privy seal, 347;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 359, 371.
+
+Münchengrätz, secret convention at, 395, 396.
+
+Munich, 33.
+
+Municipal corporations act, 360-362, 370;
+  bill (Ireland), 364, 365.
+
+Murat, Joachim, 87;
+  King of Naples, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157, 168;
+  death, 157.
+
+Muraviov, Russian general, 393.
+
+Murray, Colonel, 141.
+
+Murray, Sir George, secretary for war and colonies, 236;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 352.
+
+Murray, John, 423.
+
+Murray, Sir John, general, 109, 114.
+
+Mysore, 411.
+
+
+Nágpur, 406;
+  Rájá of, 398, 390, 405, 406.
+
+Namur, 157, 160, 161.
+
+Napier, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Charles Napier), 389.
+
+Napier, General Sir W., 110.
+
+Naples, 47, 63, 157, 213;
+  bay of, 42.
+
+Naples, kingdom of, 47, 53, 63, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157.
+  See also Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Naples, Prince of, 383.
+
+Napoleon, King of Rome, son of Napoleon I., 145, 165.
+
+Nash, John, architect, 436.
+
+Nassau, troops, 158.
+
+National debt, the, 204, 206;
+  in 1802, 15;
+  in 1815, 171.
+
+"National Political Union," 298.
+
+Nauplia, 225.
+
+Navarino, 225;
+  battle, 230, 233, 234, 253, 259, 264.
+
+Navarre, province, 300.
+
+Navigation laws, reform of the, 202, 203, 207, 216, 437.
+
+Neapolitan States. See Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Nelson, Lord (afterwards Viscount), 8, 16, 39, 69, 233, 273;
+  expedition to Copenhagen, 3-5, 8;
+  Trafalgar, 40, 41.
+
+Nemours, Louis, Duke of, 382, 383.
+
+Nepál, 404, 405, 408, 409;
+  treaty of Almora, 405.
+
+Nesselrode, Russian diplomatist, 138, 262.
+
+Netherlands, the. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Neuchâtel, 43.
+
+Neuville, De, French ambassador, 222.
+
+Newark (Canada), 141, 146.
+
+Newark (England), 248.
+
+Newcastle, 311.
+
+Newcastle, Duke of (Fiennes-Pelham-Clinton), 228, 248, 296, 297.
+
+New England, 128.
+
+Newfoundland, fishery, 10.
+
+Newgate. See London.
+
+Newman, John Henry, 325, 336-338, 340.
+
+New Orleans, 147.
+
+"New poor law," 340-344.
+
+New South Wales. See Australia.
+
+Newspaper stamp act, 369, 370.
+
+New York, 146;
+  state, 146.
+
+New Zealand, 436.
+
+Ney, Marshal, 17, 99-101, 154, 155, 158-160, 163.
+
+Niagara, river, 130, 140, 141, 146;
+  falls, 130, 146.
+
+Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia, 232, 259, 260, 262, 361, 385, 393, 395, 396.
+
+Nicholls, Colonel, 405.
+
+Niemen, the, 52, 124, 133.
+
+Nile, the, 6;
+  battle of the, 69.
+
+Nive, river, 115-117.
+
+Nivelle, river, 115.
+
+Nivelles, 159.
+
+Nonconformists. See Dissenters.
+
+Non-intercourse act (United States), 83, 128.
+
+Norfolk (United States), 127.
+
+Norfolk Island, 439.
+
+_North Briton_, the, journal, 422.
+
+Northern confederacy, the, 5, 8.
+
+Northumberland, Duke of (Percy), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 244, 313.
+
+_Northumberland_, the, British ship, 166.
+
+Norway, 54, 80, 122, 123, 189;
+  ceded to Sweden, 136, 142, 143, 150, 166;
+  convention at Moss, 150.
+
+Nottingham, 296;
+  castle, 297.
+
+Nottinghamshire, 83, 176.
+
+Novara, battle, 213.
+
+Nugent, John, 122, 142.
+
+Nugent, Lord (Grenville-Nugent-Temple), 241.
+
+
+Ocaña, battle, 100.
+
+Ochterlony, General (afterwards Sir David), 404, 405, 409.
+
+O'Connell, Daniel, 2, 237, 241, 242, 244, 246, 249, 251, 252, 272, 275,
+      280, 281, 287, 294, 306, 312-316, 319, 321-324, 344-346, 348, 356,
+      359, 362, 363, 371, 374.
+
+Oder, the, 80, 135.
+
+Ohio, state, 138.
+
+Old Bailey. See London.
+
+Oldenburg, duchy of, 78, 105.
+
+Oldham, 318.
+
+Old Sarum, 3, 285, 289.
+
+Oléron, island, 69, 165.
+
+Olivenza, 6, 102, 123.
+
+Oliver, the spy, 176.
+
+Ontario, lake, 139.
+
+Oporto, 89, 90, 96, 98, 211, 388.
+
+Orange lodges, 367, 368;
+  Orangemen, 241, 270, 317, 367, 368.
+
+Orenburg, 310.
+
+Orfordness, 8.
+
+Orléans, Duke of. See Louis Philippe.
+
+Orléans, Philip, Duke of, 186, 272.
+
+Orthez, battle, 117.
+
+Otranto, 12.
+
+Otto, French diplomatist, 80.
+
+Otto, Prince of Bavaria (afterwards King of Greece), 392.
+
+Oudh, 404;
+  Nawáb Wazír of, 397.
+
+Ouseley, Sir Gore, 402.
+
+Oxford, 148, 337, 338;
+  bishop of (Lloyd), 249;
+  movement, 337-340, 417;
+  university. See Universities.
+
+
+Paget, Lord (afterwards Earl of Uxbridge and later Marquis of Anglesey),
+      94, 162, 245, 249;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 230;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 231, 243;
+  recalled, 244;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 281, 313, 321;
+  resignation, 344.
+
+Paisley, 306.
+
+Pakenham, Sir Edward, general, 147.
+
+Palatinate, the, 381.
+
+Palermo, 63, 211.
+
+Paley, William, 421.
+
+Pall Mall. See London.
+
+Palmella, Portuguese statesman, 220, 255.
+
+Palmerston, Viscount (Temple), 277, 286, 421;
+  secretary at war, 68, 172, 227, 229, 231, 263, 392;
+  resignation, 236;
+  foreign secretary, 261, 279, 357, 380, 382, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 412.
+
+Pamplona, 111-113, 115.
+
+Papal States, 9, 58, 157, 166, 187, 213, 258.
+
+Papelotte, farm, 162.
+
+Paraguay, 190.
+
+Parga, 188.
+
+Paris: the Tuileries, 31, 105, 155;
+  first capitulation, 145;
+  first treaty of, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  second capitulation, 165;
+  second treaty of, 167, 168, 376;
+  treaty of Chaumont extended at, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  revolution of July, 274, 285, 376;
+  cholera at, 311.
+
+Park, Mungo, 436.
+
+Parker, Sir Hyde, admiral, 3-5.
+
+Parliament: general election of 1802, 15;
+  of 1806, 48;
+  of 1807, 50;
+  of 1812, 85;
+  of 1818, 178;
+  of 1820, 193;
+  of 1826, 207, 242;
+  of 1830, 274;
+  of 1831, 293, 294;
+  of 1832, 318;
+  of 1835, 354;
+  reform, 61;
+  liberals and conservatives, 319;
+  houses destroyed by fire, 349.
+
+Parma, duchy of, 145, 150, 166;
+  treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Parnell, Sir Henry, M.P., 84, 278.
+
+Pasages, 391.
+
+Paskievitch, Russian general, 388.
+
+Patten, Colonel, M.P., 26, 27.
+
+Patuxent, river, 146.
+
+Paul, Tsar of Russia, 5.
+
+_Peacock_, the, British ship, 141.
+
+Pease, Edward, 434, 435.
+
+Peel, Sir Robert (first baronet), 327.
+
+Peel, Robert (afterwards Sir Robert), 44, 71, 172, 183, 200, 227, 283, 286,
+      287, 290, 292, 294, 300, 303, 305, 319, 323, 324, 330, 331, 334, 335,
+      343, 345, 347, 348, 351, 359-362, 364, 365, 371-373, 375;
+  home secretary, 199, 201, 202, 209, 226, 231, 235, 236, 242-248, 252,
+      270-272, 274-278;
+  first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 352-355, 363,
+      366, 367, 390, 412;
+  resignation, 356, 357.
+
+Pelham, Lord (afterwards second Earl of Chichester), home secretary, 1;
+  resigns office, 27;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 27.
+
+_Pelican_, the, British ship, 142.
+
+Peloponnese, the, 393.
+  See Morea, the.
+
+Peltier, Jean, editor, 12, 16.
+
+Peña, La, Spanish commander, 102.
+
+Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87, 120, 129, 146, 182,
+      200, 423.
+
+Pennsylvania, 139.
+
+Penryn, 193, 235, 236.
+
+Pepys, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord and later Earl Cottenham), lord
+      chancellor, 363.
+
+Perceval, Spencer, 49;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 50, 61, 67 n., 82, 83;
+  first lord of the treasury, etc., 68, 71, 74-76, 77, 236, 238, 380;
+  assassination, 76, 81.
+
+Perry, Commodore, 139.
+
+Persia, 123, 310, 401, 402, 412, 413;
+  treaties with East India Company and Great Britain, 402.
+
+Perth, 306.
+
+Peru, 215, 223.
+
+Pesháwar, 413.
+
+Peshwá, the, of Poona, 398, 405, 406;
+  treaty of Bassein, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Peter (afterwards Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, and Peter IV., King of
+      Portugal), 221, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388, 389.
+
+Peter II., Emperor of Brazil, 254, 388.
+
+Peterloo, massacre of. See Riots.
+
+Petty, Lord Henry (afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne), 241, 345, 421;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 45;
+  home secretary, 228;
+  president of the council, 279, 280, 357, 369.
+
+Philippeville, 149, 382.
+
+Philippon, governor of Badajoz, 106.
+
+Phillip, Governor, 438.
+
+Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, 324.
+
+Pichegru, French general, 33.
+
+Picton, Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas), 106, 118, 159, 162.
+
+Piedmont, 17, 38, 213, 217.
+
+Pindárís, the, 404-408, 411.
+
+Pitt, William, the elder (first Earl of Chatham), 44, 284.
+
+Pitt, William, the younger, 2, 14, 15, 23, 47-50, 86, 173, 176, 181, 182,
+      185, 202, 208, 227, 237, 279, 284, 291, 307, 322, 330, 417, 437, 438;
+  his resignation in 1801, 1, 397, 415;
+  alienation from Addington's ministry, 24;
+  negotiations with Addington, 24-26;
+  attacks Addington, 30, 31;
+  overtures from Eldon, 30;
+  interview with the king, 32;
+  first lord of the treasury, 33-37;
+  organises third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41;
+  loss of Melville, 36;
+  collapse of the third coalition, 43, 46;
+  death, 43;
+  his adherents, 68, 200.
+
+Pius VII., Pope, 7, 35, 78, 150, 166, 163.
+
+Plasencia, 98.
+
+Plata, La. See Argentine, the.
+
+Plattsburg (United States), 140, 141, 146.
+
+Plunket, William (afterwards Lord Plunket), 239;
+  attorney-general of Ireland, 199, 241, 249.
+
+Plymouth, 259.
+
+_Poictiers_, the British ship, 132.
+
+Poischwitz, 135.
+
+Poland, 52, 53, 79, 80, 122, 144, 152, 153, 156, 166, 310, 381, 387, 388,
+      395.
+
+Pole & Co., 206.
+
+Pole, W. Wellesley (afterwards Lord Maryborough), master of the mint, 174,
+      178, 202.
+
+Polignac, French statesman, 223.
+
+Pomerania, Swedish, 54, 80, 122, 143, 166.
+
+Pondicherri, 18;
+  French towns in India, 18, 19.
+
+Ponsonby, Sir William, 162.
+
+Ponsonby, Lord (afterwards Viscount Ponsonby), 383.
+
+Poona, 398, 405, 406.
+  See Peshwá.
+
+Poor law, 171, 181, 311, 312, 420, 437;
+  poor rates, 182, 203;
+  "new poor law," 340-344, 366;
+  poor law board, 343;
+  Ireland, 312, 316, 317, 372, 373.
+
+Popham, Sir Home, 47.
+
+Poros, 266, 392.
+
+Porte, the. See Turkey.
+
+Portland, third Duke of (Cavendish-Bentinck), 49, 66;
+  home secretary, 1;
+  lord president of the council, 1;
+  in cabinet without office, 35;
+  first lord of the treasury, 50, 52, 60;
+  minor reforms, 51, 61;
+  changes in his ministry, 66;
+  resignation, 67;
+  death, 68.
+
+Portland, fourth Duke of (Cavendish Scott Bentinck), lord privy seal, 227;
+  in cabinet without office, 228;
+  lord president of the council, 230.
+
+Port Mahon, 188.
+
+Port Phillip, 439, 440.
+
+Portsmouth, 39, 148, 197.
+
+Portugal, 11, 53, 60, 122, 151, 190, 200, 201, 226, 395;
+  treaties of Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+  Junot's expedition to, 54, 58, 89-91;
+  Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+  revolutions, 211, 220, 221, 254, 255-258;
+  cortes, 211, 215, 220, 221, 254, 258;
+  junta, 220, 221;
+  relations with Brazil, 221, 222, 253, 254, 388-390;
+  conference at London, 222;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+  convention of Evora, 390.
+
+Posen, 166.
+
+Pottinger, British officer, 412.
+
+Potwallopers, 281, 289, 308.
+
+Prague, 135.
+
+Prescott, 141.
+
+Presqu'isle (Pennsylvania), 139.
+
+Press, liberty of the, 180, 358;
+  Indian press, 411, 412.
+
+Pressburg, peace of, 42.
+
+Press-gang, 23.
+
+Preston, 281, 318.
+
+Prevost, Sir George, governor of Canada, 129, 130, 140, 146.
+
+Privy Council, acts relating to the, 325, 332.
+
+Processions act (Ireland), 316, 317.
+
+Procida, island, 63.
+
+Proclamation act, 320.
+
+Proctor, English colonel, 138, 139.
+
+Prome, 409.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 427.
+
+Prussia, 17, 51-53, 59, 80, 81, 105, 124, 136, 144, 187-189, 220, 267, 391;
+  guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+  vacillation, 38, 41-43, 51;
+  treaty of Schönbrunn, 43;
+  treaty with France, 46, 55;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+  treaty with France, 122;
+  convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+  campaign of 1813, 133-138;
+  convention with Russia, 134;
+  treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+  treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 378, 381,
+      388;
+  campaign of 1815, 156-165;
+  gains Swedish Pomerania, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  Holy Alliance, 168;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 313;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+  secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Pruth, river, 263.
+
+_Public Advertiser_, the, newspaper, 422.
+
+Puebla, pass, 111.
+
+Punjab, 403, 413.
+
+Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 336.
+
+Putney, 43.
+
+Pyrenees, the, 110, 115, 136, 138;
+  battle, 113.
+
+
+Quadruple alliance, 389, 391.
+
+Quakers, the, 48.
+
+_Quarterly Review_, the, 423.
+
+Quatre Bras, 158-160;
+  battle, 159.
+
+Queen's County, murders in, 320.
+
+Queensland. See Australia.
+
+Queenstown (Canada), 130.
+
+
+Raeburn, Sir Henry, 427.
+
+Railways, 275, 276, 427, 428, 434, 435.
+
+Raisin, river, 138.
+
+Rájputána, 399, 400, 406, 409.
+
+Rangoon, 408, 409.
+
+Ranjít Singh, Rájá of Bhartpur, 309, 403, 409.
+
+Ranjít Singh, Sikh ruler, 403, 412;
+  treaty with East India Company, 403.
+
+Ratisbon, 63.
+
+Ré, island, 165.
+
+Reciprocity of duties act, 203, 207.
+
+Redesdale, Lord (Mitford), 235.
+
+_Redoutable_, the, French ship, 41.
+
+Red Sea, the, 6, 413.
+
+Reform, movement for, 61, 77, 174, 175, 178, 181, 198, 204, 271, 272, 277,
+      278, 280-308;
+  partial reforms, 198, 235;
+  first bill of 1831, 287-291;
+  second bill, 294-296;
+  third bill, 300-306;
+  Scotch and Irish bills, 306, 307.
+
+Regency act (1811), 74, 75.
+
+Regency act (1830), 281.
+
+Regent Street and Park. See London.
+
+_Register, Weekly_. See Cobbett.
+
+Registration bill, 355;
+  acts, 366, 367.
+
+Reichenbach, treaties of, 136.
+
+Reille, French general, 111, 113, 158, 162.
+
+Religious movements, 336-340, 417.
+
+Rennell, James, 436.
+
+Rennie, John, 435, 436.
+
+Rensselaer, Van, American general, 130.
+
+Reshid, Turkish general, 393.
+
+Revel, 4.
+
+Rey, Emmanuel, governor of St. Sebastian, 112-114.
+
+Reynier, French general, 100, 101.
+
+Rhine, the, 9, 41, 138, 143, 152, 153, 158, 166, 381;
+  confederation of the, 46, 53, 134, 138.
+
+Riall, General, 146.
+
+Rice, Thomas Spring (afterwards Lord Monteagle), 345;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 346;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 357, 369, 373.
+
+Richelieu, Duke of, 212.
+
+Richmond, Charlotte, Duchess of, 159.
+
+Richmond, third Duke of (Lennox), 284.
+
+Richmond, fifth Duke of (Lennox), postmaster-general, 280;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Ried, treaty of, 137.
+
+Rieti, battle, 212.
+
+Riga, 124.
+
+Rio Janeiro, 254, 259.
+
+Riot act, 72, 176, 297.
+
+Riots, 344;
+  Luddite, 83, 85, 175, 432, 433;
+  bread, 174;
+  agricultural, 174, 281, 282;
+  Spa Fields, 175;
+  Derbyshire insurrection, 176;
+  "Peterloo" or "Manchester massacre," 178-180, 192;
+  reform bill, 293, 296-298, 302, 309.
+
+Riou, Edward, 5.
+
+Ripon, Earl of. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Robinson, Frederick John (afterwards Viscount Goderich, later Earl of
+      Ripon), president of the board of trade, etc., 177, 178, 198;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 202, 207;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 227;
+  first lord of the treasury, 229, 230, 233, 242, 260, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 279;
+  lord privy seal, 325;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Rochefort, 165.
+
+Rodil, Spanish general, 389.
+
+Roebuck, John, M.P., 362, 372, 374.
+
+Rohilkhand, 397.
+
+Roliça, 90.
+
+Rolleston, magistrate, 176.
+
+Romaña, Spanish general, 95.
+
+Roman Empire, Holy. See Empire, Holy Roman.
+
+Roman States. See Papal States.
+
+Rome, 58, 351.
+
+Romilly, Sir Samuel, M.P., 51, 77, 194, 199, 201.
+
+Roncesvalles, pass, 112, 113.
+
+Rose, George, M.P., 182.
+
+Rosetta, 57.
+
+Ross, General, 146.
+
+Rosslyn, first Earl of. See Loughborough, Lord.
+
+Rosslyn, second Earl of (St. Clair Erskine), president of the board of
+      control, 271;
+  lord president of the council, 352.
+
+Rothière, La, battle, 144.
+
+Roussin, French admiral, 388, 393, 394.
+
+Royal Institution, the, 428.
+
+_Royal Sovereign_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Rügen, island, 52, 53, 143.
+
+Rumelia, 263, 267.
+
+Rumford, Count, 428.
+
+Russell, Lord John (afterwards Earl Russell), 193, 198, 207, 234, 235, 272,
+      284, 356, 421, 431;
+  paymaster of the forces, 280, 287, 290, 294, 297, 300, 304, 321, 324,
+      345, 350, 351;
+  home secretary, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 374.
+
+Russia, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 35, 38, 41-43, 51, 52, 62, 66, 88, 90, 92, 187,
+      188, 210, 220, 225, 232, 391, 392, 402, 412;
+  holy alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 199, 229;
+  war of third coalition, 37, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+  treaty with England, 37;
+  treaty with Sweden, 38;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+  war with Turkey, 52, 57, 77;
+  secret convention at Erfurt, 59, 92;
+  breach with France, 79-81, 105;
+  armistice with Turkey, 81;
+  war with France, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 132-138;
+  treaty with England, 85;
+  fleet, 90, 92;
+  alliance with Sweden, 54, 122, 123;
+  treaty of Åbo, 123;
+  treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+  treaties with England and Sweden, 123, 136;
+  convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+  convention with Prussia, 134;
+  treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+  treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 376, 379,
+      381, 388;
+  gains Finland, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 213;
+  breach with Turkey, 213-215;
+  congress of Verona, 217-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference of St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty of Akherman, 260;
+  conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  war with Turkey, 234, 260-267;
+  peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+  war with Poland, 387, 388;
+  assists Turkey, 393-395;
+  treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+  secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396;
+  treaty with Turkey, 396;
+  influence in the east, 412-414.
+
+Rutlandshire, 288.
+
+Ryder, Dudley. See Harrowby, Earl of.
+
+Ryder, Richard, home secretary, 68;
+  retirement, 81.
+
+
+Saale, river, 133.
+
+Sackett's Harbour, 139, 140.
+
+Sadler, Michael, M.P., 248, 316, 327.
+
+Sahagun, 94.
+
+St. Albans, 345.
+
+St. Amand, 158.
+
+_St. Antoine_, the, French ship, 8.
+
+St. David's, bishop of (Burgess), 430.
+
+St. George's Channel, American privateers in, 141.
+
+St. Helena, 153, 157, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170.
+
+St. Jean de Luz, 115, 117.
+
+St. Lawrence, river, 141;
+  fishery, 10.
+
+St. Lucia, 149, 167.
+
+St. Marcial, battle, 114.
+
+St. Paul's cathedral. See London.
+
+St. Petersburg, 121, 225, 232, 233, 261, 310, 356;
+  conference at, 224.
+
+St. Sebastian, 112-114, 391.
+
+St. Vincent, Earl of (Jervis), first lord of the admiralty, 1, 30, 34, 36.
+
+Salaberry, Colonel de, 141.
+
+Salamanca, 93, 94, 105-108;
+  battle, 107.
+
+Saldaña, 94.
+
+Salzburg, 66.
+
+Sambre, river, 164.
+
+Samos, 266, 268.
+
+San Domingo, 18, 49, 215.
+
+Sandvliet, 65.
+
+_Santa Ana_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Santander, 108, 110.
+
+Santarem, 102.
+
+Santha Martha, Miguelite general, 389.
+
+_Santísima Trinidad_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Sardinia, kingdom of, 150, 166, 167, 187.
+
+Sartorius, Admiral, 388.
+
+Sarum, Old, 421.
+
+Sátára, 406.
+
+"Satí," 410.
+
+Saumarez, Sir James (afterwards Baron), admiral, 8.
+
+Savary, French minister, 88.
+
+Savings-banks, 182, 437.
+
+Savoy, 149, 167.
+
+Saxony, 53, 133, 136, 138, 144, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Scarlett, James (afterwards Lord Abinger), 358.
+
+Scharnhorst, Prussian statesman, 81.
+
+Scheldt, the, 64-66, 71, 99, 385-387.
+
+Schönbrunn, treaty of, 43.
+
+Schwarzenberg, Austrian general, 124, 143-145.
+
+Scientific discoveries, 340, 427-436.
+
+Scotland, 193, 197, 271, 285, 289, 290, 293, 348, 360, 362, 433;
+  reform bill, 306;
+  church of, 360 n., 424.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 417, 418, 422, 423.
+
+Scott, Sir William (afterwards Lord Stowell), 169.
+
+Scylla, castle, 63.
+
+Sébastiani, French officer (afterwards foreign minister), 18, 20, 57, 98,
+      382.
+
+Secretaries of state, division of departments of, 1, 2.
+
+Selim III., Sultan of Turkey, 7.
+
+Sepoys, 6, 400, 406.
+
+Septennial act, 374.
+
+Seringapatam, 397.
+
+Servia, 80.
+
+Seville, 68, 96.
+
+Shaftesbury, Earl of. See Ashley, Lord.
+
+Sháh Shujá, Amír of Afghánistán, 403.
+
+_Shannon_, the, British frigate, 142, 147.
+
+Shaw, Sir Robert, M.P., 197.
+
+Sheaffe, Major-general, 130, 140.
+
+Sheil, Richard Lalor, M.P., 237, 241, 306, 315, 344.
+
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 419.
+
+Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 14, 16, 29, 75, 200, 421.
+
+Sicilies, the Two, 9-14, 47, 166, 187, 188, 211-213;
+  treaty of Florence, 7;
+  treaty of neutrality with France, 42.
+
+Sicily, island and kingdom of, 47, 57, 58, 150;
+  army in Spain, 109, 114.
+
+Sidmouth, Viscount. See Addington, Henry.
+
+Sikhs, the, 403.
+  See Ranjít Singh, Sikh ruler.
+
+Silesia, 53, 135, 137.
+
+Silistria, 396.
+
+Simmons, Dr. Samuel Foart, 29.
+
+Sind, 402, 413, 414.
+
+Sindhia, Daulat Ráo Sindhia, 397-399, 401, 405.
+
+Six acts, the, 180, 229.
+
+Skaw, the, 3.
+
+Small-pox, 15;
+  hospital, see London.
+
+Smeaton, John, 434.
+
+Smohain, hamlet, 162.
+
+Smith, Adam, 415, 420.
+
+Smith, Sydney, 423.
+
+Smith, William, 428.
+
+Smyth, American general, 130.
+
+Socialists, 175.
+
+Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 338.
+
+Society, Highland, 433.
+
+Society, Kildare Place, 317.
+
+Society of friends of the people, 279.
+
+Society, Water-colour, 427.
+
+Soissons, 145.
+
+Sombreffe, French general, 158.
+
+Somerset, Lord Robert, 162.
+
+Somersetshire, 175, 298.
+
+Sophia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Sophia, Princess, of Gloucester (niece of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Souham, French general, 108.
+
+Soult (Duke of Dalmatia), French general, 94-96, 98, 99, 102-108, 110,
+      112-119.
+
+South Australia. See Australia.
+
+Southey, Robert, 416, 420.
+
+Southwark. See London.
+
+Spa Fields, Bermondsey. See London and Riots.
+
+Spain, 13, 35, 39-41, 47, 58, 59, 81, 85, 123, 144, 149-151, 166, 187, 188,
+      190, 200, 205, 231, 254, 259;
+  treaties of Aranjuez, Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  alliance with France, 35;
+  Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 423;
+  juntas, 68, 92, 93, 96, 97, 103, 120;
+  secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+  abdication of Charles IV., 87;
+  Joseph Bonaparte, king of, 59, 88, 89, 104, 122, 123;
+  treaties with England, 96, 150, 151;
+  cortes, 103, 109, 112, 210, 215;
+  insurrection, 210, 215-217;
+  loss of colonies in America, 190, 205, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 223, 253,
+      257;
+  dispute with France, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+  aggressions in Portugal, 254-256, 258;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+  Carlist war, 389-391.
+
+Speculation, 205, 206.
+
+Speenhamland, 341.
+
+Spenceans, the, 175.
+
+Spencer, second Earl, 14, 25, 34, 230, 349;
+  home secretary, 45, 49;
+  resignation, 50.
+
+Spencer, General, 90, 103.
+
+Spitalfields. See London.
+
+Spithead, 39.
+
+Stafford, Marquis of, afterwards Duke of Sutherland (Gower), 66.
+
+_Standard_, the, newspaper, 250.
+
+Stanley, Edward Geoffrey Smith- (afterwards Lord Stanley, later fourteenth
+      Earl of Derby), 277, 347, 352, 354, 360, 374;
+  chief secretary for Ireland, 280, 281, 294, 313, 315-317, 321;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 322, 323, 325-327, 334;
+  resignation, 345, 346.
+
+Steamboats, 427, 428, 434.
+
+Stephenson, George, 275, 276, 427, 434, 435.
+
+Stewart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stewart, later third Marquis of
+      Londonderry), 146, 212, 228, 296, 356.
+
+Stewart, Dugald, 421.
+
+Stockholm, treaty of, 136.
+
+Stockton on Tees, 435.
+
+Strachan, Sir Richard, admiral, 64.
+
+Stralsund, 43.
+
+Strand Bridge. See London.
+
+Strangford, Viscount (Smythe), 214-216.
+
+Strassburg, 41.
+
+Strikes, 178, 204.
+
+Stroud, 359.
+
+Stuart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stuart de Rothesay), 218.
+
+Stuart, Sir John, 47.
+
+Sturt, Charles, 439.
+
+Subsérra, Count of, 222.
+
+Suchet, Marshal, 100, 107, 109, 112, 114, 115, 118, 119.
+
+Suez, 413;
+  canal, 413.
+
+Suffolk, 175 n.
+
+Sugden, Sir Edward (afterwards Lord St. Leonards), 283.
+
+Sumatra, 81.
+
+Sumner, John B., bishop of Chester, 341.
+
+Sunderland, 309, 310.
+
+Surrey, 281.
+
+Sussex, 281.
+
+Sussex (Augustus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Sutlej, river, 403.
+
+Sutton, Charles Manners- (afterwards Sir C. Manners-Sutton, later Viscount
+      Canterbury), speaker, 251, 304, 354.
+
+Sweden, 43, 51-54, 58, 59, 78, 80, 105, 151, 166, 190;
+  third coalition, 37, 38;
+  treaties with Russia and England, 38, 123, 136;
+  declares war on England, 78;
+  ally of Russia, 122, 123, 133, 136;
+  treaty of Åbo, 123;
+  treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+  war with France, 136, 137;
+  treaty of Kiel, 142, 143, 189;
+  acquires Norway (convention of Moss), 150.
+
+Swift, Jonathan, 422.
+
+Switzerland (Helvetian republic), 9, 38, 79, 138, 143, 166, 387;
+  civil war, 17;
+  invasion of, 17, 20;
+  revolts, 133.
+
+Sydney, 439.
+
+Syria, 18, 393, 394, 396, 413.
+
+
+Tagus, the, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, 99, 102, 104-106, 221, 388.
+
+Talavera, 93;
+  battle, 98, 99, 101.
+
+Talleyrand, French statesman, 10, 19, 21, 22, 34, 46, 78, 151, 152, 156,
+      379, 382, 387.
+
+"Tamworth manifesto," the, 332, 354, 371.
+
+Tarái, the, 405.
+
+Tarbes, 118.
+
+Tarragona, 112, 114.
+
+Tasmania. See Van Diemen's Land.
+
+Tauroggen, convention of, 125.
+
+Taylor, Sir Herbert, 286.
+
+Telford, Thomas, 275, 434.
+
+Temporalities, Irish Church, act, 321-325.
+
+Tenasserim, 408, 409.
+
+_Tenedos_, the, British frigate, 142.
+
+Tennyson, Alfred (afterwards Lord), 419.
+
+Tennyson, Charles (afterwards Tennyson D'Eyncourt), M.P., 235, 374.
+
+Teplitz, treaty of, 137;
+  conference at, 396.
+
+Terceira, island, 259.
+
+Terneuze, 65.
+
+Test act, 229, 234, 235, 242.
+
+Thagí, 411.
+
+Thames, the, 435.
+
+Thames, river (Canada), 139.
+
+Thermopylæ, 268.
+
+Thiers, French statesman, 390, 391.
+
+Thistlewood, Arthur, 192, 193.
+
+Thompson, Charles Poulett (afterwards Lord Sydenham), president of the
+      board of trade, 346, 357.
+
+Ticino, river, 149, 166.
+
+Tierney, George, 26, 28, 86;
+  master of the mint, 228-230.
+
+Tigris, the, 413.
+
+Tihran, 402, 412.
+
+Tilsit, treaty of, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402.
+
+_Times_, the, newspaper, 343, 348, 351, 422.
+
+Timur, 310.
+
+Tipú, 397, 400.
+
+Tithe, agitation against (Ireland), 313-316, 320.
+
+Tithe commutation act, 355, 365, 366.
+
+Tithe commutation bills (Ireland), 347, 348, 365, 372.
+
+Tobago, 9, 11, 149, 167.
+
+Tooke, Horne, 3, 421;
+  act, 3.
+
+Tormes, river, 107.
+
+Toronto, 139.
+
+Torres Vedras, 90, 91, 100-102, 115.
+
+Tortosa, 112.
+
+Toulon, 39.
+
+Toulouse, battle, 109, 118, 119.
+
+Tower of London. See London.
+
+Tractarians. See Oxford movement.
+
+_Tracts for the Times_, 339.
+
+Trades Unions, 204.
+
+Trafalgar, battle, 40, 41.
+
+Traz-os-Montes, province, 255, 257.
+
+Trekroner, the, battery, 4, 5.
+
+Trianon tariff, the, 79.
+
+Trieste, 62, 66, 142.
+
+Trinidad, 9, 151, 167.
+
+Triple alliance, 389.
+
+Tripoli, 394;
+  Bey of, 187, 188.
+
+Tripolitza, 225.
+
+Trondhjem, diocese of, 136.
+
+Troppau, congress of, 211-214, 395, 396.
+
+Trotter, paymaster, 36.
+
+Tudela, battle, 92, 93.
+
+_Tugendbund_, the, 62.
+
+Tuileries, the. See Paris.
+
+Tunis, Dey of, 187, 188.
+
+Turin, 213.
+
+Turkey, 7, 57-59, 122, 188, 269, 387;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  treaty with France, 14;
+  war with Russia, 52, 57, 77;
+  armistice, 81;
+  treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+  Greek revolt, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-225, 232-234, 259-267, 392;
+  rupture with Russia, 214, 217, 225;
+  war with Russia, 234, 260-267;
+  treaty of Akherman, 260;
+  peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+  treaty and protocol of London, 267;
+  Egyptian revolt, 393, 394;
+  assisted by Russia, 393-396;
+  treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+  treaty of Kiutayeh, 394;
+  Austrian mediation, 395, 396;
+  treaty with Russia, 396;
+  Asiatic Turkey, 310.
+
+Turner, J. M. W., 427.
+
+Tuscany, treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Tyrol, the, 66, 134.
+
+
+Ucles, 96.
+
+Ulm, 42.
+
+Ulster, 270.
+
+Union, act of, 237, 239, 240, 248;
+  movement for repeal, 252, 275, 313, 314, 316, 344.
+
+United States, 56, 58, 83, 131, 157, 190, 216, 223, 257, 312, 337, 438;
+  sale to them of Louisiana, 18;
+  war with England, 82, 85, 126-132, 138, 146, 147;
+  non-intercourse act, 83, 128;
+  treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+  buys Florida, 215;
+  treaty with England, 225.
+
+_United States_, the, American ship, 132.
+
+Universities, 247, 306, 308, 430;--
+  Cambridge, 419, 428-432.
+  Dublin, 274.
+  Durham, 432.
+  Edinburgh, 358.
+  Glasgow, 371.
+  London, 250, 356, 431, 432;
+    King's College, 250, 431;
+    University College, 431, 432.
+  Oxford, 148, 245, 337, 351, 421, 422, 428, 432;
+    Balliol College, 429;
+    New College, 429;
+    Oriel College, 337, 338, 421, 429;
+    St. Alban Hall, 421.
+
+Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 394, 395.
+
+Urfa, 396.
+
+Uruguay (Banda Oriental), 190.
+
+Utrecht, treaty of, 389.
+
+Uxbridge, Earl of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+
+Valencia, 88, 107, 109, 110, 112.
+
+Valladolid, 93, 108, 109.
+
+Vallais, republic of, 79.
+
+Vancouver, Captain, 436.
+
+Vandamme, French general, 137.
+
+Vandeleur, Sir John Ormesby, 164.
+
+Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), 439.
+
+Vansittart, Nicholas (afterwards Lord Bexley), 68, 73;
+  envoy at Copenhagen, 3, 4;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 81, 82, 86, 173-174, 183, 193, 198;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 202, 227.
+
+Vellore, 400, 410.
+
+Venaissin, 149.
+
+Vendée, La, 155.
+
+Venetia, 42, 134, 149, 166, 187.
+
+Verdier, General, 88.
+
+Verona, congress of, 199, 216-219, 222, 223, 392.
+
+Victor, Marshal, 96, 98, 102.
+
+Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, 38, 213, 216.
+
+Victoria. See Australia.
+
+Victoria, Princess (afterwards Queen), 70, 185, 274, 281, 375.
+
+_Victory_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Vienna, 42, 63, 80, 134, 189, 191, 254, 259;
+  peace of, 64, 66;
+  congress of, 149, 151-153, 156, 166;
+  secret treaty, 153;
+  treaty of, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 379-381, 388;
+  final act, 189;
+  conference at, 216, 217;
+  proposed conference, 396.
+
+Vigo, 39, 95.
+
+Villafranca, 93, 95.
+
+Villa Real, 389.
+
+Villèle, French statesman, 215, 217-219.
+
+Villeneuve, French admiral, 39-41.
+
+Vimeiro, battle, 91.
+
+Vincennes, castle, 34.
+
+Vincent, Colonel, 140.
+
+Vistula, the, 123, 133.
+
+Vitoria, battle, 109-112, 114, 136.
+
+Vivian, Sir Richard H. (afterwards Lord), 164.
+
+Volga, the, 310.
+
+Volhynia, 122.
+
+Volo, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Volunteer consolidation bill, 30.
+
+Vonitza, 266.
+
+
+Wade, General, 434.
+
+Wadsworth, American general, 130.
+
+Wagram, battle, 63, 100.
+
+Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, 440.
+
+Walcheren expedition, the, 62-67, 71, 72, 74, 99, 199.
+
+Wales, 289, 291, 305, 434;
+  amalgamation of English and Welsh benches, 271.
+
+Wales, Caroline, Princess of. See Caroline, queen of George IV.
+
+Wales (George), Prince of. See George IV.
+
+Walker, George T. (afterwards Sir G. T.), 106.
+
+Wallachia, 57, 59, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 395, 396.
+
+Walmoden, Hanoverian general, 137.
+
+Walpole, Sir Robert (afterwards Earl of Orford), 205-208.
+
+Walpole, Lord (afterwards Earl of Orford), 134.
+
+Ward, Henry, M.P., 345, 346.
+
+Ward, John William (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of Dudley), 197, 431;
+  foreign secretary, 227, 231, 260;
+  resignation, 236, 263, 380.
+
+Wardle, Colonel, M.P., 60, 61, 72.
+
+Warsaw, 55, 381, 387, 388;
+  duchy of, 53, 66, 79, 124, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Wartburg festival, 188.
+
+Washington, 130, 146.
+
+_Wasp_, the, American sloop, 132.
+
+Waterford, 237, 242, 250.
+
+Waterloo, battle, 44, 147, 160-166, 230, 415.
+
+Waterloo Bridge. See London.
+
+Watsons, the, father and son, 175, 192.
+
+Watt, James, 435.
+
+Wavre, 159-161, 164.
+
+_Weekly Political Register_, the. See Cobbett.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Arthur (afterwards Duke of Wellington), 61, 151, 152, 156,
+      167, 168, 174, 189, 195, 199, 201, 208, 209, 216-219, 226, 227-229,
+      259, 280, 282, 285, 286, 293, 302-304, 309, 319, 324, 334, 343, 347,
+      350, 361, 362, 371, 372, 392, 397, 431;
+  chief secretary for Ireland, 50;
+  bombardment of Copenhagen, 54;
+  Peninsular war, 60, 71, 76, 90-120, 200;
+  viscount, 71, 99;
+  Vimeiro, 91;
+  commander-in-chief in the Peninsula, 96, 97;
+  Talavera, 98, 99;
+  Bussaco, 101;
+  lines of Torres Vedras, 101, 102;
+  Fuentes d'Oñoro, 103;
+  earl, 105;
+  sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, 105, 106;
+  Salamanca, 107;
+  marquis, 108;
+  Vitoria, 110, 111, 136;
+  the Pyrenees, 113;
+  siege of St. Sebastian, 113, 114;
+  Bayonne, 115-117;
+  Toulouse, 118, 119;
+  duke, 151;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  Waterloo, 160-165;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 178, 194;
+  first lord of the treasury, 230-232, 234, 236, 243-246, 248-252, 260-263,
+      265-269, 271, 272, 276-278, 376, 377, 379, 380, 388;
+  duel with Winchilsea, 250, 251;
+  provisional administration, 351;
+  foreign secretary, 352, 356, 390;
+  Indian campaign, 398-400;
+  Assaye and Argáum, 399.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Henry (afterwards Lord Cowley), 150.
+
+Wellesley, Richard, marquis, 54, 67, 76, 96, 109, 174, 230, 278, 280, 325;
+  foreign secretary, 68, 76;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 199, 241, 344, 346;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 397-400, 402-405, 407, 408.
+
+Wellington, Duke of. See Wellesley, Sir Arthur.
+
+Wesel, 138.
+
+Wesley, John, 337.
+
+Westbury, 245.
+
+West Australia. See Australia.
+
+Westminster abbey and hall. See London.
+
+Westmorland, Earl of (Fane), lord privy seal, 1, 50, 82;
+  resignation, 237.
+
+Westphalia, 53, 153;
+  troops, 158.
+
+Wetherell, Sir Charles, 248, 297.
+
+Weymouth, 289, 305, 326.
+
+Wharncliffe, Lord (Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie), 291, 292, 299, 301, 302;
+  lord privy seal, 352.
+
+Whately, Dr., archbishop of Dublin, 317, 421, 422.
+
+Whitbread, Samuel, M.P., 36, 49, 51, 156, 157, 182, 199.
+
+Whiteboys, 320.
+
+White Conduit House. See London.
+
+Whitefeet, 320.
+
+Whitelocke, General, 56, 57.
+
+Whitworth, Lord (afterwards Earl), ambassador extraordinary to France, 19;
+  negotiates with French government, 20-22, 46.
+
+Wilberforce, William, M.P., 15, 48, 195.
+
+Wild, Jonathan, 181.
+
+Wilkes, John, 72, 374, 422.
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 427.
+
+Wilkinson, American general, 141, 146.
+
+William, Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), 208, 249;
+  marriage, 184, 185;
+  lord high admiral, 227;
+  resignation, 243;
+  king, 273, 274, 277, 278, 281-283, 286, 287, 289-294, 296, 297, 299,
+      301-305, 337, 347-352, 354, 356, 357, 363, 368, 371;
+  coronation, 295, 301, 309;
+  death, 375.
+
+William, Prince of Orange, 9-13.
+
+William Frederick, Prince of Orange (afterwards William I., King of the
+      Netherlands), 138, 158, 267, 378, 381, 385.
+
+William, Prince of Orange (afterwards William II., King of the
+      Netherlands), 159, 384.
+
+Wilson, Sir Robert, 125.
+
+Wiltshire, 281.
+
+Winchester, school, 429.
+
+Winchilsea, Earl of (Finch-Hatton), 250, 251.
+
+Winder, American general, 146.
+
+Windham, William, 14, 15, 25, 26, 28, 31, 34, 47, 51;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 45.
+
+Windsor Castle, 70, 375.
+
+_Windsor Castle_, the, British ship, 221.
+
+Wittgenstein, Russian general, 125, 143, 145.
+
+Worcester, bishop of (Carr), 299.
+
+Wordsworth, William, 416.
+
+Würtemburg, 42, 187, 189.
+
+Wynn, Charles Williams, president of the board of control, 199, 227.
+
+
+Yanzi, gorge, 113.
+
+Yarmouth, Viscount (Ingram-Seymour-Conway), afterwards third Marquis of
+      Hertford, 46.
+
+Yeo, Sir James, captain, 140.
+
+Yorck, Count, 125, 133.
+
+York, 83.
+
+York (Toronto), 139, 140, 146.
+
+York (Frederick), Duke of (son of George III.), 49, 60, 61, 72, 74-76,
+      184 n., 185, 197, 207, 208, 239, 242, 268.
+
+Yorke, Charles Philip, home secretary, 27, 34;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 72, 82;
+  retirement, 81.
+
+Yorkshire, 38, 180, 198, 274, 280, 288, 294, 432, 435.
+
+
+Zadorra, river, 110.
+
+Zaragoza, 88, 96.
+
+Zemán Sháh, King of Afghánistán, 397.
+
+Znaim, 64.
+
+Zumalacarregui, Carlist general, 390, 391.
+
+
+                      PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT
+                    THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, ABERDEEN
+
+[Illustration: GREAT BRITAIN
+showing
+PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION
+according to the
+REFORM ACT OF 1832.]
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
+illustrating
+THE PENINSULAR WAR.]
+
+[Illustration: INDIA]
+
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|                           TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES                           |
+|                                                                         |
+| General: Changes to punctuation have not been individually documented.  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 11: reopen standardised to re-open                                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 13: Shortlived standardised to Short-lived                         |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 42, 187, 189, 466, 486, footnote 66: Spelling of Würtemberg,      |
+|    Würtemburg as in original                                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 47, 296: short-sighted standardised to shortsighted               |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 60: heartbreaking standardised to heart-breaking                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 66: Lord Granville Leveson Gower standardised to Leveson-Gower     |
+|    (note that Francis Leveson Gower never has a hyphen in the original  |
+|    version so that is maintained here)                                  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 85: non-conformists standardised to nonconformists                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 94: shortlived standardised to short-lived                         |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 108, 113: rearguard standardised to rear-guard                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 109, 363: Spelling of make-shift, makeshift not standardised as    |
+|    usage differs.                                                       |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 127: flag-ship standardised to flagship                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 176: lifelong standardised to life-long                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 182: it corrected to its after "measure of relief owes"            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 183: bank-notes standardised to banknotes                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 201: But replaced by but at start of page as it is a continuation  |
+|    of the sentence from the previous page.                              |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 252: wofully as in original                                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 260, 481, 484: Spelling of Akkerman, Akherman as in original      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 274: deathblow standardised to death-blow                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 289, 361 and 374: Spelling of rate-paying and ratepaying not      |
+|    standardised as it is used in two different contexts                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 298: ring-leaders standardised to ringleaders                      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 316: tithe proctor standardised to tithe-proctor                   |
+|           beneficies as in original                                     |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 335: house-holders standardised to householders                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 341: outdoor standardised to out-door                              |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 345: tithe proctors standardised to tithe-proctors                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 349: re-assembled standardised to reassembled                      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 362: over-ride standardised to override                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 393, 403, 475: Spelling of Mahmud and Mahmúd not standardised as  |
+|    it is used in two different contexts                                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 394: MUNCHENGRATZ standardised to MÜNCHENGRÄTZ                     |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 407, 416, 462: Spelling of Khan and Khán not standardised as it   |
+|    is used in two different contexts                                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 427, 465: Spelling of Callcott, Calcott as in original            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 443: Italicisation of "Constitutional History of England from 1760 |
+|    to 1860" corrected                                                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 461: Aetolia standardised to Ætolia                                |
+|           Aegean standardised to Ægean                                  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 463: In entry Beauharnais, Eugene standardised to Eugène           |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 464: Bridgewater standardised to Bridgwater                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 475: Malhar standardised to Malhár                                 |
+|           In entry Louis Antoine, Angouléme standardised to Angoulême   |
+|           In entry Louis Philippe, Orleans standardised to Orléans      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 479: Pressgang standardised to Press-gang                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 483: ) added to entry for Stewart, Sir Charles, after Londonderry  |
+|           ) added to entry for Switzerland, after republic              |
+|           Thermopylae standardised to Thermopylæ                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 484: Volgo standardised to Volga                                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 486: Ingram-Seymour Conway corrected to Ingram-Seymour-Conway      |
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol
+XI, by George Brodrick and J.K. Fotheringham
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol XI, by 
+George Brodrick and J.K. Fotherington
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Political History of England - Vol XI
+       From Addington's Administration to the close of William
+              IV.'s Reign (1801-1837)
+
+Author: George Brodrick
+        J.K. Fotherington
+
+Release Date: September 30, 2008 [EBook #26727]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Paul Murray, Brownfox and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3><i>THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND</i></h3>
+
+
+<p><i>Seventy-five years have passed since Lingard completed his</i> <span class="smcap">History of
+England</span>, <i>which ends with the Revolution of 1688. During that period
+historical study has made a great advance. Year after year the mass of
+materials for a new History of England has increased; new lights have been
+thrown on events and characters, and old errors have been corrected. Many
+notable works have been written on various periods of our history; some of
+them at such length as to appeal almost exclusively to professed
+historical students. It is believed that the time has come when the
+advance which has been made in the knowledge of English history as a whole
+should be laid before the public in a single work of fairly adequate size.
+Such a book should be founded on independent thought and research, but
+should at the same time be written with a full knowledge of the works of
+the best modern historians and with a desire to take advantage of their
+teaching wherever it appears sound.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>The vast number of authorities, printed and in manuscript, on which a
+History of England should be based, if it is to represent the existing
+state of knowledge, renders co-operation almost necessary and certainly
+advisable. The History, of which this volume is an instalment, is an
+attempt to set forth in a readable form the results at present attained by
+research. It will consist of twelve volumes by twelve different writers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span>each of them chosen as being specially capable of dealing with the period
+which he undertakes, and the editors, while leaving to each author as free
+a hand as possible, hope to insure a general similarity in method of
+treatment, so that the twelve volumes may in their contents, as well as in
+their outward appearance, form one History.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>As its title imports, this History will primarily deal with politics,
+with the History of England and, after the date of the union with
+Scotland, Great Britain, as a state or body politic; but as the life of a
+nation is complex, and its condition at any given time cannot be
+understood without taking into account the various forces acting upon it,
+notices of religious matters and of intellectual, social, and economic
+progress will also find place in these volumes. The footnotes will, so far
+as is possible, be confined to references to authorities, and references
+will not be appended to statements which appear to be matters of common
+knowledge and do not call for support. Each volume will have an Appendix
+giving some account of the chief authorities, original and secondary,
+which the author has used. This account will be compiled with a view of
+helping students rather than of making long lists of books without any
+notes as to their contents or value. That the History will have faults
+both of its own and such as will always in some measure attend
+co-operative work, must be expected, but no pains have been spared to make
+it, so far as may be, not wholly unworthy of the greatness of its
+subject.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Each volume, while forming part of a complete History, will also in
+itself be a separate and complete book, will be sold separately, and will
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span>have its own index, and two or more maps.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">The History is divided as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="hangindent gap2"><p>Vol. I. <span class="smcap">From the Earliest Times to the Norman Conquest</span> (to 1066).
+By Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D., Fellow of University College,
+London; Fellow of the British Academy. With 2 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. II. <span class="smcap">From the Norman Conquest to the Death of John</span> (1066-1216).
+By George Burton Adams, D.D., Litt.D., Professor of History in Yale
+University. With 2 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. III. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward
+III.</span> (1216-1377). By T. F. Tout, M.A., Bishop Fraser Professor of
+Medi&aelig;val and Ecclesiastical History in the University of
+Manchester; formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. With 3
+Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. IV. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of Richard II. to the Death of Richard
+III.</span> (1377-1485). By C. W. C. Oman, M.A., LL.D., M.P., Chichele
+Professor of Modern History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of
+the British Academy. With 3 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. V. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII.</span>
+(1485-1547). By the Right Hon. H. A. L. Fisher, M.A., M.P.,
+President of the Board of Education; Fellow of the British Academy.
+With 2 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. VI. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth</span>
+(1547-1603). By A. F. Pollard, M.A., Litt.D., Fellow of All Souls'
+College, Oxford, and Professor of English History in the University
+of London. With 2 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. VII. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of James I. to the Restoration</span>
+(1603-1660). By F. C. Montague, M.A., Astor Professor of History in
+University College, London; formerly Fellow of Oriel College,
+Oxford. With 3 Maps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Vol. VIII. <span class="smcap">From the Restoration to the Death of William III.</span>
+(1660-1702). By Sir Richard Lodge, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Professor
+of History in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Fellow of
+Brasenose College, Oxford. With 2 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. IX. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of Anne to the Death of George II.</span>
+(1702-1760). By I. S. Leadam, M.A., formerly Fellow of Brasenose
+College, Oxford. With 8 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. X. <span class="smcap">From the Accession of George III. to the Close of Pitt's
+First Administration</span> (1760-1801). By the Rev. William Hunt, M.A.,
+D.Litt., Trinity College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. XI. <span class="smcap">From Addington's Administration to the Close of William
+IV.'s Reign</span> (1801-1837). By the Hon. George C. Brodrick, D.C.L.,
+late Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and J. K. Fotheringham,
+M.A., D.Litt., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; Lecturer in
+Ancient History at King's College, London. With 3 Maps.</p>
+
+<p>Vol. XII. <span class="smcap">The Reign of Queen Victoria</span> (1837-1901). By Sir Sidney
+Low, M.A., Fellow of King's College, London; formerly Scholar of
+Balliol College, Oxford, and Lloyd C. Sanders, B.A. With 3 Maps. </p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="gap4">The Political History of England</h1>
+
+<p class="center">IN TWELVE VOLUMES</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Edited by</span> WILLIAM HUNT, <span class="smcap">D.Litt., and</span>
+REGINALD L. POOLE, M.A.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<h3 class="gap4">XI.</h3>
+
+<h2 class="gap2">THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND</h2>
+
+<h4>FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO</h4>
+
+<h4>THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S REIGN</h4>
+
+<h4>1801-1837</h4>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<h4 class="gap4">BY THE</h4>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Hon.</span> GEORGE C. BRODRICK, D.C.L.</h2>
+
+<h4>LATE WARDEN OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD</h4>
+
+<h4>COMPLETED AND REVISED BY</h4>
+
+<h2>J. K. FOTHERINGHAM, M.A., <span class="smcap">D.Litt.</span></h2>
+
+<h4>FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD; LECTURER IN
+ANCIENT HISTORY AT KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON</h4>
+
+
+<p class="center gap4"><i>NEW IMPRESSION</i></p>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.</p>
+
+<p class="center">39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size:smaller;">FOURTH AVENUE &amp; 30<span class="smcap">th</span> STREET, NEW YORK</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size:smaller;">BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS</p>
+
+<p class="center">1919</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<p class="center gap4"><i>NOTE.</i></p>
+
+
+<p><i>When the late Warden of Merton undertook the preparation of this volume
+he invited the assistance of Dr. Fotheringham in the portions dealing with
+foreign affairs. At the time of the late Warden's death in 1903 three
+chapters (x., xii. and xviii.) were unwritten, and one (xx.) was left
+incomplete. It was also found that the volume had to be recast in order to
+meet the plan of the series. The necessary alterations and additions have
+been made by Dr. Fotheringham, who has been scrupulous in retaining the
+expression of the late Warden's views, and, where possible, his words.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Addington.</span></p>
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter I.">
+  <tr>
+    <th style="width:25%"></th>
+    <th style="width:65%"></th>
+    <th style="text-align:right; font-size:smaller; width:10%">PAGE</th>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Mar., 1801.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_1">The new ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_2">Condition of Ireland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_3">Expedition to Copenhagend</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_4">Egypt evacuated by the French</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_5">French diplomatic successes</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_6">Bonaparte's concordat with the pope</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_7">Peace negotiations with France</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_8">Cornwallis at Amiens</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">25 Mar., 1802.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_9">The treaty of Amiens</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_10">Parliamentary criticism of the treaty</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_11">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_12">Colonel Despard's conspiracy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_13">Further aggressions of Napoleon</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_14">His colonial policy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_15">Negotiations between Whitworth and the French government</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">18 May, 1803.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_16">Renewal of the war with France</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Return of Pitt.</span></p>
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter II.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">23 July, 1803.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_17">Emmet's rebellion</a></td>
+    <td style="width:10%" class="ralign"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_18">Pitt's discontent with the ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_19">Ministerial changes</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan., 1804.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_20">The king's illness</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_21">Addington's resignation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_22">The exclusion of Fox</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">18 May.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_23">Napoleon declared emperor</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_24">Pitt's ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_25">The impeachment of Melville</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_26">The third coalition</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_27">Nelson's pursuit of Villeneuve</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">21 Oct., 1805.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_28">The battle of Trafalgar</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_29">Napoleon marches into Germany</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_30">Austerlitz: the peace of Pressburg</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_31">Collapse of the coalition</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span>23 Jan., 1806.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_32">Death of Pitt</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Grenville and Portland.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter III.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">Feb., 1806.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_33">Formation of the Grenville ministry</a></td>
+    <td style="width:10%" class="ralign"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">13 Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_34">Death of Fox</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">14 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_35">Jena and Auerst&auml;dt</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_36">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">25 Mar., 1807.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_37">Abolition of the slave trade</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_38">Fall of the whig government</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_39">The Portland administration</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_40">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">7 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_41">The treaty of Tilsit</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_42">Seizure of the Danish fleet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_43">The "continental system" and orders in council</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_44">Fruitless expeditions</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">12 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_45">Conference of Erfurt</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_46">Army scandals</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_47">The Wagram campaign</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July, 1809.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_48">The Walcheren expedition</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">21 Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_49">Duel between Canning and Castlereagh</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_50">Perceval's administration</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_51">Capture of the Ionian Isles and Bourbon</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">25.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_52">Jubilee of George III.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Perceval and Liverpool.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter IV.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">Jan., 1810.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_53">Debates on the Walcheren expedition</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_54">The arrest of Burdett</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_55">Appointment of the "Bullion committee"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_56">The king's insanity: regency bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">11 May, 1812.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_57">Assassination of Perceval</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1809-11.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_58">Social reforms in his ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July, 1810.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_59">Deposition of Louis Bonaparte</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_60">Opposition in Europe to the continental system</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_61">Alliances formed by Russia and France</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_62">Conquest of Java and Sumatra</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">June, 1812.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_63">The formation of Liverpool's cabinet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1811-12.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_64">Distress in town and country</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Oct., 1812.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_65">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1813.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_66">Confirmation of the East India Company's charter</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Peninsular War.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter V.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1807, 1808.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_67">The origin of the war</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_68">Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. seek the protection of Napoleon</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1808.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_69">Napoleon's plans for the conquest of Spain</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>24 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_70">Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">13 Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_71">Landing of Wellesley</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">21.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_72">Battle of Vimeiro</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Oct., 1808.-Jan., 1809.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_73">Expedition of Sir John Moore</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">16 Jan.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_74">Battle of Coru&ntilde;a</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_75">Wellesley returns to Portugal</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">27 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_76">Battle of Talavera</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept., 1810.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_77">Bussaco: the lines of Torres Vedras</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_78">Struggle for the frontier fortresses</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">16 May, 1811.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_79">Battle of Albuera</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan.-April, 1812.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_80">Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">22 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_81">Battle of Salamanca</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1812, 1813.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_82">Wellington reorganises the Spanish and Portuguese armies</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">21 June, 1813.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_83">Battle of Vitoria</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_84">Battle of the Pyrenees</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_85">Siege of St. Sebastian</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">8 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_86">Wellington crosses the Bidassoa</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_87">Battles round Bayonne</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Feb., 1814.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_88">The investment of Bayonne</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">10 April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_89">Battle of Toulouse</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Downfall of Napoleon.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter VI.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1812.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_90">French treaties with Prussia and Austria</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_91">Alliances made by Russia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_92">Napoleon's advance into Russia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_93">His retreat</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_94">War between England and the United States</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_95">Attacks on Canada</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_96">American successes at sea</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Feb., 1813.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_97">Treaty of Kalisch</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_98">Austrian diplomacy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">2, 21 May.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_99">L&uuml;tzen and Bautzen</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Aug., Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_100">Dresden and Leipzig</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_101">France loses Saxony, Holland, and Switzerland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_102">American war continued</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_103">Duel of the <i>Shannon</i> and <i>Chesapeake</i></a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan.-Mar., 1814.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_104">Campaign in France</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_105">Napoleon deposed: Louis XVIII. recalled</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">24 Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_106">Treaty of Ghent</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_107">Visit of Alexander and Frederick William to England</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_148">148</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Vienna and Waterloo.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter VII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">30 May, 1814.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_108">The first treaty of Paris</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_109">English blockade of Norwegian ports</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_110">Union of Sweden and Norway</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_111">Restoration of Ferdinand VII. and Pius VII.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_112">Attempts to abolish the slave trade</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept., 1814-June, 1815.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_113">Congress of Vienna</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">3 Jan., 1815.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_114">Secret treaty between England, France, and Austria</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1 March.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_115">Napoleon's return from Elba</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_116">Flight of Louis XVIII.: the <i>Acte Additionnel</i></a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_117">Plans of the allies</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_118">Defeat and death of Murat</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_119">Wellington at Brussels: his army</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">16.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_120">Ligny and Quatre Bras</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">18.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_121">Waterloo</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_122">Paris occupied by the allies</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">22 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_123">Second abdication of Napoleon</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_124">His surrender to England</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_125">Restoration of Louis XVIII.: treaty of Vienna</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_126">Resettlement of Europe</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_127">Second treaty of Paris: English gains</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">26 Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_128">The Holy Alliance</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_129">Napoleon at St. Helena</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The First Years of Peace.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter VIII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1816.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_130">Depression and discontent</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_131">Vansittart's financial policy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_132">Union of British and Irish exchequers</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">2 Dec., 1816.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_133">Spa Fields riot</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_134">Prosecution of Hone</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1818.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_135">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">16 Aug., 1819.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_136">The "Manchester massacre"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_137">The six acts</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1817, 1819.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_138">Institution of savings banks: currency reform</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">6 Nov., 1817.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_139">Death of Princess Charlotte</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1818.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_140">Royal marriages</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">29 Jan., 1820.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_141">Death of George III.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_142">Royalist reaction in Europe</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1816.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_143">Expedition against the Barbary states</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1819.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_144">Murder of Kotzebue</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">30 Sept., 1818.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_145">Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_189">189</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_146">Spain asks for assistance from the allies</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_147">The European alliance</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Last Years of Lord Liverpool.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter IX.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1820.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_148">The Cato Street conspiracy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_149">Dissolution of parliament</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_150">The "queen's trial"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">7 Aug., 1821.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_151">Her death</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1822.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_152">Changes in the cabinet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span>12 Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_153">Death of Castlereagh</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_199">199</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_154">Canning foreign secretary</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_200">200</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_155">Peel home secretary</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_201">201</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1823.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_156">Reform of the navigation laws</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_202">202</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_157">Agricultural discontent</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1825.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_158">Speculative frenzy and financial panic</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1823-26.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_159">Robinson's finance</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_206">206</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_160">General election of 1826</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_207">207</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_161">Close of Liverpool's ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_208">208</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Problems in Southern Europe.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter X.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1820.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_162">Revolution in Spain: policy of non-intervention</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July, Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_163">Revolutions in the Two Sicilies and Portugal</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_164">Congress of Troppau</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan., 1821.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_165">Congress of Laibach</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Mar., April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_166">Revolution in Piedmont: Austrian intervention</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_213">213</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_167">Insurrections in the Morea and Central Greece</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_214">214</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_168">"Sanitary cordon"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_169">Ultra-royalist parties in France and Spain</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_170">Loss of Spanish colonies in America</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1822.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_171">Conference at Vienna</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_216">216</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_172">Congress of Verona</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_173">Offer of mediation declined</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_218">218</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">7 April, 1823.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_174">War between France and Spain</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_220">220</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">12 Oct., 1822.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_175">Independence of Brazil</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">July, 1825.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_176">Conference at London</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_222">222</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">2 Dec., 1823.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_177">The Monroe doctrine</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_223">223</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1824-25.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_178">Conference at St. Petersburg</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1 Dec., 1825.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_179">Death of the Tsar Alexander I.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Tory Dissension and Catholic Relief.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XI.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">April, 1827.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_180">Formation of Canning's ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_181">Additions to the ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">8 Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_182">Death of Canning</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_183">Goderich's cabinet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_229">229</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_184">Dissensions: resignation of Goderich</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">9 Jan., 1828.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_185">Wellington accepts office</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_230">230</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_186">The Eastern question</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_232">232</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 Oct., 1827.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_187">Navarino</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_233">233</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1828.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_188">Repeal of the test and corporation acts</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_235">235</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">May, June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_189">Changes in the ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">June, July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_190">The Clare election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_237">237</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1821.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_191">Measures for catholic relief</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_239">239</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1825.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_192">Further measures</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_193">George IV.'s opposition to catholic relief</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_244">244</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>1829.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_194">Wellington and Peel adopt catholic relief</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Mar., April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_195">Debates on the bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">13 April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_196">The royal assent</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_249">249</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">21 Mar.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_197">Duel between Wellington and Winchilsea</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_198">Exclusion of O'Connell from Parliament</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Portugal and Greece.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">10 Mar., 1826.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_199">Death of John VI. of Portugal</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_253">253</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">2 May.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_200">Peter abdicates in favour of his daughter Maria</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">31 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_201">Miguel proclaimed king by the absolutists</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_202">England sends troops to help the Portuguese government</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">3 Mar., 1828.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_203">Peter appoints Miguel regent for Maria</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Dec., 1827.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_204">The sultan defies Russia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">26 April, 1828.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_205">Russia makes war on the Turks</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_263">263</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_206">Negotiations for settlement of Greek question</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_264">264</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Oct., Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_207">French troops expel the Turks from the Morea</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_208">Terms of settlement agreed on at Poros and London</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">14 Sept. 1829.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_209">Peace of Adrianople</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">3 Feb., 1830.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_210">Greece independent: throne offered to Prince Leopold</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_268">268</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_211">France conquers Algiers</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Prelude of Reform.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XIII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1830.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_212">Amalgamation of English and Welsh benches</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_213">Motions for reform</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">26 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_214">Death of George IV.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_272">272</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_215">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">15 Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_216">Death of Huskisson</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_275">275</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_217">Wellington's opposition to reform</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_277">277</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_218">Fall of his ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_219">Grey accepts office</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_220">His cabinet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_279">279</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_221">The regency bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_281">281</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Feb., 1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_222">Althorp's first budget</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_223">Public demand for reform</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_285">285</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_224">Draft of the first reform bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_287">287</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_225">System of representation in the unreformed house</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_226">Popular excitement: second reading of the bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_227">Dissolution of parliament</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_292">292</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">CHAPTER XIV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Reform.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XIV.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1831.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_228">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">24 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_229">Second reform bill introduced</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span>8 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_230">Rejection by the lords</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_231">Reform bill riots</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_296">296</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_232">Attempts at compromise in the lords</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_299">299</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">12 Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_233">Final reform bill introduced</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_234">Gradual loss of the king's confidence in the ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">9 May, 1832.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_235">Grey resigns</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_236">Wellington unable to form a ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_237">The king recalls Grey</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">4 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_238">Third reading of the bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_304">304</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_239">Scotch and Irish reform bills carried</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_306">306</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">26 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_240">The cholera epidemic</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_241">The census</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_311">311</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_242">State of Ireland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_243">O'Connell's agitation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_312">312</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_244">The "tithe-war" in Ireland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_245">Legislation for Ireland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_316">316</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_246">The Kildare Place Society</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">CHAPTER XV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fruits of the Reform.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XV.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1832.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_247">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_318">318</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1833.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_248">Irish coercion bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_320">320</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_249">Irish Church temporalities bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_322">322</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_250">Ministerial changes</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_325">325</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_251">Abolition of colonial slavery</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_326">326</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_252">Factory acts</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_327">327</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_253">The East India Company act</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_254">Bank charter act</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_330">330</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_255">Formation of judicial committee of the privy council</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_332">332</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_256">Act for the abolition of fines and recoveries</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_333">333</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1831, 1832, 1833.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_257">Althorp's budgets</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">CHAPTER XVI.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Religious Movements and Poor Law Reform.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XVI.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1833.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_258">The Tractarian movement</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_336">336</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1832.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_259">First meeting of the British Association</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_338">338</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_260">Foundation of the Catholic Apostolic Church</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1834.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_261">The "new poor law"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_262">Creation of a central poor law board</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_343">343</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_263">Ministerial discord</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_344">344</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">9 July.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_264">Grey's resignation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_346">346</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_265">Formation of Melbourne's ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">16 Oct.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_266">Destruction of the houses of parliament</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">14 Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_267">Melbourne's resignation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_350">350</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_268">Wellington's provisional government</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_269">Peel's cabinet</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_352">352</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_270">The Tamworth manifesto</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_353">353</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">CHAPTER XVII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Peel and Melbourne.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XVII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">Jan., 1835.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_271">General election</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Feb.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_272">Abercromby elected speaker</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_354">354</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_273">The "Lichfield House compact"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">April.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_274">Peel's resignation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_275">Melbourne's second ministry</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_276">Exclusion of Brougham</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_357">357</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_277">Municipal corporations act</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_360">360</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Jan., 1836.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_278">Cottenham lord chancellor</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_279">Conflict with the lords on Irish bills</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_280">Tithe commutation act (English)</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_365">365</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_281">Reformed marriage law</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_282">Registration system</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_366">366</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1835, 1836.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_283">Crusade against Orange lodges</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_367">367</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1836.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_284">The paper duties lowered</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_369">369</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_285">Committee on agricultural distress</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_370">370</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1836, 1837.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_286">Agitation in Ireland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_371">371</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1837.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_287">Irish municipal bill</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_372">372</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_288">Church rates</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_289">Burdett secedes from the whig party</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_374">374</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 June.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_290">Death of William IV.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">CHAPTER XVIII.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Foreign Relations under William IV.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XVIII.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">July, 1830.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_291">The revolution of July</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_376">376</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_292">Recognition of Louis Philippe by the Powers</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_293">Belgian provinces in revolt</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">20 Dec.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_294">Protocol of London</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_381">381</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">June, 1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_295">Election of Leopold as King of the Belgians</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_383">383</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Aug.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_296">War between Belgium and Holland</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_297">French troops enter Belgium</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_384">384</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Nov.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_298">British and French fleets blockade the Scheldt</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_386">386</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">Nov., 1833.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_299">Convention between Holland and Belgium</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1830.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_300">Insurrections in Switzerland, Poland, Italy, etc.</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_387">387</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1831, 1832.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_301">Capture of Warsaw; Polish constitution abolished</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">7 April, 1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_302">Peter leaves Brazil for Portugal</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_388">388</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_303">Carlist rebellion in Spain</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">22 April, 1834.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_304">The quadruple alliance</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">26 May.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_305">Miguel renounces his claims</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_390">390</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">9 Oct., 1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_306">Capodistrias (Greek president) assassinated</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1832.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_307">Otto of Bavaria becomes King of Greece</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_392">392</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1831.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_308">War between Ibrahim and the Sultan</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1833.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_309">Treaties of Kiutayeh and Unkiar Skelessi</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_394">394</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">8 Sept.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_310">Secret convention at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">CHAPTER XIX.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">British India.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XIX.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%">1801.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_311">Annexation of the Karn&aacute;tik</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_397">397</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span>1803.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_312">Assaye and Arg&aacute;um</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1805.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_313">Resignation of Lord Wellesley</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_399">399</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">10 July, 1806.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_314">Mutiny at Vellore</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_400">400</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_315">Lord Minto's pacific policy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_401">401</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1801-10.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_316">Treaties with Persia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_402">402</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_317">Elphinstone in Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_403">403</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1813.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_318">Lord Moira appointed governor-general</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_404">404</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_319">The Pind&aacute;r&iacute; war</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_405">405</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1818.</td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_320">Subjugation of the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_407">407</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_321">First Burmese war</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_408">408</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_322">Abolition of sat&iacute;</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_410">410</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_323">Extirpation of thag&iacute;</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_411">411</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_324">Defence of Herat</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_412">412</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_325">Communication with India</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_326">Burnes's mission to K&aacute;bul</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_413">413</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">CHAPTER XX.</a></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Literature and Social Progress.</span></p>
+
+<table style="width:75%" summary="Contents Chapter XIX.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%"></td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#TOPIC_327">The "Lake school"</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_328">Scott's novels</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_418">418</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_329">Minor poets: philosophical works</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_420">420</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_330">Newspapers and reviews</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_422">422</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_331">Essayists and historians</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_425">425</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_332">The arts: painting, sculpture</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_427">427</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_333">Scientific discoveries</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_428">428</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_334">University reform</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_429">429</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_335">Formation of London University</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_431">431</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_336">Improvements in agriculture</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_433">433</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_337">Steam navigation</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_434">434</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_338">The first railways</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_339">Geographical discovery</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_340">Philanthropy</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_436">436</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_341">Canada</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_437">437</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_342">South Africa</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_343">Convict settlements in Australia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_438">438</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign"></td>
+    <td><a href="#TOPIC_344">Development of Australia</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<table class="gap2" style="width:75%" summary="Contents Appendices.">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:25%"><span class="smcap">Appendix</span> I.</td>
+    <td style="width:65%"><a href="#APPENDIX_I">On Authorities</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">II.</td>
+    <td><a href="#APPENDIX_II">Administrations, 1801-37</a></td>
+    <td class="ralign"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center">MAPS.</p>
+
+<p class="center">(<span class="smcap">At the End of the Volume.</span>)</p>
+
+<ol style="margin-left:6em;"><li><a href="#MAP_I">Great Britain, showing the parliamentary representation after the reform.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#MAP_II">Spain and Portugal, illustrating the Peninsular war.</a></li>
+<li><a href="#MAP_III">India.</a></li></ol>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>ADDINGTON.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_1" id="TOPIC_1"></a>When, early in March, 1801, Pitt resigned office, he was succeeded by
+Henry Addington, who had been speaker of the house of commons for over
+eleven years, and who now received the seals of office as first lord of
+the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer on March 14, 1801. He was
+able to retain the services of the Duke of Portland as home secretary, of
+Lord Chatham as president of the council, and of Lord Westmorland as lord
+privy seal. For the rest, his colleagues were, like himself, new to
+cabinet rank. Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards the second Earl of Liverpool)
+became foreign secretary, and Lord Hobart, son of the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire, secretary for war. Loughborough reaped the due reward of
+his treachery by being excluded from the ministry altogether; with a
+curious obstinacy he persisted in attending cabinet councils, until a
+letter from Addington informed him that his presence was not desired. He
+received some small consolation, however, in his elevation to the Earldom
+of Rosslyn. Lord Eldon was the new chancellor and was destined to hold the
+office uninterruptedly, except for the brief ministry of Fox and
+Grenville, till 1827. Lord St. Vincent became first lord of the admiralty,
+and Lord Lewisham president of the board of control. Cornwallis had
+resigned with Pitt, but it was not till June 16 that a successor was found
+for him as master general of the ordnance. It was then arranged that
+Chatham should take this office. Portland succeeded Chatham as lord
+president, and Lord Pelham, whose father had just been created Earl of
+Chichester, became home secretary instead of Portland. An important change
+was introduced into the distribution of work between the different
+secretaries of state, the administration of colonial affairs being
+transferred from the home to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> war office, so that Hobart and his
+successors down to 1854 were known as secretaries of state for war and the
+colonies. Soon afterwards Lewisham succeeded his father as Earl of
+Dartmouth.</p>
+
+<p>Though the Addington ministry has, not without justice, been derided for
+its weakness as compared with its immediate predecessor, it is interesting
+to observe that in it one of the greatest of English judges as well as a
+future premier, destined to display an unique power of holding his party
+together, first attained to cabinet rank; and in the following year it was
+reinforced by Castlereagh, who disputes with Canning the honour of being
+regarded as the ablest statesman of what was then the younger generation.
+The weakness of the ministry must therefore be attributed to a lack of
+experience rather than a lack of talent. It was unfortunate in succeeding
+a particularly strong administration, but is well able to bear comparison
+with most of the later ministries of George III. Addington himself was in
+more thorough sympathy with the king than any premier before or after.
+Conversation with Addington was, according to the king, like "thinking
+aloud"; and with a king who, like George III., still regarded himself as
+responsible for the national policy, hearty co-operation between king and
+premier was a matter of no slight importance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_2" id="TOPIC_2"></a>In the early days of the new administration Pitt loyally kept his promise
+of friendly support, and it is to be deplored that Grenville and Canning
+did not adopt the same course. While the issue of peace and war was
+pending, domestic legislation inevitably remained in abeyance. In Ireland
+serious disappointment had been caused by the abandonment of catholic
+emancipation; but the disappointment was borne quietly, and the Irish
+Roman catholics doubtless did not foresee to what a distance of time the
+removal of their disabilities had been postponed. The just and mild rule
+of the new lord lieutenant, Lord Hardwicke, contributed to the
+pacification of the country. But in reality the conduct of the movement
+for emancipation was only passing into new hands; when it reappeared it
+was no longer led by catholic lords and bishops, but was a peasant
+movement, headed by the unscrupulous demagogue O'Connell. In these
+circumstances it is to be regretted that the new administration neglected
+to carry that one of the half-promised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> concessions to the catholics which
+could not offend the king's conscience, namely, the commutation of tithe.
+Nothing in the protestant ascendency was so irritating to the catholic
+peasantry as the necessity of paying tithe to a protestant clergy, and its
+commutation, while benefiting the clergy themselves, would have removed
+the occasion of subsequent agitation. The spirit of disloyalty, however,
+was believed to be by no means extinct either in Ireland or in Great
+Britain, and two stringent acts were passed to repress it. The first, for
+the continuance of martial law in Ireland, was supported by almost all the
+Irish speakers in the house of commons, where it was carried without a
+division, and was adopted in the house of lords by an overwhelming
+majority, after an impressive speech from Lord Clare. The second, for the
+suspension of the <i>habeas corpus</i> act in the whole United Kingdom was
+framed to remain in force "during the continuance of the war, and for one
+month after the signing of a definitive treaty of peace".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE HORNE TOOKE ACT.</i></div>
+
+<p>The only other measure of permanent interest which became law in this
+session was the so-called "Horne Tooke act," occasioned by the return of
+Horne Tooke, who was in holy orders, for Old Sarum. Such a return was
+contrary to custom, but the precedents collected by a committee of the
+house of commons were inconclusive. It was accordingly enacted that in
+future clergymen of the established churches should be ineligible for
+seats in parliament, while Horne Tooke was deemed to have been validly
+elected, and retained his seat. The house of commons found time, however,
+for an important and well-sustained debate on India, in which among others
+Dundas, now no longer in office, showed a thorough knowledge of questions
+affecting Indian finance and trade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_3" id="TOPIC_3"></a>The naval expedition which had been prepared in the last days of Pitt's
+administration sailed for Copenhagen on March 12, 1801, under Sir Hyde
+Parker, with Nelson as second in command. The admiral in chief was of a
+cautious temper, but was wise enough to allow himself to be guided by
+Nelson's judgment when planning an engagement, though not as to the
+general course of the expedition. The fleet consisted of sixteen ships of
+the line and thirty-four smaller vessels; all these with the exception of
+one ship of the line reached the Skaw on the 18th. A frigate was sent in
+advance with instructions to Vansittart,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> the British envoy at Copenhagen,
+to present an ultimatum to the Danish government,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> demanding a
+favourable answer to the British demands within forty-eight hours. For
+three days Parker waited at anchor eighteen miles from Elsinore, and it
+was only when Vansittart brought an unfavourable reply on the 23rd that he
+took Nelson into his counsels. He readily adopted Nelson's plan of
+ignoring the Danish batteries at Kronborg and making a circuit so as to
+attack Copenhagen at the weak southern end of its defences, but set aside
+his project of masking Copenhagen and making straight for a Russian
+squadron of twelve ships of the line which was lying icebound at Revel.
+The fair weather of the 26th was wasted in irresolution, and it was not
+till the 30th that the fleet was able to weigh anchor. It passed Kronborg
+in safety and anchored five miles north of Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>Parker placed under Nelson's immediate command twelve ships of the line
+and twenty-one smaller vessels, by far the greater part of the British
+fleet. With these he was to pass to the east of a shoal called the Middle
+Ground and attack the defences of Copenhagen from the south, while Parker
+with the remainder of the fleet was to make a demonstration against the
+more formidable northern defences. The wind could not of course favour
+both attacks simultaneously, and it was agreed that the attack should be
+made when the wind favoured Nelson. The nights of the 30th and 31st were
+spent in reconnoitring and laying buoys. On April 1 a north wind brought
+Nelson's squadron past the Middle Ground, and on the next day a south wind
+enabled him to attack the Danish fleet, if fleet it may be called. At the
+north end of the Danish position stood the only permanent battery, the
+Trekroner, with two hulks or blockships; the rest consisted of seven
+blockships and eleven floating batteries, drawn up along the shore. An
+attack on the south end of the line was also exposed to batteries on the
+island of Amager. Nelson's intention was to close with the whole Danish
+fleet, but three of his ships of the line were stranded and he was obliged
+to leave the assault on the northern end entirely to lighter vessels.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BATTLE OF THE BALTIC.</i></div>
+
+<p>The Danish batteries proved more powerful than had been anticipated, and
+as time went on and the Danish resistance did not appear to lose in
+strength, Parker grew doubtful of the result of the battle and gave the
+order to cease action. The order was apparently not intended to be
+imperative, but it had the effect of inducing Riou, who commanded the
+frigate squadron, to sail away to the north. For the rest of the fleet
+obedience was out of the question. Nelson acknowledged, but refused to
+repeat the order, and, jocularly placing his glass to his blind eye,
+declared that he could not see the signal. At length the British cannonade
+told. Fischer, the Danish commander, had had to shift his flag twice, at
+the second time to the Trekroner, and all the ships south of that battery
+had either ceased fire or were practically helpless. The Trekroner,
+however, was still unsubdued and rendered it impossible for Nelson's
+squadron to retire, in the only direction which the wind would allow,
+without severe loss. He accordingly sent a message to the Danish Prince
+Regent, declaring that he would be compelled to burn the batteries he had
+taken, without saving their crews, unless firing ceased. If a truce were
+arranged until he could take his prisoners out of the prizes, he was
+prepared to land the wounded Danes, and burn or remove the prizes. A truce
+for twenty-four hours was accordingly arranged, which Nelson employed to
+remove his own fleet unmolested.</p>
+
+<p>The destruction of the southern batteries left Copenhagen exposed to
+bombardment, and the Danes, unable to resist, yet afraid to offend the
+tsar by submission, prolonged the time from day to day till news arrived
+which removed all occasion for hostility. Unknown to either of the
+combatants, the Tsar Paul, the life and soul of the northern confederacy,
+had been murdered on the night of March 23, ten days before the battle,
+and with his death the league was practically dissolved. When Nelson
+advanced further into the Baltic, he found no hostile fleet awaiting him,
+and the new tsar, Alexander, adopting an opposite policy, entered into a
+compromise on the subject of maritime rights. The battle of the Baltic is
+considered by some to have been Nelson's masterpiece. It won for him the
+title of viscount and for his second in command, Rear-Admiral Graves, the
+gift of the ribbon of the Bath, but the admiralty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> for official reasons,
+declined to confer any public reward or honour on the officers concerned
+in it</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_4" id="TOPIC_4"></a>At the same time, the French occupation of Egypt was drawing towards its
+inevitable close. Kl&eacute;ber, who was left in command by Bonaparte, perished
+by the hand of an assassin, and Menou, who succeeded to the command, was
+not only a weak general, but was prevented from receiving any
+reinforcements by the naval supremacy of Great Britain in the
+Mediterranean. On March 21, 1801, the French army was defeated at the
+battle of Alexandria by the British force sent out under Sir Ralph
+Abercromby, who was himself mortally wounded on the field. His successor,
+General Hutchinson, completed his work by taking Cairo, before the arrival
+of General Baird, who had led a mixed body of British soldiers and sepoys
+from the Red Sea across the desert to the Nile. The capitulation of
+Alexandria soon followed. In September the French evacuated Egypt, the
+remains of their army were conveyed to France in English ships, and
+Bonaparte's long-cherished dreams of eastern conquest faded away for
+ever&mdash;not from his own imagination, but from the calculations of practical
+statesmanship.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_5" id="TOPIC_5"></a>French arms, and French diplomacy supported by armed force, were more
+successful elsewhere. The treaty of Lun&eacute;ville was only the first of a
+series of treaties, by which France secured to herself a political
+position commensurate with her military glory. By the treaty of Aranjuez
+between France and Spain, signed on March 21, Spain ceded Louisiana to
+France, reserving the right of pre-emption, and undertook to wage war on
+Portugal in order to detach it from the British alliance. Spain and
+Portugal were both lukewarm in this war, and on June 6 signed the treaty
+of Badajoz, by which Portugal agreed to close her ports to England, to pay
+an indemnity to Spain, and to cede the small district of Olivenza, south
+of Badajoz. Bonaparte was intensely irritated by this treaty, which
+deprived him of the hope of exchanging conquests in Portugal for British
+colonial conquests in any future negotiations; he declared that Spain
+would have to pay by the sacrifice of her colonies for the conquered
+French colonies which he still hoped to recover. A French army was
+despatched to Portugal and enabled Bonaparte to dictate the treaty of
+Madrid, signed on September 29, whereby Portugal ceded half Guiana to
+France and undertook, as at Badajoz, to close her ports against England.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>INFLUENCES MAKING FOR PEACE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_6" id="TOPIC_6"></a>This last condition was equally imposed on the King of the Two Sicilies by
+the treaty of Florence, concluded on March 28, and before the end of the
+year France had established friendly relations with the Sultan of Turkey
+and the new Tsar of Russia. More important still, as consolidating
+Bonaparte's power at home, was the concordat signed by him and the pope on
+July 15 recognising Roman Catholicism as the religion of the majority of
+Frenchmen, and of the consuls, guaranteeing stipends, though on an
+abjectly mean scale, to the clergy, and placing the entire patronage of
+the French Church in the hands of the first consul. Never since the French
+revolution had the Church been thus acknowledged as the auxiliary, or
+rather as the handmaid, of the state, and probably no one but the first
+consul could have brought about the reconciliation. After such exertions,
+even he may have sincerely desired an honourable peace, as the crown of
+his victories, or at least as a breathing time, to enable him to mature
+his vast designs for reorganising France. Perhaps he did not yet fully
+recognise that war was a necessity of his political ascendency, no less
+than of his own personal character. The French people still clung to
+republican institutions; and the consulate was a nominal republic, with
+all effective power vested in the first consul. Time was to show how
+largely this unique position depended on his unique capacity of conducting
+wars glorious to French arms; for the present, France was satisfied, and
+longed for peace.</p>
+
+<p>The English ministry, too, was impelled by strong motives to enter upon
+the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Amiens. Not only was Great
+Britain crippled by the loss of nearly all her allies, but the high price
+of bread had roused grave disaffection,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> and intensified among British
+merchants a desire for an unmolested extension of commerce; above all,
+English statesmen now recognised the consulate, under Bonaparte, as the
+first stable and non-revolutionary government since the fall of the French
+monarchy. Both countries, therefore,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> were predisposed to entertain
+pacific overtures, but the very fact that these were in contemplation
+stirred both sides to further endeavours in order to secure better terms
+of peace. A French squadron, commanded by Admiral Linois and containing
+three ships of the line besides smaller boats, was making a movement for
+the Straits of Gibraltar in order to strengthen the force at Cadiz. Sir
+James Saumarez with five ships of the line and two smaller vessels engaged
+Linois off Algeciras on July 5, but the French ships were supported by the
+land batteries, and one of the British ships, the <i>Hannibal</i> (74), ran
+aground, and Saumarez was eventually compelled to leave her in the hands
+of the enemy. This victory was hailed with delight throughout France, but
+it was fully retrieved a week later. The French squadron had in the
+meantime been reinforced by one French and five Spanish ships of the line,
+and on the 12th it made a fresh attempt to reach Cadiz; it was, however,
+engaged in the Straits by Saumarez with five ships of the line. In the
+ensuing battle two Spanish ships blew up, and the French <i>Saint Antoine</i>
+was captured. The remainder succeeded in reaching Cadiz, but Saumarez was
+able to resume the blockade a few weeks later.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile there was no relaxation of French preparations for an invasion
+of England, or of naval activity on the part of Great Britain. No sooner
+had Nelson returned from the Baltic than he was, on July 24, placed in
+command of a "squadron on a particular service," charged with the defence
+of the coast from Beachy Head to Orfordness. With this he not only
+blockaded the northern French ports, but assumed the aggressive, and
+bombarded the vessels therein collected. A more daring attempt to cut out
+the flotilla moored at Boulogne by a boat attack was repelled with some
+loss on the night of August 15. But couriers under flags of truce were
+already passing between London and Paris, and hostilities ceased in the
+autumn of the year 1801.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE QUESTION OF MALTA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_7" id="TOPIC_7"></a>The history of the negotiations which ended in the peace of Amiens derives
+a special interest from the events which followed it. The earliest
+overtures for peace were made by Hawkesbury on March 21, 1801. At first
+Bonaparte refused to listen to them, but the destruction of the northern
+confederacy inclined him to more pacific counsels. On April 14 the
+British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> government stated its demands. They mark a distinct advance on
+those which had been made in vain at Lille in 1797. France was to evacuate
+Egypt, and Great Britain Minorca, but Great Britain claimed to retain
+Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Trinidad, Essequibo, Demerara, Berbice, and
+Ceylon. She was willing to surrender the Cape of Good Hope on condition
+that it became a free port, and stipulated that an indemnity should be
+provided for the Prince of Orange. At the outset, Bonaparte opposed all
+cessions by France and her allies, but the steady improvement in the
+fortunes of England in the north and in Egypt at last determined him to
+grant some of the British demands, and as the evacuation of Egypt became
+inevitable, he was resolved to gain something in exchange for it before it
+was too late. The preliminary treaty was accordingly signed by Bonaparte's
+agent Otto on behalf of France and Hawkesbury on behalf of Great Britain
+on October 1, the day before the news of the French capitulation in Egypt
+reached England. Great Britain had already consented to relinquish Malta,
+provided that it became independent. She now consented to relinquish all
+her conquests from France, and with the exception of Ceylon and Trinidad
+all her conquests from the French allies, requiring, however, that the
+Cape should be recognised as a free port. The French were to evacuate not
+only Egypt, but the Neapolitan and Roman States. Malta was to be restored
+to the knights of St. John under the guarantee of a third power. Prisoners
+of war were to be released on payment of their debts, and the question of
+the charge for their maintenance was to be settled by the definitive
+treaty in accordance with the law of nations and established usage.</p>
+
+<p>No mention was made of the Prince of Orange, but Otto gave a verbal
+assurance that provision would be made to satisfy his claims. He also gave
+the British government to understand that France would be willing to cede
+Tobago in consideration of the expenses incurred in the maintenance of
+French and Dutch prisoners. The omission of all reference to the
+continental relations of France is conspicuous. In France it was
+interpreted as indicating that Great Britain renounced her interest in
+continental politics. The Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian
+republics, the kingdom of Etruria, and the whole east bank of the Rhine
+were, however, supposed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> to be already protected against French
+encroachment by the treaty of Lun&eacute;ville, and Great Britain had no wish to
+impose terms involving a recognition of these new creations. Again, no
+mention was made of commercial relations apart from the Newfoundland and
+St. Lawrence fisheries, for Great Britain was too ready to believe that a
+separate commercial treaty would be practicable, and was naturally loth to
+delay the conclusion of peace by a difficult negotiation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CORNWALLIS AT AMIENS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_8" id="TOPIC_8"></a>Cornwallis was appointed to negotiate the definitive treaty, and had some
+hope that he might arrive at an informal understanding with Bonaparte at
+Paris before he proceeded to Amiens. But he was offended by Bonaparte's
+manner, and, dreading to be pitted against so subtle a diplomatist as
+Talleyrand, he left Paris before anything was accomplished, and arrived at
+Amiens on November 30. There France was represented by Joseph Bonaparte,
+the first consul's elder brother, and the negotiator of Lun&eacute;ville. At
+Amiens, the position of the British government was compromised from the
+first by its renewed insistence on a point which had been omitted from the
+preliminary treaty, namely, the compensation of the Prince of Orange. This
+demand was accompanied by an endeavour to obtain compensation for the King
+of Sardinia. Joseph Bonaparte, on the other hand, entrenched himself
+behind the letter of the treaty, and acknowledged no further obligation.
+Any additional concession to Great Britain could only be purchased by
+British concessions to France. Other difficulties arose over the question
+of Malta, the payment for the maintenance of prisoners, and the inclusion
+of allies as parties to the treaty.</p>
+
+<p>On the first of these questions the French would appear to have aimed
+throughout at reducing the knights to as impotent a position as possible.
+The British, on the other hand, ostensibly desiring to see the strength of
+the order maintained, were chiefly interested in securing its neutrality.
+At the time of the signature of the preliminary treaty, Russia was the
+power that seemed to Great Britain the fittest guarantor of the
+independence of the knights. On the refusal of Russia to accept this
+position, Naples appeared to be the next best alternative, but it was
+eventually agreed to substitute for the guarantee of a third power the
+obviously futile guarantee of all the powers. Neither party foresaw that
+the impossibility of obtaining such a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> guarantee was destined to leave the
+whole clause about Malta inoperative. After much dispute over the future
+constitution of the order, France proposed to obviate the chief source of
+difficulty by the demolition of the forts. This plan commended itself to
+Cornwallis, but was rejected by the British government. By the end of
+December it was agreed that a Neapolitan garrison was to occupy the
+islands provisionally, until the new organisation should be established.
+Great Britain proposed that this garrison should be maintained at the
+joint expense of Great Britain and France. It did not occur to the British
+government to propose any guarantee for the preservation of the property
+of the order, and this omission ultimately proved material. The question
+of including allies in the treaty was less complicated. France preferred a
+number of separate treaties so as to keep the British interest in Europe
+at a minimum. Great Britain, on the other hand, wished to make France a
+party to the cessions made by her allies, and successfully insisted on the
+negotiation of a single comprehensive treaty. Joseph Bonaparte granted
+this point on December 11, but, as he had not full powers to negotiate
+with any power except Great Britain, he continued to interpose delays till
+the end of the year.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime France had failed in her attempts to meet the British
+claims on behalf of the Prince of Orange by demands for further privileges
+and territory in the oceans and colonies. On the whole, the first month's
+negotiations had contributed much to a settlement, without giving a
+decided advantage to either side. The lapse of time, however, turned the
+balance in favour of the negotiator who was the more independent of his
+country's desire for peace. On January 1, 1802, Hawkesbury wrote to
+Cornwallis, treating the acquisition of Tobago as unimportant; on the 2nd
+Addington expressed his readiness to accept a separate arrangement with
+the Batavian republic for the Prince of Orange. By the 16th Hawkesbury had
+yielded the claim of Portugal to be a party to the treaty. The refusal of
+the French to cede Tobago in lieu of payment for the French prisoners, and
+the difficulty of assessing the payment, opened a way to the evasion of
+compensation altogether. Cornwallis, preferring to sacrifice this claim
+rather than re-open the war, suggested to Joseph Bonaparte on the 22nd
+that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> treaty should provide for commissioners to assess the payment,
+while it should be secretly provided that they should not be appointed. On
+the same day, Joseph Bonaparte communicated his brother's consent to a
+clause engaging France to find a suitable territorial possession in
+Germany for the Prince of Orange.</p>
+
+<p>If Hawkesbury and Cornwallis imagined that they had made sure of an early
+peace by these extensive concessions, they were greatly mistaken.
+Napoleon, flushed with this unexpected success, was encouraged to make
+further trial of the pliability of the British diplomatists. Two events
+occurred at this stage of the negotiations which tried the temper of both
+sides to the uttermost. On January 26, Bonaparte was elected president of
+the Cisalpine republic, to be styled henceforth the Italian republic. This
+event seems to have taken the British government by surprise; they thought
+it a distinct indication that he still contemplated further aggressions in
+spite of the series of treaties by which he appeared to be securing peace,
+and were therefore much less inclined than formerly to make concessions.
+About the same time Bonaparte was not unreasonably enraged at the
+outrageous attacks made on him in the press conducted in London by French
+exiles, especially by Jean Peltier, the editor of a paper called
+<i>L'Ambigu</i>, and he blamed the British government for permitting their
+publication. He therefore instructed his brother Joseph to raise further
+difficulties over the garrison and permanent organisation of Malta, as
+well as over the proposed accession of the sultan to the treaty. Vain
+attempts were also made by Joseph to retain Otranto for France till the
+British should have evacuated Malta, and to secure the inclusion of the
+Ligurian republic in the treaty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TREATY OF AMIENS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_9" id="TOPIC_9"></a>At last on March 8 Napoleon agreed that no important difference remained,
+and urged his brother to conclude the treaty. A little more time was
+wasted in providing for a temporary occupation of Malta by Neapolitan
+troops, and a more marked division of opinion arose as to the compensation
+for the Prince of Orange. In spite of instructions to the contrary from
+Hawkesbury, Cornwallis accepted an engagement on the part of France to
+find a compensation, not defined, for the house of Nassau, instead of
+charging it on the Dutch government; and the treaty was finally concluded
+on March 25.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> It was signed by Great Britain, France, Spain, and the
+Batavian republic, while the Porte was admitted as an accessory power. It
+differed from the preliminary convention in no important respect, except
+in the illusory safeguards for the claims of the Prince of Orange, the
+secret arrangement for evading the cost of the French prisoners, and the
+provisions concerning Malta, pregnant with the seeds of future enmity.
+These provisions were as follows: Malta was to be restored to the knights
+of St. John, from whose order both French and British were hereafter to be
+excluded. The evacuation was to take place within three months of the
+ratification of the treaty, or sooner if possible. At that date Malta was
+to be given up, provided the grand master or commissaries of the order
+were present, and provided the Neapolitan garrison had arrived. Its
+independence was to be under the guarantee of France, Great Britain,
+Austria, Spain, Russia, and Prussia. Two thousand Neapolitan troops were
+to occupy it for one year, and until the order should have raised a force
+sufficient, in the judgment of the guaranteeing powers, for the defence of
+the islands.<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p>
+
+<p>On October 29, 1801, parliament was opened with a speech from the throne
+briefly announcing the conclusion of a convention with the northern
+powers, and of preliminaries of peace with the French republic. General
+Lauriston, bearing the ratification of the preliminaries by the first
+consul, had reached London on the 10th, when he was received by the
+populace with tumultuous demonstrations of joy. Soon afterwards the "feast
+of the peace" was celebrated in Paris with equal enthusiasm. Short-lived
+as they proved to be, these pacific sentiments were doubtless genuine on
+both sides of the channel. The industrial, though not the military,
+resources of France were exhausted by her prodigious efforts during the
+last eight years; while England, suffering grievously from distress among
+the working-classes and financial difficulties, welcomed the prospect of
+cheaper provisions and easier times, as well as of emerging from the
+political difficulties originating in the French revolution.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_10" id="TOPIC_10"></a>The preliminary treaty, however, did not escape hostile criticism in
+either house of parliament. It was the subject<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> of discussion in the lords
+on November 3, and in the commons on the 3rd and 4th. Its most strenuous
+assailants were Lord Grenville, who had been foreign secretary under Pitt,
+and the whigs who had joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, among whom Lords
+Spencer and Fitzwilliam and above all Windham call for special notice.
+Windham's powerful and comprehensive speech contained more than one shrewd
+forecast of the future. For once, Pitt and Fox supported the same measure,
+and Pitt, dwelling on <i>security</i> as our grand object in the war, specially
+deprecated any attempt on the part of Great Britain "to settle the affairs
+of the continent". Fox, in advocating peace, fiercely denounced the war
+against the French republic, and gloated over the discomfiture of the
+Bourbons.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> It was admitted on all sides that France was stronger than
+ever in a military and political sense. She had already made treaties with
+Austria, Naples, Spain, and Portugal; other treaties with Russia and
+Turkey were on the point of being signed; while the still more important
+concordat with the pope was already ratified. On the other hand, Great
+Britain had largely increased her colonial possessions, and the chief
+question now discussed was whether she would be the weaker for abandoning
+some of these recent conquests. The general feeling of the nation was
+fitly expressed by Sheridan in the phrase: "This is a peace which all men
+are glad of, but no man can be proud of". Malmesbury, the negotiator of
+Lille, was absent from the debates; but he has recorded in his diary his
+disapproval both of the peace and of the violent opposition to it The king
+told Malmesbury on November 26 that he considered it an experimental
+peace, but unavoidable.<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DEBATES ON TREATY OF AMIENS.</i></div>
+
+<p>The debates on the definitive treaty of Amiens took place on May 13 and
+14, 1802, and though vigorously sustained, were to some extent a
+repetition of those on the preliminaries of peace. The opposition to it
+was headed by Grenville in the lords and in the commons by Windham, who
+compared it unfavourably with the preliminaries; and the stipulations with
+respect to Malta were justly criticised as one of its weakest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> points.
+Strange to say, Pitt took no effective part in the discussion, which ended
+in overwhelming majorities for the government. As in the previous session,
+domestic affairs, except in their bearing on foreign policy, received
+comparatively little attention from parliament. The income tax was
+repealed, almost in silence, as the first fruits of peace, and Addington,
+as chancellor of the exchequer, delivered an emphatic eulogy on the
+sinking fund by means of which he calculated that in forty-five years the
+national debt, then amounting to &pound;500,000,000, might be entirely paid off.
+The house of commons showed no want of economical zeal in scrutinising the
+claims of the king on the civil list, and those of the Prince of Wales on
+the revenues of the duchy of Cornwall. Nor did it neglect such abuses as
+the non-residence of the parochial clergy, and the cruel practice of
+bull-baiting, though it rejected a bill for the suppression of this
+practice, after a characteristic apology for it from Windham, in which he
+dwelt upon its superiority to horse-racing. In this session, too, a grant
+of &pound;10,000 was voted to Jenner for his recent invention of vaccination. In
+supporting it, Wilberforce stated that the victims of small-pox, in London
+alone, numbered 4,000 annually.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_11" id="TOPIC_11"></a>The parliament, which had now lasted six years, was dissolved by the king
+in person on June 28, and a general election was held during the month of
+July. The new house of commons did not differ materially from the old, and
+even in Ireland the recent national opposition to the union did not lead
+to the unseating of a single member who had voted for it.<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a> Meanwhile the
+ministry was strengthened by the admission to office of Lord Castlereagh,
+already distinguished for his share in the negotiations precedent to the
+union with Ireland. On July 6 he was appointed president of the board of
+control in succession to Dartmouth, and was admitted to a seat in the
+cabinet in October. The new parliament did not meet till November 16.
+During the interval members of both houses, with vast numbers of their
+countrymen, flocked to Paris, which had been almost closed to English
+travellers since the early days of the revolution. Fox was presented to
+Napoleon, as Bonaparte, since the decree which made him consul for life,
+preferred to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> styled. Napoleon conceived a great admiration for him,
+and afterwards persuaded himself that, had Fox survived, the friendly
+relations of England and France would not have been permanently
+interrupted. <a name="TOPIC_12" id="TOPIC_12"></a>On the very day on which parliament assembled, a conspiracy
+was discovered, which, however insane it may now appear, attracted much
+attention at the time. A certain Colonel Despard with thirty-six
+followers, mainly labourers, had plotted to kill the king and seize all
+the government-buildings, with a view to the establishment of what he
+called the "constitutional independence of Ireland and Great Britain" and
+the "equalisation of all civic rights". The conspiracy had no wide
+ramifications, and the arrest of its leader and his companions brought it
+to an immediate end. Despard was found guilty of high treason and was
+executed on February 21, 1803.</p>
+
+<p>When parliament met, the king's speech referred ominously to fresh
+disturbances in the balance of power on the continent; and votes were
+passed for large additions to the army and navy, in spite of Fox's
+declaration that he saw no reason why Napoleon, satisfied with military
+glory, should not henceforth devote himself to internal improvements in
+France. Nelson, on the contrary, speaking in the house of lords, while he
+professed himself a man of peace, insisted on the danger arising from "a
+restless and unjust ambition on the part of our neighbours," and Sheridan
+delivered a vigorous speech in a like spirit. On the whole, in January,
+1803, the prospects of assured peace and prosperity were much gloomier
+than they had been in January, 1802, before the treaty of Amiens. The
+funds were going down, the bank restriction act was renewed, and Despard's
+conspiracy still agitated the public mind. In the month of February a
+strong anti-Gallican sentiment was roused by Mackintosh's powerful defence
+of the royalist Jean Peltier, accused and ultimately convicted of a gross
+libel on the first consul. On March 8 came the royal message calling out
+the militia, which heralded the rupture of the peace.</p>
+
+<p>The renewal of the war, fraught with so much glory and misery to both
+nations, can have taken neither by surprise. The ink was scarcely dry on
+the treaty of Amiens when fresh causes of discord sprung up between France
+and Great Britain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> More than one of these, indeed, had arisen between the
+signature of the preliminary convention and the actual conclusion of
+peace. During the negotiations, the first consul had, as we have seen,
+never ceased to protest against the violent attacks upon himself in the
+English press, while Cornwallis persistently warned his own government
+against the menacing attitude of France in Italy and elsewhere. The
+proclamation of the concordat in April, 1802, and the recognition of
+Napoleon as first consul for life in August, however they may have
+strengthened his position in France, were no legitimate subjects for
+resentment in England; but his acceptance of the presidency of the
+"Italian" republic in January, followed by his annexation of Piedmont in
+September, revived in all its intensity the British mistrust of his
+aggressive policy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FRENCH AGGRESSIONS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_13" id="TOPIC_13"></a>The month of October witnessed a renewed aggression on Switzerland. A
+French army, commanded by Ney, advanced into the interior of the country,
+and forced the Swiss, who were in the midst of a civil war, to accept the
+mediation of Napoleon. The new constitution which he framed attempted, by
+weakening the federal government, to place the direction of Helvetian
+external relations in the hands of the French first consul. Our government
+vainly endeavoured to resist this interference by sending agents with
+money and promises. In Germany the redistribution of territory
+necessitated by the peace of Lun&eacute;ville was carried out professedly under
+the joint mediation of France and Russia, but really at the dictation of
+Napoleon. The final project, which destroyed all except three of the
+spiritual principalities and all except six of the free cities, was
+proposed by France on February 23, 1803, and accepted by the Emperor
+Francis on April 27.</p>
+
+<p>Against these rearrangements, Great Britain could have nothing to say;
+their importance is that while the negotiations were pending, Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia all had a strong motive for standing well with France.
+Bonaparte's attitude towards Switzerland was, in so far as it was backed
+by force, an infringement of the treaty of Lun&eacute;ville, to which, however,
+Great Britain was not a party. The neutrality of Piedmont had not been
+safeguarded either at Lun&eacute;ville or at Amiens; it had already been occupied
+by France before the treaty was signed, and Napoleon claimed to have as
+much right to annex<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> territory in Europe without the consent of Great
+Britain as Great Britain had to annex territory in India without the
+consent of France.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_14" id="TOPIC_14"></a>Napoleon's schemes of colonial expansion, though equally within the letter
+of the treaty, were not less disconcerting. The reconquest of San Domingo
+appeared necessary in order to obtain a base for the effective occupation
+of the new French possession, Louisiana. The despatch of an expedition for
+this purpose in December, 1801, had excited grave suspicion, and when
+two-thirds of the army had died of yellow fever and the remainder had
+returned home, fresh troops were sent out to take their place. A new naval
+expedition was prepared in the Dutch port of Helvoetsluis, but it was
+impossible to persuade British public opinion that its real destination
+was San Domingo. Finally, on the eve of hostilities, in the spring of 1803
+Napoleon, despairing of advance in this direction and disregarding the
+Spanish right of pre-emption, sold Louisiana to the United States for
+80,000,000 francs. Still more embarrassing was Bonaparte's eastern policy.
+In September, 1802, Colonel S&eacute;bastiani was sent as "commercial agent" to
+the Levant. He was instructed to inspect the condition of ports and
+arsenals, to assure the sheykhs of French favour, and to report on the
+military resources of Syria, Egypt, and the north African coast. His
+report, which was published in the <i>Moniteur</i> of January 30, 1803, set
+forth the opportunities that France would possess in the event of an
+immediate return to hostilities, and was naturally interpreted as
+disclosing an intention to renew the war on the first opportunity. Six
+thousand French would, he said, be enough to reconquer Egypt; the country
+was in favour of France. In March, 1803, Decaen left France with open
+instructions to receive the surrender of the five towns in India restored
+to France, but with secret orders to invite the alliance of Indian
+sovereigns opposed to Great Britain. On his appearance at Pondicherri, the
+British commander prepared to seize him, but he escaped to the Mauritius,
+which he put in a state of defence, and made a basis for attacks on
+British commerce which lasted from 1803 to 1811.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CAUSES OF MISTRUST AFTER AMIENS.</i></div>
+
+<p>Ireland also was visited by political spies, passing as commercial agents.
+It may not be easy to say how far Emmet's rebellion, to be recorded
+hereafter, was the result of these visits.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> At all events a letter fell
+into the hands of the British government, addressed by Talleyrand to a
+French agent at Dublin, called Fauvelet, directing him to obtain answers
+to a series of questions about the military and naval circumstances of the
+district, and "to procure a plan of the ports, with the soundings and
+moorings, and to state the draught of water, and the wind best suited for
+ingress and egress". The British government naturally complained of these
+instructions, but Talleyrand persistently maintained that they were of a
+purely commercial character.<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> It is, of course, true that these
+preparations in view of a possible recurrence of hostilities, however
+obvious their intention, were not in themselves hostile acts. Still, they
+were just grounds for suspicion, and, with our retrospective knowledge of
+Napoleon's later career, we may seek in vain for the grounds of confidence
+which had made the conclusion of a treaty possible. Great Britain was
+guilty of more direct breaches of the peace of Amiens. Russia refused her
+guarantee for the independence of Malta, and the British government was
+therefore technically justified in retaining it. No similar justification
+could, however, be alleged for the retention of Alexandria and the French
+towns in India. These measures were, as will be seen, defended on broader
+grounds of public policy. Not the least of the causes of discontent with
+the new situation was the refusal of Napoleon to follow up the treaty of
+peace with a commercial treaty. He had even retained French troops in
+Holland, and thus shown that he meant to close its ports against British
+commerce. The hope of a renewal of trade with France had been a main cause
+of the popular desire for peace, and had reconciled the British public to
+the sacrifices with which the treaty of Amiens had been purchased. It soon
+became clear that further concessions would be made the price of a
+commercial treaty, and it was felt in consequence that the sacrifices
+already made were made in vain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_15" id="TOPIC_15"></a>In September, 1802, Lord Whitworth was sent as ambassador extraordinary to
+the French Republic. The instructions which he carried with him from
+Hawkesbury fully reflect the prevailing spirit of mistrust. He was to
+watch for any new leagues which might prejudice England or disturb
+Europe;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> he was to discover any secret designs that might be formed
+against the East or West Indies; he was to maintain the closest
+surveillance over the internal politics of France, but especially over the
+dispositions of influential personages in the confidence of the first
+consul, as well as over the financial resources and armaments of the
+republic.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> Two months later, he was expressly warned in a secret
+despatch not in any way to commit His Majesty to a restoration of Malta,
+even if the provisions made at Amiens for this purpose could be completely
+executed; and the principle was laid down, from which the British
+government never swerved, that Great Britain was entitled to compensation
+for any acquisitions made by France since the treaty was signed.
+Accordingly, the retention of Malta was justified as a counterpoise to
+French extensions of territory in Italy, the invasion of Switzerland, and
+the continued occupation of the Batavian republic.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> This resolution was
+naturally confirmed by the publication of S&eacute;bastiani's report.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON AND WHITWORTH.</i></div>
+
+<p>The long negotiations between Whitworth and the French government, during
+the winter of 1802 and the spring of 1803, only bring into stronger relief
+the importance of the issues thus raised, and the hopelessness of a
+pacific solution. Napoleon firmly took his stand throughout on the simple
+letter of the treaty, which pledged Great Britain, upon certain
+conditions, to place the knights of St. John in possession of Malta, but
+did not contemplate the case of further accessions of French territory on
+the continent. Although the conditions specified were never fully
+satisfied, it is abundantly clear that the British ministers, having at
+last grasped the value of Malta, created all the difficulties in their
+power, and determined to cancel this article of the treaty. They alleged,
+in self-defence, that the spirit of the treaty had been constantly
+violated by Napoleon, in repeated acts of hostility to British subjects,
+in the refusal of all redress for such grievances, and, above all, in that
+series of aggressions on the continent which he declared to be outside the
+treaty and beyond the province of Great Britain.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> None of the
+compromises laboriously discussed in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> the winter of 1802 betoken any
+desire on the part of either government to retreat from its main position,
+though it does not follow that either sought to bring about a renewal of
+the war. Whitworth constantly reported that no formidable armaments were
+being prepared, and clung for months to a belief that Napoleon, knowing
+the instability of his own power and the ruinous state of his finances,
+would ultimately give way. On the other hand, Talleyrand and Joseph
+Bonaparte never ceased to hope that Great Britain would make concessions
+which might be accepted.</p>
+
+<p>Such hopes were rudely dispelled by the king's message to parliament on
+March 8, 1803, complaining of aggressive preparations in the ports of
+France and Holland, and recommending immediate measures for the security
+of his dominions. This message, with the consequent embodiment of the
+militia, startled the whole continent, and was followed five days later by
+the famous scene in which the first consul addressed Whitworth in phrases
+little short of insult. During a public audience at the Tuileries on the
+13th, Napoleon, after inquiring whether the British ambassador had
+received any news from home, broke out with the words: "And so you are
+determined to go to war". The altercation which ensued is best told in
+Whitworth's own words<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"'No, first consul,' I replied, 'we are too sensible of the advantages of
+peace.' 'We have,' said he, 'been fighting these fifteen years.' As he
+seemed to wait for an answer, I observed only, 'That is already too long'.
+'But,' said he, 'you desire to fight for fifteen years more, and you are
+forcing me to it,' I told him that was very far from his majesty's
+intentions. He then proceeded to Count Marcoff and the Chevalier Azzara,
+who were standing together at a little distance from me, and said to them,
+'The English are bent on war, but if they are the first to draw the sword,
+I shall be the last to put it back into the scabbard. They do not respect
+treaties. They must be covered with black crape.' I suppose he meant the
+treaties. He then went his round, and was thought by all those to whom he
+addressed himself to betray great signs of irritation. In a few minutes he
+came back to me, to my great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> annoyance, and resumed the conversation, if
+such it can be called, by something personally civil to me. He then began
+again, 'Why these armaments? Against whom these measures of precaution? I
+have not a single ship of the line in the French ports; but if you wish to
+arm, I will arm also; if you wish to fight, I will fight also. You may
+perhaps kill France, but will never intimidate her.' 'We wish,' said I,
+'neither the one nor the other. We wish to live on good terms with her.'
+'You must respect treaties then,' replied he; 'woe to those who do not
+respect treaties; they shall answer for it to all Europe.'"</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_16" id="TOPIC_16"></a>Too much stress has been laid upon this incident, so characteristic of
+Napoleon's studied impetuosity. Little more than a fortnight later he
+received the British ambassador with courtesy. Overtures now succeeded
+overtures, and much was expected on both sides from the influence of the
+Tsar Alexander, to whom France suggested that Malta might be ceded.<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a> At
+the last moment, a somewhat more conciliatory disposition was shown by the
+French diplomatists; and the British government was blamed by its
+opponents, alike for having failed to break off the negotiations earlier
+on the broadest grounds, and for breaking them off too abruptly on grounds
+of doubtful validity. But we now see that national enmity, fostered by the
+press on both sides, rendered friendly relations impossible, and that,
+even had Napoleon been willing to refrain from aggressions, peace was
+impossible. On May 12, two months after the king's message, Whitworth,
+having presented an ultimatum, finally quitted Paris. A few days later an
+order was issued for the detention of all British subjects then resident
+in France, and justified on the ground that French seamen (but not
+passengers) were liable to capture at sea. On June 10 Talleyrand announced
+the occupation of Hanover and the treatment as enemies of Hanoverian
+soldiers serving under the King of Great Britain. Meanwhile, on May 16,
+the rupture of peaceful relations was announced to both houses of
+parliament; on May 18 war was declared, and in June volunteers were
+already mustering to resist invasion.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> So Vansittart himself, in Pellew, <i>Life of Sidmouth</i>, i.,
+371. Southey and Captain Mahan have erroneously supposed that Vansittart
+accompanied the naval expedition and was sent by Parker in the frigate
+from the Skaw.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> <i>Annual Register</i>, xliii. (1801), chapter i. The average
+price of wheat in 1800 was 112s. 8d. the quarter, whereas the highest
+annual average in the half century before the war had been 64s. 6d. On
+March 5, 1801, the price of the quartern loaf stood as high as 1s.
+10&frac12;d. On July 23 it was still 1s. 8d. The harvest of this year was,
+however, an excellent one. The price fell rapidly during August, and by
+November 12 was as low as 10&frac12;d.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a> Cornwallis, <i>Correspondence</i>, iii., 382-487.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a> In a letter to Charles Carey, dated October 22, Fox went the
+length of expressing extreme pleasure in the triumph of the French
+government over the English (<i>Memorials of C. J. Fox</i>, iii., 349).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a> Malmesbury, <i>Diaries</i>, iv., 60, 62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a> Lecky, <i>History Of Ireland</i>, v., 465.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a> Lanfrey, <i>Napoleon I.</i> (English edition), ii., 202; Pellew,
+<i>Life of Sidmouth</i>, ii., 164.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a> Browning, <i>England and Napoleon in 1803</i>, pp. 1-6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a> Browning, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 6-10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a> See especially Hawkesbury's despatch in Browning, <i>ibid.</i>,
+pp. 65-68, and Whitworth's despatches, <i>ibid.</i>, pp. 73-75, 78-85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a> Whitworth's despatch of March 14, in Browning, <i>England and
+Napoleon</i>, p. 116.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a> Browning, <i>England and Napoleon</i>, p. 218.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE RETURN OF PITT.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_17" id="TOPIC_17"></a>The period following the rupture of the peace of Amiens, though crowded
+with military events of the highest importance, was inevitably barren in
+social and political interest. Disappointed in its hopes of returning
+prosperity, the nation girded itself up with rare unanimity for a renewed
+contest. In July the income-tax was reinstituted and a bill was actually
+carried authorising a levy <i>en masse</i> in case of invasion. Pending its
+enforcement, the navy was vigorously recruited by means of the press-gang;
+the yeomanry were called out, and a force of infantry volunteers was
+enrolled, which reached a total of 300,000 in August, and of nearly
+400,000 at the beginning of the next session. Pitt himself, as warden of
+the Cinque Ports, took command of 3,000 volunteers in Kent, and contrasted
+in parliament the warlike enthusiasm of the country with the alleged
+apathy of the ministry. On July 23 a rebellion broke out in Ireland,
+instigated by French agents and headed by a young man named Robert Emmet.
+The conspiracy was ill planned and in itself insignificant, but the
+recklessness of the conspirators was equalled by the weakness of the civil
+and military authorities, who neglected to take any precautions in spite
+of the plainest warnings. The rebels had intended to attack Dublin Castle
+and seize the person of the lord lieutenant, who was to be held as a
+hostage; but they dared not make the attempt, and after parading the
+streets for a few hours were dispersed by the spontaneous action of a few
+determined officers with a handful of troops, but not before Lord
+Kilwarden, the chief justice, and several other persons, had been cruelly
+murdered by Emmet's followers. Futile as the rising was, it sufficed to
+show that union was not a sovereign remedy for Irish disaffection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_18" id="TOPIC_18"></a>Meanwhile the relations between the prime minister and his predecessor had
+been growing less and less cordial. Throughout the year 1801 Pitt was
+still the friend and informal adviser of the ministry, and it is difficult
+to overrate the value of his support as a ground of confidence in an
+administration, personally popular, but known to be deficient in
+intellectual brilliance. In 1802 he generally stood aloof, and though in
+June of that year he corrected the draft of the king's speech, he absented
+himself from parliament, for he was dissatisfied with the measures adopted
+by government. His dissatisfaction was known to his friends, and in
+November a movement was set on foot by Canning to induce Addington to
+withdraw in Pitt's favour; but Pitt, though willing to resume office,
+refused to allow the ministry to be approached on the subject. He
+preferred to wait till a general wish for his return to power should be
+manifested. In December he visited Grenville at Dropmore, and expressed a
+certain discontent with the government.<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a> It was his intention still to
+treat the ministers with tenderness, but to return to parliament and
+criticise their policy. It is easy to see that his object at this date was
+not to drive the government from office, but to give rise to a desire to
+re-enlist his own talents in the service of the country, and thus prepare
+the way for a peaceable resumption of the position he had abandoned in the
+preceding year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NEGOTIATIONS FOR PITT'S RETURN.</i></div>
+
+<p>No sooner had rumours of Pitt's willingness to resume office reached
+Addington in the last days of December, than he opened negotiations with
+Pitt with a view to effecting this object. Pitt did not receive his
+overtures very warmly. He doubtless wished to be brought back because he
+was felt to be indispensable, without any appearance of intrigue. Time was
+in his favour, and he allowed the negotiations to proceed slowly. As the
+proposals took shape, it became clear that Addington did not wish to be
+openly superseded by Pitt, but preferred that they should serve together
+as secretaries of state under a third person; and Addington even suggested
+Pitt's brother, the Earl of Chatham, then master-general of the ordnance,
+as a suitable prime minister. Pitt's reply, communicated to Addington by
+Dundas, now Viscount Melville, in a letter dated March<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> 22, 1803, was to
+the effect that Pitt would not accept any position in the government
+except that of prime minister, with which was to be coupled the office of
+chancellor of the exchequer. Addington readily acceded to Pitt's claim to
+this position, but Grenville refused to serve in a ministry where
+Addington and Hawkesbury held "any efficient offices of real business,"
+and Addington declined to abandon ministerial office for a speakership of
+the house of lords, which Pitt proposed to create for him. Finally, on
+April 10, Pitt at a private conference with Addington proposed as an
+indispensable condition of his own return to office that Melville,
+Spencer, Grenville, and Windham should become members of his cabinet. This
+meant a reconstruction of the whole ministry, and Pitt stipulated that the
+changes should be made by the king's desire and on the recommendation of
+the existing ministry.</p>
+
+<p>The situation had become an impossible one. Nothing was more reasonable
+than that Pitt, the friend and protector of the existing ministry, should
+assume the direction of affairs now that the nation appeared to be on the
+brink of war. But Pitt could not honourably desert those former
+colleagues, who had resigned with him on the catholic question. Two of
+these, however, Grenville and Windham, though doubtless men of the highest
+capacity, had bitterly attacked the existing ministry; and it was not to
+be expected that that ministry, supported as it still was by overwhelming
+majorities in both houses of parliament, supported as it had hitherto been
+by Pitt himself, should consent to admit its opponents to a share of
+office. It is highly improbable that Grenville and Windham would then have
+co-operated with Addington and Hawkesbury, and their admission to office
+would have ruined the cohesion of the cabinet, unless it had been
+accompanied by the retirement of the leading members of the existing
+ministry which Pitt's previous attitude, together with the actual balance
+of parties in parliament, rendered it impossible to demand. How difficult
+it was to induce Grenville and Windham to enter into any combination
+future years were to prove. For the present the ministry took not merely
+the wisest, but the only course open to it. Addington, after vainly
+endeavouring to induce Pitt to modify his terms, laid them before a
+cabinet council on April 13; they were immediately rejected, though the
+cabinet declared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> itself ready to admit to office Pitt himself and those
+of his colleagues who had hitherto acted with the Addington ministry. Pitt
+could hardly have expected any other reply. No ministry could have granted
+such terms except on the supposition that Pitt was indispensable, and Pitt
+for the present hardly claimed such a position.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a></p>
+
+<p>But if Pitt did not consider himself indispensable, his friends did, and
+both he and others came gradually to adopt their view. The rejection of
+his terms left him free to adopt the line of policy that he had sketched
+to Grenville in the previous December. He had not to wait long for an
+opportunity, but in the opinion of Pitt's friends at least the first
+provocation came from Addington. Unable to strengthen his ministry by any
+accession from Pitt and his followers, he had turned to the "old
+opposition," the whigs who, under the leadership of Fox, had consistently
+advocated a pacific policy. These had recently supported the ministry
+against the "new opposition," as the followers of Grenville and Windham
+were called. But since 1797 Fox and the majority of the "old opposition"
+had generally absented themselves from parliament, and George Tierney,
+member for Southwark, had led what was left of their party.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> He now
+received and accepted the offer of the treasurership of the navy, one of
+the most important of the offices below cabinet rank. As a speaker Tierney
+was a valuable addition to the government which was sadly deficient in
+debating power; he had, however, been particularly bitter in his attacks
+on Pitt, with whom he had fought a duel in 1798, and had provoked the
+sarcastic wit of Canning, in whose well-known parody, "The Friend of
+Humanity and the Knife-grinder" (1798), the original illustration by
+Gillray depicted the friend of humanity with the features of Tierney and
+laid the scene in the borough of Southwark.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CHANGES IN ADDINGTON'S MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_19" id="TOPIC_19"></a>The appointment, which Pitt himself does not appear to have resented, was
+announced on June 1, and Tierney took his place on the treasury bench on
+the 3rd. On the same evening Colonel Patten moved a series of resolutions
+condemning, in extravagant terms, the conduct of the ministry in the
+negotia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>tion with France. Pitt seized the opportunity to move the orders
+of the day. In other words, he proposed that the question should be left
+undecided. He expressed the opinion that the ministry was not free from
+blame, but declared himself unable to concur in all the charges against
+it. He considered further that to drive the existing ministers out of
+office would only throw the country into confusion, and that it was
+therefore inadvisable to pursue the question. To this the ministerial
+speakers replied by demanding a direct censure or a total acquittal, and
+the consequent division served only to display the weakness of the
+opposition. The Addington, Fox, and Grenville parties combined to oppose
+Pitt's motion, which was rejected by 333 votes against 56. Pitt and Fox,
+and their respective followers then left the house, leaving the
+ministerial party and the Grenville party to decide the fate of Patten's
+resolutions, which were negatived by 275 votes against 34. A comparison of
+the figures of the two divisions, allowing for tellers, gives as the
+voting strength of Pitt's party 58, of Grenville's 36, of Fox's 22, and of
+Addington's 277. Of these the Grenville party alone desired to eject the
+ministers from office, while Fox's party openly professed a preference for
+Addington over Pitt.</p>
+
+<p>During the remainder of the session Pitt seldom took any part in
+parliamentary business, and never opposed the ministry on any question of
+importance. On August 12 parliament was prorogued after a session lasting
+nearly nine months, and the prime minister embraced the opportunity of
+making some slight reconstructions in the ministry. Pelham, who was
+removed from the home office, resigned his place in the cabinet, and was
+shortly afterwards consoled with the chancellorship of the duchy of
+Lancaster, an office which was not yet definitely recognised as political.
+Charles Philip Yorke, son of the chancellor who died in 1770 and
+half-brother of the third Earl of Hardwicke, resigned the office of
+secretary at war and succeeded to the home office on the 17th. It was also
+considered advisable to strengthen the ministry in the upper house, where
+Grenville's oratory gave the opposition a decided advantage in debating
+power, and Hawkesbury was accordingly summoned to the lords on November 16
+in his father's barony of Hawkesbury. After this rearrangement the cabinet
+contained eight<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> peers and three commoners, no illiberal allowance of
+commoners according to the ideas of the age. The recess was further marked
+by a violent war of pamphlets between the followers of Addington and Pitt,
+which began early in September, and which, although no politician of the
+first order took any direct part in it, did much to embitter the relations
+of their respective parties.<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> Not less irritating were the <i>jeux
+d'esprit</i> with which Canning continued to assail the ministry in the
+newspaper press.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The most famous of these is the couplet:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanzasmall">
+<span class="i0">Pitt is to Addington<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As London is to Paddington.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>A more openly abusive poem, entitled "Good Intentions," described the
+prime minister as "Happy Britain's guardian gander". The following verses
+refer to the appointment of Addington's brother, John Hiley Addington, to
+be paymaster-general of the forces, and of his brother-in-law, Charles
+Bragge, afterwards succeeded by Tierney, to be treasurer of the navy:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanzalarge">
+<span class="i0">How blest, how firm the statesman stands<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">(Him no low intrigue can move)<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Circled by faithful kindred bands<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">And propped by fond fraternal love.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanzalarge">
+<span class="i2">When his speeches hobble vilely,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">What "Hear him's" burst from Brother Hiley;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">When his faltering periods lag,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Hark to the cheers of Brother Bragge.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanzalarge">
+<span class="i2">Each a gentleman at large,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Lodged and fed at public charge,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Paying (with a grace to charm ye)<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">This the Fleet, and that the Army.<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a><br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE KING'S ILLNESS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_20" id="TOPIC_20"></a>When parliament reassembled on November 22 the opposition was still
+disunited, and, though Windham severely condemned the inadequacy of the
+provision made for national defence, he did not venture to divide against
+the government. But during the Christmas recess a distinct step was made
+towards the consolidation of the opposition by the reunion of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> the two
+sections of the whig party. Grenville had conceived a chimerical project
+of replacing the existing administration by one which should include all
+statesmen possessed of real political talent, whatever their differences
+in the past might have been. True to this policy, he persuaded Fox in
+January, 1804, to join him in attempting to expel the Addington
+administration from office as an essential preliminary to any further
+action. Sheridan, however, with some of the Prince of Wales's friends,
+still refused to enter into any combination which might result in the
+return of Pitt to power. The parliamentary session was resumed on February
+1, but the course of events was complicated by a recurrence of the king's
+malady. Symptoms of this were observed towards the end of January; the
+disease took a turn for the worse about February 12, and on the 14th it
+was made known to the public. For a short time the king's life appeared to
+be in danger; his reason was affected during a longer interval, but the
+attack was in every way milder than in 1789, and on March 7 Dr. Simmons
+reported to Addington that "the king was competent to perform any act of
+government".<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It is true that for many months the king's health did not
+allow him to give his full attention to public business, but there was
+nothing to prevent him from attending to such routine work as was
+absolutely necessary. There could, however, be no question of a change of
+ministers till there should be a marked improvement in the king's health.</p>
+
+<p>The king's illness was made the occasion on February 27 of a motion by Sir
+Robert Lawley for the adjournment of the house of commons. This was
+parried by Addington with the statement that there was no necessary
+suspension of such royal functions as it might be necessary for His
+Majesty to discharge at the present moment.<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> The emphasis here
+obviously lay on the word "necessary". A still bolder course was adopted
+shortly afterwards by the lord chancellor. When on March 9 the king's
+assent to several bills was given by commission, Fitzwilliam raised not
+unreasonable doubts as to whether the king was capable of resuming the
+functions of government. Eldon, however, declared that, as the result of a
+private interview with the king, he had come to the conclusion that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+royal commissioners were warranted in assenting to the bills in question.
+Whether the chancellor was justified in assuming this responsibility must
+remain doubtful; at all events Pitt seems to have determined that the time
+was now ripe for a ministerial crisis. He had on February 27 criticised
+both the military and naval defences of the country, but he would not
+directly attack the government till the king's health was in a better
+condition. At last, on March 15, the first attack was made. Pitt selected
+the weak point in the administration. St. Vincent's obstinacy in refusing
+to believe in the possibility of a renewal of hostility and his excessive
+economy had brought about a marked deterioration in the strength and
+quality of the fleet. Pitt accordingly moved for an inquiry into the
+administration of the navy. Fox dissociated himself from Pitt's attacks on
+the first lord of the admiralty, but supported the motion on the ground
+that an inquiry would clear St. Vincent's character. On a division the
+government had a majority of 201 against 130. On the 19th, however, Pitt
+refused to join the Grenvilles in supporting Fox's motion for the
+re-committal of the volunteer consolidation bill. On the following day
+Eldon made overtures to Pitt, and on the 23rd Pitt dined <i>t&ecirc;te-&agrave;-t&ecirc;te</i>
+with the chancellor, but no record has been preserved of the nature of
+their negotiations.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th Pitt, in a letter to Melville, explained his position at
+length. He intended, as soon after the Easter recess as the king's health
+should permit, to write to the king explaining the dangers which, in his
+opinion, threatened the crown and people from the continuance of the
+existing government, and representing the urgent necessity of a speedy
+change; he would prefer an administration from which no political party
+should be excluded, but was unwilling, especially in view of the king's
+state of health, to force any minister upon him; if, therefore, he should
+be invited by the king to form a ministry from which the partisans of Fox
+and Grenville were to be excluded, he was prepared to form one from his
+own followers united with the more capable members of the existing
+government, excluding Addington himself and St. Vincent; should this
+measure fail of success, he would "have no hesitation in taking such
+ground in Parliament as would be most likely to attain the object".<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+As it happened, the parliamentary assault preceded the correspondence with
+the king. Immediately after the recess the ministry laid before parliament
+military proposals which Pitt felt bound to resist. On April 16 Pitt,
+supported by Windham, opposed the third reading of a bill for augmenting
+the Irish militia, and expressed a preference for the army of reserve. He
+was defeated by the narrow majority of 128 against 107. On the 23rd Fox
+proposed to refer the question of national defence to a committee of the
+whole house. He was supported by Pitt and Windham, and defeated by 256
+votes only against 204. The division which sealed the fate of the ministry
+was taken two days later on a motion that the house should go into
+committee on a bill for the suspension of the army of reserve. This was
+opposed by Pitt, who expounded a rival plan for the diminution of the
+militia and increase of the army of reserve. Fox and Windham demanded for
+Pitt's scheme a right to consideration, and on a division the motion was
+carried by no more than 240 against 203. The division of April 16 had
+convinced Addington that a reconciliation with Pitt was necessary. On
+Pitt's refusing to confer with him, he agreed to recommend the king to
+charge Eldon with the task of discovering Pitt's views as to the formation
+of a new ministry, in case the king wished to learn them.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ADDINGTON'S RESIGNATION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_21" id="TOPIC_21"></a>The king, however, expressed no such wish, and on April 22 Pitt sent an
+unsealed letter to Eldon to be laid before the king; announcing his
+dissatisfaction with the ministry and his intention of declaring this
+dissatisfaction in parliament.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> It was not till the 27th that Eldon
+found a suitable opportunity of communicating Pitt's letter to the king.
+Before that date Addington, who considered that he could no longer remain
+in office with dignity after the divisions of the 23rd and 25th, had on
+the 26th informed the king of his intention to resign. The king
+reluctantly consented to his resignation, which was announced to the
+cabinet on the 29th. On the following day Eldon called on Pitt with a
+request from the king for a plan of a new administration. Pitt replied in
+a letter, setting forth at great length the arguments in favour of a
+combined administration, and requesting permission to confer with Fox and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+Grenville about the construction of the ministry.<a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> The letter irritated
+the king, who demanded a renewed pledge against catholic emancipation,
+with which Grenville was specially associated in his mind, and refused to
+admit Pitt to office if he persevered in his purpose of consulting Fox and
+Grenville. Pitt then declared his adherence to the pledge given in
+1801<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> and requested an interview with the king. The interview, which
+took place on May 7, lasted three hours, and ended in a compromise. The
+king agreed to admit Grenville and his friends to office, but, while ready
+to accept the friends of Fox, he refused, as much on personal as on
+political grounds, to give Fox a place in the cabinet. At the same time he
+declared himself ready to grant him a diplomatic appointment. At a later
+date the king went the length of declaring that, rather than accept Fox,
+he would have incurred the risk of civil war.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PITT'S RETURN TO OFFICE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_22" id="TOPIC_22"></a>Fox readily agreed to his own exclusion, which he had fully expected, and
+urged his followers to join Pitt, but Grenville and his friends refused to
+serve without Fox, while the friends of Fox and the more immediate
+followers of Addington refused to serve without their respective leaders.
+Addington always considered that Pitt had treated him ungenerously in
+driving him from office, when it was open to him to return to the head of
+affairs with the full consent of the existing ministers. More recently it
+has been the fashion to blame Pitt for bringing too little pressure to
+bear upon the king and thus losing the support of Fox and Grenville.
+Neither charge appears to be justified. Through the whole length of the
+Addington administration Pitt showed himself fully sensitive of what was
+due to the king, with whom he had worked cordially for eighteen years, to
+Grenville who had resigned in his cause, and to Addington who had assumed
+office under his protection. There was no trace of faction in Pitt's
+attitude towards the ministry. He merely opposed what he believed to be
+dangerous to the country, and when he was convinced of the necessity of
+removing Addington from a share in public business, he endeavoured to
+effect his purpose in such a way as to give the minimum of offence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_23" id="TOPIC_23"></a>On the other hand, Pitt's intended combination in a supreme crisis of his
+country's destiny with his life-long antagonist, Fox, was a heroic
+experiment, perhaps, but still only an experiment. The failure of the
+ministry of "All the Talents" renders it exceedingly doubtful whether such
+an alliance would have proved successful, and Fox's lukewarm patriotism
+would have been dearly purchased at the expense of the alienation of the
+king, perhaps even of his relapse into insanity. Nor is it certain that
+the strongest pressure would have induced George III. to accept Fox at
+this date. Addington was still undefeated and might have remained in
+office if Pitt had refused to assume the reins of government without Fox.
+Grenville is undoubtedly more responsible than any one else for the
+weakness of Pitt's second administration. It was from a sense of loyalty
+to Grenville that Pitt had suffered the negotiations for his return to
+office in 1803 to fall through, and now when the two statesmen could
+return together, and when, if ever, a strong government was needed, either
+a quixotic sense of honour or a wounded pride induced Grenville not only
+to stand aloof from the new administration himself, but to do his utmost
+to prevent others from giving it their support.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a> The new cabinet was
+quickly formed. Pitt received the seals of office on May 10, and took his
+seat in parliament after re-election on the 18th, the very day on which
+Napoleon was declared emperor by the French senate.</p>
+
+<p>This event, long foreseen, was doubtless hastened by the disclosure of the
+plot formed by Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal against the first
+consul. There was no proof of Moreau's complicity in designs on Napoleon's
+life, and the mysterious death of Pichegru in prison left the extent of
+his complicity among the insoluble problems of history, but there can be
+no doubt that Cadoudal was justly executed for plotting assassination.
+Unfortunately some of the under-secretaries in the Addington
+administration had not only shared the plans of the conspirators so far as
+they aimed at a rising in France, but had procured for them material
+assistance. They appear, however, to have been innocent of any attempt on
+Napoleon's life. Drake, the British envoy at Munich, was, however, deeper
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> the plot. The evidence of British complicity naturally received the
+very worst construction in Paris.<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> Napoleon himself certainly believed
+in an Anglo-Bourbon conspiracy, organised by the Count of Artois and other
+French royalists, when he caused the Duke of Enghien to be kidnapped in
+Baden territory and hurried off to the castle of Vincennes. He was,
+however, already aware of his prisoner's innocence when on March 21 he had
+him shot there by torch-light after a mock trial before a military
+commission. All Europe was shocked by this atrocious assassination, and
+though Napoleon sometimes attempted to shift the guilt of it upon
+Talleyrand, he justified it at other times as a measure of self-defence,
+and left on record his deliberate approval of it, for the consideration of
+posterity. Two months later he became Emperor of the French.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_24" id="TOPIC_24"></a>When Pitt resumed office on May 10, 1804, he was no longer the heaven-born
+and buoyant young minister of 1783, strong in the confidence of the king
+and the anticipated confidence of the nation, with a minority of followers
+in the house of commons, but with the brightest prospects of political
+success before him. Nor was he the leader of a devoted majority, as when
+he resigned in 1801 rather than abandon his convictions on the catholic
+question. He had been compelled to waive these convictions, without fully
+regaining the confidence of the king, and, while the adherents of Fox
+retained their deep-seated hatred of a war-policy, the adherents of
+Addington and Grenville were in no mood to give him a loyal support.
+Windham and Spencer were no longer at his side, and his ministry was
+essentially the same as that of Addington, with the substitution of Dudley
+Ryder, now Lord Harrowby, for Hawkesbury as foreign secretary, Melville
+for St. Vincent as first lord of the admiralty, Earl Camden for Hobart as
+secretary for war and the colonies, and the Duke of Montrose for Auckland
+as president of the board of trade. Hawkesbury was transferred to the home
+office, vacated by Yorke, and the new chancellor of the duchy of
+Lancaster, Lord Mulgrave, was given a seat in the cabinet. Of Pitt's
+eleven colleagues in the cabinet Castlereagh alone, who remained president
+of the board of control&mdash;a wretched speaker though an able
+administrator&mdash;had a seat in the lower house.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PITT'S RECONCILIATION WITH ADDINGTON.</i></div>
+
+<p>Military exigencies now engrossed all thoughts, and the king's speech, in
+proroguing parliament on July 31, foreshadowed a new coalition, for which
+the murder of the Duke of Enghien had paved the way. The preparations for
+an invasion of England had been resumed, and Napoleon celebrated his
+birthday in great state at Boulogne, still postponing his final stroke
+until he should be crowned, on December 2, at Paris by the helpless pope,
+brought from Italy for the purpose.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a> A month later he personally
+addressed another pacific letter to the King of England, who replied in
+his speech from the throne on January 15, 1805, that he could not
+entertain overtures except in concert with Russia and the other powers.
+Meanwhile, Pitt, conscious as he was of failing powers, retained his
+undaunted courage, and while he was organising a third coalition, did not
+shrink from a bold measure which could hardly be justified by
+international law. This was the seizure on October 5, 1804, of three
+Spanish treasure-ships on the high seas, without a previous declaration of
+war against Spain, though not without a previous notice that hostilities
+might be opened at any moment unless Spain ceased to give underhand
+assistance to France. The excuse was that Spain had long been the
+obsequious ally of France, and, as the alliance now became open, Pitt's
+act was sanctioned by a large majority in both houses of parliament in
+January, 1805. The parliamentary session which opened in this month found
+Pitt's ministry apparently stronger than it had been at the beginning of
+the recess. Despairing of any help from Grenville, except in a vigorous
+prosecution of the war, he had sought a reconciliation with Addington, who
+became Viscount Sidmouth on January 12 and president of the council on the
+14th. Along with Sidmouth his former colleague Hobart, now Earl of
+Buckinghamshire, returned to office as chancellor of the duchy. To make
+room for these new allies, Portland had consented to resign the presidency
+of the council, though he remained a member of the cabinet, while Mulgrave
+was appointed to the foreign office, in place of Harrowby, who was
+compelled by ill-health to retire.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_25" id="TOPIC_25"></a>But this new accession of strength was soon followed by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> a terrible
+mortification which probably contributed to shorten Pitt's life. Melville,
+his tried supporter and intimate friend, was charged on the report of a
+commission with having misapplied public money as treasurer of the navy in
+Pitt's former ministry. It appeared that he had been culpably careless,
+and had not prevented the paymaster, Trotter, from engaging in private
+speculations with the naval balances. Although Trotter's speculations
+involved no loss to the state they were, nevertheless, a contravention of
+an act of 1785. Melville had also supplied other departments of government
+with naval money, but was personally innocent of fraud. There was a
+divergence of feeling in the cabinet as to the attitude to be adopted
+towards Melville. Sidmouth, himself a man of the highest integrity, was a
+friend of St. Vincent, the late first lord of the admiralty, and had not
+forgiven Melville for his part in the expulsion of himself and St. Vincent
+from office. He had therefore both public and private grounds to incline
+him against Melville. On April 8, Samuel Whitbread moved a formal censure
+on Melville in the house of commons. Pitt, with the approval of Sidmouth
+and his friends, moved the previous question on Whitbread's motion, and
+declared his intention of introducing a motion of his own for a select
+committee to investigate the charges. In spite of the support which Pitt
+derived from the followers of Sidmouth the votes were equally divided on
+Whitbread's motion, 216 a side. Abbot, the speaker, gave his casting vote
+in favour of Whitbread, and the announcement was received by the whig
+members with unseemly exultation.<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MINISTERIAL CHANGES.</i></div>
+
+<p>The censure was followed by an impeachment before the house of lords,
+where Melville was acquitted in the following year. Meanwhile, he had
+resigned office on April 9, the day after the vote of censure, and his
+place at the admiralty was taken by Sir Charles Middleton, who was raised
+to the peerage as Lord Barham. The appointment gave umbrage to Sidmouth,
+to whom Pitt had made promises of promotion for his own followers, and he
+was with difficulty induced to remain in the cabinet. Pitt was, however,
+irritated by the hostile votes of Sidmouth's followers, Hiley Addington
+and Bond, on the question of the impeachment, and regarded this as a
+reason<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> for delaying their preferment. Sidmouth now complained of a breach
+of faith, as Pitt had promised to treat the question as an open one, and
+he resigned office on July 4. Buckinghamshire resigned next day. Camden
+was appointed to succeed Sidmouth as lord president, Castlereagh followed
+Camden as secretary for war and the colonies, retaining his previous
+position as president of the board of control, and Harrowby, whose health
+had improved since his resignation in January, took Buckinghamshire's
+place as chancellor of the duchy. Thus weakened at home, Pitt could derive
+little consolation from the aspect of continental affairs. On May 26,
+Napoleon was crowned King of Italy in the cathedral of Milan, and the
+Ligurian Republic became part of the French empire in the following month.
+The ascendency of France in Europe might well have appeared impregnable,
+and it might have been supposed that nothing remained for England but to
+guard her own coasts and recapture some of the French colonies given up by
+the treaty of Amiens.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_26" id="TOPIC_26"></a>But Pitt's spirit was still unbroken, and by the middle of July he
+succeeded in rallying three powers, Russia, Austria, and Sweden, into a
+league to withstand the further encroachments of France. Such a league had
+been proposed by Gustavus IV. of Sweden, early in 1804, but nothing
+definite was done till Pitt's ministry entered upon office. Meanwhile, the
+assassination of the Duke of Enghien had led to a rupture of diplomatic
+relations between France and Russia, though war was not declared.
+Negotiations were presently set on foot for a league, which, it was hoped,
+would be joined by Austria and Prussia in addition to Great Britain,
+Russia, and Sweden. An interesting feature in the negotiations was the
+tsar's scheme of a European polity, where the states should be independent
+and enjoy institutions "founded on the sacred rights of humanity," a
+foreshadowing, as it would seem, of the Holy Alliance. The discussion of
+details between Great Britain and Russia began towards the end of 1804.
+Difficulties, however, arose about the British retention of Malta and the
+British claim to search neutral ships for deserters. A treaty between the
+two powers was signed on April 11, 1805; but the tsar long refused his
+ratification, and it was only given in July, after a formal protest
+against the retention of Malta.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The object of this alliance was defined to be the expulsion of French
+troops from North Germany, the assured independence of the republics of
+Holland and Switzerland, and the restoration of the King of Sardinia in
+Piedmont; 500,000 men were to be provided for the war by Russia and such
+other continental powers as might join the coalition. Great Britain,
+instead of furnishing troops, was to supply &pound;1,250,000 a year for every
+100,000 men engaged in the war. After the close of the war an European
+congress was to define more closely the law of nations and establish an
+European federation. At the same time the allies disclaimed the intention
+of forcing any system of government on France against her will. It will be
+observed that the number of troops specified was far in excess of what
+Russia alone could place in the field; such numbers could only be obtained
+by the adhesion of Austria and of either Prussia or some of the smaller
+German states to the coalition. So far as Austria was concerned,
+Napoleon's Italian policy rendered war inevitable. Already in November,
+1804, the Austrian court had entered into a secret agreement with Russia
+to make war on France in the event of further French aggressions in Italy.
+The coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy and the annexation of Liguria
+were, however, more than aggressions; they were open violations of the
+treaty of Lun&eacute;ville which had guaranteed the independence of the Cisalpine
+and Ligurian republics. Austria hereupon determined on war, and secretly
+joined the coalition on August 9, 1805. Sweden, which was not a member of
+it, concluded separate treaties of alliance both with Great Britain and
+with Russia. Greater difficulties had to be surmounted in the case of
+Prussia. Frederick William III. cherished no enthusiasm for European
+liberty, and vacillated under the influence of Napoleon's offer of Hanover
+on the one hand and his numerous petty insults on the other. Prussia in
+consequence remained neutral throughout the most decisive period of the
+ensuing war.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NELSON AND VILLENEUVE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_27" id="TOPIC_27"></a>Long before the coalition was ready Napoleon's mind had recurred to his
+venturesome project for the invasion of England. An army, the finest that
+he ever led to victory, which, even after it had been transferred to
+another scene of action, he still saw fit to call the "army of England,"
+was encamped near Boulogne. It was constantly exercised in the process of
+em<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>barking on board flat-bottomed boats or rafts, which were to be
+convoyed by Villeneuve, admiral of the Toulon fleet, and Gantheaume,
+admiral of the Brest fleet, for whose appearance the French signalmen
+vainly scanned the horizon. In the meantime, Nelson had been engaged for
+two years, without setting foot on shore, in that patient and sleepless
+watch, ranging over the whole Mediterranean, which must ever rank with the
+greatest of his matchless exploits. At last, he learned in the spring of
+1805, that Villeneuve, following a plan concerted by Napoleon himself, had
+eluded him by sailing from Toulon towards Cadiz, had there been joined by
+the Spanish fleet, and was steering for the West Indies. Nelson followed
+with a much smaller number of ships, and might have forced an action in
+those waters, but he was misled by false intelligence and missed the
+enemy, though his dreaded presence was effectual in saving the British
+islands from any serious attack.</p>
+
+<p>The combined fleets of France and Spain recrossed the Atlantic and in
+accordance with Napoleon's plans made for Ferrol on the coast of Galicia.
+After being repulsed with some loss off Cape Finisterre by Sir Robert
+Calder, who was court-martialled and severely reprimanded for neglecting
+to follow up his victory, they put in first at Vigo, and then with fifteen
+allied ships at Coru&ntilde;a. But, instead of venturing to carry out Napoleon's
+orders by challenging Admiral Cornwallis's fleet off Brest, and making a
+desperate effort to command the channel, Villeneuve now took advantage of
+his emperors recommendation to return to Cadiz in event of defeat, and set
+sail for that port in the middle of August. Nelson, ignorant of his
+movements, had vainly sought him off the Straits of Gibraltar, and came
+home to report himself at the admiralty. Arriving at Spithead on August
+18, he was in England barely four weeks, most of which he spent in privacy
+at Merton. During this brief respite he received a general tribute of
+admiration and affection from his countrymen, which anticipated the
+verdict of posterity. On September 15 he sailed from Portsmouth, with a
+presentiment of his own fate, after having described to Sidmouth the
+general design of his crowning sea fight: he would, he said, break the
+enemy's line in two places; and he did so. He joined Admiral Collingwood
+off Cadiz on the 29th, and on October 19 he received news that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+Villeneuve, smarting under the prospect of being superseded, had put to
+sea with the combined fleet. Complicated naval man&oelig;uvres followed, but
+on the 21st the enemy was forced to give battle, a few leagues from Cape
+Trafalgar, and Nelson caused his immortal signal to be hoisted&mdash;"England
+expects that every man will do his duty".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_28" id="TOPIC_28"></a>The French and Spanish fleet comprised thirty-three ships of the line, of
+which eighteen were French and fifteen Spanish; the British had only
+twenty-seven, but among these were seven three-deckers as against four on
+the side of the allies. It had the additional advantage of superior
+discipline and equipment, to say nothing of the genius of its commander.
+The British fleet advanced in two divisions, Nelson leading the weather
+division of twelve, and Collingwood the lee division of fifteen ships.
+According to Nelson's plan Collingwood was to attack the rear of the
+enemy's line, while he himself cut off and paralysed the centre and van.
+Both divisions advanced without regular formation, the ships bearing down
+with all the speed they could command and without waiting for laggards.
+Collingwood in the <i>Royal Sovereign</i>, steering E. by N., broke through the
+allies' line twelve ships from the rear, raking the <i>Santa Ana</i>, Alava's
+flagship, as he passed her stern, with a broadside which struck down 400
+of her men. For some fifteen minutes the <i>Royal Sovereign</i> was alone in
+action; then others of the division came up and successively penetrated
+the line of the allies, and engaging ship to ship completely disposed of
+the enemy's rear, their twelve rear ships being all taken or destroyed.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Nelson in the <i>Victory</i>, who had reserved to himself the more
+difficult task of containing twenty-one ships with twelve, held on his
+course, advancing so as to keep the allied van stationary and yet to
+prevent the centre from venturing to help the rear. He designed to pass
+through the end of the line in order to cut the enemy's van off from
+Cadiz, but, finding an opportunity, changed his course, passed down the
+line and attacked the centre. He passed through the line of the allied
+fleet, closely followed by four other ships of his division, and the five
+British ships concentrated their attacks on the <i>Bucentaure</i>, Villeneuve's
+flagship, the gigantic Spanish four-decker, the <i>Sant&iacute;sima Trinidad</i>,
+which was next ahead of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> her, and the <i>Redoutable</i>, which supported her.
+The centre of the allies was crushed and the van cut off from coming to
+the help of the rear, which was being destroyed by Collingwood.</p>
+
+<p>Before the battle ended, the naval force of France, and with it Napoleon's
+projects of invasion, were utterly and hopelessly ruined. Eighteen prizes
+were taken, and, though many of these were lost in a gale, four ships
+which escaped were afterwards captured, and the remainder lay for the most
+part shattered hulks at Cadiz. By this battle the supremacy of Great
+Britain at sea was finally established. Nelson, who, during the
+ship-to-ship engagement which followed his penetration of the enemy's
+line, was mortally wounded by a sharp-shooter from the mizzen-top of the
+<i>Redoutable</i>, died before the battle was over, though he was spared to
+hear that a complete victory was secure. His death is among the heroic
+incidents of history, and his last achievement, both in its conception and
+its results, was the fitting climax of his fame. The plan for the battle
+which he drew up beforehand for the instruction of his captains, and the
+changes which he made in it to meet the conditions of the moment are alike
+worthy of his supreme genius as a naval tactician. His arrangements were
+carried out by men who had learned to love and trust him, and who were
+inspired by the fire of his spirit, and hence it was that the allied fleet
+of France and Spain perished at the "Nelson touch".<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_29" id="TOPIC_29"></a>Very different were the fortunes of war in central Europe, where Napoleon
+himself commanded the "army of England". It was not until the end of
+August that Napoleon knew that Villeneuve would be unable to appear in the
+Channel, but no sooner did he abandon his project of invasion in despair
+than he resolved on a campaign scarcely less arduous, and gave orders for
+a grand march into Germany. Pitt, as we have seen, had successfully
+negotiated an alliance with Russia and Austria, whose armies were
+converging upon the plains of Bavaria and were to have been reinforced by
+a large Prussian contingent. Unhappily, they had not effected a junction
+when Napoleon crossed the Rhine near Strassburg and the Danube near
+Donauw&ouml;rth, while he detached large forces to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> check the advance of the
+Russians and the approach of reinforcements expected from Italy. One of
+these movements involved an open violation of Prussian territory, but he
+could rely on the well-tried servility of Frederick William. The first
+decisive result of his strategy was the surrender of Mack at Ulm, with
+30,000 men and 60 pieces of ordnance. This event took place on October 20,
+the very day before the battle of Trafalgar, and opened the road to
+Vienna, which the French troops entered on November 13, occupying the
+great bridge by a ruse more skilful than honourable, during the
+negotiation of an armistice. Vienna was spared, while Napoleon pressed on
+to meet the remainder of the Austrian army, which had now been joined by a
+larger body of Russians near Br&uuml;nn. The allies numbered about 100,000 men;
+Napoleon's army was numerically somewhat less, but possessed the same kind
+of superiority as the British navy at Trafalgar. <a name="TOPIC_30" id="TOPIC_30"></a>The result was the
+crushing victory of Austerlitz on December 2, followed by the peace of
+Pressburg, between France and Austria, signed on the 26th. The principal
+articles of this treaty provided for the cession of Venetia, Istria, and
+Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, and the aggrandisement of Bavaria and
+W&uuml;rtemberg, whose electors received the royal title as the price of their
+sympathetic alliance with France. Russia withdrew sullenly, having learned
+the hollowness of her league with Prussia, which had basely temporised
+while the fate of Germany was at stake, and whose minister, Haugwitz,
+suppressing the <i>ultimatum</i> which he was charged to deliver, had openly
+congratulated the conqueror of Austerlitz.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain had had no direct share in the conflict in Southern Germany
+and Moravia; she had, however, joined in two expeditions, the one in
+Southern, the other in Northern Europe. In spite of a treaty of neutrality
+between France and the Two Sicilies, ratified on October 8, an
+Anglo-Russian squadron was permitted to land a force of 10,000 British
+troops under Sir James Craig, and 14,000 Russians on the shore of the Bay
+of Naples. These troops effected nothing, and the violation of neutrality
+was, as we shall see, destined to involve the Neapolitan monarchy in ruin.
+The expedition to North Germany was planned on a larger scale. Hanover had
+been occupied by France since June, 1803. Its recovery was at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>tempted by
+an Anglo-Hanoverian force under Cathcart, which was to have been supported
+by a Russian and Swedish force acting from Stralsund. The co-operation of
+Prussia was also expected. In order to secure this alliance the British
+government offered Prussia an extension of territory so as to include
+Antwerp, Li&egrave;ge, Luxemburg, and Cologne, in the event of victory. In
+November the expedition landed. In December Prussia had definitely given
+her protection to the Russian troops in Hanover and offered it to the
+Hanoverians. Pitt computed that at the beginning of the next campaign
+nearly 300,000 men would be available in North Germany. <a name="TOPIC_31" id="TOPIC_31"></a>But the
+vacillation of Prussia ruined all. On December 15 Haugwitz signed the
+treaty of Sch&ouml;nbrunn, by which Prussia was to enter into an offensive and
+defensive alliance with France and was to receive Hanover in return for
+Ansbach, Cleves, and Neuch&acirc;tel. Frederick William could not yet stoop to
+such a degree of infamy, and therefore, instead of ratifying the treaty,
+resolved on January 3, 1806, to propose a compromise, which involved among
+other provisions the temporary occupation of Hanover by Prussia. In
+consequence of this determination he sent, on January 7, a request for the
+withdrawal of the British forces, which were accordingly recalled.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF PITT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_32" id="TOPIC_32"></a>The collapse of his last coalition was the death-blow of Pitt, cheered
+though he was for the moment by the news of Trafalgar. The fatal
+consequences of Austerlitz were reported to him at Bath, whence he
+returned by easy stages to his villa at Putney in January, 1806. His noble
+spirit was broken at last by the defection of Prussia, and after lingering
+a while, he died on the 23rd of that month, leaving a name second to none
+among the greatest statesmen of his country. His sagacious mind grasped
+the advantage to be gained by freeing trade from unnecessary restrictions,
+and anticipated catholic emancipation, parliamentary reform, and the
+abolition of slavery. He gave the nation, in the union with Ireland, the
+one constructive measure of the first order achieved in his time, and only
+marred by the weakness of more pliable successors in a lesser age. His
+dauntless soul, which bore him up against the bitterest disappointments,
+the desertion of friends, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> depression of mortal disease, inspired
+the governing classes of England to endure ten more years of exhausting
+war, to save Europe (as he foretold) by their example, and to crown his
+own work at Waterloo. His lofty eloquence, which has been described as a
+gift independent of statesmanship, was indeed a product of statesmanship,
+for it consisted in no mere witchery of words, but in a luminous and
+convincing presentation of essential facts. He may have been inferior to
+his own father in fiery rhetoric, to Peel in comprehensive grasp of
+domestic policy, and to Gladstone in the political experience gained by
+sixty years of political life, but in capacity for command he was inferior
+to none. If he was not an ideal war minister, he was not a war minister by
+his own choice; his lot was cast in times which suppressed the exercise of
+his best powers; and he was matched in the organisation of war, though not
+in the field, against the greatest organising genius known to history. He
+must be judged by what he actually did and meditated as a peace minister;
+his conduct of the war must be compared with that of those able but not
+gifted men who strove to bend the bow which he left behind him; and we
+must assuredly conclude that none of his colleagues or rivals was his peer
+either in powers or in public spirit.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a> Buckingham, <i>Court and Cabinets</i>, iii., 242; Lewis,
+<i>Administrations of Great Britain</i>, p. 225.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a> Buckingham, <i>Court and Cabinets</i>, iii., 282-90; Pellew,
+<i>Life of Sidmouth</i>, ii., 113-31; Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, iv., 20-39.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a> See vol. x., p. 399.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a> Pellew, <i>Life of Sidmouth</i>, ii., 145-47; Stanhope, <i>Life of
+Pitt</i>, iv., 88-93.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a> For a list of Canning's squibs, belonging to this period,
+see Lewis, <i>Administrations</i>, p. 249, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a> It was not fair to hold Addington entirely responsible for
+the promotion of his brother, who had been a junior lord of the treasury
+under Pitt. The taunt came with a particularly bad grace from Canning, who
+had himself been paymaster-general in the last administration.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a> Pellew, <i>Life of Sidmouth</i>, ii., 250.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a> <i>Annual Register</i>, xlvi. (1804), p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a> Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, iv., 135-44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a> See the letter in Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, iv., appendix,
+pp. i.-iii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a> There is preserved a sketch in Pitt's handwriting of a
+combined administration with Melville, Fox, and Fitzwilliam as secretaries
+of state, and Grenville as lord president.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a> Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, iv., appendix, pp. xi., xii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a> The best account of Pitt's return to power is to be found in
+Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i>, iv., 113-95; appendix, pp. i.-xiii. The story is
+told in a very spirited manner by Lord Rosebery, <i>Pitt</i>, pp. 238-44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a> Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, i., 450-53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a> Napoleon actually crowned himself, although he had
+originally intended to be crowned by the pope.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a> Malmesbury, <i>Diaries</i>, iv., 338.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a> Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar are explained in a series of
+remarkable articles in <i>The Times</i> of September 16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30,
+and October 19, 1905. For incidents of the battle see Mahan, <i>Life of
+Nelson</i>, ii., 363 <i>sqq.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a> Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, ii., 53-57, 63-65.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_33" id="TOPIC_33"></a>The immediate effect of Pitt's death was the dissolution of his
+government. The king turned at first to Hawkesbury, afterwards destined as
+Earl of Liverpool to hold the office of premier for nearly fifteen years;
+but he then felt himself unequal to such a burden. He next sent for
+Grenville, who insisted on the co-operation of Fox, to which the king
+assented without demur, and the short-lived ministry of "All the Talents"
+was formed within a few days. It was essentially a whig cabinet, but it
+included two tories, Sidmouth as lord privy seal, and Lord Ellenborough,
+the lord chief justice. Grenville himself was first lord of the treasury,
+Fox foreign secretary, and Erskine lord chancellor. Charles Grey, the
+future Earl Grey, was first lord of the admiralty. Spencer home secretary,
+Windham secretary for war and the colonies, and Lord Henry Petty, the
+future Marquis of Lansdowne, chancellor of the exchequer. Fitzwilliam was
+lord president, and the Earl of Moira master-general of the ordnance.
+Ellenborough owed his place in the cabinet to the influence of Sidmouth.
+The appointment was a departure from the established constitutional
+practice. Since Lord Mansfield, who had ceased to be an efficient member
+in 1765, no chief justice had been a member of the cabinet, and it was
+argued in parliament by the opposition that a seat in the cabinet was
+inconsistent with the independence which a common law judge ought to
+maintain. It is also important to observe that Sidmouth when accepting
+office gave express notice to Grenville and Fox that under all
+circumstances "he would ever resist the catholic question".<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_34" id="TOPIC_34"></a>The friendly relations of the king with Fox were creditable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> to both of
+them, and in the last few months of his life Fox showed himself a
+statesman. Besides the abolition of the slave trade, his grand object was
+the restoration of peace on a durable basis. There were some grounds for
+believing that this was possible. France, under an emperor, seemed no
+longer to represent a new principle in European politics, and was not
+necessarily a menace to her neighbours; the coalition was fairly beaten on
+land, while British supremacy had been reasserted on sea, and Napoleon
+might well wish for peace to enable him to consolidate his position on
+land and regain the power of using the sea, just as he had done in 1801.
+Fox lost no time in renewing a pacific correspondence with Talleyrand,
+afterwards carried on through the agency of Lord Yarmouth, an English
+traveller detained in France, and Lord Lauderdale, who was sent over as
+plenipotentiary. The principle of the negotiation was that of <i>uti
+possidetis</i>, but it failed, as Whitworth's efforts had failed, because the
+pretensions of France were constantly shifting, and especially because
+France, anxious to isolate Great Britain, insisted on negotiating
+separately with Great Britain and Russia, while Fox very properly refused
+to make peace without our ally. Grey himself, now Lord Howick, afterwards
+declared that France showed no disposition to grant any terms which could
+be accepted by Great Britain. On September 13, Fox died, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey almost side by side with his great rival.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_35" id="TOPIC_35"></a>While he was earnestly striving for peace, there was no cessation of
+warlike movements or political changes either in Central Europe or in
+Italy. In June, 1806, Napoleon converted the Batavian Republic into the
+kingdom of Holland, over which he set his brother Louis. In July the
+discord of Germany, which had long ceased to be a nation, was consummated
+by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which separated all
+the western states from the Holy Roman empire, and united them under the
+protection and control of France. On August 6, Francis II., who had
+assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804, formally renounced the
+title of Roman Emperor, and the Holy Roman Empire became extinct. The King
+of Prussia, with singular disregard of good faith and national interest,
+finally accepted on February 15 the bribe of Hanover for adhesion to
+France, but without the offensive and defensive alliance offered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> him in
+the previous December, and with the additional humiliation of being
+compelled to close his ports to English ships. He vainly strove to conceal
+this shameful bargain, and was, as will be seen, punished by the
+destruction of Prussian commerce. After all, he found himself overreached
+by Napoleon in duplicity, and was at last provoked into risking a
+single-handed contest with his imperious ally. He declared war on October
+1, and within a fortnight the army of Prussia, inheriting the system and
+traditions of the great Frederick, was all but annihilated in the twin
+battles of Jena and Auerst&auml;dt fought on October 14.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SMALL EXPEDITIONS.</i></div>
+
+<p>The British government, though not unwilling to forgive the perfidy of its
+former confederate, was powerless to strike a blow on his behalf until it
+was too late. Indeed, the only warlike operation undertaken by Great
+Britain in Europe during the year was in the extreme south of Italy.
+Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, had been driven out of his capital to
+make way for Joseph Bonaparte, who entered Naples on February 15, and the
+exiled monarch took refuge in the island of Sicily. In accordance with the
+shortsighted policy of small expeditions, a British force under Sir John
+Stuart was landed in Calabria to raise the peasantry, and on July 4,
+defeated the French at the point of the bayonet in the battle of Maida.
+This action shook the confidence of Europe in the superiority of the
+French infantry, and saved Sicily from France, but the French troops
+remained in possession of the Italian mainland. The prestige of Great
+Britain was raised by the conquest of the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good
+Hope in January by a naval and military force sent out by Pitt under the
+command of Sir Home Popham and General, now Sir David, Baird, but was
+damaged by a futile expedition to South America, undertaken by Popham
+without orders from the home government. The city of Buenos Ayres was
+taken, indeed, in June by General Beresford, but it was retaken by the
+Spaniards in August, and soldiers who could ill be spared from the
+European conflict now impending were lavished on a chimerical project on
+the other side of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_36" id="TOPIC_36"></a>The short administration of Grenville, so inactive in its foreign policy,
+is memorable only for one redeeming measure of home-policy&mdash;the abolition
+of the slave trade. Before Fox's death, the attention of parliament had
+been divided mainly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> between Windham's abortive scheme for a vast standing
+army, to be raised on the basis of limited service, and the secret inquiry
+into the conduct of the Princess of Wales. This resulted in her being
+acquitted of the more scandalous charges against her, but on the advice of
+the cabinet, she was censured by the king for unseemly levity of
+behaviour. On October 24 parliament was dissolved. It was a foolish
+dissolution, for ministerial convenience only, and aimed not merely at
+strengthening the ministry, but at weakening the tory section within the
+ministry. The election was not well managed, and the king withheld the
+subscription of &pound;12,000 with which he was accustomed to assist his
+ministers for the time being at a general election. <a name="TOPIC_37" id="TOPIC_37"></a>Still the ministry
+obtained a considerable majority.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> The new parliament met on December
+15, and on March 25, 1807, the abolition bill, having passed the house of
+lords in spite of strong opposition, was carried in the commons by 283 to
+16. Thus ended a philanthropic struggle, which began in 1783, when the
+quakers petitioned against the trade. Three years later Clarkson began his
+crusade. Two bills in favour of abolition were carried by the house of
+commons before the close of the eighteenth century, but were thrown out in
+the house of lords. The same fate befell a bill for a temporary suspension
+of the slave trade, which passed the commons in 1804 under the spell of
+Wilberforce's persuasive eloquence; but Pitt's government caused a royal
+proclamation to be issued, which at least checked the spread of the
+nefarious traffic in the newly conquered colonies. A larger measure failed
+to pass the house of commons in 1805, but in 1806 Fox and Grenville
+succeeded in committing both houses to an open condemnation of the trade.
+This was followed on March 25, 1807, by an enactment entirely prohibiting
+the slave trade from and after January 1, 1808, though it was not made
+felony to engage in it until a further act was carried by Brougham in
+1811.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FALL OF GRENVILLE'S MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p>In default of important legislative tasks, the parliament which expired in
+1806 devoted much attention to various features of the military system, as
+well as to proposed reforms in the public accounts. It sanctioned the
+principle of raising a great part of the war-expenses by special taxes
+rather than by loan. A property-tax of 10 per cent. was freely voted, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+this was then represented to be its permanent limit. The assessed taxes
+were increased at the same time by 10 per cent., but with an allowance in
+favour of poorer taxpayers for every child above the number of two. It is
+worthy of notice that, while Grenville's ministry was in office, Whitbread
+brought forward an elaborate plan not only for reforming the poor laws but
+also for establishing a system of national education. Some changes in the
+cabinet were necessitated by the death of Fox. Howick became foreign
+secretary and was succeeded at the admiralty by Thomas Grenville, brother
+of the prime minister, most famous as a book-collector. Fitzwilliam
+retired at the same time on the ground of ill-health. He retained his seat
+in the cabinet, but was succeeded as lord president by Sidmouth, while
+Fox's nephew, Lord Holland, succeeded Sidmouth as lord privy seal.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_38" id="TOPIC_38"></a>The fall of the whig government in March, 1807, was due to a cause similar
+to that which had brought about the retirement of Pitt in 1801. The Duke
+of Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, had urged the importance
+of making some concessions to Roman catholics. An Irish act of 1793 had
+opened commissions in the army as high as the rank of colonel to Roman
+catholics, and the ministry obtained the reluctant consent of the king to
+the extension of this concession to Roman catholics throughout his
+dominions. Without having fully ascertained the king's mind, Howick, on
+behalf of his colleagues, moved for leave to bring in a bill opening all
+commissions in the army and navy to Roman catholics. The king at once
+refused his sanction, and the government, finding that they could not
+carry their bill, agreed to withdraw it. This decision was announced to
+the king in a cabinet minute, drawn up at a meeting from which
+Ellenborough, Erskine, and Sidmouth, who sympathised with the king, were
+excluded, and from which Fitzwilliam and Spencer were absent owing to
+ill-health. The minute went on to record their adhesion to the policy
+embodied in the bill, reserving the right to advise the king on any future
+occasion in accordance with that policy. Thereupon, Sidmouth, who had
+already sent in his resignation, Eldon, Portland, and Malmesbury, with the
+concurrence of the Duke of York and Spencer Perceval, urged the king to
+make a stand upon his prerogative. He did so, by requiring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> the ministers
+who had signed the minute, to give him a written pledge that they would
+never press upon him further concessions, direct or indirect, to the Roman
+catholics. This pledge they properly declined, and accepted the
+consequence by resignation. Spencer was present at the meeting which
+arrived at this conclusion and concurred in the decision of his
+colleagues.<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_39" id="TOPIC_39"></a>A new administration was formed by Portland, as nominal head, but with
+Perceval as its real leader and chancellor of the exchequer, Canning as
+foreign secretary, Hawkesbury as home secretary, and Castlereagh as
+minister for war and the colonies. Camden, Eldon, Westmorland, and Chatham
+resumed the offices they had held before the death of Pitt, Mulgrave
+became first lord of the admiralty, and Earl Bathurst president of the
+board of trade. In this government, too, Sir Arthur Wellesley, the future
+Duke of Wellington, who had returned in 1805 from a brilliant military
+career in India, held office outside the cabinet as chief secretary for
+Ireland. Spencer Perceval was a half-brother of the Earl of Egmont and
+brother of Lord Arden. He enjoyed a large practice at the bar and had made
+his mark as a parliamentary debater when filling the offices, first of
+solicitor-general, and then of attorney-general under Addington. He had
+held the latter office again under Pitt. Not the least source of his
+influence was his steady and determined opposition to the Roman catholic
+claims.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NON-INTERVENTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_40" id="TOPIC_40"></a>After a short but animated debate on the important constitutional question
+raised by the circumstances of the change of ministers, parliament was
+again dissolved on April 27. The king's speech in closing the session was
+virtually a personal appeal to his people, and a majority was returned in
+favour of the new ministry. This result may be said to mark the last
+triumph of George III. in maintaining the principle of personal
+government. "A just and enlightened toleration" was announced as the
+substitute for catholic relief. Still, a certain revival of independent
+popular opinion may be traced in the return of Sir<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> Francis Burdett and
+Lord Cochrane for Westminster. It was not until June 22 that parliament
+assembled, and the engrossing interest of foreign events left but little
+room for discussions on home-policy. A motion by Whitbread, however, bore
+fruit in a bill for establishing parochial schools, which Eldon
+successfully opposed in the house of lords, mainly on the ground that it
+would take popular education out of the hands of the clergy. The same not
+unnatural apathy about home affairs prevailed throughout the session of
+1808, which began on January 31, and though a large number of acts were
+placed on the statute book in this and succeeding years, the mass of them,
+including many relating to Ireland, were essentially of a local or
+occasional character. An exception must be recognised in the partial
+success of a motion for the reform of the criminal law, which was proposed
+by Sir Samuel Romilly, famous for his efforts in the cause of humanity,
+and which resulted in the abolition of capital punishment for the offence
+of pocket-picking.</p>
+
+<p>During this critical period, when Great Britain was gradually drifting
+into a position of isolation, the course of parliamentary history becomes
+inseparable from the progress of those mighty events on the continent,
+which Grenville's government would fain have treated as outside the sphere
+of British interests. For, notwithstanding Windham's schemes for a
+reconstruction of the army, that government had allowed the naval and
+military establishments of Great Britain to fall below their former
+standard. The leading idea of their policy was non-intervention, and at
+the opening of 1807, there was no longer any thought of sending a force to
+cope with Napoleon's veterans on the continent When in 1805 a British
+force was operating in North Germany, it was possible that if Prussia had
+been faithful to her engagements, the disaster of Austerlitz might at
+least have been partially retrieved. It was otherwise when, after the
+collapse of Prussia, France and Russia stood face to face with each other.
+The drawn battle of Eylau in East Prussia, marked by fearful carnage, was
+fought on February 8, 1807. This check, breaking the spell of Napoleon's
+victorious career, had a remarkable effect in raising the spirits of the
+allies, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia, some remains of whose army were still
+in the field. These powers now drew closer together, but they received a
+lukewarm support from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> Great Britain, which might have done much to save
+Europe by timely reinforcements and liberal subsidies. In reply to an
+urgent appeal from the tsar for a loan of &pound;6,000,000, the Grenville
+ministry doled out &pound;500,000 to Russia, and a still more pitiful gift to
+Prussia. No troops were sent to aid Sweden on the Baltic coast, although,
+when, at Napoleon's instigation, Turkey declared war against Russia,
+expeditions were despatched to Alexandria and the Dardanelles. The notion
+of making war on a large scale, in concert with allies, on the continent
+of Europe, as in the days of Marlborough, and even of Lord Granby, seems
+to have vanished from the minds of English statesmen, except Castlereagh,
+who always advocated concentrated action.</p>
+
+<p>The succession of Portland and Canning to Grenville and Howick brought no
+immediate change in our insular policy and the new government had been in
+office for above three months before a British force at last appeared in
+the Swedish island of R&uuml;gen. It arrived too late, Danzig surrendered in
+May, and on June 14 Napoleon obtained a decisive victory over the Russian
+army and its Prussian contingent at Friedland. Russia now gave a supreme
+example of that national selfishness, and contempt for the rights of
+independent states which had dominated the counsels of sovereigns ever
+since the first partition of Poland. Doubtless the tsar might plead that
+Great Britain, too, had been wasting her strength in selfish attempts to
+secure her mastery of the seas, and to open new markets for her trade. He
+also deeply resented her recent failure to aid him in the hour of his
+utmost need, while he still cherished the policy of the "armed
+neutrality," and was eager to prosecute his designs against Turkey.
+Dazzled and flattered by Napoleon, he welcomed overtures for peace at the
+expense of Great Britain, and there is no doubt that his imaginative
+nature indulged in the vision of a regenerated Europe, divided between
+himself as emperor of the east and Napoleon as emperor of the west. It is
+therefore far from surprising that he should have held a private interview
+with Napoleon, on a raft in the Niemen, which led to the treaty of Tilsit
+on July 7.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TREATY OF TILSIT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_41" id="TOPIC_41"></a>This treaty, in which the King of Prussia shared as a helpless partner,
+contained both public and secret articles, but the distinction was not
+very material, for the secret articles almost<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> immediately became known to
+Canning. The general effect of the whole agreement was the utter
+humiliation of Prussia, the recognition by that country and Russia of all
+Napoleon's acquisitions, and their combination with France against the
+maritime claims and conquests of Great Britain. The western provinces of
+Prussia were to be incorporated with other German annexations to form the
+new kingdom of Westphalia; Prussian Poland was to be converted into the
+duchy of Warsaw under the crown of Saxony, to which a right of passage
+through Silesia was reserved; and Berlin with other great Prussian
+fortresses were to remain in the hands of the French until an exorbitant
+war indemnity should have been paid.<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> At one stroke Prussia was thus
+reduced to a second-rate power, with a territory little greater than it
+possessed before the first partition of Poland. The rule of Joseph
+Bonaparte at Naples, that of Louis in Holland, and the confederation of
+the Rhine, were solemnly confirmed. Above all, Russia pledged herself to
+join France in coercing Sweden, Denmark, and Portugal into an adoption of
+the organised commercial exclusion, known as the "continental system," and
+hostility to Great Britain in the event of her resistance. If Sweden
+refused to join this league, Denmark was to be compelled to declare war on
+her.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_42" id="TOPIC_42"></a>No sooner did it receive information of this alliance than the British
+government despatched a naval armament to Denmark and landed troops, which
+were soon reinforced by those withdrawn from R&uuml;gen. There had been no open
+rupture with Denmark, though much irritation existed between Denmark and
+Great Britain with reference to neutral commerce. But there were the best
+reasons for believing that the Danish fleet, as well as that of Portugal,
+would be demanded by France and Russia, to be employed against Great
+Britain, and it was certain that Denmark could not withstand such
+pressure. The British envoy, Jackson, was accordingly instructed to offer
+Denmark a treaty of alliance, of which one condition was to be the deposit
+of her fleet on hire with the British government. The proposal was
+accompanied by a threat of force, and the crown prince, with a spirit
+worthy of admiration, refused the terms. In consequence a peremptory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+summons to deliver up her ships of war and naval stores was addressed to
+the governor of Copenhagen by the British commanders, Admiral Gambier and
+Lord Cathcart, under whom Sir Arthur Wellesley was entrusted with the
+reserve. The surrender, if made peaceably, was to be in the nature of a
+deposit, and the fleet was to be restored at the end of the war. The
+governor returned a temporising reply, and a bombardment of Copenhagen
+followed (September 2); the fleet was brought to England as prize of war;
+and Denmark naturally became the enemy of Great Britain.<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> Sweden
+declined the proffered alliance of France and Russia, and actually invaded
+Norway, then a part of the Danish kingdom. The result was the loss of
+Finland and Swedish Pomerania. The king, Gustavus IV., resembled Charles
+XII. in quixotic temperament, but not in ability; and Sir John Moore, sent
+to his support with an army of 10,000 men, found it hopeless to co-operate
+with him. Shortly afterwards, his subjects formed the same opinion, and he
+was compelled to make way for his uncle, who succeeded as Charles XIII.
+with Marshal Bernadotte as crown prince. In consequence of this change
+Sweden became reconciled to Russia, and estranged from Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p>The seizure of the Danish fleet, in time of so-called peace, roused great
+indignation throughout most of Europe, and, in some degree, strained the
+conscience of the British parliament itself. The justice and wisdom of it
+were strenuously challenged in both houses, especially by Grenville,
+Sidmouth, and Lord Darnley, who moved an address to the crown embodying an
+impressive protest against it. It was defended, however, by the high
+authority of the Marquis Wellesley, as well as by Canning and other
+ministers, on the simple ground of military necessity. Napoleon himself
+never ceased to denounce it as an international outrage of the highest
+enormity. This did not prevent his doing his best to justify it and to
+imitate it by sending Junot's expedition to Portugal, with instructions to
+seize the Portuguese fleet at Lisbon. It is strange that in the debates on
+this subject, peace with France was still treated on both sides as a
+possibility; but Canning declared that neither Russian nor Austrian
+mediation could have been accepted as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> impartial, or as affording the
+least hope of pacification. However, on September 25, the king addressed a
+declaration to Europe, in which, after justifying himself in regard to
+Copenhagen, he professed his readiness to accept conditions of peace
+"consistent with the maritime rights and political existence of Great
+Britain".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>COMMERCIAL EXCLUSION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_43" id="TOPIC_43"></a>Still more reasonable attacks, supported by strong petitions, were made by
+the opposition upon the "orders in council," whereby the British
+government retaliated against Napoleon's "continental system". This system
+was founded on a firm belief, shared by the French people, that Great
+Britain, as mistress of the seas, was the one great obstacle to his
+imperial ambition, and the most formidable enemy of French aggrandisement,
+only to be crushed by the ruin of her trade. Prussia had, in conformity
+with her treaty of February 15, 1806, issued a proclamation on March 28 of
+that year, closing her ports, which would now include those of Hanover,
+against British trade. The British government replied by first laying an
+embargo on Prussian vessels in the harbours of Great Britain and Ireland,
+and by proclaiming a blockade of the coast of Europe from Brest to the
+Elbe. This was followed on May 14 by an order in council for seizing all
+vessels found navigating under Prussian colours. As yet the policy of
+commercial exclusion had not been carried to any great length, but the
+Berlin decree issued by Napoleon on November 21 after the battle of Jena
+proclaimed the whole of the British Isles to be in a state of blockade,
+prohibited all commerce with them from the ports of France and her
+dependent states, confiscated all British merchandise in such ports, and
+declared all British subjects in countries occupied by French troops to be
+prisoners of war. Howick replied by further orders in council in January,
+1807, forbidding neutrals to trade between the ports of France and her
+allies, or between the ports of nations which should observe the Berlin
+decree, on pain of the confiscation of the ship and cargo. On the 27th
+another decree, issued at Warsaw, ordered the seizure in the Hanse Towns
+of all British goods and colonial produce. The reply of Great Britain was
+a stricter blockade of the North German coast.</p>
+
+<p>The accession of Russia to Napoleon's commercial policy at Tilsit seemed
+to have brought the combination against British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> trade to its furthest
+development, and it was answered by new orders in council, treating any
+port from which the British flag was excluded as if actually blockaded,
+and further limiting the carriage by neutral vessels of produce from
+hostile colonies. The Milan decree issued on December 17, and further
+orders in council published during the same winter, carried to greater
+extremes, if possible, this intolerable form of commercial warfare, under
+which neutral commerce was gradually crushed out of existence. Great
+Britain, owing to her command of the sea, was more independent of this
+kind of commerce than her rival, and both the decrees and the orders in
+council inflicted far more damage on France and her allies than on Great
+Britain. But neither party was able to enforce completely its policy of
+commercial exclusion. Europe could not dispense with British goods or
+colonial produce carried in British vessels. The law was deliberately set
+aside by a regular licensing system, and evaded by wholesale smuggling;
+neutral ships continued to ply between continental ports, and Napoleon did
+not disdain to clothe his troops with 50,000 British overcoats during the
+Eylau campaign. Still, Great Britain was enabled to cripple, if not to
+destroy, the merchant shipping of all other countries, and the interests
+of consumers all over Europe were enlisted against the author of the
+continental system. On the other hand, a heavy blow was dealt to friendly
+relations between Great Britain and the United States, the chief victim of
+these belligerent pretensions.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FRUITLESS EXPEDITIONS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_44" id="TOPIC_44"></a>In the meantime, the prestige of Great Britain had been injured by three
+petty and abortive expeditions projected by the Grenville ministry. The
+first of these was sent out to complete the conquest of Buenos Ayres, the
+recapture of which was unknown in England. Sir Samuel Auchmuty, who
+commanded it, finding himself too late to occupy that city, attacked and
+took Monte Video by storm with much skill and spirit, on February 3, 1807.
+Shortly afterwards, he was superseded by General Whitelocke, bringing
+reinforcements, with orders to recover Buenos Ayres. In this he signally
+failed, owing to gross tactical errors. The British troops were almost
+passively<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> slaughtered in the streets, and Whitelocke agreed to withdraw
+the remains of his force, and give up Monte Video, on condition of all
+prisoners being surrendered. On his return home, he was tried by a
+court-martial and cashiered, being also declared "totally unfit to serve
+his majesty in any military capacity whatever".</p>
+
+<p>Equally ill-managed was the naval expedition, directed to support Russia,
+then in close alliance with Great Britain, by coercing the sultan into a
+rupture with France. Collingwood, who was not consulted, was required to
+entrust the command of this expedition, which started in February, 1807,
+to Sir John Duckworth. Everything depended on promptitude, and the admiral
+found little difficulty in forcing the passage of the Dardanelles, as it
+was then almost unfortified. Having reached Constantinople, he allowed
+himself to waste time in fruitless negotiations, contrary to Collingwood's
+earnest advice, and not only effected nothing but gravely imperilled his
+return. Instructed by the French minister S&eacute;bastiani, the Turks had armed
+their coasts, and erected batteries along the Dardanelles, through which
+the British fleet made its way with considerable loss. Instead of being
+detached from the French alliance, the Porte was thrown into its arms and
+became more embittered than ever against Russia. It was soon involved in a
+serious conflict with that country&mdash;for the possession of Wallachia and
+Moldavia&mdash;only to be deserted again by France under the compact made at
+Tilsit. The expedition to Egypt, planned in combination with the
+expedition to the Dardanelles, ended in a still worse disaster. Though
+General Fraser, its commander, was able to surprise Alexandria on March
+30, he awaited in vain the expected news of Duckworth's success; he
+proceeded to attack Rosetta with as little generalship as Whitelocke had
+shown at Buenos Ayres, and encountered a similar repulse. An attempt to
+besiege the town met with no better fortune: the British troops submitted
+to a capitulation, evacuated Egypt, and sailed for Sicily in September,
+1807. In an imperial manifesto addressed to the French nation at the end
+of this year, the British failures at Buenos Ayres, Constantinople, and
+Alexandria were paraded, together with our alleged crime against the
+rights of nations at Copenhagen.</p>
+
+<p>In the early months of 1808 the continental system was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> extended by the
+establishment of French administration at Rome, and the annexation of the
+eastern ports of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy. On February 18
+of the same year Austria under French pressure adopted the system. Sweden
+and Turkey were now the only continental countries left outside it, but
+the retention of Sicily by the Bourbon king rendered it easy for British
+commerce to enter Italy through that island. The irritation of neutrals
+increased as the area of commercial exclusion widened, but the United
+States were now the only neutral power of any consequence. After April 17
+Napoleon took the high-handed step of confiscating all American shipping
+in his ports. In spite of this aggression, the president and congress of
+the United States continued to favour France against Great Britain. The
+story of the commercial warfare between Great Britain and the United
+States will be related more fully hereafter. For the present, it is
+sufficient to mention that an act, placing an embargo on foreign vessels
+in American ports, was passed by congress on December 22, 1807, and
+another on March 1, 1809, forbidding commercial intercourse with Great
+Britain and France and the colonies occupied by them.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Great Britain continued to enforce her maritime rights,
+including that of searching American merchantmen for British-born sailors,
+and impressing them at the will of British naval officers. These
+grievances ultimately led to a war between Great Britain and America in
+1812. The continental system, however, did not long remain so complete as
+in the beginning of 1808. Junot's expedition to Portugal had led to a
+French occupation of that country before the end of 1807. The conquest of
+Portugal was followed, as we shall see later, by a partial conquest of
+Spain. This threw the Spaniards back upon the British alliance and
+afforded an opportunity for the liberation of Portugal, so that from May,
+1808, Great Britain once more had a large seaboard open to her commerce.
+The early success of the Spanish resistance to France, and other events in
+the peninsula hereafter to be recorded, encouraged Austria to arm again;
+and on the news of the capitulation of the French army at Baylen in July,
+she pushed forward her preparations with redoubled energy. A national
+movement arose simultaneously in North Germany,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> but the Prussian
+government dared not head it so long as Russia remained faithful to the
+French alliance.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON AT ERFURT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_45" id="TOPIC_45"></a>Notwithstanding a peremptory declaration from the tsar after the seizure
+of the Danish fleet, Russia had nothing to gain by war with Great Britain.
+She was bound to France by the prospect held forth to her at Tilsit of the
+conquest of Finland and the partition of Turkey, but she was inwardly
+desirous of peace with Great Britain. Napoleon, on the other hand, saw in
+the partition of Turkey an opportunity of striking at India, and had
+actually given orders for naval preparations to be made in Spain, when all
+thought of eastern conquest had to be postponed owing to the success of
+the Spanish patriots. After a conference between Napoleon and the tsar at
+Erfurt a secret convention was signed on October 12, by which France
+sanctioned Russian conquests in Finland and the Danubian provinces, and
+Russia recognised the Bonaparte dynasty in Spain and promised to assist
+France in a defensive war against Austria. The two powers despatched a
+joint note to Great Britain inviting her to make peace, on the principle
+of <i>uti possidetis</i>. Canning replied that he was prepared to negotiate if
+his allies, especially Sweden and the Spanish patriots, who were at that
+time in actual possession of almost the entire country, were included in
+the peace. On November 19 Napoleon expressed his willingness to treat with
+the British allies, but not with the Spanish "rebels," as he styled them.
+Alexander took up a similar position, speaking of the Spanish
+"insurgents," and expressly recognising Joseph as King of Spain. Thus
+ended these pacific overtures, and on November 3 the official <i>expos&eacute;</i>,
+annually issued in Paris, described Great Britain as "the enemy of the
+world".</p>
+
+<p>The year 1808 is memorable in English history for the active intervention
+of Great Britain in the affairs of Spain which developed into the
+"Peninsular war".<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> This intervention was rendered possible and
+effective by the organisation of our army system in 1807, which was due to
+Castlereagh, though he received little credit for it. Under this system,
+the old constitutional force of the militia was made the basis of the
+whole military establishment. By the militia balloting bill and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> the
+militia transfer bill, that force, largely composed of substitutes, and
+bound only to home-service, was practically converted into a
+recruiting-ground for the regular army, and proved sufficient to make good
+all the losses incurred during the long campaigns in Portugal and Spain.
+The army thus raised contained, no doubt, many soldiers of bad character,
+whose misdeeds, after the furious excitement of an escalade, or under the
+heart-breaking stress of a retreat, sometimes brought disgrace upon the
+British name. But these men, side by side with steadier comrades, bore
+themselves like heroes on many a bloodstained field; they quailed not
+before the conquering legions of Austerlitz and Wagram; they could "go
+anywhere or do anything" under trusted leaders; and they restored the
+military reputation of their country before the eyes of Europe. To have
+forged such an instrument of war was no mean administrative exploit. To
+have maintained its efficiency steadily on the whole, though sometimes
+with a faint-hearted parsimony, and to have loyally supported its
+commander against the cavils of a factious opposition superior in
+parliamentary ability, for a period of seven years, must be held to redeem
+the tory government from the charge of political weakness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PARLIAMENTARY ZEAL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_46" id="TOPIC_46"></a>At the beginning of 1809, however, the interest of parliament was less
+concentrated on Sir Arthur Wellesley's first campaign in Portugal, or even
+on the convention of Cintra, than on the scandals attaching to the office
+of commander-in-chief, held by the Duke of York. Though an incapable
+general, the duke had shown himself, on the whole, an excellent
+administrator, and in the opinion of the best officers had done much for
+the discipline and efficiency of the British army. Unfortunately, Mrs.
+Clarke, his former mistress, had received bribes for using her influence
+with the duke to procure military appointments. Colonel Wardle, an obscure
+member of parliament, to whom Mrs. Clarke had temporarily transferred
+herself after being discarded by the duke, animated by a desire to damage
+the ministry, came forward with charges directly implicating him in her
+corrupt practices, and incidentally brought similar accusations against
+Portland and Eldon. The government foolishly agreed to an inquiry on the
+Duke of York's behalf, and it was conducted before a committee of the
+whole house, which sat from January 26 to March 20. In the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> course of this
+inquiry, Sir Arthur Wellesley bore strong testimony in his favour, and the
+duke addressed a letter to the speaker, declaring his innocence of
+corruption. Though Wardle and his associates pressed for his dismissal,
+Perceval ultimately carried a motion acquitting him not only of corruption
+but of connivance with corruption. The majority, however, was small, and
+the duke thought it necessary to resign on March 20, whereupon the house
+of commons decided to proceed no further. A curious sequel of this case
+was an action against Wardle by an upholsterer, who had furnished a house
+for Mrs. Clarke by Wardle's orders, in consideration of her services in
+giving hostile evidence against her former protector. The plaintiff
+obtained &pound;2,000 damages, and the law-suit was the means of producing a
+reaction in popular feeling in favour of the duke.</p>
+
+<p>This scandal in high places quickened the zeal of parliament for general
+purity of administration, and led to a disclosure of some grave abuses.
+One of these, connected with the disposal of captured Dutch property,
+dated as far back as 1795. Others were found to exist in the navy
+department and the distribution of Indian patronage; others related to
+parliamentary elections. Perceval brought in a bill to check the sale and
+brokerage of offices, nor did Castlereagh himself escape the charge of
+having procured the election of Lord Clancarty to parliament by the offer
+of an Indian writership to a borough-monger. A frank explanation saved him
+from censure, especially as it appeared that the offer had never taken
+effect. The charge was renewed, in a different form, against both him and
+Perceval, and their accusers moved for a trial at bar. But as it turned
+out that undue influence rather than corruption was their alleged offence,
+and as the avowed object of the resolution was to force on parliamentary
+reform, it was negatived by an immense majority. Nevertheless, the object
+was not wholly defeated.</p>
+
+<p>The removal of the Duke of York from the command of the army was
+singularly inopportune, for Sir David Dundas had scarcely been appointed
+as his successor when a juncture arose specially demanding a combination
+of energy and experience. The British government, already engaged in the
+Peninsular war, had at last resolved to take a vigorous part in the new
+and desperate struggle between France and Austria in Southern Germany. The
+latent spirit of German nationality,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> aroused by Napoleon's ruthless
+treatment of Prussia, and quickened into a flame by sympathy with the
+uprising in Spain, was embodied in the secret association of the
+<i>Tugendbund</i>; and Austria, smarting under a sense of her own humiliation,
+mustered up courage to assume the leadership of a national movement. South
+Germany, governed by old dynasties, which profited by the French alliance,
+displayed as yet no symptoms of disaffection to France; but in North
+Germany the old dynasties had been either humbled or deposed, and the
+general ferment among the people, needed, as the Austrians believed, only
+the presence of a regular army to break out into a national revolt against
+the foreigner. Prussia, it is true, was still unwilling to move, because
+Russia was hostile; but the Austrian court knew well the lukewarmness of
+Russia's attachment to France, and hoped that a national upheaval would
+carry the Prussian government along with it. No one, in fact, had played a
+more active part in rousing Northern Germany than the Prussian minister,
+Stein, whom Frederick William, by Napoleon's advice, had called to his
+councils after Tilsit, and who was now compelled to resign his office and
+take refuge in Austria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON IN AUSTRIA.</i></div>
+
+<p>The British government was aware of the situation in Germany when it
+received a request in January, 1809, for the despatch of a British force
+to the mouth of the Elbe. Austria was, however, still nominally at war
+with Great Britain, and George III., perhaps not unreasonably, refused to
+give her active military assistance till peace was concluded. Meanwhile a
+subsidy of &pound;250,000 in bullion was despatched to Trieste, and inquiries
+were set on foot as to the means of supplying such a military expedition
+as Austria desired.<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> On March 22, Dundas, who had only been a few days
+in office as commander-in-chief, reported that 15,000 men could not be
+spared from home service, and, in consequence, no extensive preparations
+were made until the muster rolls in June showed that 40,000 troops might
+safely be employed abroad. This convinced the government that a large
+force could be sent without interfering with home defence, as Castlereagh
+had long contended; and throughout June and July the naval and military
+departments were busy in preparing for what has since left a sinister
+memory as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> the Walcheren expedition. Meanwhile, as if the passion of
+frittering away resources were irresistible, a smaller force was
+despatched, as a kind of feint, against the kingdom of Naples. It
+consisted of 15,000 British troops and a body of Sicilians. Bailing from
+Palermo early in June it captured the islands of Ischia and Procida and
+the castle of Scylla, and threw Naples into consternation. But the attack
+was not pushed, and it was too late to be of any assistance to the
+Austrians who had already been expelled from the Italian peninsula. At
+last, in July, the treaty of peace with Austria was signed and the great
+armament was ready to sail.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_47" id="TOPIC_47"></a>But Napoleon had not awaited the deliberations of British statesmen.
+Hurrying back from Spain, he remained in Paris only long enough to
+organise a campaign in South Germany, and left the capital to join his
+armies on April 13. A week earlier, the Archduke Charles, having
+remodelled the Austrian army, issued a proclamation affirming Austria to
+be the champion of European liberty. On the 9th Austria declared war
+against Bavaria, the ally of France, and her troops crossed the Inn. On
+the 17th, when Napoleon arrived at Donauw&ouml;rth, he found the archduke in
+occupation of Ratisbon. His presence turned the tide, and, after three
+victories, he was once more on the road to Vienna. The most important of
+these victories was that of Eckm&uuml;hl, and he regarded the man&oelig;uvre by
+which it was won as the finest in his military career. On May 13 the
+French entered Vienna, but the Archduke Charles with an army of nearly
+200,000 men was facing him on the left bank of the Danube. Napoleon's army
+crossed and encountered the Austrians on the great plain between Aspern
+and Essling. He was repulsed and fell back upon Lobau, between which and
+the Vienna side of the Danube the bridge of boats had been swept away by a
+rise of the river and by balks of timber floated down by the Austrians. In
+this dangerous position he remained shut up for several weeks. He finally
+succeeded in throwing across a light bridge by which his army regained the
+left bank on the night of July 4. Finding their position turned the
+Austrians took up their stand on the tableland of Wagram. On July 6
+another pitched battle was fought, which, in the number of combatants
+engaged and in the losses inflicted on both sides, must rank with the
+later conflicts of Borodino and Leipzig. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> hard won victory rested with
+the French, but it was not such a victory as that of Austerlitz or Jena,
+though it secured the neutrality, at least, of Austria for the next four
+years. Her army retreated into Bohemia, and on July 12 an armistice was
+signed at Znaim in Moravia, which formed the basis of a peace concluded at
+Vienna on October 14.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE WALCHEREN EXPEDITION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_48" id="TOPIC_48"></a>Nothing remained for Great Britain but to abandon the auxiliary enterprise
+so long planned, but so often delayed, or to carry it through
+independently, with little hope of a decisive issue. The latter
+alternative was adopted. The very day on which the news of the armistice
+arrived witnessed the departure of the greatest single armament ever sent
+out fully equipped from the shores of Great Britain. The deplorable
+failure of the Walcheren expedition has obscured both its magnitude and
+its probable importance had it only proved successful. The command of the
+fleet was given to Sir Richard Strachan, a competent admiral; that of the
+army to Chatham, who sat in the cabinet as master-general of the ordnance,
+an incompetent general, who owed his nomination to royal favour. This was
+the first blunder; the second was the utter neglect of medical and
+sanitary precautions against the notoriously unhealthy climate of
+Walcheren in the autumn months. The armament sailed from the Downs on July
+28, in the finest weather and with a display of intense national
+enthusiasm. It consisted of thirty-five ships of the line, with a swarm of
+smaller war-vessels and transports, carrying nearly 40,000 troops, two
+battering-trains, and a complete apparatus of military stores. Its
+destination, though more than suspected by the enemy, had been officially
+kept secret at home. Castlereagh must be held largely responsible for the
+delays and for the unwise choice of a general which marred its success,
+but he showed true military sagacity in designating the point of attack.
+Inspired by him, the British government, distrusting the national movement
+in North Germany, had decided to strike at Antwerp, which Napoleon had
+supplied with new docks, and which, now that the mouth of the Scheldt had
+been reopened, threatened to become the commercial rival of London. The
+town was entirely unprepared, and a blow dealt here seemed the best way of
+doing as much harm as possible to France and at the same time gaining a
+national advantage for Great Britain.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Chatham had received very precise instructions from Castlereagh, the
+objects prescribed to him being, (1) the capture or destruction of the
+enemy's ships, either building or afloat at Antwerp or Flushing, or afloat
+in the Scheldt; (2) the destruction of the arsenals and dockyards at
+Antwerp, Terneuze, and Flushing; (3) the reduction of the island of
+Walcheren; (4) the rendering of the Scheldt no longer navigable to ships
+of war. These objects were named, as far as possible, in the order of
+their importance, and Chatham was specially directed to land troops at
+Sandvliet and push on straight to Antwerp, with the view of taking it by a
+<i>coup de main</i>. Napoleon, who clearly foretold the catastrophe awaiting
+the British troops in the malarious swamps of Walcheren, afterwards
+admitted that Antwerp could have been captured by a sudden assault.
+Chatham obeyed his general orders, but, instead of taking them in the
+order of importance, gave precedence to the objects which could most
+easily be accomplished. By prompt action the French fleet, which was
+moored off Flushing, might have been captured, but it was allowed to
+escape to Antwerp. By August 2 the British were in complete possession of
+the mouth of the Scheldt, and had taken Bath opposite Sandvliet, while
+Antwerp was still almost unprotected. But Chatham concentrated his
+attention on the siege of Flushing, which surrendered, after three days'
+bombardment, on August 16, contrary to Napoleon's expectation. Antwerp had
+meanwhile been put in a state of defence, and was now protected by the
+enemy's fleet, while French and Dutch troops were pouring down to the
+Scheldt. After ten days of inactivity, Chatham advanced his headquarters
+to Bath, found that further advance was impossible, and recommended the
+government to recall the expedition, leaving 15,000 men to defend the
+island of Walcheren. This advice was adopted, but the garrison left in
+Walcheren suffered most severely from fever in that swampy island.
+Eventually, on December 24, Walcheren was abandoned, the works and naval
+basins of Flushing having been previously destroyed. The destruction of
+Flushing was the sole result of this expedition.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the British to make any serious impression on the French
+either in the Low Countries or in Spain induced Austria to consent to
+peace with France. By the peace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> of Vienna, signed on October 14, she
+ceded Salzburg and a part of Upper Austria to Bavaria, West Galicia to the
+duchy of Warsaw, and a part of Carinthia with Trieste and the Illyrian
+provinces to France. A small strip of Galicia was ceded to the Russian
+tsar, who had rendered France some very half-hearted assistance and was
+further alienated by the extension of the duchy of Warsaw. Austria was
+enslaved to the will of Napoleon. She had abandoned the Tyrolese peasants
+whose loyal insurrection against the Bavarians was the most heroic
+incident in the war, and she now joined the other nations of the continent
+in excluding the commerce of Great Britain, which had made a powerful
+diversion in Spain and an imposing though futile diversion on the Scheldt
+to save her from national annihilation.</p>
+
+<p>While the Walcheren expedition was preparing, two additions were made to
+the cabinet. Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, brother of the Marquis of
+Stafford, was admitted in June as secretary at war, and in July Harrowby,
+who was created an earl, became president of the board of control with a
+seat in the cabinet. After the fate of the expedition became known, though
+before its final withdrawal, a serious quarrel took place between Canning
+and Castlereagh. Personal jealousies had long existed between these two
+statesmen, both half-Irish, half-English, and of approximately the same
+age, yet widely different in character. Canning was the most brilliant
+orator of his day, and no less persuasive in private conversation than in
+public orations, gifted with an agile brain that leaped readily from one
+idea or one project to another, but cursed with a bitter wit which lightly
+aroused enduring enmities, and which, coupled with an excessive vanity,
+rendered him unpopular with his colleagues, and made it difficult for any
+one to take him seriously; while his rival, not less able, and much more
+steady and trustworthy, a skilful manager of men, was scarcely able to
+pronounce a coherent sentence. Early in April Canning pressed upon the
+Duke of Portland the transfer of Castlereagh to another office. Private
+communications followed between various members of the cabinet, and it was
+understood that Camden, as Castlereagh's friend, should apprise him of the
+prevailing view, which the king himself had approved under a threat of
+Canning's resignation. The duke, however, begged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> Camden to postpone the
+disclosure, and others of Castlereagh's friends urged Canning not to
+insist upon the change pending the completion of the Walcheren expedition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DUEL BETWEEN CANNING AND CASTLEREAGH.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_49" id="TOPIC_49"></a>As the scheme took shape in July Camden was to resign, and thus make
+possible a shifting of offices, which was to result in the Marquis
+Wellesley succeeding Castlereagh as secretary for war. At last, on
+September 6, the duke informed Canning of his own intention to retire on
+the ground of ill-health, and at the same time disclosed the fact that no
+steps had been taken to prepare Castlereagh for the proposed change in his
+position. Thereupon Canning promptly sent in his own resignation, the duke
+resigned the same day, and Castlereagh, learning what had passed, followed
+his example two days later.<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Believing that Canning had been intriguing
+against him behind his back, under the guise of friendship, he demanded
+satisfaction on the 19th, and on the 21st<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> the duel was fought, in
+which Canning received a slight wound. Such events provoked little<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+censure in those days, and it is pleasant to know that Canning and
+Castlereagh afterwards acted cordially together as colleagues. Their
+enmity broke up the government. The Duke of Portland did not long survive
+his withdrawal from office, and died on October 29; Leveson-Gower insisted
+on following Canning into retirement.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_50" id="TOPIC_50"></a>Perceval was entrusted with the task of forming an administration, but the
+new ministry was not formed without considerable negotiation. Canning
+vainly endeavoured to impress first on his colleagues and then on the king
+his own pretensions to the highest office, while attempts, to which the
+king gave a reluctant assent, had been made to enlist the co-operation of
+Grenville and Howick, who succeeded his father as Earl Grey, in 1807, but
+they failed as all later attempts were destined to fail. The most
+influential motive governing their conduct was, doubtless, their feeling
+that they would not as ministers possess the king's confidence. Sidmouth's
+following had also been approached. Sidmouth himself was considered too
+obnoxious to some of Pitt's followers to be a safe member of the new
+cabinet, but Vansittart was offered the chancellorship of the exchequer
+and Bragge, who had taken the additional surname of Bathurst, the office
+of secretary at war. They refused, however, to enter the ministry, unless
+accompanied by Sidmouth himself.</p>
+
+<p>Perceval eventually became prime minister, retaining his former offices;
+Lord Bathurst, while remaining at the board of trade, presided temporarily
+at the foreign office, which was offered to the Marquis Wellesley, then
+serving as British ambassador to the Spanish junta at Seville, and taken
+over by him in December. Hawkesbury, now Earl of Liverpool, succeeded
+Castlereagh as secretary for war and the colonies, and was followed at the
+home office by Richard Ryder, a brother of Harrowby. Harrowby himself gave
+up the board of control in November to Melville's son, Robert Dundas, who,
+however, was not made a member of the cabinet. Lord Palmerston, who had
+been a junior lord of the admiralty under Portland, declined the
+chancellorship of the exchequer, and though he accepted Leveson-Gower's
+post as secretary at war, he was by his own desire excluded from the
+cabinet.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NEW BRITISH CONQUESTS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_51" id="TOPIC_51"></a>While the close of the year 1809 was darkened by national<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> disappointment
+and political anxieties, the honour of British arms had been amply
+vindicated in the Spanish peninsula, and the brilliant exploit of Lord
+Cochrane in Basque Roads had recalled the glories of the Nile. Cochrane
+had already achieved marvels under Collingwood in the Mediterranean, and
+notably off the Spanish coast, when he was selected to conduct an attack
+by fireships on the French squadron blockaded under the shelter of the
+islands of Aix and Ol&eacute;ron. This he carried out on the night of April 11,
+with a dash and skill worthy of Nelson, and unless checked by Gambier, the
+admiral in command, who had been raised to the peerage after the seizure
+of the Danish fleet in 1807, he must have succeeded in destroying the
+whole of the enemy's ships. Gambier was afterwards acquitted by a court
+martial of negligence, but the verdict of the public was against him. In
+the autumn Collingwood reduced the seven Ionian islands, and gained an
+important advantage by cutting out a considerable detachment of the Toulon
+fleet in the Bay of Genoa. In the course of the year, too, all the
+remaining French territory in the West Indies, as well as the Isle of
+Bourbon in the Indian Ocean, was captured by the British navy. But this
+unchallenged supremacy on the high seas did not prevent the depredations
+of French gunboats on British merchantmen in the channel. Indeed after the
+battle of Trafalgar, the French "sea-wasps" infesting the Channel were
+more active and destructive than ever.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_52" id="TOPIC_52"></a>On October 25, being the forty-ninth anniversary of his accession, the
+jubilee of George III. was celebrated with hearty and sincere rejoicings.
+His popularity was not unmerited. He was politically shortsighted, but
+within his range of vision few saw facts so clearly; he was obstinate and
+prejudiced, but his obstinacy was redeemed by a moral intrepidity of the
+highest order, and his prejudices were shared by the mass of his people.
+Having lived through the seven years' war, the war of the American
+revolution, and the successive wars of Great Britain against the French
+monarchy and the French republic, he was now supporting, with indomitable
+firmness, a war against the all-conquering French empire&mdash;the most
+perilous in which this country was ever engaged. The colonial and Indian
+dominions of Great Britain, reduced by the loss of the North American
+colonies, had been greatly extended during<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> his reign in other quarters of
+the globe. His subjects regarded him as an Englishman to the core; they
+knew him to be honest, religious, virtuous, and homely in his life; they
+justly believed him, in spite of his failings, to be a power for good in
+the land; and they rewarded him with a respect and affection granted to no
+other British sovereign of modern times before Queen Victoria. They had
+good cause to desire the continuance of his life and reason, knowing the
+character of his heir-apparent, and contrasting the domestic habits of
+Windsor with the licence of Carlton House.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a> Colchester, <i>Diary</i> (Feb. 4, 1806), ii., 35, 36.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a> Holland, <i>Memoirs of the Whig Party</i>, ii., 91-94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a> Holland, <i>Memoirs of the Whig Party,</i> ii., 173-205, 270-320;
+Colchester, <i>Diary</i>, ii., 92-115; Malmesbury, <i>Diaries</i>, iv., 357-72;
+Walpole, <i>Life of Perceval</i>, i., 223-33; Buckingham, <i>Courts and
+Cabinets</i>, iv., 117-50. Holland accuses the king of treachery and
+duplicity, and Lewis (<i>Administrations of Great Britain</i>, p. 294) repeats
+this charge in milder terms. But the documents quoted do not prove any
+want of straightforwardness, and the king's conduct was the logical
+consequence of his action in 1801.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a> In the following year Napoleon consented to evacuate all the
+Prussian fortresses except three, on condition that the Prussian army
+should not exceed a total of 40,000 men.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a> <i>Annual Register</i>, xlix. (1807), 249-70, 731-38; Rose, in
+<i>English Historical Review</i>, xi. (1896), 82-92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a> Captain Mahan, <i>The Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+Revolution and Empire</i>, ii., 272-357, shows that the policy of the orders
+in council was essential to British safety.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a> The course of this war is related continuously in <a href="#CHAPTER_V">chap. v.</a></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a> Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, ii., 190, note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a> The best account of the quarrel, especially in its relation
+to the composition of the cabinet, is to be found in Walpole's <i>Life of
+Perceval</i>, vol. i., chap. ix., and vol. ii., chap. i. Lewis,
+<i>Administrations</i>, pp. 314-15, finds a double ground for Canning's
+resignation in his failure to obtain the removal of Castlereagh from the
+war office and in the refusal of the king and cabinet to allow him to
+succeed Portland as prime minister. It is quite clear, however, that at
+the time of Canning's resignation no decision had been come to about a
+successor to Portland. Some correspondence had passed between Canning and
+Perceval, in which each had refused to serve under the other, but that
+this correspondence was unknown to the cabinet as a whole is proved by
+Mulgrave's letters to Lord Lonsdale of September 11 and 15 (Phipps,
+<i>Memoir of Ward</i>, pp. 210-17); in the former of these he discusses
+Canning's probable conduct without referring to this correspondence, while
+in the latter he only knows of such negotiations as subsequent to the
+resignations of September 6 and 8. So, too, Eldon's letter to his wife of
+September 11 (Twiss, <i>Life of Eldon</i>, ii., 88-90), places the whole
+correspondence between Canning and Perceval after Portland's resignation
+on September 6. The king was not informed of Canning's views as to a
+successor to Portland till September 13, and the cabinet minute of
+September 18, advising co-operation with Grenville and Grey, mentions the
+selection of Canning as prime minister as a course open to the king.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a> This is the date commonly given. The <i>Annual Register</i>, li.
+(1809), 239, gives the 22nd, while Perceval refers to the result of the
+duel in a letter dated the 20th (Colchester, <i>Diary</i>, ii., 209). It is
+clear, however, that Canning did not receive Castlereagh's challenge till
+the morning of the 20th (see his letter in <i>Annual Register</i>, <i>loc. cit.</i>,
+505, also his detailed statement to Camden, <i>ibid.</i>, 525), and therefore
+the duel cannot have taken place till the 21st. Lord Folkestone in a
+letter dated the 21st refers to the duel as having been fought at "7
+o'clock this morning" (<i>Creevey Papers</i>, i., 96).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_53" id="TOPIC_53"></a>The administration of Perceval, covering the period from October, 1809, to
+May, 1812, coincided with a lull in the continental war save in the
+Peninsula, though it saw no pause in the progress of French annexation.
+Nor was it marked by many events of historical interest in domestic
+affairs. When parliament was opened on January 23, 1810, it was natural
+that attention should chiefly be devoted to the Walcheren expedition,
+which the opposition illogically and unscrupulously contrived to use to
+disparage the operations of Sir Arthur Wellesley, now Viscount Wellington,
+in Spain. Grenville, who argued with some reason that 40,000 British
+troops could have been employed to far better purpose in North Germany,
+would have been on stronger ground if he had complained that for want of
+them the British army had been unable to occupy Madrid. Castlereagh,
+indeed, had confessed to Wellesley that he could not spare the necessary
+reinforcements, after the reserves had been exhausted in Walcheren; but it
+is by no means certain that Wellesley could have collected provisions
+enough to feed a much larger force, or specie enough to pay for them.
+Liverpool was driven in reply to Grenville to magnify the value of the
+capture of Flushing, as the necessary basis of the naval armaments which
+Napoleon had intended to launch against England from the Scheldt. The
+government was also defended by the young Robert Peel, lately elected to
+parliament. As the calamity was irreparable, a committee of the whole
+house spent most of its time on a constitutional question, regarding a
+private memorandum placed before the king by Chatham in his own defence.
+So irregular a proceeding was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> properly condemned, and Chatham resigned
+the mastership of the ordnance, but the policy of the Walcheren expedition
+was approved by a vote of the house of commons. Mulgrave received the
+office Chatham had vacated, and was himself succeeded by Yorke at the
+admiralty.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_54" id="TOPIC_54"></a>Parliament was next occupied by a question of privilege, in which Sir
+Francis Burdett, member for Westminster, then a favourite of the
+democracy, played a part resembling that of John Wilkes a generation
+earlier. Burdett had been for fourteen years a member of parliament, and
+had been conspicuous from the first for the vehemence of his opposition to
+the government, and more especially to its supposed infringements of the
+liberty of the subject. He had more recently taken an active part on
+behalf of Wardle's attack on the Duke of York and had supported the
+charges of ministerial corruption in the previous session. On the present
+occasion one John Gale Jones, president of a debating club, had published
+in a notice of debate the terms of a resolution which his club had passed,
+condemning in extravagant language the exclusion of strangers from the
+house of commons. This was treated as a breach of privilege, and Jones was
+sent to Newgate by order of the house itself. Burdett, in a violent letter
+to Cobbett's <i>Register</i>, challenged the right of the house to imprison
+Jones by its own authority, and, after a fierce debate lasting two nights,
+was adjudged by the house, on April 5, to have been guilty of a still more
+scandalous libel. Accordingly, the speaker issued a warrant for his
+committal to the Tower. Burdett declared his resolution to resist arrest,
+the populace mustered in his defence, the riot act was read, and he was
+conveyed to prison by a strong military escort, on whose return more
+serious riots broke out, and were not quelled without bloodshed. On his
+release at the end of the session a repetition of these scenes was
+prevented by the simple expedient of bringing him home by water. During
+his imprisonment he wrote an offensive letter to the speaker, and his
+colleague, Lord Cochrane, presented a violently worded petition from his
+Westminster constituents. In the following year he sued the speaker and
+the sergeant-at-arms in the court of king's bench, which decided against
+him on the ground that a power of commitment was necessary for the
+maintenance of the dignity of the house of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> commons, and its decision was
+confirmed, on appeal, by the court of exchequer chamber and the house of
+lords.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CURRENCY QUESTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_55" id="TOPIC_55"></a>The most important subject of internal policy discussed in the session of
+1810 was the state of the currency. Since 1797 cash payments had been
+suspended, the issue of banknotes had been nearly doubled, and the price
+of commodities had risen enormously. Whether these results had in their
+turn promoted the expansion of foreign commerce and internal industry was
+vigorously disputed by two rival schools of economists. The one thing
+certain was the increasing scarcity of specie, and the serious loss
+incurred in its provision for the service of the army in the Peninsula.
+Francis Horner, then rising to eminence, obtained the appointment of what
+became known as the "bullion committee" to inquire into the anomalous
+conditions thus created, and took a leading part in the preparation of its
+celebrated report, published on September 20. The committee arrived at the
+conclusion that the high price of gold was mainly due to excess in the
+paper-currency, and not, as alleged, to a drain of gold for the
+continental war. They attributed that excess to "the want of a sufficient
+check and control in the issues of paper from the Bank of England, and
+originally to the suspension of cash-payments, which removed the natural
+and true control". While allowing that paper could not be rendered
+suddenly convertible into specie without dislocating the entire business
+of the country, they recommended that an early provision should be made by
+parliament for terminating the suspension of cash-payments at the end of
+two years. These conclusions were combated by Castlereagh and Vansittart,
+who afterwards, in 1811, succeeded in carrying several
+counter-resolutions, of which the general effect was to explain the
+admitted rise in the price of gold, for the most part by the exclusion of
+British trade from the continent, and the consequent export of the
+precious metals in lieu of British manufactures. The last resolution,
+while it recognised the wisdom of restoring cash-payments as soon as it
+could safely be done, affirmed it to be "highly inexpedient and dangerous
+to fix a definite period for the removal of the restriction on
+cash-payments prior to the conclusion of a definitive treaty of peace".
+These counsels prevailed, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> the restriction was not actually removed
+until Peel's act was passed in July, 1819.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_56" id="TOPIC_56"></a>The last domestic event in the inglorious annals of 1810 was the final
+lapse of the king into mental derangement in the month of November. For
+more than six years his sight had been failing, but he had suffered no
+return of insanity since 1804. Now he lost both his sight and his reason.
+This event, impending for some time, was precipitated by the illness and
+death of the Princess Amelia, his favourite daughter, and was perhaps
+aggravated by the Walcheren expedition and the disgrace of the Duke of
+York. Parliament met on November 1, and was adjourned more than once
+before a committee was appointed to examine the royal physicians. Acting
+on their report, the ministers proposed and carried resolutions declaring
+the king's incapacity, and the right and duty of the two houses to provide
+for the emergency. It was also determined to define by act of parliament
+the powers to be exercised in the king's name and behalf. This implied a
+limitation of the regent's authority, and was resented by the Prince of
+Wales and his friends. Perceval, however, was able to rely on the
+precedent of 1788, to which Grenville, for one, had been a party, and,
+after considerable opposition, the prince was made regent under several
+temporary restrictions. With certain exceptions, he was precluded from
+granting any peerage or office tenable for life; the royal property was
+vested in trustees for the king's benefit, and the personal care of the
+king was entrusted to the queen, with the advice of a council. In this
+form, the regency bill was passed on February 4, 1811, after a protest
+from the other sons of George III. and violent attacks upon Eldon by
+Grenville and Grey. On the 5th, the regent took the oaths before the privy
+council, but, in accepting the restrictions, he delicately expressed
+regret that he should not have been trusted to impose upon himself proper
+limitations for the exercise of royal patronage. The interregnum thus
+established was to be provisional only, and was to cease on February 1,
+1812, but the queen and her private council, with the concurrence of the
+privy council, were empowered to annul it at any time, by announcing the
+king's recovery, when he could resume his powers by proclamation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE REGENCY BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p>The hopes of the opposition had been greatly excited by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> the prospect of a
+regency, and it was generally expected that a change of ministry would be
+its immediate consequence. Private communications had, in fact, passed
+between the prince and the whig lords, Grenville and Grey, but they were
+rendered nugatory by the dictatorial tone assumed by those lords and by
+the unwillingness of the prince to dispense with the advice of Moira and
+Sheridan. The two whig lords had by the prince's desire prepared a reply
+to the address from the houses of parliament, preparatory to the regency
+bill. Grenville had voted in favour of the restriction on the creation of
+peers, and it is therefore not surprising that the reply which he and Grey
+drafted appeared to the prince too weak in its protest against the
+limitations. He therefore adopted in its stead another reply which
+Sheridan had composed for him. The two lords thereupon addressed to the
+prince a remonstrance, which practically claimed for themselves the right
+of responsible ministers to be the sole advisers of their prince. This
+remonstrance provoked the ridicule of Sheridan, and certainly did not
+please the prince, who since the fall of the Grenville ministry had
+refused to be regarded as a "party man". The regent, accordingly, gave
+Perceval to understand that he intended to retain his present ministers,
+but solely on the ground that he was unwilling to do anything which might
+retard his father's recovery, or distress him when he should come to
+himself. This reason was probably genuine. The king appeared to be
+recovering; he had had several interviews with Perceval and Eldon, and had
+made inquiries as to the prince's intentions. Soon, however, the malady
+took a turn for the worse, and the physicians came to the conclusion that
+it was permanent.<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_57" id="TOPIC_57"></a>Before February, 1812, when the restrictions expired, and a permanent
+regency bill was passed, the prince drifted further away from his former
+advisers, and had been pacified by the loyal attitude of Perceval and
+Eldon. Further overtures were conveyed to the whig lords through a letter
+from the prince regent to the Duke of York, in which he declared that he
+had "no predilections to indulge or resentments to gratify," but only a
+concern for the public good, towards which he desired the co-operation of
+some of his old whig friends, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>dicating Grenville and Grey. They
+declined in a letter to the Duke of York, alleging differences on grounds
+of policy too deep to admit of a coalition. Eldon, on his part, expressed
+a similar conviction, but the regent never fully forgave what he regarded
+as their desertion. Wellesley, who was strongly opposed to Perceval's
+policy of maintaining the catholic disabilities, resigned the
+secretaryship of foreign affairs, protesting against the feeble support
+given to his brother in the Peninsula, and was succeeded by Castlereagh.
+In April Sidmouth became president of the council in place of Camden, who
+remained in the cabinet without office; and in the next month, on May 11,
+Perceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of commons by a man
+named Bellingham, who had an imaginary grievance against the government.</p>
+
+<p>A very general and sincere tribute of respect was paid by the house to
+Perceval's memory, for, though his statesmanship was of the second order,
+he was far more than a tory partisan; he was an excellent debater, and a
+thoroughly honest politician, and his private character was above all
+reproach or suspicion. The cabinet was bewildered by his death, and a
+fresh attempt was made to strengthen it by the simple inclusion of Canning
+as well as Wellesley. Wellesley stipulated that the catholic question
+should be left open, and that the war should be prosecuted with the entire
+resources of the country, while Canning declined co-operation on the
+ground of the catholic question alone. No agreement being found possible,
+the house of commons stepped in and addressed the regent, begging him to
+form a strong and efficient administration, commanding the confidence of
+all classes. He replied by sending for Wellesley, offering him the
+premiership and entrusting him with the formation of a comprehensive
+ministry; but Wellesley soon found that Liverpool and his adherents would
+not serve under him at all, while Grenville and Grey, who secretly
+condemned the Peninsular war, would only serve on conditions which he
+could not grant. Once more, the regent treated directly with these haughty
+whigs, now including Moira, to whom he committed the task of forming an
+administration. Grenville and Grey raised difficulties about the
+appointments in the royal household, which they wished to include in the
+political changes, and the negotiation was broken off. The regent at last
+fell<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> back on Liverpool, a capable and conciliatory minister, who adopted
+Perceval's colleagues, and a spell of tory administration set in which
+remained unbroken for no less than fifteen years. Had more tact been shown
+on all sides, had the whigs been less peremptory in their demands, and had
+the trivial household question never arisen, the course of the war, if not
+of European history, might, whether for good or evil, have been profoundly
+modified.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SOCIAL REFORMS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_58" id="TOPIC_58"></a>During the later period of Perceval's administration, from 1811 to 1812,
+the strife of politics had been mainly concentrated on the regency
+question, the chance of ministerial changes, and the fortunes of the war
+in Spain. But it must not be supposed that social questions were
+neglected, even in the darkest days of the war, however meagre the
+legislative fruits may appear. Session after session, Romilly pressed
+forward reforms of the criminal law, the institution of penitential houses
+in the nature of reformatories, and the abolition of state lotteries.
+Others laboured, and with greater success, to remedy the delays and reduce
+the arrears in the court of chancery. Constant efforts were made to expose
+defalcations in the revenue, to curtail exorbitant salaries, and to put
+down electioneering corruption. In 1809 Erskine introduced a bill for the
+prevention of cruelty to animals. In 1810 there were earnest, if somewhat
+futile, debates on spiritual destitution, the non-residence and poverty of
+the clergy, and the scarcity of places of worship. Moreover, early in
+1811, a premonitory symptom of the repeal movement caused some anxiety in
+Ireland. It took the form of a scheme for a representative assembly to sit
+in Dublin, and manage the affairs of the Roman catholic population, under
+colour of framing petitions to parliament, and seeking redress of
+grievances. It was, of course, to consist of Roman catholics only, and to
+include Roman catholic bishops. The Irish government wisely suppressed the
+scheme, and Perceval justified their action, on the ground that a
+representative assembly in Dublin, with such aims in view, bordered upon
+an illicit legislature.</p>
+
+<p>Except for the war in the Spanish peninsula, and the war between Russia
+and the Porte on the Danube, the year 1810 was marked by undisturbed peace
+throughout the continent of Europe. France continued to make annexations,
+but they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> were at the expense of her allies, not of her enemies. Her
+supremacy was signalised in a striking way by the marriage of her
+<i>parvenu</i> emperor, whose divorce the pope still refused to recognise, with
+Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Though thirteen out of
+twenty-six cardinals present in Paris declined to attend it, this marriage
+was a masterstroke of Talleyrand's diplomacy; it secured the benevolent
+neutrality of Austria for the next three years, and weakened the counsels
+of the allies during the negotiations of 1814-15. But it went far to
+estrange the Tsar of Russia, who, though he had courteously declined
+Napoleon's overtures for the hand of his own sister, was greatly offended
+on discovering that another matrimonial alliance had been contracted by
+his would-be brother-in-law before his reply could be received.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_59" id="TOPIC_59"></a>It was only within the limits of the French empire that Napoleon's
+authority had been sufficient to enforce the rigorous exclusion of British
+goods. His allies, including Sweden, which closed her ports to British
+products in January, 1810, and declared war on Great Britain in the
+following November, had adopted the continental system; but administrative
+weakness, and the obvious interest that every people had in its
+infraction, rendered its operation partial. Napoleon, determined to
+enforce the system in spite of every obstacle, met this difficulty by
+placing in immediate subjection to the French crown the territories where
+British goods were imported. The first ally to suffer was his own brother,
+Louis, King of Holland. His refusal to enforce Napoleon's orders against
+the admission of British goods was followed at once by a forced cession of
+part of Holland to France and the establishment of French control at the
+custom houses, and shortly afterwards by the despatch of French troops
+into Holland and its annexation to France on July 9, 1810. In December the
+French dominion over the North Sea coast was extended by the annexation of
+a corner of Germany, including the coast as far as the Danish frontier,
+and the town of L&uuml;beck on the Baltic. As a result of this annexation, the
+duchy of Oldenburg, held by a branch of the Russian imperial family,
+ceased to exist. The act was a conspicuous breach of the treaty of Tilsit,
+which Napoleon considered himself at liberty to disregard, as Russia had
+shown by her conduct during the campaign of 1809 that she was no longer<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+more than a nominal ally of France. At last, on January 12, 1811, Russia
+asserted her independence in fiscal matters by an order which declared her
+ports open to all vessels sailing under a neutral flag, and imposed a duty
+on many French products. Still the course of French annexation crept
+onwards, and quietly absorbed the republic of Vallais in Switzerland,
+which had been a great centre of smuggling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_60" id="TOPIC_60"></a>Meanwhile, the restrictions and prohibitions which formed the continental
+system were made more and more severe. By the Trianon tariff of August,
+1810, heavy duties were levied on colonial products, and by the
+Fontainebleau decree of October 18 all goods of British origin were to be
+seized and publicly burned. In November a special tribunal was created to
+try offenders against the continental system. Nevertheless, the fiscal and
+foreign policy of France at this date alike show how far the continental
+system had failed in its object, and to what extreme lengths it had become
+necessary to push it in order to give it a chance of success. The strain
+of the system on English commerce was immense, but the burden fell far
+more heavily on the continental nations. Colonial produce rose to enormous
+prices in France, Germany, and Italy, especially after the introduction of
+the Trianon tariff, and a subject or ally of the French emperor had to pay
+ten times as much for his morning cup of coffee as his enemy in London.
+The German opposition to Napoleon had failed in 1809 mainly through the
+political apathy of the German nation. Napoleon's fiscal measures were the
+surest way of bringing that apathy to an end, and converting it into
+hostility.</p>
+
+<p>The events of December, 1810, and January, 1811, constituted a distinct
+breach between France and Russia, which could only end in war, unless one
+party or the other should withdraw from its position. A few months
+sufficed to show that no such withdrawal would take place; but neither
+power was prepared for war, and seventeen months elapsed after the breach
+before hostilities began. The intervening period was spent in negotiation
+and preparation. Much depended on the alliances that the rival powers
+might be able to contract. Although Napoleon had bound himself not to
+restore Poland, he had by the creation and subsequent enlargement of the
+duchy of Warsaw given it a semblance of national unity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> had inspired
+the Poles with the hope of a more complete independence. The Polish troops
+were among the most devoted in the French army, and the position of their
+country rendered the support of the Poles a matter of great importance in
+any war with Russia. It occurred to the Tsar Alexander that he might win
+their support for himself by a restoration of Poland, under the suzerainty
+of Russia. He promised Czartoryski the restoration of the eight provinces
+under a guarantee of autonomy, and undertook to obtain the cession of
+Galicia. On February 13, 1811, he made a secret offer to Austria of a part
+of Moldavia in exchange for Galicia. Nothing came of this, but the massing
+of Russian troops on the Polish frontier in March was met by the hurried
+advance of French troops through Germany, and war seemed imminent until
+Russia postponed the struggle by withdrawing her troops.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, other European powers looked forward to selling their alliance
+on the best possible terms. Sweden and Prussia both approached the
+stronger power first. Bernadotte, on behalf of Sweden, was prepared for a
+French alliance if France would favour the Swedish acquisition of Norway.
+Napoleon, on February 25, not only refused these terms, but ordered Sweden
+to enforce the continental system under pain of a French occupation of
+Swedish Pomerania. This threat Sweden ventured to ignore. Prussia, lying
+directly between the two future belligerents, was in a more dangerous
+position. Neutrality was impossible, because her neutrality would not be
+respected. She first offered her alliance to Napoleon in return for a
+reduction of the payments due to France and a removal of the limit imposed
+on her army. Napoleon did not reply to this offer at once. Meanwhile the
+movement of French troops already mentioned and the increase of the French
+garrisons on the Oder, though primarily intended for the defence of
+Poland, caused great alarm in Prussia and resulted in preparations to
+resist a French attack. In July Napoleon finally refused to discuss the
+Prussian terms. Ever since his marriage he had been inclined more and more
+to an Austrian alliance. On March 26 of this year Otto, his ambassador at
+Vienna, had received information that France would support Austria if she
+would protest against the occupation of Belgrade by the Serbs. Napoleon
+even assured Otto that he was prepared to undertake<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> any engagement that
+Austria desired. Rest was, however, essential to Austria. The military
+disasters of 1809 had been followed by national bankruptcy, and with the
+government paper at a discount of 90 per cent. she dared not incur further
+liabilities.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_61" id="TOPIC_61"></a>Russia had an advantage over France in that she was able to free herself
+from her entanglement in Turkey, while Napoleon could not make peace
+either with Great Britain or with the Bourbon party in Spain. An armistice
+with the Porte was concluded on October 15. By that time all pretence of
+friendly intentions had been abandoned by France and Russia. Prussia,
+hoping still to save herself from an unconditional alliance with France,
+now turned to Russia, and Scharnhorst was despatched to seek a Russian
+alliance. Meanwhile Napoleon sent word to the Prussian court that, if her
+military preparations were not suspended, he would order Davo&ucirc;t to march
+on Berlin, and at the same time disclosed his offer of an unconditional
+alliance against Russia. Prussia, hoping for Russian aid still, put aside
+the French demands, but the Tsar Alexander expressed a decided preference
+for a defensive campaign against France, and refused any assistance unless
+the French should commit an unprovoked aggression on K&ouml;nigsberg.
+Scharnhorst seems to have seen the wisdom of this policy. He now turned to
+Austria, but there again a definite alliance was refused. Russia was
+equally unable to move Austria to join her, so that Russia and Prussia
+were each isolated in their opposition to Napoleon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_62" id="TOPIC_62"></a>In the months of August and September of this year a British force,
+commanded by Auchmuty, effected the conquest of Java, the wealthiest of
+the East Indian islands. The island had been a Dutch colony, and like
+other Dutch colonies had passed into the hands of France. Sumatra fell
+into English hands along with Java, so that the supremacy of Great Britain
+in the East Indies was fully established.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_63" id="TOPIC_63"></a>The new ministry which entered on office in June, 1812, differed largely
+in composition from that which had preceded it. Ryder and Yorke retired at
+the death of Perceval, Harrowby returned to office, and places in the
+cabinet were found for Sidmouth's adherents, Buckinghamshire, Vansittart,
+and Bragge-Bathurst. Sidmouth himself succeeded Ryder as home<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> secretary,
+while Harrowby succeeded Sidmouth as president of the council. Earl
+Bathurst took Liverpool's place as secretary for war and the colonies.
+Vansittart succeeded Perceval at the exchequer and Bragge-Bathurst in the
+duchy of Lancaster. Robert Dundas, now Viscount Melville, followed Yorke
+at the admiralty, and Buckinghamshire took Melville's place at the board
+of control, which became once more a cabinet office. Eldon, Castlereagh,
+Westmorland, and Mulgrave retained their former offices, while Camden
+remained in the cabinet without office. In September Mulgrave was created
+an earl, and Camden a marquis. The internal history of England during the
+first two years of Liverpool's premiership has been entirely dwarfed by
+the interest of external events. For this period comprised not only the
+Russian expedition&mdash;the greatest military tragedy in modern history&mdash;the
+marvellous resurrection of Germany, with the campaigns which culminated in
+the stupendous battle of Leipzig, and the invasion of France which ended
+in the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, but also the brilliant
+conclusion of the Peninsular war, and the earlier stages of the war
+between Great Britain and the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The nation was contented to leave the guidance of home and foreign policy
+at that critical time to the existing ministers, all honest, experienced,
+and high-minded statesmen, but none gifted with any signal ability, and
+inferior both in cleverness and in eloquence to the leaders of the
+opposition. Napoleon was not far wrong in regarding the British
+aristocracy, which they represented, as his most inveterate and powerful
+enemy; but he was grievously deceived in imagining that this aristocracy,
+in withstanding his colossal ambition, had not the British nation at its
+back. The electoral body, indeed, to which they owed their parliamentary
+majority, was but a fraction of the population, and the public opinion
+which supported them may seem but the voice of a privileged class in these
+days of household suffrage. But there is little reason to doubt that, if
+household suffrage had then prevailed, their foreign policy would have
+received a democratic sanction; nor is it at all certain that some
+features of their home policy, now generally condemned, were not
+justified, in the main, by the exigencies of their time.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>INDUSTRIAL DISTRESS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_64" id="TOPIC_64"></a>The "condition of England," as it was then loosely termed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> was the first
+subject which claimed the attention of Liverpool's government. While
+Perceval was congratulating parliament on the elasticity of the revenue, a
+widespread depression of industry was producing formidable disturbances in
+the midland counties. This depression was the consequence partly of the
+continental system, crippling the export of British goods to European
+countries; partly of the revival, in February, 1811, of the American
+non-intercourse act, closing the vast market of the United States; and
+partly of the improvements in machinery, especially those in spinning and
+weaving machines introduced by the inventions of Cartwright and Arkwright.
+Unhappily, this last cause, being the only one visible to artisans, was
+regarded by them as the sole cause of their distress. During the autumn
+and winter of 1811 "Luddite" riots broke out among the stocking-weavers of
+Nottingham. Their name was derived from a half-witted man who had
+destroyed two stocking frames many years before. Frame-breaking on a grand
+scale became the object of an organised conspiracy, which extended its
+operations from Nottinghamshire into Derbyshire, Leicestershire,
+Lancashire, and Yorkshire. At first frame-breaking was carried on by large
+bodies of operatives in broad daylight, and when these open proceedings
+were put down by military force, they were succeeded by nightly outrages,
+sometimes attended by murder. Early in 1812 a bill was passed making
+frame-breaking a capital offence.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this riots grew into local insurrections, and a message from
+the prince regent on June 27 recommended further action to parliament. It
+was natural, in that generation to connect all disorderly movements with
+revolutionary designs, and this belief underlies an alarmist report from a
+secret committee of the house of lords on the prevailing tumults.
+Accordingly, Sidmouth obtained new powers for magistrates to search for
+arms, to disperse tumultuous assemblies, and to exercise jurisdiction
+beyond their own districts. In November many Luddites were convicted, and
+sixteen were executed by sentence of a special commission sitting at York.
+These stern measures were effectual for a time, and popular discontent in
+the manufacturing districts ceased to assume so acute a form until after
+the war was ended.</p>
+
+<p>The sufferings of the poor in the rural districts, though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> generally
+endured in silence, were at least equally severe with those of the artisan
+class, and it is difficult to say whether a good or bad harvest pressed
+more heavily on agricultural labourers. When the price of wheat rose to
+130s. per quarter or upwards, as it did in 1812 and other years of
+scarcity, the farmers were able to pay comparatively high wages. When the
+price fell to 75s., as it did in years of plenty like 1813, wages were
+reduced to starvation-point, but supplemented out of the poor-rates, under
+the miserable system of indiscriminate out-door relief graduated according
+to the size of families. In either case, the entire income of a labourer
+was far below the modern standard, and the prosperity of trade meant to
+him an increase in the cost of all necessaries except bread. As for their
+employers, the golden age of farming, which is often identified with the
+age of the great war, had really ceased long before. Not only did the high
+price of a farmer's purchases go far to neutralise the high price of his
+sales, but the excessive fluctuations in all prices, due to the opening
+and closing of markets according to the fortunes of war, made prudent
+speculation almost impossible. The frequently recurring depressions were
+rendered all the more disastrous, because in times of high prices "the
+margin of cultivation" was unduly extended.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CORN LAWS.</i></div>
+
+<p>With a view to diminish the violence of these fluctuations, a select
+committee on the corn-trade was appointed by the house of commons in 1813,
+and reported in favour of a sliding-scale. When the price of wheat should
+fall below 90s. per quarter, its exportation was to be permitted; but its
+importation was to be forbidden, until the price should reach 103s., when
+it might, indeed, be imported, but under "a very considerable duty". It
+was assumed, in fact, that the normal price of wheat was above 100s. per
+quarter, and the price above which importation should be permitted was
+nearly twice as high as that fixed in 1801, when, moreover, it was to be
+admitted above 50s. at a duty of 2s. 6d., and above 54s. at a duty of
+sixpence. It is remarkable that in the debates of 1814 upon the report of
+this committee, William Huskisson, as well as Sir Henry Parnell, supported
+its main conclusions, upon the ground that agriculture must be upheld at
+all costs, and the home-market preferred to foreign markets. Canning and
+others ably advocated the cause of the consumers, alleging that duties on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+corn injured them far more than they could benefit landowners or farmers.
+Finally, a bill embodying a modified sliding-scale was introduced by the
+government, and, though lost by a narrow majority in 1814, became law in
+1815. Under this act the importation of foreign corn was prohibited, so
+long as the price of wheat did not rise above 80s. Above that price it
+might be imported free. Corn from British North America might, however, be
+imported free so long as the price of wheat exceeded 67s.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_65" id="TOPIC_65"></a>The parliamentary debates of 1812 chiefly turned on Spanish affairs, the
+revocation of the orders in council, the subsequent rupture with the
+United States which had anticipated this great concession, and the
+wearisome cabinet intrigues which preceded the accession of Liverpool as
+prime minister. It is noteworthy that so conservative a house of commons
+should actually have pledged itself to consider the question of catholic
+emancipation in the next session, and should have passed an act relieving
+nonconformists from various disabilities. The next session of this
+parliament, however, never came, for an unexpected dissolution took place
+on September 29. This dissolution was attributed, with some reason, to a
+wish on the part of the government to profit by an abundant harvest, and
+to the restoration of comparative quiet both in England and in Ireland. A
+new parliament assembled at the end of November. The prince regent's
+speech in opening it, though it noticed the suppression of the Luddite
+disturbances, was inevitably devoted to the great events in Spain and
+Russia, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia, and the American
+declaration of war. After the Christmas recess, Castlereagh presented an
+argumentative message from the prince fully discussing the points at issue
+between Great Britain and the United States, upon which Canning, though
+out of office, delivered a vigorous speech in defence of the British
+position. Eldon, in the house of lords, went further, boldly justifying
+the right of search, and denying the American contention that original
+allegiance could be cancelled by naturalisation without the consent of the
+mother-country. The Princess of Wales, who had long been separated from
+the prince, was the cause of more parliamentary time being wasted by a
+complaint which she addressed to the speaker against the proceedings of
+the privy council. That body had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> approved restrictions which her husband
+had thought fit to place on her intercourse with her daughter, the
+Princess Charlotte. Parliament, however, took no action in the matter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_66" id="TOPIC_66"></a>Perhaps the most important measure enacted in the session of 1813 was the
+so-called East India company's act. By this act the charter of the company
+was renewed with a confirmation of its administrative privileges and its
+monopoly of the China trade, but subject to material reservations: the
+India trade was thrown open from April 10, 1814, and the charter itself,
+thus restricted, was made terminable by three years' notice after April
+10, 1831. In this year the naval and military armaments of Great Britain,
+considered as a whole, perhaps reached their maximum strength, and the
+national expenditure rose to its highest level, including, as it did,
+subsidies to foreign powers amounting to about &pound;10,500,000. Of the
+aggregate expenditure, about two-thirds, &pound;74,000,000, were provided by
+taxation, an enormous sum relatively to the population and wealth of the
+country at that period. Patiently as this burden was borne on the whole by
+the people of Great Britain, we cannot wonder that Vansittart, the
+chancellor of the exchequer, should have sought to lighten it in some
+degree by encroaching upon the sinking fund, as founded and regulated by
+Pitt. The debates on this complicated question, in which Huskisson and
+Tierney stoutly combated Vansittart's proposal, belong rather to financial
+history. What strikes a modern student of politics as strange is that
+Vansittart, tory as he was, should have advocated the relief of living and
+suffering taxpayers, upon the principle, then undefined, of leaving money
+"to fructify in the pockets of the people"; while the whig economists of
+the day stickled for the policy of piling up new debts, if need be, rather
+than break in upon an empirical scheme for the gradual extinction of old
+debts.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a> For the whole crisis see Walpole, <i>Life of Perceval</i>, ii.,
+157-96, and for Sheridan's share in the transactions, Moore, <i>Life of
+Sheridan</i>, ii., 382-409.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE PENINSULAR WAR.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_67" id="TOPIC_67"></a>Reference has already been made to the conflict maintained for six years
+by Great Britain against France for the liberation of Spain and Portugal,
+which has since been known in history as the Peninsular war. It had its
+origin in two events which occurred during the autumn of 1807 and the
+spring of 1808. The first was the secret treaty of Fontainebleau concluded
+between France and Spain at the end of October, 1807; the second was the
+outbreak of revolutionary movements at Madrid, followed by the
+intervention of Napoleon in March, April, and May, 1808. The treaty of
+Fontainebleau was a sequel of the vast combination against Great Britain
+completed by the peace of Tilsit, under which the continental system was
+to be enforced over all Europe. Portugal, the ally of this country and an
+emporium of British commerce, was to be partitioned into principalities
+allotted by Napoleon, the house of Braganza was to be exiled, and its
+transmarine possessions were to be divided between France and Spain, then
+ruled by the worthless Godoy in the name of King Charles IV. <a name="TOPIC_68" id="TOPIC_68"></a>Whether or
+not the subjugation of the whole peninsula was already designed by
+Napoleon, his troops, ostensibly despatched for the conquest of Portugal
+under the provisions of the treaty, had treacherously occupied commanding
+positions in Spain, when the populace of Madrid rose in revolt, and,
+thronging the little town of Aranjuez, where the court resided, frightened
+the king into abdication. His unprincipled son, Ferdinand, was proclaimed
+in March, 1808, but Murat, who now entered Madrid as commander-in-chief of
+the French troops in that city, secretly favoured the ex-King Charles. In
+the end, both he and Ferdinand were enticed into seeking the protection
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> Napoleon at Bayonne. Instead of mediating or deciding between them,
+Napoleon soon found means to get rid of both. They were induced or rather
+compelled to resign their rights, and retire into private life on large
+pensions; and Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on his brother Joseph,
+whose former kingdom of Naples was bestowed on Murat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_69" id="TOPIC_69"></a>In the meantime, sanguinary riots broke out afresh at Madrid, hundreds of
+French were massacred, and the insurrection, as it was called, though
+sternly put down by Murat, spread like wildfire into all parts of Spain. A
+violent explosion of patriotism, resulting in anarchy, followed throughout
+the whole country. Napoleon was taken by surprise, but the combinations
+which he matured at Bayonne for the conquest of Spain were as masterly as
+those by which he had well-nigh subdued the whole continent, except
+Russia. He established a base of operations in the centre of the country,
+and organised four campaigns in the north-west, north-east, south-east,
+and south. Savary, who had succeeded Murat at Madrid, was supposed to act
+as commander-in-chief, but was really little more than a medium for
+transmitting orders received from Napoleon at Bayonne. The campaign of
+Duhesme in Catalonia was facilitated by the treacherous seizure of the
+citadel of Barcelona in the previous February. It was not long, however,
+before effective aid was rendered on the coast by the British fleet under
+Collingwood, and especially by Lord Cochrane in the <i>Imp&eacute;rieuse</i> frigate;
+the undisciplined bands of Catalonian volunteers were reinforced by
+regular troops from Majorca and Minorca; the fortress of Gerona made an
+obstinate resistance; the siege of it was twice raised, and Barcelona,
+almost isolated, was now held with difficulty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FRANCE OCCUPIES THE PENINSULA.</i></div>
+
+<p>Marshal Moncey vainly besieged Valencia, while Generals
+Lefebvre-Desno&euml;ttes and Verdier were equally unsuccessful before Zaragoza.
+In the plains of Leon, Marshal Bessi&egrave;res gained a decisive victory over a
+superior force of Spaniards under Cuesta and Blake, at Medina de Rio Seco,
+on July 14. Having thus secured the province of Leon, and the great route
+from Bayonne to Madrid, he was advancing on Galicia when his progress was
+arrested by disaster in another quarter. General Dupont, commanding the
+southern army, found himself nearly surrounded at Baylen, and solicited an
+armistice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> followed by a convention, under which, "above eighteen
+thousand French soldiers laid down their arms before a raw army incapable
+of resisting half that number, if the latter had been led by an able
+man".<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a> The convention, signed on July 20, stipulated for the transport
+of the French troops to France, but its stipulations were shamefully
+violated; some were massacred, others were sent to sicken in the hulks at
+Cadiz, and comparatively few lived to rejoin their colours. <a name="TOPIC_70" id="TOPIC_70"></a>Meanwhile a
+so-called "assembly of notables," summoned to Bayonne, consisting of
+ninety-one persons, all nominees of Napoleon, assumed to act for the whole
+nation, had accepted the nomination of Joseph Bonaparte as king, and
+proceeded to adopt a constitution. On July 20, the very day of the
+capitulation of Baylen, Joseph entered Madrid, and on the 24th was
+proclaimed King of Spain and the Indies. But the military prestige of the
+grand army received a fatal blow in the catastrophe, of which the
+immediate effect was the retirement of Joseph behind the Ebro, and the
+ultimate effects were felt in the later history of the war.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment almost the whole of Portugal was in possession of the
+French. In November, 1807, under peremptory orders from Napoleon, Junot
+with a French army and an auxiliary force of Spaniards, but without money
+or transport, had marched with extraordinary rapidity across the mountains
+to Alcantara in the valley of the Tagus. He thence pressed forward to
+Lisbon, hoping to anticipate the embarkation of the royal family for
+Brazil, which, however, took place just before his arrival and almost
+under his eyes. With his army terribly reduced by the hardships and
+privations of his forced march, he overawed Lisbon and issued a
+proclamation that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign". A fortnight
+later a Spanish division occupied Oporto, and meanwhile another Spanish
+division established itself in the south-east of Portugal, but, as the
+French stragglers came in and reinforcements approached, Junot felt
+himself strong enough to cast off all disguise; he suppressed the council
+of regency, took the government into his own hands, and levied a heavy war
+contribution. During the early months of 1808 he was employed in
+reorganising his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> own forces, and the resources of Lisbon, where an
+auxiliary Russian fleet of nine ships was lying practically blockaded. In
+a military sense, he was successful, but the rapacity of the French, the
+contagion of the Spanish uprising, the memory of the old alliance with
+England, and the proximity of English fleets, stirred the blood of the
+Portuguese nation into ill-concealed hostility. The Spanish commander at
+Oporto withdrew his troops to Galicia, and the inhabitants declared for
+independence. Their example was followed in other parts of Portugal. Junot
+acted with vigour, disarmed the Spanish contingent at Lisbon, and sent
+columns to quell disturbances on the Spanish frontiers, but he soon
+realised the necessity of concentration. He therefore resolved to abandon
+most of the Portuguese fortresses, limiting his efforts to holding Lisbon,
+and keeping open his line of communication with Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>VIMEIRO AND CINTRA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_71" id="TOPIC_71"></a>Such was the state of affairs in the Peninsula when Sir Arthur Wellesley
+landed his army of some 12,000 men on August 13, 1808. He had been
+specially designated for the command of a British army in Portugal by
+Castlereagh, then secretary for war and the colonies, who fully
+appreciated his singular capacity for so difficult a service. Sir John
+Moore, who had just returned from the Baltic, having found it hopeless to
+co-operate with Gustavus IV. of Sweden, was sent out soon afterwards to
+Portugal with a corps of some 10,000 men. Both these eminent soldiers were
+directed to place themselves under the orders not only of Sir Hew
+Dalrymple, the governor of Gibraltar, as commander-in-chief, but of Sir
+Harry Burrard, when he should arrive, as second in command. Wellesley had
+received general instructions to afford "the Spanish and Portuguese
+nations every possible aid in throwing off the yoke of France," and was
+empowered to disembark at the mouth of the Tagus. Having obtained
+trustworthy information at Coru&ntilde;a and Oporto, he decided rather to begin
+his campaign from a difficult landing-place south of Oporto at the mouth
+of the Mondego, and to march thence upon Lisbon. He was opportunely joined
+by General Spencer from the south of Spain, and chose the coast-road by
+Torres Vedras. At Roli&ccedil;a he encountered a smaller force under Delaborde,
+sent in advance by Junot to delay his progress, and routed it after a
+severe combat. Delaborde, however, retreated with admirable tenacity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+Wellesley, expecting reinforcements from the coast, pushed forward to
+Vimeiro, without attempting to check the concentration of Junot's army.
+<a name="TOPIC_72" id="TOPIC_72"></a>There was fought, on August 21, the first important battle of the
+Peninsular war. The British troops, estimated at 16,778 men (besides about
+2,000 Portuguese), outnumbered the French considerably, but the French
+were much stronger in cavalry, and boldly assumed the offensive, confident
+in the prestige derived from so many victories in Italy and Germany.
+Wellesley's position was strong, but the attack on it was skilfully
+designed and pressed home with resolute courage. It was repelled at every
+point of the field, and the French, retiring in confusion, might have been
+cut off from Lisbon. But Burrard, who had just landed and witnessed the
+battle without interfering, now absolutely refused to sanction a vigorous
+pursuit.</p>
+
+<p>On the following day he was superseded in turn by Dalrymple. The new
+commander determined to await the arrival of Moore, whose approach was
+reported, but who did not disembark his whole force until the 30th. In the
+meantime, overtures for an armistice were received from Junot, and
+ultimately resulted in the so-called "convention of Cintra," though it was
+first drafted at Torres Vedras and was ratified at Lisbon. Under this
+agreement the French army was to surrender Lisbon intact with other
+Portuguese fortresses, but was allowed to return to France with its arms
+and baggage at the expense of the British government. Having dissented
+from the military decision which had enabled Junot to negotiate, instead
+of capitulating, Wellesley also dissented from certain terms of the
+convention. He was, however, party to it as a whole, and afterwards
+justified its main conditions as securing the evacuation of Portugal at
+the price of reasonable concessions. This was not the feeling of the
+British public, which loudly resented the escape of the French army and
+insisted upon a court of inquiry. The verdict of this court saved the
+military honour of all three generals, but its members were so divided in
+opinion on the policy of the convention that no authoritative judgment was
+pronounced. Napoleon felt no such difficulty in condemning Junot for
+yielding too much, and the inhabitants of Lisbon were infuriated not only
+by the loss of their expected vengeance, but also by the shameless plunder
+of their public and private<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> property by the departing French. Under a
+separate convention, the Russian fleet, long blockaded in the Tagus, was
+surrendered to the British admiral, but without its officers or crews.</p>
+
+<p>The capitulation of Baylen paralysed for a time the aggressive movements
+of France in Spain. Catalonia remained unconquered, even Bessi&egrave;res
+retreated, and Joseph, as we have seen, abandoned Madrid. Happily for the
+French, the Spaniards proved quite incapable of following up their
+advantages, and though a "supreme junta" was assembled at Aranjuez, it
+wasted its time in vain wrangling, and did little or nothing for the
+organisation of national defence. Meanwhile, Napoleon was pouring veteran
+troops from Germany into the north of Spain, where they repulsed the
+Spanish levies in several minor engagements. On October 14 he left Erfurt,
+where he had renewed his alliance with the tsar, and reached Bayonne on
+November 3. His simple but masterly plan of campaign was already prepared,
+and was carried out with the utmost promptitude. On November 10-11, one of
+three Spanish armies was crushed at Espinosa; on the former day another
+was routed at Gamonal; on the 23rd the third was utterly dispersed at
+Tudela. Napoleon himself remained for some days at Burgos, awaiting the
+result of these operations; on December 4, after a feeble resistance, he
+entered Madrid in triumph, and stayed there seventeen days, which he
+employed with marvellous activity in maturing fresh designs, both civil
+and military, for securing his power in Spain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ADVANCE OF SIR JOHN MOORE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_73" id="TOPIC_73"></a>Already, on October 7, Sir John Moore had taken over the command of the
+British forces. He probably owed his appointment to George III., who seems
+on this occasion to have overruled his foreign and war ministers, Canning
+and Castlereagh. In spite of his unwillingness to offer the appointment to
+Moore, Castlereagh gave him the most loyal and efficient support during
+the whole campaign; and this loyalty to Moore was one of the reasons for
+Canning's desire to remove Castlereagh from the war office, which, as we
+have seen, led to the famous duel between those two statesmen. It was at
+first intended that Moore should co-operate with the Spanish armies which
+were then facing the French on the line of the Ebro. For this purpose he
+was to have the command of 21,000 troops already in Portugal and of about
+12,000 who were being sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> by sea to Coru&ntilde;a under Sir David Baird.
+Burrard was to remain in Portugal with another 10,000. Nothing had been
+done before Moore was appointed to the command to provide the troops with
+their necessary equipment or their commander with the necessary local
+information. The departure of the troops was therefore slow. By October 18
+the greater part of the British troops in Portugal were in motion, but the
+whole army had not left Lisbon till the 29th. The main body travelled by
+fairly direct routes to Salamanca, where Moore arrived on November 13, but
+he was induced by information, which proved to be incorrect, to send his
+cavalry and guns with a column under Hope, by the more circuitous high
+road through Elvas and Talavera. When this route was adopted it was
+anticipated that the different divisions of the British army would be able
+to unite at, or near, Valladolid. But the advance of the French rendered
+this impossible, and Hope ultimately joined Moore at Salamanca on December
+4.</p>
+
+<p>Baird suffered from even more vexatious delays. Though the greater part of
+his convoy had arrived at Coru&ntilde;a on October 13, the local junta would not
+permit them to land without express orders from the central junta at
+Aranjuez. Consequently the disembarkation did not begin till the 26th and
+was only finished on November 4. Transport and equipment were difficult to
+obtain, and on November 22 Baird was still only at Astorga. There
+exaggerated reports of the French advance induced him to halt, but by
+Moore's orders he continued his march. On the 28th the news of the defeat
+of Casta&ntilde;os at Tudela reached Moore at Salamanca. Co-operation with a
+Spanish army now appeared impossible, and even a junction with Baird
+seemed too hazardous to attempt. Moore therefore, ordered Baird to retire
+on Coru&ntilde;a and to proceed to Lisbon by sea, and, while waiting himself at
+Salamanca for Hope, made preparations for a retreat to Portugal. On
+December 5, the day after his junction with Hope, Moore determined to
+continue his advance. He had received news of the enthusiastic
+preparations for the defence of Madrid but did not know of its fall, and
+he considered that the Spanish enthusiasm justified some risk on the part
+of the British troops. He accordingly recalled Baird, whose infantry had
+retired to Villafranca, though his cavalry were still at Astorga. On the
+9th came the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> news of the fall of Madrid, but Moore believed that an
+attack on the French lines of communication might still prove useful, and
+on the 11th the advance was renewed. Moore himself left Salamanca on the
+13th. On the 12th he learned for the first time from some prisoners the
+true strength of the French army, 250,000 of all arms, and also discovered
+that the enemy were in complete ignorance of the position of his own army.
+Next day an intercepted despatch showed him that he might possibly be able
+to cut off Soult in an isolated position at Salda&ntilde;a. Having at last
+effected a junction with Baird's corps on the 19th he reached Sahagun on
+the 21st, and was on the point of delivering his attack under favourable
+conditions, though his triumph must have been short-lived.</p>
+
+<p>His real success was of another order. He had anticipated that Napoleon
+would postpone everything to the opportunity of crushing a British army,
+and the ultimate object of his march to Sahagun was to draw the French
+away from Lisbon and Andalusia. He was not disappointed. Napoleon at last
+divined that Moore was not flying in a south-westerly direction, but
+carrying out a bold man&oelig;uvre in a north-easterly direction. He
+instantly pushed division after division from various quarters by forced
+marches upon Moore's reported track, while he himself followed with
+desperate efforts across the snow-clad mountains between Madrid and the
+Douro. Apprised of his swift advance, and conscious of his own vast
+inferiority in numbers, Moore had no choice but to retreat without a
+moment's delay upon Benevente and Astorga. He was now sufficiently far
+north to prefer to retire upon Galicia rather than upon Portugal. The
+retreat began on the 24th and was executed with such rapidity that on
+January 1, 1809, Napoleon gave up the pursuit at Astorga, leaving it to be
+continued by Soult. Whether he was influenced by intelligence of fresh
+armaments on the Danube, or of dangerous plots in Paris, must remain
+uncertain, but it is highly probable that he saw little honour to be won
+in a laborious chase of a foe who might prove formidable if brought to
+bay.</p>
+
+<p>Moore's army, disheartened as it was by the loss of a brilliant chance,
+and demoralised as it became under the fatigues and hardships of a most
+harassing retreat, never failed to repel attacks on its rear, where Paget
+handled the cavalry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> of the rear-guard with signal ability, especially in
+a spirited action near Benevente. In spite of some excesses, tolerable
+order was maintained until the British force, still 25,000 strong, reached
+Astorga, and was joined by some 10,000 Spaniards under Roma&ntilde;a.
+Thenceforward, all sense of discipline was abandoned by so many regiments
+that Moore described the conduct of his whole army as "infamous beyond
+belief," though it is certain that some regiments, and notably those of
+the reserve, should be excepted from this sweeping condemnation.
+Drunkenness, marauding, and other military crimes grew more and more
+general as the main body marched "in a drove" through Villafranca to Lugo,
+where Moore vainly offered battle, and onwards to Betanzos on the
+sea-coast. There a marvellous rally was effected, stragglers rejoined the
+ranks in unexpected numbers, the <i>moral</i> of the soldiery was restored as
+the fearful strain of physical misery was relaxed, and by January 12,
+1809, all the divisions of Moore's army were safely posted in or around
+Coru&ntilde;a. Bad weather had delayed the fleet of transports ordered round from
+Vigo, but it ran into the harbour on the 14th, and the sick and invalids
+were sent on board.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE BATTLE OF CORU&Ntilde;A.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_74" id="TOPIC_74"></a>Moore was advised to make terms for the embarkation of his entire command,
+but he was too good a soldier to comply. Those who took part in the battle
+of Coru&ntilde;a on the 16th, some 15,000 men in all, were no unworthy
+representatives of the army which started from Lisbon three months
+earlier. Soult, with a larger force, assumed the offensive, and made a
+determined attack on the British position in front of the harbour and town
+of Coru&ntilde;a. He was repulsed at all points, but Moore was mortally, and
+Baird severely, wounded on the field. Hope, who took command, knowing that
+Soult would soon be reinforced, wisely persisted in carrying out Moore's
+intention, evacuated Coru&ntilde;a, and embarked his army for England during the
+night and the following day. His losses were estimated by Hope at above
+700, killed and wounded; those of the enemy were twice as great. Thus
+victory crowned a campaign which otherwise would have done little to
+satisfy the popular appetite for tangible success. The original object of
+supporting the Spanish resistance in the north had been rendered
+impossible of fulfilment by Napoleon's victories when Moore had barely
+crossed the Spanish frontier, and in this sense the expedi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>tion must be
+regarded as a failure, though its commander was in no sense responsible
+for its ill-success. On the other hand, considered as a skilful diversion,
+the expedition was highly successful. It drew all the best French troops
+and generals into the north-west corner of Spain, leaving all the other,
+and far richer, provinces to recover their power of resistance.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<p>The spirit in which Napoleon had entered upon this contest is well
+illustrated in two sentences of his address to the citizens of Madrid.
+"The Bourbons," he said, "can no longer reign in Europe," and "No power
+under the influence of England can exist on the continent". The
+counter-proclamations of Spanish juntas were more prolix and equally
+arrogant, but one of them reveals the secret of national strength when it
+asserts that "a whole people is more powerful than disciplined armies".
+The British estimate of Napoleon's Spanish policy was tersely expressed by
+the Marquis Wellesley in the house of lords, "To him force and fraud were
+alike; force, that would stoop to all the base artifices of fraud; and
+fraud, that would come armed with all the fierce violence of force".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLESLEY TAKES COMMAND.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_75" id="TOPIC_75"></a>For three months after the battle of Coru&ntilde;a, the Peninsular war, as
+regards the action of Great Britain, was all but suspended. Two days
+before that battle, a formal treaty of peace and alliance between Great
+Britain and the Spanish junta, which had withdrawn to Seville, was signed
+at London. Sir John Cradock was in command of the British troops at
+Lisbon, and took up a defensive position there, with reinforcements from
+Cadiz, awaiting the approach of Soult, who had captured Oporto by storm,
+and of Victor, who was in the valley of the Tagus. At the request of the
+Portuguese, Beresford had been sent out to organise and command their
+army. Early in 1809 the Spaniards were defeated with great slaughter at
+Ucles, Ciudad Real, and Medellin; Zaragoza was taken after another siege,
+and still more obstinate defence; and the national cause seemed more
+desperate than ever. On April 2, however, Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had
+returned home after the convention of Cintra, was appointed to the
+command-in-chief of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> our forces in the Peninsula. Before leaving England,
+he left with the ministers a memorandum on the conduct of the war which,
+viewed by the light of later events, must be accounted a masterpiece of
+foresight and sagacity. When it was laid before George III., his natural
+shrewdness at once discerned its true value, and he desired its author to
+be informed of the strong impression which it had produced on his mind.</p>
+
+<p>Wellesley, indeed, could not estimate beforehand the vast numerical
+superiority of the French while the rest of Europe was at peace, or the
+impotent vacillations of Spanish juntas, or the "mulish obstinacy" of
+Spanish generals, which so often wrecked his plans and spoiled his
+victories. Nor could he foresee the advantages which he would derive from
+the resources of guerilla warfare, the mutual jealousies of the French
+marshals, and the sudden recall of the best French troops for service in
+Germany and Russia. But his prescient and practical mind firmly grasped
+the dominant facts of the position&mdash;that Portugal, guarded by the ocean on
+the west and by mountain ranges on the east, was far more accessible to
+the British navy than to the French army; that, under British officers,
+its troops might be trained into an effective force; and that, with it as
+a basis, Great Britain might ultimately liberate the whole Peninsula. "I
+have always been of opinion," Wellesley said in this memorandum, "that
+Portugal might be defended, whatever might be the result of the contest in
+Spain; and that in the meantime the measures adopted for the defence of
+Portugal would be highly useful to the Spaniards in their contest with the
+French." On this simple principle all his detailed recommendations were
+founded, and he expressed a deliberate belief that, if 30,000 British
+troops were supported by an equal number of Portuguese regulars, and a
+reserve of militia was provided, "the French would not be able to overrun
+Portugal with less than 100,000 men". This forecast was verified, and upon
+its essential wisdom the fate of the Peninsular war, with all its
+consequences, may be said to have depended.<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a></p>
+
+<p>Wellesley landed at Lisbon on April 22, and was received with the utmost
+demonstrations of joy and confidence. He found not only the capital but
+the whole country in a state of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> tumult, if not of anarchy, due to a
+growing despair of the national cause. His arrival rekindled the embers of
+patriotism, and on May 5 he reviewed at Coimbra a body of troops
+consisting of 17,000 British and Germans, with about 8,000 Portuguese. The
+next day he marched towards the Douro, and on the 14th he effected the
+passage of that river in the face of the French army occupying Oporto,
+which the British forthwith recaptured. Soult beat a hasty and disorderly
+retreat into Galicia. Having driven Soult out of Portugal, the British
+general was encouraged to undertake a further advance into Spain, where
+Joseph with Victor and S&eacute;bastiani had collected a much larger army to bar
+the approaches to Madrid than Wellesley, relying on Spanish intelligence,
+had been led to expect. During June and the first days of July, he moved
+by Abrantes and the Tagus valley as far as Plasencia, little knowing that
+Soult was about to sweep round his rear, with 50,000 men, and intercept
+his communications with Lisbon. On July 10 he held a conference with the
+Spanish general Cuesta, who insisted on making an aggressive movement with
+his own troops only, and met with a repulse.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TALAVERA CAMPAIGN.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_76" id="TOPIC_76"></a>On the 27th, the combined armies of Wellesley and Cuesta, numbering
+respectively about 20,000 British and 35,000 Spanish, confronted 46,000
+French troops, under Victor, in a strong position behind Talavera.<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a> The
+Spanish forces occupied the right and the British the left of this
+position. Joseph was present, and disregarding the counsels of Jourdan,
+his proper military adviser, authorised Victor to assume the offensive. He
+failed in two preliminary attacks on the 27th, but renewed them on the
+28th, when a general engagement ensued. The whole brunt of the battle fell
+upon the British troops, who gallantly withstood a desperate onset, first
+on their left and then on their centre and right, until the French quitted
+the field in confusion. The Spaniards, posted in entrenchments nearer
+Talavera itself, did and suffered comparatively little. Some of their
+regiments fled disgracefully, but the rest held their ground, and
+Wellesley in his despatch spoke favourably of their behaviour.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> Perhaps
+the part which they played may be roughly estimated by their losses,
+amounting to 1,200, as compared with 6,268 British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> and nearly 9,000
+French. Wellesley, after further experience of Spanish co-operation, made
+up his mind to dispense with it altogether in future.</p>
+
+<p>The victory of Talavera won for Wellesley the rank of viscount, to which
+he was raised on September 4, with the title of Wellington. Although the
+victory revived the respect of foreign nations for the prowess of British
+arms, it was otherwise fruitless, and its sequel was fairly open to
+criticism. Wellesley found that Soult, with Ney and Mortier, had
+circumvented him, and that he must retreat through Esdremadura, on the
+south of the Tagus, upon Badajoz. Cuesta, who had advocated bolder
+counsels, undertook to guard the rear, and to protect the British wounded
+at Talavera. But he soon found it necessary to abandon that position.
+Fifteen hundred of the wounded were left behind, and were humanely treated
+by the French generals. Wellesley's retreat over the mountains was
+attended with great hardship and loss, for want of supplies either from
+Spain or from the coast, and his long encampment in the malarious valley
+of the Guadiana about Badajoz swelled the number of his sick to a
+frightful extent. It was not until December, when it got into better
+cantonments on Portuguese soil, that the British army, triumphant at
+Talavera, recovered either its health or its <i>moral</i>. Napoleon boasted, in
+a memorandum to be inserted in the Paris journals, that Wellington had
+really been beaten in Spain, and that "if affairs there had been properly
+conducted not an Englishman would have escaped". Without going quite so
+far as this, the parliamentary opposition in England made the least of the
+victory and the most of the retreat, which unfortunately coincided in time
+with the wreck of the Walcheren expedition. Even Wellington's best friends
+in England began to lose heart, as did many of his own officers. He
+remained undaunted, and having established his headquarters on the high
+ground between the Tagus and the Douro, meditated designs which, slowly
+matured, bore good fruit in later years.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to understand the inaction of Wellington for so many
+months after the Talavera campaign, without taking into account not only
+the difficulty of obtaining sufficient recruits and stores from England
+after the waste of both at the mouth of the Scheldt, but the greatly
+increased strength of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> French in Spain during the long interval
+between the Wagram campaign and the Russian expedition. At the close of
+1809 all the fortresses of Spain had fallen into the enemy's hands, and
+all her principal armies had been defeated and dispersed in successive
+battles of which the greatest was that of Oca&ntilde;a in the month of November.
+Suchet was master of Aragon and the east of Spain, nor was he dislodged
+from it until the end of the war; Andalusia was nearly conquered; Cadiz
+was only saved by the self-reliant courage of the Duc d'Albuquerque,
+baffling the intrigues and treachery of the supreme junta there assembled;
+and Napoleon was preparing a fresh army to overrun Portugal, under the
+command of Mass&eacute;na. The Perceval ministry, in which Liverpool had taken
+Castlereagh's post of secretary for war and the colonies, adopting an
+optimistic tone at home, practically told Wellington that he must shift
+for himself; and he braced himself up to do so with extraordinary
+fortitude.</p>
+
+<p>He remained watching the gathering storm from the heights of Guarda,
+south-west of Almeida, and commanding two great roads from Spain into
+Portugal, but his thoughts were equally fixed upon the vast and famous
+lines of Torres Vedras, which he was constructing for the defence of
+Lisbon. His force, including the Portuguese regulars, did not exceed
+50,000 men; that of the French under Ney, Reynier, and Junot consisted of
+about 70,000, but they were not equally capable of being concentrated on a
+single point. The Portuguese militia, too, were being gradually
+disciplined, and the Portuguese civil authorities were being gradually
+schooled into the new lesson of sweeping their own country bare of all
+supplies before the coming French invasion. Wellington did not even strike
+a blow to save Ciudad Rodrigo, which Mass&eacute;na took on July 10, 1810. But it
+was no part of his plan that Almeida should capitulate, as it did shortly
+afterwards, partly owing to the accidental explosion of a magazine, and
+partly as was suspected, to an act of treachery. Still, Mass&eacute;na delayed
+until urged by Napoleon, and deceived by false intelligence, he launched
+forth, at the beginning of September, on an enterprise which proved fatal
+to his reputation. Both he and Wellington issued appeals to the Portuguese
+nation, the contrast between which is significant. The French marshal,
+echoing the prevail<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>ing note of his master's proclamation, denounced Great
+Britain as the enemy of all Europe; Wellington called upon the Portuguese
+to remember their actual experience of French rapacity and outrage.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BUSSACO AND TORRES VEDRAS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_77" id="TOPIC_77"></a>The object of Mass&eacute;na was to reach Coimbra before Wellington. His
+man&oelig;uvres to outflank Wellington's left were skilfully devised, but the
+British army marched steadily down the valley of the Mondego, carrying
+with it the population of the district, and took its stand on the ridge of
+Bussaco, north of Coimbra, barring Mass&eacute;na's progress. There was fought,
+on September 27, 1810, a battle as deadly as that of Talavera, and more
+decisive in its consequences. The French, as usual, were the assailants;
+the English and the Portuguese stood at bay. Never, in any of their
+brilliant victories, did French troops show more heroic daring than in
+this assault under Reynier on the British right, and under Ney on the
+British left. Both columns forced their way up bare heath-clad slopes, and
+reached the summit, whence they were only driven back after repeated
+charges. Their loss in killed and wounded exceeded 4,500, that of the
+allies was about 1,300. The French generals threw the blame of defeat upon
+each other, but, in fact, the skill of Mass&eacute;na converted a defeat into an
+episode in his victorious advance. On the following day, he again found a
+way of turning Wellington's left, and, in an intercepted despatch, he
+naturally treated this as a compensation for the repulse at Bussaco, which
+he did not disguise. Compelled to retire once more with a vast drove of
+encumbered, panic-stricken, and famishing Portuguese fugitives, and
+conscious that no reserves awaited him, Wellington knew, nevertheless,
+that he was drawing Mass&eacute;na further and further away from his base, to
+encounter a terrible surprise. For, so useless had been the French scouts,
+and so worthless the information received from Portuguese sources, that no
+adequate conception of the obstacle presented by the lines of Torres
+Vedras had entered the mind of that experienced strategist.</p>
+
+<p>These elaborate works had been constructed in the course of a year by
+thousands of Portuguese labourers, directed by Colonel Fletcher of the
+royal engineers, upon a plan carefully thought out and laid down by
+Wellington himself. The first and principal chain of fortifications
+stretched for nearly thirty<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> miles across the whole promontory between the
+river Tagus and the sea, about twenty-five miles north of Lisbon. The
+summits of hills were crowned with forts, their sides were escarped and
+protected with earthworks, their gorges were blocked with redoubts, a
+small river at the foot of them was made impassable by dams; in short, the
+utmost advantage was taken of the defences provided by nature, and these
+were supplemented by artificial entrenchments. Portuguese garrisons manned
+the greater part of the batteries, armed with guns from the arsenals of
+Lisbon; British troops were to occupy the most vulnerable points of
+attack. There was a second and third range of fortifications behind the
+first, in case these should be forced, but no such emergency arose. When
+Mass&eacute;na had carefully inspected the stupendous barrier reared in front of
+him, his well-trained eye recognised it as impregnable: he paused for some
+weeks under semblance of blockading the British forces, while he was
+really scouring the country for the means of feeding his own; but in
+November he began to retreat upon Santarem, Almeida, and Ciudad Rodrigo,
+with a half-starved and dispirited army, greatly reduced in numbers during
+the campaign.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a></p>
+
+<p>The year 1811 was perhaps the least interesting, yet the most critical in
+the history of the Peninsular war. Wellington had not escaped criticism at
+home for allowing Mass&eacute;na to remain so long unmolested near Santarem. He
+described himself in a private letter, written in December, 1810, as "safe
+for the winter at all events". More he could not have said, knowing, as he
+did, that Soult was in force before Cadiz, and might at any moment join
+Mass&eacute;na. This, in fact, he did; leaving his fields of plunder in Andalusia
+under the positive orders of Napoleon, he defeated the Spaniards at the
+Gebora on February 19, and captured Badajoz, as well as Olivenza. In his
+absence, Sir Thomas Graham, who commanded the British troops at Cadiz,
+sailed thence with La Pe&ntilde;a, the Spanish commander, and a combined force of
+about 12,000 men, to make a flank march, and attack the French besiegers,
+under Victor, in the rear. A brisk action followed at Barrosa, in which
+Graham obtained a complete victory, but the Spanish troops, as usual,
+remained almost passive; the beaten army was not pursued,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> and the siege
+of Cadiz was not raised. This city was still the seat of the Spanish
+national government, but the feeble junta had been superseded by a
+national cortes, fairly representative of the nation, which passed some
+liberal measures, and dissolved the so-called regency which assumed to
+represent Ferdinand.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FUENTES D'ONORO AND ALBUERA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_78" id="TOPIC_78"></a>The two great frontier fortresses of Spain, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz,
+were now in the hands of the French. Mass&eacute;na had regained the Spanish
+frontier in March, after frequent combats with the pursuing enemy, and
+with heavy losses in men and horses, though he saved every gun except one.
+This retreat involved the evacuation of every place in Portugal except the
+fortress of Almeida. Wellington's pursuit would have been still more
+vigorous, but that his Portuguese troops were half-starved, and had lost
+discipline under intolerable privations. His next design seems to have
+been the recapture of the fortresses, but he was not without ulterior
+hopes&mdash;all too premature&mdash;of afterwards pushing on to Madrid and operating
+in the eastern provinces of Spain. He first invested Almeida, and, leaving
+General Spencer to continue the blockade, proceeded to Elvas in order to
+concert measures with Beresford for the siege of Badajoz. Thence he was
+suddenly recalled northward to repel a fresh advance of Mass&eacute;na, strongly
+reinforced, for the relief of Almeida. The battle which followed at
+Fuentes d'O&ntilde;oro, south-east of Almeida, was among the most hardly
+contested struggles in the whole Peninsular war. It began on May 3, and,
+with a day's interval, concluded on the 5th. The British remained masters
+of the field, and claimed a somewhat doubtful victory, which at least
+secured the evacuation of Almeida. The garrison of that fortress blew it
+up by night, and succeeded, by masterly tactics, in joining the main
+French army with little sacrifice of life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_79" id="TOPIC_79"></a>Wellington returned to Badajoz, only to meet with disappointment. General
+Cole, acting under Beresford, had retaken Olivenza; but Soult, with a
+force of 23,000 men, was marching to succour Badajoz, when he was
+encountered by Beresford at Albuera. Beresford's force was numerically
+stronger than Soult's, but only 7,000 men were English, the rest being
+mostly Spanish. Measured by the proportion of losses to men engaged on
+both sides, this fight on May 16, 1811, must rank among the bloodiest on
+record. In four hours<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> nearly 7,000 of the allies and 8,000 French were
+struck down. The decisive charge of the reserve was inspired and led by
+Hardinge, afterwards Governor-General of India; the French were routed,
+and Soult was checked, but little was gained by the victors.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> The siege
+of Badajoz, indeed, was renewed, but its progress was slow for want of
+proper engines and artillery, and it was abandoned, after two futile
+attempts, on June 11. By this time, Marmont had succeeded Mass&eacute;na, and was
+carrying out Napoleon's grand plan for a junction with Soult's army and a
+fresh irruption into Portugal. With marvellous audacity, Wellington
+offered battle to both marshals, who, happily ignorant of his weakness,
+declined it more than once. In truth, he was never more nearly at the end
+of his resources than when he went into winter quarters at the close of
+1811, having failed to prevent Marmont from provisioning Ciudad Rodrigo,
+and having narrowly escaped being overwhelmed by a much superior force.
+His army was greatly reduced by sickness, he was very ill-supplied from
+England, and he received no loyal support from the Portuguese government.
+Moreover, the French had apparently extended their hold on Spain, both in
+the eastern and northern provinces, while it was reported that Napoleon
+himself, not content with dictating orders from afar, would return to
+complete the conquest of the Peninsula.</p>
+
+<p>At this juncture, he must have been cheered by the arrival of so able a
+lieutenant as Graham from Cadiz, and by the brilliant success of Hill
+against a detached body of Marmont's army south of the Tagus. There were
+other tendencies also secretly working in favour of the British and their
+allies. Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain, openly protested against the
+extortions which he was enjoined to practise on his subjects, and went so
+far as to resign his crown at Paris, though he was induced to resume it.
+Again the broken armies of the Spanish had reappeared in the form of
+guerilla bands under leaders such as Mina; they could not be dispersed,
+since they had no cohesion, and were more formidable through their extreme
+mobility than organised battalions. Above all, the domination of France
+over Europe was already undermined and tottering invisibly to its fall.
+The Tsar Alexander had, as we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> seen, been deeply offended by the
+preference of an Austrian to a Russian princess, as the consort of
+Napoleon, and still more by his imperious annexation of Oldenburg. Sweden,
+following the example of Russia, had begun to rebel against the
+continental system. A series of internal reforms had aroused a national
+spirit, and stealthily created the basis of a national army in Prussia,
+and the intense hostility of all North Germany to France was thinly
+disguised by the unwilling servility of the Prussian court. Napoleon, who
+seldom laboured under the illusions propagated by his own manifestoes and
+bulletins, well knew what he was doing when, in August, 1811, he allowed
+himself to burst into a storm of indignation against the Russian
+ambassador at the Tuileries. From that moment he clearly premeditated a
+rupture with Russia, and soon he withdrew 60,000 of his best troops from
+Spain, to be employed in that fatal enterprise of 1812 which proved to be
+his doom.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CAPTURE OF CIUDAD RODRIGO AND BADAJOZ.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_80" id="TOPIC_80"></a>The winter of 1811-12 was spent by Wellington in preparing, with the
+utmost secrecy, for the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, as the first
+steps in an offensive campaign. In January, 1812, he struck a sudden blow
+against the former, and captured it by an assault, attended with great
+carnage, on the 19th of that month. In this furious conflict, lasting but
+half an hour, Craufurd, the renowned leader of the light division, fell
+mortally wounded. Shameful excesses sullied the glory of a splendid
+exploit. Marmont immediately drew in his troops towards Salamanca, leaving
+Soult in the valley of the Tagus; and Hill, with his southern army, moved
+northward. Wellington, who was created an earl in February, transferred
+the greater part of his troops to Badajoz, and began a regular siege, but
+with very imperfect materials, no organised corps of sappers and miners,
+and very few officers skilled in the art of taking fortified towns. He was
+greatly delayed on the route by the lack of transport, and the vexatious
+obstinacy of the Portuguese authorities, while time was of the utmost
+consequence lest any or all of three French armies should come to raise
+the siege. Hence the extreme rapidity of his final operations.</p>
+
+<p>After the capture of an outlying fort, three breaches were made in the
+walls, and on the night of April 6, under the cover of thick darkness, two
+divisions of British troops descended<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> into the ditch, many carrying
+ladders or sacks of hay, and advanced to the foot of the <i>glacis</i>. Here
+they were almost overwhelmed with a hurricane of fiery missiles, and in
+mounting the breaches they had to face not only hand-grenades, trains of
+powder, and bursting shells, but a <i>chevaux-de-frise</i> of sabre-blades
+crowning the summit. None of these attacks was successful; but another
+division under Picton scaled the castle, and a brigade under Walker
+effected an entrance elsewhere. After this, the French abandoned the
+breaches; the resistance waxed fainter, and at six in the morning,
+Philippon, the governor, with his brave garrison, surrendered
+unconditionally. The loss of the British and Portuguese in killed and
+wounded was stated at the enormous figure of 4,885, and it was avenged by
+atrocities prolonged for two days and nights, worse than had followed the
+storming of Ciudad Rodrigo. Wellington ordered the provost marshal to
+execute any soldiers found in the act of plunder, but officers vainly
+attempted to check their men at the peril of their own lives.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SALAMANCA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_81" id="TOPIC_81"></a>It had been the intention of Wellington to operate next against Soult, and
+drive him, if possible, from Esdremadura and Andalusia. But, as appears
+from one of his despatches to Lord Liverpool, he was ill satisfied with
+the conduct of his allies guarding Ciudad Rodrigo, and returned to resume
+command in that region. In the same despatch he complains bitterly of the
+niggardly policy of his government in regard to money and supplies. The
+same timidity on the part of ministers at home appears in a letter from
+Liverpool, almost forbidding him to accept the command-in-chief of the
+Spanish armies, which, however, was conferred upon him later in this
+year.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a> At present, he decided to march against Marmont in the plains of
+Leon. This movement was facilitated by the success of Hill in surprising a
+body of French troops, and seizing the important bridge of Almaraz over
+the Tagus on May 19, thereby breaking the French lines of communication
+and isolating Marmont's army for a time. Soon afterwards, Salamanca and
+its forts were captured by Wellington, but Marmont proved a very
+formidable opponent, and, having behind him another army under King
+Joseph, threatened the British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> lines of communication. In the series of
+man&oelig;uvres which ensued, Wellington's forces met with more than one
+reverse, but the French marshal was determined to win a victory on a large
+scale. Wellington had no wish to risk a battle, unless Salamanca or his
+own rear should be seriously threatened, and he stood on the defensive, a
+little south of Salamanca, with Marmont's army encamped in front of him.</p>
+
+<p>Early on July 22, the French seized one of two hills called the Arapiles
+which formed the key of the position and commanded the road to Ciudad
+Rodrigo. Marmont then organised complicated evolutions, of which the
+ultimate object was to envelop the British right and cut off its expected
+retreat. To accomplish this, he extended his own left so far that it
+became separated by a gap from his centre. No sooner did Wellington, with
+a flash of military insight, perceive the advantage thus offered than he
+flung half of his troops upon the French left wing, and made a vigorous
+attack with the rest upon the French centre. It was too late for Marmont,
+himself wounded, to repair the mistake, the centre was driven in, and, as
+was said, 40,000 men were beaten in forty minutes. General Clausel, who
+took Marmont's place, showed great ability in the retreat, but the French
+army could scarcely have escaped destruction had not the Spaniards, who
+were entrusted with a post on the river Tormes, left the passage open for
+the flying enemy. Nevertheless, the battle of Salamanca was the greatest
+and most decisive yet fought by the British in the Peninsula; it
+established the reputation of our army, and placed Wellington in the first
+rank of generals. Three weeks later he entered Madrid in triumph, and was
+received with the wildest popular acclamations. Joseph once more abandoned
+his capital, joined Suchet in Valencia, and ordered Soult against his will
+to withdraw from Andalusia and move in the same direction. This
+concentration relieved Wellington from immediate anxieties, but exposed
+him to a serious danger of being confronted before long by forces thrice
+as great as his own. He also needed reinforcements, and was in still
+greater want of money.</p>
+
+<p>To students of military history it may seem a very doubtful question
+whether, under such circumstances, it was prudent to advance farther into
+Spain from his strongholds on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> Portuguese frontier. But Wellington,
+who had been created a marquis on August 18, judged it necessary to crush
+if possible the remainder of Marmont's army which had retired northward
+under Clausel. He therefore left Hill with a detachment to cover Madrid,
+and marching through Valladolid occupied the town of Burgos. The castle of
+that place remained in the hands of a French garrison 2,000 strong and had
+been carefully fortified. Here again we may be permitted to doubt whether,
+after the experience gained at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, Wellington did
+wisely in resolving to invest and storm a fortress so formidable, without
+an adequate siege-train, and with the knowledge that Clausel might rally
+his forces in time to relieve it. Wellington himself afterwards admitted
+to Liverpool that he had erred in not taking with him the best of his own
+troops, and that he did not possess the means of transporting ordnance and
+military stores from Madrid and Santander, where there was abundance of
+them. The siege lasted a month, from September 19 to October 18; the
+garrison offered a most obstinate resistance, inflicting great loss on the
+besiegers by sorties, and in the end the attack failed. Souham, with
+Clausel, was closing in upon Wellington from the north, Soult from the
+south-east; Hill's position at Madrid was untenable, and another retreat
+became inevitable. It was the last and most trying in Wellington's
+military career. The army which had behaved nobly at Salamanca broke down
+under the strain of suffering and depression, like that of Sir John Moore
+before Coru&ntilde;a. The enemy was driven back in various rear-guard actions,
+but on the march the sense of discipline vanished and shameful disorders
+occurred. A scathing reprimand from Wellington, which might have been
+written by a French critic and which ought never to have been made public,
+threw all the blame of this disorganisation on the regimental officers,
+and denied that any scarcity of provisions could be pleaded in excuse of
+it.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MILITARY REFORMS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_82" id="TOPIC_82"></a>By the middle of November the campaign ended, and Wellington's
+headquarters were at Ciudad Rodrigo. For the present, Spain was still
+dominated by the French, but its southern provinces were clear of the
+invaders, and elsewhere the tide was already on the turn. The Russian war
+cast its shadow beforehand on the Spanish peninsula; the French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> army was
+constantly weakened in numbers and still more in quality, as conscripts
+were substituted for veterans, and inferior generals succeeded to high
+commands; the Portuguese and Spanish contingents of the British army were
+stronger and better disciplined. Wellington himself, tenacious of his
+purpose as ever, received heartier support from home, where Liverpool had
+become prime minister in June, and had been succeeded by Bathurst as
+secretary for war and the colonies; and though the Marquis Wellesley, no
+longer in the government, complained that his brother's operations had
+been crippled by ministerial apathy, the Peninsular war, on the eve of its
+completion, was adopted with pride and sympathy by the nation.</p>
+
+<p>The last chapter of the Peninsular war opens with the operations
+culminating in the battle of Vitoria, and closes with the battle of
+Toulouse. Having accepted the office of generalissimo of the Spanish
+armies, Wellington repaired to Cadiz during the winter of 1812-13, and
+formed the lowest estimate of the make-shift government there carried on
+under the dual control of the cortes and the regency. He failed to obtain
+a reform of this system, but succeeded in effecting a reorganisation of
+the Spanish army, to be in future under his own command. He next addressed
+himself, with the aid of Beresford and the British minister at Lisbon, to
+amend the monstrous abuses, civil and military, of Portuguese
+administration. By the beginning of May, 1813, a great improvement was
+visible in the equipment and <i>moral</i> of the Spanish and Portuguese troops;
+a vigorous insurrection against the French occupation had broken out in
+the province of Biscay, endangering the great road into Spain; and an
+Anglo-Sicilian army of 16,000 men, under Sir John Murray, had repulsed
+Suchet, hitherto undefeated, at Castalla on the Valencian coast, without,
+however, completing their victory, or capturing any of the French guns in
+the narrow defile by which the enemy fled. The want of unity in the
+command of the French army, and of harmony between its generals, was more
+felt than ever now that Napoleon's master-mind was engrossed in retrieving
+the awful ruin of the Russian expedition.</p>
+
+<p>Yet Napoleon's instructions to Joseph show that he had fully grasped the
+critical nature of the situation. He enjoined Joseph to mass all his
+forces round Valladolid, and imperatively directed that at all hazards the
+communications with France should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> maintained. The Spanish guerillas
+had long rendered communications so insecure that couriers with despatches
+had to be escorted by bodies of 250 cavalry or 500 infantry; they were now
+so effectually intercepted that Napoleon's own despatch reached Joseph
+more than two months late, by way of Barcelona and Valencia. Meanwhile,
+Joseph was openly accusing Soult, in a letter to his brother, of criminal
+ambition&mdash;a charge to which he laid himself open before in Portugal&mdash;and
+did not hesitate to add, "the Duke of Dalmatia or myself must quit Spain".
+In England, on the contrary, parties were at last united in the desire to
+bring the war to a triumphant end, and parliament grudged neither men nor
+money to aid Wellington's plan of campaign. It was, then, under happier
+auspices than in former years that he broke up from his cantonments then
+stationed on the Coa, a little to the north-west of Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+set forward with 70,000 British and Portuguese troops, besides 20,000
+Spaniards, to drive the French out of Spain. So confident was he of
+success that, as Napier relates, he waved his hand in crossing the
+frontier on May 22, and exclaimed, "Farewell, Portugal".<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>VITORIA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_83" id="TOPIC_83"></a>He advanced by the valley of the Douro; then, turning to the north-east,
+he compelled the French to evacuate Burgos, and passed the Ebro on June
+13. Graham in command of his left wing there joined him, after forcing his
+way by immense efforts across the mountains of the Portuguese frontier.
+Hill, commanding the right wing of his composite but united army, was
+already with him. A depot for his commissariat and a military hospital
+were established at Santander, where a British fleet was lying, and whence
+he could draw his supplies direct from home. The French army, under Joseph
+and Marshal Jourdan, fell back before him by a forced night march on the
+19th and took up its position in front of Vitoria, in the province of
+Biscay. Here, on the plain of the river Zadorra, was fought on the 21st
+the greatest battle of the Peninsular war. Wellington had encountered
+serious physical difficulties in his passage from the valley of the Ebro
+to that of the Zadorra; but for once his plans had been executed with
+admirable precision, and all his troops arrived at the appointed time on
+the field of battle. The French, conscious of their impending expulsion
+from Spain, were encumbered by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> enormous baggage-trains containing the
+fruits of five years' merciless spoliation "not of a province but of a
+kingdom," including treasures of art from Madrid and all the provincial
+capitals, with no less than 5,500,000 dollars in hard cash, besides two
+years' arrears of pay which Napoleon had sent to fill the military chest
+of Joseph's army. A vast number of vehicles, loaded with the whole
+imperial and royal treasure, overspread the plain and choked the great
+road behind the French position, by which alone such a mass of waggons
+could find its way into France.</p>
+
+<p>The French army consisted of about 60,000 men, with 150 pieces of cannon,
+but strong detachments, under Foy and Clausel respectively, had been sent
+away to guard the roads to Bilbao and Pamplona. The British army numbered
+nearly 80,000, inclusive of Portuguese and Spanish, with 90 guns. The
+French were posted on strong ground, and held the bridges across the
+river. Graham, with the left column of the British, made a circuit in the
+direction of Bilbao, working round to cut off the French rear on the
+Bayonne road. Hill, with the right column, forced the pass of Puebla, in
+the latter direction, carried the ridge above it after much hard fighting,
+and made good his position on the left flank of the French. Wellington
+himself, in the centre, under the guidance of a Spanish peasant, pushed a
+brigade across one of the bridges in his front, weakly guarded, and thus
+mastered the others; his force then expanded itself on the plain and bore
+down all opposition. Graham had met with a more obstinate resistance from
+the French right, under Reille, but at last got possession of the great
+Bayonne road. Thenceforward a retreat of the French army, partly
+encircled, became inevitable, but it was conducted at first in good order
+and with frequent halts at defensible points. The only outlet left open
+was the mountain road to Pamplona, and this was not only impracticable for
+heavy traffic but obstructed by an overturned waggon. The orderly retreat
+was soon converted into a rout; the flying throng made its way across
+country and over mountains towards Pamplona, leaving all the artillery,
+military stores, and accumulated spoils as trophies of the British
+victory.</p>
+
+<p>The value of these was prodigious, but the great mass of booty, except
+munitions of war, fell into the hands of private<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> soldiers and
+camp-followers. Wellington reported to Bathurst that nearly a million
+sterling in money had been appropriated by the rank and file of the army,
+and, still worse, that so dazzling a triumph had "totally annihilated all
+order and discipline".<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a> The loss in the battle had been about 5,000,
+but Wellington stated that on July 8 "we had 12,500 men less under arms
+than we had on the day before the battle". He supposed the missing 7,500,
+nearly half of whom were British, to be mostly concealed in the mountain
+villages.<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a> A large number of stragglers afterwards rejoined their
+colours, but too late to aid in an effectual pursuit of the enemy. The
+immediate consequence of this great victory was the evacuation by the
+French of all Spain south of the Ebro. Even Suchet abandoned Valencia and
+distributed his forces between Tarragona and Tortosa. To his great credit,
+Wellington addressed to the cortes an earnest protest against wreaking
+vengeance on the French party in Spain, many of whom might have been
+driven into acceptance of a foreign yoke "by terror, by distress, or by
+despair". At the same time, he vigorously followed up his success by
+chasing and nearly surrounding Clausel's division, while Hill invested
+Pamplona, and Graham drove Foy across the Bidassoa, in his advance upon
+the fortress of St. Sebastian.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE BATTLE OF THE PYRENEES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_84" id="TOPIC_84"></a>The fortifications of St. Sebastian were in a very imperfect condition,
+but the governor, Emmanuel Rey, was nevertheless able to defend the place
+with success. Wellington, after laying siege to it, sanctioned a premature
+attempt to scale the breaches which cost Graham's force a loss of more
+than 500 men. This check was succeeded by another, still more serious, in
+the historic pass of Roncesvalles. Napoleon, hearing at Dresden of the
+battle of Vitoria, and instantly fathoming its momentous import,
+despatched Soult, as "lieutenant of the emperor," to assume command of all
+the French armies at Bayonne and on the Spanish frontier, still amounting
+nominally to 114,000 men, besides 66,000 under Suchet in Catalonia. Soult
+reached Bayonne on July 13, fortified it strongly, and reorganised his
+troops with amazing energy, inspiriting them with a warlike address in the
+well-known style of Napoleon's proclamations. On the 25th he set his
+forces in motion, with the intention of crushing the British right by a
+sudden irruption, and relieving Pamplona.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> He all but achieved his object,
+for, by well-concerted and well-concealed movements, he actually carried
+the passes of Roncesvalles and Maya, in spite of a gallant resistance and
+the French troops were on the point of pouring down the Pyrenees on the
+Spanish side, when Wellington arrived at full speed from his position
+before St. Sebastian.</p>
+
+<p>He was opportunely reinforced, and gave battle on the rugged heights in
+front of Pamplona to a force numerically superior, but for the most part
+charging uphill. Never, even at Bussaco, did the French show greater
+ardour and <i>&eacute;lan</i> in attack, and it was only after a series of bloody
+hand-to-hand combats on the summits and sides of the mountains that they
+were compelled to recoil and rolled backward down the ridge. Baffled in
+his attempt to relieve Pamplona, Soult turned westwards towards St.
+Sebastian, but was anticipated by Wellington, and faced by three divisions
+of Hill on his right. A second engagement followed, in which the
+Portuguese earned the chief honours, and 3,000 prisoners were taken. At
+last Soult gave orders for a retreat, and in the course of it was all but
+entrapped in a narrow valley where he could not have escaped the necessity
+of surrender. It is said that he was warned just in time by the sudden
+intrusion of three British marauders in uniform; at all events, he
+instantly changed his line of march, and ultimately led his broken army
+back to France, but in the utmost confusion, and not without fresh
+disasters. One of these befell Reille's division in the gorge of Yanzi,
+and another the French rear-guard under Clausel, which defended itself
+valiantly, but was driven headlong down the northern side of the Pyrenees
+from which this series of battles derives its name.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_85" id="TOPIC_85"></a>The siege of St. Sebastian was immediately renewed with a far more
+powerful battering train, but its defences had also been strengthened by
+the indefatigable governor. The final assault took place on August 31, and
+rivalled the storming of Badajoz in the murderous ferocity of the <i>mel&eacute;e</i>
+at the breaches, as well as in the horrors practised on the inhabitants by
+the victorious assailants, which Wellington and Graham vainly endeavoured
+to check. So desperate was the defence, and so insuperable appeared the
+obstacles to an entrance by the breaches, that Graham adopted the heroic
+expedient of causing his artillery to fire a few feet only over the heads
+of the forlorn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> hope, until a clear opening had been made, and deadly
+piles of combustibles had been exploded behind the main breach, blowing
+into the air 300 of the garrison. A hideous conflagration destroyed the
+greater part of the town. A few days later the castle, to which the
+governor had retired, yielded to an irresistible cannonade, and he
+surrendered at discretion with about 1,200 men. Several hundred wounded,
+including a large number of British prisoners, were found there in the
+hospitals.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th, the day before St. Sebastian was stormed, Soult attempted a
+diversion for its relief by crossing the Bidassoa, and on the following
+day he engaged a large body of Spaniards at St. Marcial. On this occasion
+Wellington held the British troops in reserve, and the Spaniards without
+their aid defeated the French with great slaughter. So ended a
+well-planned and well-executed effort to reconquer the Spanish frontier.
+Pamplona was still untaken, and Suchet was still in Catalonia, but no
+further offensive movement was undertaken by the French against Spain.
+Both Soult and Wellington had shown remarkable powers of generalship, and
+there was a moment when Soult might have snatched the prize of victory by
+raising the siege of Pamplona. But his ultimate success was hopeless, and
+his failure was complete. Before the fall of St. Sebastian and the battle
+of St. Marcial, Wellington estimated the French losses at 15,000 men, who
+could ill be spared in the interval between Napoleon's last gleam of
+victory at Dresden and on his signal defeat at Leipzig.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLINGTON ENTERS FRANCE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_86" id="TOPIC_86"></a>But the Peninsular war, in the historical sense, was not yet over. During
+the summer of 1813 a mixed force of British, Germans, Spaniards, and
+Sicilians had been carrying on an intermittent war against the French
+under Suchet in the eastern provinces. Their commander, Sir John Murray,
+who had allowed the beaten enemy to escape at Castalla, proved equally
+irresolute in an attempt to capture Tarragona, countermanded the assault,
+and re-embarked his troops on the approach of Suchet. Soon afterwards he
+was superseded by Lord William Bentinck, and Suchet after the battle of
+Vitoria was compelled to retire behind the Ebro. Bentinck renewed the
+investment of Tarragona, but permitted Suchet without a battle to relieve
+it, demolish its fortifications, and withdraw its garrison at the end of
+August. An ill-judged advance of the British general<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> into Catalonia
+brought about another misfortune, and, upon the whole, the series of
+operations conducted against Suchet were by no means glorious to British
+arms or generalship, however important their effect in preventing a large
+body of French veterans from reinforcing Soult's army at a critical time
+in the Western Pyrenees. Wellington himself inclined to complete the
+deliverance of Spain by clearing the province of Catalonia of the
+invaders, but the British government, having in view the prospect of
+crushing Napoleon in Germany, urged him to undertake an immediate invasion
+of France. Accordingly he moved forward on October 7, leaving Pamplona
+closely blockaded, threw his army across the Bidassoa on the 8th by a
+stroke of masterly tactics, forced the strong French lines on the north
+side of it, and established himself on the enemy's soil. Before entering
+France he issued the most stringent proclamations against plundering,
+which he enforced by the sternest measures, and announced that he would
+not suffer the peaceful inhabitants of France to be punished for the
+ambition of their ruler. On the 31st the French garrison of Pamplona,
+despairing of relief, surrendered as prisoners of war.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_87" id="TOPIC_87"></a>The prolonged defence of Pamplona gave Soult time to strengthen his
+position on the Nivelle. The lines which he constructed rivalled those of
+Torres Vedras, and the several actions by which they were at last forced
+and turned were among the most desperate of the whole war. The first was
+fought in the early part of November, and resulted in the occupation by
+Wellington's army of the great mountain-barrier south of Bayonne, with six
+miles of entrenchments along the Nivelle, and of the port of St. Jean de
+Luz. A month later Wellington became anxious to establish his
+winter-cantonments between the Nive and the Adour, partly for strategical
+reasons, and partly in order to command a larger and more fertile area for
+his supplies. On December 9, therefore, Hill with the right wing forded
+the Nive and drove back the French left upon their camp in front of
+Bayonne. Then followed three most obstinate combats on the 10th, 11th and
+13th, in which Soult took the offensive, with Bayonne as the centre of his
+operations, and with the advantage of always moving upon interior lines
+resting upon a strong fortress. In the first of these attacks, he
+surprised and nearly succeeded in overwhelm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>ing the British left, under
+Hope, now Sir John, before Wellington could bring other divisions to its
+support. In the second, he fell suddenly on the same troops, exhausted by
+fatigue, and still more or less isolated, but they were rallied by Hope
+and Wellington in person, and remained masters of the field. In the third
+he concentrated his whole strength upon the British right under Hill,
+aided by a thick mist, and by a flood upon the Nive, which swept away a
+bridge of boats, and separated Hill from the rest of the army.
+Nevertheless, that able general, emulating the noble example of Hope in
+the earlier encounters, succeeded in repelling assault after assault,
+until Wellington himself appeared with reinforcements of imposing
+strength, and converted a stubborn defence into a victory.</p>
+
+<p>The loss of the allies since crossing the Nive had exceeded 5,000; that of
+the French was 6,000, besides 2,400 Germans who deserted to the British
+during the night of the 9th in obedience to orders from home. Ever since
+he assumed the command Soult had shown military ability of a rare order.
+Bayonne, the base of all his operations, was indefensible before he
+fortified it. A great proportion of his troops were raw conscripts, or
+demoralised by defeat, before he inspired them with his own courage and
+vigour. He was practically dependent for subsistence in his own country on
+the very system of pillage which had roused a patriotic frenzy of
+resentment in Spain and other lands ravaged by French armies. He now stood
+at bay in the south of France, as Wellington had so long stood at bay in
+Portugal, and continued there during the early part of 1814 a defensive
+campaign not unworthy of comparison with the prodigious exploits of
+Napoleon himself against the invaders of his eastern provinces.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE INVESTMENT OF BAYONNE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_88" id="TOPIC_88"></a>A respite of two months succeeded the battles on the Nive. During this
+interval Wellington's difficulty in paying his troops was great, owing to
+the enormous drain of specie from England into Central Europe. He was
+further embarrassed by the appearance of the Duke of Angoul&ecirc;me, elder son
+of Charles, Count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., at his headquarters.
+The British government was by no means committed to a restoration of the
+Bourbons, and Wellington deprecated the duke's appearance as at least
+premature. He therefore insisted upon his remaining incognito and as a
+non-combatant at St.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> Jean de Luz. Soult was in great straits, not only
+because he was compelled to "make war support war" by exorbitant
+requisitions upon the French peasantry, but also because the exigencies of
+Napoleon were such that large drafts of the best troops were drawn from
+the army of the south. When hostilities were resumed in the middle of
+February, 1814, the Anglo-Portuguese and Spanish force combined
+outnumbered the French by nearly five to three, but Soult retained the
+decisive advantage of having a strong <i>point d'appui</i> in Bayonne at the
+confluence of the Nive and Adour. Careful preparations were made by
+Wellington for throwing a large force across the Lower Adour below
+Bayonne, in concert with a British fleet. Contrary winds and a violent
+surf delayed the arrival of the British gunboats, but on February 23 Hope
+sent over a body of his men on a raft of pontoons in the face of the
+enemy's flotilla, with the aid of a brigade armed with Congreve rockets,
+which had been first used at Leipzig, and produced the utmost
+consternation in the French ranks. The gunboats soon followed, but with
+the loss of one wrecked and others stranded in crossing the bar. By the
+joint exertions of soldiers and sailors a bridge was then constructed, by
+which Hope's entire army with artillery passed over the river, and, two
+days afterwards, began the investment of Bayonne.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the centre and right wing, under the command of Wellington, had
+forced a passage across the Upper Adour and threatened Bayonne on the
+other side. Leaving a garrison of 6,000 men in Bayonne, Soult took his
+stand at Orthez, with an army of about 40,000 men, on the summit of a
+formidable ridge. Wellington attacked this ridge on the 27th, with a force
+of nearly equal strength in three columns so disposed as to converge from
+points several miles distant from each other. The veterans of the French
+army, admirably handled, fought with tenacity, and all but succeeded in
+foiling the attack before Wellington could bring up his reserves. The
+conscripts, however, were not equally steady, and when Hill, advancing
+from the extreme right, pressed upon the French left, Soult's orderly
+retreat became a precipitate flight. The French loss greatly exceeded the
+British, and was soon afterwards swelled by wholesale desertions; the road
+to Bordeaux was thrown open, and the royalist reaction against Napoleon,
+stimulated by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> the depredation of the French troops, ripened into a
+general revolt.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Napoleon had lost Germany by the battle of Leipzig; early in
+1814 the allied armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia had entered France,
+and a congress was being held at Ch&acirc;tillon-sur-Seine, to formulate, if
+possible, terms of peace. The city of Bordeaux was the first to declare
+itself openly in favour of the Bourbons. Wellington sent a large
+detachment to preserve order, with strict instructions to Beresford, who
+commanded it, to remain neutral, in the event of Louis XVIII. being
+proclaimed, pending the negotiations with Napoleon at Ch&acirc;tillon. But the
+excitement of the people could not be restrained, and the arrival of the
+Duke of Angoul&ecirc;me evoked a burst of royalist enthusiasm which anticipated
+by a few weeks only the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau. The
+defection of Bordeaux forced Soult to fall back rapidly on a very
+formidable position in front of Toulouse. The British army followed in
+pursuit, encumbered with a great artillery and pontoon train. After a
+lively action at Tarbes, it arrived in front of Toulouse on March 27, to
+find the Garonne in flood, and the French army strongly entrenched around
+the town, with a prospect of being joined by 20,000 or 30,000 veterans,
+under Suchet, from Catalonia.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE BATTLE OF TOULOUSE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_89" id="TOPIC_89"></a>The dispositions of Wellington, ending in the battle of Toulouse, on April
+10, have not escaped criticism. Hill, with two divisions and a Spanish
+contingent, threw a bridge across the Garonne below Toulouse, but
+discovered that he could make no progress in that direction, owing to the
+impassable state of the roads. Beresford crossed the river with 18,000 men
+at another point, but a sudden flood broke up the pontoon bridge in his
+rear, and he remained isolated for no less than four days, exposed to an
+attack from Soult's whole army. Having missed this rare opportunity, Soult
+calmly awaited the attack, with a force numerically inferior, but with
+every advantage of position. On the 10th Wellington's troops advanced in
+two columns, separated from each other by a perilous interval of two
+miles. One of these, including Freyre's Spaniards and Picton's division,
+was fairly driven back after furious attempts to storm the ramparts of the
+fortified ridge held by the French. Beresford, however, who in this battle
+combined generalship<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> with brilliant courage, restored the fortunes of the
+day by a dashing advance against the redoubts on the French right. Having
+carried these he swept along the ridge, which became untenable, and Soult
+withdrew his army within his second line of defences. Two days later,
+seeing that Hill menaced Toulouse on the other side, and fearing that if
+defeated again he would lose his only line of retreat along the
+Carcassonne road, he evacuated Toulouse by that route, leaving his
+magazines and hospitals in the hands of the British army. By so doing he
+left to Wellington the honour and prize of victory, but few victories have
+been so dearly bought, and the loss in killed and wounded was actually
+greater on the side of the victors than on that of the vanquished.</p>
+
+<p>Toulouse received Wellington on the 12th with open arms, and as news
+reached him on the same day announcing the proclamation of Louis XVIII. at
+Paris, he no longer hesitated to assume the white cockade. Soult loyally
+declined to accept the intelligence until it was officially confirmed,
+when a military convention was made on the 18th, whereby a boundary line
+was established between the two armies. Suchet had already withdrawn from
+Spain, and at last recalled the garrisons from those Spanish fortresses in
+which Napoleon had so obstinately locked up picked troops which he sorely
+needed in his dire extremity. But on the 14th, a week after Napoleon's
+abdication, the famous "sortie from Bayonne" took place, in which each
+side lost 800 or 900 men, and Hope, wounded in two places, was made
+prisoner. For this waste of life the governor of Bayonne must be held
+responsible, since he was informed of the events at Paris by Hope, and
+instead of awaiting official confirmation, like Soult, chose to risk the
+issue of a night combat, which must needs be deadly and could not be
+decisive.</p>
+
+<p>Thus ended the Peninsular war. This war on the British side has seldom
+been surpassed in the steady adherence to a settled purpose, through years
+of discouragement and failure, maintained by the general whose name it has
+made immortal. Neither his strategy nor his tactical skill was always
+faultless; and afterwards in comparing himself with Soult, he is reported
+to have said, that he often got into scrapes, but was extricated by the
+valour of his army, whereas Soult, when he got into a scrape, had no such
+men to get him out of it. However this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> might be, Wellington's foresight
+in appreciating the place to be filled by the Peninsular war in the
+overthrow of Napoleon's domination, and his truly heroic constancy in
+striving to realise his own idea will ever constitute his best claim to
+greatness. No other man in England or in Europe discerned as he did, that
+with Portugal independent and guarded by the power of Great Britain on its
+western coast and its eastern frontier, the permanent conquest of Spain by
+the French would become impossible. No one else saw beforehand, what
+Napoleon discovered too late, that a war in Portugal and Spain would drain
+the life-blood of his invincible hosts, and at length help towards the
+invasion of France itself. No other general would have shown equal
+statesmanship in managing Spanish juntas and controlling even Spanish
+guerillas, or equal forbearance in sparing the French people the evils
+which a victorious army might have inflicted upon them.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a> Napier, <i>Peninsular War</i> (3rd edition), i., 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a> For Moore's campaign see Napier, <i>Peninsular War</i>, i., pp.
+xxi.-xxv., lvii.-lxxvi., 330-44, 431-542, and Oman, <i>Peninsular War</i>, i.,
+486-602; and compare Moore's <i>Diary</i>, edited by Maurice, ii., 272-398. Sir
+F. Maurice has not completely answered Professor Oman's criticisms.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Dispatches</i>, iv., 261-63 (March 7, 1809).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a> For the exact figures see Oman, <i>Peninsular War</i>, ii.,
+645-48.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Dispatches</i>, iv., 536 (July 29, 1809).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a> For Mass&eacute;na's lines of march see T. J. Andrews in <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, xvi. (1901), 474-92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a> The battle is picturesquely described by Napier, <i>Peninsular
+War</i>, iii., 536-66. See also <i>ibid.</i>, pp. xxxv.-li.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Supplementary Dispatches</i>, vii., 318-19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a> Napier, <i>Peninsular War</i> (first edition), v., 513.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Dispatches</i>, x., 473 (June 29, 1813).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, x., 519 (July 9, 1813).<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The war between France and Russia, publicly threatened in August,
+1811,<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> was long deferred. On Russia's part the adherence to a defensive
+policy delayed action until France was ready. But there was another reason
+why the preparations for war were only slowly pushed forward. Even at the
+court of St. Petersburg there was a French party which retarded such
+preparations as committing Russia too definitely to an open rupture. On
+the part of France, also, delay was necessary. Though deliberately
+provoked by himself, the war was not altogether welcome to Napoleon. It
+suited him best to have a strong but friendly neighbour in Russia, and
+victory promised him but the half-hearted friendship of a power to which
+he could no longer dare to leave much strength. Besides it was necessary
+to make far more extensive preparations than had been required for any of
+his previous campaigns. Russia was too poor and too thinly peopled for it
+to be possible for war to support itself, and immense supplies with
+correspondingly large transport arrangements were needed for a large army
+which would have to fight at so vast a distance from its base. It would
+have been impossible to be ready in time for a summer campaign in 1811;
+the country was not favourable to transport on a large scale during
+winter, and the war was therefore postponed till the summer of 1812. The
+end of May or beginning of June was the date originally selected for the
+beginning of operations, as it was expected that the difficulty of
+providing fodder would be greatly reduced when the grass had grown. But
+the preparations were not sufficiently advanced by that date, and
+hostilities were only opened on June 24.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_90" id="TOPIC_90"></a>The interval was spent by both powers in securing allies and pacifying
+enemies. Early in the year 1812 Prussia had made a last attempt to avert a
+French alliance by inviting Russia to join in a peaceful compromise. After
+the failure of this negotiation her position was helpless, and resembled
+that of Poland before its national extinction. Russia could not become her
+active ally without exposing her own army to destruction at a second
+Friedland, and Prussia could not fight France alone. Frederick William,
+therefore, accepted the terms dictated by Napoleon. By a treaty concluded
+on February 24 he agreed to supply the emperor with 20,000 men to serve as
+a part of the French army, and was to raise no levies and give no orders
+without his consent. The king was also to afford a free passage and
+provide food and forage for the French troops, payment for which was to be
+arranged afterwards. In return for this a reduction was made in the war
+indemnity due to France. This was probably as much as Napoleon could have
+obtained without authorising a dangerous increase in the Prussian army.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>RUSSIAN ALLIANCES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_91" id="TOPIC_91"></a>Austria was more fortunate, because an Austrian war would have been a
+serious diversion, not a step towards the invasion of Russia. She was in
+consequence able to impose her own terms on France. These terms, so far as
+the nature and extent of the Austrian assistance to France were concerned,
+had been sketched by Metternich to the British agent, Nugent, as far back
+as November, 1811, and they were accepted by France in a treaty of March
+16, 1812.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a> Austria was to provide an army of 30,000 men to guard
+Napoleon's flank in Volhynia. In return France guaranteed the integrity of
+Turkey, and secretly promised a restoration of the Illyrian provinces to
+Austria in exchange for Galicia, which was to form a part of a
+reconstituted Poland. Elsewhere Napoleon's negotiations were unsuccessful.
+In January he fulfilled his threat of occupying Swedish Pomerania, but it
+had no effect on Swedish policy, and when in March he offered Finland and
+a part of Norway as the price of an alliance, his terms were rejected and
+Sweden allied herself with Russia. On April 17 Napoleon made overtures for
+peace with Great Britain, offering to evacuate Spain and to recognise the
+house of Braganza in Portugal and the Bourbons in Sicily, if the British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+would recognise the "actual dynasty" in Spain and Murat in Naples. The
+offer was certainly illusory. "Actual dynasty" was an ambiguous phrase,
+but would naturally mean the Bonapartes. Castlereagh declined to recognise
+Joseph, but declared his readiness to discuss the proposed basis if
+"actual dynasty" meant a recognition of Ferdinand VII. in Spain. Napoleon
+was enabled to say that his offers of peace had been rejected, and made no
+answer to Castlereagh.</p>
+
+<p>Russia in her turn had to conciliate the Porte, Sweden, Persia, and Great
+Britain. The Turkish negotiations were prolonged, and it was only in May
+that the treaty of Bucharest was signed, by which Russia gave up all her
+conquests except Bessarabia. Sweden had offered Russia her alliance in
+February. She was prepared to surrender Finland to Russia on condition
+that Russia should assist her in the conquest of Norway. A joint army was
+to effect this conquest and then make a descent on North Germany,
+threatening the rear of the French army of invasion. The adhesion of Great
+Britain was to be invited. On April 5 an alliance between Russia and
+Sweden was signed on the terms suggested. This was followed on August 28
+by the treaty of &Aring;bo, which was signed in the presence of the British
+representative, Lord Cathcart. By this treaty Russia was to assist Sweden
+with 30,000 men and a loan, Sweden undertook to support Russia's claim,
+when it should be made, for an extension of her frontier to the Vistula.
+Shortly afterwards it was agreed to postpone the attack on Norway till the
+following year, and thus at length the Russian army in Finland was set
+free. The treaties with the Porte and Sweden were too late to liberate
+troops to oppose Napoleon's advance, but the troops thus liberated greatly
+endangered his retreat. With Persia no peace could be made. Great Britain
+was still nominally at war both with Russia and with Sweden. Negotiations
+with Russia in April came to nothing because the British government
+refused to take over a loan of &pound;4,000,000, but on July 18 a treaty of
+alliance between the three powers was signed, in which Great Britain
+promised pecuniary aid to Russia. A further sign of friendship was given
+when the tsar handed over the Cronstadt fleet for safekeeping to the
+British. The formal treaty was, however, only the public recognition of a
+friendship and mutual confidence which had begun with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> breach between
+Russia and France. This good understanding was shared by the nominal
+allies of France, Prussia and Austria. Russia was fully informed of the
+military and political plans of Austria, and knew that her forces would
+not fight except under compulsion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_92" id="TOPIC_92"></a>At last, on June 24, Napoleon's grand army began the passage of the
+Niemen, which formed the boundary between the duchy of Warsaw and the
+Russian empire. The main body, at least 300,000 strong, was commanded by
+Napoleon himself. A northern division, including the Prussian contingent,
+was commanded by Macdonald, and, after advancing to Riga, which it
+pretended to besiege, remained idle throughout the campaign. The
+Austrians, under Schwarzenberg, formed a southern division, but they
+merely man&oelig;uvred, and made no serious attempts to impede the movements
+of the southern Russian army on its return journey from the war on the
+Danube. Napoleon himself drove the main Russian armies before him in the
+direction of Moscow. At last Kutuzov, who had taken over the command of
+the Russians in the course of the retreat, made a stand at Borodino, where
+on September 7 one of the bloodiest battles on record was fought. The
+figures are variously given, but the French army probably lost over 30,000
+in killed and wounded out of a force of 125,000; and the Russians lost not
+less than 40,000 out of an army of slightly smaller dimensions. This awful
+carnage ended, after all, in little more than a trial of strength. The
+French gained the ground, but the Russians made good their retreat, and
+six days later Kutuzov retired through the streets of Moscow, taking the
+better part of the population and all the military stores with him. The
+French vanguard entered on the 14th, and Napoleon himself next day. A
+fire, kindled either by accident or by Russian incendiaries, raged from
+the 14th to the 20th and destroyed three-fourths of the city.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON'S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_93" id="TOPIC_93"></a>The capture of Moscow was far from being the triumph that the French
+emperor had anticipated. Deceived by his recollections of Tilsit, he had
+fully counted upon receiving pacific overtures from Alexander or at least
+upon his eager acceptance of conciliatory assurances from himself. But as
+the weeks passed and the vision of negotiation with the Russians proved
+illusory, retreat became inevitable. On the night of October 18 the French
+army, now about 115,000 strong, evacuated Moscow.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> Kutuzov, who was
+stronger in cavalry, though perhaps still weaker in infantry, hung upon
+its rear, and, while avoiding a pitched battle, was able to prevent
+Napoleon from retreating by any other route than the now devastated line
+of his advance. It has often been questioned whether Kutuzov did not
+deliberately refrain from destroying the French army. He certainly
+informed Sir Robert Wilson on one occasion that he did not wish to drive
+Napoleon to extremities, lest his supremacy should go to the power that
+ruled the sea. The remark may have been nothing more than an outburst of
+ill-temper, but, whatever the motive, there can be no doubt as to the
+policy adopted. The retreating French army suffered terrible hardships
+from the cold, for which it was ill prepared. Twice it seemed on the point
+of falling into the hands of the Russians; at Krasnoe 26,000 prisoners are
+said to have been captured by Kutuzov's army, while at Borisov the
+southern army under Chichagov and the army returning from Finland under
+Wittgenstein joined hands, and disputed the French passage of the Berezina
+on November 26-29. According to Chambray's calculation, the French army
+numbered 31,000 combatants before the passage, of whom but 9,000 remained
+on December 1. All the non-combatants had been left in the hands of the
+enemy.</p>
+
+<p>This was the last direct attack made by the Russians on the relics of the
+grand army. But the worst ravages of the Russian winter had yet to come.
+On December 3 the cold became intense. As the survivors of the expedition
+dragged themselves homewards through the Polish provinces, they were met
+by large bodies of reinforcements pouring in from the west; these
+recruits, comparatively fresh, were at first appalled by the gaunt and
+famine-stricken aspect of the returning veterans, but soon perished
+themselves in nearly equal numbers. It is estimated that altogether only
+60,000 men recrossed the frontier out of a total of 630,000, and in the
+estimate of 60,000 is included Macdonald's division, which was exposed to
+comparatively little hardship. That division with the Prussian contingent
+began to fall back on December 19. On the 30th, however, the Prussians
+were reduced to neutrality by the convention of Tauroggen, signed by the
+Prussian commander, Yorck, with the Russians, without the sanction of his
+government. Had Russia been in a condition to press onwards at once and
+carry the war into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> French territory, it is possible that Europe might
+have been spared the misery and bloodshed of the next few years. But, for
+the moment, her strength and resources were exhausted, nor was it until
+months had elapsed that other nations, or even France herself, became
+aware of the magnitude of the catastrophe which had overtaken Napoleon's
+host. That he was able to rally himself after it, to carry the French
+people with him, to enforce a new conscription, and to assume the
+aggressive in the campaign of 1813, must ever remain a supreme proof of
+his capacity for empire.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DISPUTES WITH THE UNITED STATES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_94" id="TOPIC_94"></a>In the year 1812 war broke out between Great Britain and the United
+States. For a time the continental warfare had led to a great increase in
+American commerce, which was free from the attacks of privateers and from
+the restrictions which the opposing parties placed on one another.
+Presently, however, both parties attempted to force the United States into
+a virtual alliance with themselves. Orders in council on the one side and
+imperial decrees on the other had, as we have seen, declared a blockade of
+the ports of the continent of Europe and of Great Britain, and the United
+States saw their commerce threatened with disabilities approximating to
+those suffered by the belligerent powers. President Jefferson, who was
+supported by the republican party, adhered to a policy of strict
+neutrality, and prepared to suffer any commercial loss rather than be
+drawn into an European war. The only action which he took was the defence
+of the river mouths with a view to resisting any offensive movement. The
+federalist party on the other hand were in favour of energetic action
+against France, so as to secure English favour and the great commercial
+privileges which the mistress of the seas could bestow. For a time no
+hostilities resulted, but constant irritation was caused by the British
+claim to a right of search and to the impressment of sailors of British
+nationality found on American ships, while American ships accused of
+infringing the blockade were seized by either of the European combatants.
+To some extent the differences between Great Britain and the United States
+depended on rival views of the law of allegiance. The British maintained
+the doctrine <i>nemo potest exuere patriam</i>, and regarded all British-born
+persons, unless absolved from their allegiance by the act of the
+mother-country, as British subjects. The law of the United States, on the
+other hand, per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>mitted an alien to become a citizen after fourteen years'
+residence, and previously to 1798 had required a residence of five years
+only. In this way it often happened that sailors who had received the
+American citizenship were impressed for service on British ships, and
+sometimes sailors of actual American birth were impressed. But it was
+impossible to justify the practice to which the Americans resorted of
+receiving deserters of British nationality from British ships of war, who
+were induced by offers of higher pay to transfer themselves to the
+American service.</p>
+
+<p>Jefferson at first preferred to coerce the European powers by retaliatory
+legislation. As early as April, 1806, a law had been passed forbidding the
+importation of certain British wares, but was suspended six weeks after it
+came into operation. In June, 1807, irritation was intensified by the
+incident of the <i>Leopard</i> and the <i>Chesapeake</i>. Five men, four of whom
+were British born and one an American by birth, were known to have
+deserted from the British sloop <i>Halifax</i>, lying in Hampton roads, and to
+have taken service on an American frigate, the <i>Chesapeake</i>. After
+application for their surrender had been made in vain to the magistrates
+of the town of Norfolk, where the <i>Chesapeake's</i> rendezvous was, and to
+the officer commanding the rendezvous, Vice-admiral Berkeley sent his
+flagship, the <i>Leopard</i>, carrying fifty guns, with an order to the British
+captains on the North American station to search the <i>Chesapeake</i> for
+deserters from six ships named, including the <i>Halifax</i>, in case she
+should be encountered on the high seas. The <i>Leopard</i> arrived in
+Chesapeake bay in time to follow the <i>Chesapeake</i> beyond American waters,
+and then made a demand to search for deserters. On the captain of the
+<i>Chesapeake</i> refusing compliance, the <i>Leopard</i> opened fire. The
+<i>Chesapeake</i> was not in a condition to make any effectual reply, and,
+after receiving three broadsides, struck her flag. Only one of the
+deserters from the <i>Halifax</i>, an Englishman, was found on the
+<i>Chesapeake</i>; but three deserters from the British warship <i>Melampus</i>,
+which had not been named in Berkeley's order, all Americans by birth, were
+removed from the <i>Chesapeake</i>, which was now permitted to return to
+port.<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a> Although the British government offered reparation for this
+action, recalled Berkeley, and dis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>avowed the right to search ships of war
+for deserters, the incident could not fail to make a bad impression on
+American opinion.</p>
+
+<p>But still Jefferson adhered to a policy of pacific coercion. In December,
+1807, the act of April, 1806, was again put into force, and an embargo
+act, passed by the American congress, now cut off all foreign countries
+from trade with the United States. But the policy of embargo was
+disastrous to its promoters. It ruined the commerce and emptied the
+treasury of the United States. On March 1, 1809, a non-intercourse act,
+applying only to France, Great Britain, and their dependencies, was
+substituted for the embargo act.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a> The new act enabled the president to
+remove the embargo against whichever country should cancel its orders or
+decrees against American trade. Three days later Jefferson was succeeded
+by Madison as President of the United States. The change made no
+difference to the policy of the United States government. But the
+opposition was now much stronger and more violent than formerly; so much
+so that Sir James Craig, the Canadian governor, actually despatched a spy,
+John Henry, to sound the willingness of New England, where the federalist
+party was the stronger, to secede from the union and join Great Britain
+against the United States. This venture becomes the less surprising when
+we observe that in the previous year, 1808, John Quincy Adams, the future
+president, had predicted such a secession. Nothing, however, came of the
+attempt. Madison attempted to obtain concessions from the British
+government, but while the Perceval ministry lasted he met with no success.
+In May, 1810, the non-intercourse act expired, but a proviso was enacted
+that, if before March 3, 1811, either Great Britain or France should
+cancel her decrees against American trade the act should, three months
+after such revocation, revive against the power that maintained its
+decrees. Madison was cajoled into believing that Napoleon had recalled his
+decrees on November 1, 1810, and the non-intercourse act was accordingly
+revived against Great Britain and her dependencies in February, 1811.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_95" id="TOPIC_95"></a>Almost the first act of the Liverpool administration was to cancel the
+restrictions on American trade. But it was too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> late. Five days earlier
+the United States had declared war against Great Britain on June 18, 1812.
+The explanation of this step must be sought in the party politics of the
+United States. While the federalists courted British alliance, the younger
+members of the republican party had conceived a hope of conquering Canada
+as a result of a victorious war against Great Britain. This was the reply
+of the national party in the United States to the action of the Canadian
+governor. Madison knew the impracticability of such a step, but, finding
+that he could only carry the presidential election of 1812 with the
+support of this section of his party, he declared war. Great Britain, with
+her best troops in the Peninsula, was in no condition to use her full
+strength in America, but the United States were entirely unprepared for
+war. Their treasury was still empty, and their army and navy were small,
+while Canada generally was contented and loyal to the British crown. Upper
+Canada was full of loyalists, who had been expelled from the revolted
+colonies, and who with their descendants hated the men that had driven
+them from their homes; lower Canada was half-French and had nothing in
+common with the United States, while the Roman catholic clergy threw the
+whole weight of their influence on the British side. General Hull, who
+commanded the forces employed against Canada, succeeded in crossing the
+river Detroit in July and threatened the British post of Malden. But an
+alliance with the Indians enabled the British first to possess themselves
+of Mackinac, at the junction of lakes Huron and Michigan, and afterwards
+to imperil Hull's communications through the Michigan territory.</p>
+
+<p>Hull accordingly fell back on Detroit. The British, with 750 men under
+Major-General Brock, together with 600 Indians, now prepared to attack
+Hull at that place. Hull, who believed his retreat to be cut off by the
+Indians, did not await the British attack, but surrendered on August 16
+with 2,500 men and thirty-three guns. The effect of the capitulation was
+to place the British in effectual possession, not merely of Detroit, but
+of the territory of Michigan, and thus to render any attack on Canada from
+that quarter extremely difficult. The advantages gained by the British
+through this success were unfortunately neutralised by the policy pursued
+by Sir George Prevost, who had succeeded Craig as governor of Canada.
+Prevost was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> of opinion that, when the news of the withdrawal of the
+orders in council reached Washington, the United States government would
+be ready to abandon hostilities; and he accordingly concluded a
+provisional armistice with General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief of the
+enemy's forces in the northern states. But President Madison, having
+engaged in war, was anxious to try the effect of another attack on Canada
+before negotiating for peace, and therefore declined to ratify the
+armistice. The interval enabled the United States to bring up
+reinforcements, but their new army failed in an attack on a British post
+on the Maumee river.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile a second attempt was made to invade Upper Canada, this time from
+the side of Niagara. On October 13, Brigadier-General Wadsworth, acting
+under the orders of General Van Rensselaer, led an attack on the British
+position of Queenstown on the Canadian bank of the Niagara river. Brock
+commanded the defence, but was killed early in the fight. The position was
+momentarily seized by the enemy, but was presently recaptured by the
+British, who had in the meantime been reinforced by Major-General Sheaffe,
+the son of a loyalist, with a force from Fort George, and before the day
+closed Wadsworth found himself compelled to surrender with 900 men. The
+remainder of the enemy's forces, consisting of militia, rather than exceed
+their military obligations by crossing the frontier, chose to leave these
+men to their fate. In spite of the ignominious surrenders with which the
+first two expeditions against Canada had terminated, a third attempt was
+made by Brigadier-General Smyth to force the Canadian frontier; but on
+November 28 he was repulsed with loss by the British under Bishopp between
+Chippewa and Fort Erie, above the Niagara Falls, and at the end of the
+year the Canadian frontier still remained unpierced.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AMERICAN SUCCESSES AT SEA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_96" id="TOPIC_96"></a>The glory of the British military successes was unfortunately obscured in
+large measure by American successes on the sea. The maritime war resolved
+itself into a series of fights between individual frigates. This was the
+necessary result of the nature of the British force kept in American
+waters. Ever since the renewal of hostilities with France in 1803 a
+species of blockade had been maintained along the coast of the United
+States by British vessels on the watch for deserters or contra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>band of
+war. It was also found necessary to employ ships of war to guard against
+pirates in the West Indies and to protect British commerce in that quarter
+against French privateers. For all these purposes speed was of more
+importance than strength, and the British force in the west contained a
+disproportionate number of smaller vessels as compared with line of battle
+ships. The actual numbers of British warships in North American waters at
+the beginning of 1812 were three ships of the line, twenty-one cruisers
+and frigates, and fifty-three small craft. The United States navy was
+still weaker, and amounted merely to seven efficient frigates and nine
+small craft.<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a> There was no question of a contest between fleets, and
+though the numbers of the British warships enabled them to destroy
+American trade, they were ship for ship inferior to the American frigates,
+which were thus enabled to win an empty glory in single-ship encounters.
+The American frigates were, in fact, superior in every respect to the
+British ships which nominally belonged to the same class. They were larger
+and more strongly built, a frigate being as strong as a British
+seventy-four. Their crews were more numerous, and were recruited entirely
+from seamen, about one-third of whom would appear to have been of British
+nationality, while, as has been seen, many of them had been decoyed from
+British war-vessels by offers of higher pay. The British ships on the
+other hand were manned largely by landsmen, often impressed from the
+jails. A false economy had induced the British admiralty to impose narrow
+limits on the use of ammunition for gunnery practice. The Americans on the
+other hand were very liberal in this respect, with the result that in the
+early years of the war they were greatly superior to their enemies in
+point of marksmanship.</p>
+
+<p>A good example of the disproportion between the British and American
+frigates is furnished by the fight between the British frigate <i>Guerri&egrave;re</i>
+and the American frigate <i>Constitution</i>, on August 19, one of the first
+naval actions in the war. The <i>Guerri&egrave;re</i> was armed with twenty-four
+broadside guns, discharging projectiles with a total weight of 517 pounds;
+the <i>Constitution</i> with twenty-eight broadside guns, discharging a weight
+of 768 pounds. The crew of the <i>Guerri&egrave;re</i>, counting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> men only, numbered
+244, that of the <i>Constitution</i> with a similar limitation 460. Finally the
+<i>Guerri&egrave;re's</i> tonnage amounted to 1,092, as against the <i>Constitution's</i>
+1,533. The <i>Guerri&egrave;re's</i> guns proved very ineffectual from the start,
+while the marksmanship, not only of the American gunners but of the
+riflemen in the <i>Constitution's</i> tops, was the wonder of the British. It
+is stated that none of her shot fell short. After a fight lasting nearly
+two hours the <i>Guerri&egrave;re</i> surrendered. The ship was a complete wreck, and
+she had lost fifteen men killed and six mortally wounded as against seven
+killed and three mortally wounded on board her opponent.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the engagement both on British and on American public
+opinion was altogether out of proportion to its intrinsic importance. The
+inequality in strength of the opposing frigates was not understood, and
+any defeat of the mistress of the seas seemed an event of considerable
+significance. The Americans soon met with other similar successes. On
+October 18 their sloop <i>Wasp</i>, of eighteen guns, reduced the British sloop
+<i>Frolic</i>, a weaker vessel, though of similar armament, to a helpless hulk
+after a ten minutes' cannonade. The moral effect of this victory was not
+impaired by the fact that the conqueror and her prize were compelled to
+surrender a few hours later to the British seventy-four <i>Poictiers</i>. On
+the 25th the <i>United States</i>, of forty-four guns, captured the
+<i>Macedonian</i>, of thirty-eight, after three hours' fighting, and on
+December 29 the British thirty-eight-gun frigate <i>Java</i>, with a very
+inexperienced crew, was captured by the <i>Constitution</i> after a running
+fight of three hours and a half.<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813.</i></div>
+
+<p>With the retreat of the French army from Russia the main scene of
+operations on the continent was shifted from Russia to Germany. Great
+Britain took little part in the actual warfare in Germany, and if she had
+a larger share in the political negotiations which ultimately determined
+the distribution of forces, still Austria and not Great Britain was the
+power whose diplomacy had most effect on the course of events. The
+upheaval of Europe against Napoleon, however, would have been much less
+effective if it had not been supported by English<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> subsidies, and Austria,
+in the crippled state of her finances, would probably have had to remain
+inactive if she had not been able to rely on English gold and perhaps
+still more on English credit.</p>
+
+<p>The campaign of 1813 falls naturally into three parts. During the first,
+from the beginning of January to the latter part of April the victorious
+Russians swept over North Germany, and, carrying the Prussian monarchy
+with them, strengthened a reaction which had already begun against the
+rule of Napoleon. The second part began with the arrival of Napoleon on
+the scene of action towards the end of April and lasted to the conclusion
+of an armistice on June 4. In this period of seven or eight weeks the
+allies were forced to retire at all points and the war was carried into
+Prussian territory. The armistice, which terminated on August 10, preceded
+the opening of the third part of the campaign in which Russia and Prussia
+were joined by Austria and Sweden, and, after gradually drawing closer
+round the main French position in Saxony, finally inflicted a crushing
+defeat upon Napoleon at Leipzig in the middle of October. The campaign was
+virtually over when Napoleon secured his retreat by the victory of Hanau
+on October 30; but it is impossible to sever it from the events outside
+Germany which were directly occasioned by the downfall of Napoleon's
+German domination. These are the revolt of Holland in November, that of
+Switzerland in December, and the Austrian attack on Northern Italy in
+October and November.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_97" id="TOPIC_97"></a>In the opening months of the campaign the movements were merely a sequel
+to those of the previous year. The French retreat was continued from the
+Niemen to the Vistula, the Elbe, and finally the Saale. The Russians
+entered Prussia proper a few days after Yorck's capitulation, and the
+French retired before them. Stein, the Prussian statesman who had received
+a commission from Russia to administer the Prussian districts occupied by
+her, ordered the provincial governor to convoke an assembly. Although some
+indignation was felt at such a step being taken by Russian orders, the
+assembly met and voted the formation of the Landwehr. In this way Prussia
+actually began to arm against France, while the Prussian government still
+professed to maintain the French alliance. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> few days later King
+Frederick William left Berlin, which was still occupied by the French, for
+Breslau. Before the end of February he had concluded the treaty of Kalisch
+with Russia, by which the two powers were to conduct the war against
+France conjointly, and Russia was not to lay down her arms till Prussia
+should be restored to a strength equal to that which she had possessed in
+1806. On March 2 Cathcart arrived at Kalisch as British ambassador to the
+Russian court. He actively promoted Russia's alliance with Prussia, from
+which Great Britain stood apart for the present. He was able to obtain
+from Prussia a renunciation of her claims on Hanover, but Frederick
+William was still opposed to any increase of Hanoverian territory. On the
+17th Prussia declared war on France. By that time the Russians had entered
+both Berlin and Breslau, and had freed Hamburg from French dominion, thus
+reopening Germany to British commerce. The declaration of war by Prussia
+was accompanied by a convention with Russia providing for the deliverance
+of Germany and the dissolution of the confederation of the Rhine. This
+convention embodied Stein's policy. It relied on popular support and it
+aimed at an unified government, at least in the territories occupied at
+that date by adherents of France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_98" id="TOPIC_98"></a>But the popular upheaval in Germany was confined to the kingdom of
+Prussia, and the attempt to spread it elsewhere only provoked distrust in
+Austria and the South German states; it was not until the conservative
+elements in Germany were won over by Metternich's policy that the
+anti-Napoleonic movement became truly national. For the present Austria
+played the part of mediator. Lord Walpole, who had been sent on a secret
+errand to Vienna in December, 1812, tried in vain to win Austria to the
+side of the allies by promising the restoration of the Tyrol, Illyria, and
+Venetia.<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> Her government would probably have preferred a reconciliation
+with France, which would have arrested the growth of Russia and left
+Germany divided, to a unified Germany such as Stein desired; but
+Metternich, who directed her policy, cherished little hope of the success
+of his endeavours, though he knew when to employ agents more optimistic
+than himself. The Austrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> treasury was empty, and it therefore suited
+Austria to remain neutral as long as possible, while in the event of a
+doubtful struggle this very neutrality would raise the price of her
+ultimate alliance. It was in this way that she came at last to exercise a
+decisive voice in the resettlement of Germany, not to say of Europe. True
+to this policy, the Austrian court concluded a truce of indefinite
+duration with Russia at the beginning of the year, and withdrew its forces
+within its own borders. This was followed by an offer of mediation made to
+France, which was, however, declined. A renewed offer was declined early
+in April by both France and Great Britain. The British still distrusted
+Austria, while France desired to buy her active co-operation and made an
+offer of Silesia in return for an army of 100,000, should Prussia or
+Russia open hostilities. Austria did not, however, abandon her project,
+but notified Prussia and Russia that she would proceed with the task of
+armed mediation, and steadily busied herself with military preparations.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_99" id="TOPIC_99"></a>The vigour of the Prussians in recruiting had surprised Napoleon, but his
+own vigour was the marvel of Europe. In spite of the losses of the Russian
+campaign, he was able to take the field at the end of April with an army
+which at the lowest estimate was 200,000 strong. But his soldiers were for
+the most part mere boys, and he was sadly deficient in cavalry. The
+veterans of Austerlitz, of Jena, of Friedland, and of Wagram had been
+recklessly sacrificed on the plains of Russia. He was victorious at L&uuml;tzen
+on May 2, was joined by the King of Saxony, entered Dresden, and thence
+pushed across the Elbe. On the 21st the victory of Bautzen enabled him to
+advance to the Oder and occupy Breslau. A renewed offer of Austrian
+mediation drew from him a declaration in favour of an armistice and a
+diplomatic congress. On June 4 an armistice was actually concluded at
+Poischwitz to last until August 1, and a neutral zone was provided to
+separate the combatants. On June 7 the demands of Austria were presented
+to Napoleon. They involved the renunciation by France of all territorial
+possessions, and even of a protectorate in Germany, and the restoration to
+Prussia and Austria of most of their lost provinces. Napoleon refused
+these terms, but accepted the mediation of Austria, and arranged for a
+congress which met at Prague in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> the middle of July. The armistice was
+prolonged till August 10. Both France and Austria were merely striving to
+gain time while they prepared for war, and there can be no doubt that the
+allies profited most by the delay. During the interval the news arrived of
+Wellington's great victory at Vitoria on June 21, and Napoleon, recalled
+to Mainz, occupied himself in arranging plans for the defence of the
+Pyrenees.</p>
+
+<p>During the armistice Prussia and Russia not only greatly reinforced their
+troops, but received valuable assistance from Great Britain, Sweden, and
+above all Austria. Already, on March 3, Great Britain had by the treaty of
+Stockholm given her sanction to the seizure of the whole of Norway by
+Sweden, after a vain attempt to induce Denmark to consent to a peaceable
+cession of the diocese of Trondhjem. At the same time Great Britain
+promised Guadeloupe as a personal gift to Bernadotte, and a subsidy of
+&pound;1,000,000 for the Swedish troops fighting against Napoleon. A new treaty
+between Russia and Sweden on April 22 guaranteed the cession of Norway. On
+June 14 and 15 Cathcart, having at last obtained Prussia's consent to an
+increase in the territories of Hanover, signed treaties at Reichenbach
+with Prussia and Russia, by which Great Britain undertook to pay a subsidy
+of two-thirds of a million pounds to the former and a million and a third
+to the latter power. It was also agreed to issue federative paper notes to
+an extent not exceeding &pound;5,000,000 to pay the expenses of the armies of
+the two powers during the year 1813, and Great Britain undertook the
+responsibility for one-half of these notes. Soon afterwards Austria
+received a promise of a loan of &pound;500,000 as soon as she should join the
+allies. Half of this last sum was actually paid within a few days of the
+resumption of hostilities.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_100" id="TOPIC_100"></a>When the armistice expired, French forces were threatening Austria from
+three sides&mdash;from Bavaria, Illyria, and Saxony; and Napoleon's intention
+seems to have been to amuse the Austrian court with negotiations until he
+could defeat the Prussian and Russian armies, after which he counted upon
+overwhelming the Austrians with his entire force. The task of defeating
+the Prussians was entrusted to his army in Saxony with which Davo&ucirc;t was
+expected to co-operate from Hamburg, retaken by the French on May 30.
+Austria, however, declared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> war on France the moment the armistice had
+elapsed, August 12, and the main army of the allies, principally composed
+of Austrians with large Prussian and Russian contingents, assembled in
+Bohemia. Napoleon was opposed in Silesia by an army of Prussians and
+Russians, while Bernadotte, in command of a mixed army, consisting mainly
+of Swedes, Prussians and Russians, but including 3,000 British troops and
+25,000 Hanoverians under Walmoden, operated against him from the north.
+These three armies were eventually able to join hands, while Davo&ucirc;t's
+army, the French armies in Italy and Illyria, and 170,000 French troops in
+various German fortresses were unable to render effective aid in the
+struggle. On August 26-27 Napoleon himself won the last of his great
+victories at Dresden over the main army of the allies, while his
+lieutenants were defeated by the northern army at Grossbeeren on August
+23, and again at Dennewitz on September 6, and by the Silesian army at the
+Katzbach on August 26. The capitulation of Vandamme at Kulm, with some
+10,000 men, neutralised Napoleon's victory at Dresden, and his enemies
+were increased by Austrian diplomacy. The treaty of Teplitz, concluded on
+September 9, and accepted by Great Britain on October 3, committed the
+allies to the complete independence of the several German states. On the
+10th Bavaria renounced the French alliance, and on October 8, by the
+treaty of Ried, she engaged to join the allies with 36,000 men, in return
+for a promise that she should suffer no diminution of territory. On the
+7th the northern and Silesian armies had united west of the Elbe;
+Napoleon, who had quitted Dresden on the 6th and vainly attempted to
+engage the separate northern army, arrived at Leipzig on the 14th. But it
+was now too late.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_101" id="TOPIC_101"></a>On the 16th the allied armies, which had concentrated on Leipzig,
+compelled him to stand at bay, and to risk all upon the fortunes of a
+single battle. This battle, lasting three days, was not only one of the
+greatest but one of the most decisive recorded in modern history, for it
+finally crippled the warlike power of Napoleon, and inevitably determined
+the issue of the campaigns yet to be fought in 1814 and 1815. It would
+appear that Napoleon had under his command about 250,000 men, and that he
+lost at least 50,000 in killed and wounded on the field. The allied forces
+were much larger<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> numerically, and their losses fully equalled those of
+the French. But their victory was crushing. One of its immediate results
+was that Napoleon was forced to abandon Saxony, and with it the French
+cause in Germany. The French garrisons were reduced one by one. Of the
+fortresses east of the Rhine, Hamburg, Kehl, Magdeburg, and Wesel alone
+held out until the conclusion of peace in 1814. The general rising of
+Central Europe against French domination which followed the battle of
+Leipzig extended itself to Holland. The French were expelled in the middle
+of November, and on December 2 the Prince of Orange was proclaimed
+sovereign prince of the Netherlands. On the 29th the Swiss diet voted the
+restoration of the old constitution. The confederation of the Rhine was
+practically dissolved, but in Italy Napoleon's viceroy, Eug&egrave;ne
+Beauharnais, after falling back before the Austrian army, was able to hold
+the line of the Adige. On November 9 it was decided to offer peace to
+Napoleon on condition of the surrender of all French conquests beyond the
+Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. These terms represented the policy of
+Metternich. The Earl of Aberdeen consented to them on behalf of Great
+Britain and Nesselrode on behalf of Russia, but they were not accepted by
+Napoleon before the date by which an answer was required, and the war
+proceeded. On December 31 the Prussians under Bl&uuml;cher crossed the Rhine
+near Coblenz and opened a new campaign.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AMERICAN SUCCESSES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_102" id="TOPIC_102"></a>Meanwhile the war on the American continent was carried on with varying
+success, though the balance of fortune was rather on the side of the
+United States. The operations were in the main of a desultory character,
+no permanent conquests being made. The first engagement in the year 1813
+was at Frenchtown on the Raisin River in Michigan, where Colonel Proctor,
+commanding 500 regulars and militia, and 600 Indians, defeated an American
+force of 1,000 under Brigadier-General Winchester, and took 500 prisoners,
+while many of the remaining Americans fell into the hands of the Indians.
+The immediate effect of this victory was that General Harrison, who was
+leading an American force of 2,000 men against Detroit, determined to
+retrace his steps. Three months later Proctor made a descent upon an
+American position on the Maumee River in the north of the State of Ohio.
+After besieg<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>ing the enemy for a few days he was compelled to retire, but,
+before he left, an engagement took place on May 5, in which the British
+forces, with a total loss of less than 100, inflicted severe losses on
+their opponents and made about 500 prisoners. A subsequent attempt to
+capture Fort Sandusky, near the head of Lake Erie, was repulsed on August
+2; ninety out of 350 British troops were returned as killed, wounded or
+missing.</p>
+
+<p>The British had hitherto commanded the lakes, but Commodore Perry now
+occupied himself in building a fleet at Presqu'isle in Pennsylvania on the
+coast of Lake Erie. Commander Barclay, in command of such ships as the
+British possessed, was badly supported and encountered the same
+difficulties in obtaining seamen as had been experienced for the sea-going
+ships. The ships in the service of the United States were in consequence
+again the more powerful and the better manned. On September 10 the two
+squadrons engaged. The British had six vessels with a broadside of 459
+lb., while the enemy had nine vessels with a broadside of 928 lb. With
+such odds the result could not be doubtful, and the whole British squadron
+was compelled to surrender. This success enabled the enemy to strike with
+effect at the south-western end of Lower Canada. The British immediately
+evacuated the whole territory of Michigan with the exception of Mackinac;
+and Proctor, now raised to the rank of major-general, commenced a retreat
+in the direction of Lake Ontario. On October 5 he was attacked at
+Moraviantown on the Thames by Harrison, and the greater part of his forces
+were captured in an engagement which reflected small credit on British
+generalship. The remainder of his forces reached Burlington Heights, at
+the west end of Lake Ontario, but the whole country to the west of the
+Grand River had to be abandoned to the enemy.</p>
+
+<p>On Lake Ontario the fortune of war was more equally divided. The Americans
+had been gradually collecting a naval squadron at Sackett's Harbour and
+had gained command of the lake as early as November, 1812. The command
+was, however, precarious, since it might be disturbed by the arrival or
+construction of new warships. One such was building at York, now known as
+Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, when, on April 27, 1813, the
+American squadron under Commodore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> Chauncey attacked the town and
+succeeded in landing a detachment of troops under General Dearborn. The
+British general, Sheaffe, withdrew his regular forces from the town
+without awaiting an assault, but not before he had destroyed the ship of
+which the enemy were in quest. The Americans captured some naval stores,
+but did not attempt to hold the town; they set an evil precedent, however,
+by burning the parliament house and other public buildings before
+evacuating the place. On May 27 Chauncey co-operated again with Dearborn
+in an attack on Fort George, the capture of which threw the whole line of
+the Niagara into American hands. On the same day Prevost, whose naval
+strength had been reinforced, availing himself of Chauncey's absence, made
+an attack on Sackett's Harbour. The attack, which was renewed on the 29th,
+was miserably conducted, and ended in failure, though the Americans were
+compelled to burn the naval stores captured at York. The reinforcements
+had, however, transferred to the British the command of the lake, which
+was not challenged again till the end of July. Meanwhile their land forces
+were not idle. On June 6 the Americans were surprised by Colonel Vincent
+at Burlington Heights and over 100 prisoners, including two
+brigadier-generals, were taken. This defeat, combined with the approach of
+the British naval squadron under Sir James Yeo, induced Dearborn to
+abandon his other posts on the Canadian side of the Niagara and to
+concentrate at Fort George, but on the 24th another surprise ended in the
+surrender of a detachment of more than 500 Americans to a force of fifty
+British troops and 240 Indians. By the end of July Chauncey's squadron was
+once more strong enough to put to sea. It raided York on the 31st, but did
+not venture to join battle with Yeo; though a skirmish on August 10
+enabled Yeo to capture two schooners.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile on the frontier of Lower Canada the British were everywhere
+successful. On June 3 two American sloops attacked the British garrison of
+Isle-aux-noix at the north end of Lake Champlain. Both ships were
+compelled to surrender. On August 1 a British force raided Plattsburg and
+destroyed the barracks and military stores. A combined movement on
+Montreal was now made by the forces of the United States; it was mainly
+owing to the loyalty of the French Canadians that they were repulsed.
+General Hampton advancing from the south<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> with a force 7,000 strong was
+defeated at the river Chateauguay on October 26, by 900 men belonging to
+the Canadian militia, commanded by Colonel McDonnell and Colonel de
+Salaberry. The defeated general withdrew his troops into winter quarters
+at Plattsburg. Not long after, on December 7, the American general
+Wilkinson who had sailed down the St. Lawrence to Prescott and was
+marching towards Cornwall, was defeated with heavy loss by Colonel
+Morrison at Chrystler's Farm, and made no further attempt on Canada. In
+the same month General McClure, who commanded at Fort George, retired to
+the eastern bank of the Niagara before Colonel Murray's advance. His
+retreat was disgraced by the burning of the town of Newark, where women
+and children were turned homeless into the cold of a Canadian winter. At
+the same time the American forces were withdrawn from south-western Canada
+but still retained Amherstburg at the head of Lake Erie, the sole conquest
+of the campaign.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAVAL WARFARE.</i></div>
+
+<p>The naval warfare of 1813 was less rich in individual encounters than that
+of 1812. The British captains were better acquainted with the strength of
+the American ships and did not rashly engage vessels stronger than their
+own. There was also a marked improvement in British gunnery, and an
+increase in the strength of the British naval force in American waters. At
+first the blockade of the American coast had not been strictly maintained
+further south than New York, but as reinforcements arrived it was made
+more complete, and after June of this year it was only occasionally that
+any warship or privateer contrived to elude the blockading vessels.
+Meanwhile the British constantly raided and harassed the American coast,
+and had no difficulty in availing themselves of the Chesapeake and
+Delaware estuaries as naval bases. A new feature of this year's warfare
+was the appearance of American cruisers, especially privateers, in British
+waters, and even in the St. George's Channel. To such ships the French
+ports were a very serviceable naval base. The Americans would appear to
+have captured more of British commerce than the British captured of
+theirs, but this was no compensation for the almost complete cessation of
+their foreign trade. Of single ship actions the destruction of the British
+<i>Peacock</i> by the American <i>Hornet</i>, commanded by Captain Lawrence, on
+February 24, the capture of the American <i>Argus</i> by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> the British <i>Pelican</i>
+not far from the Welsh coast on August 14, and the famous duel between the
+<i>Chesapeake</i> and the <i>Shannon</i> on June 1 were the most important.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_103" id="TOPIC_103"></a>The British frigate <i>Shannon</i> (38) was commanded by Captain Broke, who was
+famous not merely for the attention he paid to gun practice, but for the
+care he had bestowed on the laying of his ship's ordnance. Ever since the
+beginning of April the frigates <i>Shannon</i> and <i>Tenedos</i> (38) had been
+lying off Boston, where they hoped to intercept any American frigate that
+dared to leave the harbour. Two succeeded in eluding them. The
+<i>Chesapeake</i> frigate (36) commanded by Lawrence, lay in the harbour; and
+Broke, having detached the <i>Tenedos</i> in order to tempt her out, sent a
+challenge to Lawrence on the morning of June 1, but before it could be
+delivered the <i>Chesapeake</i> had sailed. She steered for the <i>Shannon</i>, who
+waited for her. The fight began at 5.50 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> about six leagues out from
+Boston; it was brief and bloody. After ten minutes' firing the
+<i>Chesapeake</i> fell on board the <i>Shannon</i>, and was immediately boarded. In
+four minutes more every man on board had surrendered. In this short fight
+the <i>Shannon</i> had lost out of a crew of 352 twenty-four killed and
+fifty-nine wounded, two of the latter mortally, while the <i>Chesapeake</i>,
+according to American official figures, had lost out of 386 forty-seven
+killed and ninety-nine wounded (fourteen of the latter mortally). No fewer
+than thirty-two British deserters were found on board the <i>Chesapeake</i>.
+The victory made the best possible impression. The two ships had been of
+approximately equal strength, the American having a slight superiority of
+force, and the <i>Chesapeake</i> had been captured in the way in which most
+turns on individual courage, by boarding. Both captains had distinguished
+themselves in the fight, and both were severely wounded, Lawrence, as the
+event proved, fatally.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CAMPAIGN IN FRANCE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_104" id="TOPIC_104"></a>The abandonment of Germany by the French at the close of 1813 left the
+outlying provinces and allies of France exposed to invasion. The Austrian
+general, Nugent, aided by British naval and military forces, captured
+Trieste on October 31. Dalmatia had been invaded by the Montenegrins as
+early as September, 1813, and was afterwards attacked by Austrians and
+British marines, but the town of Cattaro held out till it was taken by the
+British in January, 1814. On<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> the 14th of the same month Denmark was
+compelled by the treaty of Kiel to cede Norway to Sweden in exchange for
+Swedish Pomerania and R&uuml;gen, Sweden undertaking to assist Denmark in
+procuring a fuller equivalent for Norway at the conclusion of a general
+peace. A treaty signed between Denmark and Great Britain at the same time
+and place provided for the restitution to Denmark of all British
+conquests, with the exception of Heligoland, while Denmark undertook to do
+all in her power for the abolition of the slave trade. The people of
+Norway and their governor, Prince Christian of Denmark, refused to submit
+to the transference of their allegiance, and on February 19 the
+independence of Norway was proclaimed. At first the Swedish government
+attempted to obtain the submission of Norway by negotiation only, but so
+important a diversion of her interest and energies was sufficient to
+prevent Sweden from joining in the new campaign against France. In Italy
+on January 11 Napoleon's brother-in-law, Murat, whom he had made King of
+Naples in 1808, formed an alliance with Austria. The treaty was never
+confirmed by Great Britain, but the British government subsequently
+consented to support Murat, if he should loyally exert himself in Italy
+against Napoleon's forces. Although Murat did actually engage in
+hostilities against the French, the British were far from satisfied with
+his operations and considered that his remissness left them a free hand.
+Accordingly on March 9 a British fleet entered the port of Leghorn and
+landed 8,000 men, of whom Lord William Bentinck took command. From Leghorn
+he marched upon Genoa which surrendered to him on April 18.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the main forces of the allies were concentrated for a campaign
+against Napoleon in Champagne. Of the three armies which had combined at
+Leipzig the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenberg made its way through
+Switzerland, Alsace, and Franche-Comt&eacute;, while Bl&uuml;cher's army of Prussians
+and Russians passed through the region which afterwards became the Rhine
+province and Lorraine. The two armies united in the neighbourhood of
+Brienne in Champagne. Bernadotte's army did not as a whole take part in
+the campaign; but a portion of it, consisting of Russians under
+Wittgenstein and Prussians under B&uuml;low, was engaged in the conquest of
+Belgium and was able to invade France itself later in the year.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+Schwarzenberg's army was accompanied by the Emperors of Russia and
+Austria, the King of Prussia, and the leading European diplomatists,
+including Castlereagh. From the outset there was a marked difference
+between the Austrian and Russian policies. Metternich was content with
+reducing France to the natural frontiers already offered to her, and aimed
+merely at compelling Napoleon to recognise the <i>fait accompli</i> in Germany,
+and to evacuate Italy and Spain. He was therefore in favour of slow
+advances and of giving Napoleon every opportunity for coming to terms. The
+tsar, on the other hand, wished to reduce France to her ancient limits,
+and was anxious to enter Paris as a conqueror. He also excited Austrian
+jealousy by his scheme of annexing what had been Prussian Poland, and
+compensating Prussia with Saxony. Castlereagh and the Prussian minister,
+Hardenberg, supported the tsar's policy towards France, but without
+sharing his ardour.</p>
+
+<p>On the first arrival of the allies in Champagne the tsar had only induced
+Metternich to advance by threatening to prosecute the war alone. After
+they had gained what appeared to be a decisive victory over Napoleon at La
+Rothi&egrave;re on February 1, negotiations were commenced at Ch&acirc;tillon. Napoleon
+insisted on continuing the war during the negotiations and interposed
+every possible delay. The allies first demanded that France should recede
+within the limits of 1791 and offered a partial restoration of French
+colonies, but refused to specify the colonies which they were willing to
+relinquish until France should accept the first condition. To this the
+French demurred, and on the 9th the tsar impetuously withdrew his
+minister. From the 10th to the 14th Napoleon inflicted a series of
+crushing blows upon Bl&uuml;cher's army. Negotiations were now resumed; they
+lasted till the middle of March, but as Napoleon would not surrender his
+claim to Belgium and the Rhine provinces they were fruitless,
+notwithstanding the pacific efforts of Caulaincourt, the French
+negotiator. On the 21st Napoleon tried in vain to detach Austria from the
+allies by a private letter to the Emperor Francis, and on March 1 a
+permanent basis was given to the alliance by the treaty of Chaumont
+(definitely signed on the 9th), by which the four allied powers bound
+themselves to conclude no separate peace, and not to lay down their arms
+till the object of the war should have been obtained by the restriction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+of France to her ancient frontiers. Each power was to maintain 150,000 men
+regularly in the field, and Great Britain was to pay the three other
+powers a subsidy of &pound;5,000,000 for the current year and a like sum for
+every subsequent year of warfare. The signatory powers were to maintain
+their present concert and armaments for twenty years if necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON'S FIRST ABDICATION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_105" id="TOPIC_105"></a>After this treaty on March 4 Bl&uuml;cher united with Wittgenstein and B&uuml;low
+near Soissons. On the 20th Napoleon was repulsed by Schwarzenberg's army
+at Arcis-sur-Aube, after which he attempted to cut off its communications
+by a movement to its rear. In consequence of this movement the allied
+armies advanced on Paris, while the Austrian emperor fled to Dijon taking
+Castlereagh and Metternich with him.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a> This left the war to be concluded
+under the influence of the most vigorous of the allied sovereigns, the
+Tsar of Russia. Paris capitulated on the 30th and on the next day was
+occupied by the allies. The tsar now issued "on behalf of all the allied
+powers" a proclamation in which he declared that they would not treat with
+Napoleon or his family, but were willing to respect the integrity of
+France, and to guarantee the constitution that the French people should
+adopt. This prepared the way for a reaction against Napoleon in France. A
+provisional government was formed on April 1; on the 3rd the French senate
+proclaimed the deposition of Napoleon, and on the 6th it published a
+constitution, and recalled the Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII., the
+younger brother of Louis XVI. On the same day Napoleon signed an
+unconditional abdication at Fontainebleau. On the 11th a treaty was signed
+between Napoleon and the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by
+which he renounced all claim to the crowns of France and Italy, and was
+assigned the Isle of Elba as an independent principality and a place of
+residence, together with a liberal revenue charged on the French treasury,
+which, however, was never paid. The duchy of Parma was secured to the
+Empress Maria Louisa and was to descend to her son. The treaty was
+afterwards confirmed by Great Britain, with the exception of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> clauses
+providing revenues for the fallen emperor and his family. The promise of
+Elba had been made by the tsar in the absence of Castlereagh and
+Metternich. It was vigorously opposed by Castlereagh's half-brother, Sir
+Charles Stewart, but the tsar considered his honour bound to it, and
+Napoleon sailed from Fr&eacute;jus for Elba on the 28th.</p>
+
+<p>In America the war was conducted with more vigour in 1814 than in previous
+years, but with equally small effect on either side. In March the American
+general, Wilkinson, advancing from Lake Champlain, was repulsed by a small
+British garrison at La Colle Mill. In July an American army under Brown
+invaded Upper Canada across the river Niagara. It was attacked by General
+Riall, near Chippewa, on the 5th, but it repelled the attack and occupied
+that place. Brown was, however, checked by British regulars and Canadian
+militia under Sir Gordon Drummond at Lundy's Lane, near Niagara Falls, on
+the 25th. Both sides claim the victory, but on the reinforcement of the
+British troops Brown abandoned the invasion. After the close of the
+Peninsular war some of the best regiments of the Peninsular army,
+numbering about 14,000 men, were sent to America. But they were not
+commanded by any of the generals who had made their names illustrious in
+that war, and did not effect so much as had been expected. On August 19
+and 20 General Ross landed with 5,000 men at the mouth of the Patuxent in
+Chesapeake Bay. On the 24th he defeated a large body of militia under
+General Winder at Bladensburg, and occupied Washington, where he burned
+all the public buildings. However deplorable such an act may seem, it is
+well to note that it was a fair and even merciful reprisal after the
+action of the Americans at York and Newark. Ross did not attempt to retain
+the city, but evacuated it on the next day and re-embarked on the 30th. On
+September 12 he landed near Baltimore, but was immediately killed in an
+attack on the town. The attack had to be abandoned because it proved
+impossible to obtain adequate support from the fleet, and the troops
+returned to the ships on the 15th.</p>
+
+<p>On September 1 Prevost invaded New York State by Lake Champlain. He
+advanced against Plattsburg, which he bombarded on the 11th, but his
+flotilla was defeated by an American flotilla during the bombardment, and
+he felt him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>self compelled to retreat into Canada. At the end of the year
+Sir Edward Pakenham took command of a force operating against New Orleans,
+but on January 8, 1815, he was defeated and killed by the American forces
+under the future president, Andrew Jackson. No expedition was ever worse
+planned than this; the veterans of the Peninsula were mowed down by a
+withering fire, and, losing confidence in their leaders, forfeited their
+reputation for invincible courage in attack. The fighting, however, was
+desperate while it lasted, and was compared by one engaged in it with the
+storm of Badajoz, and the deadly charges at Waterloo. It was but a small
+compensation for these failures that the British were able to annex a
+strip of territory belonging to the State of Maine. On the sea no general
+engagement took place, nor was there any naval duel so famous as that
+between the <i>Shannon</i> and the <i>Chesapeake</i> in the previous year. The
+Americans lost two of their best frigates, but, with crews largely
+composed of British sailors, captured several British ships of war.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TREATY OF GHENT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_106" id="TOPIC_106"></a>As early as January, 1814, advances had been made towards negotiations for
+peace, but they were not actually begun till August 6. In the course of a
+few days a serious difficulty arose, as the British commissioners demanded
+the delimitation of an Indian territory which should be exempt from
+territorial acquisitions on the part of either power, and also claimed the
+military occupation of the lakes for their own government. The Americans
+thereupon suspended the negotiations, and Castlereagh expressed grave
+discontent with the conduct of the British negotiators in pressing these
+points. Late in the year negotiations were resumed, when the British
+abandoned these claims. The far more comprehensive questions about the
+rights of neutrals, which had occasioned the war, had ceased to be of
+practical importance now that peace was restored in Europe. They were
+therefore, by tacit consent, suffered to drop, and a treaty signed at
+Ghent on December 24, 1814, ended a war of which the Canadians alone had
+reason to be proud.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_107" id="TOPIC_107"></a>The most dramatic incident in the domestic annals of England in this year
+was the visit of the allied sovereigns to this country, after their
+triumphal entry into Paris, and the signature of a convention, to be
+described hereafter, for the resettlement of Europe. Louis XVIII. left his
+retreat at Hartwell on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> April 20, and reached his capital on May 3 to find
+it occupied by foreign armies, and to discover that his French escort,
+composed of Napoleon's old guard, was of doubtful loyalty. On July 8 the
+Tsar of Russia and the King of Prussia, having accepted an invitation from
+the prince regent, which the Emperor of Austria declined, landed at Dover,
+and were afterwards received with the utmost enthusiasm in London. Their
+appearance betokened the supposed termination of the greatest, and almost
+the longest, war recorded in European history, but it was also accepted as
+a tribute of gratitude for the unique services rendered by Great Britain,
+the only European power which had never bowed the knee to the French
+Republic or the French Empire. They attended Ascot races, were feasted at
+the Guildhall, witnessed a naval review at Portsmouth, and were decorated
+with honorary degrees at Oxford, where Bl&uuml;cher was the hero of the day
+with the younger members of the university. There were men of calmer minds
+and maturer age, who must have remembered the time, but seven years
+before, when Alexander swore eternal friendship with Napoleon, on the
+basis of enmity to Great Britain, and Frederick William of Prussia shrunk
+from no depths of dishonour, first to aggrandise his kingdom and then to
+save the remnants of it from destruction. Others foresaw that a
+restoration of the Bourbons portended reaction, in its worst sense,
+throughout all the continent of Europe. But such memories and forebodings
+were hushed in the sincere and general rejoicing over the return of peace,
+marred by no suspicion of the new trials and privations which peace itself
+was destined to bring with it for the working classes of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a> See p. <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a> George, <i>Napoleon's Invasion of Russia</i>, p. 33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a> James, <i>British Naval History</i>, iv., 470-84.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a> See above, p. <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a> See <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vii., 336, 338.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a> For details of the naval warfare of this year see James,
+<i>British Naval History</i>, vi., 115-202.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a> Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, ii., 372.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a> For the importance of this flight of the Emperor Francis see
+Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, ii., 418, 425. The flight did not take place
+till after the advance on Paris was begun.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>VIENNA AND WATERLOO.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_108" id="TOPIC_108"></a>After the restoration of Louis XVIII. as a constitutional king, the treaty
+of Paris between France and the allied powers was signed on May 30, 1814.
+The treaty amounted to a settlement in outline of those territorial
+questions in Europe in which France was concerned, and aimed mainly at the
+construction of a strong barrier to resist further encroachments by France
+on her neighbours. The French boundaries were to coincide generally with
+the limits of French territory on January 1, 1792, but with certain
+additions. The principle adopted was that France should retain certain
+detached pieces of foreign states within her own frontier (such as
+M&uuml;hlhausen, Montb&eacute;liard, and the Venaissin), while the line of frontier
+was extended so as to include certain detached fragments belonging to
+France before 1792, such as Landau, Mariembourg, and Philippeville, as
+well as Western Savoy with Chamb&eacute;ry for its capital. She was moreover
+allowed to regain all her colonies except the Mauritius, St. Lucia, and
+Tobago. The Spanish portion of San Domingo was restored to the Spanish
+government. Holland was placed under the sovereignty of the house of
+Orange, and was to receive an increase of territory; so much of Italy as
+was not to be ceded to Austria was to consist of independent sovereign
+states; and Germany was to be formed into a confederation. Finally an
+European congress was to meet at Vienna in two months' time "to regulate
+the arrangements necessary for completing the dispositions of the treaty".
+At the same time secret articles provided that the disposition of
+territories was to be controlled at Vienna by Austria, Great Britain,
+Prussia, and Russia; that Austria, was to receive Venice and Lombardy as
+far as the Ticino; and that the former territories of Genoa were to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> be
+annexed to Sardinia, and the late Austrian Netherlands to Holland.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_109" id="TOPIC_109"></a>In the midst of the general restoration of legitimate princes difficulties
+were occasioned by the exceptional cases in which territories were
+reserved for the new dynasties that had arisen during the Napoleonic wars.
+France, Spain, and Sicily objected to the retention of the kingdom of
+Naples by Murat, Spain resented the cession of Parma to the Bonapartes,
+and Norway was in revolt against the attempt to subjugate it to the king
+of Sweden and his heir Marshal Bernadotte. The Norwegian government under
+Prince Christian vainly endeavoured to secure the British recognition of
+the independence of Norway. The British government, on the contrary, held
+itself bound to support the claims of Sweden, and on April 29 notified a
+blockade of the Norwegian ports, which was promptly carried into effect.
+Meanwhile a new constitution was promulgated in Norway, and Prince
+Christian was proclaimed king. While the British maintained the blockade
+Sweden attempted to gain its ends by negotiation. <a name="TOPIC_110" id="TOPIC_110"></a>At last, on July 30, the
+Swedes invaded Norway. After some Swedish successes a convention was
+signed at Moss on August 14, which recognised the new Norwegian
+constitution, but provided for a personal union of the crowns of Sweden
+and Norway. This constitution was accepted by Charles XIII. of Sweden in
+the following November, and Norway retained almost complete independence,
+though united to Sweden.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE SLAVE TRADE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_111" id="TOPIC_111"></a>Among the last acts of Napoleon's government had been the release and
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. of Spain and of Pope Pius VII. Ferdinand,
+supported by the vast mass of Spanish opinion, declared against the rather
+unpractical constitution established in his absence, and entered Madrid as
+an absolute king on May 14. One of his first acts was the revival of the
+inquisition. There was some apprehension among British representatives
+lest the two restored Bourbon monarchies should renew the family compact,
+and also lest they should attempt to assert the Bourbon claims to Naples
+and Parma. Sir Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord Cowley, was, however,
+successful in negotiating a treaty of alliance between Great Britain and
+Spain, which made provision against any renewal of the family compact,
+restored the commercial relations of the two countries to the footing on
+which they had been before 1796, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> promised the future consideration of
+means to be adopted for the suppression of the slave trade. Spain was in
+fact too dependent on British credit to be able to adopt a line of her own
+in politics. But the hold which Great Britain had thus gained over Spain
+was somewhat weakened by the British attitude towards the slave trade.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_112" id="TOPIC_112"></a>It is remarkable how large a space the abolition of the slave trade
+occupied in the foreign policy of Great Britain, when the liberties of
+Europe were at stake. During the months preceding the meeting of the
+congress of Vienna, which had been postponed till September by the tsar,
+British diplomacy had been engaged in a strenuous effort to obtain the
+co-operation of such European powers as possessed American colonies in
+securing this philanthropic object. Sweden had already consented to it,
+and now Holland also gave her consent. Portugal agreed to relinquish the
+trade north of the equator, on condition that the other powers consented
+to impose a similar restriction on themselves. Strong pressure was brought
+to bear upon France to consent to the immediate abolition of the trade,
+and Wellington, who had been created a duke in May and who arrived at
+Paris in August in the capacity of British ambassador, was authorised by
+Liverpool to offer the cession of Trinidad or the payment of two or three
+million pounds to obtain this end. By the treaty of Paris only French
+subjects were allowed to trade in slaves with the French colonies, and
+French subjects were excluded from trading elsewhere; and the whole trade
+was to cease within French dominions after five years. Talleyrand,
+negotiating with Wellington, refused to consent to a general abolition,
+but, on being pressed to surrender the slave trade north of the equator,
+consented to abandon it to the north of Cape Formoso. In the following
+year Napoleon on his return from Elba ordered its immediate suppression,
+and this was not the least significant act of the Hundred Days. With Spain
+our diplomatists were less successful. The British government refused to
+renew its subsidy to Spain for the last half of 1814 except on condition
+that Spain relinquished the slave trade north of the equator at once, and
+consented to relinquish that south of the equator in five years' time;
+while it would not issue a loan except on condition that Spain abolished
+the whole trade immediately. Even these terms did not prevail with Spain,
+and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> most that she would grant at the congress was to relinquish the
+trade at the conclusion of eight years.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_113" id="TOPIC_113"></a>Meanwhile Talleyrand was endeavouring to induce Great Britain to combine
+with France in a joint mediation between Austria and Russia at the
+congress, in the event of Russia demanding the duchy of Warsaw.
+Wellington, while expressing himself in favour of an understanding,
+refused to accept anything which might seem equivalent to a declaration in
+favour of mediation by the two powers in every case. At the congress
+itself Great Britain was first represented by Castlereagh, who was
+succeeded in February, 1815, by Wellington. The two principal difficulties
+were the questions of Poland and Saxony. The tsar desired to erect the
+duchy of Warsaw, Prussia's share in the two partitions of Poland in 1793
+and 1795, into a constitutional monarchy attached to the Russian crown,
+while Prussia, though not unwilling to resign her claims to Polish
+dominion, wished to increase her territory by the incorporation of Saxony
+in her monarchy. Austria was naturally averse from any increase of
+strength in the states on her northern borders, and she was also opposed
+to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Poland which might
+serve as a centre for political discontent in her own dominions. Even
+France urged this objection to a constitutional Poland. Great Britain
+alone was willing to see an independent Poland, but preferred to join
+France, Prussia, and Austria in demanding its repartition between the two
+latter powers rather than its annexation to Russia. All through October
+Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia endeavoured to induce the tsar to
+withdraw his demand. Early in November he won over the King of Prussia to
+whom he promised the kingdom of Saxony, proposing to indemnify the Saxon
+king with a new state on that lower Rhine which France was not allowed to
+have, but which no other power desired.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE RETURN OF NAPOLEON.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_114" id="TOPIC_114"></a>It was no longer possible to resist Russia's claims on Poland, but Austria
+was determined not to allow Prussia to receive the proffered compensation.
+On December 10 Metternich notified the Prussian minister, Hardenberg, that
+he would not allow Prussia to annex more than a fifth part of Saxony.
+Great Britain, France, Bavaria, and the minor German states joined Austria
+in this action, and thus the attempt to effect a settle<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>ment of Europe by
+a concert of the four allied powers broke down. On January 3, 1815, a
+secret treaty was concluded between Austria, France, and Great Britain in
+defence of what their diplomatists called "the principles of the peace of
+Paris". Each of these powers was to be prepared, if necessary, to place an
+army of 50,000 men in the field. Bavaria joined them in their preparations
+for war, and many of the troops which occupied Paris in 1815 would have
+been disbanded or dispersed, but for the prospect of a rupture between the
+allies themselves. But a compromise was soon arranged, and on February 8
+it was agreed that Cracow, the Polish fortress which threatened Austria
+most, should be an independent republic, and that Prussia should retain
+enough of Western Poland to round off her dominions, while the remainder
+of the duchy of Warsaw became a constitutional kingdom under the tsar.
+Prussia was to be allowed to annex part of Saxony, and was to receive a
+further compensation on the left bank of the Rhine and in Westphalia. The
+most thorny questions were now settled, and Castlereagh had left Vienna
+when the congress was electrified by the news that Napoleon had reappeared
+in France.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_115" id="TOPIC_115"></a>The episode of "the Hundred Days" interrupted, but did not break up, the
+councils of the congress at Vienna. It cannot be said that Napoleon's
+escape from Elba took the negotiators altogether by surprise. They were
+already aware of his correspondence with the neighbouring shores of Italy,
+and his removal to St Helena or some other distant island had been
+proposed by the French government, though never discussed at the congress.
+Sir Neil Campbell, the British commissioner at Elba, had gone so far as to
+warn his government of Napoleon's suspected "plan," and to indicate,
+though erroneously, the place of his probable descent upon the Italian
+coast. Owing to an almost incredible want of precaution, he embarked on
+February 26 with the least possible disguise, and accompanied by 400 of
+his guards, on board his brig the <i>Inconstant</i>, eluded the observation of
+two French ships, and landed near Cannes on March 1. Thence he hastened
+across the mountains to Grenoble, passing unmolested, and sometimes
+welcomed, through districts where his life had been threatened but a few
+months before. The commandant of Grenoble was prepared to resist his
+further progress, but a heart-stirring appeal from Napoleon induced a
+regi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>ment detached to oppose him to join his standard, and the rest of the
+garrison was brought over by Colonel Labedoy&egrave;re, one of the officers who
+had conspired to bring him back. Thence he proceeded to Lyons, issuing
+decrees, scattering proclamations, and gathering followers at every stage.
+He was lavish of promises, not perhaps wholly insincere, that he would
+adopt constitutional government&mdash;already established by the charter of
+Louis XVIII.&mdash;and cease to wage aggressive wars. He relied unduly on the
+discontent provoked by the blind partisans of the Bourbons, who, it was
+said, had learned nothing and forgotten nothing. This was true, if the
+spirit of the restoration were to be measured by the parade of expiatory
+masses for the execution of royalists under the revolution, the
+ostentatious patronage of priests, the preference of returned <i>&eacute;migr&eacute;s</i> to
+well-tried servants of the republic and the empire, or the anticipated
+expulsion of landowners in possession of "national domains" for the
+purpose of dividing them among their old proprietors. All this naturally
+exasperated those who had imbibed the principles of the revolution, but it
+was more than compensated in the eyes of millions of Frenchmen by the
+cessation of conscription and the infinite blessings of peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>"THE HUNDRED DAYS."</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_116" id="TOPIC_116"></a>The king was amongst the least infatuated of the royalists. On hearing of
+Napoleon's proclamation, he had the sense to appreciate the danger of such
+a bid for sovereignty and the magic of such a name, while his courtiers
+regarded Napoleon's enterprise as the last effort of a madman. He
+addressed the chamber of deputies in confident and dignified language; the
+Duke of Angoul&ecirc;me was employed to rouse the royalist party at Bordeaux;
+the Duke of Bourbon was sent into Brittany, the Count of Artois, with the
+Duke of Orl&eacute;ans and Marshal Macdonald, visited Lyons, upon the attitude of
+which everything, for the moment, seemed to depend. Most of the marshals
+remained faithful to the restored monarchy, and Ney was selected to bar
+the progress of Napoleon in Burgundy, and has been credited with a vow
+that he would bring him back in an iron cage. But it was all in vain. The
+Count of Artois was loyally received by the officials and upper classes at
+Lyons, but he soon found that Napoleon possessed the hearts of the
+soldiers and the mass of the people. Ney yielded to urgent appeals from
+his old chief, signed and read to his troops a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>clamation drawn up by
+Napoleon himself, and was followed in his treason by his whole army. As
+Napoleon approached Paris, all armed opposition to him melted away. On
+March 19, Louis XVIII., seeing that his cause was hopeless, proclaimed a
+dissolution of the chambers, and retired once more into exile, fixing his
+residence at Ghent.</p>
+
+<p>Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries on the 20th, after a journey which he
+afterwards described as the happiest in his life. But his penetrating mind
+was not deceived by the manifestations of popular joy. He well knew that
+he was distrusted by the middle classes, as well as by the aristocracy,
+and threw himself more and more on the sympathy of the old revolutionists.
+When he came to fill up the higher offices, he met with a strange
+reluctance to accept them, and was driven to enlist the services of two
+regicides, the virtuous republican, Carnot, and the double-dyed traitor
+Fouch&eacute;. Feeling the necessity of resting his power on a democratic basis,
+he promulgated a constitution modelled on the charter of Louis XVIII., and
+known as the <i>Acte Additionnel</i>, which, however, satisfied no one. The
+royalists objected to its anti-feudal spirit, the revolutionists and
+moderates to its express recognition of an hereditary peerage, and its
+tacit recognition of a dictatorial power. It was by no means with a light
+heart that Napoleon took leave of Paris on June 7, having appointed a
+provisional government, to place himself at the head of his army.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_117" id="TOPIC_117"></a>Attempts had been made in the southern provinces and La Vend&eacute;e to organise
+armed rebellion against the emperor, and met for a time with considerable
+success. But they were soon quelled by the overwhelming imperialism not
+only of the regular army, but of vast numbers of disbanded soldiers and
+half-pay officers, dispersed throughout France, and disgusted with their
+treatment under the restored monarchy. Even among the <i>bourgeoisie</i>
+Napoleon had an advantage which he never possessed before. Disguise it as
+he might, all his former wars had been essentially wars of conquest, and,
+however patiently they might endure it, the peasantry of France, in
+thousands upon thousands of humble cottages, groaned under the exaction of
+crushing taxes&mdash;worst of all, the blood-tax of conscription&mdash;in order to
+enable one man, in the name of France, to usurp the empire of the world.
+Now, however, as in the early days of the revolu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>tion, France was put on
+its defence, and called upon to repel an invasion of its frontiers. For
+the news of Napoleon's escape, announced by Talleyrand on March 11,
+instantly stilled the quarrels and rebuked the jealousies which had so
+nearly proved fatal to any settlement at Vienna. For the moment, the
+designs of Russia in Poland, the selfish demands of Prussia, and the
+half-formed coalition between Great Britain, France, and Austria, were
+thrust into the background. Austria thought it necessary to repudiate
+decisively the audaciously false assertion of Napoleon that he was
+returning with the concurrence of his father-in-law, and would shortly be
+supported by Austrian troops. Metternich, therefore, assumed the lead in
+drawing up a solemn manifesto, dated March 13, in which Napoleon was
+virtually declared an outlaw "abandoned to public justice," and the powers
+which had signed the treaty of Paris in the preceding May bound
+themselves, in the face of Europe, to carry out all its provisions and
+defend the king of France, if need be, against his own rebellious
+subjects.</p>
+
+<p>By a further convention made at the end of March, they engaged to provide
+forces exceeding 700,000 men in the aggregate, to be concentrated on the
+Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine, and the Low Countries, with an immense
+reserve of Russians to be rapidly moved across Germany from Poland.
+Wellington having succeeded Castlereagh at Vienna, was appointed to
+command the British, Hanoverian, and Belgian contingents on the north-east
+frontier of France; Bl&uuml;cher's headquarters were to be on the Lower Rhine,
+within easy reach of that frontier; for, whichever side might take the
+offensive, it was there that the first shock of war might be expected. The
+recent conclusion of peace with America at Ghent on December 24, 1814,
+left England free to use her whole military power. Enormous sums were
+voted by Parliament, with a rare approach to unanimity, for the equipment
+of a British army, and a sum of &pound;5,000,000 for subsidies to the allied
+powers. A small section of the opposition led by Whitbread opposed the
+renewal of war. On April 7 he moved an amendment to the address in reply
+to the prince regent's message announcing that measures for the security
+of Europe were being concerted with the allies, but he was only supported
+by 32 votes against 220. On April 28 his motion for an address<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> to the
+prince regent, deprecating war with Napoleon, was defeated by 273 votes
+against 72. This was Whitbread's last prominent appearance in parliament.
+On July 6, during a fit of insanity, he died by his own hand. The
+subsidies to the allies were opposed by Bankes, but were carried on May 26
+by 160 votes against 17. There can be no doubt that the majorities in the
+house of commons correctly expressed the national sentiment. Nobody wished
+to dictate to France the form of government which she was to adopt, but it
+was generally felt that Napoleon's character rendered peace with him
+impossible.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CAMPAIGN OF 1815.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_118" id="TOPIC_118"></a>In the end, about 80,000 men were assembled in Belgium under Wellington's
+orders, but of these not half were British soldiers, including untrained
+drafts from the militia, who replaced veteran Peninsular regiments still
+detained in Canada and the United States. Yet Napoleon admitted the
+British contingent to be equal, man for man, to his own troops, while he
+estimated these to be worth twice their own number of Dutchmen, Prussians,
+or other Germans. The first blow in the war was struck by Murat. Already
+in February, dissatisfied with his ambiguous position, he had levied
+troops and summoned Louis XVIII. to declare whether he was at war with
+him. As soon as he heard of Napoleon's return, he invaded the Papal
+States, and summoned the Italians to rise in the cause of Italian unity
+and independence. Though disowned by Napoleon, he persevered in this plan,
+but he was attacked and twice defeated by an Austrian army. On May 22 the
+British and Austrians took the city of Naples, and Murat fled to France.
+In October he made an attempt to recover his kingdom, but was captured and
+shot. It is noteworthy that, on hearing of his fate at St. Helena,
+Napoleon showed but little sympathy with his brother-in-law.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_119" id="TOPIC_119"></a>On the morning of June 12, Napoleon left Paris, saying as he entered his
+carriage that he went to match himself with Wellington. All his troops
+were already marshalled on the Belgian frontier, and numbered 124,588 men,
+with 344 guns. The Imperial Guard alone was 20,954 strong, and the whole
+army was largely composed of seasoned veterans. The Prussian army
+consisted of 116,897 men, with 312 guns under Marshal Bl&uuml;cher, whose
+headquarters were at Namur. Though the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> majority of these were veterans,
+there was a considerable leaven of inferior troops, hastily raised from
+the Westphalian and Rhine militia. Between this town and Quatre Bras lay
+the Prussian line of defence, Sombreffe being the centre, with Ligny and
+St. Amand in front of it, and rather on the south-west. Wellington's
+headquarters were at Brussels, and, having no certain intelligence of
+Napoleon's movements, he kept the various divisions of his army within
+easy distance of that capital until the very eve of the final conflict. Of
+the 93,717 men under his command, 31,253 were British, two-thirds of whom
+had never been under fire; 6,387 were of the king's German legion; 15,935
+Hanoverians; 29,214 (including 4,300 Nassauers in the service of the
+Prince of the Netherlands) Dutch and Belgians; 6,808 Brunswickers; 2,880
+Nassauers; the engineers, numbering 1,240, were not classified by
+nationality. He fully expected that Napoleon would move upon Brussels
+along the route by Mons and Hal, and maintained in later days that such
+would have been the best strategical course. Napoleon thought otherwise,
+and resolved to strike in between the Prussian and British armies,
+crushing the former before the latter could be fully assembled. He very
+nearly succeeded, and, if all had gone as he hoped, he could scarcely have
+failed to win one of his greatest victories.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_120" id="TOPIC_120"></a>On the evening of the 15th, Wellington was still at Brussels, with the
+great body of his army, and only a weak force of Dutch and Belgians was at
+Quatre Bras, some sixteen miles to the south. Bl&uuml;cher, with about
+three-fourths of his army, was at Sombreffe, a few miles south-east of
+Quatre Bras. Napoleon himself was at or close by Charleroi, ten or twelve
+miles south of Quatre Bras; the mass of his army was at Fleurus,
+south-west of Sombreffe, with Ligny and St. Amand between it and the
+Prussians; and Marshal Ney, with Reille's corps, was at Frasnes, opposite
+to and due south of Quatre Bras. On the morning of the 16th, Napoleon
+arrived from Charleroi at Fleurus, and carefully inspected his enemy's
+position, but delayed his attack upon Ligny and St Amand until half-past
+two in the afternoon. The Prussians outnumbered the French, and a
+murderous conflict ensued among the streets, gardens, and enclosures of
+these little towns, which lasted until eight or nine o'clock. At last
+Napoleon ordered his guard to advance, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> the plateau behind Ligny was
+taken, with a loss to the French of 12,000, and to the Prussians of over
+20,000. Bl&uuml;cher himself was unhorsed and severely bruised in a furious
+charge of cavalry, but the Prussians retired in good order towards Wavre,
+north of the battlefield.</p>
+
+<p>Had Ney been in a condition to obey an urgent message from Napoleon, and
+to envelop the Prussian right and rear, this defeat would have been
+overwhelming in its effect. But while the battle of Ligny was raging,
+another battle was going on at Quatre Bras, six miles distant, in which
+the French sustained a serious check. Happily for the British, Ney failed
+to bring up his divisions for an attack on Quatre Bras until two o'clock
+in the afternoon, when the Dutch and Belgians under the Prince of Orange
+were still his only opponents. The news for which Wellington had been
+waiting did not reach him until just before the memorable ball, given by
+the Duchess of Richmond at Brussels on the night of the 15th, which he
+nevertheless attended, hurrying off his troops to Quatre Bras. They
+arrived just in time to reinforce the Prince of Orange and save the
+position; but Ney, too, was receiving fresh reinforcements every hour, the
+Duke of Brunswick was killed, and a fearful stress fell on Picton's
+division and the Hanoverians, who alone were a match for Ney's splendid
+infantry and Kellermann's cuirassiers.</p>
+
+<p>These made a charge like that which had borne down the Austrians at
+Marengo, but the British squares were proof against it, and when a
+division of guards came up from Nivelles, the French in turn were put on
+the defensive and retreated to Frasnes. The loss on the British side was
+4,500 men; that on the French somewhat less. It is not difficult to
+imagine what the issue of the battle must have been if D'Erlon's corps had
+been brought into action. This corps was occupied in marching and
+countermarching, under contradictory orders from Napoleon and Ney, between
+the British left and the Prussian right during the whole of this eventful
+day. Its appearance in the distance just when Napoleon was about to launch
+his guard against the Prussians at Ligny, caused him to hesitate long, and
+lose the decisive moment for demolishing his enemy. Its failure to appear
+at Quatre Bras, and to roll up the wavering Dutch-Belgians, before Picton
+took up the fighting, enabled Wellington to hold his ground at first, to
+repulse Ney afterwards, and on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> hearing of Bl&uuml;cher's defeat at Ligny, to
+fall back in good order on Waterloo. Even then, something was due to good
+fortune. Had Napoleon joined Ney and marched direct on Quatre Bras early
+on the 17th, it is difficult to see how his advance to Brussels could have
+been arrested. But whether he was exhausted by his incessant labours since
+leaving Paris, or whether his marvellous intuition was deserting him,
+certain it is that he allowed that critical morning to slip by without an
+effort&mdash;and without a reconnaissance. He assumed that Bl&uuml;cher must retire
+upon Namur as his base of operations, and that Wellington, retiring
+towards Brussels, would be cut off from his allies. He therefore
+despatched Marshal Grouchy, with 33,000 men, to follow up the Prussians
+eastward by the Namur road. His assumption was unfounded. Bl&uuml;cher, loyal
+to his engagements, retired upon Wavre; Wellington, relying upon Bl&uuml;cher's
+loyalty, took his stand on the field of Waterloo; and this error on the
+part of Napoleon determined the fortunes of the campaign.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WATERLOO.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_121" id="TOPIC_121"></a>The British army retreated upon Waterloo almost unmolested. Ney was
+probably awaiting orders, and Napoleon, believing the Prussians to be at
+Namur, probably thought he might safely rest himself and his army before
+crushing Wellington at his leisure. When they realised that Wellington was
+deliberately moving his army to a position nearer Brussels, they both
+followed in pursuit along different roads converging at Quatre Bras, and a
+brisk skirmish took place near Genappe between Ney's cavalry and that of
+the British rear-guard. Heavy rain came on, and the two armies spent a
+miserable night, half a mile from each other, close to Mont St. Jean, and
+south of Waterloo. Napoleon rose before daybreak on the 18th, reconnoitred
+the British position, and convinced himself that Wellington intended to
+give battle. He expressed to his staff his satisfaction and confidence of
+victory, when General Foy, who had experience of the Peninsular war,
+replied in significant words: "Sire, when the British infantry stand at
+bay, they are the very devil himself". Why Napoleon did not begin the
+battle at eight o'clock has been the subject of much discussion. It is
+said that he waited for Grouchy to join him before the close of the
+action. But neither he nor Grouchy, though aware<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> that at least a large
+force of Prussians had gone to Wavre and not to Namur, suspected that
+Bl&uuml;cher had promised Wellington to march with his whole army on the
+morning of the 18th to support the British at Waterloo. It is more likely
+that he waited for his men to assemble and for the ground to dry and
+become more practicable for his powerful artillery.<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a></p>
+
+<p>Exception has been taken to the conduct of Wellington in detaching 17,000
+men to guard the approach to Brussels at Hal, and, still more, in not
+recalling them, when he must have ascertained that nothing was to be
+feared on that side, and when such a reinforcement of his right wing must
+have been all-important. But it must be remembered that in this force
+there were only 1,500 English troops, and 2,000 Hanoverian militia. The
+rest were Dutch and Belgians. At all events, Napoleon left his right flank
+undefended, though he was already somewhat anxious about the Prussian
+movements, and Wellington fought the battle of Waterloo with a force
+numerically inferior to that under Napoleon's command, though it might
+have been rendered superior by the accession of the Hal contingent. The
+effective part of this force, numbering in all 67,661 men, consisted of
+24,000 British soldiers, 6,000 soldiers of the king's German legion, and
+about 11,000 Hanoverians. Napoleon's force numbered 72,000 men, and it was
+stronger both in cavalry and in guns. It represented the flower of the
+French army; there were few, if any, recruits as raw as those who swelled
+the ranks of the British regiments; there were thousands upon thousands
+who had formed part of that <i>Grande Arm&eacute;e</i> which had overawed the
+continent of Europe. It is fair, however, to record that, while the
+British rank and file suffered much for want of sufficient food, the
+French had fared still worse, and that very many of them could have been
+in no fit condition for the struggle impending over them.</p>
+
+<p>Both armies occupied ground extending from west to east, on opposite
+ridges, and crossed at right angles by the great highway running north and
+south from Charleroi to Brussels. In front of the British right were the
+ch&acirc;teau and enclosures of Hougoumont which were occupied by the British;
+nearly in front of the centre were the large farm-house and buildings of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+La Haye Sainte. Further to the left were the hamlet of Smohain and the
+farms Papelotte and La Haye. Wellington had arranged his brigades so as to
+distribute the older troops as much as possible among the less
+experienced. Sir Thomas Picton's fifth division formed the left of the
+line; to his right was Alten's second division, and beyond him to the
+right was the guards division under Cooke. Further to the right and partly
+in reserve was Clinton's second division, while Chass&eacute;'s Dutch division on
+the extreme right occupied the village of Braine l'Alleud. Somerset's
+brigade of heavy cavalry and Kruse's Dutch cavalry were posted behind
+Alten's division, and Ponsonby's "union brigade," consisting of the royal
+dragoons, Scots greys, and Inniskillings, was stationed in Picton's rear.
+The whole line lay on the inner slopes of the ridge with the exception of
+Bylandt's Dutch-Belgian brigade which was posted on the outer slope in
+front of Picton's division. D'Erlon's corps was opposite the British left,
+Reille's opposite the British right. Squadrons of cavalry covered the
+outer flank of either of the two French corps. The magnificent squadrons
+of French cavalry, 15,000 strong, under Milhaud, Kellermann, and other
+famous leaders, were in the second line; the imperial guard, as usual, was
+massed in the rear.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WATERLOO.</i></div>
+
+<p>The battle opened about half-past eleven with a furious attack on
+Hougoumont. It was defended with desperate gallantry, mainly by the
+British guards, who reopened the old loopholes in the garden-walls, and
+closed by sheer muscular force the eastern gate of the yard, which had
+been forced open by the French. In the fruitless siege of Hougoumont, as
+it may be called, the French left wing thus wasted most of its strength,
+and incurred enormous loss. Meanwhile, the French right wing under
+D'Erlon, advanced to attack the British left, which had been assailed for
+an hour and a half by the fire of a battery with seventy-eight guns. The
+Dutch and Belgians, who in their exposed position had suffered severely
+from the French artillery fire, soon gave way; but Picton's division,
+after a single volley, charged with the bayonet and drove their assailants
+reeling backward, though Picton himself fell dead on the field. Without
+orders from Wellington, Lord Uxbridge, in command of the British cavalry,
+seized the opportunity, and launched the union brigade with other
+regiments upon the flying masses.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> This whirlwind of British horsemen
+swept all before it, slaughtering many of the French cavalry in passing,
+taking 3,000 prisoners, sabring the gunners of Ney's battery, and spiking
+fifteen of the guns. But their ardour carried them too far. By Napoleon's
+orders a large force of French cuirassiers and lancers fell upon their
+flank before they could take breath again, and their ranks were
+frightfully thinned in a disorderly retreat. But their charge had saved
+the day.</p>
+
+<p>At one o'clock, while the fate of D'Erlon's onslaught was still undecided,
+Napoleon observed Prussian troops on his right. An intercepted despatch
+proved these to be B&uuml;low's corps. He instantly sent off a despatch to
+Grouchy, whom he supposed to be within reach, ordering him to attack B&uuml;low
+in the rear. Then followed the memorable succession of charges by the
+whole of the French cavalry upon the squares of the British infantry. Not
+one of these squares was broken; a great part of the French cavalry was
+mown down by volleys or cut to pieces by the British cavalry in their
+precipitate retreat, and the British line remained unmoved, though
+grievously weakened, behind its protecting ridge. This was the crisis of
+the fight. Much of the British artillery was dismounted, and Wellington
+confessed to one of his staff that he longed for the advent of night or
+Bl&uuml;cher. Napoleon next felt himself compelled to detach Lobau's corps for
+the purpose of meeting the advancing Prussians. Soon afterwards Ney
+carried La Haye Sainte by a most determined assault, aided by the failure
+of ammunition within its defences, and thus captured the key of the
+British position. But Napoleon saw that his one chance of victory lay in a
+final <i>coup</i> before the Prussians could wrest it from him. He ordered the
+imperial guard to the front, leading it himself across the valley, and
+then handing over the command to Ney. The guard was but the remnant of its
+original strength, for all its cavalry had been wrecked in wild charges
+against the British squares, and several battalions of its infantry were
+kept in reserve to hold back the Prussians and protect the baggage train.
+Nevertheless, the advance of this superb corps, the heroes of a hundred
+fights, who had seldom failed to hurl back the tide of battle at the most
+perilous junctures, was among the most impressive spectacles in the annals
+of war. They swerved a little to the left, thereby exposing themselves to
+the fire of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> British footguards and of a battery in excellent
+condition. The former were lying down for shelter, but when the imperial
+guard came within sixty paces of them they started up at the word of
+command from Wellington himself. The footguards poured a deadly fire into
+the front, and the 52nd regiment into the flank of their columns; as they
+wavered under the storm of shot a bayonet charge followed, and the
+imperial guard, hitherto almost invincible, was dissolved into a mob of
+fugitives scattered over the plain.</p>
+
+<p>It was now past eight o'clock; B&uuml;low's Prussians had long been engaged on
+the British left, and Bl&uuml;cher, with indomitable energy, was pressing
+forward with all his other divisions. Wellington first sent Vandeleur's
+and Vivian's cavalry, still comparatively fresh, to sweep away what
+remained of the French reserves, and then ordered a general advance. The
+French retreat speedily became a rout, and a rout to which there is no
+parallel except that which succeeded the battle of Leipzig. Wellington and
+Bl&uuml;cher met at La Belle Alliance on the high road, just south of the
+battlefield, and lately the French headquarters. The British troops were
+utterly tired out, but the Prussian cavalry never drew rein until they had
+driven the last Frenchman over the river Sambre in their relentless
+pursuit. The slaughter had been prodigious, though far short of that at
+Borodino. The British army lost 13,000 men, the Prussian 7,000, and the
+French 37,000<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> (including prisoners), besides the whole of their
+artillery, ammunition, baggage-waggons, and military train. But the battle
+was one of the most decisive recorded in history, and was the real
+beginning of a peace which lasted over the whole of Europe for nearly
+forty years. Grouchy heard the cannonade of Waterloo on his march from
+Ligny to Wavre, and was strongly urged by G&eacute;rard to hasten across country,
+with his whole force, in the direction of the firing. But he pleaded the
+letter of Napoleon's instructions, and reached Wavre only to find Bl&uuml;cher
+gone. After an encounter with a Prussian corps, which had been left
+behind, he received news of Napoleon's defeat, and ultimately escaped into
+France.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON'S SECOND ABDICATION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_122" id="TOPIC_122"></a>The march of the allies into France after the battle of Waterloo was not
+wholly unchecked, but it was far more rapid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> than in 1814. The French
+could not be rallied, and in the first week of July Paris was occupied by
+Anglo-Prussian troops. The Austrians and Prussians were moving again upon
+the eastern frontiers of France, but were still far behind. The Prussian
+general and soldiers were animated by the bitterest spirit of vengeance,
+and it needed all the firmness of Wellington to prevent the bridge of Jena
+from being blown up, and a ruinous contribution levied on the citizens of
+Paris. <a name="TOPIC_123" id="TOPIC_123"></a>Napoleon himself was now at Rochefort, having quitted Paris after a
+second abdication on June 22, but four days after the battle. No other
+course was open to him. When he started for his last campaign, he was no
+longer the champion of an united nation, and consciously staked his all on
+a single throw. When he returned from it, discomfited and without an army,
+he found the chambers actively hostile to him. Carnot, who had formerly
+opposed his assumption of the imperial title, was now the only one of his
+ministers to deprecate his abdication, but Napoleon himself saw no hope of
+retaining his power, or transmitting it to his son, without a reckless
+appeal to revolutionary passions. From this he shrank, and he represented
+himself at St. Helena as having sacrificed personal ambition to
+patriotism.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_124" id="TOPIC_124"></a>The chamber of deputies appointed an executive commission of five,
+including the infamous Fouch&eacute;, and from this body the late emperor
+actually received an order to quit Paris. He retired to Malmaison, where
+he received a fresh order to set out for Rochefort, which he reached on
+July 3. On the next day Paris capitulated to the allies, and the necessity
+for his leaving the shores of France became more urgent. Two frigates were
+assigned for his escape to America, but a British squadron was lying ready
+to intercept them. Some of his bolder companions devised a scheme for
+smuggling him on board a swift merchant ship, but it was foiled by the
+vigilant watch of the British squadron off the islands of Ol&eacute;ron and R&eacute;.
+At last he surrendered himself on board the <i>Bellerophon</i>, relying, as he
+said, on the honour of the British nation, and claiming the generous
+protection of the prince regent. He was, however, clearly informed that he
+would be at the disposal of the government. Under an agreement with the
+allied powers, the ministers decided, and were supported by the nation in
+deciding, that he could not be detained in England, either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> as a guest or
+as a prisoner, with any regard to public safety or the verdict of Europe
+at Vienna. The proposal of banishing him to St. Helena, suggested in the
+previous year, was finally adopted, and he sailed thither in the
+<i>Northumberland</i> on August 8, vehemently protesting against the bad faith
+of Great Britain. <a name="TOPIC_125" id="TOPIC_125"></a>Louis XVIII. was restored, and the treaty of Vienna,
+signed on the eve of the Waterloo campaign, was but slightly modified.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_126" id="TOPIC_126"></a>The action of Murat had solved the difficulties which the congress had to
+face in Italy. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies reverted to the Bourbon,
+Ferdinand; and the Bourbons also acquired a right of reversion in Parma,
+where the protest of Spain against the rule of Maria Louisa could now be
+ignored. Genoa was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia; the pope received
+back the states of the Church; the Grand Duke of Tuscany and the Duke of
+Modena were restored; while Austria had to be content with Venetia and
+Lombardy as far as the Ticino. The organisation of Germany occupied the
+congress until June, and was the least durable part of its work. The basis
+of it was a confederation of thirty-eight states, represented and in
+theory controlled by a diet under the presidency of Austria. This diet
+naturally resolved itself into a mere permanent congress of diplomatists
+for the purpose of settling the mutual relations of the constituent
+states. Each state was ordered to adopt a constitutional form of
+government, but, as no provision was made for enforcing this clause, it
+remained a dead letter. Prussia regained her provinces on the left bank of
+the Rhine, with a population exceeding 1,000,000, and was allotted the
+northern part of Saxony, with a population of 800,000, besides retaining
+her original share of Poland, with the province of Posen, which had formed
+part of the duchy of Warsaw. Most of this duchy was annexed by Russia, but
+Cracow was left a republic. Prussia also gained Swedish Pomerania.
+Bavaria, Hanover, and Denmark profited more or less by the repartition of
+Germany. Denmark, however, finally lost Norway, and Sweden paid the price
+of this acquisition by resigning Finland to Russia. The neutrality of
+Switzerland was proclaimed and her constitution simplified. The Belgian
+Netherlands were united to Holland, the two forming together the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, to which Austria ceded all her claims in the Low
+Countries.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE SECOND TREATY OF PARIS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_127" id="TOPIC_127"></a>The treaty of Vienna left the boundaries of France itself as they had been
+defined by the first treaty of Paris in 1814. The second treaty of Paris,
+however, signed on November 20, 1815, was less favourable to France, which
+had already ceded Western Savoy to Sardinia, and was now required to
+abandon Landau and other outlying territories beyond the frontier of 1792.
+She was also compelled to restore all the works of art accumulated during
+the war.</p>
+
+<p>Great Britain had failed to obtain from the congress any binding
+regulation on the subject of the slave trade. The most that she could
+obtain was a solemn denunciation of that trade issued on February 8, which
+declared it to be "repugnant to the principles of civilisation and of
+universal morality". The moderation of the British demands, as embodied in
+these treaties, excited not only the amazement but the contempt of
+Napoleon, who discussed the subject at St. Helena with great freedom. Well
+knowing that his paramount object throughout all his wars and negotiations
+had been to crush Great Britain, and that Great Britain had been the
+mainstay of all the combinations against him, he could find no explanation
+of our self-denial except our insular simplicity. Perhaps it might be
+attributed with greater reason to politic magnanimity; nor, indeed, could
+Great Britain, as a member of the European council, dictate such terms as
+Napoleon suggested. Still, the gains of Great Britain were substantial.
+She retained Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, the Isle of France
+(Mauritius), Trinidad, St. Lucia, Tobago, and, above all, Malta. She also
+obtained possession of Heligoland and the protectorate of the Ionian
+Islands, both of which she has since resigned of her own accord. If she
+afterwards lost the commanding position which she had attained among the
+allied powers, it was chiefly because the colossal empire which she had
+defied was effectually shattered, because neither her armies nor her
+subsidies were any longer needed on the continent of Europe, and perhaps
+because the energies of her statesmen were no longer braced up by the
+stress of a struggle for national life.</p>
+
+<p>Even before the allied armies entered Paris Wellington considered it
+necessary to induce Louis XVIII. to make advances to certain politicians
+of the revolution so as to inspire national confidence in him, and to
+anticipate the risk of a "White<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> Terror," or a continuance of the war.
+Fouch&eacute; was accordingly summoned to power, and he had sufficient influence
+to prevent any national opposition to the Bourbon restoration. Napoleon
+remained at large for three weeks after his abdication, that is, for eight
+days after the allied troops had entered Paris, and the fear of a future
+Bonapartist revolution inclined the British government under Liverpool to
+entertain favourably the demand of Prussia for the cession of Alsace,
+Lorraine, and the northern fortresses. When, however, Napoleon had placed
+himself on board the <i>Bellerophon</i>, the situation changed. A contented
+France seemed preferable to an impotent France, and Wellington argued that
+the Bourbon restoration could not last, if French opinion connected it
+with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The tsar took this line from the
+first, and Wellington won for it the adhesion first of his own government
+and then of Austria. Prussia had finally to be contented with a provision
+for the cession of the outlying districts, which the treaty of Paris of
+1814 had left to France. The second treaty of Paris, which embodied this
+stipulation, also provided for an indemnity of &pound;40,000,000 to be paid by
+France to the allies, and for the temporary occupation of Northern France
+by the allied armies. On the same day Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and
+Russia signed a treaty pledging themselves to act together in case fresh
+revolution and usurpation in France should endanger the repose of other
+states, and providing for frequent meetings of congresses to preserve the
+peace of Europe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_128" id="TOPIC_128"></a>In addition to the formal treaties of alliance signed at Chaumont, Vienna,
+and Paris, an attempt was made by the Tsar Alexander to bind together the
+European sovereigns in an union based on the principles of Christian
+brotherhood. A form of treaty was accordingly drawn up which gave
+expression to these motives, dealt with all Christians as one nation, and
+committed their sovereigns to mutual affection and reciprocal service.
+This treaty of the holy alliance was signed on September 26, by Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia. All European princes except the sultan were invited
+to adhere to it, and all except the pope and the sultan ultimately either
+accepted it or expressed their sympathy with its principles. But in
+England there was hardly a statesman who regarded the treaty seriously,
+Wellington avowed his distrust of it, the prince regent declined to join<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>
+it, and its effective value in promoting the subsequent concert of the
+powers was less than nothing. Still, however visionary and extravagantly
+worded, it remains as an unique record embodying the deliberate adoption
+of the principle of international brotherhood, and the sacrifice of
+separate national interests for the sake of European peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_129" id="TOPIC_129"></a>It is remarkable that so little public discussion took place on two
+questions which have since been so hotly debated&mdash;the legal <i>status</i> of
+Napoleon after he surrendered himself, and the moral right of Great
+Britain to banish him to St. Helena. One reason for this apparent
+indifference to the fate of one who had overawed all Europe may be found
+in the fact that parliament was not sitting when the decision of the
+government was taken, and that, when it met on February 1, 1816, that
+decision was virtually irrevocable. We know, however, that the first
+question was fully considered by the allied powers and the British
+ministry before his place of exile was fixed, and Great Britain undertook
+the custody of his person. The view which prevailed was that, after his
+escape from Elba, he could neither be treated as an independent sovereign
+nor as a subject of the French king, but must be regarded as a public
+enemy who had fallen into the hands of one among several allied powers.
+Accordingly, it was by their joint mandate that he remained the prisoner
+of Great Britain, and was to be under the joint inspection of
+commissioners appointed by the other powers. Still the minds of Liverpool,
+Ellenborough, and Sir William Scott, judge of the court of admiralty, were
+not altogether easy on the legal aspect of the case, which Eldon reviewed
+in an elaborate and exhaustive memorandum. His conclusion was that
+Napoleon's position was quite exceptional, that he could not rightly be
+made over to France as a French rebel, but was a prisoner of war at the
+disposal of the British government, both on the broad principles of
+international law, and under the express terms of his surrender, as
+reported officially by Captain Maitland of the <i>Bellerophon</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was thought expedient, however, to pass an act of parliament in the
+session of 1816 for the purpose of setting at rest any objections which
+might afterwards be raised. This measure was introduced on March 17 by
+Lord Castlereagh, who defended it on grounds of national justice and
+national policy. It met with no opposition in the house of commons, but
+Lords<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Holland and Lauderdale criticised it in the house of lords, not as
+sanctioning a wrong to Napoleon, but as implicitly admitting the right of
+other powers to join in arrangements for his custody. Little attention was
+then bestowed by parliament or the public on the moral aspect of his
+life-long detention at St. Helena, the restrictions to be there imposed
+upon his liberty, or the provision to be made for his comfort. Yet these
+subjects have ever since exercised the minds of myriads both in England
+and France, and have given birth to a copious literature for more than
+three generations.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a> For the movements of June 15, 16, see Chesney, <i>Waterloo
+Lectures</i>, pp. 70-137; Ropes, <i>The Campaign of Waterloo</i>, pp. 44-196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a> Rose, <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, ii., 494, 495.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a> Oman in <i>English Historical Review</i>, xix., 693, and xxi.,
+132.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_130" id="TOPIC_130"></a>When Parliament met on February 1, 1816, after a recess of unusual length,
+Castlereagh was received with loud acclamations from all parts of the
+house as the chief actor in the pacification of Europe. There was, of
+course, a full debate upon the treaties, but the opposition dwelt less
+upon the arbitrary partition of Europe than upon their alleged tendency to
+guarantee sovereigns against the assertion of popular rights and upon the
+manifest intention of the government to "raise the country into a military
+power". From this moment dates the whig and radical watchword of "Peace,
+Retrenchment, and Reform". The nation was, in fact, entering upon a period
+of unprecedented depression and discontent, which lasted through the last
+four years of George III.'s reign. At the close of 1815, however, the
+whole horizon was apparently bright. Great Britain had saved Europe by her
+example, and, however small her army in comparison with those of
+continental states, she stood foremost among the powers which had crushed
+the rule of Napoleon. Her national debt, it is true, had reached the
+prodigious total of &pound;861,039,049, and the interest on it amounted
+&pound;32,645,618, but the expansion of our national resources had kept pace
+with it. In spite of the continental system, the orders in council, and
+the American war, the imports and exports had enormously increased,
+chiefly by means of an organised contraband traffic; the carrying trade of
+the world had passed into the hands of British shipowners; British
+manufactures were largely fostered by warlike expenditure at home and the
+suspension of many industries abroad; while population, stimulated by a
+vicious poor law, was rapidly on the increase. In this last element, then
+considered as a sure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> sign of prosperity, really consisted one of the
+chief national dangers.</p>
+
+<p>So long as the war lasted, low as the rate of wages might be, there was
+generally employment enough in the fields or in the factories for nearly
+all the hands willing to labour. When the inflated war prices came to an
+end, and wheat fell below 80s. or even 70s. a quarter, until it reached
+52s. 6d. early in 1816, labourers were turned off and wages cut down still
+further; bread was not proportionately cheapened, and agrarian outrages
+sprang up. The continent, impoverished by the war, no longer required
+British goods for military purposes, and, as its own domestic industries
+revived, ceased to absorb British products, flung in profusion on its
+markets. Hence came a reduction of 16 per cent. in the export trade, and
+of nearly 20 per cent. in the import trade, which resulted in bankruptcies
+and the dismissal of workpeople. If we add to these causes of distress,
+the influence of over-speculation, the accession of disbanded soldiers to
+the ranks of the unemployed, and the substitution of the factory system
+with machinery for domestic manufactures with hand labour, we can partly
+understand why Great Britain, never harried by invading armies, should
+have suffered more than France itself from popular misery and disaffection
+for several years after the restoration of peace.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>VANSITTART'S FINANCE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_131" id="TOPIC_131"></a>The history of these years is mainly a history of social unrest, and
+attempts to cure social evils by legislation or coercion. Liverpool and
+his colleagues, with the possible exception of Eldon, were not bigoted
+tories, and it is sometimes forgotten that among them, together with
+Sidmouth, Castlereagh, and Vansittart, were Canning, Palmerston, and Peel.
+One of the first parliamentary struggles was on the proposal of the
+government to reduce the income tax from 10 to 5 per cent., and to apply
+this half of it, producing about &pound;7,500,000, towards the expense of
+maintaining an army of 150,000 men. Since the income tax has become a
+favourite of democratic economists, as pressing specially upon the rich,
+we may be surprised to find that its total repeal was successfully
+advocated by Henry Brougham, the leading democrat of that day&mdash;a man whose
+noble services to progress and to humanity in the earlier part of his
+career have been obscured by the inordinate vanity and unprincipled
+egotism which he displayed in the later phases of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> his long public life.
+He had entered parliament in 1810, and rapidly became the most active of
+the opposition speakers. He now employed without scruple all the arts of
+agitation, petition-framing, and parliamentary obstruction to achieve his
+object, and succeeded, by the aid of bankers and country-gentlemen, in
+defeating the government by a majority of thirty-seven. This vote might be
+justified, more or less, on the principle laid down by Pitt, that the
+income tax should be held in reserve as a war tax only, or on the ground
+that it was equally wasteful and mischievous to keep up so large a
+peace-establishment, especially if it might be used to bolster up
+despotism abroad. It was also unfortunate that Castlereagh, ignoring the
+heroic efforts made by the people of England for more than twenty years,
+should have deprecated "an ignorant impatience to be relieved from the
+pressure of taxation". Still, it is remarkable that friends of the people
+and the ultra-liberal corporation of London, as it then was, should have
+concentrated their indignant protests against the financial policy of the
+government, not on the corn laws, or any other indirect tax, but on the
+income tax.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_132" id="TOPIC_132"></a>Public confidence in the economic wisdom of the ministers was further
+weakened by the gratuitous abandonment of the malt tax, apparently in a
+fit of petulance, on the ground, explicitly stated, that, if another war
+tax must be raised, two or three millions more or less would make little
+difference. By a temporary suspension of the sinking fund, a deficit might
+be converted into a surplus; Vansittart, however, neglected to take
+advantage of this simple expedient, and raised &pound;11,500,000 by loan. His
+waning reputation was almost shattered by this absurd proceeding. Finally,
+the excessive and irregular expenditure upon the civil list provoked a
+searching inquiry into its abuses, prefaced by a scathing attack from
+Brougham upon the character of the prince regent. His character was, in
+fact, indefensible, and had justly forfeited the respect of the nation. He
+was a debauchee and gambler, a disobedient son, a cruel husband, a
+heartless father, an ungrateful and treacherous friend, and a burden to
+the ministries which had to act in his name and palliate his misdoings.
+That of Liverpool carried a measure for the better regulation of the civil
+list, upon which, swollen as it was by the wrongful appropriation of other
+public funds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> many official salaries had been charged hitherto. For these
+parliament now made a separate provision. The house of commons, which
+properly grudged the prince regent the means of reckless luxury and
+self-indulgence, was unanimous in voting &pound;60,000 for outfit and &pound;60,000 a
+year to the Princess Charlotte on her marriage, on May 2, to Prince
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, looking forward to a reign under which virtue and
+a sense of public duty would again be the attributes of royalty. In this
+session, too, it conferred a boon upon Ireland, which earned little
+gratitude, by the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers.
+Ireland was virtually insolvent before this measure was passed. With the
+union of the exchequers the union of the countries was completed. The
+administration, discredited by its financial policy, was strengthened in
+June by the acquisition of Canning, who succeeded Buckinghamshire as
+president of the board of control. In September, 1814, Wellesley Pole, a
+brother of the Marquis Wellesley and the Duke of Wellington, had been
+admitted to the cabinet as master of the mint, so that with Castlereagh,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst, there were now five members of the
+cabinet in the lower house.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>INDUSTRIAL RIOTS.</i></div>
+
+<p>The disturbances which broke out again and again during the years 1816-19
+were partly the outcome of sheer destitution among the working classes,
+and partly of a growing demand for reform, whether constitutional or
+revolutionary. The statesmen of the regency must not be too severely
+judged if they often confounded these causes of seditious movements, and
+failed to distinguish between the moderate and violent sections of
+reformers. Those who remembered the bloodthirsty orgies of the French
+revolution, ushered in by quixotic visions of liberty, equality, and
+fraternity, may perhaps be excused for distrusting the moderate
+professions of demagogues who deliberately inflamed the passions of
+ignorant mobs. Moreover, the whigs and moderate reformers, who privately
+condemned the excesses of their violent followers, made light of these in
+their public utterances, and reserved all their censures for the
+repressive policy of the government. Bread riots had begun before the
+harvest, which proved a total failure. The price of wheat, which was as
+low as 52s. 6d. a quarter in January, 1816, rose to 103s. 1d. in January,
+1817, and to 111s. 6d. in June, 1817. And when rickburning set in as a
+consequence of agricultural depression,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> tumultuary processions as a
+consequence of enforced idleness in the coal districts, and a revival of
+Luddism as a consequence of stagnation in the various textile industries,
+itself due to a glut of British goods on the continent, the reform party,
+now raising its head, was held responsible by the government for a great
+part of these disorders.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a> The writings of Cobbett, especially his
+<i>Weekly Register</i>, certainly had a wide influence in stirring up
+discontent against existing institutions, but it must be admitted that he
+condemned the use of physical force, and pointed to parliamentary reform
+as the legitimate cure for all social evils. Reform, however, in Cobbett's
+meaning included universal suffrage with annual parliaments, and the
+Hampden clubs, all over the country, agitated for the same objects in less
+guarded language. Still, looking back at these democratic agencies by the
+light of later experience, we can hardly adopt the opinion expressed by a
+secret committee of the house of commons that their avowed objects were
+"nothing short of a revolution".</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_133" id="TOPIC_133"></a>It was on December 2, 1816, that the extreme section of reformers, now for
+the first time known as radicals, in alliance with a body of socialists
+called Spenceans, first came into open collision with the forces of the
+law. A meeting was announced to be held on that day in Spa Fields,
+Bermondsey, and was to be addressed by "Orator" Hunt, Major Cartwright,
+the two Watsons, and other demagogues. Hunt was a gentleman of Somerset,
+and had stood for Bristol in 1812. Though a prominent speaker, he in no
+sense directed the movement. Burdett and Cochrane, the orthodox leaders of
+London reformers, were not concerned in this demonstration, which,
+according to an informer who gave evidence, was to be the signal for an
+attack upon the Tower and other acts of atrocity. As it was, before Hunt
+chose to appear, the mob, headed by the younger Watson, broke into
+gunsmiths' shops, not without bloodshed, and marched through the Royal
+Exchange, but were courageously met by the lord mayor, with a few
+assistants, and very soon dispersed. The alarm produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> in the whole
+nation by this riotous fiasco was quite out of proportion to its real
+importance, and was reawakened by an insult offered to the prince regent
+on his return from opening parliament on January 28, 1817. Even Canning, a
+life-long opponent of reform, did not scruple to magnify these and similar
+evidences of popular restlessness into proofs of a deep-laid plot against
+the constitution, and committees of both houses urged the necessity of
+drastic measures to put down a conspiracy against public order and private
+property. These measures took the form of bills for the suppression of
+seditious meetings, and for the suspension until July 1 of the <i>habeas
+corpus</i> act, which had been uninterruptedly in force since its suspension
+by Pitt had expired in 1801. This last bill was passed on March 3, and,
+before the other became law, the so-called march of the Blanketeers took
+place at Manchester. The march was the ridiculous sequel of a very large
+meeting got up for the purpose of carrying a petition to London, and
+presenting it to the prince regent in person. The meeting was dispersed by
+the soldiers and police, after the riot act had been read, and a
+straggling crowd of some three hundred who began their pilgrimage,
+carrying blankets or overcoats, melted away by degrees before they had got
+far southward.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SIDMOUTH'S UNPOPULARITY.</i></div>
+
+<p>A far more serious outbreak at Manchester seems to have been clumsily
+planned soon afterwards, but it ended in nothing, and the enemies of the
+government freely attributed this and other projects of mob violence to
+the instigation of an <i>agent-provocateur</i>, well known as "Oliver the Spy".
+This man was also credited with the authorship of "the Derbyshire
+insurrection," for which three men were executed and many others
+transported. Here there can be no doubt that a formidable gang, armed with
+pikes, terrorised a large district, pressing operatives to join them in
+overt defiance of the law, and killing one who held back. Being confronted
+by a Nottinghamshire magistrate named Rolleston, with a small body of
+soldiers, they fled across the fields, and the bubble of rebellion burst
+at a touch. Whether they were legally guilty of high treason, for which
+they were unwisely tried, may perhaps be doubted, but it would certainly
+be no palliation of their crime if it could be shown, as it never was
+shown, that Oliver had led them to rely on a jacobin revolution in London.
+What does appear very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> clearly is that Sidmouth was greatly alarmed by the
+reports of his agents on the disturbed state of the country, but that he
+was highly conscientious in his instructions and in the use of his own
+powers. The great majority of those imprisoned for political offences at
+this time were liberated or acquitted, but the suspension of the <i>habeas
+corpus</i> act was renewed at the beginning of July.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_134" id="TOPIC_134"></a>Moreover, a circular was addressed by Sidmouth to the lords-lieutenant of
+counties, for the information of the magistrates, intimating that, in the
+opinion of the law officers, persons charged on oath with seditious libel
+might be apprehended and held to bail. No act of Sidmouth called forth
+such an outburst of reprobation as this; yet it is not self-evident that
+instigations to outrage, being criminal offences, should be treated by
+magistrates differently from other offences for which bail may be
+required, with the alternative of imprisonment. On the other hand, it is
+hardly becoming for a home secretary to interpret the law, and, since the
+forensic triumphs of Erskine, it had been declared by an act of parliament
+that in cases of libel, as distinct from all other criminal trials, both
+the law and the fact were within the province of the jury. At all events,
+William Cobbett, feeling himself to be at the mercy of informers and the
+crown, took refuge in America in December, 1817. Hone, an antiquarian
+bookseller, was thrice prosecuted for blasphemous libels, in which the
+ministers had been held up to contempt. All these ill-judged, if not
+vindictive, prosecutions ended in signal failure. Ellenborough, the chief
+justice, before whom the two last trials were held, strained his judicial
+authority to procure a conviction of Hone, but the prisoner, with a spirit
+worthy of a martyr, defied the intimidation of the court, and thrice
+carried the sympathies of the jury with him. His triple acquittal led to
+Ellenborough's resignation, and perceptibly shook the prestige of the
+government.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_135" id="TOPIC_135"></a>In the year 1818 there was a temporary improvement in the economic
+condition of the country. The depression of the preceding year was
+followed in this year by a rapid increase of revenue. The importance the
+ministry attached to finance was emphasised by the admission to the
+cabinet in January of Frederick John Robinson, afterwards prime minister
+as Lord Goderich, who had been appointed president of the board of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> trade
+and treasurer of the navy. The chancellor of the exchequer and the master
+of the mint were already members of the cabinet. The suspension of the
+<i>habeas corpus</i> act having expired, the reform agitation revived, but
+assumed a less dangerous character, and no serious outbreak occurred. A
+bill of indemnity was passed to cover any excesses of jurisdiction in
+arresting suspected persons or in suppressing tumultuous assemblies. A
+parliamentary inquiry showed both that the disorders of the previous year
+had been exaggerated, and that, after all, the extraordinary powers of the
+home office had been used with moderation. Nevertheless, the early part of
+the session was largely occupied by party debates on these questions, the
+employment of spies, and apprehensions for libel. Parliament was dissolved
+in June, and the general election which followed resulted in a gain of
+several seats to the opposition.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> The ministry was strengthened in
+January, 1819, by the appointment of Wellington to be master-general of
+the ordnance, in succession to Mulgrave, who remained in the cabinet
+without office.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE "MANCHESTER MASSACRE".</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_136" id="TOPIC_136"></a>Before the end of the year 1818, a strike of Manchester cotton-spinners
+was attended by the usual incidents of brutal violence towards workmen who
+refused to join in it, but a few shots from the soldiers, one of which
+killed a rioter, proved effectual in quelling lawlessness. Manchester,
+however, remained the centre of agitation, and during the summer of 1819 a
+series of reform meetings held in other great towns culminated in a
+monster meeting originally convened for August 9, but postponed until the
+16th. The history of this meeting ending in the so-called "Manchester" or
+"Peterloo massacre," has been strongly coloured by party spirit and
+sympathy with the victims of reckless demagogy no less than of blundering
+officialism. It is certain that drilling had been going on for some time
+among the multitudes invited to attend the meeting of the 9th; that its
+avowed object was to choose a "legislatorial representative," as
+Birmingham had already done, and that, on its being declared illegal by
+the municipal authorities, who declined to summon it on their own
+initiative, its organisers deliberately resolved to hold it a week later,
+whether it were legal or not.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The contingents, which poured in by thousands from neighbouring towns,
+seem to have carried no arms but sticks, and to have conducted themselves
+peaceably when they arrived at St. Peter's Fields, where Orator Hunt,
+puffed up with silly vanity, was voted into the chair on a hustings.
+Unfortunately, instead of attempting to prevent the meeting, the county
+magistrates decided to let the great masses of people assemble, and then
+to arrest the leaders in the midst of them. They had at their disposal
+several companies of infantry, six troops of the 15th hussars, and a body
+of yeomanry, besides special constables. The chief constable, being
+ordered to arrest Hunt and his colleagues, declared that he could not do
+so without military aid, whereupon a small force of yeomanry advanced but
+soon became wedged up and enclosed by the densely packed crowd. One of the
+magistrates, fancying the yeomanry to be in imminent danger, of which
+there is no proof, called upon Colonel L'Estrange, who was in command of
+the soldiers, to rescue them and disperse the mob. Four troops of the
+hussars then made a dashing charge, supported by a few of the yeomanry;
+the people fled in wild confusion before them; some were cut down, more
+were trampled down, and an eye-witness describes "several mounds of human
+beings" as lying where they had fallen. Happily, the actual loss of life
+did not exceed five or six, but a much larger number was more or less
+wounded, the real havoc and bloodshed were inevitably exaggerated by
+rumour, and a bitter sense of resentment was implanted in the breasts of
+myriads, innocent of the slightest complicity with sedition, but impatient
+of oligarchical rule, and disgusted with so ruthless an interference with
+the right of public meeting.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_137" id="TOPIC_137"></a>It would have been wise if Sidmouth and his colleagues had recognised this
+widespread feeling, had seen that famine and despair were at the bottom of
+popular discontent, and had admitted error of judgment, at least, on the
+part of the Lancashire magistrates. On the contrary, they felt it so
+necessary to support civil and military authority, at all hazards, that
+they induced the prince regent to express unqualified approbation of the
+course taken, and afterwards defended it without reserve in parliament.
+Even Eldon expressed his opinion privately that it would be hard to
+justify it, unless the assembly amounted to an act of treason, as he
+regarded it; whereas Hunt and his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> associates were prosecuted (and
+convicted in the next year) not for treason, but only for a misdemeanour.
+At all events, the storm of indignation excited by this sad event, and not
+confined to the working classes, powerfully fomented the reform movement.
+Large meetings were held over all the manufacturing districts, and a
+requisition to summon a great Yorkshire meeting was signed by Fitzwilliam,
+the lord-lieutenant, who attended it in person. For these acts he was
+properly dismissed, but, in spite of inflammatory speeches, nearly all the
+meetings passed off quietly and without interference. Nevertheless, the
+government thought it necessary to hold an autumn session, and strengthen
+the hands of the executive by fresh measures of repression. These having
+been passed in December after strenuous opposition, were afterwards known
+as the six acts, and regarded as the climax of Sidmouth's despotic
+<i>r&eacute;gime</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two of the six acts, directed against the possession of arms and military
+training for unlawful purposes, cannot be considered oppressive under the
+circumstances then prevailing. Nor can exception be taken on the ground of
+principle to another for "preventing delay in the administration of
+justice in cases of misdemeanour," which, indeed, was amended, by Holland,
+with Eldon's consent, so as to benefit defendants in state prosecutions.
+Two were designed to curb still further the liberty of the press. One of
+these made the publication of seditious libels an offence punishable with
+banishment, and authorised the seizure of all unsold copies. When we
+consider the extreme virulence of seditious libels in those days, this act
+does not wear so monstrous an aspect as its radical opponents alleged, but
+happily it soon became a dead letter, and was repealed in 1830. The other,
+imposing a stamp-duty on small pamphlets, only placed them on the same
+footing with newspapers. The last of the new measures&mdash;"to prevent more
+effectually seditious meetings and assemblies"&mdash;was practically aimed
+against all large meetings, unless called by the highest authorities in
+counties and corporate towns, or, at least, five justices of the peace. It
+was, therefore, a grave encroachment on the right of public meeting, and
+the only excuse for it was that it was passed under the fear of a
+revolutionary movement, and limited in duration to a period of five years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SOCIAL LEGISLATION.</i></div>
+
+<p>Nor can it be denied that, as a whole, this restrictive code<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> was
+successful. From a modern point of view it may appear less arbitrary than
+the suspension of the <i>habeas corpus</i> act for a whole year (1817-18), but
+it was assuredly tainted with a reactionary spirit, and was capable of
+being worked in a way inconsistent with civil liberty. That it was not so
+worked, on the whole, and caused less hardship than had been anticipated,
+was not so much the result of changes in the government itself, as of
+economic progress in the nation, aided by a healthier growth of public
+opinion. The violence which marked the early stages of the reform movement
+has been described as a safety-valve against anarchy; it was, in reality,
+the chief obstacle to a sound and comprehensive reform bill. While it
+lasted, the middle classes and liberals of moderate views were estranged
+from the cause; when it ceased, the demand for a new representative system
+became irresistible.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever allowance may be made for the coercive policy of the government
+during the dark period of storm and stress which succeeded the great war,
+it is hard to find any excuse for its neglect of social legislation. Then,
+if ever, was a time when the work of Pitt's best days should have been
+resumed, when real popular grievances should have been redressed, and when
+the long arrears of progressive reform should have been gradually
+redeemed. Yet very little was done to better the lot of men, women, and
+children in Great Britain, and that little was chiefly initiated by
+individuals. In 1816, on the motion of a private member, an inquiry was
+commenced into the state of the metropolitan police, which disclosed most
+scandalous abuses, such as the habitual association of thieves and
+thief-takers, encouraged by the grants of blood-money which had been
+continued since the days of Jonathan Wild. In 1817 a committee sanctioned
+by the ministers recommended a measure for the gradual abolition of
+sinecures, which then figured prominently in the domestic charter of
+reform. Their recommendations were adopted, and a large number of sinecure
+offices were swept away. But inasmuch as sinecures had been largely given
+to persons who had held public offices of business, it was thought
+necessary to institute pensions to an amount not exceeding one-half of the
+reduction. In 1816 a private member, named Curwen, brought forward a
+fanciful scheme of his own for the amendment of the poor laws, which in
+effect anticipated modern projects<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> of old age pensions. He obtained the
+appointment of a select committee, which reported in 1817, but their
+proposals were thoroughly inadequate, and no sensible improvement came of
+them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_138" id="TOPIC_138"></a>It was also in 1816 that the cause of national education, the importance
+of which had been vainly urged by Whitbread, was taken up in earnest by
+Brougham. His motion for the appointment of a select committee was
+confined to the schools of the metropolis. It sat at intervals until 1818,
+when its powers were enlarged, and its labours somewhat diverted into a
+searching exposure of mismanagement in endowed charities. The one direct
+fruit of the committee was the creation of the charity commission, but in
+the opinion of Brougham himself it was of the highest value in opening the
+whole education question. The almost universal prevalence of distress in
+1817, and the excessive burden thrown upon poor rates, induced parliament
+to authorise an expenditure of &pound;750,000 in Great Britain and Ireland for
+the employment of the labouring poor on public works. A far sounder and
+more fruitful measure of relief owes its origin to the same year. It was
+now that the institution of savings banks, hitherto promoted only by
+single philanthropists, emerged from the experimental stage and claimed
+the attention of parliament. A bill for their regulation, introduced by
+Pitt's friend, George Rose, did not pass into an act; but the
+establishment of savings banks was now directly encouraged by the
+legislature, and there were thoughtful men who already dimly foresaw the
+manifold benefits of their future development.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CURRENCY QUESTION.</i></div>
+
+<p>In the year 1819 was initiated a very important reform in the currency,
+which had long been delayed. When the bullion committee reported in 1810,
+Bank of England notes were at a discount of about 13&frac12; per cent. There
+were several reasons why this should be the case. Continental trade was
+then compelled to pass through British ports, and a large supply of gold
+was needed to serve as the medium of this trade. There was also a steady
+drain of gold to the Spanish peninsula to meet war expenses, while
+troubles in South America diminished the annual output of the precious
+metals. In 1811 Bank of England notes were made legal tender, but no
+further action was then taken, and the depreciation continued until 1814.
+The magnificent harvest of 1813, together with other causes, brought<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+about a sudden fall of prices, in consequence of which no less than 240
+country banks stopped payment in the years 1814-16. The decrease and
+popular distrust of private banknotes produced an increased demand for
+Bank of England notes, which in 1817 had nearly risen in value to a par
+with gold. In 1819, when they were at a discount of only 4&frac12; per cent.,
+a committee was appointed by the house of commons to reconsider the policy
+of resuming cash payments, and Peel, young as he was, became its chairman.
+In this character he abandoned his preconceived views and induced the
+house to adopt those which had been advocated by Horner. It was not
+thought prudent to fix an earlier date than 1823 for the actual resumption
+of cash payments, but the directors of the Bank of England anticipated
+this date, and began to exchange notes for specie on May 1, 1821. The new
+standard was definitely one of gold. A considerable fall of prices ensued,
+and it is still a disputed question whether the return to a single
+standard was entirely beneficial.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_139" id="TOPIC_139"></a>But for what is called the public, the readers of newspapers and the
+frequenters of clubs or taverns, the rivalry of party leaders or the
+incidents of court life excite a much keener interest than painful efforts
+for the good of the humbler classes. During the closing years of George
+III.'s reign there were no party conflicts of special intensity. The whigs
+acquiesced in their self-imposed exclusion from office, and contented
+themselves with damaging criticism; the radicals had not yet acquired the
+confidence or respect of the electors. Liverpool remained prime minister;
+Castlereagh, foreign secretary; Sidmouth, home secretary; Vansittart,
+chancellor of the exchequer. Meanwhile there were startling vicissitudes
+in the fortunes of the royal family. The king, indeed, remained under the
+cloud of mental derangement which darkened the last ten years of his life,
+and the Princess of Wales, who had been the object of so much scandal, was
+now out of sight and residing abroad. The Princess Charlotte, however, the
+only daughter of the regent, had centred in herself the loyalty and hopes
+of the nation in a remarkable degree, and was credited, not unjustly, with
+private virtues and public sympathies contrasting strongly with the
+disposition of her father. Her marriage with Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg, who bore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> a high character, had been hailed with national
+enthusiasm, for it was known that, like Queen Victoria, she had been
+carefully trained and had disciplined herself, physically and morally, for
+the duties of a throne. It has been truly said that her death in
+childbirth, on November 6, was the great historical event of 1817. The
+prince regent, with his constitution weakened by dissipation, was not
+expected to survive her long, and so long as his wife lived there was no
+prospect of other legitimate issue, unless he could procure a divorce.
+There was no grandchild of George III. who could lawfully inherit the
+crown, and the apprehension of a collateral succession became more and
+more generally felt.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_140" id="TOPIC_140"></a>In the following year four royal marriages were announced. The Princess
+Elizabeth espoused the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg; the Duke of Clarence,
+the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; the Duke of Cambridge, the
+Princess Augusta of Hesse; the Duke of Kent, the Princess Victoria Mary of
+Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of Sussex was already married, but not with the
+necessary consent of the crown, and the Duke of Cumberland was childless,
+having married three years earlier a divorced widow whom the queen, for
+private reasons, declined to receive. It is a striking proof of the
+discredit into which the royal family had fallen, since the old king
+virtually ceased<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> to reign, that parliament, in spite of its anxiety about
+the succession, displayed an almost niggardly parsimony when it was moved
+to increase the allowances of the princes about to marry. No application
+was made on behalf of the Princess Elizabeth or the Duke of Sussex, who
+was already married morganatically. The additional grant of &pound;6,000 a year
+asked on behalf of the Duke of Cumberland was refused by a small majority,
+partly, no doubt, because his anti-liberal opinions and untrustworthy
+character were no secret to public men. &pound;10,000 a year was asked for the
+Duke of Clarence, and justified by Canning as less than he might fairly
+have claimed, but it was reduced to &pound;6,000 and declined by the duke as
+inadequate; he afterwards married without a parliamentary grant. The
+provision of &pound;6,000 a year for the Dukes of Cambridge and Kent
+respectively was stoutly opposed but ultimately carried. Of all George
+III.'s sons, the Duke of Kent was perhaps the most respected. It has been
+truly said that if the nation could have expressed its dearest wish, in
+the spirit of prophecy, after the death of the Princess Charlotte, it
+would have been that the issue of the Duke of Kent's marriage with Prince
+Leopold's sister might succeed, as Queen Victoria, to the crown of her
+grandfather.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF GEORGE III.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_141" id="TOPIC_141"></a>On November 17, 1818, Queen Charlotte died, having filled her great and
+most difficult position for nearly sixty years with sound judgment,
+exemplary moral integrity, and a certain homely dignity. The Duke of York
+succeeded her as guardian of the king's person. Little more than a year
+later she was followed to the grave by the Duke of Kent, who died on
+January 23, 1820, and by the king himself, who died on January 29, in the
+eighty-second year of his age. He was not a great sovereign, but, as a
+man, he was far superior to his two predecessors, and must ever stand
+high, if not highest, in the gallery of our kings. His venerable figure,
+though shrouded from view, was a chief mainstay of the monarchy. Narrow as
+his views were, and obstinately as he adhered to them, he was not
+incapable of changing them, and could show generosity towards enemies, as
+he ever showed fidelity to friends. His reception of Franklin after the
+American war, and of Fox after the death of Pitt, was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> that of a king who
+understood his kingly office; and his strict devotion to business,
+regardless of his own pleasure, could not have been exceeded by a merchant
+engrossed in lucrative trade. The many pithy and racy sayings recorded of
+him show an insight into men's characters and the realities of life not
+unworthy of Dr. Johnson. His simplicity, kindliness, and charity endeared
+him to his subjects. His undaunted courage and readiness to undertake sole
+responsibility, not only during the panics of the Gordon riots and of the
+impending French invasion, but in many a political crisis, compelled the
+respect of all his ministers, and his disappearance from the scenes, to
+make way for the regency of his eldest son, was almost as disastrous for
+English society as the exchange, in France, of Louis XIV.'s decorous rule
+for that of the Regent Orl&eacute;ans.</p>
+
+<p>The European concert which had been called into existence by the war
+against Napoleon, and had effected a continental settlement at Vienna,
+continued to act for the maintenance of peace. The treaty of alliance of
+1815 only bound the four powers to common action in the event of a fresh
+revolution in France which might endanger the tranquillity of other
+states. The holy alliance was more comprehensive and wider in its aims,
+but was too vague to form the practical basis of a federation. The
+settlement of Europe by the treaty of Vienna was, however, the work of all
+the powers, and they had therefore an interest in everything that might be
+likely to affect that settlement. The habit of concerted action, once
+formed, was not lightly abandoned, and the succeeding age was an age of
+congresses. But though there was a general sentiment in favour of
+concerted action it manifested itself in different ways. The causes of the
+recent struggle with France had been political in their origin, and it was
+agreed that a recurrence of disorder from France could be best prevented
+by the establishment of a government in that country which should be at
+once constitutional and legitimist. England favoured, and Russia, the most
+autocratic of states, favoured still more vehemently, the development of
+constitutions wherever it might be practicable, while Austria, being
+composed of territories with no national cohesion, endeavoured rather to
+thwart the growth of constitutions. But Russia was also the most active
+advocate of joint interference where a constitutional reform was effected
+by unconstitutional<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> means. Great Britain and Austria, on the other hand,
+with a juster instinct, considered armed interference an extreme remedy
+which might often be worse than the disease of a revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ROYALIST REACTION IN EUROPE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_142" id="TOPIC_142"></a>The numerous restorations of 1814 and 1815 were followed by a royalist and
+aristocratic reaction in many countries of Europe. In France Louis XVIII.
+found himself confronted by an ultra-royalist chamber of deputies which
+clamoured for vengeance on the partisans of the republican and imperial
+<i>r&eacute;gimes</i> and for the restoration of the privileges and estates of the
+Church. Ferdinand VII. of Spain swept away the unwieldy constitution of
+1812 amid the rejoicings of his people, who little foresaw his future
+tyranny; and Great Britain did not venture to resist the action of
+Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies in abolishing a constitution which British
+influence had induced him to grant his island kingdom in 1813. In Prussia
+the government dealt sternly with the liberal press, and the provincial
+estates opposed the institution of a national diet; while in W&uuml;rtemberg a
+parliament assembled under a liberal constitution demanded the restoration
+of the ancient privileges of the nobility and clergy. In the Two Sicilies
+British influence, supported by that of Austria, was used to prevent
+outrages on the defeated party; in Spain the moderate counsels of Great
+Britain were less successful. Austria endeavoured to prevent future
+disturbance in the Italian peninsula by a secret treaty, which obtained
+the sanction of the British government, requiring the Two Sicilies to
+adopt no constitutional changes inconsistent with the principles adopted
+by Austria in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Similar treaties were
+concluded by Austria with Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and she thus gained
+an ascendency in Italy, from which only Sardinia and the papal states were
+exempt. Russian agents meanwhile began to conduct a liberal propaganda in
+Spain and Italy, and Russia was even credited with a desire to make a
+liberalised Spain a counterpoise to England on the sea.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_143" id="TOPIC_143"></a>For a time, however, there were no European complications of a formidable
+nature. In 1816 a British squadron was sent out under Lord Exmouth lo
+execute the decree of the congress of Vienna against the Barbary states.
+The Dey of Algiers and the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli were called upon to
+recognise the Ionian Islands as British, to accept British media<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>tion
+between them and the courts of the Two Sicilies and Sardinia, to restore
+their Christian captives, and not to authorise further piracy. These terms
+were accepted by the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli, and the two first demands
+were granted by the Dey of Algiers. He was allowed a delay of three months
+in order to obtain the sultan's permission for granting the remainder, but
+in the interval a massacre of Italian fishermen took place at Bona. Lord
+Exmouth now sailed from Gibraltar to attack Algiers. On his demands being
+again ignored, he bombarded that city on August 27 for more than six
+hours. The arsenal and storehouses and all the ships in the port were
+burned, and on the next day the dey accepted Exmouth's terms; peace was
+signed on the 30th, the principal terms being the abolition of Christian
+slavery, and the delivery of all slaves to Exmouth on the following day.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty of Vienna in placing the Ionian Islands under British
+protection had made no mention of the towns of Parga and Butrinto on the
+mainland of Epirus which had passed under British rule along with the
+islands. These places were now surrendered to Turkey in accordance with a
+former treaty, in return for the Turkish recognition of the British
+protectorate over the islands. The inhabitants of Parga were, however,
+vehemently opposed to such a transference of their allegiance, and they
+were conveyed to the Ionian Islands and compensated for the loss of their
+property. The Turks entered into occupation of Parga in 1819. In 1817 and
+1818 wild rumours of Russian aggression in the direction of the
+Mediterranean began to circulate in England. It was reported that Spain
+had promised to cede Port Mahon to Russia; and that Russia was preparing a
+great military force, to be employed, if necessary, in alliance with the
+Bourbon states, France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies, to counteract British
+and Austrian influence. This influence, with that of Prussia, had really
+been employed to keep the Dardanelles closed against Russian ships.
+Meanwhile Austria had won over Prussia to her conservative policy in
+Germany.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_144" id="TOPIC_144"></a>The violent language of the liberal party, especially at the universities,
+already began to terrify the Prussian government. The first danger signal
+was given at the Wartburg festival of delegates from the German
+universities in 1817, at which the students indulged in some boyish
+manifestations of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> sympathies; their proceedings made some stir in
+Germany, and Metternich declared that they were revolutionary. The horror
+of liberalism was destined to be heightened in 1819 by the murder of the
+tsar's agent, the dramatist Kotzebue, by a lunatic member of a political
+society at Giessen. Its immediate result was a conference of German
+ministers at Carlsbad, where several resolutions for the suppression of
+political agitation were passed, and afterwards adopted by the diet at
+Frankfort. This policy was embodied in the "final act" of a similar
+conference held at Vienna in the following year (1820), which empowered
+the greater states of Germany to aid the smaller in checking revolutionary
+movements. At the same time it reaffirmed the general principle of
+non-intervention, and even laid down the pregnant doctrine that
+constitutions could not be legitimately altered except by constitutional
+means. The union of Austria and Prussia on the conservative side had
+rather the effect of throwing the secondary states of southern Germany
+upon the liberal side. In the spring and summer of 1818 Bavaria and Baden
+framed constitutions, and in 1819 W&uuml;rtemberg once more essayed
+parliamentary government, which the reactionary policy of her first
+parliament had compelled her to abandon. The significant fact in European
+politics was that Frederick William III. of Prussia, always accustomed to
+being led, had passed from the influence of Russia to that of Austria.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CONFERENCE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_145" id="TOPIC_145"></a>Such were the general tendencies of European politics when the conference
+of Aix-la-Chapelle assembled on September 30, 1818. The primary object of
+this conference was to consider the request of France for a reduction in
+the indemnity demanded of her and for the evacuation of her territories by
+the four allied powers. Wellington and Castlereagh, who represented Great
+Britain, earned the gratitude of France by readily agreeing to these
+requests, which were granted without any difficulty. This question was
+obviously one which required such a conference to settle it; but the
+conference, having once assembled, was urged to deal with other
+difficulties that less directly concerned it. One of these was a dispute
+between Denmark and Sweden about the apportionment of the Danish debt,
+which, in consideration of the annexation of Norway to Sweden, under the
+treaty of Kiel, was to be partly borne by Sweden. Denmark appealed to the
+four powers, representing that treaty as in fact a part of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> own
+settlement of Europe. Sweden would not admit the right of the powers to
+intervene, but finally settled her difficulty with Denmark by a separate
+negotiation conducted by the mediation of Great Britain in 1819.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_146" id="TOPIC_146"></a>A still more doubtful question was raised by the request of Spain for the
+assistance of the allied powers against her revolted colonies. The Spanish
+dependencies in America had declined to acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte, and
+had lapsed into a state of chaos; the restoration of Ferdinand VII. had
+induced most of them to return to their allegiance, but the three
+south-eastern colonies, Banda Oriental (Uruguay), La Plata (the
+Argentine), and Paraguay, continued in revolt. In 1817 fortune turned
+still further against Spain; Monte Video, the capital of Banda Oriental,
+was taken by Portugal, or rather by Brazil, and Chile revolted against
+Spain. On February 12, 1818, Chile proclaimed her independence, and she
+began at once to procure warships in England and the United States, of
+which Lord Cochrane took command. The four allied powers and France had
+protested against the seizure of Monte Video, but otherwise Spain had been
+left to herself. Great Britain seemed to have more to gain than to lose by
+the insurrection. The revolted colonies were open to her commerce, and by
+weakening Spain they had strengthened the maritime supremacy of Great
+Britain. Nevertheless Great Britain was willing to mediate, on condition
+that Spain would make reasonable concessions. Spain, however, refused to
+make any concessions at all, and called on the allied powers to aid her in
+crushing the insurrection by force. Great Britain did not regard an
+unconditional subjection of the colonies as either expedient or
+practicable, and opposed this course; Austria took the same view, and thus
+placed intervention out of the question.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE EUROPEAN ALLIANCE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_147" id="TOPIC_147"></a>But the principal question before the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle was
+not one relating to any particular difficulty, but the permanent form of
+the European alliance. The tsar desired a general confederacy of European
+powers, such as had signed the treaty of Vienna and the holy alliance.
+This confederacy was to guard against two evils&mdash;that of revolutionary
+agitation and that of arbitrary administration and sectional alliances.
+Such a project, though doubtless proposed in good faith, practically gave
+Russia an interest in the domestic movements, both<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> reactionary and
+constitutional, of every country, while it forbade any political
+combination to which Russia was not a party. Castlereagh agreed with
+Metternich in thinking that such an extension of Russian Influence was
+more to be dreaded than local disorder, and Great Britain and Austria
+proposed therefore that the alliance should be based on the treaty of
+Chaumont, as renewed at Vienna and Paris, though they were willing to have
+friendly discussions from time to time without extending the scope of the
+alliance. All parties desired to include France in their alliance, but the
+tsar pertinently objected that France could not be admitted to an alliance
+aimed solely against France. A compromise was therefore adopted. The
+quadruple alliance for war, in case of a revolution in France, was
+secretly renewed, and centres for mobilisation were fixed, while France
+was publicly invited to join the deliberations of the allied powers. A
+secret protocol was then signed providing for the meeting of congresses
+from time to time, and giving the minor European powers a place in these
+congresses when their affairs should be under discussion.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a> For details of the riots see <i>Annual Register</i>, lviii.
+(1816), 60-73. They were particularly numerous in May, 1816, and in the
+counties of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk. At Littleport in
+Cambridgeshire, on May 24, it was found necessary to fire on the rioters.
+Two men were killed and five were afterwards executed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a> Greville, <i>Memoirs</i>, i., 2; Walpole, <i>History of England</i>,
+i., 392, 393.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
+The curious may be interested in the following list of the
+names and ages of the persons who stood next in order of succession to the
+crown after the death of Princess Charlotte. It will be observed that of
+the fourteen who stood nearest the throne, not one was under forty years
+of age, and not one had a legitimate child:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="Line of Succession">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Age.</td>
+    <td>Relation to king.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">1.</td>
+    <td>George, Prince Regent</td>
+    <td class="center">55</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">2.</td>
+    <td>Frederick, Duke of York</td>
+    <td class="center">54</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">3.</td>
+    <td>William, Duke of Clarence</td>
+    <td class="center">52</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">4.</td>
+    <td>Edward, Duke of Kent</td>
+    <td class="center">50</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">5.</td>
+    <td>Ernest, Duke of Cumberland</td>
+    <td class="center">46</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">6.</td>
+    <td>Augustus, Duke of Sussex</td>
+    <td class="center">44</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">7.</td>
+    <td>Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge</td>
+    <td class="center">43</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Son.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">8.</td>
+    <td>Charlotte, Queen-Dowager of W&uuml;rtemberg</td>
+    <td class="center">51</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Daughter.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">9.</td>
+    <td>Princess Augusta</td>
+    <td class="center">48</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Daughter.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">10.</td>
+    <td>Princess Elizabeth</td>
+    <td class="center">47</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Daughter.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">11.</td>
+    <td>Mary, Duchess of Gloucester</td>
+    <td class="center">41</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Daughter.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">12.</td>
+    <td>Princess Sophia</td>
+    <td class="center">40</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Daughter.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">13.</td>
+    <td>William, Duke of Gloucester</td>
+    <td class="center">41</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Nephew.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">14.</td>
+    <td>Princess Sophia of Gloucester</td>
+    <td class="center">44</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Niece.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ralign">15.</td>
+    <td>Charles, Duke of Brunswick</td>
+    <td class="center">13</td>
+    <td style="padding-left:1em;">Great nephew.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a> See, however, the <i>Creevey Papers</i>, i., 268-71, 284.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The only important events of domestic interest in the year 1820, after the
+death of George III., were the Cato Street conspiracy, and the so-called
+trial of Queen Caroline. For the accession of the king, who had so long
+exercised royal functions as regent, produced no visible effect either on
+the personal composition or on the general policy of the government.
+Immediately after his proclamation he was attacked by a dangerous illness,
+but on his recovery he promptly raised two questions which nearly involved
+a change of ministry. One of these was a proposal to increase his private
+revenue, which he was induced to abandon for the present. The other was a
+demand for a divorce, which the ministers firmly resisted, though they
+ultimately agreed to a compromise, under which the divorce question was to
+be deferred, so long as the queen remained quietly abroad, but action was
+to be taken in case she returned to assert her rights.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CATO STREET CONSPIRACY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_148" id="TOPIC_148"></a>In the midst of these difficulties the lives of the ministers were
+threatened by a plot somewhat like those of the seventeenth century. Later
+writers have represented it as contemptible in its conception, and as
+directly provoked by the "Manchester massacre". So it may be said that Guy
+Fawkes was an insignificant person, and that his employers were
+exasperated by the severe treatment of popish recusants. The facts are
+that Arthur Thistlewood, the author of the Cato Street conspiracy, was a
+well-known confederate of the Watsons and other members of the extreme
+reform party, and that his plan for murdering the assembled cabinet in a
+private house would probably have been effectual, had it not been detected
+by the aid of an informer. This informer, Edwards, had warned the
+authorities in Novem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>ber, 1819, of the impending stroke, and may or may
+not have instigated Thistlewood's gang to execute it at a moment and place
+well-calculated to secure their arrest. At all events twenty-four
+conspirators armed themselves in Cato Street, near the Edgware Road,
+London, for the purpose of assassinating the ministers at a cabinet dinner
+in Harrowby's house in Grosvenor Square, and some of their associates were
+posted near the door of that house to summon them when the guests should
+have assembled. Harrowby's dinner was of course put off, but the watchers
+were deceived by the arrival of carriages for a dinner party next door,
+and failed to apprise the gang in Cato Street. The police rushed in upon
+the gang, but a body of soldiers ordered to support them reached the spot
+too late, a policeman was stabbed, and Thistlewood, with twelve or
+fourteen others, contrived to escape. He was captured the next morning,
+and executed with four of his accomplices, five more were transported for
+life, and the atrocity of the enterprise was naturally treated in the
+king's speech as a justification for the repressive measures in operation.
+In the following April a petty outbreak in Scotland was easily put down by
+a few troops at a place called Bonnymuir. It was, however, preceded by a
+treasonable proclamation, which spread terror among the citizens of
+Glasgow for several hours, and was sufficiently like an attempt at armed
+rebellion to confirm the alarm excited by the Cato Street conspiracy. In
+the face of such warnings, the energy of the government in stamping out
+disorder could hardly be censured.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_149" id="TOPIC_149"></a>The last parliament of George III. was prorogued on February 28, 1820, and
+dissolved on the following day. One of its last debates was on Lord John
+Russell's proposal to suspend the issue of writs to the boroughs of
+Grampound, Penryn, Barnstaple, and Camelford. This was carried in the
+house of commons, but lost in the house of lords. The new parliament was
+opened by George IV. in person on April 21. Widespread excitement
+occasioned by the question of the divorce prevented the business of the
+first session from attracting much attention. A deficit in the revenue,
+coinciding with growing expenditure, compelled Vansittart to fall back on
+a fresh manipulation of the sinking fund. One measure, however, of the
+highest importance was introduced by Brougham. The committee of 1814 on
+national education had amassed a great body of valuable evidence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> and he
+now founded upon its report a comprehensive bill extending to the whole
+country. It placed the management and teaching of elementary schools
+entirely in the hands of Churchmen, and was dropped after the first
+reading, but the conscience of the nation was roused by it, and it bore
+fruit later. Further slight mitigations of the criminal law were carried
+as a result of attacks made by Sir James Mackintosh, upon whom the mantle
+of Romilly had fallen, and it is worthy of notice that even Eldon, the
+stout opponent of such mitigations, condemned the use of spring-guns, as a
+safeguard against poaching. The only ministerial change in this year was
+the final retirement in May of Lord Mulgrave, who had held high office in
+every ministry except that of Grenville since 1804, and had voluntarily
+surrendered his post at the head of the ordnance in 1818 to make room for
+Wellington.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>QUEEN CAROLINE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_150" id="TOPIC_150"></a>The "queen's trial," as it is erroneously called, was the last act but one
+in a domestic tragedy which had lasted twenty-five years. The Princess
+Caroline of Brunswick was a frivolous and ill-disciplined young woman when
+she was selected by George III. as a wife for the heir-apparent, already
+united and really attached to Mrs. Fitzherbert. The princess could not
+have been married to a man less capable of drawing out the better side of
+her character, nor was she one to inspire his selfish and heartless nature
+with a sentiment, if not of conjugal love, yet of conjugal friendship.
+From the first there was no pretence of affection between them. A few
+years after her marriage she was relegated, not unwillingly, to live
+independently at Blackheath, where many eminent men accepted her
+hospitality. During this period, as we have seen, a "delicate
+investigation" into her conduct was instituted in 1806. Though she emerged
+from it with less stain on her character than had been expected, she never
+enjoyed the respect of the royal family or of the nation, and there was no
+question of her sharing the home of her husband. Instead of being a bond
+of concord between them, the education of her daughter was the subject of
+constant discord, requiring the frequent intervention of the old king
+until he lost his reason. After she went abroad in 1814, she travelled
+widely, but her English attendants soon retired from her service, and she
+incurred fresh suspicion by her flighty and undignified conduct. She had
+no part in the rejoicing for the marriage, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> in the mourning for the
+death, of the Princess Charlotte; and in 1818 a secret commission,
+afterwards known as the Milan commission, was sent out by the prince
+regent to collect evidence for a divorce suit. Not only Liverpool, but
+Eldon, who had formerly stood her friend, concurred in the appointment of
+this commission, promoted by Sir John Leach, and its report was the
+foundation of the proceedings now taken against her.</p>
+
+<p>These proceedings were immediately due to her own action in returning to
+England in June, 1820, but this action was not wholly unprovoked. She had
+long and bitterly resented her official exclusion from foreign courts, and
+when, after the king's accession, her name was omitted from the
+prayer-book, she protested against it as an intolerable insult. Contrary
+to the advice of her wisest partisans, including Brougham, she persisted
+in braving the wrath of the king and throwing herself upon the people. She
+was received at Dover with acclamations from immense multitudes; and her
+journey to and through London was a continued ovation. Not that her
+innocence was established even in the popular mind, but that, innocent or
+guilty, she was regarded as a persecuted woman, and persecuted by a
+worthless husband. The ministry fulfilled its promise to the king by
+moving the house of lords to institute an inquiry into the queen's
+conduct. Pending this, conferences took place between Wellington and
+Castlereagh, on the part of the king, and Brougham and Denman on that of
+the queen. It was at once laid down as a preliminary basis of the
+negotiation that neither should the king be understood to retract, nor the
+queen to admit, any allegation against her. The points upon which she
+inflexibly insisted were, the recognition of her royal status at foreign
+courts, through an official introduction by the British ambassador, and
+the insertion of her name in the prayer-book.</p>
+
+<p>The house of commons, on the motion of Wilberforce, offered to protect her
+honour (whatever that might import) on condition of her waiving this last
+point, but she courteously declined its conciliatory proposals on June 22.
+On July 4 a secret committee of the house of lords recommended a solemn
+investigation, to be carried out "in the course of a legislative
+proceeding," and on the 8th Liverpool introduced a bill of pains and
+penalties, to deprive her of her title, and to dissolve her marriage. The
+second reading of this bill was formally set down for August<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> 17, and for
+several weeks afterwards the house of lords was occupied in hearing
+evidence in support of the charges against her. The whole country was
+deluged with the squalid details of this evidence, the ministers were
+insulted, and the sympathy of the populace with her cause was obtrusively
+displayed in every part of the kingdom. On October 3, after an adjournment
+of the lords, Brougham opened the defence in the most celebrated of his
+speeches. On November 2 the lord chancellor, Eldon, moved the second
+reading of the bill, and on the 8th it was carried by a majority of
+twenty-eight. Four days later, on the third reading, the majority had
+dwindled to nine only. Knowing the temper of the house of commons,
+Liverpool treated such a victory as almost equivalent to a defeat, and
+announced that the government would not proceed further with the measure.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_151" id="TOPIC_151"></a>Had the queen possessed the virtue of self-respect or dignity, she would
+have been satisfied with this legislative, though not morally decisive,
+acquittal. But she was intoxicated with popular applause, largely due to
+her royal consort's vices, and, after London had been illuminated for
+three nights in her honour, she declined overtures from the government,
+and appealed for a maintenance to the house of commons, which granted her
+an annuity of &pound;50,000 in the next session. But she never lived to enjoy it
+After going in procession to St. Paul's, to return thanks for her
+deliverance, on the 29th, and vainly attempting, once more, to procure the
+mention of her name in the prayer-book, she concentrated her efforts on a
+claim of right to be crowned with the king. No government could have
+conceded this claim, and, when it had been refused by the privy council,
+her solemn protests were inevitably vain. Even her least prudent
+counsellors would assuredly have dissuaded her from the attempt which she
+made to force an entrance into Westminster Abbey on the coronation day,
+July 19, 1821. It was a painful scene when she, who had so lately been the
+idol of the fickle populace, was turned away from the doors amidst
+conflicting exclamations of derision and pity. A fortnight later, on
+August 2, she was officially reported to be seriously ill; on the 7th she
+was no more. In accordance with her own direction her body was buried at
+Brunswick. Her ill-founded popularity was shown for the last time, when a
+riotous multitude succeeded in diverting her funeral procession, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+forcing it to pass through the city on its way to Harwich. But it did not
+survive her long; the people were becoming tired of her, and the king, who
+had forfeited the respect of the middle and upper classes, was less hated
+by the lower classes after her death.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>GEORGE IV. IN IRELAND.</i></div>
+
+<p>The personal character and opinions of George IV. seem to have influenced
+politics less during the early years of his reign than during his long
+regency. His coronation was celebrated with unprecedented magnificence,
+and amidst external demonstrations of loyalty, hard to reconcile with the
+unbounded enthusiasm which the queen had so lately inspired. Soon
+afterwards, he sailed in his yacht from Portsmouth on a voyage to Ireland,
+but put into Holyhead and there awaited news of the queen's expected
+death. This reached him at last, and probably impressed him, no less than
+his ministers, as "the greatest of all possible deliverances, both to his
+majesty and the country".<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> He proceeded to Dublin in one of the
+earliest steam-packets, and secluded himself until "the corpse of his wife
+was supposed to have left England".<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> He then plunged into a round of
+festivities, and pleased all classes of Irishmen by his affable and
+condescending manners. He was, indeed, the first sovereign of England who
+had appeared in Ireland on a mission of peace. John William Ward,
+afterwards fourth Viscount Dudley in his letters, describes him as having
+behaved like a popular candidate on an electioneering trip, and surmises
+that "if the day before he left Ireland, he had stood for Dublin, he might
+have turned out Shaw or Grattan ".<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> Certain it is that his visit to
+Ireland was regarded as an important political event. The same kind of
+success attended his visit to Scotland in August of the following year,
+1822. Thenceforth, he scarcely figures in political life until the
+resignation of Lord Liverpool in 1827, and though he consented with
+reluctance to Canning's tenure of the foreign office, he did not attempt
+to interfere with the change in foreign policy consequent upon it. He was,
+in fact, sinking more and more into an apathetic voluptuary; but he could
+rouse himself, and exhibit some proofs of ability, under the impulse of
+his brothers, the honest Duke of York and the arch-intriguer, the Duke of
+Cumberland.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The cry for retrenchment, now taken up by the country gentlemen, and not
+unmingled with suggestions for a partial repudiation of the national debt,
+compelled the government to adopt a policy of strict economy. Accordingly,
+in 1822, Vansittart introduced a scheme for the conversion of the
+so-called "Navy 5 per cents.," which resulted in a saving of above
+&pound;1,000,000 annually. He also carried a more questionable scheme for the
+payment of military, naval, and civil pensions, which then amounted to
+&pound;4,900,000 a year, but were falling in rapidly; the money required for
+this purpose was to be borrowed by trustees, and was to be repaid in the
+course of forty-five years at the rate of &pound;2,800,000 a year; in this way
+an immediate saving of about &pound;2,000,000 annually was effected at the cost,
+however, of the next generation. By means of these expedients, with a
+considerable reduction of official salaries, the government was enabled to
+repeal the additional duty on malt, to diminish the duties on salt and
+leather, and, on the whole to remit about &pound;3,500,000 of taxes. When the
+entire credit of financial reform is given to Huskisson, Joseph Hume, and
+other economists of the new school, it should not be forgotten that a
+beginning was made by economists of the old school, before Huskisson
+joined the government in 1823, or Robinson took Vansittart's place as
+chancellor of the exchequer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_152" id="TOPIC_152"></a>From the beginning of this reign a more enlightened spirit may be traced
+in parliamentary debates. This was aided by the growth of a constitutional
+movement in favour of reform in parliament as the first step towards a
+redress of grievances. The movement left its first trace on the
+statute-book in a measure carried by Lord John Russell in the session of
+1821 for the disfranchisement of Grampound, though the vacant seats were
+transferred to the county of York, instead of to the "village" of Leeds or
+some other of the great unrepresented cities. This was the first instance
+of the actual disfranchisement of a constituency, though it was not
+without precedent that the franchise of a corrupt borough should be
+extended to the freeholders of the surrounding district. A notable sign of
+the progressive change was the reconstruction of the cabinet in 1822.
+Liverpool, who always possessed the gift of working harmoniously with
+colleagues of different views and felt the weakness of his present
+ministry, once more attempted to bring about a coalition<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> with the
+Grenville party in the opposition. Grenville had long been drifting away
+from his alliance with Grey, and had been a stout advocate of repressive
+legislation which the more advanced whigs opposed. Though he declined
+office for himself, several of his relatives and adherents were rewarded
+with minor appointments, his cousin, Charles Wynn, became president of the
+board of control, in succession to Bragge-Bathurst, who had himself
+succeeded Canning in the previous year, and his nephew, the Marquis of
+Buckingham, obtained a dukedom. Such recruits added little strength to the
+Liverpool government, and Holland well said that "all articles are now to
+be had at low prices, except Grenvilles".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF CASTLEREAGH.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_153" id="TOPIC_153"></a>But Liverpool gained far more powerful coadjutors in the Marquis
+Wellesley, Peel, and Canning. In December, 1821, Wellesley undertook the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, which had relapsed into so disturbed a state
+that it had been proposed to make Wellington both viceroy and
+commander-in-chief. The significance of this selection was increased by
+the appointment of Plunket as attorney-general. Sidmouth, while retaining
+his seat in the cabinet, retired, by his own wish, from the office of home
+secretary, with a sense of having pacified the country, and was succeeded
+by Peel. Castlereagh, now Marquis of Londonderry, remained foreign
+secretary, but on August 12, 1822, as he was on the point of setting out
+for the congress of Verona, he died, like Whitbread and Romilly, by his
+own hand. His suicidal act was clearly due to a morbid fit of depression,
+under the stress of anxieties protracted over more than twenty years; and
+the disordered state of his mind had been observed, not only by
+Wellington, but also by the king. His successor was Canning, who also
+became leader of the house of commons.</p>
+
+<p>The characters and political aims of these rival statesmen have often been
+contrasted by historians of a later age, who have seldom done justice to
+Castlereagh. It is remembered that he was the author of the Walcheren
+expedition; it is forgotten that he was the advocate of sending a powerful
+force to the Baltic coast at the critical moment between Jena and Eylau,
+that he was not altogether responsible for the delays which rendered the
+Walcheren expedition abortive or for the choice of its incompetent
+commander, that his prime object was to strike a crushing blow at
+Napoleon's naval power, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> that, if his instructions had been obeyed,
+this would have been effected by a rapid advance upon Antwerp when nearly
+all the French troops had been withdrawn from the Netherlands. It is
+remembered that he was at the war office when the operations of Wellington
+in the Peninsula were crippled for want of supplies; it is forgotten that
+it was he who selected Wellington, and that he loyally strained every
+nerve to keep him supplied with troops, provisions, and specie, when few
+but himself believed in the policy of the Peninsular war, and Sir John
+Moore had assured him that if the French dominated Spain, they could not
+be resisted in Portugal. It is remembered&mdash;or rather it is assumed&mdash;that
+he was the eager promoter of coercive and reactionary legislation at home;
+it is forgotten, or ignored, that he was among the earliest and staunchest
+advocates of catholic emancipation, and that a despotic temper is belied
+by the whole tone of his speeches. Above all, he is unjustly credited, in
+the face of direct evidence to the contrary, with being the champion of
+absolutism in the councils of Europe, the fact being not only that his
+voice was always on the side of moderation and conciliation, but that
+Canning himself, on succeeding him, dissociated Great Britain from the
+holy alliance by taking his stand upon an admirable despatch of
+Castlereagh and adopting it as his own. When he met with his tragical end,
+the brutal shouts of exultation raised by a portion of the crowd at his
+funeral were the expression of sheer ignorance and not of intelligent
+public opinion. He was a tory, in days when most patriots were tories, but
+he was a tory of the best type; and we of a later generation can see that
+few statesmen of George III.'s reign have left a purer reputation or
+rendered greater services to their country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CANNING AND PEEL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_154" id="TOPIC_154"></a>George Canning, his successor, has been far more favourably judged by
+posterity, and not without reason, if intellectual brilliancy is a supreme
+test of political merit. A firm adherent of Pitt, and a somewhat
+unscrupulous critic of Addington, he was probably the first parliamentary
+orator of the nineteenth century, with the possible exception of Sheridan.
+Pitt's eloquence was of a loftier and simpler type, Fox's was more
+impetuous and spontaneous; Peel's range of political knowledge was far
+wider; Gladstone excelled all, not only in length of experience but in
+readiness and dialectical resource. Canning's rhetoric was of a finer
+quality and was combined with great debating power,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> but he was a man to
+inspire admiration rather than confidence, and had not held one of the
+higher political offices since his resignation in 1809, after his quarrel
+with Castlereagh. He accepted a mission to Portugal, however, and was in
+Lisbon when Napoleon returned from Elba. In 1816, as has been seen, he
+became president of the board of control, but, having been formerly one of
+the queen's advisers, he declined to have anything to do with her trial
+and remained abroad during its continuance. In December, 1820, he
+returned, but persisted in resigning his place at the board of control on
+the supposed ground that further parliamentary discussion of the queen's
+case was inevitable. On this occasion he received a special vote of thanks
+from the directors of the East India Company for his services on the
+board. The king objected to his readmission after the queen's death, and
+he was a private member of parliament when he was offered and undertook
+the governor-generalship of India in March, 1822. But his departure was
+delayed until August, and he was on his way to bid farewell to his
+constituents at Liverpool when Castlereagh destroyed himself. It was
+generally felt that no other man was so well qualified as Canning to
+succeed him. But the king declared his "final and unalterable decision" to
+sanction no such change. Though he afterwards relented, on the
+remonstrances of Wellington, he did so with a bad grace; but there was no
+delay on Canning's part in accepting the foreign secretaryship thus
+offered. From his acceptance may be dated the most remarkable part of his
+career.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_155" id="TOPIC_155"></a>The accession of Peel to the Liverpool ministry, in the capacity of home
+secretary; was only less important than that of Canning. Hitherto, Peel
+had mostly been known to the British public as chief secretary for
+Ireland, and as chairman of the committee which, in 1819, recommended the
+early resumption of cash payments. In both these posts he displayed a
+certain moderation and independence of mind, combined with a rare capacity
+for business, which marked him out as a great administrator. This promise
+he amply fulfilled as home secretary. He was the first minister of the
+crown who took up the philanthropic work of Romilly and Mackintosh,
+largely reducing the number of offences for which capital punishment could
+be inflicted. He was also the first to reform the police<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> system of
+London, and to substitute for a multitude of decrepit watchmen, incapable
+of dealing with gangs of active criminals, a disciplined body of stalwart
+constables, which has since been copied in every county and large town of
+Great Britain. Above all, while he cannot be said to have shown a
+statesmanlike insight or foresight of the highest order, he could read the
+signs of the times and the temper of his countrymen with a sagacity far
+beyond that of his predecessor, Sidmouth, or of such politicians as Eldon
+and Castlereagh. In him was represented the domestic policy of Pitt in his
+earlier days, as Pitt's financial views were represented in Huskisson, who
+had actually served under him.</p>
+
+<p>Though Huskisson was only made president of the board of trade, in
+January, 1823, and not chancellor of the exchequer, it is certain that his
+mind controlled that of Robinson, who succeeded Vansittart in that
+position. Vansittart, who was created Lord Bexley, succeeded
+Bragge-Bathurst as chancellor of the duchy. The cabinet changes were
+completed in October by the removal of Wellesley Pole, now Lord
+Maryborough, from the office of master of the mint. Huskisson, if any man,
+was the leading pioneer of free trade, and there can be little doubt that,
+had he not died prematurely, its adoption would have been hastened by ten
+or fifteen years. In his first year of office he welcomed petitions for
+the repeal of the import duties on foreign wool, but failed to convince
+the wool manufacturers that it must be accompanied by the abolition of
+export duties on British wool. The proposed reform was, therefore,
+dropped, and a like fate befell his attempt in the same year to benefit
+the silk trade by abolishing certain vexatious restrictions upon it,
+including the practice of fixing the wages of Spitalfields weavers by an
+order of the magistrates. For the moment the ignorant outcry of the
+journeymen themselves prevailed over their real interests, but in the
+following year, 1824, Huskisson carried a much wider measure, providing
+that foreign silks, hitherto excluded, should be admitted subject to a
+duty of 30 per cent. in and after 1826, and another measure for the joint
+relief of wool growers and wool manufacturers which imposed a small duty
+of equal amount on the importation and the exportation of wool.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_156" id="TOPIC_156"></a>His great achievement in 1823 was the reform of the navi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>gation laws.
+These acts, dating from the commonwealth and the restoration, gave British
+shipowners a qualified monopoly of the carrying trade, since they
+prohibited the importation of European goods except in British ships or
+ships of the producing country, while the importation of goods from other
+quarters of the world was confined to British ships only. America had
+protested against this exclusive system, and it was abandoned, as regards
+the United States, by the treaty of Ghent in 1814. The mercantile states
+of Europe soon followed the example of America, and the reciprocity of
+duties bill, introduced by Huskisson on June 6, 1823, conceded equal
+rights to all countries reciprocating the concession, only retaining the
+exclusion against such countries as might reject equality of trade. The
+change involved some hardship to shipowners who had built their vessels
+with timber bought at prices raised by heavy duties, but they were too
+shortsighted to accept the compromise offered by Huskisson. Before long,
+however, the act was justified, and the shipowners compensated by a rapid
+increase in British shipping.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AGRICULTURAL DISCONTENT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_157" id="TOPIC_157"></a>For nearly five years after the accession of George IV. the state of the
+country was, on the whole, more prosperous, and the industrial classes
+were more contented, than in the five years next preceding. Such
+restlessness as there was prevailed among farmers and agricultural
+labourers rather than among workmen in the manufacturing districts, and in
+1823 every branch of manufactures was reported to be flourishing. It is
+difficult for a later generation, accustomed to consider 30s. a quarter a
+fair price for wheat, to understand the perennial complaints and petitions
+of the agricultural interest when 60s. a quarter was regarded as a low
+price for wheat, and the cultivation of wheat extended over a vastly
+larger area than it does at present. Nor is the difficulty lessened, when
+we remember the miserably low rate of wages then paid by farmers. A
+partial explanation may be found in the fact that what they saved in wages
+they lost in poor rates, and that most agricultural products except corn
+were sold at a very small profit. The high poor rates were the result of
+the disastrous system of giving allowances to labourers.</p>
+
+<p>But there were other evils caused by the vicious policy pursued by the
+government. The encouragement of home production had led to the enclosure
+of land not fit for cultivation, so that a slight fall in prices meant
+ruin to many farmers. Moreover, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> corn laws, though framed for the
+purpose of arresting fluctuations in price, actually increased
+fluctuations and thus enhanced the risks attending agricultural
+enterprise. Nor were landlords who had thriven on war prices, and raised
+the scale of their establishments as if these prices were to be perpetual,
+willing to reduce their rents on the return of peace. Rent was said to
+have risen 70 per cent. since 1792; but the landlords were often
+embarrassed, because their lands had too often been burdened with
+jointures, settlements, and mortgages during the war. It was in their
+interest that the act of 1815, which aimed at maintaining war prices, had
+been passed. But the deeper reason for all this clamour from the rural
+districts was the stagnation of ideas, and incapacity of improvement,
+engendered by an artificial monopoly of the national food supply. This was
+not the special lesson impressed upon landlords or tenants by Cobbett,
+whose violent and delusive writings had a large circulation in the
+country. But his teaching was so far beneficial that it quickened the
+demand for parliamentary reform, though the fruits of that reform were
+destined to be very different from the expectations which he excited.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SPECULATIVE FRENZY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_158" id="TOPIC_158"></a>The spell of general prosperity which, in spite of some distress in the
+rural districts, prevailed in the years 1820-23 was somewhat broken in
+1824 by strikes and outrages in the manufacturing districts. Strikes for
+higher wages naturally arose out of the increase in mill owners' profits,
+and the ferocious spirit displayed by the strikers against masters and
+fellow-workmen was attributed by reformers to the one-sided operation of
+the combination laws. Accordingly, a committee of the house of commons
+reported in favour of repealing these laws, and also part of the common
+law which treated coercion either by trade unions or by masters as
+conspiracy. A bill founded on this report was hastily passed, with the
+natural result that strikes broke out in every quarter of the country;
+wholesale and cruel oppression was practised by trade unionists, and it
+became necessary for parliament to retrace its steps. Under a new act,
+passed in 1825, which continued in force until very recent times, trade
+unions were recognised as legal, but their worst malpractices were once
+more brought within the control of the criminal law.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> So far the
+commercial policy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> of Huskisson was justified, as a whole, by its effects
+on trade, and the session of 1824 was closed on June 25 by a cheerful
+speech from the king, in which the disturbed state of Ireland was the only
+topic suggestive of anxiety. Already, however, the revival of commercial
+hopefulness at home, with the opening of new markets in South America, was
+paving the way for the most ruinous mania of speculation known in England
+since the south sea bubble. It was well that sound and sober-minded
+economists now guided the action of the government, and that Liverpool
+proved himself a worthy successor of Sir Robert Walpole during the great
+financial crisis of 1825.<a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a></p>
+
+<p>The speculative frenzy of 1825 differed from the railway mania of the next
+generation in that it had no solid basis of remunerative investment. The
+development of the railway system, after the application of locomotive
+steam engines to iron tramways, offered a legitimate promise of large
+profits, and this promise would have been still more amply realised but
+for the shameful waste of capital on competition and law expenses. It was
+otherwise with the dupes and victims of the rage for speculation which
+possessed all classes of society in 1825, and arose out of an immense
+accumulation of wealth for which no safe employment could be found at home
+except at a modest rate of interest. The weakening of the hold of Spain on
+South America left her colonies open to foreign trade, but the enterprises
+there and elsewhere which absorbed the hard-won savings of humble
+families, by thousands and tens of thousands, were nearly all chimerical,
+and some of them grotesque in their absurdity. Whether or not warming-pans
+and skates were actually exported to the tropics, it is certain that
+Scotch dairy-women emigrated to Buenos Ayres for the purpose of milking
+wild cows and churning butter for people who preferred oil. The incredible
+multiplication of bubble-companies was facilitated by a marvellous
+cheapness of money, largely due to an inordinate issue of notes by country
+bankers, and even by the Bank of England, in spite of the fact that gold
+and silver were known to be leaving the country in vast quantities,
+especially in the shape of loans to France. The inevitable reaction came
+when<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> the Bank of England contracted its issue of notes in order to arrest
+the drain of gold; goods recklessly bought up had to be sold at a fearful
+loss, bills upon which advances had been made proved to be of no value,
+and several great London banking houses stopped payment, bringing down in
+their fall a much larger number of country banks dependent on them.</p>
+
+<p>In the month of December, 1825, the crisis was at its height, and it is
+stated that within six or seven weeks after the failure of the banking
+firm of Pole &amp; Company on the 5th, sixty or seventy banks had broken. The
+king's speech in July had congratulated parliament on increasing
+prosperity and had betrayed no misgivings about its stability. When the
+crash came, however, the ministers showed no want of firmness or resource.
+They could not repair the consequences of national folly, but they devoted
+themselves with intelligence to a restoration of credit. For this purpose
+they suppressed at once the further issue of small notes from country
+banks by a high-handed act of authority, for which they admitted that an
+act of indemnity might be needed. At the same time they rapidly increased
+the supply of small notes from the Bank of England, and of coin from the
+mint. Moreover, they induced the Bank of England to establish branches in
+a few provincial towns and to make advances upon merchants' goods to the
+amount of three millions. It cost a greater effort to break down the
+monopoly of the Bank of England by legalising joint-stock banks in the
+provinces, though not within a distance of sixty-five miles from London.
+Such practical expedients as these, seconded by the good sense of the
+mercantile community, proved sufficient to avert a catastrophe only less
+disastrous than national bankruptcy. With the subsidence of alarm, the
+causes of alarm also subsided, the recuperative powers of the country
+reasserted themselves, as during the great war, and the heart-breaking
+anxieties of 1825-26 were ignored, if not forgotten, in the political
+excitement of 1827.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ECONOMIC REFORM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_159" id="TOPIC_159"></a>The budgets of 1823-26 indeed mark a memorable advance in financial
+reform, which the commercial panic of 1825 scarcely interrupted. There had
+been a reduction of the national debt by about &pound;25,000,000. "The poorer
+householders had been relieved from the pressure both of house tax and
+window tax.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> The manufacturing classes had been encouraged by the
+reduction of the duties on silk, wool, and iron. The consuming classes had
+been benefited by the reduction of duties on spirits, wines, coffee, and
+sugar."<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a> Owing to Huskisson's enlightened policy the old navigation
+laws had been repealed upon the condition of reciprocity; the combination
+laws had been liberally revised; various bounties had been abandoned on
+free trade principles, and the monstrous evils of smuggling had been
+greatly abated. If the chancellor of the exchequer could show no surplus
+in 1826, he could at least boast that after so desperate a crisis there
+was no deficit, and he had no reason to be ashamed of Cobbett's nickname,
+"Prosperity Robinson," which he owed to his optimism, largely founded upon
+facts. Before the close of the year 1826, however, this optimism received
+a rude shock. The agitation against the corn laws assumed an acuter form
+than ever, and Huskisson prudently deprecated it on the simple ground that
+no effective action could be taken in an expiring parliament. Distress had
+recurred in the manufacturing districts; mills and power-looms were again
+destroyed. The free trade policy of Huskisson was vigorously attacked in
+parliament, but it was successfully defended in powerful speeches by
+Canning as well as by himself. Ultimately the government, having obtained
+limited powers from parliament to admit foreign corn during the temporary
+emergency, had the courage to exceed those powers and seek an indemnity
+from the next parliament.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_160" id="TOPIC_160"></a>The dissolution of 1826, closing the life of one of the longest
+parliaments in modern times, was the prelude to a very eventful year. The
+general election brought into prominence the two burning questions of
+catholic relief and the corn laws, and unseated for the moment Brougham,
+Cobbett, Hunt, and Lord John Russell, but it produced no material change
+in the balance of parties. Little was done in the short autumn session,
+but when parliament met again early in February, 1827, great events had
+already cast their shadows before. The Duke of York, heir-presumptive to
+the crown, had died on January 5. He was known to be a strong tory in
+politics, but, in spite of this, and of the scandals which attached to his
+name in earlier years, he enjoyed a considerable share of popular
+confidence. Compared<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> with his elder brother, he was respected; he was a
+true Englishman, like his father, whom he resembled in character; his
+administration of the army had survived hostile criticism, while a
+declaration which he had recently made against catholic emancipation had
+produced a profound impression on public opinion. Much less was known of
+the Duke of Clarence, who stood next in succession. He had already injured
+himself in public estimation by declining the increased allowance offered
+him, and then claiming it with arrears; nor did he now improve his
+position in the eyes of his future subjects by stickling for a larger
+addition to it than parliament was disposed to grant. But the Duke of
+York's death was followed by a far more important incident. Liverpool was
+disabled by illness from attending his funeral, which, occurring in the
+depth of winter, proved directly fatal to one of those who were present,
+and seriously weakened the constitutions of others, including Canning. On
+February 8, the first day of the session, Liverpool was in his place,
+though in broken health, and on the 17th he took a feeble part in the
+debate on the grant to the Duke of Clarence. On the following morning he
+was struck down by a paralytic seizure, and, though his life was prolonged
+for two years, he never recovered the use of his faculties.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CLOSE OF LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_161" id="TOPIC_161"></a>Liverpool's disappearance from the political scenes may be said to mark an
+epoch in the later history of England. Though only fifty-six years of age,
+he had been continuously in office for twenty years, and prime minister
+for fifteen, a tenure of power which none of his predecessors had exceeded
+except Walpole and Pitt. His lot was cast in the most critical period of
+the great war, and in the long night of adversity and anxiety which
+ushered in the "thirty years' peace". As foreign secretary he conducted
+the negotiations for the peace of Amiens; as home secretary he led the
+house of lords and was responsible for the government of Ireland; as
+secretary for war and the colonies he gave Wellington a steady, if not
+ardent, support in those apparently barren campaigns which strained the
+national patience; as prime minister he guided the ship of state in all
+the difficulties of foreign and domestic affairs which arose between 1812
+and 1827. Castlereagh may have been the most influential minister in the
+earlier years of his administration, and Canning in the later, but he was
+never the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> mere tool of either; on the contrary, it Is certain that he was
+treated with respect and deference by all his numerous colleagues. In
+general capacity and debating power he was inferior to few of them; in
+temper, judgment, and experience he was superior to all.</p>
+
+<p>He may be said to have lived and died without "a policy," in so far as he
+forebore to identify himself with any of the great questions then pressing
+for solution. His real policy both at home and abroad was one of
+moderation and conciliation; he looked at party divisions almost with the
+eyes of a permanent official who can work loyally with chiefs of either
+party; and he succeeded in keeping together in his cabinet ambitious
+rivals who never would have co-operated under any other leader. This is
+not the road to fame, neither is it the course which men of imperious
+character like Castlereagh, or Canning, or Wellington, in his place, would
+have adopted. But Canning and Wellington actually proved themselves
+incapable of winning the confidence which Liverpool so long retained, and
+the whig government which followed them fell to pieces in two years.
+Moderation in statesmanship does not always imply mediocrity of ability;
+and if Liverpool failed to see how many institutions needed radical
+amendment, he was not so blind as some of his more celebrated associates.
+Not only was he more liberal in his views than Eldon and Castlereagh, but
+he was less opposed to free trade than most of his cabinet, to
+parliamentary reform than Canning, and to catholic emancipation than
+Wellington or Peel. His fault was that he did not act upon his own inward
+convictions with sufficient promptitude, or assert his own authority with
+sufficient energy. Had he done so, the beneficial measures of the last
+years of his administration might have been anticipated, and the country
+might have been spared much of the misery which darkened the close of
+George III.'s reign.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a> Lord Londonderry in Twiss, <i>Life of Eldon</i>, ii., 432.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a> Harriet Martineau, <i>History of England During the Thirty
+Years' Peace</i>, i., 274.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a> <i>Letters to Copleston</i>, p. 295.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a> Cunningham, <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce in
+Modern Times</i> (edit. 1903), pp. 756-59. Compare Dicey, <i>Law and Opinion in
+England</i>, pp. 190-200.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a> The graphic description of this crisis in Harriet
+Martineau's <i>History of the Thirty Years' Peace</i>, i., 355-66, deserves to
+be studied and remembered as a masterpiece of social portraiture by a
+contemporary.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a> Cunningham, <i>Growth of English Industry and Commerce in
+Modern Times</i>, p. 823.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a> Walpole's <i>History of England</i>, vol. ii., p. 187.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_162" id="TOPIC_162"></a>The events of the year 1820 subjected the European concert to a severe
+strain. An insurrection broke out in Spain on January 1, and on March 9
+the king was forced to swear fidelity to the obsolete constitution of
+1812. The result was to plunge the country into disorder, as both the
+clerical party and the extreme revolutionists refused to accept the
+constitution. Meanwhile the assassination by a working man of the Duke of
+Berry, who died on February 14, 1820, had occasioned a new royalist
+reaction in France, and had increased the general fear of the
+revolutionary party. The Bourbon succession had seemed to depend on his
+life, for his son, the Count of Chambord, was posthumous. On receiving the
+news of the Spanish revolution the tsar, already tiring of his liberal
+enthusiasm, fell back on his scheme for exercising paternal discipline
+over Europe. He proposed in April that the ambassadors at Paris should
+issue a joint remonstrance requiring the Spanish cortes to disavow the
+revolution, and to enact severe laws against sedition. Failing this, he
+proposed joint intervention, and offered for his own part to send an army
+of 15,000 men through North Italy and southern France to co-operate in the
+suppression of the revolution. To this Castlereagh replied that England
+would never consent to a joint intervention in Spain. Metternich was too
+much displeased with the Russian encouragement of secret societies in
+Italy to wish to see Russian troops in that country, and both Castlereagh
+and Metternich wished to keep Spain free from French influence. In the
+face of this opposition Russia could not, and France would not, do
+anything, and all thought of intervention was postponed. It was the last
+time that Castlereagh was able to assert the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> principle of
+non-intervention without breaking up the European concert.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>REVOLUTIONS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_163" id="TOPIC_163"></a>July and August saw three new revolutions. A rebellion at Nola on July 2
+ended in King Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies taking the oath on the 13th to
+the Spanish constitution, then regarded as a model by the liberals of
+Southern Europe. But the grant of a constitution to Naples suggested a
+demand for independence at Palermo. On July 17-18 that city rose in revolt
+and was only subdued by the Neapolitans in the beginning of October.
+Portugal, too, was in a disturbed state. The royal family had been absent
+for nearly thirteen years, and the country had for five years been
+governed by Lord, afterwards Viscount, Beresford as marshal and commander
+of the Portuguese army. In April, 1820, he sailed for Brazil, intending to
+induce the king, John VI., to return. During his absence a revolution took
+place at Oporto on August 24, a provisional government was established,
+and all British officers were dismissed. This was followed by a similar
+revolution at Lisbon on September 15. Beresford on his return was
+forbidden to land, and retired to England. On November 11, the Spanish
+constitution was proclaimed in Portugal, but six days later another
+proclamation left the question of determining the constitution to the
+cortes which were to be elected on a popular suffrage.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_164" id="TOPIC_164"></a>The Neapolitan revolution raised at once the question of intervention. In
+this case Castlereagh held that Austria had a right to interfere, because
+her position as an Italian power was endangered by the revolution, and
+because the revolution was a breach of the secret treaty of 1815 which had
+received the sanction of the British government. He still objected to any
+joint interference and was opposed to the reference of the question to a
+congress. Austria could not have interfered alone without offending the
+tsar, who clung to the principle of joint action. The question of
+intervention was therefore postponed for the present. France, however,
+being jealous of Austrian influence in Italy, demanded the meeting of a
+congress, and such a meeting was accordingly held at Troppau on October
+20. To this congress Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia sent
+plenipotentiaries. Great Britain carried her opposition to joint
+interference so far as to refuse to join in the deliberations, though<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> Sir
+Charles, now Lord, Stewart was sent to Troppau to watch the proceedings.
+Metternich, on finding that he could not avoid the meeting of a congress,
+determined to lead its proceedings, and, before it met, drew up a
+memorandum defining his own views about intervention. These views were
+accepted at the congress by Prussia and Russia as well as by Austria; and
+a protocol was issued by the three powers declaring that a state in which
+a revolution should occur was dangerous to other states, and ceased to be
+a member of the European alliance, until it could give guarantees for its
+future stability. If such a revolution placed other states in immediate
+danger, the allied powers were bound to intervene by peaceful means, if
+possible, or if need were, by arms. Before parting, the congress invited
+Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies to attend an adjourned meeting, to assemble
+early in the following year at Laibach.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> Against these decisions
+Castlereagh protested in vigorous terms, and more especially against any
+possible application of the principle of intervention to England; France
+under the Duke of Richelieu joined in neither the protocol nor the
+protest. The liberal tendencies of the tsar had been quenched by recent
+events, so that, instead of a concert of Europe, there was left only a
+concert of absolute monarchs.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AUSTRIAN INTERVENTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_165" id="TOPIC_165"></a>In January, 1821, the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia met the
+King of the Two Sicilies at Laibach. France had vainly attempted to
+mediate between the King of the Two Sicilies and his people. But the
+Neapolitans were not satisfied with any vague promise of a constitution,
+and before allowing their king to depart for Laibach, held him pledged to
+the observance of an impossible condition, the maintenance of the Spanish
+constitution of 1812. The king's oath to preserve this particularly
+objectionable constitution was regarded by Austria as sufficient to
+preclude negotiation, and it was resolved that she should restore him by
+force as an absolute monarch, and should occupy the Neapolitan territory.
+The duration of this occupation was reserved as a question to be discussed
+at the next European congress, which it was intended to hold at Florence
+in the autumn of the next year. After a show of resistance at Rieti the
+Neapolitans submitted, and the Austrian<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> army entered Naples on March 24.
+The restoration of absolute government was accompanied by severities
+towards the constitutionalists, but Austria would not allow any repetition
+of the bloodshed of 1799.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_166" id="TOPIC_166"></a>While the Austrian army was marching southwards, a new revolution broke
+out in Piedmont. The Spanish constitution was proclaimed at Alessandria on
+March 10, and at Turin on the 12th. On the 13th, Victor Emmanuel I., King
+of Sardinia, abdicated, appointing as regent his distant cousin Prince
+Charles Albert of Carignano, who had been in communication with the
+revolutionary party. The regent immediately accepted the Spanish
+constitution on condition of the maintenance of the line of succession and
+of the Roman catholic religion. The new king, Charles Felix, was at Modena
+when the revolt occurred. He refused to acknowledge the new constitution,
+and ordered Charles Albert to betake himself to Novara, where the royalist
+troops were collecting. On the night of the 21st, Charles Albert fled from
+Turin to Novara, but the constitutional party did not submit without a
+struggle. On April 8 the Austrians crossed the frontier and, uniting with
+the royalists, defeated the constitutionalists at Novara. Two days later
+the royalist army entered Turin. The two Italian revolutions had thus
+ended in an Austrian occupation of the two largest Italian states which
+were not ruled by members of the imperial house. The Papal States were now
+the only Italian principality of any size which was not dominated by
+Austria.</p>
+
+<p>So far Austria had been sufficiently powerful in the congresses of the
+powers to be able to prevent interference with other states where it was
+not to her interest, and to incline the balance in favour of it where
+intervention would strengthen her. The reopening of the Eastern question
+made her ascendency more difficult to maintain. The congress of Laibach
+had been closed, but the sovereigns had not yet departed, when the news
+arrived that a revolt, engineered by Greeks with the pretence of Russian
+support, had broken out against the Turks in Moldavia and Wallachia.
+Russia at once agreed with Austria that the principle laid down at Troppau
+applied to this revolt; the insurrectionary leaders were disowned by
+Russia, and by the end of June Turkish authority was restored in the
+Danubian principalities. So far the action of Russia had met with the
+approval<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> not only of Austria but of Great Britain, and Castlereagh had
+written to Alexander urging him not to join the Greek cause, which
+appeared to him to be part of an universal revolutionary movement.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_167" id="TOPIC_167"></a>Early in April, however, a more serious insurrection broke out in the
+Morea, and was followed a few weeks later by one in Central Greece. The
+war was disgraced from the first by inhuman massacres on both sides. The
+Greek patriarch at Constantinople together with three archbishops was
+executed by the Turks on Easter Sunday, April 22. A great ferment in
+Russia was the result, where the people were anxious to assist their
+co-religionists and to avenge the death of the patriarch, whom they
+regarded as a martyr. The grievances of the Orthodox religion were
+seconded by the proper grievances of Russia. Greek ships, sailing under
+the Russian flag, had been seized in the Dardanelles; the principalities
+of Moldavia and Wallachia had not been evacuated by the Turkish troops as
+was required by treaty, while an ancient treaty rendered it possible to
+regard the wrongs of the Greek Church as the political wrongs of Russia. A
+Russian ultimatum was despatched on June 28; and, while awaiting a reply,
+Russia consulted the other powers as to the course they would pursue in
+the event of war breaking out between Russia and Turkey, and the system
+with which they would propose to replace the Turkish domination if it came
+to be destroyed. The principle of joint intervention, adopted at Troppau,
+seemed to require the powers to give their support to Russia. Great
+Britain and Austria, however, refused to treat war with Turkey as a
+possibility. The Greek revolt seemed to them to express the principle of
+revolution, and the tsar himself became inclined to take this view of the
+situation when the Greeks established an advanced republican form of
+government. They accordingly distinguished between the treaty rights of
+Russia, which the four powers would urge Turkey to respect, and the
+provision of a more secure state of order in Turkey, which would be
+discussed at a European congress. The Russian ambassador had been
+withdrawn from Constantinople on August 8, and the negotiation was
+conducted mainly by Lord Strangford, the British ambassador at
+Constantinople, who was supported by Austria, France, and Prussia. He
+succeeded in inducing Turkey to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> evacuate the principalities and to open
+the Dardanelles to ships of all nations, but Turkish obstinacy deferred
+the conclusion of a treaty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE SPANISH QUESTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_168" id="TOPIC_168"></a>Meanwhile the Spanish question became more critical. As time went on Spain
+grew less instead of more settled, while the ultra-royalist party gained
+strength in France. To them the position to which the Bourbon King of
+Spain had been reduced seemed at once an insult and a menace to France.
+The establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy made them long for French
+supremacy in Spain. In August, 1821, the presence of yellow fever in Spain
+was made the occasion for establishing a body of troops, professing to act
+as a sanitary cordon, upon the frontier. They were retained there when the
+fever had disappeared, and their numbers were gradually raised to 100,000.
+<a name="TOPIC_169" id="TOPIC_169"></a>In December, 1821, an ultra-royalist ministry entered on office in France
+under the leadership of Vill&egrave;le. Vill&egrave;le, like King Louis XVIII., was
+opposed to war, but he might easily be forced to adopt the war policy
+which was popular with his party. Fresh evidence was given of the
+contagious nature of the Spanish revolution by the adoption, on the 27th
+of the preceding June, by the Portuguese cortes, of a constitution
+modelled on that of Spain. Six days later the Portuguese king arrived at
+Lisbon and was induced to sign the new constitution. This event was the
+more significant in the eyes of the powers, because the proclamation of
+the constitution had been accompanied by an insult to the Austrian
+embassy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_170" id="TOPIC_170"></a>If Spanish liberalism placed Spain in danger of a war with France, Spain
+was in equal danger of a war with Great Britain because she was not
+liberal enough. The revolution of 1820, instead of reconciling the
+revolted colonies, had served as an example to the loyal colonies to seek
+their liberty. By the summer of 1822 Upper Peru was the only part of the
+American mainland where Spain held more than isolated posts; she had been
+compelled to sell Florida to the United States, and San Domingo had joined
+the revolted French colony of Hayti. The Spanish cortes, however, were
+even more resolute than the king had been to maintain the authority of the
+mother country, and protested against the right which the British had
+claimed and exercised of trading with the revolted colonies. The
+disorderly state of these colonies encouraged the growth of piracy, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+flourished even in the ports which still acknowledged the supremacy of
+Spain. Special irritation was caused in 1822 by the condemnation of the
+<i>Lord Collingwood</i> for trading with Buenos Ayres, a place over which Spain
+had exercised no authority for twelve years. In the same year the new
+navigation acts greatly increased the facilities for trading with Great
+Britain enjoyed by such places in America as admitted British ships. In
+April, 1822, the United States recognised the independence of Colombia,
+but Great Britain refrained as yet from recognising any of the
+Spanish-American states, partly because of their unsettled condition and
+partly because the threat of recognition was a valuable diplomatic counter
+in negotiations with Spain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_171" id="TOPIC_171"></a>Instead of a congress being held at Florence it was finally determined
+that the Italian questions should be referred to a congress which was to
+meet at Verona in September, 1822, and was to be preceded by a conference
+at Vienna on the Eastern question; there could, however, be little doubt
+that the Spanish question would also be raised. Castlereagh, or as we
+should now call him Lord Londonderry, would have preferred that Great
+Britain should stand aloof from the Spanish and Italian questions, but he
+desired that she should participate in the discussion of the Eastern
+question; it was accordingly arranged that he should represent Great
+Britain at the conference of Vienna, and he had actually drawn up
+instructions in favour of non-intervention in Spain and of accrediting
+agents to some of the South American republics, when his departure was
+prevented by his death on August 12. He was succeeded by Wellington as
+plenipotentiary, and by Canning as foreign secretary. The change was,
+however, one of persons rather than of policies. Canning was less
+conciliatory in manner, and had less sympathy with the principle of
+European congresses, but was prepared to carry on Castlereagh's policy on
+the questions which for the time being agitated the world.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CONGRESS OF VERONA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_172" id="TOPIC_172"></a>The Spanish question was, as a fact, the one question which occupied the
+attention of the powers at Vienna and Verona. In consequence of the
+efforts of Strangford at Constantinople and his own growing
+dissatisfaction with the Greeks, the tsar was willing to allow the Greek
+question to drop; at the same time the kings of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia themselves desired the continuance of Austrian occupation, and
+thus post<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>poned the Italian question. As in 1820, Austria held the balance
+between two rival policies. She had then thrown her weight on the side of
+non-intervention, and, had the Spanish question stood by itself, she would
+probably have done so again. But in Metternich's opinion the Spanish
+question was of less importance than the Eastern, and it was important
+that the tsar should not doubt her loyalty to the principle on which she
+had persuaded him to refrain from an attack upon the Porte.</p>
+
+<p>On passing through Paris on his way to Vienna, Wellington found Vill&egrave;le
+desirous of avoiding war, but counting on it as a probability. He arrived
+at Vienna too late for the actual conference, but in time to have some
+conversation with Metternich and the tsar before leaving for Verona. So
+far it appeared that Montmorency, the more active of the French
+representatives, though professing to desire a peaceful termination to the
+dispute between France and Spain, advocated French intervention, if
+intervention should be necessary, but was opposed to the passage of
+foreign troops through France. Metternich and the tsar distrusted French
+troops when brought face to face with revolutionists, and Metternich was
+therefore opposed to intervention, while the tsar still desired to be
+allowed to march a Russian army on behalf of the combined powers through
+Piedmont and southern France into Spain. Metternich of course did not wish
+to see any Russian troops to dispute Austria's supremacy in Italy. But all
+three desired the suppression of the Spanish constitution, if they could
+find a trustworthy instrument. Wellington adhered to Castlereagh's policy
+of non-intervention.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_173" id="TOPIC_173"></a>When the congress opened at Verona on October 20, Montmorency proposed
+three skilfully drawn questions. Avoiding the direct discussion of
+hostilities, he asked whether, if France were compelled to withdraw her
+ambassador from Madrid, the other powers would do the same. Then, assuming
+their sympathy, he asked what form of moral support they would give her in
+event of war. Lastly, he propitiated Russian views of joint action by
+asking what form of material support the powers would give France, if she
+should require it. Wellington refused to consider hypothetical cases, but
+the sovereigns of Austria,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> Prussia, and Russia answered the first
+question in the affirmative, and assured France of their moral, and, if
+necessary, of their material support. So far no power had abandoned its
+original attitude, but the promises had been given in a form which lent
+itself best to the sole interference of France, as the representative of
+the congress. Metternich now advocated British mediation, but this was
+refused by Montmorency on the ground of the differences between the policy
+adopted by Great Britain and that adopted by the other powers. It was then
+agreed that Austria, France, Prussia, and Russia should address notes of
+the same tenor to their ambassadors at Madrid, who should make
+corresponding representations to the Spanish government, and a <i>proc&egrave;s
+verbal</i> was concluded between these four powers defining the causes which
+would justify the recall of their ambassadors.</p>
+
+<p>As the French king was not present at Verona, the sending of the French
+note was made conditional on the approval of the French government. The
+occupation of Spain by foreign troops was to be discussed when the King of
+Spain should have been restored to liberty. The tenor of the notes agreed
+on seemed to Wellington more likely to inflame the Spanish government than
+to win concessions, and he lost no time in informing Vill&egrave;le through Sir
+Charles Stuart, the British ambassador at Paris, of the course of
+negotiations.<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> Although Wellington had been assured at Verona that
+Vill&egrave;le's decision would not affect the transmission of notes from the
+other courts, he hoped and Canning believed that it was still in the power
+of Vill&egrave;le to arrest the machinery that Montmorency, his representative at
+Verona, had set in motion. On November 30 Wellington left Verona, but the
+emperors remained. On December 5 Vill&egrave;le sent a message to Verona
+proposing to postpone sending the despatches till an occasion for breaking
+off diplomatic relations as defined in the <i>proc&egrave;s verbal</i> should arise,
+and suggesting that the ambassadors at Paris should determine when such an
+occasion had occurred. This proposal was rejected. It was inconsistent
+with Russia's desire for war, while Austria was anxious to please Russia
+in the west, so long as she remained pacific in the east. The three
+eastern powers therefore resolved that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> would only delay sending
+their notes till the French note was ready.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE SPANISH QUESTION.</i></div>
+
+<p>While this negotiation was pending, Wellington arrived at Paris, where,
+under strong pressure from Canning,<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> he renewed his offer of mediation
+with Spain. It was declined. On the arrival of the reply from Verona,
+Wellington was informed that even if the other powers sent their
+despatches to Madrid, France would withhold hers. In the end, Vill&egrave;le
+dismissed Montmorency for the independent line he had taken, and sent a
+milder note than the three eastern powers, but withdrew his ambassador
+from Madrid soon after the other ambassadors had departed. Great Britain
+was in consequence the only great power which still continued diplomatic
+relations with Spain at the end of January, 1823. In the course of the
+negotiations two curious suspicions had occurred to Canning and Vill&egrave;le
+respectively. Canning imagined that France would employ the threats of her
+allies as a show of force to compel Spain to join her in an attack on
+British commerce in the West Indies, while Vill&egrave;le suspected that the
+British defence of the political independence of Spain was to be
+recompensed by the cession of some Spanish colonies in America.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_174" id="TOPIC_174"></a>Meanwhile, the war party before which Vill&egrave;le had had to bow, was having
+its own way in France. On January 28 Louis XVIII. in opening the chambers
+announced the withdrawal of his ambassador, and declared that 100,000
+Frenchmen were ready to march to preserve the throne of Spain to a
+descendant of Henry IV., and to reconcile that country with Europe. The
+sole object of any war that might arise would be to render Ferdinand VII.
+free to give his people institutions which they could not hold except from
+him, and which, by securing their tranquillity, would dissipate the unrest
+in France. Canning protested against the apparent implication that no
+valid constitution could rest on any other basis than that of France did,
+as also against the apparent claim to interfere in virtue of the family
+relation of the dynasties of France and Spain; but he vainly endeavoured
+to persuade the Spanish government to come to some agreement with its
+king. On March 31, when war seemed imminent, Canning despatched a note to
+Paris defining the limits of British<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> neutrality. The independence of
+Spain and integrity of its dominions were to be recognised; it was not to
+be permanently occupied by a military force, and France was not to attempt
+to gain either by conquest or by cession any of the revolted colonies of
+Spain in America. At the same time he disclaimed any intention of
+acquiring any of those colonies for Great Britain.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL.</i></div>
+
+<p>War between France and Spain began with the passage of the frontier by the
+Duke of Angoul&ecirc;me on April 7. On May 23 he entered Madrid. On October 1
+the Spanish constitutionalists were compelled to set their king at liberty
+to join the French, and on November 1 the war was terminated by the
+surrender of Barcelona to the royalists. The restoration of Ferdinand VII.
+to absolute power was followed by a furious and vindictive reaction, which
+Angoul&ecirc;me strove in vain to moderate. For the next five years French
+troops occupied the country, but Angoul&ecirc;me showed his disapproval of the
+method of government by refusing the decorations offered him by Ferdinand.
+The restoration of absolutism in Spain led to events in Portugal which
+forced Great Britain to intervene and strengthened the difference between
+her policy and that of the continental powers. The new Portuguese
+constitution was unpopular, especially in the army, and as early as
+February, 1823, there was a revolt against the constitution, but order was
+restored in April. On May 26 another absolutist revolt broke out, and the
+rebels were joined next day by the king's second son, Dom Miguel, then
+twenty years of age; on the 29th the revolt spread to Lisbon; on the 31st
+the king promised a revised constitution, and on June 2 the cortes ceased
+to sit. The government resolved itself into an absolute monarchy, which
+continued till the following year, in spite of the appointment of a junta
+under the presidency of Palmella to draw up a new constitution. The
+ambassadors of Austria, Prussia, and Russia opposed the granting of a new
+constitution, and Dom Miguel still maintained a threatening attitude.
+Palmella accordingly applied to Great Britain for troops to support his
+government. This request created no little difficulty. It was impossible
+for Great Britain to allow the government of Portugal to fall into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> the
+hands of a party resting for support on the absolutists in Spain and the
+French army, and it was equally impossible to employ British troops to
+maintain the cause of the King of Portugal against his ultra-royalist
+subjects when Great Britain had protested so vigorously against the kings
+of Spain and the Two Sicilies receiving foreign assistance against their
+liberal subjects; there were moreover no troops that could well be spared.</p>
+
+<p>Canning accordingly contented himself with despatching a naval squadron to
+the Tagus to act as a moral support to the king. As the event proved, this
+squadron was sufficient to determine the course of events. At the same
+time Canning refused to guarantee any constitution, though when France
+joined the eastern powers in threatening the proposed constitution, he
+intimated his readiness to resist by force of arms any foreign
+intervention in Portugal. On April 30, 1824, Dom Miguel attempted another
+<i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i>, and was for nine days in possession of Lisbon, where he
+made wholesale arrests of his political opponents. John VI. was, however,
+supported by all the foreign ambassadors, and on March 9, by their advice,
+he went on board the British ship of war, <i>Windsor Castle</i>, where he
+summoned his son to appear before him. Dom Miguel thought it wisest to
+obey; the king sent him abroad, and the attempt at a revolution was over
+for the present. The junta appointed in the previous year to frame a
+constitution now reported in favour of a revival of the ancient cortes,
+and this proposal was accepted by the king. The cortes were not, however,
+actually assembled; still, the mere fact of Dom Miguel's absence left the
+government a little stronger.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_175" id="TOPIC_175"></a>Meanwhile, the relations between Portugal and Brazil occasioned
+difficulties between the former country and Great Britain. On leaving
+Brazil, King John VI. had entrusted the government to his elder son,
+Peter, to whom he had given secret instructions to proclaim himself
+Emperor of Brazil in case he found it impossible to maintain the union
+between Brazil and the mother country. Acting on these instructions, Peter
+had proclaimed the independence of Brazil on October 12, 1822, adopting
+for himself the style of constitutional emperor. Next month Lord Cochrane,
+who had been in the service of Chile, quitted it for that of Brazil.
+Neither party in Portugal was prepared for the separation of Brazil, and
+it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> was therefore opposed, but without much effect, by the home
+government. By the end of 1823 Cochrane had captured all the Portuguese
+posts in Brazil, and in August, 1824, he suppressed a republican movement
+in the north of that country. On July 23 of the same year Great Britain
+signed a commercial treaty with the new empire. This irritated the
+Portuguese government. Meanwhile, Beresford, who had returned to Portugal
+in a private capacity, had been requested to resume the command of the
+Portuguese army. This he refused to do so long as the Count of Subs&eacute;rra, a
+French partisan, held office at home. There was a difficulty in forming a
+ministry without him, and eventually Subs&eacute;rra became virtual prime
+minister, and Beresford was excluded from office. In order to obtain an
+excuse for the introduction of French troops into Portugal, Subs&eacute;rra sent
+a request to Great Britain for a force of four or five thousand, knowing
+it would be refused. Great Britain's refusal had not, however, the
+expected consequence, because the influence of the other powers at Lisbon
+was weakened by their anti-constitutional policy. <a name="TOPIC_176" id="TOPIC_176"></a>In July, 1825, the
+representatives of Austria, Brazil, Great Britain, and Portugal assembled
+at London to consider the relations of Portugal and Brazil. While the
+conference was sitting it was discovered that Subs&eacute;rra was carrying on
+separate negotiations with Brazil. Canning was now able to obtain his
+dismissal, which was followed by the recall of the French ambassador, De
+Neuville, who had been the principal opponent of British influence at
+Lisbon. As a result of this conference the Portuguese government on August
+29 recognised the independence of Brazil.<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>The restoration of absolute government in Spain revived the question of
+Spanish America. Ferdinand VII., on recovering his authority, proposed a
+congress at Paris for the consideration of South American affairs.
+Canning, however, declined his invitation, and it was thought useless to
+hold a congress without the participation of Great Britain. The position
+in which Great Britain had been placed by the negotiations of Verona, as
+diplomatic champion of Spain, had caused her to suspend her complaints
+about the treatment of her merchant vessels trading with the revolted
+colonies; but disorder continued, and on one occasion the British admiral
+was authorised to land in Cuba to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> extirpate the pirates using the Spanish
+flag. Canning was determined that French force should not be employed to
+reduce the revolted colonies, and in October, 1823, he informed the French
+ambassador, Polignac, that he would acknowledge the independence of those
+colonies if France assisted Spain in her attempts to reduce them<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a>&mdash;a
+somewhat empty threat, as the commercial interests of Great Britain would
+have compelled him to acknowledge them in any case as soon as there should
+be settled governments in existence with which he could treat. Diplomatic
+agents were in fact appointed in most of the revolted colonies before the
+end of this year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE MONROE DOCTRINE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_177" id="TOPIC_177"></a>What, however, rendered French interference hopeless was the attitude of
+the United States, as expressed in President Monroe's historic message to
+congress on December 2, 1823. In this message occur the words, since known
+as the Monroe doctrine: "With the governments who have declared their
+independence, and maintained it, and whose independence we have, on great
+consideration, and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any
+interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any
+other manner their destiny, by any European power, in any other light than
+as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United
+States." After this the recognition of the independence of the Spanish
+colonies was only a matter of time.<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> Great Britain recognised the
+independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and Mexico, in 1824, and the rest
+soon after. In spite of the temporary successes of Canterac, Peru, the
+last of the mainland provinces, was lost to Spain in 1825, and the other
+European powers did not now delay their recognition of the American
+republics. In April of that year France recognised the virtual
+independence of her own revolted colony of Hayti.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_178" id="TOPIC_178"></a>The Eastern question advanced more slowly. On March 25, 1823, Canning
+recognised the Greeks as belligerents. After this step Great Britain
+enjoyed the advantage of being able to hold the Greek government
+responsible for piracy committed by Greek ships; but, coming as it did
+after the isolated action of Great Britain at Verona, it created a
+suspicion among the eastern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> powers of a desire to effect a settlement of
+the Eastern question without the co-operation of other states. In October,
+1823, the Tsar Alexander and the Emperor Francis had a meeting at
+Czernowitz in Bukowina. Here they discussed joint intervention in Greece
+as a means of forestalling the isolated intervention of Great Britain.
+During the meeting the news arrived of the Turkish concessions to the
+Russian demands of 1821. Before the conference broke up, the tsar
+informally suggested a conference at St. Petersburg to arrange joint
+intervention on the basis of the erection of three principalities under
+Turkish suzerainty in Greece and the &AElig;gean. In January, 1824, the same
+proposal was made formally in a Russian circular addressed to the great
+powers. Metternich and Canning both opposed the scheme, thinking that the
+principalities would fall under Russian influence.</p>
+
+<p>Metternich met it by a counter proposal for the complete independence of
+Greece. Canning preferred to adopt neither course, and to watch the
+sequence of events. In April, however, he consented that Great Britain
+should be represented at the conference at St. Petersburg on condition
+that no coercion should be applied to Turkey, and that diplomatic
+relations should have been previously restored between Russia and Turkey;
+in August the Greek government sent to London its protest against the
+Russian proposals, and in November Canning, finding that neither Greeks
+nor Turks would accept the decision of the conference, and being still
+opposed to violent interference, refused to take part in it. At the same
+time he offered British mediation to the Greeks in case it should be
+absolutely necessary. Early in 1825 Metternich induced Charles X., the new
+King of France, to support his proposal. Russia, however, would not hear
+of the independence of Greece, which might mean the creation of a rival to
+her influence in the Turkish dominions. The conference therefore merely
+resolved that the Porte should grant satisfaction to its subjects, failing
+which the powers offered their mediation.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_179" id="TOPIC_179"></a>Turkey refused the offer. She was in fact busily engaged in restoring
+order in her own way. In February, 1825, an Egyptian army was landed in
+the Morea, and met with rapid successes of such a nature as to arouse a
+suspicion that it was the fixed policy of its commander, Ibrahim, the
+adopted son of Mehemet Ali,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> Pasha of Egypt, to depopulate the Morea. His
+advance upon Nauplia was checked by an order of the British commodore,
+Hamilton, and he retired towards Tripolitza and Navarino. The Turkish
+successes induced Canning to make proposals to Russia through Sir
+Stratford Canning, the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, for a joint
+intervention of the powers on condition that there should be no coercion
+of Turkey. The tsar refused to accept the condition and made preparations
+for war. Canning meanwhile declined an offer of the Greek government to
+place itself under British protection, and on August 18 Alexander declared
+that he would solve the Eastern question by himself. He then set out for
+the south of Russia, where his army had collected. Canning now dropped his
+scheme of an united intervention and opened negotiations for a separate
+intervention on the part of Great Britain and Russia alone. Meanwhile he
+informed the Greek government that he would allow no power to effect a
+settlement without British co-operation, and that if Russia invaded Turkey
+he would land troops in Greece. The negotiations with Russia were
+proceeding favourably when they were interrupted by the death of Alexander
+on December 1.</p>
+
+<p>One event of the year 1825 which attracted little attention at the time
+was destined to be a cause of friction at a much later date. In 1824 the
+boundary between British America and the United States had been partially
+delimited, and this was followed early in the following year by a treaty,
+which attempted to settle the boundary between British and Russian
+America. Unfortunately the words used in this treaty were somewhat
+indefinite, and, although no difficulty was experienced for two
+generations, the discovery of gold in the north-west of America
+subsequently led to a bitter dispute between Canada on the one side and
+the United States, which had acquired the rights of Russia, on the other.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a> Metternich, <i>Memoirs</i>, &sect; 484, English translation, iii.,
+446.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, i., 343-48.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, i., 518-23. For a French
+account of the congress see Duvergier de Hauranne, <i>Gouvernement
+Parlementaire en France</i>, vii., 130-229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, i., 650. Compare pp. 638,
+653-57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a> Stapleton, <i>Life of Canning</i>, ii., 18, 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a> Stapleton, <i>Life of Canning</i>, ii., chapters x., xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a> Stapleton, <i>Life of Canning</i>, ii., 26-33.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a> See J. W. Foster, <i>A Century of American Diplomacy</i>, pp.
+442-50; Stapleton, <i>George Canning and his Times</i>, p. 375.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_180" id="TOPIC_180"></a>The sudden illness of Liverpool in February, 1827, disclosed the dualism
+and mutual jealousies which had enfeebled his cabinet. One section,
+represented by Canning, advocated catholic emancipation, encouraged the
+practical application of free trade doctrines, and was prepared to support
+the principle of national independence, not only in South America, but in
+Greece and Portugal. This section was dominant in the house of commons.
+The other section, led by Wellington and Peel, which was dominant in the
+house of lords, was strictly conservative on all these questions, though
+Peel was beginning to show an open mind on one, at least, of them. The
+king's known distrust of Canning, largely shared by his own party,
+naturally suggested the hope of rallying it under the leadership of some
+politician with the moderate and conciliatory temper of Lord Liverpool.
+But no such politician could be found, nor was there any prospect of
+Canning accepting a subordinate position in a new ministry. For nearly six
+weeks the premiership was in abeyance, while Liverpool's recovery was
+treated as a possible event. Canning himself was in broken health, but,
+ill as he was, he proposed and carried in the house of commons a sliding
+scale of import duties upon corn, variable with its market price. He also
+made a fierce attack on Sir John Copley, then master of the rolls, who had
+vigorously opposed a motion of Burdett for catholic relief. At last the
+king, having consulted others, made up his mind to send for Canning, who
+had been suffering from a relapse. It was in vain that Canning advised
+him, unless he were prepared for concession on the catholic question, to
+summon a body of ministers sharing his own convictions. There was, in
+fact, no alternative to Canning's succession, except that of Wellington
+or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> Peel. The former declared that he would be worse than mad to accept
+the premiership; the latter was still young for the office and deprecated
+as hopeless the formation of any exclusively "protestant" cabinet. The
+selection of Canning became inevitable, and on April 10 the king
+determined upon it, irritated by what he regarded as an attempt to force
+his hand in the choice of a minister.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CANNING ACCEPTS OFFICE.</i></div>
+
+<p>From that moment, during the short remainder of his life Canning had to
+undergo the same bitter experience as Pitt in 1804, and to suffer a cruel
+retribution for his aggressive petulance. All his strongest colleagues,
+except Huskisson, deserted him. The resignation of Lord Eldon, since 1821
+Earl of Eldon, must have been expected, terminating, as it did, the
+longest chancellorship since the Norman conquest. But Canning seems to
+have really hoped that he might secure the support of Wellington by the
+assurance of his desire to carry out the principles of Liverpool's
+government. The duke, however, repelled his overtures with something less
+than courtesy, and even retired from the command of the army. Peel had
+already intimated privately that a transfer of the premiership from an
+opponent to a champion of emancipation would make it impossible for him to
+retain office. Three peers, Bathurst, Melville, and Westmorland, followed
+his example. Canning had no resource but to enlist colleagues from the
+ranks of the whigs. In this he was at first unsuccessful. Sturges Bourne
+was appointed to the home office, Viscount Dudley became foreign
+secretary, and Robinson, who was raised to the peerage as Viscount
+Goderich, became secretary for war and the colonies. Canning himself
+united the offices of first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the
+exchequer. The Duke of Portland became lord privy seal. Palmerston, the
+secretary at war, was given a seat in the cabinet. Harrowby, Huskisson,
+Wynn, and Bexley, retained their former posts, and Sidmouth, hitherto an
+unofficial member of the cabinet, finally retired. One important office
+outside the cabinet, that of chief secretary for Ireland, was given to a
+whig, William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne. It was a happy idea to make
+the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral without a seat in the cabinet, and
+without any power of acting independently of his council, while Copley (as
+Lord Lyndhurst) proved a good successor to Eldon.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_181" id="TOPIC_181"></a>In May some of the whigs were induced to join the ministry. Tierney
+entered the cabinet as master of the mint and the Earl of Carlisle as
+first commissioner of woods and forests. The Marquis of Lansdowne, the
+former Lord Henry Petty, joined the cabinet without taking office. Other
+minor posts were assigned to whigs, and several whig chiefs, such as
+Holland and Brougham, while they remained outside the government, tendered
+it a friendly support. In July Lansdowne became home secretary, Bourne was
+transferred to the woods and forests department, Carlisle became lord
+privy seal, and Portland remained in the cabinet without office.</p>
+
+<p>The new cabinet was therefore still in an unsettled state when it met
+parliament at the beginning of May. It there encountered a storm of
+unsparing criticism even in the house of commons, but still more in the
+house of lords. Lord Stewart, who had succeeded his brother as Marquis of
+Londonderry, and the Duke of Newcastle denounced Canning in the most
+intemperate language; and the veteran whig, Lord Grey, who had not been
+consulted, delivered an elaborate oration against him not the less
+virulent because it was carefully studied and measured. This attack was so
+keenly felt by Canning that he was supposed to meditate the acceptance of
+a peerage, that he might reply to it in person. The climax of his
+vexations was reached when a corn bill, prepared by the late cabinet, and
+passed by the house of commons, was finally wrecked in the house of lords
+through an amendment introduced by Wellington. There was some excuse for
+the duke's action in letters which had passed between him and Huskisson,
+but Canning naturally resented his mischievous interposition, and unwisely
+declared that he must "have been made an instrument in the hands of
+others". So ended the session on July 2, amidst discords and divisions
+which boded ill for the future, but threw a retrospective light on the
+rare merits of Liverpool.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF CANNING.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_182" id="TOPIC_182"></a>The days of Canning were already numbered. Before the end of July he was
+unable to attend a council, and retired for rest to the Duke of
+Devonshire's villa at Chiswick. As in the case of Castlereagh, the king
+had noticed the symptoms of serious illness, and on August 5 the public
+was informed of his danger. On the 8th he died of internal inflammation in
+the room which had witnessed the death of Fox. His loss was deeply felt,
+not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> only by the king who never showed him confidence, but also by the
+best part of the nation, and his funeral was attended by a great concourse
+of mourners, both whigs and tories. No one doubted that he was a patriot,
+and his noble gifts commanded the admiration of his bitterest opponents.
+He belonged to an age of transition, and it must ever be deplored that he
+missed the opportunity of showing whether his mind was capable of further
+growth in the highest office of state; for the inconsistencies of his
+opinions, obstinately maintained for years, would have demanded many
+changes of conviction or policy. He was as stout an enemy of reform at
+home as he was a resolute friend of constitutional liberty abroad. He
+detested the system of repression consecrated by the holy alliance, but he
+defended the necessity of such measures as the six acts and arbitrary
+imprisonment for a limited period. He never swerved in his advocacy of
+Roman catholic relief, but he was unmoved by arguments in favour of
+repealing the test and corporation acts. Probably, at the head of a
+coalition, embracing the ablest of the moderate tories and reformers, and
+loyally supported by his colleagues, he might have proved the foremost
+British statesman of the nineteenth century. But it is more than doubtful
+whether his proud and sensitive nature would have enabled him so to cancel
+past memories as to consolidate such a coalition, or to inspire such
+loyalty in its members.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_183" id="TOPIC_183"></a>The death of Canning involved for the moment far less political change
+than might have been expected. The king at once sent for Sturges Bourne
+and Goderich, as the most intimate adherents of Canning. He then commanded
+Goderich to form, or rather to continue, a ministry of compromise, and
+this was done with little shifting of places. Wellington resumed the
+command of the army, thereby revealing his motive in giving it up so
+abruptly. But a very unwise choice was made in the appointment of John
+Charles Herries, rather than Palmerston, as chancellor of the exchequer,
+and it carried with it the seeds of an early disruption. Palmerston had
+originally been proposed for the office, but the king strongly favoured
+Herries, though he showed good sense in deferring to public opinion, and
+desiring Huskisson to take the post himself. Unfortunately, Huskisson
+preferred the colonial office, and, as neither Sturges Bourne nor Tierney
+would accept the position, royal influence prevailed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> and Herries found
+himself at the exchequer. Meanwhile Portland succeeded Harrowby as lord
+president, Charles Grant succeeded Huskisson at the board of trade, and
+Lord Uxbridge, who had been created Marquis of Anglesey after the battle
+of Waterloo, and who was now master-general of the ordnance, was given a
+seat in the cabinet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_184" id="TOPIC_184"></a>In the course of November it was decided by Goderich, in concert with
+Huskisson and Tierney, that a finance committee should be appointed early
+in the next session to consider the state of the revenue. Lord Althorp,
+the son of Earl Spencer, was designated as chairman, and provisionally
+undertook to act, but the chancellor of the exchequer, who, contrary to
+all precedent, had not been taken into counsel, strongly protested against
+the nomination, as soon as he was informed of it. Out of this dispute
+arose the ignoble fall of the Goderich administration, though it was
+preceded by more serious dissensions on foreign policy. The king, whose
+activity revived with the increasing weakness of his ministers, committed
+himself, without asking their opinion, to a hearty approval of
+Codrington's action at Navarino, in which, as will be recorded hereafter,
+that admiral had co-operated in the destruction of the Turkish navy,
+though the British government professed to be at peace with the Porte. The
+king was also adverse to a proposal for the admission of Holland and
+Wellesley into the cabinet. Goderich in consequence resigned, but had
+withdrawn his resignation when the quarrel between Huskisson and Herries
+broke out afresh. Driven to distraction by difficulties to which he was
+utterly unequal, Goderich once more abandoned his post. The king gladly
+dispensed with his services, and after some negotiation with Harrowby sent
+for Wellington on January 9, 1828, giving him a free hand to invite any
+co-operation except that of Grey. It was stipulated, however, "that the
+Roman Catholic question was not to be made a cabinet question," and that
+both the lord chancellors, as well as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, were
+to be "protestants".<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLINGTON PRIME MINISTER.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_185" id="TOPIC_185"></a>It must ever be regretted, for the sake of the country not less than of
+his own fame, that Wellington undertook the premiership. He was beyond all
+dispute the greatest man in England, and exercised up to the end of his
+life a more power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>ful influence in emergencies than any other subject. But
+he had judged himself rightly when he declared that he was wholly unfit to
+be prime minister, and his administration was among the weakest of modern
+times. The firmness which had sustained him in so many campaigns, the
+political sagacity which had enabled him to grapple with the complications
+of Spanish affairs, and with the great settlement of Europe, equally
+failed him in party management and in the estimation of public opinion at
+home. He understood better than any man how to deal with the king, and
+overbore not only the king's own prejudices but the machinations of the
+Duke of Cumberland with masterly resolution. He set a good example in
+declining to regard himself as a mere party leader and in refusing to
+study the arts of popularity hunting, but he never grasped the principle
+that constitutional government ultimately rests on the will of the people.
+Still he was too good a general not to see when facts were too strong for
+him. His chief man&oelig;uvres on the field of politics consisted in somewhat
+inglorious though not unskilful retreats; when he afterwards carried
+boldness to the point of rashness, he encountered a signal defeat.
+Nevertheless, while he utterly lost his political hold on the masses, and
+even the confidence of shrewd politicians, he never ceased to retain the
+profound respect of his countrymen, not only as the first of English
+generals, but as the most honest of public servants.</p>
+
+<p>Wellington naturally applied first to Peel, and, by his advice, attempted
+a reconstruction of the Goderich cabinet, but with the addition of certain
+new elements. Five of Canning's followers&mdash;Lyndhurst, Dudley, who had been
+created an earl, Huskisson, Grant, and Palmerston retained their old
+offices, and Palmerston gave an extraordinary proof of patience by
+cheerfully remaining secretary at war after eighteen years' service in
+that capacity. These cabinet ministers were now joined or rejoined by Peel
+as home secretary, Earl Bathurst as lord president, Henry Goulburn as
+chancellor of the exchequer, Melville as president of the board of
+control, Lord Aberdeen as chancellor of the duchy, and Lord Ellenborough,
+son of the former chief justice, as lord privy seal. Herries was
+transferred from the exchequer to the mastership of the mint. Outside the
+cabinet Anglesey became lord lieutenant of Ireland, where Lamb remained
+chief secretary. It was under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>stood that Eldon, now in his seventy-seventh
+year, would have willingly accepted the presidency of the council, and
+felt hurt that no offer or communication was made to him. On the other
+hand, the whigs were by no means satisfied, while the inclusion of
+Huskisson equally offended extreme tories and the widow of Canning, who
+spoke of him as having become an associate of her husband's murderers.
+This association was not destined to be long lived. The formation of the
+ministry was not completed until the end of January, and very soon after
+parliament met on the 29th of that month a rupture between Huskisson and
+Wellington became imminent. For this Huskisson was mainly responsible.
+Having to seek re-election at Liverpool, and irritated by the attacks made
+upon his consistency, he delivered a very imprudent speech, in which he
+implied, if he did not state, that he had obtained from his chief pledges
+of adhesion to Canning's policy. Such a declaration from such a man was
+inevitably understood as applying at least to free trade and the conduct
+of foreign affairs. Both Huskisson and the duke in parliamentary speeches
+disclaimed the imputation of any bargain; still the rift was not closed,
+and it was speedily widened by events on which harmony between tories and
+friends of Canning was impossible.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_186" id="TOPIC_186"></a>For six years the so-called war of Greek independence had been carried on
+with the utmost barbarity on both sides. The sympathies of Canning, as
+foreign secretary, had been entirely with the Greeks, as they had been
+with the South American insurgents, but he was equally on his guard
+against the armed "mediation" of Russia and her claim to be the supreme
+protector of the Greek Christians. We have seen how at last, in 1825,
+hopeless discord between the great continental powers led to overtures for
+the peaceful intervention of Great Britain, and how at this juncture the
+Tsar Alexander died on December 1, 1825. Wellington, at Canning's request,
+undertook a special embassy to St. Petersburg for the ostensible purpose
+of congratulating the new tsar, Nicholas, on his accession, and succeeded,
+during April, 1826, in concluding an arrangement for joint action by
+Russia and Great Britain with a view to establishing the autonomy of
+Greece under the sovereignty of Turkey. Meanwhile the impulsive enthusiasm
+which has so often seized the English people on behalf of "oppressed
+nationalities" had been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> fanned into a flame by the cause of Greek
+independence. Byron had already sacrificed his life to it in April, 1824;
+Cochrane now devoted to it an energy and a naval reputation only second to
+Nelson's; volunteers joined the Greek levies, and subscriptions came in
+freely. In the course of 1826 Canning succeeded in procuring the adhesion
+of the French government to the Anglo-Russian agreement. Early in 1827 the
+three powers demanded an armistice from Turkey, and, on the refusal of the
+Porte, signed the treaty of London for the settlement of the Greek
+question. This treaty, dated July 6, 1827, was almost the last public act
+of Canning. It was moderate in its terms, embodying the conditions laid
+down in the previous year at St. Petersburg, and making the
+self-government of Greece subject to a payment of tribute to the Porte. It
+provided for a combination of the British, French, and Russian fleets in
+the event of a second refusal from Turkey; but Canning died in the hope
+that hostilities might be avoided.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NAVARINO.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_187" id="TOPIC_187"></a>This hope was not likely, nor was it destined, to be realised. The Porte
+remained inflexible, and would grant no armistice; indeed, it had summoned
+a contingent of ships from Egypt, and a fleet of twenty-eight sail under
+Ibrahim Pasha was lying in the Bay of Navarino awaiting further
+reinforcements. Admiral Codrington, who commanded the allied fleet, now
+before Navarino, showed much forbearance. In concert with the French
+admiral, he warned Ibrahim Pasha not to leave the harbour, and obtained
+assurances which were speedily broken. Futile negotiations went on during
+the early part of October, ending in a massacre among the inhabitants of
+the coast by the direction of Ibrahim. The admirals of the allied fleet no
+longer hesitated. On the 20th the fleet entered the harbour. The first
+shots were fired by the Turco-Egyptian fleet, which was skilfully ranged
+in three lines, and in the form of a horseshoe. An action ensued, which
+lasted four hours, and resulted in the almost complete destruction of the
+Ottoman armament. Had the allied fleet at once proceeded to
+Constantinople, the Greek question might perhaps have been settled
+promptly, instead of being left to perplex cabinets for two years longer.</p>
+
+<p>The news of Navarino reached England when the ministry of Lord Goderich
+was already tottering, and caused its members far more anxiety than
+satisfaction. Probably the wisest of them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> foresaw that, unless immediate
+action were taken, Russia would declare war single-handed against Turkey
+and enforce her own terms, but nothing in fact was done, and Wellington,
+on coming into power, found the question of our relations with Turkey and
+Greece still open. In spite of his own share in bringing about the
+co-operation of Russia with Great Britain, he was by no means prepared for
+a crusade on behalf of Greek independence, or for a definite rupture with
+Turkey. Hence the memorable phrases inserted in the king's speech of
+January 29, 1828, which described the battle of Navarino as "a collision
+wholly unexpected by His Majesty" and as "an untoward event," which His
+Majesty hoped would not be followed by further hostilities. These
+expressions, however much in accord with the pacific tone of the treaty of
+London, provoked an outburst of indignation from the friends of Greece in
+both houses. Lords Holland and Althorp, Lord John Russell, and Brougham
+recorded earnest protests against any disparagement of Admiral
+Codrington's action. The infatuation of the Porte, and the consequent war
+with Russia, checked further agitation on the subject, and Wellington's
+government was able to fall back on the policy of non-intervention
+proposed, though not always practised, by Canning. But the reactionary
+tendency of Wellington's foreign policy betrayed in the king's speech had
+its effect in alienating the more liberal of his colleagues. Nor was his
+position strengthened by his irresolute home policy. During the session of
+1828 issues were raised which inevitably divided and ultimately broke up
+the cabinet.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>TEST ACTS REPEALED.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_188" id="TOPIC_188"></a>The first of these difficulties was caused by the success of Lord John
+Russell's motion for the repeal of the test and corporation acts, under
+which dissenters were precluded from holding municipal and other offices.
+It was, indeed, a grave blot on the consistency of reformers that, while
+the claims of Roman catholics, and especially of Irish Roman catholics,
+had been vehemently urged for nearly thirty years, those of protestant
+nonconformists had been coldly neglected. Their legal disabilities, it is
+true, had gradually become almost nominal, and an indemnity act was passed
+yearly to cover the constant breaches of the obnoxious law. Still, the law
+was maintained, and was stoutly defended by such tories as Eldon on the
+principle that it was an important outwork of the union between Church
+and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> State. Even the Canningite members of the government supported it
+against Russell's attack, but on the very opposite ground&mdash;that it had
+become a dead letter. However, the measure for its repeal was carried in
+the house of commons by a majority of forty-four, including some
+well-known Churchmen. This measure would assuredly have been rejected in
+the house of lords had not Peel judiciously procured the insertion of a
+clause substituting for the sacramental test a declaration binding the
+office-holder to do nothing hostile to the Church. Thus modified, it
+passed the house of lords, with the assent of several bishops, in spite of
+the implacable opposition of Lords Eldon and Redesdale, and the Duke of
+Cumberland. But the declaration was amended by the addition of the words
+"upon the true faith of a Christian," which incidentally continued the
+statutable exclusion of Jews.</p>
+
+<p>The enforced acceptance of this enactment was equivalent to a decisive
+reverse, and could not but injure the prestige of the government, but it
+did not actually cause a schism in the cabinet. It was otherwise when the
+duke proposed a corn bill in lieu of that rejected at his instance in the
+previous year. The difference between these measures was not very
+material, but the duke insisted upon certain regulations of detail, which
+Huskisson persistently opposed. Peel suggested a compromise which, after
+long altercation and some threats of resignation, was adopted. But the
+effect was to weaken the government still further in the eyes of the
+public, inasmuch as the principle of duties on a graduated scale had
+prevailed at last against the declared opinions of the duke. The
+inevitable rupture was only deferred for a few weeks, and arose out of
+motions for disfranchising East Retford and Penryn&mdash;a premonitory symptom
+of the great reform bill. These were among the most corrupt of the old
+"rotten boroughs," and the scandalous practices which flourished in both
+of them had more than once shocked even the unreformed parliament. In 1827
+a bill for disfranchising Penryn had actually been carried by the house of
+commons in spite of Canning's dissent, and one for disfranchising East
+Retford would probably have been carried, but that it was introduced too
+late.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_189" id="TOPIC_189"></a>The motions now introduced by Lord John Russell and Charles Tennyson
+respectively could scarcely have been thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span> out by the same house, but
+squabbles arose in the cabinet, partly on the comparative guiltiness of
+the two venal constituencies, but chiefly on the disposal of the seats to
+be vacated. It was agreed at last that Penryn should be merged in the
+adjacent hundred, and the majority of the cabinet, represented by Peel,
+were for dealing in like manner with East Retford. The liberal section,
+however, represented by Huskisson, was bent on transferring its
+representation to Birmingham, and voted against Peel in the house of
+commons. Having thus vindicated his independence, Huskisson, somewhat too
+hastily, placed his resignation in the hands of the premier on May 20. The
+duke, having fairly lost patience with his insubordinate colleagues, was
+equally prompt in accepting it, and declined to receive the explanations
+offered. In the end, Palmerston, Dudley, Grant, and Lamb, followed the
+fortunes of Huskisson, and Wellington's government was completely purged
+of Canning's old supporters.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CLARE ELECTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_190" id="TOPIC_190"></a>Two military officers, without political experience, were now imported
+into the ministry. Sir George Murray succeeded Huskisson at the colonial
+office, and Sir Henry Hardinge replaced Palmerston as secretary at war,
+but was not admitted to the cabinet; Lord Aberdeen became foreign
+secretary, and Vesey Fitzgerald president of the board of trade, while
+Lord Francis Leveson Gower succeeded Lamb as chief secretary for Ireland.
+So purely tory an administration had not been formed since the days of
+Perceval. Looking back we can see that, for that very reason, it was
+doomed; but to politicians of 1828 Wellington's ascendency seemed assured,
+and it was not actually broken for above two years. By far the most
+important event of domestic history within that period was the crisis
+ending in the catholic emancipation act, and this crisis was immediately
+precipitated by the almost casual appointment of Vesey Fitzgerald. He was
+a popular Irish landlord, who had always supported catholic relief, and
+his re-election for the county of Clare was regarded as perfectly secure.
+The landlords were known to be entirely in his favour, and Irish tenants,
+miscalled "forty shilling freeholders," had been used to vote obsequiously
+for the candidate of their landlords. Indeed, these counterfeit freeholds
+had been manufactured recklessly throughout Ireland for the very purpose
+of extending landlord influence. Perhaps the recent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> defeat of a Beresford
+at Waterford by a nominee of Daniel O'Connell, who had made himself the
+leader of the movement for Catholic relief, ought to have undeceived the
+Irish tories, but no one could have foreseen so daring an act as the
+candidature of O'Connell himself, notwithstanding that, as a catholic, he
+was incapable of sitting in the house of commons.</p>
+
+<p>The contest began on June 30 and lasted five days. All the gentry and
+electors of the higher class supported Fitzgerald, but all the poorer
+electors, headed by their priests, flocked to the poll and voted for
+O'Connell, who, on Fitzgerald's retirement, was triumphantly elected. The
+violence of O'Connell's language was unmeasured, and as was said by Sheil,
+"every altar became a tribune," but perfect order was maintained
+throughout. The terrorism which has since disgraced Irish elections and
+vitiated the whole representation of Ireland had no place in this
+startling victory, and the impression produced by it was thereby
+infinitely enhanced. Two conclusions were instantly drawn from it: the
+one, that electoral power in Ireland could not safely be left in the hands
+of the forty-shilling freeholders; the other, that, whether or not they
+were disfranchised, nothing short of political equality of the catholics
+of Ireland could avert the risk of civil war. It is seldom that momentous
+changes can be so clearly traced to a single cause as in the case of
+catholic emancipation. The whole interval between July, 1828, and April,
+1829, was occupied by the discussion of this question, or circumstances
+arising out of it, and it may truly be said to have filled the whole
+horizon of domestic politics. The first and final recognition by a
+responsible government of emancipation as a political necessity dates
+immediately from the Clare election.</p>
+
+<p>The question of catholic emancipation had been the only reason for the
+resignation of Pitt in 1801, but we have seen that he resumed office in
+1804 under a pledge not to re-open it. It is certain that he never
+contemplated a complete emancipation of the catholics without safeguards
+for the interests of the established church. Such a safeguard (though
+ineffective against a future attack through disestablishment) was provided
+by the act of union,<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> which inviolably united the Irish and English
+churches. The catholic leaders, on their part, were profuse in their
+disavowals of hostility to that establishment and to the protestant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+government in Ireland. In their first solemn memorial, presented by
+Grenville on March 25, 1805, they expressly declared that "they do not
+seek or wish, in the remotest degree, to injure or encroach upon the
+rights, privileges, immunities, possessions, and revenues appertaining to
+the bishops and clergy of the protestant religion, or to the churches
+committed to their charge". They further volunteered an expression of
+their belief that no evil act could be justified by the good of the
+Church, and that papal infallibility was no article of the catholic faith.
+Thenceforward, frequent motions in support of the "catholic claims" were
+made in both houses of parliament. In 1810 such a motion was proposed in a
+very eloquent speech by Grattan, but Castlereagh, though a staunch friend
+of the cause, deprecated it as inopportune, since the catholics had
+injured themselves by imprudent conduct, and fresh declarations
+inconsistent with their former assurances. The motion was therefore
+rejected, and a similar fate befell motions of the same kind in the two
+following years, especially in the house of lords, where Eldon inflexibly
+resisted any concession, and always commanded a majority.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CATHOLIC RELIEF.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_191" id="TOPIC_191"></a>When Liverpool replaced Perceval as prime minister in 1812, catholic
+emancipation became an open question in the cabinet. In that year Canning
+succeeded in carrying triumphantly a resolution pledging the house of
+commons to consider the question seriously in the next session, and a like
+resolution was only lost by one vote in the house of lords. Accordingly,
+in 1813, Grattan's motion for a committee of the whole house on catholic
+disabilities was accepted, and a bill for their removal passed its second
+reading. But it was loaded with vexatious securities in committee and
+wrecked by the vigorous opposition of the speaker, Abbot, who on May 24
+carried by a majority of four an amendment withholding the right to sit
+and vote in parliament. After this, the bill was of course abandoned, but
+another was unanimously passed exempting from penalties Roman catholics
+holding certain military and civil offices, to which, by a harsh
+construction of law, they were not eligible. In 1817 the question was
+debated at great length in the house of commons, and several leading men
+took part in it, but the motion for catholic relief was again defeated by
+a majority of twenty-four. It was revived in 1819 by Grattan, who
+delivered on this occasion one of his greatest speeches, and succeeded in
+reducing the majority to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> two only. In 1821 a further advance was made by
+Plunket's success in obtaining a committee to consider the claims of the
+catholics. This was carried by a majority of six, and followed up by two
+bills, removing all catholic disabilities with very slight exceptions, but
+subject to stringent and somewhat illusory securities for the loyalty of
+the priesthood. Ultimately on April 2 a comprehensive measure of catholic
+relief passed the house of commons by a majority of nineteen. All the most
+influential members of the lower house now voted in its favour, but the
+attitude of the upper house remained unchanged. The spirit of Eldon still
+ruled the peers, and his speech against Plunket's relief bill contains a
+complete armoury of protestant arguments. But the catholics had a still
+more doughty opponent in the Duke of York, who delivered on this occasion
+the first of his famous declarations, binding himself to life-long
+hostility. As Eldon said, "he did more to quiet this matter than
+everything else put together".<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The year 1821 marks a turning point in the history of the catholic
+question, since the protestant cause, no longer safe in the house of
+commons, was felt by its champions to depend on the crown and the house of
+lords. But it would be an error to suppose that catholic relief was ever a
+popular cry in this country, like retrenchment and reform. On the
+contrary, the feelings of the masses in Great Britain were never roused in
+regard to it, and, if roused at all, would probably have been enlisted on
+the other side. It would be too much to say that the controversy was
+merely academical, for it was keen enough to split up parties and produce
+dualism in cabinets. But it was never a hustings question. It filled a
+much larger space in the minds of statesmen than in the minds of the
+people, and even among statesmen it was so far secondary that it could be
+treated as an open question in Liverpool's ministry for a period of
+fifteen years. No doubt the disturbed state of Ireland, which ultimately
+supplied the motive power for carrying the emancipation act, contributed
+at an earlier stage to damp the zeal of its advocates. Whatever the merits
+of the union, it had failed to pacify the country, thereby verifying the
+warning of Cornwallis, that, although Ireland could not be saved without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+the union, "you must not take it for granted that it will be saved by it".</p>
+
+<p>In 1800, the very year of the union, the <i>habeas corpus</i> act had been
+suspended and another act passed for the suppression of rebellion. Though
+repealed in the following year, these coercive measures were renewed in
+1803, after Emmet's abortive rising, and continued in 1804. In 1805, when
+they expired, special commissions were appointed for the repression of
+crime in the south and west of Ireland. In 1807 the <i>habeas corpus</i> act
+was again suspended and a rigorous insurrection act passed which continued
+in force until 1810. In that year a Catholic Committee was formed,
+anticipating the more notorious Catholic Association. An essential part of
+the scheme was the formation of a representative assembly in Dublin, to
+discuss and procure redress for the wrongs of catholics. This project was
+put down by the Irish government, which treated it as a breach of the
+convention act of 1793. The next ten years seem to have been somewhat
+quieter in Ireland, and the disturbances which followed the peace in Great
+Britain had no counterpart in that country. Still, it was thought
+necessary to suppress another catholic convention in 1814, and to renew
+the insurrection act, which remained in force with one interval till 1817.
+It can well be imagined that a population so lawless, and so prone to
+horrible outrages which shock Englishmen more than a thousand crimes
+against property, should have excited little general sympathy by their
+complaints of political grievances. These grievances were justly denounced
+by party leaders, but in the eyes of ordinary politicians, and still more
+of electors, coercion rather than concession was the appropriate remedy
+for the ills of Ireland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CATHOLIC RELIEF.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_192" id="TOPIC_192"></a>Canning, however, though suspected of lukewarmness, did not let the
+question rest in 1822. On April 30, while still out of office, he
+introduced a bill which he could scarcely have expected to become law, for
+enabling Roman catholic peers to sit and vote in the house of lords. This
+bill was passed in the commons by a majority of five, but rejected in the
+lords by a majority of forty-four, in spite of somewhat transparent
+assertions that it was not intended to prejudice the main issue. On April
+18, 1823, an angry protest from Burdett against the "annual farce" of
+motions leading to nothing was followed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> by a quarrel between Canning and
+Brougham, who accused Canning, then foreign secretary, of "monstrous
+truckling for the purpose of obtaining office"; and when Plunket moved, as
+usual, for the relief of catholics, a temporary secession of radicals took
+place, which left him in a ridiculous minority. In spite of this
+discomfiture, Lord Nugent succeeded in carrying through the commons a
+bill, granting the parliamentary franchise to Roman catholics in Great
+Britain. The bill was lost in the lords, and the question remained dormant
+in 1824; but in 1825 it received a fresh impulse. This time it was Burdett
+who, at the instance of Lansdowne and Brougham, appeared as spokesman of
+the catholics. His action was in some respects inopportune, as the
+"Catholic Association," founded by O'Connell and Sheil in 1823, was now
+usurping the functions of a government, and regularly levying taxes under
+the name of "rent". The necessity of suppressing it, though not apparent
+to Lord Wellesley, the lord-lieutenant, was strongly felt on both sides of
+the house of commons. A bill for this purpose, but applicable to all
+similar associations, was rapidly carried by large majorities in both
+houses, and the opposition was fain to rely mainly on the declaration that
+it would be put in force against catholic associations only, and not
+against those of the Orangemen, as the more violent of the Irish
+protestants were called. It is needless to say that it was evaded by the
+former, but on March 1, while it was still before the house of lords,
+Burdett took courage to move another preliminary resolution in favour of
+the catholics, and obtained a majority of thirteen. A bill founded on this
+resolution was at once introduced.</p>
+
+<p>The debates on this bill were memorable in several respects and opened the
+last stage but one in the long history of catholic relief. In the first
+place, more than one opponent publicly avowed his conversion to it; in the
+second place, now that its "settlement" was actually within view, the
+necessity of providing a counterpoise became admitted. Accordingly, one
+independent member proposed a state grant of &pound;250,000 a year for the
+endowment of the catholic clergy, who might thus be indirectly bound over
+to good behaviour, while another proposed the disfranchisement of the 40s.
+freeholders. Both of these bills were read a second time, but held over
+until the fate of the main relief bill should be determined. That bill
+passed the house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> of commons on May 10, 1825, by a majority of twenty-one,
+and Peel tendered his resignation to Lord Liverpool.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a> Two days later,
+the Duke of York, on presenting a petition against the bill in the house
+of lords, delivered another speech which fell like a thunder-clap on the
+country, and has been celebrated ever since as an audacious breach of
+constitutional usage. In this speech, he justified the inflexible attitude
+of his father, whose mental disorder he expressly attributed to the
+agitation of the catholic question. He concluded by declaring that his
+principles were the same, imbibed in early youth and confirmed by mature
+reflection, and that he would maintain them up to the latest moment of his
+existence, "whatever might be his situation in life". It is certain that,
+in thus pledging himself, he acted without having consulted the king, who
+somewhat resented so direct an allusion to his prospect of succession.
+Still, the sensation produced by the duke's utterance was prodigious, and
+he remained the favourite champion of the protestant cause until his
+death. Brougham attacked him with furious sarcasm in the commons, but the
+lords threw out Burdett's relief bill by a majority of forty-eight, and
+the No-popery cry influenced the general election of 1826. In that year no
+further effort was made by the friends of catholic claims, but O'Connell
+showed his growing power in Ireland by exciting a political revolt of the
+peasantry at Waterford, and procuring the defeat of Lord George Beresford.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CATHOLIC RELIEF.</i></div>
+
+<p>In the session of 1827, before Canning succeeded Lord Liverpool, Burdett
+renewed his motion of 1825 on the catholic question, but found himself
+defeated by four votes. The division had taken place in a full house,
+after the fierce encounter, already mentioned, between Copley and Canning;
+but it cannot be regarded as a decisive token of contrast between the old
+and the new parliament, since relief was now claimed without any mention
+of "securities". The subject was in abeyance during the short
+administrations of Canning and Goderich, but was raised again by Burdett
+in May, 1828, after the repeal of the test and corporation acts. The
+number of votes on the catholic side, 272, was the same as in 1827, that
+on the protestant side, 266, was less by ten, the result being a majority
+of six for the motion. A similar resolution was lost in the house of
+lords, as a matter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> of course; but the language held by the new lord
+chancellor, Lyndhurst, and by Wellington himself, as prime minister,
+prepared observant men for an impending change of policy. Then followed
+the Clare election, which revealed nothing which might not have been
+foreseen, but which had the same effect in precipitating the removal of
+catholic disabilities as the Irish famine afterwards had in precipitating
+the repeal of the corn laws.</p>
+
+<p>We now know that Peel had made up his mind to yield shortly after the
+Clare election,<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> partly influenced by the alarming reports of Anglesey,
+the Irish lord-lieutenant, on the state of Ireland. We also know that
+Wellington himself was more than half convinced of the necessity of
+concession, and was preparing to strengthen his government for the coming
+struggle, in the event of Peel feeling bound to retire. Meanwhile a
+vacancy in the ministry had been created by the Duke of Clarence's
+resignation of his office of lord high admiral. In spite of the
+limitations imposed on his power, he had insisted on hoisting his flag,
+and assumed command. For this he was severely reprehended by the king and
+Wellington, and was virtually forced to resign office. Melville now became
+once more first lord of the admiralty, and was succeeded by Ellenborough
+at the board of control. Ellenborough retained his former office of lord
+privy seal, which Wellington was holding in reserve with a view to
+strengthening the government. But the public of those days remained in
+entire ignorance of their intentions until the meeting of parliament on
+February 5, 1829.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_193" id="TOPIC_193"></a>The speech of George Dawson, Peel's brother-in-law, at Derry, on August
+12, had greatly startled protestants. As it was never publicly disavowed,
+Brunswick clubs were formed to repel the rising tide of sympathy with the
+catholics, but the only tangible indication of Wellington's personal
+sentiments favoured the belief that nothing would be done. The
+circumstances under which this indication was given were peculiar. The
+duke had written a letter to the Roman catholic archbishop of Dublin, an
+old correspondent, deprecating agitation on the catholic question, as
+likely to prejudice its future settlement, of which, however, the duke saw
+"no prospect".<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a> This letter was improperly sent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> by the archbishop to
+O'Connell as well as to Anglesey. O'Connell read it to the Catholic
+Association as a sign of conciliatory inclinations; Anglesey's reply
+suggested, at least, that agitation might continue. He was promptly
+recalled, and his recall was rendered the more significant by the
+appointment of the Duke of Northumberland, a known "protestant," as his
+successor. What the public could not then know was that behind all other
+difficulties, political or personal, lay the almost insuperable difficulty
+of inducing the king to allow the cabinet to be even consulted. Indolent
+and unprincipled as George IV. was, he was still capable of rousing and
+asserting himself. Probably no one but Wellington could have prevailed
+against his anti-catholic prejudices, shared, as they were, not only by
+most of the peers, both spiritual and temporal, but also by the mass of
+the English people. At this juncture Peel informed the duke that, rather
+than risk the success of the proposed measure, he would remain at his
+post. His example was followed by his "protestant" colleagues.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIEF BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p>During the winter of 1828-29 the strongest pressure was brought to bear on
+the king by his ministers to procure his consent to a measure of relief,
+accompanied by safeguards. Though he afterwards assured Eldon that he had
+never explicitly given such a consent, the old chancellor, on seeing the
+documents, felt obliged to express a contrary opinion. It is certain that
+he gave way most reluctantly, and probable that his scruples were as
+sincere as was consistent with his character; but he knew well that, if he
+dismissed his ministers, he would be left isolated, and he bowed to
+necessity. Indeed even the "protestant" members of the cabinet had urged
+him to yield. His assent was, in fact, only given by degrees; after each
+member of the cabinet, who had previously opposed catholic emancipation,
+had had a separate interview, the king consented on January 15 to the
+consideration of the subject by the cabinet, but reserved the right to
+reject its advice. After this no great difficulty was experienced in
+obtaining the royal assent to the introduction of a bill.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a> Accordingly
+the king's speech, delivered by commission on February 5, 1829, distinctly
+recommended parliament to consider whether the civil disabilities of the
+catho<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span>lics could not be removed "consistently with the full and permanent
+security of our establishments in Church and State". This recommendation,
+however, was preceded by a severe condemnation of the Catholic Association
+and the expression of a resolution to put down the disorders caused by it.
+The sensation produced by the king's speech was increased by the
+simultaneous resignation by Peel of his seat for the university of Oxford.
+Considering that he was originally preferred to Canning mainly on
+protestant grounds, he could not have honourably acted otherwise. Many of
+his old friends stood by him, in spite of differences on the catholic
+question, and Eldon's grandson, who had been proposed as a candidate, was
+set aside as too weak an opponent. Ultimately Sir Robert Inglis was put
+forward by the "protestants," and was returned by 755 votes against 609.
+Peel obtained a seat for the borough of Westbury,<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> and moved a
+preliminary bill for suppressing the Catholic Association. This passed
+both houses in February, but was already ineffective when it became law,
+since the association had been shrewd enough to dissolve itself upon the
+advice of its English well-wishers. The catholic relief bill was therefore
+introduced under favourable auspices.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_194" id="TOPIC_194"></a>The motives which actuated Wellington and Peel in espousing the cause
+which they had so persistently opposed admit of no doubt whatever. In the
+memoir which Peel left as embodying his own defence, no less than in his
+speech introducing the emancipation bill, he affects no essential change
+of conviction. He rests his case entirely on the public danger of leaving
+the question "unsettled" after the disclosures of the Clare election, and
+argues calmly, as the agitators had been arguing for nearly thirty years,
+that no settlement was practicable short of complete, though not
+unconditional, surrender. There is no pretence of consistency. All the
+constitutional, political, and religious objections to civil equality
+between protestants and catholics in Ireland remained unanswered and
+unabated. Indeed the increasing power and defiant tone of the catholic
+demagogues might well have appeared a crowning reason for refusing them
+seats in parliament. Peel, however, had adopted, and pressed upon
+Wellington, the delusive opinion of Anglesey that by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> "taking them from
+the Association and placing them in the house of commons" they might be
+reduced to comparative impotence. He lamented, it is true, the premature
+announcement of a new policy by Dawson, and he had submitted his own
+resignation to the duke in the belief, apparently sincere, that he could
+render better service in an independent position. But he seems not to have
+felt the least scruple in urging the duke to break all his pledges to his
+protestant supporters, and conciliate the followers of O'Connell. Nor did
+his advice fall on unwilling ears. Trained in a vocation where private
+conscience is subordinate to military duty, where enemies must sometimes
+be welcomed as allies if it may further the plan of campaign, and where a
+masterly retreat is as honourable as a victory, Wellington did not shrink
+from undertaking the part of an opportunist minister. He had always
+regarded himself as a servant of the crown and the nation, rather than as
+a party leader, and he saw no personal difficulty in adopting any
+political measure as the less of two evils. Having once satisfied himself
+that civil war in Ireland was the only alternative to emancipation, he
+abandoned resistance to it as he would have abandoned a hopeless siege,
+and called upon his tory followers to change their front with him.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_195" id="TOPIC_195"></a>Notice had been given of a resolution to be moved by Peel on March 5,
+preparing the way for the catholic relief bill, when the king raised fresh
+obstacles to its progress. As the day drew near, George, encouraged by the
+Duke of Cumberland, grew very excited. He had violent interviews with his
+ministers, and finally on March 3 he informed Wellington, Lyndhurst, and
+Peel that he could not assent to any alteration in the oath of supremacy.
+The three ministers accordingly tendered their resignations, which were
+accepted. But the king soon found that no alternative administration was
+possible, and on the following day the existing ministers received
+permission to proceed with the bill.<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PROVISIONS OF THE RELIEF BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p>Peel's great speech on March 5, in favour of his resolution, contains a
+comprehensive review of the Irish question, as well as an elaborate
+defence of his own position, resting solely on grounds of expediency. He
+advocated the measure itself as the only means of pacifying Ireland,
+reducing the undue power<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> of the catholics, and securing the protestant
+religion. It was simple in its main outlines, applying to the whole United
+Kingdom, and purporting to open all political and civil rights to
+catholics, with a very few specified exceptions. It contained, however, a
+number of provisions, in the nature of securities against catholic
+aggression. By the new oath, to be substituted for the oaths of
+allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, a member of parliament, or holder
+of an office, was no longer required to renounce transubstantiation, the
+invocation of saints, or the sacrifice of the mass. But he was still
+obliged not only to swear allegiance, but to profess himself resolved to
+maintain the protestant settlement of the crown, to condemn absolutely all
+papal jurisdiction within the realm, and to disclaim solemnly any
+intention of subverting the existing Church establishment or weakening the
+system of protestant government. Moreover, priests were expressly denied
+the privilege of sitting in parliament. Catholics were still excluded from
+the high positions of sovereign, regent, lord chancellor of England or
+Ireland, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. They were enabled to become
+ministers of the crown, but were debarred from the power of advising the
+crown on presentations to ecclesiastical dignities or benefices, nor were
+they allowed to exercise such patronage in their personal capacity. They
+were still to be disabled from holding offices in the ecclesiastical
+courts, or in the universities, and their bishops were forbidden to assume
+diocesan titles already appropriated by the establishment. Other clauses
+were directed against the use of catholic vestments except in their
+chapels and private houses, and against the importation of Jesuits or
+members of similar religious orders, with a saving clause for those
+already resident and duly registered. Two other safeguards, often
+proposed, were deliberately omitted from the bill. There was no provision
+for a state endowment of catholic priests, or for a veto of the crown on
+the appointment of catholic bishops. These omissions, whether justifiable
+or not, were pregnant with serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p>The debates in both houses on Peel's bill, as it was rightly considered,
+are chiefly interesting as throwing light on contemporary opinion. The
+arguments for and against it had been fairly exhausted in previous years,
+and would carry no great weight in a later age. The constitutional
+objections to it, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> seemed vital to Eldon, and weighty to every
+statesman of his time, were at a later date put aside, when they were
+pleaded against the dissolution of the Irish church, directly guaranteed
+by the act of union. The criticisms on the personal consistency of
+Wellington and Peel belong to biography rather than to history. But no one
+can read the speeches of leading men on either side without recognising
+the superior foresight, at least, of those who opposed the bill, and
+distrusted the efficacy of the safeguards embodied in it. Two assumptions
+underlay the whole discussion, and were treated as axioms by nearly all
+the speakers. The one was that catholic emancipation must be judged by its
+effect on the future peace of Ireland; the other, that it could not be
+justified, unless it would strengthen, rather than weaken, protestant
+ascendency, then regarded as a bulwark of the constitution. Posterity may
+contemplate it from a different and perhaps higher point of view; but it
+is certain that, if its consequences had been foreseen by those who voted
+upon it, the bill would have been rejected. It is no less certain that its
+adoption was a victory of the educated classes, represented by
+nomination-boroughs, over the unrepresented masses of the people.</p>
+
+<p>The actual result in the division lists was all that its promoters could
+have desired. Though the secret had been so well kept by the government
+that few of its supporters knew what to expect, and though piles of
+petitions showed the preponderance of protestant sentiment outside
+parliament, that sentiment was not reflected in the division lists. The
+first reading of the bill in the house of commons was carried by a
+majority of 348 to 160; the second reading by a majority of 353 to 180;
+the third reading by a majority of 320 to 142. The debates were enlivened
+on the protestant side by a brilliant speech from Michael Sadler, a tory
+friend of the working classes, returned by the Duke of Newcastle for
+Newark, and a violent invective from Sir Charles Wetherell, the
+attorney-general, who was thereupon dismissed from office. Peel, who had
+borne the brunt of these attacks, replied on March 30, when the bill was
+sent up to the lords, and on April 2, the second reading of it in the
+upper house was moved by Wellington. His candid admission that he was
+driven to concession by the fear of civil war has since become historical,
+and served as the watchword of many a lawless agitation in Ireland. It was
+natural that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> most of the peers, and especially of the spiritual peers,
+who took part in the discussion should be opponents of the measure, but
+Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford, severed himself from the rest of his order, and
+vigorous speeches were made in support of it by Anglesey and Grey, neither
+of whom could be regarded as friendly to Wellington's government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_196" id="TOPIC_196"></a>Anglesey, who had been recently dismissed from the lord-lieutenancy of
+Ireland, went beyond the duke in the use of purely military arguments;
+Grey ventured to prophesy not only a future reign of peace in Ireland, but
+an extension of protestantism, as the consequence of catholic
+emancipation. The hopeless attempt of Lyndhurst to vindicate his own
+consistency, and a forensic duel between Eldon and Plunket, who had been
+raised to the peerage in 1827, relieved the monotony of the debate, but
+probably did not influence a single vote. The old guard of the
+anti-catholic party remained firm, but the mass of tory peers followed
+their leader in his new policy, as they had followed him in his old, and
+the relief bill was read a third time in the house of lords on the 10th,
+by a majority of 104. Three days later it received the royal assent. Lord
+Eldon had virtually encouraged the king to refuse this, at the last
+moment, though he was too honest to accept the assurance of George IV.
+that the bill was introduced without his authority. But the son of George
+III. had not inherited his father's resolute character. After a few
+childish threats of retiring to Hanover and leaving the Duke of Clarence
+to make terms with the ministry, he abandoned further resistance and
+capitulated to Wellington, as Wellington had capitulated to O'Connell.</p>
+
+<p>The disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders and the
+substitution of a ten-pound suffrage was the price to be paid for catholic
+emancipation, and no time was lost in completing the bargain. In days when
+it is assumed that every change in the electoral franchise must needs be
+in a downward direction, it may well appear amazing that so wholesale a
+destruction of privileges enjoyed for thirty-six years should have
+provoked so feeble an opposition. It is still more amazing that it should
+have passed without a protest from O'Connell himself, who had solemnly
+vowed to perish on the field or on the scaffold rather than submit to it.
+Yet so it was. These ignorant voters, it is true, had never ventured to
+call<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> their souls their own, and had only ceased to be the servile
+creatures of their landlords in order to become the servile creatures of
+their priests. Still, it was they who, by their action in the Waterford
+and Clare elections, had forced the hand of the government, and achieved
+catholic emancipation. It may safely be said that after the reform act of
+1832 it would have been politically impossible to disfranchise them; and
+even in the unreformed parliament it would have been scarcely possible if
+gratitude were a trustworthy motive in politics. On the other hand, the
+government could never have secured a majority for catholic emancipation,
+unless it had been distinctly understood to carry with it the extinction
+of democracy in Ireland. This, rather than declarations and restrictions
+of doubtful efficacy, was the real "security" on which the legislature
+relied for disarming the disloyalty of Irish catholics. For some time it
+answered its purpose so far as to keep the representation of that
+disloyalty within safe limits in the house of commons. But it naturally
+produced a contrary effect in Ireland itself, and was destined to be swept
+away before a fresh wave of agitation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_197" id="TOPIC_197"></a>A few days before the relief bill passed the house of commons an episode
+occurred which is chiefly interesting for the light which it throws on the
+ideas then prevalent in the highest society. In 1828 Wellington had
+presided at a meeting for the establishment of King's College, London, an
+institution which was to be entirely under the influence of the
+established church, and which was intended as a counterpoise to the purely
+secular institution which had been recently founded under the title of the
+"London University". The Earl of Winchilsea, a peer of no personal
+importance, but a stalwart upholder of Church and State, published in the
+<i>Standard</i> newspaper of March 16, 1829, a virulent letter, describing the
+whole transaction "as a blind to the protestant and high church party,"
+and accusing the prime minister of insidious designs for the introduction
+of popery in every department of the state. The duke at once sent Hardinge
+with a note couched in moderate language, demanding an apology. Winchilsea
+made no apology, but offered to express regret for having mistaken the
+duke's motives, if the duke would declare that when he presided at the
+meeting in question he was not contemplating any measure of catholic
+relief. Whereupon the duke demanded "that satis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span>faction which a gentleman
+has a right to require, and which a gentleman never refuses to give". A
+hostile meeting took place on March 21 in Battersea fields. The duke
+intentionally fired wide, and Winchilsea, after discharging his weapon in
+the air, tendered a written apology, in conformity with the so-called
+rules of honour. The duke was conscious that his conduct must have
+"shocked many good men," but he always maintained that it was the only
+way, and proved an effectual way, of dispelling the atmosphere of calumny
+in which he was surrounded. It is probable that he judged rightly of his
+contemporaries, and that he gained rather than lost in reputation by an
+act which, apart from its moral aspect, risked the success of a great
+measure largely depending on the continuance of his own life. It may be
+noticed that he afterwards became not only the personal friend of his
+antagonist, but the most influential member of the Anti-Duelling
+Association.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>EXCLUSION OF O'CONNELL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_198" id="TOPIC_198"></a>Another episode, or rather sequel, of the great contest on catholic relief
+had more serious political consequences. Though O'Connell was the
+undoubted leader of the movement, and might almost have claimed to be the
+father of the act, he was most unwisely but deliberately excluded from its
+benefits. His exclusion was effected by a clause which rendered its
+operation strictly prospective, for the very purpose of shutting out the
+one catholic who had been elected under the old law. It had been decided
+by a committee of the house of commons that he was duly returned, the only
+question being whether he could take his seat without subscribing the oath
+now abolished. This question was brought to a test by the appearance of
+O'Connell in person in the house itself. The speaker, Charles
+Manners-Sutton, declared that he could not properly be admitted to be
+sworn under the new law, upon which O'Connell claimed a hearing. A long
+and futile discussion followed as to whether he should be heard at the
+table or at the bar. In the end he was heard at the bar, and produced a
+very favourable impression upon his opponents as well as his friends by
+the ingenuity of his arguments and the studied moderation of his tone. His
+case, however, was manifestly untenable from a legal point of view, and a
+new writ was ordered to be issued for the county of Clare.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Then was shown both the folly of stirring up so needlessly the inflammable
+materials of Irish sedition and the futility of imagining that catholic
+emancipation, right or wrong, would prove a healing measure. Having
+exhibited the better side of his character in his speech before the house
+of commons, O'Connell exhibited its worst side without stint or shame in
+his addresses to the Irish peasantry. Skilfully avoiding the language of
+sheer treason, he set no bounds to his coarse and outrageous vituperation
+of the nation which had sacrificed even its conscience to appease Ireland;
+nor did he shrink from denouncing Wellington and Peel as "those men who,
+false to their own party, can never be true to us". The note which he
+struck has never ceased to vibrate in the hearts of the excitable people
+which he might have educated into loyal citizenship, and the spirit which
+he evoked has been the evil genius of Ireland from his day to our own. He
+openly unfurled the standard of repeal, but the repeal he demanded did not
+involve the creation of an Irish republic. Ireland was still to be
+connected with Great Britain by "the golden link of the crown," and though
+agitation was carried to the verge of rebellion, the great agitator never
+actually advised his dupes to rise in arms for a war of independence.
+Short of this he did all in his power, and with too much success, to
+inflame them with a malignant hatred of the sister country. If the
+promoters of catholic emancipation had ever looked for any reward beyond
+the inward satisfaction of having done a righteous act, they were speedily
+and wofully undeceived.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a> Wellington to Peel, January 9, 1828, in Parker, <i>Sir Robert
+Peel</i>, ii., 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a> Lecky, <i>History of Ireland</i>, v., 358-60, <i>n.</i>; Stapleton,
+<i>Life of Canning</i>, ii., 131-34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a> Eldon to Sir William Scott, Twiss, <i>Life of Eldon</i>, ii.,
+416. For Eldon's Speech, see Twiss, iii., 498-512.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, i., 372-75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 54-60.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a> Wellington to Curtis, December 11, 1828, Wellington,
+<i>Despatches, etc.</i>, v., 326.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a> For the king's qualified assent see Parker, <i>Sir Robert
+Peel</i>, ii., 82-85; Peel's <i>Memoirs</i>, i., 297, 298, 310.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a> See Peel's <i>Memoirs</i>, i., 3, for his unpopularity at
+Westbury.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a> Peel's <i>Memoirs</i>, i., 343-49; Greville, <i>Memoirs</i>, i., 189,
+190, 201, 202.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a> See Maxwell, <i>Life of Wellington</i>, ii., 231-36, for the
+incident.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h2>
+
+<h3>PORTUGAL AND GREECE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>It is now time to turn to the general course of foreign policy during the
+closing years of the reign of George IV. The only foreign problems which
+gave serious trouble during this period were the Eastern and Portuguese
+questions. The influence which the former exercised on domestic policy has
+rendered it necessary to trace its course as far as the battle of Navarino
+in the last chapter. We must now take up the other question where we left
+it, at the recognition of the independence of Brazil and the expulsion of
+the Spanish troops from the mainland of America.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_199" id="TOPIC_199"></a>Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, though an independent sovereign, was still
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, and the ultra-royalists hoped
+that, in spite of the provisions of the Brazilian constitution, his
+succession to his ancestral crown would restore the unity of the
+Portuguese dominions. The death of King John VI. on March 10, 1826,
+brought the matter to a crisis. Four days before his death he had
+appointed a council of regency which was to be presided over by his
+daughter, Isabella Maria, but from which the queen and Dom Miguel, then
+twenty-three, were both excluded. By this act the absolutist party were
+deprived of power until they should be restored to it by the action of the
+new king, or by a revolution. The regency wished the new king to make a
+speedy choice between the two crowns; and it was anticipated that he would
+abdicate the Portuguese crown in favour of his seven-year-old daughter,
+Maria da Gloria. The absolutists on the other hand hoped that the king
+might by procrastination avoid the separation of the crowns.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_200" id="TOPIC_200"></a>What was their surprise when they discovered that the king had indeed
+determined to procrastinate, but in such a way as to displease the
+absolutists as much as the friends of constitutional government? No sooner
+had the news of his father's death reached Peter at Rio Janeiro, than he
+issued a charter of 145 clauses, conferring a constitution on Portugal.
+This constitution which was destined to alternate for nearly a generation
+with absolute monarchy or with the revolutionary constitution of 1821, had
+the advantage of being the voluntary gift of the king. It was, however,
+composed in great haste, and, except that it retained the hereditary
+nobility as a first chamber in the cortes, was almost identical with the
+constitution established in Brazil in the previous December. Among other
+provisions it subjected the nobility to taxation and asserted the
+principle of religious toleration. A few days later, on the 2nd of May,
+King Peter executed an act of abdication in favour of his daughter Maria,
+providing, however, that the abdication should not come into effect until
+the necessary oaths had been taken to the new constitution and until the
+new queen should have been married to her uncle, Dom Miguel.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CIVIL WAR IN PORTUGAL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_201" id="TOPIC_201"></a>This compromise pleased nobody. It is true that it seemed to make
+permanent the separation of Brazil from Portugal, since the former state
+was destined for Peter's infant son, afterwards Peter II.; but the
+Brazilian patriots would have preferred a more definite abandonment of the
+Portuguese throne, and Peter's half-measure of abdication was one of the
+main causes of the discontent which drove him to resign the Brazilian
+crown five years later. The Portuguese liberals were alarmed at the
+prospect of a restoration of Dom Miguel to power, while the absolutists
+were indignant at the imposition of a constitution. From the very first it
+encountered opposition. The new constitution was indeed proclaimed on July
+13, and the necessary oaths were taken on the 31st. But on the same day a
+party, consisting mainly of Portuguese deserters in Spanish territory,
+proclaimed Miguel as king and the queen-mother as regent during his
+absence. Miguel, however, gave no open support to this party; on October 4
+he actually took the oath to the new constitution, and on the 29th he
+formally betrothed himself at Vienna to the future Queen of Portugal. But
+the Portuguese insurgents were not deterred by the apparent defection<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> of
+the prince whose claim to reign they asserted, and they received a thinly
+disguised encouragement from the Spanish government, which certainly did
+nothing to interfere with their organisation in Spanish territory. On the
+10th the last insurgents had been expelled from Portuguese territory, but
+in November they were openly joined by some Spanish soldiers, and on the
+22nd of that month they invaded the Portuguese province of Traz-os-Montes.
+Another division made a simultaneous irruption into the province of
+Alemtejo. This latter body was quickly expelled from the kingdom and
+marched through Spanish territory to join its more successful comrades in
+Northern Portugal. The whole province of Traz-os-Montes had fallen into
+the hands of the absolutists in a few days, and its defection was followed
+by that of the northern part of Beira, when the arrival of British forces
+gave the constitutional party the necessary encouragement to enable them
+to arrest the progress of the insurrection.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_202" id="TOPIC_202"></a>As in 1823, the Portuguese government, represented in London by Palmella,
+applied for British assistance against the ultra-royalists at home. But on
+the present occasion Portugal was able to appeal to something more than
+the general friendship of Great Britain. By the treaties of 1661 and 1703,
+renewed as recently as 1815, Great Britain was bound to defend Portugal
+against invasion, and Portugal now claimed the fulfilment of these
+treaties. The formal demand was received by the British ministry on
+December 3, but it was not till Friday, the 8th, that official
+intelligence was received of the invasion. Not a moment was lost in
+despatching 5,000 troops to Portugal. This resolution was formed by the
+cabinet on the 9th, approved by the king on the 10th, and communicated to
+parliament on the 11th. On the evening of the 12th Canning was able to
+inform the house of commons that the troops were already on the march for
+embarkation.</p>
+
+<p>The debate in the house of commons on the address in answer to the royal
+message announcing the request of the Portuguese government, was the
+occasion of two of the most famous speeches that Canning ever delivered.
+After recounting the treaty obligations of this country to Portugal, and
+the circumstances of the Portuguese application for assistance, and
+disclaiming any desire to meddle with the domestic politics of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> Portugal,
+he referred to a previous anticipation that the next European war would be
+one "not so much of armies as of opinions". "Not four years," he
+proceeded, "have elapsed, and behold my apprehension realised! It is, to
+be sure, within narrow limits that this war of opinion is at present
+confined: but it is a war of opinion that Spain (whether as government or
+as nation) is now waging against Portugal; it is a war which has commenced
+in hatred of the new institutions of Portugal. How long is it reasonable
+to expect that Portugal will abstain from retaliation? If into that war
+this country shall be compelled to enter, we shall enter into it with a
+sincere and anxious desire to mitigate rather than exasperate, and to
+mingle only in the conflict of arms, not in the more fatal conflict of
+opinions. But I much fear that this country (however earnestly she may
+endeavour to avoid it) could not, in such case, avoid seeing ranked under
+her banners all the restless and dissatisfied of any nation with which she
+might come in conflict. It is the contemplation of this new power in any
+future war which excites my most anxious apprehension. It is one thing to
+have a giant's strength, but it would be another to use it like a giant.
+The consciousness of such strength is undoubtedly a source of confidence
+and security; but in the situation in which this country stands, our
+business is not to seek opportunities of displaying it, but to content
+ourselves with letting the professors of violent and exaggerated doctrines
+on both sides feel that it is not their interests to convert an umpire
+into an adversary."</p>
+
+<p>In his reply at the close of the debate Canning vindicated his consistency
+in resisting Spanish aggression upon Portugal, while offering no
+resistance to the military occupation of Spain by France, which had not
+yet terminated. He pointed out that the Spain of his day was quite
+different from "the Spain within the limits of whose empire the sun never
+set&mdash;the Spain 'with the Indies' that excited the jealousies and alarmed
+the imaginations of our ancestors". He admitted that the entry of the
+French into Spain was a disparagement to the pride of England, but he
+thought it had been possible to obtain compensation without offering
+resistance in Spain itself. Then came the famous passage: "If France
+occupied Spain, was it necessary, in order to avoid the consequences of
+that occupation, that we should blockade Cadiz? No. I looked another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span>
+way&mdash;I sought materials of compensation in another hemisphere.
+Contemplating Spain, such as our ancestors had known her, I resolved that
+if France had Spain, it should not be Spain 'with the Indies'. I called
+the new world into existence to redress the balance of the old."<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>TROOPS SENT TO PORTUGAL.</i></div>
+
+<p>The two speeches were greeted with applause both in parliament and in the
+country, but their vanity was excessive. So far from "creating the new
+world," Canning had merely recognised the existence of states which had
+already won their own independence, and even so he was only following the
+example of the United States. It was not only extremely foolish, but
+altogether disingenuous, to maintain that the recognition of the South
+American republics had been resolved on as a counterpoise to French
+influence in Spain. The reasons which prompted this recognition were
+commercial, not political, and it had been announced to the powers as our
+ultimate policy before any invasion of Spain had taken place. The king had
+only consented to the step on condition that it was not to be represented
+as a measure of retaliation, and Canning himself when he delivered these
+speeches knew that the French had promised to evacuate Spain in the
+following April.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> But however little justified by facts, the two
+speeches made a profound impression throughout Europe. Whatever Canning
+might desire, it was quite clear that he contemplated the possibility of a
+military alliance between this country and the revolutionary factions on
+the continent, and the impression gained ground that he desired to pose as
+the champion of liberalism against legitimate government.</p>
+
+<p>The first detachment of the British army reached Lisbon on Christmas day.
+It was not destined, however, to play an active part in the Portuguese
+struggle. The insurgent army was as greatly discouraged as the loyal
+troops were elated by its arrival, and the government was moreover enabled
+to employ a larger force on the scene of hostilities. The insurgents were
+in consequence driven out of the province of Beira and the greater part of
+Traz-os-Montes. A new invasion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span> from Spanish territory, supported by some
+Spanish soldiers and Spanish artillery, took place during January, 1827.
+The greater part of the province of the Minho fell into the hands of the
+rebels, and on February 2 they captured the important town of Braga. But
+the forces of the regency proved too strong for them, and early in March
+the insurgents evacuated Portugal altogether. The Spanish government, now
+that little could be effected by further assistance to the Portuguese
+refugees, determined at length to perform the duties of a neutral power,
+and disarmed them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_203" id="TOPIC_203"></a>The British troops remained in Portugal till March, 1828. By that time the
+disturbances had assumed a purely domestic character, and it was
+ultimately decided to recall them. But a firmer policy than that actually
+followed would have been necessary in order to extricate Great Britain
+from the strife of Portuguese factions, in which her recent action had
+given a decided advantage to the constitutional party. That party had been
+driven into opposition before the British troops were recalled. On July 3,
+1827, King Peter had issued a decree appointing Dom Miguel his lieutenant,
+and investing him with all the powers which belonged to him as king under
+the charter. Miguel, after visiting London, arrived at Lisbon on February
+22, 1828, and was sworn in as regent four days later. As he was
+twenty-five years old, and therefore of full age according to Portuguese
+law, he could not with any show of equity have been kept out of the
+regency longer. Miguel's installation as regent was followed by a series
+of riots as well on the part of the absolutists, who desired to make him
+king, as on the part of the constitutionalists who feared that he would
+make himself king. It was not long before he definitely identified himself
+with the absolutist party.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MIGUEL'S USURPATION.</i></div>
+
+<p>On March 14 the cortes were dissolved. On May 3 Miguel summoned the
+ancient cortes in his own name, and on June 26 they acknowledged him as
+king. The immediate result of this act was that all the ambassadors,
+except those of Spain and the Holy See, quitted Lisbon, and the lapse of
+time did not induce them to change their attitude towards Miguel. A
+further complication was introduced by Peter's definite abdication in
+favour of his daughter on March 3, executed before he had any suspicion of
+Miguel's designs, which placed Miguel in the position<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> of regent for his
+infant niece instead of for his brother. After this formal abdication
+Peter despatched his daughter to Europe, intending that she should proceed
+to Vienna. When, however, she arrived at Gibraltar on September 2, her
+conductors, hearing of Miguel's usurpation, determined to take her to
+England, and she landed at Falmouth on the 24th. Peter, on hearing of
+Miguel's usurpation, naturally considered the regency terminated, and
+claimed to act as the guardian of the infant queen; the Brazilian
+ministers in Europe acted as his agents, while his partisans assembled in
+England and attempted to use this country as a basis for warlike
+operations in Portuguese territories.</p>
+
+<p>The situation of 1826 was thus reversed. Instead of an ultra-royalist
+party resting on Spain, a constitutionalist party resting on Brazil and
+attempting to rest on England was now threatening the established
+government at Lisbon. Wellington was anxious to maintain a strict
+neutrality, but he failed to prevent a ship of war and supplies of arms
+and ammunition going from Plymouth to Terceira in the Azores, where Donna
+Maria was acknowledged as queen. He succeeded, however, in preventing a
+larger armament, which had been raised under the name of the Emperor of
+Brazil, with Rio Janeiro as its nominal destination, from landing at
+Terceira. This action, though the logical consequence of the British
+opposition to the conduct of Spain in 1826, was severely criticised in
+England as equivalent to an intervention on behalf of Miguel.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_204" id="TOPIC_204"></a>Meanwhile Canning's attempt to prevent the separate action of Russia in
+the Eastern question had been doomed to disappointment. The destruction of
+the Turkish navy at Navarino was naturally regarded at Constantinople as
+an outrage, and the Porte demanded satisfaction from the ambassadors of
+the allied powers. This they refused to grant on the ground that the Turks
+had been the aggressors, and they in their turn demanded an armistice
+between the Turkish troops and the Greek insurgents. As the Porte remained
+obdurate, the ambassadors of France, Great Britain, and Russia, acting in
+accordance with their instructions, left Constantinople on December 8,
+1827. But though war seemed imminent, the tsar still disowned all idea of
+conquest, and professed to desire nothing further than the execution of
+the treaty of London. A protocol was accordingly signed on the 12th by
+which the three powers confirmed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> a clause in the treaty, providing that,
+in the event of war, none of them should derive any exclusive benefit,
+either commercial or territorial.</p>
+
+<p>The British government imagined that the powers might still effect their
+object by diplomacy, and that it would not be necessary to abandon the
+Turkish alliance. But any such idea must have been rudely shaken by the
+hati-sherif of December 20. In that document the sultan enlarged on the
+cruelty and perfidy of the Christian powers and summoned the Muslim
+nations to arms: he denounced Russia in particular as the prime mover of
+the Greek rebellion, the instigator of the other powers, and the
+arch-enemy of Islam; and he declared the treaty of Akkerman, by which the
+outstanding disputes between Russia and the Porte had been settled in
+October, 1826, to have been extorted by force and only signed in order to
+save time. This defiance of Russia, if not of all Christendom, was
+followed by a levy of Turkish troops and the expulsion of most of the
+Christian residents from Constantinople. No course was now open to Russia
+but to make war. It remained to be seen whether any other power would join
+her. On January 6, 1828, a Russian despatch announced the tsar's intention
+of occupying the Danubian principalities, and suggested that France and
+Great Britain should force the Dardanelles and thus compel the Porte to
+comply with the provisions of the treaty of London.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLINGTON'S EASTERN POLICY.</i></div>
+
+<p>It is possible that if the direction of British foreign policy had
+remained in the hands of Goderich and Dudley, our government might have
+lent its support to a settlement of the Eastern question which would in
+effect have been the work of Russia only. The more daring policy of
+Canning, by which Great Britain had attempted to take the lead as
+opportunity offered, either in active co-operation with Russia or in
+active opposition to her, could only be directed by a more versatile
+statesman than the nation now possessed. The accession to office of
+Wellington, though it left Dudley at the foreign office, was really marked
+by a return to the policy of Castlereagh, a policy which, if not
+brilliant, was at least honourable, consistent, and considerate, and which
+in the hands of Wellington was managed with a sufficient measure of
+firmness, though with less tact and insight than had been shown by
+Castlereagh. The first object of this policy was to keep the special
+grievances of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> Russia distinct from the complaints which Europe at large
+or, in the present situation, the three allied powers were able to bring
+against the Porte. By so doing the British government hoped to prevent
+Russia from dragging other powers into a war for her private benefit, and
+also to render it impossible for Russia to use her special grievances as a
+lever by which she might effect a separate settlement of the general
+question. For some years this policy was successful. Russia did indeed
+wage a separate war with the Turks, but the Greek question was settled by
+the three powers conjointly, and Great Britain rather than Russia took the
+lead in the settlement. It was only after Palmerston had succeeded to the
+direction of our foreign policy in 1830, that it was discovered how far
+the victory of Russia in war had placed her in a position to dictate the
+general policy of the Ottoman court.</p>
+
+<p>Wellington experienced no difficulty in striking out a line of policy
+along which he could carry France with him. On February 21 De la
+Ferronays, who had been recalled from the French embassy at St. Petersburg
+to occupy the post of foreign minister in the new liberal administration,
+which had been formed in France in December, 1827, despatched a note
+urging the immediate employment of energetic measures against the Porte.
+He saw that the hati-sherif gave special occasion of war to Russia, and he
+was naturally anxious to anticipate her isolated action by combined
+measures of coercion. He had, however, nothing better to suggest than the
+execution of the Russian proposals of January 6. Wellington, in his reply,
+dated the 26th, rightly minimised the seriousness of the hati-sherif, and
+characterised the proposed measures of coercion as destined to be
+ineffectual. He also expressed the fear that if the three powers combined
+to make war on the Turks there would be a general insurrection of the
+subject races in the Turkish dominions which might last indefinitely. He
+therefore proposed first to settle the Greek question by local pressure,
+after which he anticipated no serious trouble about events at
+Constantinople. On the same day he drafted a memorandum to the cabinet in
+which he proposed that the allied squadrons should proceed to the
+Archipelago, blockade the Morea and Alexandria, destroy the Greek pirates,
+stop the warfare in Chios and Crete, and call upon the Greek government to
+withdraw<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> the forces which were operating in western and eastern Greece
+respectively under the command of two foreign volunteers, General Church
+and Colonel Fabvier. In other words, he proposed to coerce not the Porte
+but the actual combatants, Greece and Egypt, and to check each party where
+it was the aggressor. If the prime object of the government in the eastern
+question was the maintenance of order, these proposals were excellent. The
+one capital defect of the whole scheme was that it ignored the Russian
+desire for war, which rendered it impossible for the tsar to postpone the
+settlement of his own grievances until an arrangement should be come to on
+the Greek question; on the other hand, by isolating the Greek question, it
+left it possible for the western powers to proceed with its solution in
+spite of the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and the Turks.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_205" id="TOPIC_205"></a>Russia's determination to act singly was, however, already made. On the
+same day, February 26, on which Wellington sketched his policy, Nesselrode
+issued a despatch declaring that war was inevitable, including among his
+reasons the repudiation of recent treaties by the Porte and the
+proclamation by it of a holy war. At the same time he endeavoured to
+disarm any possible opposition on the part of the powers by an invitation
+to them to make use of the coming war to carry out the treaty of London.
+In any case Russia would execute the treaty, but if she were left to
+herself, the manner of execution would be determined by her own
+convenience and interest.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a> So far Russia had done nothing directly
+inconsistent with the maintenance of her concert with France and Great
+Britain, whose representatives had been sitting in conference with hers at
+London since January, 1827. But the reference in this last note to the
+possibility of a settlement of the Greek question according to the
+convenience and interest of Russia appeared like a threat of breaking up
+the alliance in case France and Great Britain refused to send their fleets
+to the Mediterranean. At least Wellington so understood it, and, rather
+than be a party to the war, he dissolved the conference of London in the
+middle of March. But he soon found that by so doing he lost the
+co-operation of France, and he was therefore compelled to accept the
+assurances of Russia that she intended to keep within the limits of the
+treaty of London, and to regard the Mediterranean as a neutral area.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> The
+conference was in consequence reopened at the beginning of July. Meanwhile
+hostilities had actually begun between Russia and the Turks. Russia
+declared war on April 26. On May 7 her troops crossed the Pruth. They
+rapidly overran the Danubian provinces, and on June 7 crossed the Danube
+into Bulgaria. They were destined, however, to spend more than a year
+between the Danube and the Balkans before they could force their way into
+Rumelia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_206" id="TOPIC_206"></a>During the interval considerable progress was made with the settlement of
+the Greek question. The treaty of London in providing for the autonomy of
+Greece had specified no boundaries, and the first problem demanding the
+attention of the powers that had assumed the task of the settlement of
+Greece was to determine the limits within which that settlement was to be
+effected. It might be urged that all the Greeks who had accepted the
+armistice imposed by the powers in consequence of the treaty of London had
+a right to share in the settlement at which that treaty aimed. But the
+armistice had been broken by Greek attacks on Chios and Crete, and
+Wellington held that the powers were, in consequence, free from any
+obligation imposed by the nominal acceptance of the armistice. He,
+accordingly, desired to adopt the simple principle of granting the
+proposed autonomy to those parts of Greece in which the insurrection had
+proved successful, namely, the Morea and the &AElig;gean Islands, and refusing
+it in Northern and Central Greece, where the Turkish forces still held
+their own. But the British cabinet was far from being unanimous; many,
+among whom Palmerston was specially prominent, urged the concession of a
+greatly increased territory. The changes which took place in the British
+ministry towards the end of May, 1828, deprived Palmerston of his share in
+its deliberations, and by substituting Aberdeen for Dudley at the foreign
+office, placed our foreign relations under the direction of a man of
+talent and experience, who had already exercised an important influence on
+British policy and who was more in sympathy with the policy of the prime
+minister than Dudley had been, but who was not content, like Dudley, to be
+a mere cipher in the department over which he was called to preside.
+Aberdeen, though opposed to the narrow boundaries which Wellington wished
+to assign to liberated Greece, was no less antagonistic than his chief to
+any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> attempt to make the new Greek state politically important; and he was
+even of opinion that the Russian declaration of war had released Great
+Britain from any further obligation under the treaty of London.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the composition and policy of the British government when the
+conference of London reassembled in July. The differences between the
+powers had prevented any active intervention in Greece, since the battle
+of Navarino. The ports in the Morea, still occupied by Ibrahim, had indeed
+been blockaded, but it had been found impossible to induce Austrian
+vessels to acknowledge a blockade of such questionable legality, and the
+allied fleets had even permitted the embarkation of Ibrahim's sick and
+wounded together with 5,500 Greek prisoners, who were sold into slavery on
+their arrival at Alexandria. The renewal of the concert of the three
+powers was followed by a rapid change in the situation. On the 19th it was
+decided that France should send an expedition to expel the Turco-Egyptian
+troops from the Morea, while Great Britain should render her any naval
+assistance that might be necessary. This step was valued by the British
+government as definitely committing France to a share in the settlement of
+the Greek question, and therefore interesting that power in opposition to
+any attempt at a separate settlement by Russia. It also furnished a safe
+outlet for French military ardour, disappointed by the results of the
+Spanish expedition. In fact, the evacuation of Spain, which was in
+progress at the date when this agreement was concluded, materially reduced
+the strain which the new undertaking imposed upon the French government.
+France immediately prepared to send out a force amounting to nearly 22,000
+men. But before they could arrive, the greater part of their task had been
+performed by other hands.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>TURKS EXPELLED FROM THE MOREA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_207" id="TOPIC_207"></a>Codrington's conduct in permitting the embarkation of the Turkish sick and
+wounded with their prisoners had given great dissatisfaction at home, and
+the cabinet had resolved on his recall before the ministerial crisis of
+the latter part of May. That crisis occasioned a fortnight's delay, and,
+in consequence, Codrington was able, before his successor arrived, to make
+a naval demonstration before Alexandria and on August 6 to obtain the
+consent of Mehemet Ali to the following proposals: an exchange of
+prisoners was to take place, involving the liberation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> of the recently
+enslaved Greeks, and the Egyptian army was to be withdrawn from the Morea,
+but Ibrahim was to be allowed to leave behind 1,200 Egyptian troops to
+help to garrison five fortresses which were held by the Turks. Before
+either the new London protocol or the Alexandria convention could be
+carried into effect, further differences had arisen. Russia had proclaimed
+a blockade of the Dardanelles and ordered her admiral to carry it out.
+This proceeding was regarded by the British government as a breach of
+faith and a menace to British commerce. It was, however, impossible to
+abandon co-operation with Russia for fear that the Greek question might
+become involved in the issues at stake between her and the Porte.
+Wellington, in consequence, contented himself with obtaining certain
+exemptions from the operation of the blockade on behalf of British
+subjects trading with Turkey, and with the exclusion of the Russian fleet
+from the operations conducted in the Mediterranean in accordance with the
+orders of the London conference. The French force for expelling the
+Egyptians from the Morea arrived almost simultaneously with the Egyptian
+transports for removing them. On October 5 Ibrahim set sail for Egypt,
+with 21,000 men, leaving 1,200 behind in the five fortresses in accordance
+with the terms settled at Alexandria. The French began their attack on the
+remaining fortresses two days later, and by the end of November had
+expelled all the Turks from the Morea. By the terms of their engagements,
+they ought now to have departed. But it was hardly to be expected that
+France would so readily abandon the advantage that the presence of her
+troops gave her in the settlement of the eastern question.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_208" id="TOPIC_208"></a>Meanwhile the negotiations made slow progress. On November 16 a protocol
+was issued placing the Morea with the neighbouring islands under the
+guarantee of the powers. Wellington had opposed any extension of the
+guarantee to Central Greece on the ground that the allies had to provide
+both the necessary military force and the cost of maintaining the Greek
+government, so that any undertaking beyond the Morea would involve heavy
+expense without rendering lighter the task of maintaining order. But the
+real decision of the question lay not with the diplomatists at London, but
+with the diplomatists on the spot. Representatives of the three powers had
+been sent to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> Poros to make detailed arrangements in accordance with the
+terms of the treaty of London. Stratford Canning, who represented Great
+Britain, was one of the supporters of an extended frontier, and in the end
+the ambassadors at Poros drew up a protocol in favour of erecting Greece
+south of a line connecting the Gulfs of Arta and Volo into a hereditary
+principality, which was also to include nearly all the islands. Even Samos
+and Crete were recommended to the benevolent consideration of the courts.
+All Mohammedans were to be expelled from this territory. The tribute
+payable to Turkey was to be fixed at 1,500,000 piastres, but this was to
+be paid not to the Turkish government, but to those who might suffer
+pecuniary loss by the confiscation of lands hitherto owned by Mohammedans.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PEACE OF ADRIANOPLE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_209" id="TOPIC_209"></a>The spring of 1829 was marked by events which went far to cancel the
+arguments on which Wellington had based his case for a restricted
+frontier. Not only the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth but Acarnania
+and &AElig;tolia were liberated by the Greek forces under Sir Richard Church the
+castle of Vonitza falling on March 17, Karavasara shortly afterwards,
+Lepanto on April 30, and Mesolongi on May 17.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a> Meanwhile the terms
+agreed upon at Poros had been adopted and further defined by the
+conference at London on March 22. It was now provided that the future
+hereditary prince was to be chosen by the three powers and the sultan
+conjointly, and that the terms were to be offered to the Porte by the
+British and French ambassadors in the name of the three powers; any
+Turkish objections were to be weighed.<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a> It was not till June that
+Robert Gordon and Guilleminot, representing Great Britain and France
+respectively, were able to lay these proposals before the Porte, and it
+was only after a Russian army under Diebitsch had crossed the Balkans that
+the Porte on August 15 accepted them, and even then only with extensive
+modifications. These limited the new state to the Morea and the adjacent
+islands, and left the tribute assigned to the same purposes as before the
+revolt; a limit was to be set to the military and naval forces of Greece,
+and Greeks were not to be allowed to migrate from Turkish dominions to the
+new state.</p>
+
+<p>Wellington was of opinion that these concessions were ade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span>quate. He
+attached great importance to the consent of the Porte, to dispense with
+which seemed to him a sure method of encouraging a general revolt in the
+Turkish dominions; and he also advocated a limited frontier in the
+interests of the Ionian Islands. He doubted whether it would be found
+possible to remove Capodistrias, who had been elected president of Greece
+for a period of seven years on April 14, 1827, from his office to make
+room for a hereditary prince, and he felt sure that if Capodistrias were
+once granted Central Greece he would not hesitate to attempt the conquest
+of the Ionian Islands. Capodistrias had in fact refused to accept any of
+the arrangements proposed by the London conference, and was still engaged
+in the vigorous prosecution of the war. Wellington did not, however,
+succeed in inducing France and Russia to remain content with the Turkish
+concessions. Diebitsch's successful march through Rumelia encouraged
+Russia to demand more, and filled the minds of the French ministers with
+the wildest schemes of aggression. They actually proposed to Russia that
+the northern part of the Balkan peninsula should be divided between
+Austria and Russia while the whole peninsula south of the Balkans, with
+Bulgaria to the north, was to be formed into a new state under the
+sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands, whose hereditary dominions
+were in their turn to be divided between France, Great Britain, and
+Prussia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_210" id="TOPIC_210"></a>Such chimerical projects were based on the assumption that Constantinople
+lay at the mercy of the army of Diebitsch; and this was believed to be the
+case not only by the court of Paris, but by that of London, and even by
+that of Constantinople. But no one knew better than Diebitsch how
+precarious his situation was, and, if Russia wished to obtain advantageous
+terms, it was necessary for her to make the most of the illusion while it
+lasted. On September 14 the peace of Adrianople was signed, which
+established the virtual independence of the principalities of Moldavia and
+Wallachia and secured for all powers at peace with Turkey a free passage
+for merchant ships through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles; Russia received
+a small addition to her Asiatic territories, and Turkey accepted both the
+treaty of London of July 6, 1827, and the protocol of London of March 22,
+1829. The difficulties raised by Turkey's opposition to the full terms of
+the protocol were thus swept aside, and it was now<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> clear that, if that
+protocol was to be further modified, it would be modified out of regard
+for the interests of Europe not by way of concession to Turkey. France and
+Great Britain were naturally averse from a settlement of the question by
+Russia alone, even when that settlement was on lines to which they had
+given their consent, and they might have been expected to propose some
+alteration in the scheme. But the conciliatory action of Russia rendered
+such proposals needless. On September 29, only fifteen days after the
+treaty, Aberdeen received a formal proposal from Russia that Turkey should
+be offered a restriction of the Greek boundary in return for a recognition
+of the total independence of Greece.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a> This proposal removed
+Wellington's fear that the new principality might be used as a basis for
+an attack on the Ionian Islands; while the maintenance of Turkish
+suzerainty seemed less important after the apparent prostration of Turkish
+military power in the recent war.</p>
+
+<p>It now remained for the allied powers to select a prince to whom the new
+crown should be offered. This subject engaged their attention from
+October, 1829, to January, 1830. Finally, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
+widower of the Princess Charlotte, was selected, greatly to the annoyance
+of King George IV. On February 3 Prince Leopold was formally offered the
+sovereignty of Greece as an independent state, bounded on the north by a
+line drawn from the mouth of the Aspropotamo to Thermopyl&aelig;. Before
+accepting the crown he made an effort to obtain a stronger position for
+its future prince. He asked for a complete guarantee of independence from
+the three powers, some security for the Greek inhabitants of Crete and
+Samos, an extension of the boundary to the north, and financial and
+military support. The powers on February 20 decided to grant the guarantee
+and a loan of &pound;2,400,000, and to allow the French troops to remain in
+Greece for another year, but refused the extension of territory and would
+not recognise the right of the Greek state to interfere in the affairs of
+Crete and Samos. Leopold accepted the crown on these conditions on
+February 24, and they were accepted by the Porte on April 24.
+Capodistrias, who had no desire to make way for another<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> ruler, invited
+Leopold to the country, but suggested that he would not be well received
+and that he would have to change his religion.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> These considerations,
+combined with other causes, induced him to renounce the crown on May 21.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FRANCE CONQUERS ALGERIA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_211" id="TOPIC_211"></a>One other foreign event exercised the minds of Wellington's cabinet during
+the last months of George IV.'s reign. This was the French punitive
+expedition to Algiers, which resulted In the conquest of that state. The
+expedition was originally planned in concert with Mehemet Ali of Egypt,
+and appeared to Wellington to be prompted by the idea that the defeat of
+the Turks by Russia afforded a convenient opportunity for a partition of
+Turkish territory. The British government was able by means of diplomatic
+pressure to induce Mehemet Ali to refrain from co-operating, but it could
+not deny the justice of the French expedition or prevent it from sailing.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a> Stapleton, <i>Life of Canning</i>, iii., 220-25, 227-35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a> See Lloyd, <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i>,
+N.S., xviii. (1904), 77-105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, iv., 270-79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 280-86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a> So S. Lane-Poole, writing from Church's papers, <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, v., 519.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a> Hertslet, <i>Map of Europe by Treaty</i>, p. 142.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, vi., 184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a> See the letters in the <i>Annual Register</i>, lxxii. (1830),
+389-401.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>PRELUDE OF REFORM.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_212" id="TOPIC_212"></a>The year that elapsed between the prorogation of parliament on June 24,
+1829, and the death of George IV., on June 26, 1830, was barren in events
+of domestic importance. While Ireland was torn by faction, and the
+Orangemen of Ulster rivalled in lawlessness the catholics of the other
+provinces, England was undergoing another period of agricultural and
+commercial depression. The harvest of 1829 was late and bad; the winter
+that followed was the severest known for sixteen years; and a fresh series
+of outrages was committed by the distressed operatives, especially by the
+silk weavers in the east of London and the mill hands in the midland
+counties. In the district of Huddersfield, where the people bore their
+sufferings with admirable patience, a committee of masters stated as a
+fact that "there were 13,000 individuals who had not more than twopence
+half-penny a day to live on". When parliament met on February 4, 1830, the
+prevailing distress was recognised in the king's speech, but in guarded
+terms, and the ministers attributed it in the main, probably with justice,
+to unavoidable causes. This gave the enemies of free trade and currency
+reform an opportunity of renewing their protests against Peel's and
+Huskisson's financial policy. They failed to effect their object, but
+Goulburn, the chancellor of the exchequer, initiated a considerable
+reduction of expenditure and remission of taxes. The excise duties on
+beer, cider, and leather were now totally remitted, those on spirits being
+somewhat increased. The government even deliberated on the proposal of a
+property tax, and, stimulated by a motion of Sir James Graham, actually
+carried out large savings in official salaries. On the whole, this session
+was the most fruitful in economy since the conclusion of the peace. The
+system of judicature, too, was subjected to a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> salutary revision
+throughout Great Britain by the amalgamation of the English and Welsh
+benches, and the concentration of courts in Scotland. As the charter of
+the East Indian Company was about to expire, a strong committee was
+appointed to consider the whole subject of its territorial powers and
+commercial privileges. This committee was not the least beneficial result
+of a session which has left no great mark on the statute-book.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MOVEMENT FOR REFORM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_213" id="TOPIC_213"></a>The weakness of Wellington's position had long since become apparent to
+all. By his conduct in regard to catholic emancipation he had estranged a
+powerful section of his tory followers. By his jealousy and haughty
+attitude towards his whig allies, he had forfeited their good-will, never
+very heartily given. By his treatment of Huskisson, a small but able body
+of politicians was thrown into the ranks of a discordant opposition. No
+one else could have induced the king to give way on catholic emancipation,
+but the king had not forgiven him, and submitted to him out of fear rather
+than out of confidence. Though singularly deficient in rhetorical power,
+he still maintained his ascendency in the house of lords by the aid of
+more eloquent colleagues, but Peel was his only efficient lieutenant in
+the house of commons. The vacancy in the office of lord privy seal,
+occasioned by the transference of Ellenborough to the board of control,
+had at last been filled in June, 1829, by the appointment of Lord Rosslyn,
+nephew of the first earl, who, however, added nothing to the strength of
+the ministry. In the meantime, reform had succeeded catholic emancipation
+as the one burning question of politics, but with this all-important
+difference that it roused enthusiasm in the popular mind. Political
+unions, like the branches of the catholic association, were springing up
+all over the country, and a series of motions was made in the house of
+commons which feebly reflected the feverish agitation in all the active
+centres of population. One of these, brought forward by the Marquis of
+Blandford, who had made a similar motion in the previous year, was really
+prompted by enmity against the author of catholic emancipation. Another,
+introduced by Lord Howick, son of Earl Grey, called for some general and
+comprehensive measure to remedy the admitted abuses of the electoral
+system. A third, and far more practical, attempt was made by Lord John<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span>
+Russell to obtain the enfranchisement of Manchester, Leeds, and
+Birmingham. A fourth, and perfectly futile proposal, was made by
+O'Connell, in the shape of a bill for triennial parliaments, universal
+suffrage, and vote by ballot, to which Russell moved a statesmanlike
+amendment, in favour of transferring members from petty boroughs to
+counties and great unrepresented towns. All these motions were defeated by
+larger or smaller majorities, but no one doubted that parliamentary reform
+was inevitable, and few can have imagined that Wellington was either
+willing or competent to grapple with it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_214" id="TOPIC_214"></a>While domestic affairs were in this state, George IV. died. His
+constitution, weakened by many years of self-indulgence, had been further
+depressed by a growing sense of loneliness and by the long struggle with
+his ministers over catholic emancipation. On April 15 his illness had been
+made public, and on May 24 it had been necessary to bring in a bill,
+authorising the use of a stamp, to be affixed in his presence in lieu of
+the royal sign manual. A month later, the disease of the heart from which
+he suffered took a fatal turn, and on June 26 he passed away, not without
+dignity, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Perhaps no other English
+king has been so harshly judged by posterity, nor is it possible to acquit
+him of moral vices which outweighed all his merits, considerable as they
+were. The Duke of Wellington, who knew him as well as any man, declared
+that he was a marvellous compound of virtues and defects, but that, on the
+whole, the good elements preponderated. Peel, who had become by his
+father's death Sir Robert, testified in Parliament that he "never
+exercised, or wished to exercise, a prerogative of the crown, except for
+the advantage of his people". These estimates assuredly err on the side of
+charity, and are quite inconsistent with other statements of the duke
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>George IV., it is true, possessed many royal gifts. He was a man of no
+ordinary ability, with a fine presence, courtly manners, various
+accomplishments, and clear-sighted intelligence on every subject within
+the sphere of his duties. But all these kingly qualities were marred by a
+heartlessness which rendered him incapable of true love or friendship, and
+a duplicity which made it impossible for him to retain the respect of his
+ministers. His private life was not wholly unlike that of the Regent
+Orl&eacute;ans<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> and had much the same influence on the society of the metropolis.
+He was an undutiful son, a bad husband, a perfidious friend, with little
+sense of truth or honour, and destitute of that public spirit which atoned
+for the political obstinacy of his father. No one sincerely regretted his
+death, except the favourites who had been enriched by his extravagance,
+and actually succeeded in carrying off a large booty out of the valuables
+that he had amassed. Nevertheless, his regency is identified with a
+glorious period in our military history, and his reign ushered in a new
+age of reform and national prosperity. In the great struggle against
+Napoleon and the pacification of Europe he gave his ministers a cordial
+and effective support. To catholic emancipation he was honestly opposed,
+but he kept his opposition within constitutional limits, and his intense
+selfishness did not exclude a certain sentiment of philanthropy and even
+of patriotism.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM IV.</i></div>
+
+<p>His successor, William IV., was greatly inferior to him intellectually,
+and infinitely less conversant with the business of state. Most of this
+prince's early life was spent at sea, where he saw a fair share of
+service, and became the friend of Nelson, but incurred his father's
+displeasure by infringing the rules of discipline. Having been created
+Duke of Clarence in 1789, he was rapidly promoted in the navy, but
+remained on shore without employment for some forty years before his
+accession, taking an occasional part in debates of the house of lords, and
+generally acting with the whig party. During this long period he was
+little regarded by his future subjects, and led a somewhat obscure life,
+at first in the company of Mrs. Jordan, by whom he had a numerous family.
+After his marriage with the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen in 1818,
+he became a more important personage, and, as we have seen, was made lord
+high admiral by Canning, but held office for little more than a year. He
+was thus entirely destitute of political training, and was living in
+privacy when he was called to ascend the throne on the eve of a singularly
+momentous crisis.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_215" id="TOPIC_215"></a>The session was prolonged until July 23, when parliament was prorogued by
+the new king in person, and on the following day a dissolution was
+proclaimed, the writs being made returnable on September 14. During the
+month that elapsed between the death of George IV. and the prorogation, no
+serious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> business was done, but the leaders of opposition in both houses
+moved to provide for a regency, in view of a possible demise of the crown
+before a fresh parliament could be assembled. This course was clearly
+dictated by the highest expediency, for, had the king's life been cut
+short suddenly, the young Princess Victoria, then eleven years old, would
+have become sovereign with full powers, but without protection against the
+baleful influence of her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, the least
+trustworthy person in the realm. In advocating it, however, the whigs
+showed an evident disposition to win the favour of William IV., who had
+never broken away, like his predecessor, from his whig connexion. These
+motions were defeated, but the opposition gained popularity at the expense
+of the government, by raising debates on certain state prosecutions for
+libel, and on the question of colonial slavery. Their position was further
+strengthened by a widespread impression that the king himself was a
+reformer at heart, and would seize an early opportunity of declaring his
+sentiments. His weakness had not yet disclosed itself, while his
+kindliness earned him golden opinions, as he "walked in London streets
+with his umbrella under his arm, and gave a frank and sailor-like greeting
+to all old acquaintances".</p>
+
+<p>The election of 1830, following close on the revolution of July in Paris,
+was the death-blow of the old tory rule in England. The widespread
+sympathy which the original uprising of 1789 had excited among Englishmen,
+but which the atrocities of jacobinism had quenched, was now revived by
+the comparatively bloodless victory of constitutional principles and the
+accession of a citizen-king in France. The growing enthusiasm for reform,
+thus stimulated, exercised a decisive effect in all the constituencies
+except the pocket-boroughs. Brougham was returned without opposition for
+Yorkshire, and Hume by a large majority for Middlesex, two brothers of Sir
+Robert Peel lost their seats, and Croker was defeated for Dublin
+University. Distrust of the government was equally shown in the counties
+and in the great cities, but in some instances ultra-tories were elected,
+in revenge for catholic emancipation or for alleged neglect of
+agricultural interests. It was calculated that fifty seats, in all, had
+changed hands, and the parliament which assembled in October 26 was very
+different in constitution<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> and temper from any of those which supported
+tory ministries with unshaken constancy during the great war and the long
+period of agitation consequent on the peace.</p>
+
+<p>The losses of the government in Great Britain, partly due to its Irish
+policy, were not compensated by any gain in Ireland, which did not fail to
+display the ingratitude so often experienced by its benefactors. Catholic
+emancipation was now treated as a vantage ground on which the battle of
+repeal might be waged. Association after association was formed by
+O'Connell, only to be put down by proclamation and to re-appear under
+another name. The worst passions of the people were effectually roused,
+assassinations became frequent, and Peel's correspondence with Hardinge,
+then chief secretary, shows that he fully recognised the failure of his
+experiment, as a cure for Irish anarchy.<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a> In the course of this new
+agitation, O'Connell used most offensive expressions for which Hardinge
+called him to account. The chief secretary's act may have been
+unjustifiable, but the shuffling and faint-hearted conduct of O'Connell in
+declining this and later challenges provoked by his foul language was
+fatal to his reputation for courage. The most insolent of bullies, he
+never failed to consult his own personal safety, by professing
+conscientious objections to duelling, as well as by keeping just outside
+the meshes of the criminal law.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF HUSKISSON.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_216" id="TOPIC_216"></a>A few weeks before parliament met a tragical accident closed the life of
+Huskisson, whose death was rendered all the more impressive by its
+circumstances. In 1825 the idea of railways for the rapid conveyance of
+goods and passengers bore fruit in an act for the construction of a line
+between Liverpool and Manchester. It was not in itself a new idea, for
+tramways had long been in use, and so far back as 1814 George Stephenson
+had constructed a locomotive engine for a colliery. But it was generally
+believed that such engines must always be limited to a speed of a few
+miles an hour, and even the great engineer, Telford, giving evidence
+before a committee in 1825, did not venture to speak of a higher maximum
+speed than fifteen or twenty miles an hour. Few indeed were far-sighted
+enough to credit this estimate, and the incredulity of ignorance was
+aided<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> by the forces of self-interest, for the profits of canals,
+stage-coaches, and carriers' vans were directly threatened by the
+innovation of railways. However, George Stephenson quietly persevered, and
+from the moment that his pioneer engine, the "Rocket," won the prize in a
+great competition of locomotives, "the old modes of transit were changed
+throughout the whole civilised world". On September 15, 1830, the first
+public trial of this and other engines was made at the opening of the
+Liverpool and Manchester railway. Wellington, Peel, and other eminent
+personages were present, among whom was Huskisson, just returned for
+Liverpool. Two trains proceeded towards Manchester on parallel lines, and
+stopped at the Parkgate station. There several passengers got out, and
+Huskisson was making his way to shake hands with the duke when he was
+struck by a carriage of the other train, already in movement, fell upon
+the rails, and was fatally crushed. He bore his sufferings with great
+fortitude, but died during the night at a neighbouring vicarage to which
+he was carried. He could ill be spared by his party, for, though he was
+not the man to ride the storm which raged over the reform bill, his
+counsels might have saved the whigs from the just reproach of financial
+incapacity and have hastened the advent of free trade.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLINGTON ON REFORM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_217" id="TOPIC_217"></a>The winter session of 1830 opened with an ominous calm. It was believed
+that private negotiations were going on between the ministry and the
+survivors of Canning's following, which might result in a moderate scheme
+of parliamentary reform. These expectations were utterly discomfited by
+the king's speech delivered on November 2. It has unjustly been described
+as "the most offensive that had been uttered by any monarch since the
+revolution". On the contrary, it was tame and colourless for the most
+part, recording his majesty's resolution to uphold treaties and enforce
+order in the United Kingdom, but welcoming the new French monarchy in
+terms which Grey emphatically commended. It gave offence to liberals by
+describing the revolutionary movement in Belgium as a "revolt"; but what
+called forth an immediate outburst of popular resentment was its
+significant reticence on the subject of reform. This resentment was
+aggravated tenfold by the Duke of Wellington's celebrated speech in the
+lords, declaring against any reform whatever. The duke always refused to
+admit that this<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> declaration was the cause of his subsequent fall, which
+he attributed, by preference, to his adoption of catholic emancipation.
+Speaking deliberately in reply to Grey, who had indicated reform as the
+only true remedy for popular discontent, the duke stated that no measure
+of reform yet proposed would, in his opinion, improve the representative
+system then existing, which, he said, "answered all the good purposes of
+legislation" to a greater degree than "any legislature in any country
+whatever". He went further, and avowed his conviction not only that this
+system "possessed the full and entire confidence of the country," but also
+that no better system could be devised by the wit of man. Its special
+virtue, according to him, consisted in the fact of its producing a
+representative assembly which "contained a large body of the property of
+the country, and in which the landed interests had a preponderating
+influence". Finally, he protested that he would never bring forward a
+reform measure himself, and that "he should always feel it his duty to
+resist such measures when proposed by others".</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason to suppose that the duke had consulted any of his
+colleagues before making this declaration. Indeed, it is known that Peel
+had just before received a confidential offer of co-operation in carrying
+a moderate reform bill from Palmerston, Edward Stanley, grandson of the
+Earl of Derby, Sir James Graham, and the Grants; nor had these overtures
+been definitely rejected.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> Some lame attempts were made to clear the
+cabinet, as a whole, from responsibility for their chief's outspoken
+opinions, and Peel cautiously limited himself to a doubt whether any safe
+measure of reform would satisfy the reformers. But he would not separate
+himself from Wellington, and Wellington's ultimatum remained unretracted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_218" id="TOPIC_218"></a>Brougham at once gave notice of his intention to bring forward the
+question of parliamentary reform in a fortnight. In the meantime the duke
+had committed a mistake which irritated the people, and especially the
+inhabitants of London. It happened that the king and queen, with the
+ministers, were engaged to dine with the lord mayor on November 9. Three
+days earlier, the lord mayor-elect warned the prime minister that a riot
+was apprehended on that occasion, that an attempt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> would probably be made
+to assassinate him, and that it would be desirable to come attended by a
+strong military guard. Upon this intimation, confirmed by others, the
+cabinet most unwisely decided not to surround the mansion house with a
+large armed force, but to put off the king's visit to the city. A panic
+naturally ensued, consols fell three per cent. in an hour and a half, and
+the disorderly classes achieved a victory without running the smallest
+risk. There were local disturbances in the evening, and the duke arranged
+to join Peel at the home office, in case decisive measures should be
+required, but the new police were too strong for the mob, and the whole
+affair passed off quietly, though not without involving the government in
+some ridicule. The Marquis Wellesley, now in opposition to his brother,
+declared the postponement of the dinner to be "the boldest act of
+cowardice" within his knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>If Wellington sought to conciliate the ultra-tories by his unfortunate
+speech, he was soon undeceived. While Brougham's motion was pending, the
+government proposed a revision of the civil list which purported to effect
+slight economies for the benefit of the public. It was objected, however,
+that a greater reduction of charges should have been contemplated, and
+that parliament should have been invited to deal with the revenues derived
+from the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster, which, as Peel explained,
+formed no part of those placed at the disposal of parliament. Sir Henry
+Parnell moved to refer the civil list to a select committee; the
+chancellor of the exchequer directly opposed the motion, and, after a
+short discussion, a division was taken on November 15. The result, which
+had been foreseen, was a majority of twenty-nine against the government in
+a house of 437 members. There were many defections among the discontented
+tories, and the Wellington ministry preferred to fall on an issue of minor
+importance, rather than await a decisive contest on the reform question.
+On the following day, therefore, both the duke and Peel announced the
+acceptance of their resignations, and it was known that Grey had received
+the king's command to form a new administration.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>GREY ACCEPTS OFFICE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_219" id="TOPIC_219"></a>Grey was the inevitable head of any cabinet empowered to carry
+parliamentary reform. His dignified presence, his stately eloquence, his
+unblemished character, and his parliamentary experience, marked him out
+for leadership, and disguised his want<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> of practical acquaintance with the
+middle and lower classes of his countrymen. His political career, ranging
+over forty-four years, though not destitute of errors, had been perfectly
+consistent. From the first he was a staunch adherent of Fox; he was among
+the managers who conducted the prosecution of Warren Hastings; his
+connexion with the Society of the Friends of the People, and his advocacy
+of reform during Pitt's first administration are described in the
+preceding volume of this history. On Pitt's death he became closely
+associated with Grenville; it will be remembered that he joined his
+short-lived government, originally as first lord of the admiralty, and
+afterwards as Fox's successor at the foreign office. It was he who carried
+through the house of commons the bill for the abolition of the slave
+trade, and it may truly be said that, in opposition, he was equally
+persistent in supporting every measure in favour of liberty, political or
+commercial, and in resisting every measure, necessary or otherwise, which
+could be interpreted as restricting it. We have seen how he more than once
+declined overtures for a coalition with his opponents, and showed a bitter
+personal antipathy to Canning, whom he was more than suspected of
+despising as a brilliant plebeian adventurer. This suspicion of
+aristocratic prejudice, ill harmonising with democratic principles, had
+never been quite dispelled, and was now to be confirmed by the composition
+of his own cabinet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_220" id="TOPIC_220"></a>All the members of this cabinet, with four exceptions, sat in the house of
+lords. No cabinet had contained so few commoners since the reconstruction
+of Liverpool's ministry in 1822. Of the four who now sat in the house of
+commons, Lord Althorp was heir-apparent to an earldom; Lord Palmerston was
+an Irish peer; Graham was a baronet of great territorial influence;
+Charles Grant was still a commoner, though he was afterwards raised to the
+peerage. In the distribution of offices, full justice was done to
+Canning's followers. Three of these occupied posts of the highest
+importance, Palmerston at the foreign office, Lamb, who had succeeded his
+father as Viscount Melbourne in 1828, at the home office, and Goderich at
+the colonial office, while Grant became president of the board of control.
+The selection of Graham as first lord of the admiralty did not escape
+criticism, but was due to his tried energy in financial reform, and was
+justified by the result. Lansdowne was made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span> president of the council, and
+Holland chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. Both of these had been
+Grey's colleagues in the administration of "All the Talents". Althorp, who
+succeeded Goulburn at the exchequer, and Carlisle, who accepted a seat in
+the cabinet without office, were both whigs of tried fidelity. But the
+Duke of Richmond, the new postmaster-general, was a deserter from the tory
+ranks, and Lord Durham, the premier's son-in-law, the new lord privy seal,
+was a radical of the most aggressive type, well qualified, as the event
+proved, to disturb the peace of any council to which he might be admitted.
+Three occupants of places outside the cabinet remain to be mentioned. One
+of these, the Marquis Wellesley, had been a warm supporter of catholic
+emancipation when the Duke of Wellington stoutly opposed it, and his
+brother's conversion on that question had not affected his own relations
+with the whig party, which now welcomed him as lord steward. Lord John
+Russell, the new paymaster of the forces, had identified himself as
+prominently as Grey himself with the promotion of parliamentary reform,
+and Stanley, the new chief secretary for Ireland, was probably selected
+for his brilliant powers in debate, as the natural and most worthy
+antagonist of the great demagogue, O'Connell.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BROUGHAM BECOMES CHANCELLOR.</i></div>
+
+<p>But the most formidable of all the "radical reformers" still remained to
+be conciliated, and provided with a post which might satisfy his restless
+ambition. At the end of 1830 Brougham was in the plenitude of his
+marvellous powers, and in the zenith of his unique popularity. As member
+for the great county of York, returned free of expense on the shoulders of
+the people, he already occupied the foremost position among British
+commoners, and it was feared that he might use it for his own purposes in
+a dictatorial spirit. He had recently declared in Yorkshire that "nothing
+on earth should ever tempt him to accept place," and that he was conscious
+of the power to compel the execution of measures which, before that
+democratic election, he could only "ventilate". So late as November 16, he
+assured the house of commons that "no change in the administration could
+by any possibility affect him," adding that he would bring forward his
+motion for parliamentary reform on the 25th, whatever might then be the
+state of affairs, and whatever ministers should then be in office. The
+great whig peers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> were most anxious to keep him out of the cabinet without
+losing his support, or, still worse, provoking his active hostility. With
+this view, Grey indiscreetly offered him the attorney-generalship, and we
+cannot be surprised that Brougham rejected the offer with some indignation
+and disdain. It was no secret that his supreme desire was to become master
+of the rolls&mdash;an office compatible with a seat in the house of
+commons&mdash;but his future colleagues well knew that, in that case, they
+would be at his mercy in the house. Thereupon it was suggested, probably
+by the king himself, that it might be the less of two dangers to entrust
+him with the great seal, which Lord Lyndhurst was quite prepared to resume
+under a fourth premier. Accordingly, it was known on November 20 that
+Brougham was to be the whig lord chancellor, and on the 22nd he actually
+took his place on the woolsack. His title was Baron Brougham and Vaux,
+but, though he lived to retain it for nearly forty years, he always
+preferred, with pardonable vanity, to sign his name as "Henry Brougham".</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_221" id="TOPIC_221"></a>Before the close of 1830 the new ministers found time to carry a regency
+bill, whereby the Duchess of Kent (unless she married a foreigner) was to
+be regent in the event of the Princess Victoria succeeding to the crown
+during her minority. Having adopted the watchword of "Peace, Retrenchment,
+and Reform," they gave an earnest of their zeal for retrenchment by
+instituting a parliamentary inquiry into the possible reduction of
+official salaries, including their own. The defeat of Stanley by "Orator"
+Hunt at Preston was a warning against undue reliance on popular
+confidence, for Preston was already a highly democratic constituency,
+largely composed of ignorant "potwallopers". A similar but more emphatic
+warning came from Ireland, where O'Connell did his utmost to insult and
+defy Anglesey, the new lord-lieutenant, in spite of his sacrifices for
+catholic emancipation, and his well-known sympathy with the cause of
+reform. In the southern counties of England, too, violent disturbances had
+broken out, and were marked by all the ferocity and terrorism
+characteristic of luddism in the manufacturing districts. They spread from
+Kent, Sussex, and Surrey into Hampshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, and
+Buckinghamshire. In these four counties there was a wanton and wholesale
+destruction of agricultural machinery, of farm-buildings, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> especially
+of ricks, as if the misery of labourers could possibly be cured by
+impoverishing their only employers. The rioters moved about in large
+organised bodies, and their anarchical passions were deliberately inflamed
+by the writings of unscrupulous men like Cobbett and Carlile.</p>
+
+<p>Happily, the ministers showed no sign of the weakness upon which the
+ringleaders had probably calculated. They promptly issued a proclamation
+declaring their resolution to put down lawless outrage, and promised
+effective support to the lords-lieutenant of the disturbed counties.
+Acting upon this assurance, Wellington himself went down to Hampshire, and
+took a leading part in quelling disorder. The government next appointed a
+special commission, which tried many hundreds of prisoners and sentenced
+the worst to death, though few were executed. This vigour soon overawed
+the organised gangs which, in one or two instances, had only been
+dispersed by military force. Finally, they prosecuted Carlile and Cobbett
+for instigating the poor labourers to crime. The former was convicted at
+the Old Bailey, and condemned to a long term of imprisonment, with a heavy
+fine. The trial of Cobbett was postponed until the following July, when
+the frenzy of reform was at its height. He defended himself with great
+audacity in a speech of six hours, calling the lord chancellor with other
+leading reformers as witnesses, and succeeded in escaping conviction by
+the disagreement and discharge of the jury.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ALTHORP'S FIRST BUDGET.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_222" id="TOPIC_222"></a>Two other questions engaged the attention of parliament on the eve of the
+great struggle over the reform bill. One of these was the settlement of
+the civil list, which the Duke of Wellington's ministry had failed to
+effect. William IV. was not an avaricious sovereign, nor did he share the
+spendthrift inclination of his brother. But he was disposed to stickle for
+the hereditary rights of the crown, both public and private, and he
+greatly disliked the details of his expenditure being scrutinised by a
+parliamentary committee. Now, Grey and his colleagues stood pledged to
+such a committee, and could not avoid promoting its appointment. They
+propitiated the king, however, by excluding the revenues of the Duchy of
+Lancaster from the inquiry, and ultimately succeeded in persuading the
+house of commons to grant a civil list of &pound;510,000 a year. But the
+publication of a return containing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> a complete list of sinecure offices
+and pensions was turned to good account by the economists, and produced an
+outburst of public indignation, which was by no means unreasonable. Great
+results were expected from the report of the select committee on the civil
+list, which revised the salaries of officials in the royal household, as
+well as the emoluments of pensioners. It was even demanded that no regard
+should be paid to vested interests, but Grey firmly supported the private
+remonstrances of the king against such an act of confiscation. In fact,
+the savings recommended by the committee were so trifling that it was
+thought better to waive the question for the time, and the first
+economical essay of the new <i>r&eacute;gime</i> ended in failure.</p>
+
+<p>The budget introduced by Althorp soon after the meeting of parliament on
+February 3, 1831, and in anticipation of the reform bill, was equally
+unsuccessful as a specimen of whig finance. Finding that, after all, he
+could not effect a saving of more than one million on the national
+expenditure, as reduced by his capable predecessor, Goulburn, he
+nevertheless proposed to repeal the duties on coals, tallow candles,
+printed cottons, and glass, as well as to diminish by one half the duties
+on newspapers and tobacco. To meet the deficit thus created, he designed
+an increase of the wine and timber duties, new taxation of raw cotton,
+and, above all, a tax of ten shillings per cent. on all transfers of real
+or funded property. This last proposal was at once denounced by Goulburn,
+Peel, and Sugden, the late solicitor-general, as a breach of public faith
+between the state and its creditors. Their protests were loudly echoed by
+the city, and the obnoxious transfer duty was abandoned. The same fate
+befell the proposed increase of the timber duties, and Althorp only
+carried his budget after submitting to further modifications. Those who
+had relied on his promises of economical reform were signally
+disappointed, and, had not parliamentary reform overshadowed all other
+issues, the credit of the government would have been rudely shaken in the
+first session after its formation. But this great struggle, now to be
+described, so engrossed the attention of the country, that little room was
+left for the consideration of other interests, until it should be decided.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that no great measure was ever preceded by so thorough a
+preparation of the public mind as the reform bills of 1831-32. Ever since
+the early part of the eighteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> century the abuses of the representative
+system had been freely acknowledged, and no one attempted to defend them
+in principle. The multitude of close boroughs, the smallness of the
+electoral body, the sale of seats in parliament, the wide prevalence of
+gross bribery, and the enormous expense of elections&mdash;these were notorious
+evils which no one denied, though some palliated them, and few ventured to
+assail them in earnest by drastic proposals, lest they should undermine
+the constitution. So far back as 1770 Chatham had denounced them, and
+predicted that unless parliament reformed itself from within before the
+end of the century, it would be reformed "with a vengeance" from without.
+In 1780 the Duke of Richmond had introduced a bill in favour of universal
+suffrage, and Pitt had brought forward bills or motions in favour of
+parliamentary reform as a private member in 1782 and 1783, and as prime
+minister in 1785. But the French revolution persuaded him that the time
+was not favourable to reform, and he successfully opposed Grey's motion
+for referring a number of petitions in favour of reform to a committee in
+1793.</p>
+
+<p>After this, a strong reaction set in, and the reform question had little
+interest for the governing classes during the continuance of the great
+war. It was never allowed to sleep, however, and in 1809, a bill
+introduced by Curwen to pave the way for reform by preventing the return
+of members upon corrupt agreements, actually passed both houses, though in
+so mutilated a form that it was practically a dead letter. Still, the
+cause was indefatigably pleaded by Brand, and Burdett, who in 1819 made
+himself the spokesman of the violent reform agitation then spreading over
+the country. Unfortunately, this violence, and the extravagance of the
+demands put forward by the democratic leaders, were themselves fatal
+obstacles to a temperate consideration of the question, and threw back the
+reform movement for several years. In 1821, when Grampound was
+disfranchised, it assumed, as we have seen, a more constitutional form,
+and motions in favour of reform were proposed by Russell in 1822, 1823,
+and 1826, and by Blandford in 1829. Had Canning placed himself at the head
+of the movement the course of domestic history during the reign of George
+IV. might have been very different. As it was, the number of petitions in
+favour of reform sensibly fell off in the last half of the reign,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> and its
+tory opponents vainly imagined that the movement had spent itself. We now
+know that, in the absence of noisy demonstrations, it was really and
+constantly gaining strength in the minds of thoughtful men until it
+reached its climax at the end of 1830.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PUBLIC OPINION AND REFORM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_223" id="TOPIC_223"></a>The first act of the great political drama which occupied the next
+eighteen months may be said to have opened with the fall of Wellington,
+and the formation of the whig ministry. These events, together with the
+success of the Paris revolution, supplied the motive power needed to
+combine the great body of the middle classes with the proletariat in a
+national crusade against the political privileges long exercised by a
+powerful landed aristocracy. It is true that reform, unlike catholic
+emancipation, had always appealed to broad popular sympathies, and had
+been advocated by men like Grey and Burdett as carrying with it the
+redress of all other grievances. But Canning was by no means the only
+liberal statesman who heartily dreaded it, and even the advanced reformers
+had not fully grasped the comprehensive meaning of the idea which they
+embraced, or the far-reaching consequences involved in it. The palpable
+anomaly of Old Sarum returning members to parliament, while Birmingham was
+unrepresented, was shocking to common sense, and so was the monopoly of
+the franchise by a handful of electors in some of the larger boroughs,
+especially in Scotland. But few appreciated how seriously constitutional
+liberty had been curtailed by the growth of these abuses (unchecked by the
+Commonwealth) since the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, how
+effectually home and foreign policy was controlled by a small circle of
+noble families dominant in the lower as well as in the upper chamber, how
+vast a transfer of sovereignty from class to class would inevitably be
+wrought by a thorough reform bill, and how certainly men newly entrusted
+with power would use it for their own advantage, whether or not that
+should coincide with the advantage of the nation. Such general aspects of
+the question are seldom noticed in the earlier debates upon it, and
+economical reform sometimes appears to occupy a larger space than
+parliamentary reform in the liberal statesmanship of the Georgian age.</p>
+
+<p>With Wellington's declaration against any parliamentary reform, this
+apathy vanished, and the movement, gathering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> up into itself all other
+popular aspirations thenceforward filled the whole political horizon.
+Reform unions sprang up everywhere, and instituted a most active
+propaganda. So rapid was its spread and so wild the promises lavished by
+radical demagogues, that Grey and his wiser colleagues soon felt
+themselves further removed from their own extreme left wing than from the
+moderate section of the conservatives. It is abundantly clear that Grey
+himself, faithful as he was to reform, never dreamed of inaugurating a
+reign of democracy. He often declared in private that such a bill as he
+contemplated would prove, in its effect, an aristocratic measure, and he
+doubtless believed that it would be possible to bring the new
+constituencies and the new electoral bodies under the same conservative
+influences which had been dominant for so many generations. He did not
+foresee, as Palmerston did thirty years later, that, even if the political
+actors remained the same, they "would play to the gallery" instead of to
+the pit or boxes. He would, indeed, have repudiated the maxim: "Everything
+for the people, and nothing by the people"; he was fully prepared to place
+the house of commons in the hands of the people, or at least of the great
+middle class, but he regarded the crown and the house of lords as almost
+equal powers, and he never doubted that property and education would
+practically continue to rule the government of the country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DRAFT OF THE FIRST BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_224" id="TOPIC_224"></a>When the whigs came into office they were singularly fortunate in the high
+character and consistency of their chief, no less than in the divisions of
+their opponents, whose right wing showed almost as mutinous a spirit as
+their own left wing. Even between Wellington and Peel there was a want of
+cordial harmony and confidence, yet Peel was the only tory statesman of
+eminent capacity in the house of commons. The attitude of the king, too,
+was not only strictly constitutional but friendly, though it afterwards
+appeared that he relied too implicitly on Grey and Althorp to protect him
+against the machinations of the radicals. The letters written by his
+orders, though mostly composed by his private secretary, Sir Herbert
+Taylor, display marked ability together with a very shrewd and just
+conception of the situation. His loyal adoption of a moderate reform
+policy was a most important element of strength to his ministers at the
+outset of their great enterprise, and, if he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> afterwards held back, it was
+in deference to scruples which several of them shared in their hearts. Nor
+was the violence of the ultra-radicals, or the scurrilous language of
+O'Connell by any means an unmixed source of weakness to men engaged in
+framing and carrying a temperate reform bill. Their firm resistance to
+extravagant demands reassured many a waverer and showed how carefully
+their comprehensive plan had been matured. On the other hand, they had to
+contend against difficulties not yet fully revealed. One of these was
+their own want of administrative experience, contrasting unfavourably with
+the statesmanlike capacity of Peel. Another was the intractable character
+of two at least within their own innermost councils&mdash;Durham and Brougham.
+A third was the inflexible conservatism of a great majority in the house
+of lords, who, unlike the people at large, clearly understood that the
+impending conflict was a life-and-death struggle for political supremacy
+between themselves and the commons&mdash;the greatest that had been waged since
+the revolutions of the seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>It was privately known that a committee had been empowered to draft the
+bill awaited with so much impatience. This committee consisted of two
+members of the cabinet, Durham and Graham, together with two members of
+the administration not of cabinet rank, the Earl of Bessborough's eldest
+son, Lord Duncannon, then chief whip of the whig party, and Russell, who
+was second to none as a staunch and judicious promoter of parliamentary
+reform. In spite of his vanity and petulance, Durham deserves the credit
+of having drawn up the report, highly appreciated by the king, upon which
+the projected measure was founded. It originally included vote by ballot,
+and it is rather strange that on this point Durham was powerfully
+supported by Graham, but opposed by Russell. It is still more strange that
+Brougham, whose scheme of reform was locked up in his own breast, was
+honestly disturbed by the radicalism of his colleagues and specially
+objected to so large a disfranchisement of boroughs as they contemplated.
+Upon the whole, however, the bill was the product of an united cabinet,
+and received the express approval of the king in all its essential
+features. The elaborate letter which he addressed to Grey on February 4,
+1831, betrays a sense of relief on finding that universal suffrage and the
+ballot were not to be pressed upon him<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> In declaring that he never could
+have given his consent to such revolutionary innovations, he insists
+strongly on the necessity of maintaining an "equilibrium" between the
+crown, the lords, and the commons, as well as between the "representation
+of property" and that of numbers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_225" id="TOPIC_225"></a>The reform bill of 1831, which differed only in detail from the act passed
+in 1832, cannot be understood without some knowledge of the system which
+that act transformed. This system has been well described as "combining
+survivals from the middle ages with abuses of the prerogative in later
+times". The counties remained as they had remained for centuries; Rutland,
+for instance, returned as many representatives as Yorkshire, until in 1821
+the two seats taken from Grampound were added to those already possessed
+by Yorkshire. On the other hand, the old franchise of the 40s. freeholders
+was more widely diffused since the value of money had been greatly
+depreciated. Still, the influence of the great county families was almost
+supreme, and they were firmly entrenched in the nomination boroughs, where
+there was scarcely a pretence of free election. The crown had originally a
+discretion in summoning members from boroughs, and used it by issuing
+writs to all the wealthiest as better able to bear taxation and more
+competent to sanction it. The poorer boroughs, too, were also glad to
+escape representation in order to save the expense of their members'
+wages. The discretionary power of the crown was afterwards used in
+creating petty boroughs such as "the Cornish group," for the purpose of
+packing the house of commons with crown nominees. This practice, however,
+ceased in the reign of Charles II., and these petty boroughs fell by
+degrees into the hands of great landowners, who dictated the choice of
+representatives.</p>
+
+<p>The result has been concisely stated as follows: "The majority of the
+house of commons was elected by less than fifteen thousand persons.
+Seventy members were returned by thirty-five places with scarcely any
+voters at all; ninety members were returned by forty-six places with no
+more than fifty voters; thirty-seven members by nineteen places with no
+more than one hundred voters; fifty-two members by twenty-six places with
+no more than two hundred voters. The local distribution of the
+representation was flagrantly unfair.... Cornwall was a corrupt nest of
+little boroughs whose vote outweighed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> that of great and populous
+districts. At Old Sarum a deserted site, at Gatton an ancient wall sent
+two representatives to the house of commons. Eighty-four men actually
+nominated one hundred and fifty-seven members for parliament. In addition
+to these, one hundred and fifty members were returned on the
+recommendation of seventy patrons, and thus one hundred and fifty-four
+patrons returned three hundred and seven members."<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> Household suffrage
+prevailed in a few boroughs, and here barefaced corruption was common.
+Seats for boroughs, appropriately called "rotten," were frequently put up
+to sale; otherwise, they were reserved for young favourites of the
+proprietor. Neither yearly tenants, nor leaseholders, nor even
+copyholders, had votes for counties. Of Scotland it is enough to say that
+free voting had practically ceased to exist both in counties and in
+boroughs, as the borough franchise was the monopoly of self-elected town
+councils, and the county franchise of persons, often non-resident, who
+happened to own "superiorities".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PROVISIONS OF THE FIRST BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p>The reform bill of the whig ministry, drawn on broad and simple lines,
+struck at the root of this system. Its twofold basis was a liberal
+extension of the suffrage with a very large redistribution of seats. The
+elective franchise in counties, hitherto confined to freeholders, was to
+be conferred on &pound;10 copyholders and &pound;50 leaseholders; the borough
+franchise was to exclude "scot and lot" voters, "potwallopers" and most
+other survivals of antiquated electorates, but to include ratepaying &pound;10
+householders. The qualification for this franchise had originally been
+fixed at &pound;20, and the king deprecated any reduction, but the omission of
+the ballot reconciled him and other timid reformers to an immense increase
+in the lower class of borough voters. Sixty boroughs of less than 2,000
+inhabitants, returning 119 members, were to be disfranchised altogether;
+forty-seven others, with less than 4,000 inhabitants, were to be deprived
+of one member, and Weymouth was to lose two out of the four members which
+it returned in combination with the borough of Melcombe Regis. Fifty-five
+new seats were allotted to the English counties, forty-two to the great
+unrepresented towns, five to Scotland, three to Ireland, and one to Wales.
+Altogether the numerical strength of the house of commons was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> to be
+reduced by sixty-two, and this entirely at the expense of England. Both
+the county and borough franchises in Scotland were to be assimilated
+generally to those established for England, and the &pound;10 borough franchise
+was extended to Ireland. The bill contained many other provisions designed
+to amend the practice of registration, the voting power of non-resident
+electors, and the cumbrously expensive machinery of elections. It is
+important to notice that it also limited the duration of each parliament
+to five years&mdash;a concession to radicalism afterwards abandoned and never
+since adopted.</p>
+
+<p>On February 3 parliament met after the adjournment, and Grey stated that a
+measure of reform had been framed, but the nature of it was not disclosed
+to the house of commons until March 1, and during the interval the secret
+was kept with great fidelity. The task of explaining it was entrusted to
+Russell, whose thorough mastery of its letter and spirit fully justified
+the choice, partly suggested by his aristocratic connexions and historical
+name. His speech was remarkable for clearness and cogency rather than for
+rhetorical brilliancy, and he was careful to rest his case on
+constitutional equity and political expediency of the highest order rather
+than on vague and abstract principles of popular rights. The debate on the
+motion for leave to bring in the bill lasted seven nights, and was
+vigorously sustained on both sides. The drastic and sweeping character of
+the measure took the whole house by surprise, while its authors justly
+claimed some credit for moderation in rejecting the radical demands of
+universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and triennial, if not annual,
+parliaments. Not only inside but outside the walls of St. Stephen's the
+statement of the government had been awaited with the utmost impatience,
+and it was universally felt that an issue had now been raised which hardly
+admitted of compromise. The king himself, though much engrossed by minor
+questions affecting the civil list and the pension list, heartily
+congratulated Grey on the favourable reception and prospects of the
+measure, which he regarded as a safeguard against more democratic schemes.
+His great fear was of a collision between the two houses, and the sequel
+proved that it was not unfounded. For the present, however, all promised
+well. Peel denounced the bill with less than his usual caution, but
+declined to give battle upon it, and it passed the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> first reading on March
+9 without a division. Indeed, the chief danger to the stability of the
+government arose from its defeat on the timber duties. This and other
+vexatious rebuffs so irritated Grey that he actually contemplated a
+dissolution, lest the reform bill itself should meet with a like fate. But
+the king would not hear of it, and the cabinet wisely decided to follow
+the example of Pitt and ignore an adverse division on a merely financial
+proposal, however significant of parliamentary feeling.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SECOND READING OF THE FIRST BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_226" id="TOPIC_226"></a>Between the 9th and the 21st, the date fixed for the second reading,
+popular excitement rose to a formidable height. Monster meetings were held
+in the great centres of population, and the political unions put forth all
+their strength. Nevertheless, the efforts of the "borough-mongers" were
+all but successful, and after only two nights debate the bill passed its
+second reading by a bare majority of one, 302 voting for it, and 301
+against it. After this demonstration of strength on the part of its
+opponents, no one could expect that it would survive the ordeal of
+discussion in committee, and a letter of Lord Durham, written in
+anticipation of the event, sums up with great force the reasons for an
+early dissolution. The crisis was precipitated by the action of General
+Gascoyne, member for Liverpool, who moved before the house could go into
+committee that in no case should the number of representatives from
+England and Wales be diminished. In the hope of conciliating some wavering
+members, the ministry framed certain modifications of their original
+scheme, but they do not seem to have entertained the idea of accepting
+Gascoyne's proposal in its entirety. In the division, which took place on
+April 19, they were defeated by 299 votes to 291, and on the following
+morning advised the king to dissolve. In spite of his former refusal, more
+than once repeated, the king yielded to necessity, feeling that another
+change of government, in the midst of European complications, and in
+prospect of revolutionary agitation in the country, would be a greater
+evil than a general election.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_227" id="TOPIC_227"></a>The opposition, flushed with victory, pressed its advantage to extremes,
+and successfully resisted a motion for the grant of supplies. Urged by
+Althorp, the cabinet promptly resolved on recommending that the
+dissolution should be immediate, and the king, roused to energy by
+indignation, eagerly adopted their recommendation. Indeed, on hearing that
+Lord Wharn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span>cliffe intended to move in the house of lords for an address to
+the crown against a dissolution, he strongly resented such an attempt to
+interfere with his prerogative, and declared himself ready to start at
+once and dissolve parliament in person. Difficulties being raised about
+preparing the royal carriages in time, he cut them short by remarking that
+he was prepared to go in a hackney-coach&mdash;a royal saying which spread like
+wildfire over the country. Both houses were scenes of confusion and uproar
+when he arrived, preceded by the usual discharges of artillery, which
+excited the angry disputants to fury. Lord Mansfield, who was supporting
+the motion for an address, continued speaking as the king entered, until
+he was forcibly compelled to resume his seat. Even Peel was only
+restrained by like means from disregarding the appearance of the usher of
+the black rod who came to summon the commons from the bar of the house.
+The king preserved his composure, and announced an immediate prorogation
+of parliament with a view to its dissolution, and an appeal to the country
+on the great question of reform. Such an appeal could only be made to
+constituencies under threat of thorough reconstruction or total
+extinction, but from this moment the ultimate issue ceased to be doubtful.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 160-62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a> Arbuthnot to Peel, Nov. 1, 1830, Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>,
+ii., 163-66.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a> Goldwin Smith, <i>United Kingdom</i>, ii., 320.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV.</h2>
+
+<h3>THE REFORM.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_228" id="TOPIC_228"></a>The general election which took place in the summer of 1831 was perhaps
+the most momentous on record. The news of the sudden dissolution, carrying
+with it the assurance of the king's hearty assent to reform, stirred
+popular enthusiasm to an intensity never equalled before or since. From
+John o' Groat's to the Land's End a cry was raised of <i>The bill, the whole
+bill, and nothing but the bill</i>. This cry signified more than appears on
+the surface, and was not wholly one-sided in its application. No doubt it
+was a passionate and defiant warning against any manipulation or dilution
+of the bill in a reactionary sense, but it was also a distinct protest
+against attempts by the extreme radicals to amend it in an opposite
+direction. Now, as ever, the impulse was given by the middle classes, and
+they were in no mood to imperil their own cause by revolutionary claims.
+They could not always succeed, however, in checking the fury of the
+populace, which had been taught to clamour for reform as the precursor of
+a good time coming for the suffering and toiling masses of mankind. The
+streets of London were illuminated, and the windows of those who omitted
+to illuminate or were otherwise obnoxious were tumultuously demolished by
+the mob, which did not even spare Apsley House, the town residence of the
+Duke of Wellington. But, except in Scotland, no formidable riots occurred
+for the present, and some good resulted from the new experience of popular
+opinion gained by candidates even from unreformed constituencies hitherto
+obedient to oligarchical influence, but animated for the moment by a
+certain spirit of independence.</p>
+
+<p>Having sanctioned the dissolution, the king addressed an elaborate letter
+to Grey, in which he did not disguise his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> own misgivings about the
+perilous experiment of reform. Chiefly dreading a collision between the
+two houses, he never ceased to press on his ministers the expediency of
+making all possible sacrifices consistent with the spirit of the bill in
+order to conciliate opposition in the house of peers. Grey's constant
+reply was that no concessions would propitiate men bent on driving the
+government from office, and that no measure less efficacious than that
+already introduced would satisfy the just expectations of the people. Both
+of these arguments were perfectly sound, and the constitutional triumph
+ultimately achieved was largely due to the admirable tenacity of purpose
+which refused to remodel the original reform bill in any essential respect
+to please either the borough-mongers or the radicals. The elections were
+conducted on the whole in good order. Seventy-six out of eighty-two
+English county members (including the four Yorkshire members), and the
+four members for the city of London, were pledged to vote for the bill.
+Several notable anti-reformers were among the many county representatives
+who failed to obtain re-election; even some of the doomed boroughs did not
+venture to return anti-reformers; and the government found itself
+supported by an immense nominal majority. The new bill, introduced on June
+24 by Lord John Russell, who had recently been admitted in company with
+Stanley to the cabinet, differed little from the old one. The number of
+boroughs to be totally disfranchised was slightly greater, that of
+boroughs to be partially disfranchised slightly less, but the net effect
+of the disfranchising and enfranchising schedules was the same, and the
+&pound;10 rental suffrage was retained. The measure was allowed to pass its
+first reading after one night's discussion. The debates on the second
+reading lasted three nights, but the bill passed this stage on July 8 by a
+majority of 136 in a house of 598 members.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>SECOND REFORM BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_229" id="TOPIC_229"></a>The victory, however, though great, was far indeed from proving decisive.
+By adopting obstructive tactics, of a kind to be perfected in a later age,
+the opposition succeeded in prolonging the discussion in committee over
+forty nights, until September 7. Though Peel separated himself from the
+old tories, and steadily declined to cabal with O'Connell's faction
+against the government, such an unprofitable waste of time could not have
+taken place without his tacit sanction. Only one important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> alteration was
+made in the bill. This was the famous "Chandos clause," proposed by Lord
+Chandos, son of the Duke of Buckingham, whereby the county suffrage was
+extended to all tenants-at-will of &pound;50 rental and upwards. A very large
+proportion of tenant farmers thus became county voters, and for the most
+part followed the politics of their landlords. It may be doubted whether
+Grey seriously lamented Chandos's intervention; at all events it went far
+to verify his own prediction that aristocratic dominion would not be
+undermined by reform.<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> Meanwhile, the country was naturally impatient
+of the vexatious delay, and a somewhat menacing conference took place
+between the political unions of Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow.
+Happily public attention was diverted to some extent by the coronation,
+which took place on the 8th. The bill was carried more rapidly through its
+later stages, and was finally passed in the house of commons on the 21st,
+though by a reduced majority of 345 to 236.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_230" id="TOPIC_230"></a>On the following day the bill reached the house of lords and was set down
+for its second reading on October 3. Thenceforth all the hopes and fears
+of its friends and enemies were concentrated on the proceedings in that
+house, whose ascendency in the state was at stake. The question: "What
+will the lords do?" was asked all over the country with the deepest
+anxiety. The debate lasted five nights, and is admitted to have been among
+the finest reported in our parliamentary history. All the leading peers
+took part in it, and several of them were roused by the occasion to
+unwonted eloquence, but the palm was generally awarded to the speeches of
+Grey, Harrowby, Brougham, and Lyndhurst. The first of these occupied a
+position which gave increased weight to his counsels, since he was the
+veteran advocate of reform and yet known to be a most loyal member of the
+nobility which now stood on its trial. In his opening speech he appealed
+earnestly to the bench of bishops, as disinterested parties and as
+ministers of peace, not to set themselves against the almost unanimous
+will of the people. Brougham's great oration on the last night of the
+debate contained a masterly review of the whole question, and, in spite of
+its theatrical conclusion, when he sank upon his knees, extorted the
+admiration of his bitterest critics as a consummate exhibition of his
+marvellous powers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>But very few of the peers were open to persuasion; the votes of
+anti-reformers were mainly guided by a shortsighted conception of their
+own interests, and Eldon did not shrink from contending that nomination
+boroughs were in the nature of property rather than of trusts. A memorable
+division ended in the rejection of the second reform bill on the 8th by
+199 votes to 158. Twenty-one bishops voted against it. The king lost no
+time in reminding Grey of his own warning against submitting the bill,
+without serious modifications, to the judgment of the house of lords. He
+also intimated beforehand that he could not consent to any such creation
+of peers as would convert the minority into a majority. Grey at once
+admitted that he could not ask for so high-handed an exercise of the royal
+prerogative, and undertook to remain at his post, on condition of being
+allowed to introduce a third reform bill as comprehensive as its
+predecessor. Thereupon the king abandoned his intention of proroguing
+parliament by commission, and came down in person to do so on the 20th
+when he delivered a speech clearly indicating legislation on reform as the
+work of the next session.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>REFORM BILL RIOTS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_231" id="TOPIC_231"></a>During the interval between the 8th and the 20th it became evident that
+the reform movement, quickened by the action of the upper house, would
+rise to a dangerous height. A vote of confidence in the government,
+brought forward by Lord Ebrington, eldest son of Earl Fortescue, was
+carried by a majority of 131, and speeches were made in support of it
+which encouraged, in the form of prediction, every kind of popular
+agitation short of open violence. In the course of this debate Macaulay,
+the future historian of the English revolution, delivered one of those
+highly wrought orations which adorn the political literature of reform.
+The excitement in London was great, but kept for the most part within
+reasonable bounds, partly by the firm and sensible attitude of Melbourne
+as home secretary. The mob, however, vented its rage in window breaking
+and personal assaults on some prominent anti-reformers, one of whom, Lord
+Londonderry, was knocked off his horse by a volley of stones. In the
+provinces more serious disturbances broke out. At Derby the rioters
+actually stormed the city jail, releasing the prisoners, and were only
+repelled in their attack on the county jail by the fire of a military
+force. At Nottingham they wreaked their vengeance on the Duke of Newcastle
+by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span> burning down Nottingham Castle, which belonged to him, and were
+proceeding to further outrages when they were overawed by a regiment of
+hussars. A great open-air meeting of the political union was held at
+Birmingham, while the bill was still before the house of lords, at which a
+refusal to pay taxes was openly recommended in the last resort, and votes
+of thanks were passed to Althorp and Russell. The former, in acknowledging
+it, wisely condemned such lawless proceedings; the latter unwisely made
+use of a phrase which gravely displeased the king: "It is impossible that
+the whisper of faction should prevail against the voice of a nation". Both
+were called to account in the house of commons for holding correspondence
+with an illegal association, but disclaimed any recognition of the
+Birmingham union as a body, and fully admitted the responsibility of the
+government for the maintenance of order.</p>
+
+<p>This assurance was about to be tested by the most atrocious outbreak which
+disgraced the cause of reform. On Saturday, the 29th, Wetherell, as
+recorder of Bristol, entered the city to open the commission on the
+following Monday. Of all the anti-reformers, he was perhaps the most
+vehement and unpopular, but his visit to Bristol was in discharge of an
+official duty, and had been sanctioned expressly by the government.
+Nevertheless, the cavalcade which escorted him was assailed by a furious
+rabble on its way to the guildhall, and from the guildhall to the mansion
+house, where he was to dine. For a while, they were kept back or driven
+back by a large force of constables, but, on some of these being
+withdrawn, their ferocity increased, and threatened a general assault on
+the mansion house. In vain did the mayor address them and read the riot
+act; they overpowered the constables, and carried the mansion house by
+storm, the mayor and the magistrates escaping by the back premises, while
+the recorder prudently left the city. At last the military were called
+upon to act, and two troops of cavalry were ordered out. But the military
+as well as the civil authorities showed a strange weakness and vacillation
+in presence of an emergency only to be compared with the Lord George
+Gordon riots of a by-gone generation. After making one charge and
+dispersing the populace for the moment, the cavalry were sent back to
+their barracks, and when one troop was recalled on the following (Sunday)
+morning, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> rioters were all but masters of the city. Many of them,
+having plundered the cellars of the mansion house, were infuriated by
+drink; they broke into the Bridewell, the new city jail, and the county
+jail, set free the prisoners, and fired the buildings. They next proceeded
+to burn down the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the custom-house, and
+the excise-office. The cathedral is said to have been saved by the
+resolute stand of a few volunteers hastily rallied by one of the
+officials. In the midst of all this havoc, the cavalry were almost
+passive, Colonel Brereton, the commanding officer, waiting for orders from
+the magistrates, and actually withdrawing a part of his small force when
+it was most needed, because it had incurred the special hatred of the
+criminals.</p>
+
+<p>On the morning of Monday, the guardians of law and order seemed to have
+recovered their courage; at all events, the cavalry, no longer forbidden
+to charge, and headed by Major Mackworth, soon cleared the streets, fresh
+troops poured in, and the police made a number of arrests. The reign of
+anarchy was at an end, having lasted three days. When a return of
+casualties was made up, it showed that only twelve were known to have lost
+their lives, besides ninety-four disabled, most of whom were the victims
+of excessive drunkenness or of the flames kindled by themselves. But,
+though the riot was quelled, it was some proof of its deliberate
+promotion, and of the aims which its ringleaders had in view, that parties
+of them issuing out from Bristol attempted to propagate sedition in
+Somersetshire. A special commission sent down to Bristol condemned to
+death several of the worst malefactors; four were hanged and eighty-eight
+sentenced either to transportation or to lighter punishments; and Colonel
+Brereton destroyed himself rather than face the verdict of a
+court-martial.</p>
+
+<p>On the same Monday, the 31st, Burdett took the chair at a meeting in
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, called for the purpose of forming a "National
+Political Union" in London. Soon afterwards, however, he retired from the
+organisation, on the nominal ground that half of the seats on its council
+were allotted to the working classes, but more probably because he was
+beginning to be alarmed by the violence of his associates. His fears were
+justified by a manifesto summoning a mass meeting of the working-classes
+to assemble at White Conduit House<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> on November 7, for the purpose of
+ratifying a new and revolutionary bill of rights. This time the government
+was on its guard, and Melbourne plainly informed a working-class
+deputation that such a meeting would certainly be seditious, and perhaps
+treasonable, in law. The plan was therefore abandoned, and soon afterwards
+a royal proclamation was issued, declaring organised political
+associations, assuming powers independent of the civil magistrates, to be
+"unconstitutional and illegal". The political unions proposed to consider
+themselves outside the scope of the proclamation, which had little visible
+effect, though it was not without its value as proving that the government
+was a champion of order as well as of liberty.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NEGOTIATIONS WITH WAVERERS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_232" id="TOPIC_232"></a>During the short recess of less than six weeks political discontent,
+constantly growing, was aggravated by industrial distress and gloomy
+forebodings of a mysterious pestilence, already known as cholera. A
+voluminous correspondence was carried on between the king and Grey on the
+means of silencing the political unions and smoothing the passage of a new
+reform bill. It was not in the king's nature to conceal his own
+conservative leanings, especially on the imaginary danger of increasing
+the metropolitan constituencies, and Grey complained more than once of
+these sentiments being confided, or at least becoming known, to opponents
+of the government. At the same time attempts were being made not only by
+the king himself, but also by peers of moderate views to arrange a
+compromise which might save the honour of the government, and yet mitigate
+the hostility of the tory majority in the upper house. In these
+negotiations behind the scenes, Howley, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
+Carr, Bishop of Worcester, took part, as representing the episcopal bench,
+while Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, in temporary concert with Chandos,
+professed to speak for the "waverers" among peers. As little of importance
+resulted from their well-meant efforts, and as nearly all the supposed
+"waverers," including the bishops, drifted into open opposition, it is the
+less necessary to dwell at length on a very tedious chapter in the history
+of parliamentary reform. Suffice it to say that when parliament
+reassembled on December 6, 1831, the prospects of the forthcoming bill
+were no brighter than in October, except so far as the danger of rejecting
+it had become more apparent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_233" id="TOPIC_233"></a>The final reform bill introduced by Lord John Russell on the 12th was
+identical in its principle and its essential features with the former
+ones. The chief alteration was the maintenance of the house of commons at
+its full strength of 658 members. This enabled its framers not only to
+reduce the number of wholly disfranchised boroughs (schedule A) from sixty
+to fifty-six, and that of semi-disfranchised boroughs (schedule B) from
+forty-six to thirty, but to assign a larger number of members to the
+prosperous towns enfranchised. The bill was at once read a first time and
+passed its second reading after two nights' debate on the 16th by a
+majority of 324 to 162, or exactly two to one. But, after a short
+adjournment for the Christmas holidays, a debate of twenty-two nights took
+place in committee, and the opposition made skilful use of the many
+vulnerable points in the new scheme. Every variation from the original
+bill, even by way of concession, was subjected to minute criticism, and
+especially the fact that the schedules were now framed, not on a scale of
+population only, but on a mixed basis, partly resting on population,
+partly on the number of inhabited houses, and partly on the local
+contribution to assessed taxes.</p>
+
+<p>It was easy to pick such a compound scale to pieces, to uphold the claims
+of one venal borough against another equally venal, and even to reproach
+the government with inconsistency in relying on the census of 1831,
+instead of on that of 1821&mdash;a course which the opposition had specially
+urged upon them. But it was not so easy to combat the irresistible
+arguments in favour of the bill on its general merits, to ignore the
+reasonable concessions on points of detail which it embodied, or to
+explain away the patent fact that no measure less stringent would satisfy
+the people. There was therefore an air of unreality about this debate,
+spirited as it was, nor is it easy to understand what practical object
+enlightened men like Peel could have sought in prolonging it. He well
+knew, and admitted in private correspondence, that reform was inevitable;
+he must have known that a sham reform would be a stimulus to revolutionary
+agitation; yet he strove to mutilate the bill so that it might pass its
+second reading in the house of lords, and there undergo such further
+mutilation as would destroy its efficacy as a settlement of the question.
+For the present he yielded. No attempt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> was made to obstruct the bill on
+its third reading, when the division showed 355 votes to 239, and it
+passed the commons on March 23 without any division.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE THIRD REFORM BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_234" id="TOPIC_234"></a>Such a result would have been conclusive in any parliament during the
+second half of the nineteenth century. A house of commons elected by the
+old constituencies, and under the old franchises, had declared in favour
+of a well-considered reform bill. The same constituencies voting under the
+same franchises had returned an increased majority in support of the same,
+or very nearly the same measure; this measure, with slight variations, had
+been adopted by an immense preponderance of votes in the new house of
+commons: yet its fate in the house of lords was very doubtful. Ever since
+the autumn of 1831, the expedient of swamping the house of lords had been
+seriously contemplated. It was supremely distasteful to the king, and Grey
+himself, in common with a majority of the cabinet, was strongly averse
+from it. Then came the intervention of Harrowby and Wharncliffe, the
+failure of which strengthened the hands of the more determined reformers
+in the cabinet, and induced the king to give way. Having already created a
+few peers on the coronation, he consented to a limited addition in the
+last resort, but with the reservation that eldest sons of existing peers
+should be called up in the first instance, and upon the assurance that,
+reform once carried, all further encroachments of the democracy should be
+resisted by the government. He even authorised Grey to inform Harrowby
+that he had given the prime minister this power, in the hope that it would
+never be needed, and that at least the second reading of the bill would be
+carried in the house of lords without it. His objection to a permanent
+augmentation of the peerage remained unshaken, and Grey promised to
+propose no augmentation at all before the second reading.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_235" id="TOPIC_235"></a>This compact, if it can be so called, was fulfilled in the letter, for the
+bill was read a first time without a division, and it passed the second
+reading on April 14 by a majority of 184 to 175. To all appearance a
+notable process of conversion had been wrought among the peers, seventeen
+of whom actually changed sides, while ten opponents of the former bill
+absented themselves, and twelve new adherents were gained. However
+encouraging these figures might be, the ministers were under no illusion.
+They had the best reason for expecting the worst<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> from the struggle in
+committee, and they were conscious of gradually losing the king's
+confidence. The very demonstrations of popular enthusiasm for reform which
+impressed others with a sense of its necessity impressed him with a sense
+of its danger; the political unions and the Bristol riots alarmed him
+extremely; and the foreign policy of the government elicited from him so
+outspoken a protest that Grey tendered his resignation. The difficulty was
+overcome for the moment, but recurred in a more serious form when
+parliament reassembled on May 7. Lyndhurst at once proposed in committee
+to postpone the consideration of schedule A; in other words, to shelve the
+most vital provisions of the bill until the rest should have been
+dissected in a hostile spirit. This proposal is supposed to have been
+concerted with Harrowby and Wharncliffe, if not to have received the
+sanction of the Duke of Wellington. It was adopted by 151 votes to 116,
+and the cabinet, on May 8, courageously determined to make a decisive
+stand. They firmly advised the king to confer peerages on "such a number
+of persons as might ensure the success of the bill". The principle thus
+expressed had, as has been seen, been reluctantly approved by the king
+himself, but he recoiled from the application of it when he learned that
+it would involve at least fifty new creations. After a day's thought, he
+closed with the only alternative, and accepted the resignation of his
+ministry. He then sent for Lyndhurst, who of course at once communicated
+with the duke.</p>
+
+<p>The king, as we have seen, had never been able to understand the real
+force of the reform movement, and his leading idea was that the demand for
+reform might be satisfied by a moderate reform bill, which the house of
+lords would not reject or reduce to nullity. Wellington shared this
+impression, and, though an implacable opponent of reform, was willing to
+undertake office for the purpose of carrying, not merely a mild substitute
+for the whig reform bill, but the whig reform bill itself with little
+modification. Such an act might appear immoral in a statesman whose
+integrity was more open to question, but the duke's political <i>moral</i>
+appears to have been of a less delicate type than that which is commonly
+expected in party politicians. As a general, he considered, first of all
+and above all, what man&oelig;uvres would best advance his plan of campaign.
+As a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> political leader, he regarded himself not as the chief of a party,
+still less as the exponent of a creed, but rather as a public servant to
+whom his followers owed allegiance, whether in office or in opposition. As
+a public servant he felt bound to obey the king's summons, and conduct the
+administration, honestly and efficiently, but without much concern for
+personal convictions. He was also anxious to preserve the house of lords
+from being swamped and so rendered ridiculous by an extensive creation of
+peers.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ATTEMPTS TO FORM A TORY MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_236" id="TOPIC_236"></a>But Wellington knew that he was powerless to manage the house of commons
+without the aid of Peel, and Peel, though pliable in the case of catholic
+emancipation, was inflexible in the case of reform. He drew a distinction
+between these cases, and absolutely rejected the advice of Croker that he
+should grasp the helm of state to avert the worse evil of the whigs being
+recalled. "I look," he wrote, "beyond the exigency and the peril of the
+present moment, and I do believe that one of the greatest calamities that
+could befall the country would be the utter want of confidence in the
+declarations of public men which must follow the adoption of the bill of
+reform by me as a minister of the crown."<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a> This language, repeated
+under reserve in the house of commons, after a direct appeal from the
+king, strongly contrasts with that of the duke who roundly asserted that
+he should have been ashamed to show his face in the streets if he had
+refused to serve his sovereign in an emergency. The marked divergence of
+views and conduct between the two leaders of the conservative party led to
+a temporary estrangement which materially weakened their counsels, and was
+not finally removed until a fresh crisis arose two years later.</p>
+
+<p>While Lyndhurst and the duke were vainly endeavouring to patch up a
+government without Peel or his personal adherents, Goulburn and Croker,
+the house of commons and the country gave decisive proofs of their
+resolution. A vote of confidence in Grey's ministry, proposed by
+Ebrington, was carried on May 10 by a majority of eighty. Petitions came
+in from the city of London and Manchester, calling upon the commons to
+stop the supplies, and the reckless populace clamoured for a run upon the
+Bank of England. A mass meeting convened by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> Birmingham political
+union had already hoisted the standard of revolt against the legislature,
+unless it would comply with the will of the people; the example was
+spreading rapidly, and events seemed to be hurrying on towards a
+fulfilment of Russell's prediction that, in the event of a political
+deadlock, the British constitution would perish in the conflict. The duke
+was credited, of course unjustly, with the intention of establishing
+military rule, and doubts were freely expressed whether he could rely
+either on the army or on the police to put down insurgent mobs. The
+excitement in the house of commons itself was scarcely less formidable,
+and it soon became evident that high tories were almost as much incensed
+by the prospect of a tory reform bill as radicals and whigs by the vote on
+Lyndhurst's amendment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_237" id="TOPIC_237"></a>On the 14th Manners Sutton and Alexander Baring, Lyndhurst's trusted
+confidants, plainly informed the duke that his self-imposed task was
+hopeless, and on the next day the duke advised the king to recall Grey.
+The king, who had apparently grasped the position earlier, acquiesced in
+this solution of the question. He agreed to recall Grey and his
+colleagues, and to use his own personal influence in persuading tory peers
+to abstain from voting. He attempted to impose upon his old ministers the
+condition of modifying the bill considerably, but they continued to insist
+on maintaining its integrity, and on swamping the upper house, unless its
+opposition should be withdrawn. It was, happily, unnecessary to resort to
+such extreme measures. A letter from the king, dated the 17th, informed
+Wellington that all difficulties would be removed by "a declaration in the
+house of lords from a sufficient number of peers that they have come to
+the resolution of dropping their further opposition to the reform bill".
+On that night, after stating what had passed, the duke retired from the
+house, followed by about 100 peers, and absented himself from the
+discussion of the bill in committee. A stalwart minority remained, and
+took issue on a few clauses, but their numbers constantly dwindled, and
+when the report was received on June 1 only eighteen peers recorded their
+dissent in a protest. <a name="TOPIC_238" id="TOPIC_238"></a>Grey himself, though suffering from illness, moved
+the third reading on the 4th, when it was carried by 106 to 22. His last
+words did not lack the dignity which had marked his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> bearing throughout,
+and expressed the earnest hope that, in spite of sinister forebodings,
+"the measure would be found to be, in the best sense, conservative of the
+constitution".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p>The amendments made in the house of lords were slight, and the house of
+commons adopted them without any argument on their merits. Peel, who had
+made a convincing defence of his recent conduct, and who afterwards took a
+statesmanlike course in the reformed parliament, declared, with some
+petulance, that he would have nothing to do with the consideration of
+provisions or amendments passed under compulsion, and that he was prepared
+to accept them, <i>en bloc</i>, whatever their nature or consequences. The
+bill, therefore, received the royal assent on the 7th, but the king could
+not be induced to perform this ceremony in person. Though his scruples had
+been respected in framing the scheme of reform, though he was consulted at
+every turn and clearly recognised the necessity to which he bowed, and
+though he was spared the resort to a <i>coup d'&eacute;tat</i> which he abhorred, he
+could not but feel humiliated by the ill-disguised subjection of the crown
+and the nobility to a single chamber of the people. It is greatly to his
+honour that, with limited intelligence, and strong prejudices, he should
+have played a straightforward and strictly constitutional part in so
+perilous a crisis.</p>
+
+<p>By the great reform bill, as it was still called even after it became an
+act, the whole representative system of England and Wales was
+reconstructed. Fifty-six nomination boroughs, as we have seen, lost their
+members altogether; thirty more were reduced to one member, and Weymouth
+which, coupled with Melcombe Regis, had returned four members, now lost
+two. Twenty-two large towns, including metropolitan districts, were
+allotted two members each; twenty smaller but considerable towns received
+one member each; the number of English and Welsh county members was
+increased from ninety-four to one hundred and fifty-nine, and the larger
+counties were parcelled out into divisions. All the fanciful and
+antiquated franchises which had prevailed in the older boroughs were swept
+away to make room for a levelling &pound;10 household suffrage, the privileges
+of freemen being alone preserved. The rights of 40s. freeholders were
+retained in counties, but they found themselves associated with a large
+body of copyholders, leaseholders, and tenants-at-will pay<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span>ing &pound;50 in
+rent. The general result was to place the borough representation mainly in
+the hands of shopkeepers, and the county representation mainly in those of
+landlords and farmers. The former change had a far greater effect on the
+balance of parties than the latter. The shopkeepers, of whom many were
+nonconformists, long continued to cherish advanced radical traditions,
+partly derived from the reform agitation, and constantly rebelled against
+dictation from their rich customers. The farmers, dependent on their
+landlords and closely allied with them in defending the corn laws, proved
+more submissive to influence, and constituted the backbone of the great
+agricultural interest.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_239" id="TOPIC_239"></a>The enactment of the English reform bill carried with it as its necessary
+sequel the success of similar bills for Scotland and Ireland. In Scotland
+electoral abuses were so gross that reform was comparatively simple, and
+that proposed, as Jeffrey, the lord advocate, frankly said, "left not a
+shred of the former system". The nation, as a whole, gained eight members,
+since its total representation was raised from forty-five to fifty-three
+seats, thirty for counties and twenty-three for cities and burghs. Two
+members were allotted to Edinburgh and Glasgow respectively; one each to
+Paisley, Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, and Greenock, as well as to certain
+groups of boroughs. Both the county and burgh electorates were entirely
+transformed. The "old parchment freeholders" in counties, many of whom
+owned not a foot of land, were superseded by a mixed body of freeholders
+and leaseholders with real though various qualifications. The electoral
+monopoly of town councils was replaced by the enfranchisement of
+householders with a uniform qualification of &pound;10. A claim to
+representation on behalf of the Scottish universities was negatived in the
+house of lords. The number of representatives for Ireland was raised from
+100 to 105. The disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders was maintained
+against the strenuous attacks of O'Connell and Sheil, but the introduction
+of the &pound;10 borough franchise amply balanced the loss of democratic
+influence in counties. On the whole the transfer of power from class to
+class was greater in Scotland and Ireland than in England itself, and in
+Ireland this signified a corresponding transfer of power from protestants
+to catholics. The rule of the priests was almost as absolute as ever until
+it was checked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> for a while by a purely democratic movement, and the Irish
+vote in the house of commons was generally cast on the radical side.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>RETROSPECT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT.</i></div>
+
+<p>A calm retrospect of the reform movement, culminating in the acts of 1832,
+compels us to see how little the course of politics is guided by reason,
+and how much by circumstances. Every argument employed in that and the
+preceding year possessed equal force at the end of the eighteenth century,
+and the benefits of reform might have been obtained at a much smaller cost
+of domestic strife; nor can we doubt that, but for the French revolution,
+these arguments would have prevailed. Whether or not the sanguinary
+disruption of French society furthered the cause of progress on the
+continent, it assuredly threw back that cause in Great Britain for more
+than a generation. Not only did its horrors and enormities produce a
+reaction which paralysed the efforts of liberals in this country, but the
+wars arising out of it engrossed for twenty years the whole energy of the
+nation. Had it been possible for Pitt to pass a reform bill after carrying
+the Irish union, the current of English history would have been strangely
+diverted. The sublime tenacity of that proud aristocracy which defied the
+French empire in arms, and nerved all the rest of Europe by its example
+and its subsidies, would never have been exhibited by a democratic or
+middle class parliament, and it is more than probable that Great Britain
+would have stood neutral while the continent was enslaved or worked out
+its own salvation. On the other hand, in such a case, Great Britain might
+have been spared a great part of the misery and discontent which,
+following the peace, but indirectly caused by the war, actually paved the
+way for the reform movement. It remained for a second French revolution,
+combined with the infatuation of English tories, to supply the motive
+power which converted a party cry into a national demand for justice. The
+reform act was, in truth, a completion of the earlier English revolution
+provoked by the Stuarts. Considering the condition of the people before
+its introduction, and the obstinacy of the resistance to be overborne, we
+may well marvel that it was carried, after all, so peacefully, and must
+ever remember it as a signal triumph of whig statesmanship.</p>
+
+<p>It was the crowning merit of the reform act, from a whig point of view,
+that it stayed the rising tide of democracy, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> raised a barrier against
+household suffrage and the ballot which was not broken down for a
+generation more. It put an end to an oligarchy of borough-owners and
+borough-mongers; it was a charter of political rights for the
+manufacturing interest and the great middle class. But it did nothing for
+the working classes in town or country; indeed, by the abolition of
+potwallopers and scot-and-lot voters in a few boroughs, they forfeited
+such fragmentary representation as they had possessed. Hence the seeds of
+chartism, already sown, were quickened in 1832; but socialism was not yet
+a force in politics, and it was still hoped that, under the new electoral
+system, the sufferings of the poor might be mostly remedied by act of
+parliament. The effect of the reform act on the balance of the
+constitution was not, at first, fully appreciated. The grievance of
+nomination-boroughs had been all but completely redressed, and that of
+political corruption greatly diminished, but the hereditary peerage
+remained, and the right of the lords to override the will of the commons
+had ostensibly survived the conflict of 1831-32. But far-sighted men could
+not fail to perceive that, in fact, the upper house was no longer a
+co-ordinate estate of the realm. The peers retained an indefinite power of
+delaying a measure, but it soon came to be a received maxim that on a
+measure of primary importance such a power could only be exercised in
+order to give the commons an opportunity of reconsideration or to force an
+appeal to the country at a general election, and that a new house of
+commons, armed with a mandate to carry that measure, though once rejected
+by the peers, could not be resisted except at the risk of revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The best safeguard against collision, however, was to be found in the
+latent conservatism of the house of commons itself. Reformed as it was, it
+had not ceased to be mainly a house of country gentlemen, and the
+non-payment of members was a security for its being composed, almost
+exclusively, of men with independent means and a stake in the country. A
+very large proportion of these had been educated at the great public
+schools, or the old English universities. They might accept on the
+hustings the doctrine, against which Burke so eloquently protested, that a
+representative is above all a delegate, and must go to parliament as the
+pledged mouthpiece of his constituency. But in the house itself they could
+not divest themselves of the senti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span>ments derived from their birth, their
+education, and their own personal interests; nor was it found impossible,
+without a direct violation of pledges, to act upon their own opinions in
+many a critical division. Still, it has been well pointed out that, with
+the flowing tide of reform there arose a new and one-sided conception of
+statesmanship as consisting in progressive amendment of the laws rather
+than in efficient administration, so that it is now popularly regarded as
+a mark of weakness on the part of any government to allow a session to
+pass without effecting some important legislative change.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CORONATION OF WILLIAM IV.</i></div>
+
+<p>The supreme interest of the reform bill and its incidents naturally
+dwarfed all other political questions, and the legislative annals of
+1831-32 are otherwise singularly devoid of historical importance. The
+coronation of William IV., which, as has been seen, took place on
+September 8, 1831, was hardly more than an interlude in the great
+struggle, yet it served for the moment to assuage the animosities of party
+warfare. The king himself, who disliked solemn ceremonials, and the
+ministers, deeply pledged to economy, were inclined to dispense with the
+pageant altogether. It was found, however, that not only peers and court
+officials but the public would be grievously disappointed by the omission
+of what, after all, is a solemn public celebration of the compact between
+the sovereign and the nation. The coronation was, therefore, carried out
+with due pomp and all the time-honoured formalities, but without the
+profuse extravagance which attended the enthronement of George IV. There
+was no public banquet, and the public celebration ceased with the ceremony
+in Westminster Abbey. The Duke of Wellington and other leading members of
+the opposition had been duly consulted by the government; there was a
+welcome respite from parliamentary warfare; the king's returning
+popularity was confirmed; and all classes of the people were satisfied.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CHOLERA EPIDEMIC.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_240" id="TOPIC_240"></a>Two months later, the appearance of the cholera at Sunderland added
+another grave cause of anxiety to all the difficulties created by the
+defeat of the reform bill in the house of lords, and the ominous riots at
+Bristol. A similar but distinct and infinitely milder disease had long
+been known under the name of <i>cholera morbus</i>, or more correctly <i>cholera
+nostras</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> Asiatic cholera, as the new disease was called, had no affinity
+with any other known disease, and excited all the greater terror by its
+novelty, as well as by the suddenness of its fatal effect. It was first
+observed by English physicians in 1817, when 10,000 persons fell victims
+to it in the district of Jessor in Bengal. About the same time it attacked
+and decimated the central division of the army of Lord Hastings, advancing
+against Gwalior. Before long it spread over the whole province of Bengal,
+and eastward along the coasts of Asia as far as China and Timur in the
+East Indies, crossed the great wall, and penetrated into Mongolia. In 1818
+it broke out at Bombay, and during the next twelve years continued to
+haunt, at intervals, the cities of Persia and Asiatic Turkey, with the
+coasts of the Caspian Sea. It was not until 1829 that it reached the
+Russian province of Orenburg, by way of the river Volga, visiting St.
+Petersburg and Archangel in June, 1830. Thence it travelled slowly but
+steadily westward through Northern Europe, as well as southward into the
+valleys of the Danube and its tributaries, until it made its appearance at
+Berlin and Hamburg in the summer of 1831. Long before this, and while the
+reform crisis was in its acutest stage, the probability of its advent was
+fully realised in England, and orders in council were issued in June,
+1831, placing in quarantine all ships coming from the Baltic.
+Notwithstanding the outcry against meddling with trade, men of war were
+appointed to enforce these orders, and when the news came that Marshal
+Diebitsch had died of the disease in Poland, the alarm increased and all
+regulations against plague were made applicable to cholera. Whether or not
+these precautions were ineffective, it swooped upon Sunderland on October
+26, and prevailed there for two months, though its true character was very
+unwillingly recognised.<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a></p>
+
+<p>The conflict between the newly created board of health and the merchants
+importing goods caused the government no little perplexity. The protests
+of the latter were strengthened by the somewhat remarkable fact that, once
+established at Sunderland, the cholera seemed to be arrested in its course
+and for a while spread no further. There seemed to be some ground for the
+belief that it was partly due to extreme overcrowding and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> neglect of all
+sanitary rules in that town, but this belief was soon dissipated by its
+appearance at Newcastle and progress over the north-eastern counties even
+during the winter months. Seven cases of it occurred on the banks of the
+Thames just below London early in February, 1832, and though its virulence
+in England was alleged to be less than on the continent, further
+experience hardly justified that opinion. The appalling violence of its
+first onslaught on some vulnerable districts may be illustrated by the
+example of Manchester, where a whole family just arrived from an infected
+locality was swept away within twenty-four hours. The government did its
+duty by disseminating instructions for its prevention and treatment among
+the local authorities, but the prejudices of the lower orders were against
+all interference for their benefit, and scenes of brutality were sometimes
+enacted such as may still be witnessed in oriental cities scourged by the
+plague. After a temporary decline, the visitation recurred in all its
+severity, and in July the deaths of a few persons in the highest circles
+occasioned a panic in the west end of London. Still the declared number of
+deaths in the metropolitan area was only 5,275, showing a far lower rate
+of mortality in London than in Paris at the same time, and much lower than
+in London itself during the epidemic of 1849, when statistics were more
+trustworthy. None of the cholera epidemics, however, approached in
+deadliness the plagues of 1625 and 1665. In the latter year the number of
+deaths in London from plague alone represented about one-fifth of the
+entire resident population&mdash;a proportion equivalent to a mortality of
+above 200,000 in the London of 1831-32. This comparative immunity was
+partly due to improved sanitation, the vigorous development of which may
+be said to date from the first visitation of cholera.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_241" id="TOPIC_241"></a>The census taken in 1831 revealed an increase of population, which, though
+not equal to that of the preceding decade, indicated a most satisfactory
+growth of wealth and employment. It was found that Great Britain contained
+about 16,500,000 inhabitants, but of these, as might be expected, a
+smaller percentage was employed in agriculture and a larger percentage in
+manufacturing industry than in 1821. It has been calculated that since the
+end of the great war the accumulation of capital had been twice as rapid
+as the multiplication of the people, but, in spite of this, pauperism, as
+measured by poor law expendi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>ture, had increased almost continuously since
+1823, and emigration received a startling impulse in 1831-32. Rick burning
+and frame breaking were the joint result of childish ignorance, miserable
+wages, mistaken taxes on the staple of food, and poor laws administered as
+if for the very purpose of encouraging improvidence and vice. All these
+causes were capable of being removed or mitigated by legislation, for even
+the rate of wages was kept down by the ruinous system of out-door relief.
+But it was only a few thoughtful persons who then appreciated either the
+extent or the real sources of the mischief, and the disputes which soon
+arose about the proper remedies to be applied have been handed on to a
+later age.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_242" id="TOPIC_242"></a>Next to parliamentary reform the state of Ireland was by far the most
+important subject which engaged the attention of the legislature in
+1831-32. The population had increased from 6,801,827 in 1821 to 7,767,401
+in 1831, and the increase, unlike that in England, had been almost
+exclusively in the agricultural districts. While the political motive for
+multiplying small freeholds had ceased, the motives for multiplying small
+tenancies were as strong as ever, and were felt by landlords no less than
+by cottiers. This class, often inhabiting huts like those of savage tribes
+and living in a squalor hardly to be seen elsewhere in western Europe,
+chiefly depended for their subsistence on potatoes&mdash;the most uncertain and
+the least nutritious of the crops used for human food. Many hundred
+thousands of them had no employment in their own country and no means of
+livelihood except the produce of the scanty patches around their own turf
+cabins. Tens of thousands flocked to England annually seeking harvest
+work, and a small number emigrated to Canada or the United States, the
+passage money for an emigrant being then almost prohibitive. Those who
+could not pay rent were liable to eviction, and eviction was a more cruel
+fate then than now, since there was no poor law in Ireland. Fever was rife
+in their miserable abodes, following in the steps of hunger, and for
+relief of any kind they could rely only on the mercy of their landlords or
+the charity of their neighbours. <a name="TOPIC_243" id="TOPIC_243"></a>Under such conditions of life crime and
+disaffection could not but flourish, and the Irish peasant could hardly be
+blamed if he listened eagerly to the counsels of O'Connell. For him
+catholic emancipation had no meaning except so far as it gave him a hope
+that parliament,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> swayed by the great Irish demagogue, would abolish
+tithes, if not rent, and find some means of making Irishmen happy in their
+own country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ANGLESEY LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND.</i></div>
+
+<p>Had O'Connell been a true patriot, or even an honest politician, he would
+have devoted his vast powers and influence to practical schemes for the
+good of Ireland, and specially to a solution of the agrarian question.
+Unhappily, smarting under a not unfounded sense of injustice, when he was
+disabled from taking his seat for Clare, he threw his whole energy into a
+new campaign for the repeal of the union, which occupied the rest of his
+life. So far from acknowledging any gratitude to the whigs, through whose
+support emancipation had been carried, he exhausted all the resources of
+his scurrilous rhetoric upon them, lavishing the epithets "base, brutal,
+and bloody," with something like Homeric iteration. In December, 1830,
+Anglesey had returned to succeed the Duke of Northumberland, and Stanley
+occupied the post of chief secretary, in place of Hardinge. The ministers
+were privately advised to buy O'Connell at any price, and it was intimated
+that he would not object to become a law officer of the crown, or at least
+would not refuse a judicial appointment. It may well be doubted whether
+the offer of such a bargain to such a man could have been justified by
+success; it is more than probable that it would have failed, and it is
+quite certain that failure would have brought infinite discredit upon the
+government. At all events the attempt was not made, and other catholic
+aspirants to legal promotion were passed over with less excuse.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Anglesey proved a resolute viceroy, and proclaimed the various
+associations, meetings, and processions organised by O'Connell, with
+little regard for his own popularity. O'Connell's policy, carried out with
+the cunning of a skilful lawyer, was to obey the law in the letter, but to
+break it almost defiantly in the spirit. At last, however, he went a step
+too far by advising the people who had come for a prohibited meeting to
+reassemble and hold it elsewhere. He was arrested on January 18, 1831, and
+pleaded "Not guilty," but on February 17, when his trial came on, he
+allowed judgment to go by default against him on those counts of the
+indictment which charged him with a statutable offence, provided that
+other counts, which charged him with a conspiracy at common law, should be
+withdrawn. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span> attorney-general assented, and the case was adjourned
+until the first day in Easter term. Before that day arrived, however, the
+reform bill had been introduced, and O'Connell had made a powerful speech
+in support of it. In the desperate struggle which ensued, the ministers
+shrunk from estranging so formidable an ally, a further adjournment of the
+case was allowed, a sudden dissolution of parliament took place, the act
+under which O'Connell was to be sentenced expired with the parliament, and
+no further action was taken.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>"TITHE-WAR" IN IRELAND.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_244" id="TOPIC_244"></a>During the year 1831, the agitation for repeal which O'Connell had set on
+foot, as soon as the emancipation act had been passed, was for a while
+thrust into the shade by the fiercer agitation against tithes. This
+agitation was connected, in theory, with the demand for the abolition or
+reduction of the Irish Church establishment, but was, in fact, entirely
+independent of that or any other constitutional movement. It may seem
+inexplicable to political students of a later age that Irish questions of
+secondary importance, and eminently capable of equitable treatment, should
+have convulsed the whole island and disturbed the whole course of imperial
+politics, during the reign of William IV. The rebellion against tithes or
+"tithe-war," as it was called, had not the semblance of justification in
+law or reason. Every tenant who took part in it had inherited or acquired
+his farm, subject to payment of tithes, and might have been charged a
+higher rent if he could have obtained it tithe-free. The tithe was the
+property of the parson as much as the land was the property of the
+landlord, and the wilful refusal of it was from a legal point of view
+sheer robbery. On the other hand, the mode of collection was extremely
+vexatious, perhaps involving the seizure of a pig, a bag of meal, or a
+sack of potatoes; and a starving cottier, paying fees to his own priest,
+was easily persuaded by demagogues that it was an arbitrary tribute
+extorted by clerical tyrants of an alien faith.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it came to pass that the history of the Irish "tithe-war" exhibits
+the Irish peasantry in their very worst moods, and it is stained with
+atrocities never surpassed in later records of Irish agrarian conspiracy.
+It is among the strange and sad anomalies of national character that a
+people so kindly in their domestic relations, so little prone to ordinary
+crime, and so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> amenable to better influences, should have shown, in all
+ages, down to the very latest, a capacity for dastardly inhumanity, under
+vindictive and gregarious impulses, only to be matched by Spanish and
+Italian brigands among the races of modern Europe. Yet so it is, and no
+"coercion" (so-called) ultimately enforced by legal authority was
+comparable in severity with the coercion which bloodthirsty miscreants
+ruthlessly applied to honest and peaceable neighbours, only guilty of
+paying their lawful debts. It is not too much to say that anarchy
+prevailed over a great part of Ireland, especially of Leinster, during the
+years 1831 and 1832. The collection of tithes became almost impossible.
+The tithe-proctors were tortured or murdered; the few willing tithe-payers
+were cruelly maltreated or intimidated; the police, unless mustered in
+large bodies, were held at bay; cattle were driven, or, if seized and
+offered for sale, could find no purchasers; and the protestant clergy, who
+had acted on the whole with great forbearance, were reduced to extremities
+of privations. Five of the police were shot dead on one occasion; on
+another, twelve who were escorting a tithe-proctor were massacred in cold
+blood. A large number of rioters were killed in encounters with the
+police, which sometimes assumed the form of pitched battles and closely
+resembled civil war. Special commissions were sent down into certain
+districts, and a few executions took place, but in most cases Irish juries
+proved as regardless of their oaths as they ever have on trials of
+prisoners for popular crimes. O'Connell, and even Sheil, tacitly
+countenanced these lawless proceedings, and openly palliated them in the
+house of commons.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_245" id="TOPIC_245"></a>The whig government, engaged in a life-and-death contest with the English
+borough-mongers, hesitated to crush the Irish insurgents by military
+force, or to initiate a sweeping reform of the Irish Church. Early in
+1832, however, committees of both houses reported in favour of giving the
+clergy temporary relief out of public funds, and of ultimately commuting
+tithes into a charge upon the land. A preliminary bill for the former
+purpose was promptly carried by Stanley, and made the government
+responsible for recovering the arrears. The committee, pursuing their
+inquiries, produced fuller reports, and again recommended a complete
+extinction of tithes in Ireland. But the method proposed and embodied in
+three bills introduced by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> Stanley in the same year, was too complicated
+to serve as a permanent settlement, and was denounced as illusory by the
+Irish members. The first bill was, in fact, a compulsory extension of acts
+already passed in 1822 and 1823, the former of which had permitted the
+tithe-owner to lease the tithe to the landlord, while the latter permitted
+the tithe-owner and tithe-payers of each parish to arrange a composition.
+Unfortunately, the act of 1823 had provided that the payment in
+commutation of tithe should be distributed over grass-lands hitherto
+tithe-free in Ireland as well as over land hitherto liable to tithe. The
+act was in consequence unpopular with a section of farmers, while at the
+same time the bishops resented the commutation, as likely to diminish the
+value of beneficies. But in spite of this opposition the act of 1823 had
+been widely adopted. Stanley's bill to render such commutations compulsory
+passed, but his other two bills, providing a new ecclesiastical machinery
+for buying up tithes, were abandoned at the end of the session. Of course
+the substitution of the government for the clergyman as creditor in
+respect of arrears had no soothing effect on the debtors. The reign of
+terror continued unabated, and O'Connell contented himself with pointing
+out that without repeal there could be no peace in Ireland. We may so far
+anticipate the legislation of 1833 as to notice the inevitable failure of
+the experiment which converted the government into a tithe-proctor. It was
+then replaced by a new plan, under which the government abandoned all
+processes under the existing law, advanced &pound;1,000,000 to clear off all
+arrears of tithe, and sought reimbursement by a land tax payable for a
+period of five years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>EDUCATION IN IRELAND.</i></div>
+
+<p>It reflects credit on the unreformed house of commons that in its very
+last session, harassed by the irreconcilable attitude of the catholic
+population in Ireland, it should have found time and patience not only for
+the pressing question of Irish tithes, but for the consideration of a
+resolution introductory to an Irish poor law, of a bill (which became law)
+for checking the abuses of Irish party processions, and of a grant for a
+board to superintend the mixed education of Irish catholic and protestant
+children. The discussion of Sadler's motion in favour of an Irish poor law
+was somewhat academic, and produced a division among the Irish members,
+O'Connell, with gross inconsistency, declaring himself vehemently opposed
+to any such measure.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> The ministers professed sympathy with its principle,
+but would not pledge themselves to deal immediately with so difficult and
+complicated a subject, perhaps foreseeing the necessity of radical change
+in the English poor law system. The processions bill was vigorously
+resisted on behalf of the Orangemen, as specially aimed at their annual
+demonstrations on July 12, but it was so manifestly wise to remove every
+wanton aggravation of party spirit in Ireland, that it was passed just
+before the prorogation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_246" id="TOPIC_246"></a>The experiment of mixed education in Ireland had already been made with
+partial success, first by individuals, and afterwards by an association
+known as the Kildare Place Society. On the appointment of Dr. Whately to
+the archbishopric of Dublin, it received a fresh impulse, and Stanley, as
+chief secretary, definitely adopted the principle, recommended by two
+commissions and two committees, of "a combined moral and literary and
+separate religious instruction". A board of national education was
+established in Dublin, composed of eminent Roman catholics as well as
+protestants, to superintend all state-aided schools in which selections
+from the Bible, approved by the board, were to be read on two days in the
+week. Though provision was made for unrestricted biblical teaching, out of
+school hours, on the other four days, protestant bigotry was roused
+against the very idea of compromise. A shrewd observer remarked, "While
+the whole system is crumbling to dust under their feet, while the Church
+is prostrate, property of all kind threatened, and robbery, murder,
+starvation, and agitation rioting over the land, these wise legislators
+are debating whether the brats at school shall read the whole Bible or
+only parts of it".<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> The opponents of the national board failed to
+defeat the scheme in parliament, and it was justly mentioned with
+satisfaction by the king in his prorogation speech of August 16. But its
+benefits, though lasting, were seriously curtailed by sectarian jealousy.
+Most of the protestant clergy frowned upon the national schools, as the
+Roman catholic priesthood had frowned upon the schools of the Kildare
+Place Society, and a noble opportunity of mitigating religious strife in
+Ireland was to a great extent wasted. Thus ended the eventful session of
+1832.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a> See Professor Dicey's observations on this clause, <i>Law and
+Opinion in England</i>, p. 54, <i>n.</i></p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a> Wellington, <i>Despatches, etc.</i>, viii., 206; Parker, <i>Sir
+Robert Peel</i>, ii., 207.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a> Goldwin Smith, <i>United Kingdom</i>, ii., 354; Dicey, <i>Law and
+Opinion in England</i>, p. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a> C. Creighton, <i>History of Epidemics in Britain</i>, ii., 768,
+793-97, 860-62.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a> Greville, <i>Memoirs</i> (March 9, 1832), ii., 267.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV.</h2>
+
+<h3>FRUITS OF THE REFORM.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_247" id="TOPIC_247"></a>It was assumed in 1832, and has been held ever since, that a
+redistribution act must be speedily followed by a dissolution, so as to
+give the new constituencies the power of returning new members.
+Accordingly, parliament, having been prorogued until October 16, was
+further prorogued until December 3, and then finally dissolved. The
+general election which followed, though awaited with much anxiety, was
+orderly on the whole, and produced less change than had been expected in
+the <i>personnel</i> of the house of commons. The counties, for the most part,
+elected men from the landed aristocracy, the great towns elected men of
+recognised distinction, and few political leaders were excluded, though
+Croker abjured political life and refused to solicit a seat in the
+reformed house of commons. The good sense of the country asserted itself;
+while Cobbett was returned for Oldham, "Orator" Hunt was defeated at
+Preston, and no general preference was shown for violent demagogues by the
+more democratic boroughs. The age of members in the new house was higher,
+on the average, than in the old; its social character was somewhat lower,
+and the high authority of William Ewart Gladstone, who now entered
+parliament for the first time, may be quoted for the opinion that it was
+inferior, in the main, as a deliberative assembly. But it was certainly
+superior as a representative assembly, it contained more capable men of
+business, and its legislative productions, as we shall hereafter see,
+claim the gratitude of posterity. A certain want of modesty in the new
+class of members was observed by hostile critics, and was to be expected
+in men who had won their seats by popular oratory and not through
+patronage. The house of commons had already ceased to be "the best club in
+London," and later re<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span>forms have still further weakened its title to be so
+regarded, but they have also shown the wonderful power of assimilation
+inherent in the atmosphere of the house itself, and the spirit of
+freemasonry which springs up among those who enter it by very different
+avenues.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE FIRST REFORMED PARLIAMENT.</i></div>
+
+<p>The change wrought by the reform act in the strength and distribution of
+parties was immediate and conspicuous. The ancient division of whigs and
+tories, which had become well-nigh obsolete in the reign of George IV.,
+had been revived by the great struggle of 1831-32. It was now superseded
+to a great extent by the combination of the radicals with O'Connell's
+followers into an independent section, and by the growth of a party under
+Peel, distinct from the inveterate tories and known by the name of
+"conservative," which first came into use in 1831.<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> The preponderance
+of liberalism, in its moderate and extreme forms, was overwhelming. It was
+roughly computed that nearly half the house were ministerialists and about
+190 members radicals, Irish repealers, or free lances, while only 150 were
+classed as "conservatives," apparently including tories.<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> In such
+circumstances the attitude to be adopted by Peel was of the highest
+constitutional importance. It is some proof of the respect for
+statesmanship instinctively felt by the new house of commons that Peel, as
+inexorable an opponent of reform as Canning himself, should at once have
+assumed a foremost position and soon obtained an ascendency in an assembly
+so largely composed of his opponents.</p>
+
+<p>But Peel himself was no longer a mere party leader. Unlike Wellington and
+Eldon, he saw the necessity of accepting loyally the accomplished fact and
+shaping his future course in accordance with the nation's will. He,
+therefore, took an early opportunity of declaring that he regarded the
+reform act as irrevocable, and that he was prepared to participate in the
+dispassionate amendment of any institution that really needed it. In a
+private letter to Goulburn he stated that, in his judgment, "the best
+position the government could assume would be that of moderation between
+opposite extremes of ultra-toryism and radicalism," intimating further
+that "we should appear to the greatest advantage in defending the
+government" against their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> own extreme left wing.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> In this policy he
+persevered; his influence did much to quell the confusion and disorder of
+the first debate, and his followers swelled the government majorities in
+several of the early divisions. When he came to review the first session
+of the reformed parliament he remarked in a private letter that what had
+been foreseen took place, that "the popular assembly exercised tacitly
+supreme power," and, without abolishing the crown or the house of lords,
+overawed the convictions of both.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>IRISH COERCION BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_248" id="TOPIC_248"></a>The passion for reform, far from spending itself in remodelling the house
+of commons, filled the statute-book with monuments of remedial
+legislation. No session was more fruitful in legislative activity than
+that of 1833. But the way of legislation was at first blocked against all
+projects of improvement by the urgent necessity of passing an Irish
+coercion bill. This had been indicated in the king's speech, and on
+February 15, 1833 Grey introduced the strongest measure of repression ever
+devised for curbing anarchy in Ireland. It combined, as he explained, the
+provisions of "the proclamation act, the insurrection act, the partial
+application of martial law, and the partial suspension of the <i>habeas
+corpus</i> act". But the barbarities and terrorism which it was designed to
+put down were beyond precedent and almost beyond belief. The attempt to
+collect the arrears of tithe, even with the aid of military force, had
+usually failed, and less than an eighth of the sum due was actually
+levied. The organised defiance of law was not, however, confined to
+refusal of tithes; it embraced the refusal of rent and extended over the
+whole field of agrarian relations. The Whiteboys of the eighteenth century
+reappeared as "Whitefeet," and other secret associations, under grotesque
+names, enforced their decrees by wholesale murder, burglary, arson, savage
+assaults, destruction of property, and mutilation of cattle. In two
+counties, Kilkenny and Queen's County, nearly a hundred murders or
+attempted murders were reported within twelve months, and the murderous
+intimidation of witnesses and jurors secured impunity to perpetrators of
+crimes. No civilised government could have tolerated an orgy of
+lawlessness on so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> vast a scale, and nothing but the exigencies of the
+reform bill can excuse Grey and his colleagues for not having grappled
+with it earlier. Nor does it appear that any remedy less stern would have
+been effectual. Where unarmed citizens have not the courage either to
+protect themselves or to aid the constabulary employed for their
+protection, soldiers, accustomed to face death and inflict it upon others
+under lawful command, must be called in to maintain order. Where civil
+tribunals have become a mockery, summary justice must be dealt out by
+military tribunals. Force may be no remedy for grievances, but it is the
+one sovereign remedy for organised crime, and this was soon to be proved
+in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The viceroy, Anglesey, true to his liberal instincts, would have postponed
+coercion to measures of relief, such as a settlement of the church
+question. Stanley, on the other hand, insisted on the prompt introduction
+of a stringent peace preservation bill, and his energetic will prevailed.
+The bill contained provisions enabling the lord-lieutenant to suppress any
+meeting, establishing a curfew law in disturbed districts, and placing
+offenders in such districts under the jurisdiction of courts martial with
+legal assessors. It passed the house of lords with little discussion on
+the 22nd, and was laid before the house of commons a few days later by
+Althorp, who had already brought in an Irish Church temporalities bill.
+The debate on the address had already given warning of the reception which
+the Irish members would accord to any coercion bill, and of their
+malignant hostility to Stanley. Efforts were made to delay its
+introduction, and full advantage was taken of Althorp's statement that one
+special commission had been completely successful. His opening speech,
+tame and inconclusive, discouraged his own followers. The fate of the bill
+appeared doubtful, but Stanley, who had twice staked the existence of the
+ministry on its adoption, reversed the whole tendency of the debate by a
+speech of marvellous force and brilliancy, which Russell afterwards
+described as "one of the greatest triumphs ever won in a popular assembly
+by the powers of oratory".<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> It was in this speech that he proved
+himself at least a match for O'Connell, whom he scathed with fierce
+indignation as having lately called the house<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> of commons a body of
+scoundrels. It cost many nights of debate to carry the bill, with slight
+amendments, but Stanley's appeal had a lasting effect, and it became law
+in April, to the great benefit of Ireland.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>IRISH CHURCH TEMPORALITIES BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_249" id="TOPIC_249"></a>Meanwhile, the Irish Church temporalities bill was pressed forward as a
+counterpoise to coercion. It imposed a graduated tax upon all episcopal,
+capitular, and clerical incomes above &pound;200 a year, and placed the
+proceeds, estimated at &pound;60,000 or &pound;70,000 a year, in the hands of
+commissioners, to be expended in the repairs of churches, the erection of
+glebe-houses, and other parochial charges. In this way Irish ratepayers
+might be relieved of the obnoxious "vestry cess," a species of Church
+rate, at the expense of the clergy. A further saving of &pound;60,000 a year or
+upwards was to be effected by a reduction of the Irish episcopate, aided
+by a new and less wasteful method of leasing Church lands attached to
+episcopal sees. Two out of four Irish archbishoprics and eight out of
+eighteen bishoprics were doomed to extinction, as vacancies should occur.
+Dioceses and benefices were to be freely consolidated, clerical sinecures
+were to cease, and the more scandalous abuses of the Irish Church were to
+be redressed.</p>
+
+<p>As a scheme for ecclesiastical rearrangement within the Church itself, the
+bill was sound and liberal, but it was utterly futile to imagine that it
+would be welcomed, except as a mere instalment of conciliation, by Roman
+catholics who looked upon the protestant Church itself as a standing
+national grievance. The only boon secured to them was exemption from their
+share of vestry cess, for, though Althorp intimated that the ultimate
+surplus to be realised by the union of sees and livings would be at the
+disposal of parliament, they well knew how many influences would operate
+to prevent its reaching them. Not even O'Connell, still less the ministry,
+ventured to propose "concurrent endowment" as it was afterwards called,
+and the very idea of diverting revenues from the protestant establishment
+to Roman catholic uses was disclaimed with horror. More than a century
+earlier, a partition of these revenues between the great protestant
+communions had been seriously entertained, and Pitt had notoriously
+contemplated a provision for the Roman catholic priests out of state
+funds. But no such demand was now made, and the one feature of the bill
+which commanded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> the vigorous support of O'Connell and his adherents was
+the 147th section, or "appropriation clause," which enabled parliament to
+apply the expected surplus of some &pound;60,000 in income, or some &pound;3,000,000
+in capital, to whatever purposes, secular or otherwise, it might think fit
+to approve. The far-reaching importance of this principle was fully
+understood on both sides. To radicals and Roman catholics it was the sole
+virtue of the bill; to friends of the Irish Church and tories it was a
+blot to be erased at any cost.</p>
+
+<p>The progress of the measure was not rapid. Its nature had been explained
+by Althorp on February 12, but it was not in print on March 11 when,
+notwithstanding the reasonable protest of Peel, he induced the house to
+fix the second reading for the 14th. It was then found that, owing to its
+form, it must be preceded by resolutions, in order to satisfy the rules of
+the house. These resolutions, containing the essence of the bill, were
+proposed on April 1, but were not adopted without a long debate, and the
+debate on the second reading did not begin until May 6. It ended in a
+majority of 317 to 78 for the government, chiefly due to a moderate speech
+from Sir Robert Peel, who, however, denounced the policy of
+"appropriation". The discussion in committee was far more vehement, and
+radicals like Hume did not shrink from avowing their desire to pull down
+the Irish establishment, root and branch. The attack on the conservative
+side was mainly concentrated on the appropriation clause. In vain was it
+argued that a great part of the expected surplus was not Church property,
+inasmuch as it would result from improvements in the system of episcopal
+leases to be carried out by the agency of the state. Every one saw that,
+however disguised, and whether legitimate or not, appropriation of the
+surplus for secular purposes would be an act of confiscation, and must
+needs be interpreted as a precedent.</p>
+
+<p>The cabinet itself was divided on the subject, and despaired of saving the
+bill in the house of lords, without sacrificing the disputed clause. On
+June 21, therefore, Stanley announced in the house of commons that the
+appropriation clause would be withdrawn, and that any profits arising out
+of financial reforms within the Church would be allowed to fall into the
+hands of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The fury of O'Connell was
+unbounded, and not so devoid of excuse as many of his passionate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span>
+outbreaks. He treated the Church bill as the stipulated price to be paid
+for the coercion bill, and the appropriation clause as the only part of
+it, except relief from vestry cess, which could possess the smallest value
+for Irish Roman catholics. There was no valid answer to his argument,
+except that another collision with the house of lords must be avoided at
+any tolerable cost, for, as Russell bluntly said, "the country could not
+stand a revolution once a year". Thus lightened, and slightly modified in
+the interest of Irish incumbents, the bill passed through committee and
+was read a third time by very large majorities, the minority being mainly
+composed of its old radical partisans. Peel's letters show how anxious he
+was to "make the reform bill work," by protecting the government against
+this extreme faction,<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> and the parliamentary reports show how much he
+did to frustrate the attempt to intimidate the lords by a resolution of
+the commons.</p>
+
+<p>The debate in the upper house lasted three nights in July, but is almost
+devoid of permanent interest. The appropriation question being dropped,
+there was little to discuss except the historical origin of Irish
+dioceses, the precedents for their consolidation, and the economical
+details of the scheme for equalising, in some degree, the incomes of Irish
+clergymen. Two or three peers, headed by the Duke of Cumberland, took
+their stand once more on the coronation oath, and Bishop Phillpotts of
+Exeter availed himself of this objection in one of the most powerful
+speeches delivered against the bill. On the other hand, Bishop Blomfield
+of London, and the Duke of Wellington, now acting in concert with Peel,
+gave it a grudging support, as the less of two evils. After passing the
+second reading by a majority of 157 to 98, it was subjected to minute
+criticism in committee, and one amendment was carried against the
+government, but Grey wisely declined to relinquish it except on some vital
+issue. The majority on the third reading was 135 to 81, and on August 2
+the commons agreed to the lords' amendments, O'Connell remarking that,
+after all, the peers had not made the bill much worse than they found it.
+More than a generation was to elapse before this "act to alter and amend
+the laws relating to the temporalities of the Church in Ireland"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> was
+completed by an act severing that Church from the state. But the ulterior
+aims of those who first challenged the sanctity of Church endowments were
+not concealed, and the more than Erastian tendency of the liberal movement
+was henceforth clearly perceived by high Churchmen. We know, on the
+authority of Dr. Newman, that he and his early associates regarded the
+Anglican revival of which they were the pioneers as essentially a reaction
+against liberalism, and liberalism as the most formidable enemy of
+sacerdotal power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>STANLEY COLONIAL SECRETARY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_250" id="TOPIC_250"></a>Long before the Irish church bill had passed the house of commons Stanley
+exchanged the chief secretaryship of Ireland for the higher office of
+colonial secretary, to which he was gazetted on March 28. His
+uncompromising advocacy of the coercion bill, and his known hostility to
+direct spoliation of the Church, alike provoked the hatred of Irish Roman
+catholics, and Brougham had already advised his retirement from Ireland.
+His promotion was facilitated by the resignation of Durham, nominally on
+grounds of health, but also because he was in constant antagonism to his
+own father-in-law, Grey, and his moderate colleagues in the cabinet. He
+received an earldom, and was succeeded as lord privy seal by Goderich, who
+became Earl of Ripon. This opened the colonial office to Stanley, who
+instantly found himself face to face with a question almost as intractable
+as the pacification of Ireland. Sir John Hobhouse became chief secretary
+for Ireland, but without a seat in the cabinet. He resigned in May, and
+was succeeded by Edward John Littleton, who was married to a natural
+daughter of the Marquis Wellesley.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_251" id="TOPIC_251"></a>Among the statutes passed in 1833, there are several, besides those
+relating to Ireland, of sufficient importance to confer distinction upon
+any parliamentary session. One of these is entitled "an act for the better
+administration of justice in His Majesty's privy council"; a second, "an
+act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British colonies, for
+promoting the industry of the manumitted slaves, and for compensating the
+persons hitherto entitled to the services of such slaves"; a third, "an
+act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, and for the substitution of
+more simple methods of assurance"; a fourth, "an act to regulate the trade
+to China and India"; a fifth, "an act for giving to the corporation of the
+governor and company<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> of the Bank of England certain privileges, for a
+limited period, under certain conditions"; a sixth, "an act to regulate
+the labour of children and young persons in the mills and factories of the
+United Kingdom". Not one of these salutary measures was forced upon the
+legislature by popular clamour, every one of them represents a sincere
+zeal for what has been ridiculed as "world-bettering," and the parliament
+that passed them must have been thoroughly imbued with the spirit of
+reform.</p>
+
+<p>Foremost of these measures, as a monument of philanthropic legislation,
+will ever stand the act for the abolition of colonial slavery. No class in
+the country was concerned in its promotion; the powerful interests of the
+planters were arrayed against it; and humanity, operating through public
+opinion, was the only motive which could induce a government to espouse
+the anti-slavery cause. Stanley had not occupied his new office many weeks
+when on May 14 it became his lot to explain the ministerial scheme in the
+house of commons. Its essence consisted in the immediate extinction of
+absolute property in slaves, but with somewhat complicated provisions for
+an intermediate state of apprenticeship, to last twelve years. During this
+period negroes were to be maintained by their former masters, under an
+obligation to serve without wages for three-fourths of their working
+hours, and were to earn wages during the remaining fourth. All children
+under six years of age were to become free at once, and all born after the
+passing of the act were to be free at birth. The proprietors were to
+receive compensation by way of loan, to the extent of &pound;15,000,000, and
+additional grants were promised for the institution of a stipendiary
+magistracy and a system of education.</p>
+
+<p>Several resolutions embodying the scheme were carried, with little
+opposition, though some abolitionists, headed by Mr. Fowell Buxton, a
+wealthy brewer and eminent philanthropist, who sat for Weymouth, took
+strong exception to compulsory apprenticeship, as perpetuating the
+principle of slavery, however mitigated by the recognition of personal
+liberty and the suppression of corporal punishment. It was found
+expedient, however, in deference to a very strong remonstrance from West
+Indian proprietors, to convert the proposed loan of &pound;15,000,000 into an
+absolute payment of &pound;20,000,000, and this noble donation, for conscience'
+sake, was actually ratified by parliament and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> country. The bill
+founded on the resolutions met with no serious opposition, but an
+amendment by Buxton for adopting free labour at once was lost by so narrow
+a majority that Stanley consented to reduce the period of apprenticeship
+to an average of six years. In this instance the lords followed the
+guidance of the commons, and a measure of almost quixotic liberalism was
+endorsed by them without hesitation. It must be confessed that experience
+has not verified the confident prediction that free labour would prove
+more profitable than slave labour, but Great Britain has never repented of
+the abolition act, and its example was followed, thirty years later, by
+the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FACTORY ACTS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_252" id="TOPIC_252"></a>The first of the general factory acts was marked by the same philanthropic
+character, but here the manufacturing capitalists, introduced by the
+reform act, were induced by self-interest to oppose it. Ever since the
+beginning of the century the sufferings and degradation of children in
+factories had occasionally engaged the attention of parliament, but the
+full enormity of the factory system was known to few except those who
+profited by it. It seems incredible, but it was shown afterwards by
+irresistible evidence, that children of seven years old and upwards were
+often compelled to work twelve or fourteen hours a day, with two short
+intervals for meals, in a most unwholesome atmosphere, exposed not only to
+ill-treatment but to every form of moral corruption. A very partial remedy
+was applied by a law passed in 1802 which restricted the hours of labour
+to twelve for mills in which apprentices were employed. The same limit of
+hours was extended to cotton mills generally in 1816, and, but for the
+resistance of the house of lords, it would have been reduced to ten, as a
+select committee had recommended on the initiative of the first Sir Robert
+Peel. A few years later the question was revived by Sir John Hobhouse, but
+left unsettled. In 1831 Sadler introduced a ten hours bill for children,
+and obtained a select committee, before which disclosures were made well
+calculated to shock the country. At the general election of 1832, Sadler
+was defeated by Macaulay for the new borough of Leeds, but his mantle fell
+on Lord Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the noblest
+philanthropists of modern times.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the session of 1833 Ashley introduced a ten hours bill,
+applicable, like that of Sadler, to all young persons under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> eighteen
+years of age working in factories. It also prohibited the employment of
+children under nine, and provided for the appointment of inspectors. It
+was strongly opposed by the Lancashire members as interfering with freedom
+of labour even for adults, since mills could not be kept running without
+the labour of boys under eighteen. They also objected to the evidence
+already reported as one-sided, and succeeded in procuring the appointment
+of a royal commission. This commission prosecuted its inquiries with
+unusual despatch, but its report was not in the hands of members on July
+5, when the bill came on for its second reading. Though Althorp, unwilling
+to offend the manufacturing interest, pleaded for deliberation and urged
+that a select committee should frame the regulations to be adopted, the
+majority of the house was impatient of delay, and he encountered a defeat.
+The question now resolved itself into a choice between a greater or less
+limitation of hours. On this question, a compromise proposed by Althorp
+prevailed, and Ashley resigned the conduct of the bill into his hands. It
+was further modified in committee, but ultimately became law in a form
+which secured the main objects of its promoters. No child under nine years
+of age could be employed at all in a factory, after two years none under
+thirteen could be worked more than eight hours, and no young person under
+eighteen could be required to work more than sixty-nine hours a week,
+while the provisions for inspection were retained along with others which
+contained the germ of education on the half-time system.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE EAST INDIA COMPANY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_253" id="TOPIC_253"></a>The trading monopoly of the East India Company, though confined to China
+by the act of 1813, had been regarded ever since with great jealousy by
+the mercantile community. As the revised charter was now on the point of
+expiring, it was for the government to frame terms of renewal which might
+satisfy the growing demand for free trade. Their scheme, which few were
+competent to criticise, met with general approval, and the only determined
+opposition to it was offered in the house of lords by Ellenborough, who
+lived to come into sharp collision with the court of directors as
+governor-general. It was embodied in three simple resolutions, the first
+of which recommended the legislature to open the China trade without
+reserve, the second provided for the assumption by the crown of all the
+company's assets and liabilities but with the obligation of paying the
+com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span>pany a fixed subsidy, while the last affirmed the expediency of
+entrusting the company with the political government of India. Grant, who
+moved these resolutions, as president of the board of control, had no
+occasion to defend the policy of setting free the China trade which no one
+disputed; but he undertook to show that it had declined in the hands of
+the company, and that private competition had already crept in on a large
+scale. He also dwelt on the advantage of bringing the political relations
+arising out of commercial intercourse more directly under the control of
+the government. His reasoning was sound, and the China trade rapidly
+developed, nor could he be expected to foresee the course of events
+whereby the government afterwards became embroiled with the Chinese
+empire, on the importation of opium, and other economical questions. As
+compensation for the loss of its exclusive privileges, the company was to
+receive an annuity of &pound;630,000, charged on the territorial revenues of
+India.</p>
+
+<p>The policy of continuing the company's rule in India for twenty years
+longer would have excited more earnest discussion in a session less
+crowded with legislative projects. The way had been paved for the
+concession of complete free trade in the eastern seas by the reports of
+select committees and parliamentary debates under former governments. The
+consumers of tea, numbered by millions, promised themselves a better
+quality at a lower price, and a keen spirit of enterprise was kindled by
+the idea of breaking into the unknown resources of China. But public
+interest in the administration of India was languid. It might well have
+appeared that a board sitting in Leadenhall Street was fitter to conduct
+shipping and mercantile operations than to govern an imperial dependency
+like British India. But the contrary alternative was almost tacitly
+accepted. The directors were "to remain princes, but no longer merchant
+princes," and Ellenborough complained that whereas "hitherto the court had
+appeared in India as beneficent conquerors, henceforth they would be
+mortgagees in possession". Perhaps the ministry shrunk from provoking the
+storm of obloquy which must have resulted from placing the vast patronage
+of the company in the hands of the crown. At all events, it was agreed,
+with little dissent, that under the new charter the company should
+nominally retain the reins of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> power, checked, however, by Pitt's "board
+of control," the president of which, in reality, shared a despotic
+authority with the governor-general of Bengal, who was hereafter to be in
+name what he had long been in fact, governor-general of India. The bill
+strengthened his council, and enabled him to legislate for all India.</p>
+
+<p>At the same time Europeans were permitted to settle and hold land in India
+without the necessity of applying for a licence. Lastly, the principle was
+laid down, pregnant with future consequences, that all persons in India,
+without distinction of race or creed, should be subject to the same law
+and eligible for all offices under the government. Such was the last
+charter of the great company. It is interesting to observe that Grant, in
+admitting that the government of India under its sway had not been prone
+"to make any great or rapid strides in improvement," paid a just tribute
+to its eminently pacific character. "It excited vigilance," he said,
+"against any encroachment of violence or rapacity; it ensured to the
+people that which they most required&mdash;repose, security, and tranquillity."
+The immense annexations of territory and far-reaching reforms which have
+created the British India of the twentieth century were either most
+reluctantly sanctioned by the court of directors or have been carried out
+since its dominion was transferred to the crown. Irrevocable as they are,
+and beneficent as they may be on the whole, they have certainly imposed
+difficulties of portentous magnitude upon the rulers of India, nor would
+it be surprising if some native survivors of the olden days in far-off
+recesses of the country should remember with sad regret the paternal,
+though unprogressive, despotism of the sovereign company.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE BANK CHARTER ACT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_254" id="TOPIC_254"></a>The bank charter act of 1833, having been superseded by that of 1844,
+fills a less important place than it otherwise would in the history of
+legislation on currency. The bill was founded, however, on the report of a
+secret committee which embraced Peel as well as Althorp and several other
+members of high financial repute or great experience in the city. Since
+the subject of it was familiar to a large section of members engaged in
+business, and touched the pockets of bankers all over the country, it was
+discussed in the house of commons far more earnestly than the bill
+renewing the charter of the East India Company. In the end two provisions
+were dropped, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> directly encouraged the increase of joint stock
+banks. The rest were passed, and contained important modifications of the
+banking system as it then existed. The main privileges of the Bank of
+England were continued, in spite of a strong opposition and of protests
+against the one-sided inquiry said to have been conducted by the secret
+committee. These privileges embraced the exclusive possession of the
+government balances, the monopoly of limited liability, then refused to
+other banks, and the right, shared by no other joint stock bank, of
+issuing its own notes. Though private London banks might have legally
+exercised this power they did not actually do so, and nearly all of them
+deposited their reserves with the Bank of England.</p>
+
+<p>Another part of the scheme, which even Peel condemned, was thus briefly
+stated in a preliminary resolution: "That, provided the Bank of England
+continued liable, as at present, to defray in the current coin of the
+realm all its existing engagements, it was expedient that its promissory
+notes should be constituted a legal tender for sums of &pound;5 and upwards". In
+other words, country bankers would no longer be compelled to cash their
+own notes, or pay off their deposits in gold, but might use Bank of
+England notes instead, above the value of &pound;5. The Bank of England,
+however, and all its branches, remained liable to cash payments, as
+before, so that, as Baring argued, only one intermediate stage was
+interposed between the presentation of a country note and the exchange of
+it for specie. Peel's objection, which did not prevail, chiefly rested on
+the danger of the Bank of England closing its branches in its own
+interests, in order to check the demand for cash. Though his fears were
+not literally realised, experience disclosed the danger of country banks
+multiplying unduly, and, by their over-issue of notes, causing a severe
+drain upon the Bank of England for gold. For the present, however, the
+critics of the measure were less concerned in forecasting such remote
+consequences than in protesting against the charge to be made by the bank
+for managing the public debt. This charge was, in fact, to be reduced by
+&pound;120,000 a year, but one-fourth part of the advances made by the bank to
+the public (or &pound;3,671,700) was to be paid off, and the proposed
+remuneration was denounced as exorbitant. Althorp hardly denied that it
+was a good bargain for the bank, though he persuaded the house of commons
+to endorse the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> arrangement, rather than incur the dislocation of national
+finance and commercial business certain to ensue if the bank should
+withdraw from its connexion with the government and use its vast influence
+for its own interest alone.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>LEGAL REFORMS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_255" id="TOPIC_255"></a>Two great law reforms close the series of important remedial measures
+passed in the first session of the reformed parliament&mdash;a session, be it
+remembered, which embraced all the furious and protracted debates on the
+Irish coercion act and the Irish Church temporalities act. The first of
+these was Brougham's valuable bill constituting a permanent "judicial
+committee of the privy council," and transferring to it the judicial
+functions theoretically belonging to "the king in council," but
+practically exercised by committees selected <i>ad hoc</i> on each occasion.
+Charles Greville, to whose memoirs all historians of this period are
+greatly indebted, and who in 1833 was clerk of the council, was inclined
+to disparage the proposed change as one of Brougham's fanciful projects,
+designed to gratify his own self-importance.<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> Even Greville, however,
+saw reason to modify his view, and the new court has ever since commanded
+general respect, except from those high Churchmen who resented its
+assumption of the appellate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes,
+formerly vested, along with a similar jurisdiction in admiralty causes, in
+the king in chancery, and exercised by a "court of delegates," usually
+consisting of three common law judges and three or four civilians selected
+<i>ad hoc</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The essential defects of such a court were fully stated in the report of a
+very strong commission, including six bishops, appointed in 1830. Probably
+the expediency of reforming the jurisdiction of the privy council for the
+purpose of hearing these ecclesiastical appeals may have suggested to
+Brougham the idea of constructing a standing appellate tribunal within the
+privy council, for the purpose of hearing all appeals that might come
+before that body. Accordingly, after carrying a bill in 1832 whereby the
+privy council, as such, took over the powers of the "court of delegates,"
+he introduced the general bill whereby the judicial committee was created,
+and under which it still acts. It was to consist of the lord chancellor,
+with the present and past holders of certain high judicial offices, and
+two privy councillors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> to be appointed by the sovereign; to whom prelates,
+being privy councillors, were to be added for ecclesiastical appeals. The
+system thus founded, and since developed, is capable of indefinite
+expansion, in case still closer relations should be established between
+Great Britain and the colonies.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_256" id="TOPIC_256"></a>The act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, though scarcely
+intelligible except to lawyers, was a masterpiece not only of
+draughtsmanship, but of honest law amendment. It swept away grotesque and
+antiquated forms of conveyance, which had lost their meaning for
+centuries, and which nothing but professional self-interest kept alive.
+Had it been followed up by legislation in a like spirit on other
+departments of law, the profits of lawyers and the needless expenses of
+clients might have been reduced to an extent of which the unlearned public
+has no conception. As it was, it simplified the process of selling land in
+a remarkable degree, though it left untouched the complications of title
+and transfer affecting real property, which no lord chancellor since
+Brougham has been courageous enough to attack in earnest, and which remain
+the distinctive reproach of English law. It is not without shame that we
+read in the king's prorogation speech, delivered on August 29, 1833, the
+assurance that he will heartily co-operate with parliament in making
+justice easily accessible to all his subjects. He adds that, with this
+view, a commission has been issued "for digesting into one body the
+enactments of the criminal law, and for inquiring how far, and by what
+means, a similar process may be extended to the other branches of
+jurisprudence". Seventy years have since elapsed, yet this royal promise
+of codification is not even in course of fulfilment. On the other hand,
+Brougham's scheme for establishing local courts in certain parts of the
+kingdom was destined to bear ample fruit in the next reign. It was
+described by Eldon as "a most abominable bill," and, being generally
+opposed by the law lords, was rejected by a small majority, but it was the
+germ of the county courts, which have since done so much to bring justice
+within the reach and the means of poor suitors.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding its legislative exploits, the whig government was
+declining in popularity at the end of 1833, and was beginning to discover
+how vain it is to rely on political gratitude. Other reforming governments
+have since undergone the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> bitter experience, the causes of which are
+by no means obscure. No reform can be effected without "harassing
+interests," and the sense of resentment in the sections of the community
+thus harassed is far stronger and more efficacious than any appreciation
+of the benefits reaped by the general public at home, or by mankind at
+large. Again, the expectations excited by the agitation of such a question
+as parliamentary reform are far beyond the power of any legislature to
+satisfy. Grey and his colleagues were too well aware of this, and Stanley,
+for one, manfully championed the government measures on their own merits,
+disdaining to flatter the radicals, but his discretion was not equal to
+his valour, and every debate brought into stronger relief the more
+statesmanlike capacity and moderation of Peel. There was no tory reaction,
+but a growing distrust of heroic remedies for national disorders, and a
+growing faith in the possible development of a liberal policy in a
+conservative spirit. Even the Duke of Wellington found himself restored
+insensibly to popular favour, and was again received in the streets with
+marks of public respect.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ALTHORP'S THIRD BUDGET.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_257" id="TOPIC_257"></a>Of all the ministers, no one enjoyed a greater share of confidence both in
+and out of parliament than Althorp. He was not a great financier, but he
+was an honest and prudent chancellor of the exchequer, a free-trader by
+conviction, and incapable of those artifices by which a plausible
+balance-sheet may be made out at the cost of future liabilities. Yet his
+budgets of 1831, 1832, and 1833 undoubtedly helped to shake the credit of
+the government. The first had been far too ambitious, and became almost
+futile, when the proposed tax on transfers was abandoned, and the timber
+duties left undisturbed. The second was modest enough, and was saved from
+damaging criticism by the absorbing interest of the reform bill.
+Considerable reductions were made in the estimates, the revenue yielded
+somewhat more than had been expected, and Althorp was enabled to present a
+favourable account in 1833. He anticipated a surplus of about a million
+and a half, out of which he was prepared to abolish certain vexatious
+duties and to decrease others. But the country gentlemen, headed by
+Ingilby, member for Lincolnshire, insisted on a reduction of the malt duty
+by one-half, while the borough members, headed by Sir John Key, clamoured
+for a repeal of the house tax and window tax. The former motion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span> was
+actually carried against the government by a small majority, but its
+effect was annulled, and the latter motion was defeated, by a skilful
+man&oelig;uvre. This consisted in the proposal by Althorp of a
+counter-resolution, declaring that, if half of the malt tax and the whole
+tax on windows and houses were to be taken off, it would be necessary to
+meet the deficiency by a general income tax. Such a prospect was equally
+alarming to the landed interest and the householders, whose rival demands
+were mutually destructive, the result being that Althorp's amendment was
+carried by a large majority, and the government escaped humiliation,
+though not without some loss of prestige.</p>
+
+<p>It was perhaps to be expected that private members in the first session of
+the reformed parliament should be eager to gain a hearing for their
+special projects of improvement. So it was, but two only of these projects
+deserved historical mention. One of these was the abortive attempt of
+Attwood, the radical member for Birmingham, to reverse the policy of 1819
+by inducing parliament to initiate the return to a paper currency. Cobbett
+actually followed up this failure by moving for an address praying the
+king to dismiss Sir Robert Peel from his councils, a motion defeated by a
+majority of 295 to 4.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a> <i>The Croker Papers</i>, ii., 198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a> Mahon to Peel (Jan, 8, 1833), Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>,
+ii., 209.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a> Jan. 3, 1833, Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a> Peel to Croker (Sept. 28, 1833), <i>ibid.</i>, p. 224.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a> Russell, <i>Recollections and Suggestions</i>, p. 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 212-16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a> Greville, <i>Memoirs</i>, ii., 364, 365.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI.</h2>
+
+<h3>RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The year 1833, so fruitful in legislation, may be said to have witnessed
+the birth of a religious movement which has profoundly affected the
+character of the national Church. The neo-catholic revival, which
+afterwards took its popular name from Pusey but drew its chief inspiration
+from Newman, was in a great degree the outcome of the reform act and a
+reaction against the more than Erastian tendencies of the reformed
+parliament. In the early part of the century, as we have seen, personal
+and practical religion was mainly represented by the evangelical or low
+Church party, which did admirable service in the cause of philanthropy, as
+well as in reclaiming the masses from heathenism. The high Church party
+was comparatively inactive, but co-operated with its rival in opposition
+to catholic emancipation. The clergy, as a body, were hostile to reform,
+and the bishops incurred the fiercest obloquy by voting against the first
+reform bill, which had unfortunately been rejected by a majority exactly
+corresponding with the number of their votes.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> The democratic outcry
+against the Church became louder and louder, as the evils of nepotism,
+pluralism, and sinecurism were exposed to public criticism, and a growing
+disposition was shown to deal with Church endowments both in England and
+in Ireland, if not as the property of the state, yet as under its
+paramount control.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_258" id="TOPIC_258"></a>The recent infusion of Irish Roman catholics into the house of commons,
+following that of Scotch presbyterians a century earlier, rendered it less
+and less fit, in the opinion of high Churchmen, to legislate for the
+Church of England, and every concession to religious liberty shocked them
+as a step towards "National<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span> Apostasy". This was, in fact, the impressive
+title of a sermon preached by John Keble, in July, 1833, before the
+university of Oxford. From this sermon Newman himself dated the origin of
+the Oxford or "Tractarian" movement, but its inward source lay deeper.
+Having lost all confidence in the state and even in the Anglican hierarchy
+as a creature of the state, a section of the clergy had already been
+looking about for another basis of authority, and had found it in theories
+of apostolical succession and Church organisation. The university of
+Oxford was a natural centre for such a reaction, and it was set on foot
+with the deliberate purpose of defending the Church and the Christianity
+of England against the anti-catholic aggressions of the dominant
+liberalism. It was not puritanism but liberal secularism which Newman
+always denounced as the arch-enemy of the catholic faith. For, as Wesley's
+sympathies were originally with high Church doctrines, so Newman's
+sympathies were originally with evangelical doctrines, nor were they ever
+entirely stifled by his ultimate secession to the Roman Church.</p>
+
+<p>The later development of this movement, which had its cradle in the common
+room of Oriel College, belongs rather to ecclesiastical history, and to
+the reign of Queen Victoria. But from the first it rallied a considerable
+body of support. Many who were not influenced by the movement, shared its
+earlier aspirations. Shortly after the formation of an association, under
+Newman and Keble's auspices, seven or eight thousand of the clergy signed
+an address to the Archbishop of Canterbury, insisting upon the necessity
+of restoring Church discipline, maintaining Church principles, and
+checking the progress of latitudinarianism. A large section of the laity
+ranged themselves on the side of the revival, and meetings were held
+throughout England. The king himself volunteered a declaration of his
+strong affection for the national Church now militant, and prepared to
+assert itself, not merely as a true branch of the catholic Church, but as
+a co-ordinate power with the state. In the autumn of 1833, Newman and one
+of his colleagues launched the first of that series of tracts from which
+his followers derived the familiar name of Tractarians. From that day he
+was their recognised leader, yet he claimed no allegiance and issued no
+commands. He felt himself, not the creator of a new party, but a loyal son
+of the old Church, at last awakened from her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> lethargy. The spell which he
+exercised over so many young minds was due to a personal influence of
+which he was almost unconscious, but which spread from the pulpit of St.
+Mary's Church and his college rooms at Oriel over a great part of the
+university and the Church. It was broken some years later, when he gave up
+the <i>via media</i> which he had so long been advocating, accepted the logical
+consequences of his own teaching, and reproached others for not
+discovering that Anglicanism was but a pale and deformed counterfeit of
+the primitive Christianity represented, in its purity, by the Church of
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_259" id="TOPIC_259"></a>Looking back at this movement across an interval of seventy years, we may
+well feel astonished that it satisfied the aspirations of inquisitive
+minds in contact with the ideas of their own times. For this was the age
+of Benthamism in social philosophy and "German neology" in biblical
+criticism. Though national education was in its infancy, a new desire for
+knowledge, and even a free-thinking spirit, was permeating the middle
+classes, and had gained a hold among the more intelligent of the artisans.
+The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, established by
+Brougham, circulated a mass of instructive and stimulating literature at a
+cheap rate; popular magazines and cyclop&aelig;dias were multiplying yearly; and
+the British Association, which held its first meeting at Oxford in 1832,
+brought the results of natural science within the reach of thousands and
+tens of thousands incapable of scientific research. The <i>Bridgwater
+Treatises</i>, which belong to the reign of William IV., are evidence of a
+widespread anxiety to reconcile the claims and conclusions of science with
+those of the received theology. Thoughtful and religious laymen in the
+higher ranks of society were earnestly seeking a reason for the faith that
+was in them, and pondering over fundamental problems like the personality
+of God, the divinity of Christ, the reality of supernatural agency, and
+the awful mystery of the future life. Yet the tractarians passed lightly
+over all these problems, to exercise themselves and others with
+disputations on points which to most laymen of their time appeared
+comparatively trivial.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_260" id="TOPIC_260"></a>To them Church authority was supreme, and every catholic dogma a
+self-evident truth. What engrossed their reason and consciences was the
+discussion of questions affecting Church authority, for example, whether
+the Anglican Church pos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span>sessed the true note of catholicity or was in a
+state of schism, whether its position in Christendom was not on a par with
+that of the monophysite heretics, whether its articles could be brought
+into conformity with the Roman catholic doctrines expressly condemned by
+them, or whether its alliance with Lutheranism in the appointment of a
+bishop for Jerusalem did not amount to ecclesiastical suicide. Their
+message, unlike that of the early Christian or methodist preachers, was
+for the priestly order, and not for the masses of the people; their
+appeals were addressed <i>ad clerum</i> not <i>ad populum</i>; still less were they
+suited to influence scientific intellects. But their propaganda was
+carried on by men of intense earnestness and holy lives, few in number but
+strong in well-organised combination, and they carried with them for a
+time many to whom any "movement" seemed better than lifeless "high and
+dry" conformity. Herein consisted the secret of their early success. Their
+subsequent failure was inevitable when they were fairly confronted with
+protestant sentiment and with the independent spirit of the age. How their
+aims were taken up and partially realised in a new form by new leaders and
+through new methods, is an inquiry which must be reserved for a later
+chapter in the history of the English Church.</p>
+
+<p>The strange religious movement which resulted in the foundation of the
+so-called Catholic Apostolic Church was of somewhat earlier date, and its
+author had already been disavowed as a minister by the presbyterian Church
+before the <i>Tracts for the Times</i> began to startle the religious world.
+The most brilliant part of Edward Irving's career falls within the reign
+of George IV., when his chapel in London was crowded by the fashionable
+world, and even attended occasionally by statesmen like Canning. According
+to all contemporary testimony he was among the most remarkable of modern
+preachers, and his visionary speculations in the field of biblical
+prophecy failed to repel hearers attracted by his wonderful religious
+enthusiasm. Compared with the adherents of the methodist or of the
+neo-catholic revival, his followers were a mere handful, and his name
+would scarcely merit a place in history but for the impression which he
+made upon men of high ability and position. What brought him into
+discredit with his own communion and with the public was his introduction
+into his services of fanatics professing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> gift of speaking with
+"unknown tongues". These extravagances led to his deposition in 1832, and
+probably hastened his early death in 1834. But his creed did not die with
+him, and a small body of earnest believers has carried on into the
+twentieth century a definite tradition of the gospel which he taught.</p>
+
+<p>Far deeper and more lasting in its effects was the change wrought in
+current ideas by the almost unseen but steady advance of science in all
+its branches. During this epoch perhaps the most formidable enemy of
+orthodoxy was the rising study of geology, challenging, as it did, the
+traditional theories of creation. The discoveries of astronomy&mdash;the law of
+gravitation, the rotation of the earth, its place in the solar system,
+and, above all, the infinite compass of the universe&mdash;were in themselves
+of a nature to revolutionise theological beliefs more radically than any
+conclusions respecting the antiquity of the earth. But it may be doubted
+whether it was so in fact; at all events, theologians had slowly learned
+to harmonise their doctrines with the conception of immeasurable space,
+when they were suddenly required to admit the conception of immeasurable
+time, and staggered under the blow. The pioneers of English geology were
+careful to avoid shocking religious opinion, and Buckland devotes a
+chapter of his famous <i>Treatise on Geology</i> to showing "the consistency of
+geological discoveries with sacred history". His explanation is that an
+undefined interval may have elapsed after the creation of the heaven and
+the earth "in the beginning" as recorded in the first verse of Genesis;
+and he rejects as opposed to geological evidence "the derivation of
+existing systems of organic life, by an eternal succession, from preceding
+individuals of the same species, or by gradual transmutation of one
+species into another". But speculations of this order were utterly ignored
+by such religious leaders as Newman and Irving, whose spiritual fervour,
+however apostolical in its influence on the hearts of their disciples, was
+confined within the narrowest circle of intellectual interests.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>POOR LAW.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_261" id="TOPIC_261"></a>The great event of parliamentary history in 1834, and the crowning
+achievement of the first reformed parliament, was the enactment of the
+"new poor law," as it was long called. No measure of modern times so well
+represents the triumph of reason over prejudice; none has been so
+carefully based on thorough inquiry and the deliberate acceptance of sound
+prin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span>ciples; none has so fully stood the conclusive test of experience. It
+is not too much to say that it was essentially a product of the reform
+period, and could scarcely have been carried either many years earlier or
+many years later. In the dark age which followed the great war, contempt
+for political economy, coupled with a weak sentiment of humanity, would
+have made it impossible for a far-sighted treatment of national pauperism
+and distress to obtain a fair hearing. After the introduction of household
+suffrage, and the growth of socialism, any resolute attempt to diminish
+the charge upon ratepayers for the immediate relief but ultimate
+degradation of the struggling masses would have met with the most
+desperate resistance from the new democracy. The philosophical whigs and
+radicals, trained in the school of Bentham, and untainted as yet by a
+false philanthropy, found themselves in possession of an opportunity which
+might never have recurred. They deserved the gratitude of posterity by
+using it wisely and courageously.</p>
+
+<p>The irregular development of the poor laws, from the act of Elizabeth down
+to that of 1834, belongs to economic rather than to general history. It is
+enough to say here that in later years, and especially since the system of
+allowances adopted by the Berkshire magistrates at Speenhamland in 1795
+had become general, the original policy of relieving only the destitute
+and helpless, and compelling able-bodied men to earn their own living, had
+been entirely obscured by the intrusion of other ideas. The result was
+admirably described in the report of a commission, appointed in 1832, with
+the most comprehensive powers of investigation and recommendation. The
+commissioners were the Bishops of London (Blomfield) and Chester (Sumner),
+Sturges Bourne, Edwin Chadwick, and four others less known, but well
+versed in the questions to be considered. A summary of the information
+collected by them, ranging over the whole field of poor-law management,
+was published in February, 1834. It astounded the benighted public of that
+day, and it still remains on record as a wonderful revelation of ruinous
+official infatuation on the largest possible scale. The evil system was
+found to be almost universal, but the worst examples of it were furnished
+by the southern counties of England. There, an actual premium was set upon
+improvidence, if not on vice, by the wholesale practice of giving out-door
+relief in aid of wages,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> and in proportion to the number of children in
+the family, legitimate or illegitimate. The excuse was that it was better
+to eke out scanty earnings by doles than to break up households, and bring
+all their inmates into the workhouse. The inevitable effect of such action
+was that wages fell as doles increased, that paupers so pensioned were
+preferred by the farmers to independent labourers because their labour was
+cheaper, and that independent labourers, failing to get work except at
+wages forced down to a minimum, were constantly falling into the ranks of
+pauperism.</p>
+
+<p>Had some theorists of a later generation witnessed the social order then
+prevailing in country districts, they would have found several of their
+favourite objects practically attained. There was no competition between
+the working people; old and young, skilled and unskilled hands, the
+industrious and the idle, were held worthy of equal reward, the actual
+allowance to each being measured by his need and not by the value of his
+work; while the parochial authorities, figuring as an earthly providence,
+exercised a benevolent superintendence over the welfare and liberty of
+every day-labourer in the village community. The fruits of that
+superintendence were the decline of a race of freemen into a race of
+slaves, unconscious of their slavery, and the gradual ruin of the
+landlords and farmers upon whom the maintenance of these slaves
+depended.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>NEW POOR LAW.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_262" id="TOPIC_262"></a>The evidence laid before the commissioners not only showed how intolerable
+the evil had become in many counties, but also how purely artificial it
+was. While the aggregate amount of the poor rate had risen to more than
+eight millions and a half, while some parishes were going out of
+cultivation and in others the rates exceeded the rental, there were
+certain oases in the desert of agricultural distress where comparative
+prosperity still reigned. These were villages in which an enlightened
+squire or parson had set himself to strike at the root of pauperism, and
+to initiate local reforms in the poor-law system. It was clearly found
+that, where out-door relief was abolished or rigorously limited, where no
+allowances were made in aid of wages, and where a manly self-reliance was
+encouraged instead of a servile mendicity, wages rose, honest industry
+revived, and the whole<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> character of the village population was improved.
+Fortified by these successful experiments, the commissioners took a firm
+stand on the vital distinction, previously ignored, between poverty and
+pauperism. They did not shrink from recommending that, after a certain
+date, "the workhouse test" should be enforced against all able-bodied
+applicants for relief, except in the form of medical attendance, and even
+that women should be compelled to support their illegitimate children.
+They also advised a liberal change in the complicated and oppressive
+system of "parish settlement," whereby the free circulation of labour was
+constricted. They further proposed a very large reform in the
+administrative machinery of the poor laws, by the formation of parishes
+into unions, the concentration of workhouses, the separation of the sexes
+in workhouses, and, above all, the creation of a central poor-law board,
+to consist of three commissioners, and to control the whole system about
+to be transformed.</p>
+
+<p>A bill framed upon these lines, and remedying some minor abuses, was
+introduced by Althorp on April 17, having been foreshadowed in the speech
+from the throne, and carefully matured by the cabinet. So wide and deep
+was the conviction of the necessity for some radical treatment of an
+intolerable evil that party spirit was quelled for a while, and the bill
+met with a very favourable reception, especially as its operation was
+limited to five years. It passed the second reading by a majority of 299
+to 20 on May 9, notwithstanding a violent protest from De Lacy Evans, an
+ultra-radical, who had displaced Hobhouse at Westminster. The keynote of
+the radical agitation which followed was given by his declaration that
+"the cessation of out-door relief would lead to a revolution in the
+country," and by Cobbett's denunciation of the "poor man robbery bill".
+The <i>Times</i> newspaper, already a great political force, took up the same
+cry, and had not Peel, with admirable public spirit, thrown his weight
+into the scale of sound economy, a formidable coalition between extremists
+on both sides might have been organised. He stood firm, however; radicals
+like Grote declined to barter principle for popularity, and the bill
+emerged almost unscathed from committee in the house of commons. It passed
+its third reading on July 2 by a majority of 157 to 50. Peel's example was
+followed by Wellington in the house of lords, and Brougham delivered one
+of his most powerful speeches in sup<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span>port of the measure. With some
+modification of the bastardy clauses and other slighter amendments it was
+carried by a large majority, and received the royal assent on August 4.</p>
+
+<p>No other piece of legislation, except the repeal of the corn laws, has
+done so much to rescue the working classes of Great Britain from the
+misery entailed by twenty years of war. Its effect in reducing the rates
+was immediate; its effect in raising the character of the agricultural
+poor was not very long deferred. Happily for them, though not for the
+farmers, bread was cheap for two years after it came into force. Still,
+the sudden cessation of doles and pensions in aid of wages could not but
+work great hardship to individuals in thousands of rural parishes, and
+there was perhaps too little disposition on the part of the commissioners
+to allow any temporary relaxation of the system. The rigorous enforcement
+of the workhouse test, and the harsh management of workhouses, continued
+for years to shock the charitable sensibilities of the public, and
+actually produced some local riots. When the price of bread rose the
+clamour naturally increased, and petitions multiplied until a committee
+was appointed in 1837 to review the operation of the act. In the end the
+committee found, as might have been expected, that, however painful the
+state of transition, the change had permanently improved the condition of
+the poor in England.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>QUESTION OF APPROPRIATION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_263" id="TOPIC_263"></a>While the bill was still in the house of commons the ministry which framed
+it was torn by dissensions; before it came on for its second reading in
+the lords Grey had ceased to be premier. The disruption of his government
+had been foreseen for months, but it was directly caused by hopeless
+discord on Irish policy. Anglesey had been forced by ill-health to resign
+the vice-royalty, and the Marquis Wellesley, who succeeded him, was more
+acceptable to Irish nationalists. But the king's speech at the opening of
+the session contained a stern condemnation of the repeal movement.
+O'Connell at once declared war, and the angry feelings of his followers
+were inflamed by a personal and public quarrel between Althorp and Sheil.
+Another incident, in itself trivial, disclosed the discord prevailing in
+the cabinet on Irish affairs, and, though O'Connell was defeated on a
+motion against the union by a crushing majority of 523 to 38, the
+disturbed state of Ireland continued to distract the minis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span>terial
+councils. The ingenious devices of Stanley and Littleton for solving the
+insoluble Irish tithe question had proved almost abortive; the government
+officials employed to collect tithe were almost as powerless to do so as
+the old tithe-proctors, and a new proposal to convert tithe into a land
+tax was naturally ridiculed by O'Connell as delusive. He made a speech so
+conciliatory in its tone as to startle the house, but no words, however
+smooth, could now conjure away the irreconcilable difference of purpose
+between those who regarded Church property as sacred and those who
+regarded it not only as at the disposal of the state, but as hitherto
+unjustly monopolised by a single religious communion. It was reserved for
+Lord John Russell to "upset the coach" by openly declaring his adhesion to
+"appropriation," in the sense of diverting to other objects, secular or
+otherwise, such revenues of the established Church as were not strictly
+required for the benefit of its own members. After this act of mutiny
+against the collective authority of the cabinet Grey's ministry was
+doomed.</p>
+
+<p>Its ruin was consummated by a motion of Henry Ward, member for St. Albans,
+which expressly affirmed the right of the state to regulate the
+distribution of Church property and the expediency of reducing the Irish
+establishment. This motion was supposed to have been instigated by Durham,
+who had never been loyal to his colleagues. The government was notoriously
+divided upon it; Brougham suggested a commission of inquiry, by way of
+compromise; other ministerialists were in favour of meeting the difficulty
+by moving the previous question. Peel was prepared to support the
+conservative section of the government, and deprecated in strong terms
+"all man&oelig;uvring, all coquetting with radicals" in order to snatch a
+temporary party triumph.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ward's resolution was introduced on May 27, 1834, and seconded by Grote,
+but Althorp, instead of replying, announced the receipt of sudden news so
+important that he induced the house to adjourn the debate. This news was
+the resignation of Stanley, Graham, Richmond, and Ripon, whose views on
+appropriation, as afterwards appeared, were shared by Lansdowne and Spring
+Rice. The ministry was reconstructed by the ac<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span>cession of Lord Conyngham
+as postmaster-general, without a seat in the cabinet, and of Lord
+Auckland, son of Sidmouth's colleague, as first lord of the admiralty, by
+the appointment of Carlisle (already in the cabinet) to be lord privy
+seal, and the substitution of Spring Rice for Stanley at the colonial
+office. Edward Ellice, the secretary at war, was included in the cabinet,
+and James Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, a son of the famous
+general, Sir Ralph Abercromby, became master of the mint with a seat in
+the cabinet. Poulett Thomson became president of the board of trade, and
+minor offices were assigned to Francis Baring, and other whig recruits.
+Grey himself, sick of nominal power, was dissuaded with difficulty from
+retiring; Althorp, conscious of failing authority, was retained in his
+post only by a high sense of duty. Unfortunately, he was very soon
+entangled by his colleague Littleton in something like an intrigue with
+O'Connell, which precipitated the final resignation of Grey together with
+his own temporary secession.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_264" id="TOPIC_264"></a>The details of this affair may be passed over in a few words. What is
+clear is that Brougham and Littleton, without the knowledge of Grey, had
+persuaded Lord Wellesley, as viceroy of Ireland, not to insist on a
+renewal of the coercion act in its full severity, and especially to
+sanction an abandonment of clauses suppressing public meetings. Having
+obtained Wellesley's consent behind the backs of Grey and the rest of the
+cabinet, Littleton with the cognisance of Althorp, proceeded to bargain
+with O'Connell for an abatement, at least, of his opposition to all
+coercion. The cabinet as a body declined to ratify any such agreement,
+O'Connell denounced Littleton as having played a trick upon him, and
+Althorp, disdaining to advocate provisions which he was almost pledged in
+honour to drop, resigned his office and the leadership of the commons.
+Grey, who could not have remained in office without the support of
+Althorp's great popularity in the commons, at once resolved to follow his
+example, and on July 9 took leave of political life in a dignified and
+pathetic speech. As for Ward's motion, the original cause of Grey's
+desertion by Stanley and his subsequent fall, it had been rejected by an
+enormous majority in favour of "the previous question" before Althorp's
+disappearance from his old position. Meanwhile Stanley availed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span> himself of
+his liberty to make one of his most dashing but least prudent speeches,
+and permanently compromised his reputation for statesmanship.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MELBOURNE PRIME MINISTER.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_265" id="TOPIC_265"></a>No other whig possessed the prestige derived by Grey from nearly fifty
+years of consistent public service. Althorp commanded an extraordinary
+degree of confidence in the house of commons and the country, but his
+intellectual capacity was not of the highest order, and many expected that
+Peel might receive a summons from the king, whose sympathy with the whigs,
+never very deep, had given place to mistrust. His choice, however, fell
+upon Melbourne, whom he desired, if possible, to form a coalition with
+Peel, Wellington, and Stanley against the radicals. But neither Melbourne
+nor Peel would accept such a coalition, and they both showed their wisdom
+in declining it. The king then empowered Melbourne to patch up the whig
+ministry. In deference to a requisition signed by liberals of all
+sections, Althorp was induced to withdraw his resignation, and resumed his
+leadership in the commons with no apparent diminution of popularity.
+Duncannon, who was created a peer, succeeded Melbourne at the home office;
+Lord Mulgrave, son of the first earl, became lord privy seal in place of
+Carlisle; and Hobhouse entered the cabinet as first commissioner of woods
+and forests. The rest of the session was mainly spent in discussing the
+budget and the two Irish questions which for so many years were the curse
+of English politics. A surplus of two millions enabled Althorp to
+propitiate an importunate class of taxpayers by repealing the house tax.</p>
+
+<p>It would have been more statesmanlike to repeal the window tax or reduce
+indirect taxation, but relief was given, as usual, to those who raised the
+loudest clamour, and the vindication of sound finance was reserved for a
+conservative administration. A second and milder Irish coercion bill was
+carried by a large majority, with the fatal proviso, which has marred the
+effect of so many later measures, that it should continue in operation for
+a year only. A far more serious conflict arose on the new Irish tithe
+bill. A complicated plan had been proposed whereby four-fifths of the
+tithe would have been ostensibly secured to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> church by conversion into
+a rent-charge, the remaining fifth being sacrificed for the sake of peace
+and security. O'Connell succeeded in inducing the house of commons to
+adopt a counter-plan, of a very sweeping nature, whereby two-fifths of the
+existing tithe would have been abandoned, and the tithe owner partly
+compensated out of the revenues of suppressed bishoprics, aided by a state
+grant. The bill thus amended was rejected by a majority of 189 to 122 in
+the house of lords. Peel still cherished the idea of settling the question
+by a system of voluntary commutation, but, after the peremptory action of
+the lords, no compromise was likely to be acceptable, and there is some
+ground for the opinion that in that division the Irish Church
+establishment received its death-blow.</p>
+
+<p>On August 15 parliament was prorogued, and the belief of Peel in the
+stability of the government may be inferred from the fact that he left
+England for Italy on October 14. During the vacation, however, two
+incidents occurred, trivial in themselves, but pregnant with important
+consequences. One of these was Brougham's triumphant progress through
+Scotland, where he was enthusiastically received as the saviour of his
+country, and assumed the air of one who not only kept the king's
+conscience but controlled the royal will. The story of this famous tour
+exhibits alike the greatness of his powers and the littleness of his
+character.<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> The homage paid to him was not undeserved, for he was
+assuredly the foremost gladiator of the whig party, and had given proofs
+of more varied ability than any living politician or lawyer. But the
+dignified eloquence of which he was capable on rare occasions was here
+submerged in a flood of egotistical rhetoric, which carried him away so
+far that he assumed a political independence which his colleagues deeply
+resented, and even spoke of the king in a tone of patronage. Having
+lowered himself in public opinion by these speeches, especially at
+Inverness and Aberdeen, he attended a banquet in honour of Grey at
+Edinburgh, where he provoked a passage at arms with Durham. The press, and
+especially the <i>Times</i> newspaper, which had formerly loaded him with
+extravagant praises, now turned against him, and ridiculed him as a
+political mountebank. But his worst enemy was the king.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> William IV.'s
+ill-concealed impatience of whig dictation had at last been quickened into
+disgust by this and other sources of irritation, when the sudden death of
+Althorp's father, Earl Spencer, on November 10, gave him an opportunity
+which he eagerly seized.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DESTRUCTION OF HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_266" id="TOPIC_266"></a>By a strange fatality, this event almost coincided with the destruction by
+fire of the houses of parliament on October 16. This calamity was the
+result of a carelessness, which it is easy to condemn after the event on
+the part of some subordinate officials and the workmen employed by them.
+Down to 1826, accounts had been kept at the exchequer by means of wooden
+tallies, which were stored in what was called the tally-room of the
+exchequer. This room was required in order to provide temporary
+accommodation for the court of bankruptcy, and an order was given to
+destroy the tallies. The officials charged with the task decided to burn
+them in the stoves of the house of lords, and the work of burning began at
+half-past six in the morning of October 16. The work, hazardous in any
+case, was conducted by the workmen with a rapidity that their orders did
+not justify; the flues used for warming the house were overheated, and
+though the burning of the tallies was completed between four and five, the
+woodwork near the flues must have smouldered till it burst into flame
+about half-past six in the evening. In less than half an hour the house of
+lords was a mass of fire. About eight a change in the wind threw the
+flames upon the house of commons. That house was almost completely
+destroyed. The walls of the house of lords and of the painted chamber
+remained standing, while the house of lords library, the parliament
+offices, and Westminster Hall escaped. The king offered the parliament the
+use of Buckingham Palace, but it was found possible to fit up the house of
+lords for the commons and the painted chamber for the lords. When the
+legislature reassembled on February 9, 1835, a conservative ministry was
+in office, though not, indeed, in power.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult for a later age to understand why the accession of Althorp
+to a peerage should have afforded even a plausible reason for a change of
+ministry. The position which Althorp held in the house of commons is
+puzzling to a later generation.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> It is well known that Gladstone
+recorded the very highest estimate of his public services. Yet he was not
+only no orator but scarcely in the second order of speakers, he made no
+pretence of far-sighted statesmanship, he was not a successful financier,
+and he made several blunders which must have damaged the authority of any
+other man. The influence which he obtained in leading the unreformed as
+well as the reformed house of commons was entirely due to his character
+for straightforward honesty, perhaps enhanced by his social rank, and his
+reputation for possessing all the virtues of a country gentleman. The
+national preference for amateurs over professionals in politics, no less
+than in other fields of energy, found an admirable representative in him,
+and he was all the more popular as a political leader because it was
+believed that he had no desire to be a political leader at all. At all
+events, he inspired confidence in all, and it was no mere whim of the king
+which treated his removal from the commons to the lords as an irreparable
+loss to Melbourne's administration.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MELBOURNE'S RESIGNATION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_267" id="TOPIC_267"></a>It is often stated that "without a word of preparation" the king got rid
+of his whig ministers on November 14, 1834, and it must be admitted that
+he afterwards took credit to himself for their dismissal as his own
+personal act. But this view is not altogether borne out by contemporary
+evidence. A published letter, of the 12th, from Melbourne to the king
+shows that, as premier, he took the initiative in representing that,
+whereas "the government in its present form was mainly founded upon the
+personal weight and influence possessed by Earl Spencer in the house of
+commons," it was for the king to consider whether, as "that foundation is
+now withdrawn," a change of ministry was expedient.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> It also appears
+from a letter placed by the king in Melbourne's hands that a "very
+confidential conversation" took place between them at Brighton, in
+consequence of which the king resolved to send for Wellington.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> In the
+course of this conversation Melbourne informed the king that, in the
+opinion of the cabinet, Lord John Russell should be selected for the
+leadership of the house of commons. The king, incensed by Lord John's
+action on the Irish Church question, would not hear of this arrangement,
+espe<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span>cially as he thought Lord John "otherwise unequal to the task," and
+disparaged the claims of other possible candidates.<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> He also strongly
+resented the recent conduct of Brougham. In the end, he parted kindly and
+courteously from Melbourne, who actually undertook to convey the king's
+summons to Wellington. Another memorandum by the king, of the same date,
+proves that a fear of further encroachments on the church was really
+uppermost in his mind, and that he anticipated, not without reason, "a
+schism in the cabinet" on this very subject.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_268" id="TOPIC_268"></a>Wellington acted with his customary promptitude, and with his customary
+obedience to what he regarded as a call of public duty. A certain degree
+of mistrust had existed between him and Peel, arising, in part, out of
+circumstances preceding the duke's election to the chancellorship of
+Oxford University. This suspension of cordiality had now passed away, and
+Wellington strongly urged the king to entrust Peel, then at Rome, with the
+formation of a new government. Hudson, afterwards known as Sir James
+Hudson, delivered the despatch recalling him on the night of the 25th.
+Peel started from Rome on the 26th and, travelling with a speed then
+considered marvellous, reached Dover within twelve days on the night of
+December 8. He was in London on the 9th, and, without consulting any one
+else, immediately placed his services at the king's disposal. In the
+meantime, Wellington had stepped into the gap, and actually held all the
+secretaryships of state in his own hands, pending the arrival of Peel.</p>
+
+<p>The king had been encouraged to hustle his ministers unceremoniously out
+of office by a paragraph which appeared in the <i>Times</i> of November 15. On
+the previous evening Brougham had been informed by Melbourne in confidence
+that the king had accepted his suggestion of resignation, and he carried
+the news to the <i>Times</i>, which, without giving Brougham's name, published
+his message in his own words. It stated that the king had turned out the
+ministry, and ended with the words: "The queen has done it all". After
+this the king was determined to be done with his ministers as quickly as
+possible. It is certain that neither Wellington nor Peel wished to be
+thought responsible for their dismissal, the propriety of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> they both
+secretly doubted. The king, however, had acted within his strict rights,
+and the outgoing ministers, as a whole, were not ill pleased to be
+relieved from the burdens of office.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_269" id="TOPIC_269"></a>Peel, though by no means hopeful of ultimate success, endeavoured to
+construct a cabinet on a comprehensive basis. He first obtained the king's
+"ready assent" to his inviting the co-operation of Stanley, who had
+succeeded to the courtesy title of Lord Stanley, and Sir James Graham.
+These overtures were declined in friendly terms, and both promised
+independent support. But Stanley explicitly declared that, in his
+judgment, "the sudden conversion of long political opposition into the
+most intimate alliance would shock public opinion, would be ruinous to his
+own character," and would rather injure than strengthen the new
+government.<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> After this failure, Peel felt his task well-nigh
+hopeless, and though he spared no effort to procure an infusion of fresh
+blood, he complained that after all "it would be only the duke's old
+cabinet".<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> There was, in fact, no man of known ability in it, except
+himself, the Duke of Wellington (as secretary for foreign affairs), and
+Lyndhurst, the chancellor; for the capacity of Aberdeen, who had been
+foreign secretary under Wellington, and who now became secretary for war
+and the colonies, and Ellenborough, who returned to the board of control,
+had not yet been generally recognised. Peel himself became first lord of
+the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer; Goulburn was home secretary,
+Rosslyn lord president, and Wharncliffe lord privy seal. Earl de Grey,
+elder brother of the Earl of Ripon, was made first lord of the admiralty,
+Murray became master-general of the ordnance, Alexander Baring president
+of the board of trade and master of the mint, Herries secretary at war,
+and Sir Edward Knatchbull paymaster of the forces. It was fully understood
+that a conservative government, even purged of ultra-tory elements, could
+not face the first reformed house of commons, and the dissolution which
+took place at the end of the year had been regarded by all as inevitable.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE TAMWORTH MANIFESTO.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_270" id="TOPIC_270"></a>In anticipation of this event, Peel issued an address to his constituents
+which became celebrated as the "Tamworth manifesto". It is somewhat
+cumbrous in style, but it embodies with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> sufficient clearness the new
+conservative policy of which Peel was the real author and henceforth the
+leading exponent. It opens with an appeal to his own previous conduct in
+parliament, as showing that, while he was no apostate from old
+constitutional principles, neither was he "a defender of abuses," nor the
+enemy of "judicious reforms". In proof of this, he cites his action in
+regard to the currency and various amendments of the law; to which he
+might have added his adoption of catholic emancipation. He then declares,
+absolutely and without reserve, that he accepts the reform act as "a final
+and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional question," which no
+friend to peace and the welfare of the country would seek, either directly
+or indirectly, to disturb. He approves of making "a careful review of
+institutions, civil and ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper,"
+with a view to "the correction of proved abuses, and the redress of real
+grievances," and that "without mere superstitious reverence for ancient
+usages". He lays stress on his recorded assent to the principle of
+corporation reform, the substitution of a treasury grant for Church rates,
+the relief of dissenters from various civil disabilities (but not from
+university tests), the restriction of pensions (saving vested interests),
+the redistribution of Church revenues and the commutation of tithes, but
+so that no ecclesiastical property be diverted to secular uses. After
+these specific pledges, the Tamworth manifesto concludes with more general
+professions of a progressive conservatism equally removed from what are
+now called "advanced radicalism" and "tory democracy".<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> It was, of
+course, too liberal for the followers of Eldon, and was ridiculed as
+colourless by extreme reformers, but its effect on the country was great,
+and it did much to win popular confidence for the new ministry. If such a
+policy must be called opportunism, it was opportunism in its best form;
+and opportunism in its best form, under the conditions of party
+government, is not far removed from political wisdom.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a> If all the bishops present had not merely abstained, but
+actually voted in favour of the measure, it would have been carried by one
+vote.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a> Sir George Nicholls, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i>,
+vol. ii., see especially pp. 242, 243.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a> Peel to Goulburn (May 25, 1834), Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>,
+ii., 244.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a> Hatherton, <i>Memoir</i>; Creevey, <i>Memoirs</i>, ii., 285-88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a> See Campbell's <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, viii., 446-57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a> Compare Walpole, <i>History of England</i>, iii., 478.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a> <i>Lord Melbourne's Papers</i>, p. 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i>, pp. 222, 223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a> Stockmar, <i>Memoirs</i> (English translation), i., 330.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a> Parker, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i>, ii., 235.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a> Stanley to Peel (Dec. 11, 1834), Peel's <i>Memoirs</i>, ii., 39,
+40.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a> Croker to Mrs. Croker, <i>Croker Papers</i>, ii., 219.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a> Peel, <i>Memoirs</i>, ii., 58-67.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII.</h2>
+
+<h3>PEEL AND MELBOURNE.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_271" id="TOPIC_271"></a>The general election which took place in January, 1835, was hotly
+contested, and in the second reformed parliament the conservatives
+mustered far stronger than in the first. The party now consisted of some
+270 members, chiefly returned by the counties. But they were still
+outnumbered by the whigs, radicals, and Irish repealers combined, and it
+was certain that an occasion for such a combination would soon arise. It
+was found at once in the election of a speaker, when the house of commons
+met on February 9, 1835. Sutton, now Sir Charles Manners Sutton, was
+proposed for re-election by the government; the opposition candidate was
+Abercromby. <a name="TOPIC_272" id="TOPIC_272"></a>The number of members who took part in the division was the
+largest ever assembled, being 622, and Abercromby was elected by a
+majority of ten. It would have been larger, had not the government been
+supported by some waverers, but its significance was appreciated by the
+ministers, and still more by the king. He expressed his displeasure in a
+very outspoken letter to Peel, declaring that, if the leaders "of the
+present factious opposition" should be forced upon him by a refusal of the
+supplies, he might, indeed, tolerate them, but could never give them his
+confidence or friendship. Two days later, the 24th, the king's speech was
+delivered, reflecting the spirit of the Tamworth manifesto.<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PEEL'S POLICY.</i></div>
+
+<p>The government was again defeated by seven on an amendment to the address,
+notwithstanding the loyal aid of Graham and Stanley, whose attitude during
+the general election had excited Peel's mistrust. In the course of this
+debate, the prime minister, abandoning his usual reserve, definitely
+pledged himself not only "to advance, soberly and cautiously, in the path
+of pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span>gressive improvement," but to bring forward specific measures. "I
+offer you," he said, "reduced estimates, improvements in civil
+jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical law, the settlement of the tithe
+question in Ireland, the commutation of tithe in England, the removal of
+any real abuse in the Church, the redress of those grievances of which the
+dissenters have any just ground to complain." Nor were these offers
+illusory or barren. On March 17, he brought in a bill to relieve
+dissenters from disabilities in respect of marriage, which met with
+general approval. It was founded on the simple principle, since adopted,
+of giving legal validity to civil marriages duly solemnised before a
+registrar, and leaving each communion to superadd a religious sanction in
+its own way. The marriages of Churchmen in a church were to be left on
+their old footing, but Churchmen were of course to be granted the same
+liberty as other citizens of contracting a purely civil marriage.</p>
+
+<p>Still more important, as examples of conservative reform, were Peel's
+efforts to purge the established Church of abuses, and to introduce a
+voluntary commutation of tithes. His correspondence amply shows how large
+a space these remedial measures occupied in his mind, and one of his first
+acts was to appoint an ecclesiastical commission, with instructions to
+institute a most comprehensive inquiry into every subject affecting the
+distribution of church revenues. Compared with the petty squabbles over
+the appropriation of an imaginary surplus to be derived from Irish tithes
+which it was impossible to collect, the schemes of Peel for purifying and
+strengthening the Church of England assume heroic proportions. The report
+of the ecclesiastical commission originated by him, with its startling
+disclosures of pluralism and non-residence, became the basis of
+legislation which has wrought a veritable revolution in the financial and
+disciplinary administration of the church. His tithe bill, abortive as it
+was in 1835, was reproduced, with little alteration, in the tithe
+commutation act of 1836.</p>
+
+<p>But the whig-radical allies of 1835 had not the smallest intention of
+giving Peel a fair trial; nor indeed had they any other object beyond the
+recovery of power. His appeals to his opponents, though by no means
+without effect in the country, fell upon deaf ears in the house of
+commons, and further humiliations followed rapidly. One of these was the
+successful outcry<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> against the appointment of Londonderry, who had excited
+much hostility as an uncompromising enemy to reform, to the embassy at St.
+Petersburg, in consequence of which he, very honourably, relieved the
+government from obloquy by declining the post. A motion to repeal the malt
+tax was decisively defeated, and soon afterwards a motion in favour of
+granting a charter to the University of London was carried against the
+government by a large majority. Then came a defeat on a motion for
+adjournment, and the arts of obstruction were obstinately practised in
+debates on the estimates. At last the inevitable crisis arrived, and, as
+might be expected, the final issue was taken upon an Irish question.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_273" id="TOPIC_273"></a>The influence of O'Connell and his "tail," as his followers were called,
+had been neutralised, since the reform act, by the overwhelming strength
+of the whigs, and the public-spirited action of Peel, who, as leader of
+the conservative opposition, actually supported the whig government in
+sixteen out of twenty most important contests on domestic policy. A very
+different spirit was now shown by the whig opposition, and an evil
+precedent, pregnant with disastrous consequences, was set by the famous
+"Lichfield House compact". This was a close alliance between O'Connell and
+those whom he had so fiercely denounced as "the base, brutal, and bloody
+whigs". It bore immediate fruit in a motion of Russell for a committee of
+the whole house to consider the temporalities of the Irish Church. After a
+debate of four nights, the resolution was carried, on March 30, by a
+majority of thirty-three. On April 5, a further resolution was carried by
+a majority of twenty-five for applying any surplus-funds "to the general
+education of all classes of the people without religious distinction," and
+was more emphatically affirmed two days later by a majority of
+twenty-seven.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_274" id="TOPIC_274"></a>Peel had long been conscious of the hopelessness of his position and
+impatient of maintaining the struggle. He felt the constitutional danger
+of allowing the executive government to become a helpless instrument in
+the hands of a hostile majority in the house of commons. Nothing but the
+earnest remonstrances of the king and his tory friends, including
+Wellington, had induced him to retain office so long, and, after the
+division of the 7th, he firmly resolved to resign. On doing so, he
+received from the whole conservative party, of which he was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> the creator,
+a most cordial address of thanks and confidence. Though his short
+administration had consolidated the whig forces for the moment, and given
+them a new lease of power, it showed him to be the foremost statesman in
+the country, and paved the way for his triumphant return to office. As
+Guizot said, he had proved himself "the most liberal of conservatives, the
+most conservative of liberals, and the most capable man of all in both
+parties".</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MELBOURNE'S SECOND MINISTRY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_275" id="TOPIC_275"></a>The king now discovered the fatal mistake which he had made in
+"dismissing" his whig cabinet, as he boasted, instead of waiting for it to
+break down under the stress of internal dissensions. His first idea was to
+fall back on Grey, who had already betrayed his growing mistrust of
+radicalism, but Grey declined to enter the lists again. There was no
+resource but to recall Melbourne, whom the king personally liked, and to
+put up with the elevation of Russell to a position which all admitted him
+to have fairly earned. He became home secretary, as well as leader of the
+house of commons, and the new whig cabinet differed little from the old.
+Palmerston, Lansdowne, Auckland, Thompson, and Holland returned to their
+former offices. Grant was made secretary for war and the colonies,
+Duncannon became lord privy seal, Spring Rice chancellor of the exchequer,
+Hobhouse president of the board of control, and Viscount Howick, son of
+Earl Grey, was appointed secretary at war. Outside the cabinet, Viscount
+Morpeth, son of the Earl of Carlisle, became Irish secretary. The most
+significant difference between the two cabinets lay in the omission of
+Brougham, which was effected by the expedient of placing the great seal in
+commission. This negative act was, in reality, the boldest and most
+perilous in Melbourne's political life. A correspondence between Brougham
+and Melbourne in February must have made clear to the ex-chancellor that
+he would be excluded from office, and he reluctantly acquiesced in
+Melbourne's decision, hoping that it would be merely temporary, and that
+he would soon resume his place on the woolsack as the dominant member of
+the cabinet, but his exclusion was destined to be final, and the close of
+a career to which English history in the nineteenth century presents no
+parallel.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BROUGHAM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_276" id="TOPIC_276"></a>Brougham was called to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-one, having
+already given proof of brilliant ability and rare versatility at the
+University of Edinburgh. He was the youngest and most prolific of the
+original writers in the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, then a very powerful organ of
+whig opinion, and his contributions to it ranged over some thirty years
+after its first appearance in 1802. He was already twenty-nine when he
+joined the English bar in 1808, and though he never rivalled Eldon as a
+lawyer or Scarlett as a persuasive advocate, he soon became an
+acknowledged master of the highest forensic eloquence. His fame was
+already established by his argument before parliament against the orders
+in council when he entered the house of commons in 1810. There his
+passionate oratory and power of invective made him the most formidable of
+party speakers, and it was said that Canning alone could face him on equal
+terms in debate. Except during four years, 1812-16, when he was out of
+parliament, his prodigious energy and versatility were the greatest
+intellectual force on the liberal side throughout all the political
+conflicts under the regency and the reign of George IV. His speeches
+embraced every question of foreign, colonial, or domestic policy, and it
+may truly be said that no salutary reform was carried during that period
+of which he was not either the author or the active promoter. The
+suppression of the slave-trade which had revived after the great war, the
+liberty of the press, the cause of popular education&mdash;these were among the
+almost innumerable objects, outside the common run of politics, and
+largely philanthropic, to which he devoted his restless mind, before it
+was engrossed for a while by parliamentary reform. There, as we have seen,
+he showed a moderation which had not been expected of him, nor is it too
+much to say that, both as a leader of the bar and as chancellor, he made
+good his claim to be the greatest of law reformers.</p>
+
+<p>His famous speech of February 7, 1828, had quickened the germs of many
+legal improvements carried out in a later age, and the four years of his
+chancellorship actually produced great constructive amendments of the law,
+such as the institution of the central criminal court and the judicial
+committee of the privy council. Other reforms, in bankruptcy, criminal
+law, and equity, were mainly due to his initiative, and it was he who
+originated the county courts, though his bill was reck<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span>lessly thrown out
+by the house of lords on party grounds. His public life, up to the year
+1835, was perhaps the most brilliant and the most useful of the century,
+yet it was hopelessly marred in the end by a certain eccentric vanity, and
+want of loyalty to colleagues, not inconsistent with the higher ambition
+of leaving the world better than he found it. For some years after his
+fall he retained his astounding energy, and even his ascendency in the
+house of lords, where Lyndhurst, his only possible rival, was astute
+enough to court his co-operation. Never was his fertility in debate more
+conspicuously shown than in the session of 1835, while he was still
+nominally a supporter of the whig government. The last stage of his life,
+extending over more than thirty years, belongs to another chapter of
+English history; it is enough here to notice that, whatever his political
+aberrations, he continued in his isolation and old age to work zealously
+for those social reforms which he sincerely had at heart. The popularity
+which had been to him as the breath of life never, indeed, returned to
+him, and his figure no longer occupies a foremost place in the gallery of
+our statesmen, but the results of his noble services to humanity remain,
+and the memory of them ought not to be obscured by the sad record of his
+failings.</p>
+
+<p>The new Melbourne administration came in with unfavourable omens. Russell
+failed to secure his re-election in South Devon, but a seat was found for
+him at Stroud, and though the premier emphatically denied that he had made
+any bargain with O'Connell, the Irish people believed it. Accordingly,
+they received the whig lord-lieutenant, Mulgrave, with a tumultuous
+procession, as if his advent portended the repeal of the union and
+extinction of tithes. An attempt to solve the insoluble tithe question
+was, in fact, among the earliest efforts of the government, and Morpeth,
+as chief secretary, introduced a very reasonable measure, differing
+little, except in details, from that of his predecessor. Like other
+proposals for agrarian settlements in Ireland, it involved a certain
+sacrifice on the part of the tithe-owner for the sake of security, and a
+subsidy from the state to relieve of arrears the defaulting and rebellious
+tithe-payers. Peel stated his intention of supporting these provisions for
+commutation, if they could be separated from other provisions for
+"appropriation," coupled with them under the influ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span>ence of political
+necessity rather than of sound policy. The proposals for appropriation
+were so moderate that little would have been lost by dropping or gained by
+carrying them, but, moderate as they were, they embodied a principle on
+which either party was resolved to stand or fall. The consequence might
+have been foreseen. The bill, as a whole, was passed in the house of
+commons, and even read a second time in the house of lords, after which
+the appropriation clauses were rejected in that assembly by a large
+majority. Thereupon Melbourne withdrew the scheme altogether. Thus a
+question of third-rate importance, having been the chronic difficulty of
+four Irish secretaries, was left to stand over for three years longer, and
+ultimately to be settled on the very basis which Stanley and Peel had
+accepted from the first. A greater waste of parliamentary time has perhaps
+never been recorded.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS BILL.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_277" id="TOPIC_277"></a>The session of 1835, however, was rendered memorable by the enactment of
+one beneficent measure of the first magnitude. This measure&mdash;the municipal
+corporations act&mdash;was preceded, like the new poor law, by a thorough and
+exhaustive inquiry. A committee of the house of commons, followed by a
+commission, had been appointed in 1833. The commission prosecuted careful
+researches into the local conditions of each municipality, and did not
+conclude its labours until 1835. Its report laid bare not merely grotesque
+anomalies, but the grossest abuses of election and administration in
+boroughs ruled by small, corrupt, and irresponsible oligarchies which then
+abounded in England, and, still more, in Scotland.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a> The reform act had
+paved the way for the purification of such urban communities, by
+disfranchising the smallest and most venal of them, by extending the
+boundaries of many others, by enfranchising great towns which had remained
+outside the pale of representation, and by conferring the suffrage,
+theretofore monopolised by freemen and other privileged classes, on the
+unprivileged mass of ten-pound householders.</p>
+
+<p>The municipal corporations bill, in its ultimate form, rested<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> on the same
+broad lines of policy. It imposed upon all boroughs, with the exception of
+the city of London and a few of minor importance, one constitutional form
+of government, identical in all its essential features with those which a
+few model boroughs already possessed. The governing body was to consist of
+a mayor, aldermen, and councillors, together forming a town council. The
+councillors were to be elected directly by ratepaying occupiers, with a
+saving for the prescriptive rights of existing freemen. They were to hold
+office for three years; the aldermen were to be elected by the councillors
+for six years, with a provision for retirement by rotation. The mayor was
+to be elected annually by the town council. The elementary powers of local
+government, such as the control of lighting and the constabulary force,
+were to be transferred (subject to certain exceptions) from the hands of
+committees into those of the one recognised and supreme municipal
+authority. Other clauses provided for a division of the larger boroughs
+into wards, for the abolition of exclusive trading privileges, for the
+public management of charity estates, and for the appointment, at the
+option of each borough, of a recorder, for the purposes of jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>Such were the main outlines of the great measure introduced by Russell, to
+which Peel heartily gave his adhesion. It was a natural, and almost
+necessary, sequel of the reform act, which had already broken up many
+nests of jobbery, curtailed the lucrative exercise of the elective
+franchise by freemen, and undermined the influence of those self-elected
+rulers who, in the worst boroughs, had become gangs of public thieves.
+Supported by Peel, the bill was read a second time in the house of
+commons, on June 15, without a division. Several conservative amendments
+were defeated in committee by small majorities, and the bill was sent up
+to the lords on July 21. There its fate was far different. Though
+Wellington himself was not disposed to obstruct it, he entirely failed to
+check the obstructive tactics of Lyndhurst who, on this occasion, outdid
+himself in the deliberate mutilation of a bill approved by the late
+conservative premier. Lord Campbell, no partial judge of Brougham, has
+left on record his belief that, but for his faithful and vigorous support,
+the scheme of municipal reform must have been utterly wrecked.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> It was
+allowed to be read a second time, but with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> the full concurrence of Eldon
+and all the ultra-tory peers, Lyndhurst succeeded in pulling it to pieces
+in committee. For instance, one of the amendments imported into it
+perpetuated proprietary rights which it was a chief object of the bill to
+abolish; another gave aldermen a life-tenure of their offices; a third
+retained a part of the old town councillors on the new town councils.
+Proud as he was of his destructive exploits, as a triumph of toryism over
+conservatism, Lyndhurst soon found that he could not so lightly override
+the wiser counsels of Peel. When the lords' amendments came to be
+considered in the commons, Russell prudently advised the acceptance of the
+less important, and the disallowance of those inconsistent with the
+principle of the bill. He was followed by Peel who, professing to uphold
+the independence of the upper house, declared against the more obnoxious
+amendments, and stickled only for points which the ministry was not
+unwilling to concede. His action proved decisive. The commons stood firm
+on the main issues, and the hostile party in the lords, who had vowed to
+mar this reform, flinched at the last moment. Many of them abstained from
+attendance. Wellington and even Lyndhurst recommended concession;
+conferences took place between the houses, at which Russell played the
+part of moderator, and on September 9 the corporation bill became law, not
+in its entirety, but in all its essential features.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of this pacific compromise, popular feeling ran higher than ever
+against the house of lords which, under the evil influence of Lyndhurst,
+seemed bent on thwarting every liberal measure. John Roebuck, member for
+Bath, a prominent radical, who acted independently of party connexions,
+took a lead in denouncing their conduct, and went so far as to propose
+giving them a merely suspensory, instead of an absolute, veto on
+legislation. A sweeping reform in their constitution was loudly advocated
+in the press. O'Connell, exasperated by their wanton rejection of a Dublin
+police bill, spent a part of the parliamentary recess in a tour over the
+north of England and Scotland, exhausting the stores of his scurrilous
+invective in pouring contempt on the 170 tyrants who could dare to
+withstand the will of the people. But O'Connell's eloquence, marvellous as
+it was, never stirred British audiences as it stirred the Irish masses,
+and it happened that at this moment he was somewhat discredited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span> by
+accusations of corruption afterwards proved to be false. The house of
+lords not only survived his attacks, but was instigated by Lyndhurst to
+further acts of obstruction in the following year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>COTTENHAM, LORD CHANCELLOR.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_278" id="TOPIC_278"></a>His most powerful opponent was about to disappear from the political
+scenes for the present, and in the future to be converted into an ally.
+When the great seal was entrusted to commissioners, Brougham had affected
+to regard the arrangement as a temporary makeshift to propitiate William
+IV., and hoped that he would inherit the reversion of the chancellorship.
+With this expectation he not only patronised but warmly supported the whig
+ministry in 1835. But his wayward and petulant egotism had set all his old
+colleagues against him, and Melbourne had made up his mind that "it was
+impossible to act with him". The interruption of legal business caused by
+the constant withdrawal of three judges from their proper duties, to act
+as commissioners, was severely criticised by the press, and Sir Edward
+Sugden, who had been lord chancellor of Ireland under Peel, published an
+effective pamphlet entitled, "What has become of the great seal?" It was
+thought necessary to appoint a new chancellor, and in January, 1836, Sir
+Charles Pepys, then master of the rolls, was raised to that dignity as
+Lord Cottenham. Foreseeing the implacable indignation of Brougham, the
+ministry decided to confer a peerage on Henry Bickersteth, the new master
+of the rolls, who became Lord Langdale, and who was supposed capable of
+confronting the ex-chancellor in debate. No expectation could have been
+more unfounded or delusive, but the sense of disappointment and desertion
+so preyed on the health and nerves of Brougham that he forsook the house
+of lords for a whole session. Campbell does not shrink from saying that he
+was "atrociously ill-used" on this occasion,<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a> and assuredly he should
+not have been left to learn from a newspaper that he was thrust aside in
+favour of a man of vastly inferior gifts and services.</p>
+
+<p>One other change was made in the cabinet during the recess. The Earl of
+Minto became first lord of the admiralty in succession to Auckland who had
+been appointed governor-general of India. When parliament met on February
+4, 1836, the prospects of the whig government were more favourable than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span>
+on their first accession to office. The factious conduct of the house of
+lords in the last session had disgusted the country, while the
+statesmanlike moderation of Peel secured them fair-play in the house of
+commons, though it was gradually building up a strong conservative party.
+Ireland again blocked the way for a while against useful legislation for
+Great Britain, and the first encounter of parties was on an amendment to
+the address condemning the anticipated reform of Irish corporations on the
+principles already adopted for England. This amendment, unwillingly moved
+by Peel, was defeated by a majority of forty-one, and the Irish municipal
+bill was introduced on the 16th. Like its English prototype, it was
+founded on the report of a commission which had disclosed the grossest
+possible abuses in Irish municipalities, chiefly dominated by protestant
+oligarchies. A similar measure substituting elective councils for these
+corrupt bodies had actually passed its third reading in the commons before
+the end of the last session, but the attempt to carry it further was then
+abandoned. The debates on the bill of 1836 for the same purpose inevitably
+turned on broad issues which continued to disturb Irish politics and to
+perplex English statesmen for the rest of the century. On the one hand, no
+one could justify "government by ascendency" in Ireland, or the shameful
+malpractices incident to an exercise of power under no sense of
+responsibility. On the other hand, no one acquainted with Irish history
+and Irish character could honestly regard the people as yet qualified for
+local self-government. In the social and some of the moral virtues they
+might be favourably compared with Englishmen and Scotchmen; in the
+political virtues, upon which civil institutions must rest, they were
+several generations behind their fellow-subjects in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>IRISH BILLS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_279" id="TOPIC_279"></a>All were agreed on the necessity of sweeping away or expurgating the
+existing Irish corporations, but the whole strength of the conservative
+party in both houses was enlisted against the experiment of elective town
+councils, especially after the evidence lately taken before the so-called
+"intimidation committee" in the house of commons. Peel's scheme was to
+vest the executive powers and property of Irish corporations, at least for
+the present, in officers appointed by the crown. An amendment framed in
+this sense was defeated by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> a large majority, and the bill passed the
+commons with little further opposition. When it reached the lords it was
+stoutly contested by Lyndhurst, now fortified by Peel's concurrence, on
+the not unreasonable ground that it would make the radicals and repealers
+predominant in every Irish municipality, and create "seats of agitation"
+for revolutionary purposes in the new town councils. Being converted into
+a bill "for the abolition of municipal corporations" in Ireland, it was
+returned in that form to the house of commons. Russell vainly attempted to
+meet the lords half-way by another compromise, and the measure was
+abandoned only to be adopted, in a very modified shape, after the lapse of
+four years. A like course was pursued by the upper house when a new Irish
+tithe bill, with an appropriation clause, was sent up to them. Had the
+whig government been well advised they would scarcely have challenged a
+needless collision between the two houses by reviving this burning
+question so early. It would have been possible to settle the Irish tithe
+system on equitable lines, without prejudicing the future application of
+superfluous Church revenues, and it was a somewhat perverse obstinacy
+which persisted in coupling the two objects year after year. The ingenuity
+of Lyndhurst in wrecking sound reforms should have been left without
+excuse; whereas, in this case, the peers could not have accepted what they
+regarded as a confiscation bill without a sacrifice of conviction and
+self-respect.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_280" id="TOPIC_280"></a>Happily the commutation of tithes in England presented no political
+difficulties of the same nature. The payment of tithes in kind, though
+founded on immemorial usage, had, indeed, produced constant discord
+between the parish clergyman and his flock, while landlords and farmers
+justly complained that it impeded the improvement of agriculture. In many
+localities the pressure of these evils had led to voluntary compositions
+between tithe-owners and tithe-payers, which, being temporary, lacked the
+force of law. The permissive tithe bills of Althorp and Peel were designed
+to render general a practice which already prevailed in a thousand
+parishes, and that now introduced by Russell was little more than an
+extension of the same principle. Its mainspring was the appointment of
+commissioners with compulsory powers in the last resort, and the provision
+of a self-acting machinery for assessing the reduced annual rent charge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span>
+payable in lieu of tithes, so as to vary with the average price of wheat,
+barley, and oats in the seven preceding years. This practical solution of
+the question was adopted cheerfully by the wearied legislature, and the
+commissioners succeeded before long in effecting universal commutation.
+Amendments in detail have of course been found necessary, but the system
+established by 6 and 7 William IV., cap. 61, has stood the test of long
+experience, and although tithe-owners have been impoverished by the fall
+of prices, the payment of tithes in England has ceased to be a grievance,
+except with those who absolutely condemn the endowment of a Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>REGISTRATION ACTS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_281" id="TOPIC_281"></a>An equally valuable and permanent legacy of this session is contained in
+two cognate acts regulating marriages and registration in England. By the
+first of these acts two new modes of celebrating marriage were provided,
+without interfering with the old privileges of the established Church in
+regard to marriage by licence or banns. While the essential conditions of
+notice and publicity were carefully secured, the superintendent registrar
+of each district was empowered either to authorise the celebration of
+marriage in a duly registered place of worship, but in presence of a
+district registrar, or to solemnise the ceremony himself, without any
+religious service, in his own office. Clergymen of the Church of England
+were constituted registrars for marriages celebrated by themselves, and
+were bound to furnish the superintendent registrars with certified entries
+of such marriages. The act was complicated by a variety of safeguards,
+enforced by heavy penalties, against fraud and evasion, but its leading
+features were simple and have proved effectual for their purpose. It
+marked an advance on the earlier marriage bill of Russell, since it not
+only allowed dissenters to marry in their own chapels, but to marry
+without having their banns published in the parish church. It went beyond
+the marriage bill of Peel, since it not only recognised marriage as a
+civil contract, but utilised the new poor law organisation, and posted in
+each district a civil official before whom that contract could legally be
+solemnised.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_282" id="TOPIC_282"></a>The rules laid down by the first act for the registration of marriages
+were an integral part of a general registration system established by the
+second act, and embracing births and deaths as well as marriages. This
+system, rendered possible by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> division of the country into unions,
+brought under effective control the old parochial registers which had been
+loosely kept for three centuries. The statistical value of the returns
+thus checked and digested in a central department is now fully recognised,
+but can only be appreciated by students of social history, which, indeed,
+is now largely founded on reports of the registrar-general. The special
+provisions for the registration of deaths are also of the utmost service
+in the prevention of disease and crime. Not until after this act of 1836
+was it realised by the mass of the people, not only that a sudden death
+would properly be followed by a coroner's inquest, but that every death,
+with its circumstances, must be treated as a matter of public concern and
+duly notified. Still more important in its results has been the
+requirement of a medical statement on the cause of death&mdash;a requirement
+which has brought about the discovery of numerous murders and greatly
+checked the commission of others. If the marriage act relieved a large
+class of the community from vexatious disabilities, the whole community
+assuredly owes the second reformed parliament a debt of gratitude for the
+registration act which, like so many of the best acts in the statute book,
+provoked but little discussion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_283" id="TOPIC_283"></a>A far keener party interest was excited by the crusade against the Orange
+lodges in Great Britain and Ireland which Hume and Finn, an Irish member,
+carried on with great energy in the sessions of 1835 and 1836. These
+societies then had an importance which they no longer possess, and were
+the more open to radical attacks because the Duke of Cumberland was grand
+master of the order. It was said, with some justice, that while the
+catholic association was nominally put down, the Orange lodges in Ireland
+were openly spreading, with the connivance at least of the Irish
+authorities. Their officials included noblemen of high position; Goulburn,
+when chief secretary, was an Orangeman, and special efforts had been made
+to enrol members in the army. Their principles were strictly loyal, but
+their demonstrations were naturally resented by the Roman catholics, and
+were not far removed from preparations for civil war. They hailed the
+accession of Peel's short ministry with tumultuous enthusiasm, but when
+the legality of their organisation and proceedings was challenged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> in the
+house of commons, during the session of 1835, their advocates felt
+compelled to support a committee of inquiry. The evidence taken before
+this committee, and the debate raised by Hume on the formation of Orange
+lodges in the army, damaged their cause in the eyes of the public, and
+seriously compromised the Duke of Cumberland. It was shown that his
+brother, the Duke of York, had resigned the grand mastership, and on being
+convinced of their illegality had forbidden Orange lodges in the army,
+whereas the Duke of Cumberland had accepted the grand mastership and
+directly promoted military lodges.</p>
+
+<p>An address condemning them was carried; the king undertook to discourage
+them, and the commander-in-chief issued a stringent order for their
+suppression. The struggle, however, was continued by the pertinacity of
+the radicals in demanding a more extended inquiry, and the obstinacy of
+the Orangemen in defying both the house of commons and the horse guards.
+Early in the session of 1836 Finn and Hume renewed their assaults, and the
+latter moved for an address, to be framed in the most sweeping terms, and
+calling upon the crown to dismiss all persons in public employment, from
+the highest to the lowest, who should belong to Orange societies. Russell,
+who had been gradually rising in public estimation, showed the qualities
+of a true statesman on this occasion by a firm yet conciliatory speech
+which commanded assent on both sides. He exposed the extravagant and
+impracticable nature of Hume's demand, but condemned the Orange societies,
+and proposed an address urging the crown to use its influence for "the
+effectual discouragement of Orange lodges, and generally all political
+societies, excluding persons of different faith, using signs and symbols,
+and acting by associated branches". This resolution was adopted without
+opposition, the king heartily endorsed it, even the Duke of Cumberland
+acquiesced in it, and the Orange societies quietly dissolved themselves,
+for a while, throughout the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>If the session of 1836 had produced no other legislative fruits it could
+not be regarded as wasted. But several minor reforms of great social
+benefit also date from this year, and prove that, however checked by
+political blunders, the energy kindled by the reform act had not yet
+exhausted itself. After repeated efforts of legal philanthropists, a bill
+was now passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> for the first time allowing prisoners on trial for felony
+to be defended by counsel. It was brought in by William Ewart, a private
+member, who sat for Liverpool, but was supported by the highest legal
+authorities in the house of lords, including Lyndhurst himself, who openly
+recanted his former opinions, and declared the old law to be a barbarous
+survival, inconsistent with the practice of other civilised nations. In
+the same house an interesting debate took place on the management of
+jails, which had been placed under a system of inspection by an act of the
+previous year. The reports of the inspectors disclosed gross abuses, not
+only in the smaller county jails but in Newgate itself. Lansdowne, in
+pledging the government to deal with the larger question, intimated that
+Russell, as home secretary, was considering the means of separating
+juvenile offenders from hardened criminals by establishing places of
+detention in the nature of what have since been known as reformatories.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DUTY ON NEWSPAPERS LOWERED.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_284" id="TOPIC_284"></a>A still more notable contribution to social improvement was made by Spring
+Rice, the chancellor of the exchequer, in consolidating the paper duties
+on a reduced scale, and lowering the stamp duty on newspapers from
+fourpence to one penny. These were the only controversial elements in a
+budget otherwise modest and acceptable. The battle over paper duties and
+"taxes upon knowledge" raised in the debates of 1836 was destined to rage
+many years longer, but the relief granted by Spring Rice gave a powerful
+impulse to journalism and periodical literature. It was opposed by all the
+familiar arguments against a cheap press, but that which most endangered
+its success was a rival proposal to apply any surplus revenue to
+cheapening soap. Soap, it was plausibly contended, was a necessary,
+reading newspapers or periodicals was only a luxury, and a luxury, too,
+far move capable of being abused than expenditure on soap. When the penny
+stamp on newspapers was at last preferred to reduced soap duties it was
+said that, "so far as financial arrangements were concerned, everything
+went to supply the essential elements of low political clubs, <i>viz.</i>,
+cheap gin, cheap newspapers, filthy hands, and unwashed faces".<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a></p>
+
+<p>The legislative record of 1836 was creditable to the government, nor was
+the action of the upper house in amending<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> certain of their bills so
+purely mischievous as it has been described. For instance, a strange
+clause had found its way into the newspaper stamp bill, requiring all the
+proprietors of newspapers, however numerous, to be registered at the stamp
+office. This clause was struck out in the house of lords, at the instance
+of Lyndhurst, though Melbourne declared it to be a vital part of the
+measure, which, however, passed without it, and was the better for the
+loss of it. But the same cannot be said of Lyndhurst's conduct at the
+"open conference" between the two houses on a supplementary bill for
+remedying defects in the operation of the municipal corporations act.
+There no question of principle was involved, and the only motive for
+resisting every attempt to improve the new machinery already established
+by law was one unworthy of a statesman. At the close of the session,
+Lyndhurst delivered a masterly vindication of his own proceedings, but he
+was answered by Melbourne in a speech of great ability, and the position
+now occupied by the whigs appeared stronger than when they came into
+office in 1835.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_285" id="TOPIC_285"></a>In this year complaints of agricultural distress once more became urgent,
+and a committee was appointed by the house of commons, as in 1833, to
+inquire into its cause. Strange to say, the immediate occasion for the
+second inquiry was the occurrence of three magnificent harvests in
+succession, which brought down the average price of wheat from 58s. 8d. in
+1832 to 53s. in 1833, 46s. 2d. in 1834, and 39s. 4d. in 1835, whence it
+rose to 48s. 6d. after the harvest of 1836. The average gazette price of
+1835 was the lowest touched in the nineteenth century until 1884, and was
+simply due to excess of production. It was stated before the committee of
+1836, by the comptroller of corn returns, that in the period between 1814
+and 1834 the quantity of home-grown wheat only fell short of the
+consumption, on the average, by about 1,000,000 quarters a year, of which
+at least half was contributed by Ireland. The committee published its
+evidence without making a report, but this fact is highly significant as
+marking the later revolution in British agriculture. If the area then
+devoted to wheat crops almost sufficed to feed an estimated population of
+14,500,000, when the yield per acre was relatively small, we may safely
+infer, in the absence of trustworthy statistics, that it must have been
+very much greater than at present.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AGITATION IN IRELAND.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_286" id="TOPIC_286"></a>At the opening of 1837 there was a marked stagnation in home politics,
+mainly due to an equipoise of parties and serious divisions in the ranks
+of the ministerialists as well as of the opposition. Not only was there a
+very strong conservative majority in the house of lords, with a sufficient
+though dwindling liberal majority in the house of commons, but neither
+majority was amenable to party discipline. The aggressive policy and
+vexatious tactics of Lyndhurst were distasteful to his nominal leader, the
+Duke of Wellington, and still more so to Peel, the only possible
+conservative premier, who eschewed the very name of tory. There was
+greater unity of counsels between Melbourne and Russell, but Russell, who
+had learned moderation, was dependent on the support of his extreme left,
+composed of violent radicals and Irish repealers. The king, though he did
+not carry his repugnance to his ministers so far as he once threatened,
+yet almost excluded them from social invitations, and made no secret of
+his preference for the opposite party. During the winter of 1836-37
+O'Connell and his satellites were busy in organising monster meetings to
+demand the abolition of tithes and municipal reform. A national
+association was formed on this basis, and a certain number of protestants
+were induced to join it. The government dared not show vigour in checking
+it lest they should estrange their Irish allies, and Mulgrave, the
+lord-lieutenant, was openly accused of favouring sedition and discouraging
+loyalty by his exercise of patronage and the royal prerogative of pardon.
+At last, a very large and influential meeting was held in Dublin, at which
+the discontent of loyalists and patriots was expressed with truly Irish
+vehemence. Still, Ireland was less disturbed than in several previous
+years. About the same time, Peel, having been elected lord rector of
+Glasgow University, was entertained there at dinner by a company including
+many old reformers, and made one of his greatest speeches. Its spirit was
+that of his Tamworth manifesto, but he was far more outspoken in his
+declaration of unswerving adhesion to the protestant cause and to the
+independence of the upper house.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_287" id="TOPIC_287"></a>Such were the political conditions when parliament met on January 31. The
+king's speech, delivered by commission, though singularly colourless,
+indicated the importance of legislating on Irish tithes, Irish
+corporations, and Irish poor relief. The debate on the address was
+enlivened by a furious attack of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> Roebuck on the whigs, but was otherwise
+devoid of importance. On February 7, however, Russell introduced a new
+Irish corporations bill, invoking the authority of Fox for the doctrine
+that "Irish government should be regulated by Irish notions and Irish
+prejudices," and avowing a faith in the efficacy of unlimited concession
+which has not been justified by later experience. He further intimated the
+resolution of the government to stand or fall by this measure. No serious
+resistance was offered by the opposition to its first or second reading,
+but Peel took occasion to protest against a transparent inconsistency
+which seems to beset the advocacy of Irish claims. It is generally
+assumed, and with too much justice, that Ireland is so backward and
+helpless a country as to require exceptional treatment; in short, that it
+must be governed by Irish ideas, with little regard to English principles
+of sound policy or economy. Such was, in effect, Fox's contention, adopted
+by Russell; and yet, like future supporters of "Ireland for the Irish," he
+argued in the same breath that every liberal institution suitable to
+Englishmen, with their long training in self-government and instinctive
+reverence for law, must needs be extended to Irishmen, with their long
+training in anarchy and instinctive propensity to lawlessness. He
+prevailed, however, in the house of commons, where a hostile amendment was
+decisively rejected, and the bill, having passed rapidly through
+committee, was read a third time by a large though reduced majority.</p>
+
+<p>Had it been possible to isolate the Irish municipal bill, and to compel
+the house of lords to deal with it singly, the peers might possibly have
+shrunk from another collision with the commons. But it had been coupled in
+the king's speech with two other projects of Irish legislation, a new
+tithe bill, and an Irish poor law. Both of these were, in fact,
+introduced, the former by Russell in February, the latter by Morpeth early
+in May. The course to be taken by the conservative party was the subject
+of anxious consultation between Peel and Wellington, and that ultimately
+adopted had the full sanction of both. They regarded the separate
+presentation of the municipal bill as a "man&oelig;uvre," and, while they
+overruled the wish of Lyndhurst to defeat it by an adverse vote on the
+second reading, they resolved to meet it by a counter-man&oelig;uvre.
+Accordingly Wellington induced the house of lords to postpone the
+com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span>mittee on the municipal bill until they should have the other two
+bills before them, and Peel not only approved of his action but stated
+reasons for regarding them as essentially connected with each other. June
+9 was originally fixed as the date for going into committee, but this
+stage was afterwards deferred until July 3, before which unforeseen events
+arrested all further progress.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CHURCH RATES.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_288" id="TOPIC_288"></a>In the meantime, the prestige of the government had been weakened by the
+failure of their scheme for abolishing Church rates. The dissenters, no
+longer content with religious liberty, were beginning to demand religious
+equality. In the forefront of their grievances was that of paying rates
+for the repair of parish churches which they did not attend, except as
+members of the annual "vestry," where they could object to a rate but
+might be out-voted by a majority of their fellow-parishioners. Althorp had
+proposed a scheme for the removal of this grievance in 1834, involving a
+parliamentary grant of &pound;250,000. Setting aside this alternative, as well
+as that of a special contribution, voluntary or otherwise, from members of
+the Church, Spring Rice now proposed a solution of his own. It consisted
+in vesting the property of bishops and chapters in a commission which, by
+improved management, might raise the necessary sum for church repairs,
+without impairing the incomes of these ecclesiastical dignitaries. Before
+the government plan was discussed in the house of commons, Howley,
+archbishop of Canterbury, entered a strong protest against it in the house
+of lords on the ground that it would reduce the bishops and chapters from
+the position of landowners to that of "mere annuitants". Melbourne
+complained of his protest somewhat angrily as premature, and provoked a
+vehement reply from Blomfield, bishop of London, who, though a member of
+the ecclesiastical commission, denounced any such diversion of revenues as
+"a sacrilegious act of spoliation". In the elaborate debates on the
+resolutions moved by Spring Rice in the house of commons Peel took his
+stand partly on financial objections and partly on the injustice of taking
+away from the Church a fund belonging to it by immemorial usage, and in
+the main willingly contributed. Amendment after amendment was proposed by
+members of the opposition, and, though each was defeated, the government
+resolutions were ultimately carried by so narrow a majority in May that no
+further action was taken.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_289" id="TOPIC_289"></a>The conservative reaction, now in visible progress, was typi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span>fied by the
+open secession of Burdett from the ranks of the reformers. This sincere
+but indiscreet radical, who had once enjoyed a popularity similar to that
+of Wilkes as a political martyr, became estranged from his party when it
+accepted O'Connell as an auxiliary, if not as an ally. Having failed in
+procuring the exclusion of the great Irish demagogue from Brooks's club,
+in 1835, he withdrew his own name. Soon afterwards he became irregular in
+his parliamentary attendance, and more than lukewarm in his allegiance.
+Early in 1837 he was, like Stanley and Graham, so much suspected of
+gravitating towards conservatism, that some of his Westminster
+constituents publicly called upon him to resign. He took up the challenge,
+and was re-elected against a radical opponent by a substantial majority.
+It was his last re-election for a borough which he had represented for
+thirty years. In the Church-rate debate he rose from the opposition side
+of the house, and lamenting his separation from his old associates, did
+not spare them either reproaches or hostile criticism.</p>
+
+<p>Another desertion from the whig camp took place during this session, but
+in an opposite direction. Roebuck, originally one of the philosophical
+radicals, had become more and more violent in his attacks on his own
+leaders, whom he accused of having deceived the people. According to him,
+they were "aristocratic in principle, democratic in pretence," and all the
+resources of his incisive rhetoric were exhausted in exposing their
+incapacity, in a motion for a committee to consider the state of the
+nation. This motion, so advocated, met with no support, and gave Russell
+the opportunity of once more vindicating the wisdom of moderation in
+statesmanship. But there were many besides Roebuck who were eager to
+complete the work of the reform act by further organic changes, and the
+notice book of the house of commons in 1837 embodied several proposals of
+this kind. One was Grote's annual motion for the ballot, on which an
+interesting debate took place. Among the others were two motions of Sir
+William Molesworth for a reform of the upper house and for the abolition
+of a property qualification for the lower house, a motion of Tennyson, who
+had taken the additional name of D'Eyncourt, for the repeal of the
+septennial act, and another of Hume for household suffrage, overshadowing
+that of Duncombe for repealing the rate-paying clauses of the reform act<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span>
+itself. Nearly all of these contained the germs of future legislation, but
+they formed no part of the whig programme, nor could any whig government
+have carried them against so powerful an opposition, with an invincible
+reserve in the house of lords, during the last session of William IV. Only
+seventeen public acts were actually passed in this session.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE DEATH OF WILLIAM IV.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_290" id="TOPIC_290"></a>There were, indeed, other reasons for declining to provoke a grave contest
+at this juncture. The king's health was known to be failing, his death
+under the law then in force would involve a general election, and no one
+could desire his successor, a girl of eighteen, to begin her reign in the
+midst of a political crisis. In May his illness assumed an alarming
+aspect, early in June the medical reports satisfied the country that his
+case was hopeless, on June 19 he received the last sacrament, and on the
+20th he died at Windsor Castle. Something more than justice was done to
+his character by the leaders of both parties in parliament, but something
+less than justice has been done to it by later historians. He was inferior
+in strength of will to his father, in ability to his eldest brother, and
+in the higher virtues of a constitutional sovereign to his niece, who
+succeeded him. But he was not only a kindly and well-meaning man, a good
+husband to Queen Adelaide and a good father to his natural children,
+faithful to his old friends, and bountiful in his charities; he was also a
+loyal servant of the state, with a genuine sense of public duty, a natural
+love of justice, an independent judgment, and a noble indifference to
+personal or selfish objects. His lot was cast in almost revolutionary
+times, and he was called upon to reign at an age when few men are capable
+of shaking off old prejudices, yet he deserved well of his people in
+supporting the ministry of Grey through all the stages of the reform
+movement, in spite of his own declared sympathies, but in deference to his
+own conviction of paramount obligation under the laws of the land. He was
+quite as liberal in opinions as Peel, whose hearty interest in the poorer
+classes he fully shared, and far more liberal than the tory majority in
+the house of lords. Great he certainly was not, and he never affected the
+royal dignity which partially concealed the littleness of his predecessor.
+But in honesty and simplicity he was no unworthy son of George III., and
+the greater pliability of his nature contributed, at least, to make the
+seven years of his reign more fruitful in reforms than all the sixty years
+during which the old king occupied the throne of England.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a> The king to Peel (Feb. 22, 1835), Parker, <i>Sir Robert
+Peel</i>, ii., 287-89.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a> See Melbourne's letters to Brougham, <i>Melbourne Papers</i>,
+pp. 257-64.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a> The abuses in the Scottish municipalities had, however,
+been already removed by an act conferring the municipal franchise on &pound;10
+householders. Not the least important result of this act was the increased
+strength which it gave to the "evangelical" party in the general assembly
+of the Church of Scotland, which was partly elected by the
+municipalities.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a> Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, viii., 470.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a> Campbell, <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, viii., 476.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a> <i>Annual Register</i>, lxxviii. (1836), p. 244<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_291" id="TOPIC_291"></a>In 1830 the closing months of Wellington's administration were disturbed
+by the French and Belgian revolutions. The former of these was occasioned
+by the publication on July 25 of three ordinances, restricting the liberty
+of the press, dissolving the chambers, and amending the law of elections.
+The Parisian populace rose against this infringement of the constitution.
+In the course of a three days' street-fight (the 27th to the 29th) the
+troops were driven out of Paris. On the 30th a few members of the
+chambers, who had continued in session, invited Louis Philippe, Duke of
+Orl&eacute;ans, to assume the office of lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and he
+was proclaimed on the following day. On August 7 the chamber of deputies
+offered him the crown, which he accepted, and on the 9th he was proclaimed
+"King of the French". On the 2nd Charles X. and the dauphin had renounced
+their rights in favour of the young Duke of Bordeaux, and on the 16th they
+sailed from Cherbourg to England. The change of dynasty was accompanied by
+a transference to the <i>bourgeoisie</i> of such political influence as had
+hitherto belonged to the clergy and <i>noblesse</i>. It remained to be seen
+whether it would also be accompanied by a change of foreign policy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>RECOGNITION OF LOUIS PHILIPPE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_292" id="TOPIC_292"></a>The new French revolution occasioned no slight perturbation in the
+European courts. To say nothing of the fear of the precedent being
+followed in other lands, there was no longer any guarantee that France
+would respect the arrangements effected by the treaties of Vienna and
+Paris. Austria, Prussia, and Russia agreed not to recognise Louis
+Philippe, and entered into a convention for mutual aid in the event of
+French aggression. Aberdeen, the British foreign secretary, declared that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span>
+the time had come for applying the treaty of Chaumont, which, as extended
+at Paris, pledged Great Britain and the three eastern powers to act
+together in case fresh revolution and usurpation in France should endanger
+the repose of other states. Wellington, however, saw that the cause of the
+elder Bourbon line was hopeless, and held now, as in 1815, that if France
+was not to menace the peace of Europe, her political position must be one
+with which she could be contented. He considered that the arguments which
+justified the admission of France to the councils of the powers at
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 applied with no less cogency to the government of
+Louis Philippe than to that of Louis XVIII. He therefore determined to
+acknowledge the new French government at an early date after the
+notification of its assumption of power. Nor were the other powers slow in
+taking the same course. It is true that Metternich suggested a closer bond
+between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, partly to restore amicable relations
+between Austria and Russia, partly to oppose any possible designs of
+France on Italy. Prussia, fearing war, resisted the proposal, and
+preferred to draw France into a guarantee of the <i>status quo</i> by
+recognising Louis Philippe. Russia was last of the great powers to
+acknowledge the new <i>r&eacute;gime</i> in France, and she only did so on condition
+that the powers should hold the French king responsible for the execution
+of the international engagements of the fallen dynasty. Louis Philippe was
+certainly not the man wilfully to embroil France in a war with her
+neighbours, and, had he been independent of French public opinion, there
+would have been no reason to fear French aggression.</p>
+
+<p>The state which had most to fear from an aggressive France was the new
+kingdom of the Netherlands. Trusting for protection to the great powers
+rather than to its own forces, the Netherlands government had adopted a
+system which left it almost entirely without troops except during the
+military exercises of September and October. Wellington, who knew the
+pacific character of the new French government, advised the garrisoning of
+certain isolated points on the frontier, but thought no further
+preparation necessary. A few weeks were however to prove that the new
+French revolution had aroused a more implacable enemy, against whom the
+house of Orange would have needed all the troops it could summon to its
+aid.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> The union of Holland and Belgium had been resolved on by the powers
+at Paris in 1814, mainly for military reasons. Austria had been unwilling
+to resume the heavy burden of guarding the Belgian Netherlands and
+southern Germany against French aggression, and the powers had
+consequently resolved on strengthening those smaller states on whom the
+duty of resistance would fall. In these days, accustomed as we are to the
+distinction between the Teutonic and Latin races, it might seem reasonable
+that two countries in which the prevailing languages are low German should
+be subject to the same government. But it was not yet customary to turn
+the principles of comparative philology into arguments for the
+rearrangement of political boundaries. The French language and culture had
+moreover made considerable progress among the upper and middle classes of
+Belgium, while religious differences alienated the clergy from the house
+of Orange. In the states-general of the Netherlands the Dutch had half the
+votes, and, as the Orange party was strong in Antwerp and Ghent, commanded
+a majority. The fiscal system adopted by the government favoured the Dutch
+rather than the Belgian population. Dutchmen were generally preferred for
+state offices, and an attempt to control the education of the clergy was
+deeply resented as an attack on the Roman catholic religion. Belgium in
+consequence presented the curious spectacle of the liberal and clerical
+parties working on the same side, united against the Dutch government.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BELGIAN REVOLUTION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_293" id="TOPIC_293"></a>The example afforded by France turned a discontent which might have led to
+local riots into a national conflagration. On August 25 there was a rising
+of the populace at Brussels, which the troops proved unable to quell. On
+the 27th it was suppressed by a body of burgher guards, a volunteer force
+drawn from the <i>bourgeoisie</i> of the town. The <i>bourgeoisie</i> finding
+themselves in possession of the Belgian capital, at first presented a
+series of minor demands to the king, but on September 3 they went the
+length of demanding a separate administration for Belgium. The king
+undertook to lay this proposal before the states, which assembled on the
+13th. But before the states could come to any conclusion the question had
+assumed a new aspect. All the leading towns of Belgium had followed the
+example of Brussels by forming burgher guards and had thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span> joined in the
+revolution; and on the 20th a fresh rising of the populace of Brussels had
+overthrown the burgher guard and instituted a provisional government. This
+was followed by an attempt on the part of Prince Frederick of Orange, a
+younger son of the King of the Netherlands, to occupy Brussels with a
+military force. After five days' fighting he was compelled to retire, and
+when on the 30th the states-general gave their consent to the proposal for
+a separate administration, their decision fell upon deaf ears. All the
+Belgian provinces were in revolt.</p>
+
+<p>It was now clear to everybody that the national party in Belgium would not
+consent even to a personal union with Holland. As the union of the two
+countries formed a part of the treaty of Vienna, every European power had
+a legal right to employ force to prevent its disruption, and Russia and
+Prussia both desired active intervention. In France, on the other hand,
+there was a loud popular demand for the reannexation of Belgium to France,
+of which it had formed a part from 1794 to 1814. Louis Philippe saw that
+he could not resist this demand if the Belgian insurgents were coerced on
+the side of Prussia, and therefore announced that Prussian aggression
+would be met by a French expedition to Belgium to keep the balance even,
+until the question should be settled by a congress of the powers. On
+September 25 Talleyrand had arrived in England. He quickly obtained the
+adhesion of Wellington to the principle of non-intervention. The duke had
+been among the first to grasp the fact that reconciliation of Dutch and
+Belgians was impossible, and that the intervention of the powers would
+necessitate a European war, to avoid which the union of the two countries
+had originally been designed. He agreed therefore to a separation of the
+countries on condition that France should bind herself to observe the
+arrangements of the congress of Vienna in 1815 and should take no separate
+action in Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>On Talleyrand's suggestion it was decided to refer the question to the
+conference already sitting in London for the purpose of settling the Greek
+question, which would of course have to be reinforced by representatives
+of Austria and Prussia for the present purpose. Mol&eacute;, the French foreign
+minister, would have preferred Paris as the seat of the congress, but the
+King of the Netherlands absolutely refused to entrust his cause to a
+conference meeting in a city where opinion ran so strongly against him.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span>
+On October 5 he made a formal appeal to the powers for the aid guaranteed
+him by treaty, but the demand came too late to induce Wellington to swerve
+from the policy of non-intervention, and on November 4 the conference of
+London began its labours by proposing an armistice in Belgium, which was
+accepted by both parties. This left Maastricht and the citadel of Antwerp
+in the hands of Dutch garrisons, and Luxemburg in the hands of a garrison
+supplied by the German confederation. Every other place in Belgium was in
+the hands of the insurgents. But the further solution of the question was
+reserved for other hands. On the 3rd Louis Philippe was compelled to
+accept a revolutionary ministry, and on the 22nd Wellington and Aberdeen
+had to make way for a whig ministry with Grey as premier, and Palmerston
+as foreign secretary.</p>
+
+<p>The new foreign secretary had served a long political apprenticeship as
+secretary at war in the successive administrations of Perceval, Liverpool,
+Canning, Goderich, and Wellington, and under the three last-mentioned
+premiers he had enjoyed a seat in the cabinet. It will be remembered that
+he had been a warm champion of Greece, and had resigned office along with
+Huskisson, Dudley, and Grant. He now returned in company with Grant as a
+member of a whig cabinet. Although this change of party involved the
+adoption of a domestic policy far removed from Canning's, Palmerston's
+foreign policy remained rather Canningite than whig. The interest and the
+honour of England ranked with Palmerston as with Canning before all
+questions which concerned the maintenance of European peace. But instead
+of Canning's versatile diplomacy he displayed too often a reckless
+disregard of the susceptibilities of foreign governments, and, if, like
+Canning, he lent the moral support of Great Britain to the liberal party
+in every continental country, it was not, as it had professedly been with
+Canning, because their success would promote the interests of Great
+Britain, but because he had a genuine sympathy with their cause. It is
+impossible to deny that in his earlier years at least Palmerston's policy
+met with a success such as Castlereagh and Wellington had not attempted to
+gain; real or imaginary dangers at home left the foreign governments too
+weak to oppose the will of the one strong man of the moment. Yet it is
+doubtful whether any resultant benefits were not more than counterbalanced
+by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> distrust and ill-will with which the greater nations of Europe
+have learned to regard the British government and people.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PROPOSED DIVISION OF THE NETHERLANDS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_294" id="TOPIC_294"></a>During the first few weeks of the new administration, the Belgian question
+advanced far towards a settlement. On November 10 a Belgian national
+congress assembled at Brussels; on the 18th it voted the independence of
+Belgium; on the 22nd it resolved that the new state should be a
+constitutional monarchy, and on the 24th it proclaimed the total exclusion
+of the house of Nassau. Finally the outbreak of a Polish insurrection at
+Warsaw made it clear that Prussia and Russia would be too busily occupied
+in the east to be able to interfere effectively in the Belgian question.
+On December 20 a protocol was signed at London by the representatives of
+the five powers, providing for the separation of Belgium from Holland.
+When however the protocol was sent to the tsar for ratification, he would
+only ratify it subject to the condition that its execution should depend
+on the consent of the King of the Netherlands. Meanwhile the London
+conference was engaged in settling the boundary of the new kingdom. For
+the most part it went on the principle of leaving to Holland the districts
+that had belonged to the United Provinces before the wars of the French
+revolution. The remainder of the kingdom of the Netherlands, consisting
+chiefly of the former Austrian Netherlands, but including also territories
+which had belonged to France, Prussia, the Palatinate, the bishopric of
+Li&egrave;ge, and some minor ecclesiastical states, was assigned to Belgium. An
+exception was, however, made in the case of the grand duchy of Luxemburg.
+Luxemburg was reputed to be, next to Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in
+Europe. It was regarded as the key to the lower Rhine; it formed a part of
+the German confederation, and was garrisoned by German troops. Although
+Holland had no historical claim to its possession, the treaty of Vienna
+granted it to the Dutch branch of the house of Nassau, as compensation for
+its former possessions, merged in the duchy of Nassau; and it was now felt
+that a place so important to the safety of Germany could not safely be
+handed over to a state which seemed likely to fall under French influence.
+The powers therefore determined that this duchy should continue to belong
+to the king of the Netherlands.</p>
+
+<p>There was also some difficulty over the apportionment of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> the debt.
+Belgium was the more populous and the richer of the two countries, but the
+greater part of the debt had been contracted by Holland before the union.
+Belgium was, however, already responsible for its share of the whole debt,
+and the powers can hardly be accused of injustice when they determined to
+divide the debt in the proportion in which the debt-charges had been borne
+in the three previous years, assigning sixteen thirty-firsts to Belgium,
+and fifteen thirty-firsts to Holland. Belgium was moreover to possess the
+right of trading with the Dutch colonies and to contribute towards their
+defence. These provisions were embodied in two protocols which were issued
+at London on January 20 and 27, 1831. As compared with the <i>status quo</i>
+the Dutch were slightly the gainers. The protocol permitted them to keep
+Maastricht and Luxemburg, but required them to abandon the citadel of
+Antwerp; while the Belgians were required to surrender those less
+important places which they had occupied in Dutch Limburg and in the grand
+duchy of Luxemburg. Talleyrand considered the present a favourable
+opportunity for claiming for France the cession of Mariembourg and
+Philippeville which she had been compelled to surrender to the kingdom of
+the Netherlands in 1815. Palmerston, however, absolutely refused to hear
+of any extension of French territory, for fear of imperilling the security
+of Europe. The two protocols were accepted by Holland on February 13 but
+rejected by Belgium. Though Talleyrand had signed the protocol of January
+20, it was repudiated by S&eacute;bastiani, the French foreign minister, on the
+ground that the object of the conference was to effect a mediation, not to
+dictate a settlement.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>BELGIUM CHOOSES A KING.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_295" id="TOPIC_295"></a>Meanwhile the national congress at Brussels had attempted to elect a king.
+At first the most favoured candidate was Auguste Beauharnais, Duke of
+Leuchtenberg, the grandson of Napoleon's first consort. Louis Philippe
+naturally objected to the establishment on his frontier of a prince so
+closely connected with the house of Bonaparte. The pliant Belgians
+accordingly transferred their preference to the Duke of Nemours, the
+second son of Louis Philippe. It was in vain that S&eacute;bastiani declared that
+France could not allow such a selection, as it would be interpreted by the
+powers as evidence of a French design to reincorporate Belgium in France.
+On February<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> 3, 1831, the Duke of Nemours was actually elected king by the
+Belgian national congress. But the conference of London had, two days
+earlier, adopted a resolution, excluding from the Belgian throne all
+members of the reigning dynasties of the five powers. Still there was a
+strong party in France, including Laffitte, the revolutionary premier, who
+advocated the claims of Nemours. Louis Philippe, however, stood firm on
+the side of European peace, and on the 17th definitively declined the
+crown offered to his son. The French now recommended the Prince of Naples,
+but the Belgians declined to accept him, and on the 25th the national
+congress appointed a regent to hold office till a king should be elected.
+On March 13 the accession to office of an anti-revolutionary ministry in
+France rendered the complete co-operation of the powers easier.</p>
+
+<p>On April 17 France declared her adhesion to the protocol of January 20,
+and by a new protocol the other four powers consented to the demolition of
+some of the Belgian fortresses on the French frontier. Another protocol of
+the same date ordered the Belgians to evacuate the grand duchy of
+Luxemburg. On May 10 a further protocol even threatened Belgium with the
+rupture of diplomatic relations in case she did not by June I accept the
+protocol of January 20. But the powers soon adopted a more conciliatory
+attitude. France and Great Britain desired that Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg, who in the previous year had resigned the crown of Greece,
+should now be offered that of Belgium. Prince Leopold would not accept the
+crown so long as Belgium continued to defy the powers, and on the other
+hand there was no chance of securing his election by the Belgian congress
+unless he undertook to maintain the Belgian claim to the possession of
+Luxemburg. Lord Ponsonby, the British minister at Brussels, succeeded in
+inducing the London conference to sign a new protocol, undertaking to
+negotiate with Holland for the cession of Luxemburg to Belgium, in return
+for an indemnity elsewhere, provided that Belgium should first accept the
+protocol of January 20. The Belgian congress gathered that the acceptance
+of Prince Leopold was regarded by the powers as more important than the
+maintenance of the terms of that protocol, and they accordingly elected
+him as their king on June 4 without accepting the protocol. In answer to
+Dutch complaints Ponsonby and General Belliard, the French<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> minister, were
+recalled from Brussels as the protocol of May 10 required. Leopold refused
+to accept the crown until the conference should have offered better terms,
+and on the 26th the conference signed another protocol, which differed
+from that of January 20 in that it left the Luxemburg question open for
+future negotiation, and rendered Holland liable for the whole of the debt
+that it had incurred before the union of the two countries. On the same
+day Leopold accepted the Belgian crown. The Belgian congress accepted this
+last protocol on July 7, and on the 21st Leopold was proclaimed king, and
+immediately recognised by Great Britain and France. The other great powers
+were not long in following their example.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_296" id="TOPIC_296"></a>It was now Holland's turn to feel aggrieved. She refused to recognise the
+changes proposed by the powers in the terms which she had already
+accepted. On May 21 she had declared that if the protocol of January 20
+were not accepted by June 1 she would consider herself free to act on her
+own account, and on July 12 that the acceptance in Belgium of a king who
+had not agreed to that protocol would be an act of hostility. Feeling
+herself betrayed by the conference she gave notice on August 1 that the
+armistice which had existed since the previous November would terminate on
+the 4th. It was soon seen how much Holland had lost in the preceding year
+by being found in a state of military unpreparedness. When hostilities
+began the Dutch carried everything before them. On the 8th the Belgians
+were routed at Hasselt, and on the 13th Leopold in person was compelled to
+surrender Louvain. But Holland was now arrested in the full tide of her
+success. The opportunity that French patriots had long desired had
+presented itself, and Louis Philippe would only have endangered his own
+throne if he had failed to come to the assistance of Belgium against
+Holland. On the 4th he received Leopold's appeal for assistance; on the
+12th the first French division reached Brussels, and on the following day
+the Prince of Orange, who led the main Dutch army, received orders from
+the Hague to retire within the Dutch frontier.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>COERCION OF HOLLAND.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_297" id="TOPIC_297"></a>The conference had in fact found it necessary to join in measures of
+coercion. On the first news of the outbreak of hostilities it severely
+reproached Holland for the breach of the armistice, and ordered the Dutch
+forces to retire. By a pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span>tocol of the 6th it accepted and justified the
+French expedition, which, it knew, could not safely be recalled, and tried
+to minimise the danger by forbidding the French to cross the Dutch
+frontier and requiring them to return to France as soon as the Dutch
+should return to Holland. At the same time a semblance of joint action was
+created by the despatch of a British fleet to the Downs. If the Dutch
+invasion of Belgium created excitement in France, the French expedition
+had a similar effect in England, and Palmerston found it necessary to
+insist sternly on the immediate evacuation of Belgium upon the withdrawal
+of the Dutch troops. The French government naturally desired to point to
+some tangible triumph of French arms, and requested that the troops should
+be allowed to remain till the frontier fortresses should have been
+demolished in accordance with the protocol of April 17. In a somewhat
+insulting message Palmerston threatened a general war sooner than allow
+the French troops to remain. The most that France could obtain was that
+12,000 men might remain a fortnight longer than the rest and that a number
+of French officers might enlist in the Belgian service.</p>
+
+<p>The conference now returned to the task of effecting a settlement in
+accordance with the terms of the protocol of June 26. On October 15 it
+provided for the partition of the grand duchy of Luxemburg between Holland
+and Belgium and for the indemnification of Holland with a larger portion
+of Limburg than had belonged to her in 1790. At the same time provision
+was made for the freedom of the Scheldt, and the debt was reassessed,
+8,400,000 florins of <i>rentes</i><a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> being assigned to Belgium and
+19,300,000 to Holland. Along with this protocol a letter was sent to the
+Belgian plenipotentiary, promising that if Belgium accepted it, the powers
+would undertake to obtain the consent of Holland. The protocol was
+converted into a treaty by the adhesion of Belgium on November 15.
+Meanwhile the King of the Netherlands had appealed to the tsar against the
+action of the western powers and of the Russian plenipotentiaries at
+London, and the tsar had in consequence refused to ratify the treaty till
+the King of the Netherlands should have given his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> consent. That consent
+was slow in coming. It was only on June 30, 1832, that Holland agreed to
+the exchange of territories and the reduction of Belgium's share of the
+debt, and even then questions remained as to the dues on the Scheldt and
+the transit of goods through Dutch Limburg. The Belgians refused to
+negotiate further until the citadel of Antwerp should be surrendered; the
+Dutch on the other hand refused to surrender it till a definite treaty
+should be signed and ratified. On October 1 France, with the approval of
+the British government, proposed to suspend the payment of the Belgian
+share of the interest on the debt until the citadel of Antwerp should be
+surrendered, and to deduct from the share of the principal payable by
+Belgium, 500,000 florins of <i>rentes</i> for each week that should elapse
+before the surrender. The three eastern powers refused to agree to any
+coercion of Holland, and, in consequence, Great Britain and France
+determined to act alone.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_298" id="TOPIC_298"></a>On the 22nd they signed a convention providing for the coercion of Holland
+by an embargo and by the despatch of a squadron to the Dutch coast. If any
+Dutch troops should be still in Belgium on November 15, a French force was
+empowered, subject to the consent of the Belgian government, to advance
+into Belgium and expel the Dutch troops from the country. The French were,
+however, to retire as soon as the Dutch evacuation was complete. The first
+result of this convention was the suspension of the conference. On the
+29th the two powers made their demand. As the Dutch refused compliance, a
+joint French and British fleet sailed on November 4 to blockade the
+Scheldt, and the embargo was proclaimed on the 6th. On the 15th a French
+army of 56,000 men, commanded by G&eacute;rard, entered Belgium. On December 4 it
+opened fire on the citadel of Antwerp, which surrendered after a nineteen
+days' bombardment on the 23rd. The French army returned to its own country
+before the end of the year, leaving the Dutch in possession of two small
+forts on the Belgian side of the frontier, which were more than
+compensated by the positions held by the Belgians in Dutch Limburg. Even
+the fall of the citadel of Antwerp did not induce Holland to accept the
+settlement proposed by the powers, and Great Britain and France now
+attempted to effect a working agreement pending negotiations on the
+details of the treaty. <a name="TOPIC_299" id="TOPIC_299"></a>It was in vain that Holland asked that Belgium
+should evacuate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> the Dutch provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg and pay her
+share of the interest on the Dutch debt. Palmerston and Talleyrand refused
+to include these provisions in a preliminary convention. Finally on March
+21, 1833, a convention was signed between Great Britain, France, and
+Holland, which terminated the embargo and provided for the free navigation
+of the Scheldt and Maas. A similar convention was signed between Holland
+and Belgium on November 18. Six years, however, were to elapse before the
+Dutch government would consent to the conditions drawn up by the powers in
+1831. Meanwhile the Belgians were free from their share of debt, held the
+greater part of Limburg and Luxemburg, and enjoyed the free navigation of
+the Maas and the Scheldt, over and above the terms granted them in 1831.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>POLISH REBELLION.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_300" id="TOPIC_300"></a>It is inconceivable that the Belgian question should have been left so
+entirely in the hands of the two western powers, and that the settlement
+should have taken the form of a foreign coercion of a legitimate king for
+his unreadiness to make concessions to his revolted subjects, had not the
+attention of the three absolutist powers of eastern and central Europe
+been directed to another quarter. Just as the revolution of 1820 had
+spread through southern Europe in spite of Castlereagh's attempt to
+maintain that it was not of a contagious order, so that of 1830 awakened
+similar outbursts not only at Brussels but in various German states, in
+Switzerland, in Poland, and in Italy. The Polish insurrection was, like
+the Belgian, a national revolt, and the consequent military operations
+were of the nature of a war between Poland and Russia. The revolt broke
+out at Warsaw on November 29, 1830, and on January 25, 1831, the Polish
+diet proclaimed the independence of Poland. On February 5 a Russian army
+crossed the Polish frontier. In France there was a loud popular demand for
+intervention. But even the Laffitte ministry would not move without the
+co-operation of Great Britain, though the French ambassador at
+Constantinople tried to stir up the Porte to hostilities. The ministry of
+Casimir-Perier, which came into office in March, proposed a joint
+mediation of France and Great Britain, but to this Palmerston would not
+assent. He remonstrated with Russia on her violations of the Polish
+constitution, which Great Britain, along with the other powers, had
+guaranteed at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> congress of Vienna, but he could not support the Polish
+claim to independence, since Great Britain had made herself a party to the
+union of the two countries. As it happened, the remonstrance was simply a
+cause of annoyance, which subsequent events were destined to intensify. <a name="TOPIC_301" id="TOPIC_301"></a>It
+was only on September 8, 1831, that the Russians under Paskievitch
+captured Warsaw, an event which was followed on February 26, 1832, by the
+abolition of the Polish constitution. Palmerston protested again but with
+no more success than in the previous year.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>DOM MIGUEL AND DON CARLOS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_302" id="TOPIC_302"></a>In the Portuguese, as in the Belgian question, Palmerston drifted from the
+position of a neutral into that of a partisan. Ever since the year 1828,
+British subjects accused of political offences had been brutally
+ill-treated in Portugal, and as time went on the excesses increased. By
+despatching six British warships to the Tagus Palmerston succeeded in
+obtaining a pecuniary indemnity and a public apology on May 2, 1831.
+Similar insults to France were not so readily redressed. A threat of force
+on the part of the French government was followed by an appeal from Dom
+Miguel for British assistance. This Palmerston refused to grant, and in
+July a French squadron under Admiral Roussin forced the passage of the
+Tagus, and carried off the best ships of the Portuguese navy. Meanwhile
+much irritation had been caused in Brazil by Peter's advocacy of his
+daughter's claim to Portugal, which was considered inconsistent with his
+professed adherence to the separation of the two countries. On April 6,
+Peter abdicated the crown of Brazil in favour of his infant son, Peter
+II., and on the following day sailed for Europe in order to assert his
+daughter's right to the Portuguese throne. He arrived in Europe towards
+the end of May, and visited both England and France.</p>
+
+<p>Though neither government assisted him directly, he was permitted to raise
+troops and even to secure the services of naval officers, and in December
+a force of 300 men sailed from Liverpool to Belleisle, which he had
+appointed as the rendezvous. Palmerston had thus, unlike Wellington,
+adopted the same attitude towards the Portuguese liberals that Ferdinand
+VII. had adopted towards the absolutists. Peter's expedition gathered
+further strength at the Azores and sailed for Portugal on June 27, 1832.
+On July 8, the fleet, commanded by Admiral Sartorius, a British officer,
+appeared off Oporto, which submitted on the following day. The town was,
+however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span> blockaded by Miguel's forces and Peter's cause made no headway
+until in June, 1833, the command of the fleet was transferred to Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Charles) Napier. On the night of June 24, he
+landed at Villa Real a force of 2,500 men who conquered the province of
+Algarve in a week, and on July 5 he annihilated Miguel's navy in an
+engagement off Cape St. Vincent. After a further battle near Lisbon,
+Peter's forces entered the capital on the 24th, and subsequently repulsed
+a Miguelite attack upon the city. Miguel still held out in northern
+Portugal, when another train of events caused the western powers to
+substitute direct for indirect interference.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_303" id="TOPIC_303"></a>Ferdinand VII. of Spain had fallen so entirely under the influence of his
+fourth and last queen, Maria Christina of Naples, as to repeal by a
+pragmatic sanction the Salic law which the treaty of Utrecht had
+established as the rule of succession in Spain. The result of this edict
+was to leave the succession to his infant daughter Isabella instead of his
+brother Don Carlos, the leader of the Spanish absolutists. When Ferdinand
+died on September 29, 1833, Don Carlos was absent from the kingdom,
+supporting the cause of his fellow-pretender Dom Miguel. Isabella received
+the hearty support of the constitutional party and was almost universally
+acknowledged as queen. It was only in Biscay, where the centralising
+tendency of the Spanish constitution, published on April 10, 1834, seemed
+to entrench upon local liberty, that Don Carlos met with much active
+support. His cause, like that of Miguel in Portugal, was the more popular,
+but his adherents were as yet almost entirely devoid of organisation.
+<a name="TOPIC_304" id="TOPIC_304"></a>Peter's partisans had already made substantial progress towards a complete
+victory, and Santha Martha, the Miguelite commander-in-chief, had
+surrendered in the beginning of April, when on April 22 a triple alliance,
+already signed between Great Britain, Maria Christina, Queen-regent of
+Spain, and Peter, as regent of Portugal, was converted into a quadruple
+alliance by the adhesion of France. This treaty provided for the
+co-operation of Spain and Portugal to expel Dom Miguel and Don Carlos from
+the Portuguese dominions. Great Britain was to assist by the employment of
+a naval force, and France was to render assistance, if required, in such
+manner as should be settled afterwards by common consent of the four
+contracting powers. The Spanish general, Rodil, immediately crossed the
+frontier. He met with no resistance, and on May<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> 26 Miguel signed a
+convention at Evora, by which he accepted a pension, renounced his rights
+to the Portuguese throne, and agreed to quit the country.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE CARLIST WAR.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_305" id="TOPIC_305"></a>Don Carlos, however, refused to renounce his rights to the Spanish throne,
+and all that the British navy could do was to convey the two pretenders,
+Carlos to England and Miguel to Genoa. Although Miguel, on June 20,
+repudiated his abdication, the Portuguese question was really at an end.
+The Spanish question was, however, merely entering on its critical stage.
+Don Carlos secretly left London on July 1, and nine days later appeared at
+the Carlist headquarters in Spain. Here he had the assistance of the
+ablest general of this war, Zumalacarregui. Melbourne's succession to the
+premiership in July left Palmerston at the foreign office, and was
+followed by no change in foreign policy. On August 18 an additional
+article to the quadruple alliance provided that France was to prevent
+reinforcements or warlike stores from reaching Don Carlos from the French
+side of the frontier, while Great Britain was to supply arms and stores to
+the Spanish royalists and, if necessary, intervene with a naval force. The
+short interlude of conservative government, with Peel as premier and
+Wellington as foreign secretary, was not marked by any change of policy
+nor yet by any new aggressions. Wellington's only interference with the
+course of hostilities was the mission of Lord Eliot to Navarre, which
+induced the combatants to abandon for the time being those cruelties to
+prisoners which had been the disgrace of the Spanish civil wars.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after the return of Melbourne and Palmerston to power,
+Zumalacarregui won a victory in the valley of Amascoas on April 21 and 22,
+1835, which opened to him the road to Madrid. The Madrid government now
+appealed to France to send 12,000 men to occupy the Basque provinces. By
+the terms of the quadruple alliance the assent of Great Britain and
+Portugal was necessary in order to determine the manner in which France
+was to render assistance. Thiers, on behalf of Louis Philippe, suggested a
+separate French expedition on the lines of that of 1823. Palmerston, like
+Canning before him, refused to sanction such an expedition, though he was
+prepared to allow France to make the expedition on her own responsibility.
+He suggested in return that Great Britain should intervene. But Louis
+Philippe was equally opposed to the separate action<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> of his own country
+and of Great Britain, and the result was that neither government sent any
+troops. The Spanish government was, however, permitted to enlist
+volunteers, and actually received the assistance of an English legion, a
+French legion, and 6,000 Portuguese. The immediate danger was averted by
+the obstinacy of Don Carlos, who refused to permit Zumalacarregui to march
+on Madrid till the conquest of Biscay was complete. The Carlist general
+turned aside in consequence to the siege of Bilbao, in which a few weeks
+later he met his death.</p>
+
+<p>In February, 1836, some changes in the French ministry increased the power
+of Thiers, who had so recently advocated the policy of intervention.
+Palmerston now proposed a French expedition to the Basque provinces, while
+the British were to occupy St. Sebastian and Pasages. Thiers did not,
+however, feel strong enough to accept this offer, and Palmerston
+determined to act alone. A British squadron under Lord John Hay was
+despatched to the Spanish coast with instructions to assist the royalist
+forces. This squadron is probably entitled to the principal share in the
+credit for the successful resistance of Bilbao to the Carlist armies. In
+May, however, a conservative government entered upon office in Spain, and
+France became more ready to grant assistance. Isturiz, the new Spanish
+premier, persuaded Louis Philippe to send some troops to Spain; but by
+leaning on foreign support Isturiz had overreached himself. Spanish
+indignation found vent in a revolutionary movement, accompanied by
+bloodshed; one town after another declared for the constitution of 1812,
+which the queen-regent was forced to sign on August 13, and on the
+following day a progressist ministry was installed in office. Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from Madrid after the riots
+of the 13th, and Louis Philippe recalled the forces he had sent to the
+assistance of the Spanish government. Had Don Carlos listened to the
+advice of the eastern powers and given such assurances as might have won
+over the more moderate of Isabella's supporters, he would probably have
+proved successful. As it was the war dragged on, but De Lacy Evans, who
+was in command of the British legion, left Spain on June 10, 1837, and
+most of his men followed soon after. The question of intervention had,
+however, put an end to that cordial co-operation of Great Britain and
+France which had existed ever since the July<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> revolution, and left Great
+Britain as isolated in the counsels of Europe as she had been when Canning
+and Wellington dissociated themselves from the other powers at Verona.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_306" id="TOPIC_306"></a>The settlement of the Greek question proceeded very slowly. While the
+powers were seeking a possible king, Capodistrias exercised an autocratic
+sway as president. However, in the spring of 1831, the Mainots of southern
+Laconia and the Hydriots revolted against him, and got possession of the
+Greek fleet. Capodistrias appealed to Russia for assistance, and a Russian
+squadron was sent to blockade the Greek fleet at Poros. But Miaoulis, the
+Greek admiral, sank his ships in order to save them from the Russians. The
+situation was simplified by the assassination of Capodistrias on October
+9, which left two rival national assemblies struggling for the mastery.
+The French troops failed to maintain order, and the way was clear for a
+king who would have the prestige of an international treaty and an
+independent revenue to support his position. <a name="TOPIC_307" id="TOPIC_307"></a>This was the situation when
+on February 13, 1832, a protocol was signed at London, offering the Greek
+crown to Otto, the second son of King Lewis of Bavaria, a boy of
+seventeen. The boundary was to be fixed where Palmerston, while still a
+member of the Wellington administration, had wished to fix it, along a
+line running from the Gulf of Arta to that of Volo. King Lewis would not,
+however, agree to accept the crown for his son unless he should be granted
+the title of king, instead of prince, and should be guaranteed a loan to
+enable him to meet the expenses of his position. On May 7, 1832, the
+London protocol was embodied in a treaty of London; the crown was
+definitely conferred on Otto, who was given the title of king, guaranteed
+a loan, not exceeding &pound;2,400,000, and allowed to take out 3,500 Bavarian
+troops with him. The Turkish consent to the proposed boundary was given on
+July 21; Greece accepted the treaty in August, and the new king left for
+his kingdom in December.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>VICTORIES OF IBRAHIM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_308" id="TOPIC_308"></a>Greece now disappears from the eastern question. But Ibrahim Pasha, whose
+successes in Greece had induced Canning to interfere, had already
+disclosed a new phase of that question by successes gained in another
+quarter. Mehemet Ali had quickly repaired the losses which his fleet and
+army had sus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span>tained in the Peloponnese. Meanwhile he demanded from Sultan
+Mahmud that Ibrahim should be compensated with a part of Syria for the
+loss of the Morea, which had been promised him as a reward for his
+services in Greece. The sultan refused to grant this insolent demand, and
+Mehemet Ali determined to conquer the province for himself. Abdallah,
+Pasha of Acre, had taken under his protection some fugitive peasants, and
+Mehemet Ali, in spite of the sultan's prohibition, sent Ibrahim with an
+army of 30,000 men against him. He laid siege to Acre on December 9, 1831,
+and took it on May 27, 1832. On July 8 he routed a Turkish army at Homs;
+on the 29th he routed a larger army at the pass of Beilan, and on the 31st
+he entered Antioch. In November he was at Konieh. The Tsar Nicholas had,
+with Palmerston's approval, already sent Lieutenant-General Muraviov on a
+mission to Constantinople, offering military and naval support; but the
+sultan preferred to seek British assistance first.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the message came at a time when the British fleet was
+preparing to blockade the coasts of the Netherlands, and could not be
+spared for service In the Mediterranean. An appeal to France was equally
+unsuccessful. She had by this time formed the siege of the citadel of
+Antwerp, and was moreover naturally averse from a struggle with Ibrahim,
+whose army had been organised and trained by French officers. The sultan
+therefore decided to avail himself of the offers made by Russia. Indeed he
+had no choice, for the news now came that on December 21 Ibrahim had
+completely defeated the Turkish general, Reshid, at Konieh and that there
+was no army between him and Constantinople. Muraviov was sent on a vain
+mission to Alexandria with authority to cede Acre to Mehemet Ali if he
+would surrender his fleet to the sultan. Ibrahim advanced to Kiutayeh and
+his advance-guard came as far as Broussa. The sultan on February 2, 1833,
+requested the assistance of the Russian navy, and on the 20th a Russian
+squadron appeared at Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_309" id="TOPIC_309"></a>The powers that had refused to move to save Turkey from Ibrahim were quick
+enough to interfere when the danger was from Russia and not from an
+oriental. Ibrahim might have been expected to make a stronger ruler than
+the sultan, whose fall seemed imminent. A Russian protectorate was a
+different matter. Roussin, the French ambassador at Constantinople,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span>
+protested against the Russian alliance and threatened to leave
+Constantinople. A French envoy was, at his suggestion, permitted to offer
+Mehemet the governorship of the Syrian pashaliks of Tripoli and Acre. On
+March 8 Mehemet rejected these terms, and declared that if his own terms
+were not accepted within six weeks his troops would march upon
+Constantinople. The sultan then turned to Russia again and asked for
+troops. Fifteen thousand Russians were in consequence landed on the shores
+of the Bosphorus, and in the beginning of April an army of 24,000, which
+had remained in Moldavia ever since the war of 1828-29, prepared to march
+southwards. Constantinople at least was thus rendered safe from Ibrahim,
+and there was therefore more hope that Mehemet would come to terms. The
+British, French, and Austrian ambassadors spared no effort to induce the
+Porte to offer terms that might be accepted, and their representations
+were probably rendered the more persuasive by the appearance of British
+and French fleets in the &AElig;gean. Roussin especially urged that it was
+better to surrender Syria than to reconquer it by Russian troops. At last
+the sultan yielded, and on April 10 a peace was signed at Kiutayeh, though
+not ratified by the sultan till May 15. This treaty granted to Mehemet Ali
+Syria and Cilicia, but restored the bulk of Asia Minor to the Porte.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CONFERENCE OF M&Uuml;NCHENGR&Auml;TZ.</i></div>
+
+<p>Turkey had been saved by the western powers, but only because they dreaded
+the possibility of her being saved by Russia. A few weeks later their
+worst fears seemed on the point of realisation. The Russian troops on the
+Bosphorus were a sure guarantee of the predominance of Russian influence
+at Constantinople, and this was illustrated in a marked degree by the
+treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, signed on July 8, which provided for a
+defensive alliance for eight years between Russia and the Porte. Russia
+was, when required, to provide the sultan with both military and naval
+forces, to be provisioned by him, but otherwise maintained by Russia. A
+secret article, soon made known, provided that Russia would not ask for
+material aid if at war, but that in that event the Porte would close the
+Dardanelles to the warships of other nations. Great Britain had already
+obtained the rights of the most favoured nation, so far as the passage of
+the Dardanelles was concerned, and therefore maintained that the treaty
+did not affect her right to pass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> those straits; and France joined her in
+presenting identical notes declaring their intention of ignoring the
+treaty in event of war. British public opinion, already wounded by the
+conquest of Poland, was even more vehemently affected than British policy.
+The treaty was regarded as the establishment in Turkey of a Russian
+protectorate, which it was necessary for Great Britain to destroy, and the
+antagonism thus produced has lasted to our own day. Matters were not
+improved when the tsar asked for the cession of the Danubian
+principalities, which were still occupied by Russia, in return for a
+remission of the war indemnity owing since 1829. Austria, France, and
+Great Britain protested against this proposal, and in consequence nothing
+came of it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_310" id="TOPIC_310"></a>Austria then assumed the <i>r&ocirc;le</i> of mediator. A friendly request for
+explanation elicited a declaration from Russia, disclaiming all intention
+of self-aggrandisement, and promising to accept the mediation of Austria
+in any case where the treaty could be invoked. Austria in consequence
+endeavoured to persuade the western powers that there was no immediate
+danger, and that she would use her mediation to remove any danger that
+might arise. Meanwhile she endeavoured to allay distrust of Russia by
+inducing that power to evacuate the Danubian principalities. But before
+this result could be accomplished the negotiations between Austria and
+Russia had taken a turn which gave Austria, in English eyes, the
+appearance of an accomplice rather than of a mediator. The revolutionary
+movements of 1830 and following years had produced grave apprehensions in
+the minds of the rulers of the three eastern powers, Austria, Prussia, and
+Russia; and the coercion of Holland and Portugal caused them to feel a
+deep distrust of the policy of Great Britain and France, and to grasp the
+necessity of united action against the revolutionary forces at work in
+Europe. For this purpose it was considered necessary to revive
+Metternich's policy of 1820 as defined at Troppau. The three powers had
+for some time been drawing together, and in September, 1833, the Emperors
+Francis and Nicholas and the Crown Prince of Prussia met at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz
+in Bohemia, where a secret convention was signed on the 18th. They refused
+to recognise Isabella as Queen of Spain in the event of Ferdinand's death;
+they arranged for mutual assistance against the Poles; and agreed to
+combine to resist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> any change of dynasty in Turkey and any extension of
+Arab rule into Europe. In the event of a collapse of the Ottoman empire,
+Austria and Russia were to act together in settling the reversion. On
+October 15 the three powers signed a further convention at Berlin,
+containing one public and two secret articles. The latter recognised the
+right, already asserted at Troppau, of intervention in the internal
+affairs of a country whose sovereign expressed a desire for foreign
+assistance. There can be little doubt that Austria and Russia were in
+earnest in their professed desire to maintain the integrity of the Turkish
+dominions, but an opinion gained ground in England that they had already
+agreed to partition them between themselves.</p>
+
+<p>On January 29, 1834, Austrian mediation bore fruit in a definite treaty
+for the evacuation of the Danubian principalities. Russia merely reserved
+to herself the appointment of the first hospodar of each principality. The
+first act, however, of Alexander Ghika, the new hospodar of Wallachia, was
+to forbid any change of statute without the consent of Russia. Silistria
+alone remained in Russian hands till a third part of the indemnity should
+be paid. The remaining two-thirds Russia consented to abandon. A revolt
+among the Syrian mountaineers gave Russia an opportunity of demonstrating
+her pacific intentions. The sultan supported the revolt and also sent
+troops to conquer Urfa which Ibrahim had neglected to surrender. Russia,
+however, refused to support the sultan in an aggressive war, and the
+powers negotiated a peace. The Syrian revolt was quelled, and Urfa
+surrendered to the sultan. In 1835 the Tsar Nicholas and the new Austrian
+emperor, Ferdinand, met at Teplitz where they renewed the agreements
+concluded at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz. Metternich proposed a conference at Vienna to
+settle the eastern question, but the tsar, who really possessed the
+decisive voice so long as the question remained open, refused to hear of
+this. Finally in September, 1836, the Russian evacuation of Silistria was
+obtained by a payment of 30,000,000 piastres, borrowed, for the most part,
+in England. The Eastern question now seemed to have entered upon a quieter
+phase, and the military reforms which European officers, including Moltke,
+afterwards famous in a different region, were carrying out in Turkey, gave
+promise that she might be able to hold her own in future against domestic
+foes.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a> The debt was, according to the French practice, expressed
+in terms of the interest payable annually (<i>rentes</i>), not in terms of a
+nominal principal as in this country.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a> Finlay, <i>History of Greece</i>, vol. vii., chapters ii.,
+iii.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX.</h2>
+
+<h3>BRITISH INDIA.</h3>
+
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_311" id="TOPIC_311"></a>When Pitt resigned office in 1801, the Marquis Wellesley had already
+reached the climax, though by no means the close, of his brilliant
+proconsulate. This remarkable man, whose fame has been unduly eclipsed by
+that of his younger brother, may justly be considered the second founder
+of our Indian Empire. This empire, recognised at last, in the vote of
+thanks passed by the house of commons on the fall of Seringapatam, was
+soon to be aggrandised by three important accessions of dominion. The
+first of these was the annexation of the Karn&aacute;tik on the well-founded plea
+that its nabob was too weak even for the semblance of independence, that
+he was incapable of governing tolerably, and that he had been in
+correspondence with Tip&uacute;. The effect of this and two minor annexations was
+to place the entire south-western and south-eastern coasts of the Indian
+peninsula under the British rule. The next step was the system of
+subsidiary treaties, whereby the British government assumed a protectorate
+over native states, providing a fixed number of troops for their defence
+and receiving an equivalent in subsidies. The Niz&aacute;m of Haidar&aacute;b&aacute;d was
+already in a condition little removed from vassalage, and now surrendered
+considerable districts in lieu of a pecuniary tribute.</p>
+
+<p>A similar course was taken with the Naw&aacute;b Waz&iacute;r of Oudh whose territory
+was threatened on one side by the Afgh&aacute;n king, Zem&aacute;n Sh&aacute;h, and on another
+by the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; lord, Daulat R&aacute;o Sindhia, who had gained possession of
+Delhi. By forcible negotiations Wellesley obtained from him the cession of
+all his frontier provinces, including Rohilkhand, and consolidated the
+power of the Indian government along the whole line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> of the Jumna and
+Ganges. The last and greatest object of the governor-general's ambition
+was the conquest of the confederate Mar&aacute;th&aacute; states, and for this a pretext
+was not long wanting. His forward policy, it is true, had already excited
+alarm and criticism at home, while the peace of Amiens had ostensibly
+removed the chief justification of it&mdash;the necessity of combating the
+aggressive designs of France. But, in the case of India, far more than of
+the American colonies, "months passed and seas rolled between the order
+and the execution"; for in those days ships conveying despatches occupied
+at least four or five months on their voyage, and decisions taken in
+Leadenhall Street might be utterly stultified by accomplished facts before
+they could be read in Calcutta.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>WELLESLEY AND LAKE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_312" id="TOPIC_312"></a>The Peshw&aacute;, at Poona, still maintained a show of independent authority
+over the other great Mar&aacute;th&aacute; chieftains, Sindhia, Holkar, and the R&aacute;j&aacute; of
+N&aacute;gpur or Ber&aacute;r. But the real military power of the Mar&aacute;th&aacute;s rested with
+these leaders, and their predatory troops of horsemen terrorised all
+Central India. Happily for Wellesley's purpose, they were often at feud
+with each other, and the Peshw&aacute;, though aided by Sindhia, was utterly
+defeated by Jaswant R&aacute;o Holkar. He fled to Bassein near Bombay, where, on
+December 31, 1802, a treaty was signed by which not only the Peshw&aacute; but
+the Niz&aacute;m of Haidar&aacute;b&aacute;d was placed under British protection. The Peshw&aacute;
+was conducted back to Poona by a British force under Arthur Wellesley in
+May, 1803, but the other Mar&aacute;th&aacute; chiefs naturally resented this fresh
+encroachment on their independence, and a league was shortly formed
+between the R&aacute;j&aacute; of N&aacute;gpur and Sindhia, which it was hoped that Holkar
+would ultimately join. By this time, a rupture of the peace with France
+was known to be impending, and Lord Wellesley eagerly seized the
+opportunity to crush Sindhia, while he urged the home government to seize
+the Cape of Good Hope and the Mauritius. Two expeditions were directed
+against Sindhia's territory, the one under Arthur Wellesley, moving from
+Poona in the west towards the Niz&aacute;m's frontier; the other, under General
+Lake, operating on the north-west against the highly trained forces, under
+French officers, assembled before Delhi. Both campaigns were eminently
+successful. Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar on August 11, encountered the
+combined armies of Sindhia and the R&aacute;j&aacute;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> of N&aacute;gpur at Assaye on September
+23, and, after a desperate conflict, obtained a decisive victory. Twelve
+hundred of the Mar&aacute;th&aacute;s were left dead on the field and 102 guns were
+captured. He then advanced into Ber&aacute;r and completely defeated the army of
+the N&aacute;gpur R&aacute;j&aacute; at Arg&aacute;um. Lake marched from Cawnpur, took Delhi and Agra,
+assuming custody of the Mughal emperor, and inflicted a final defeat on a
+powerful Mar&aacute;th&aacute; army, no longer under French officers, at Lasw&aacute;ri. Large
+cessions of territory followed. The treaty of Bassein was recognised by
+Sindhia and the R&aacute;j&aacute; of N&aacute;gpur. Gujr&aacute;t, Cuttack, and the districts along
+the Jumna passed into British possession, and the East India Company
+became the visible successor, though nominally the guardian, of the Mughal
+emperor.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_313" id="TOPIC_313"></a>Meanwhile, Holkar remained a passive spectator of the contest. Jealous as
+he was of Sindhia, he was by no means prepared to acquiesce in the
+subjection of the great Mar&aacute;th&aacute; power. Having taken up a threatening
+position in R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, and defied Lake's summons to retire, he was treated
+as an enemy, and proved a very formidable enemy. Instead of relying, like
+Sindhia, on disciplined battalions, he fell back on the old Mar&aacute;th&aacute;
+tactics, and swept the country with hordes of irregular cavalry who lived
+by pillage. In 1804 a British force of 1,200 troops under Colonel Monson
+was lured away from its base of supplies by a feigned retreat and incurred
+a very serious reverse; scarcely a tenth of them, utterly broken,
+"straggled, a mere rabble, into Agra". This disaster was soon afterwards
+retrieved by other divisions of Lake's army, but three attempts to storm
+the strong fortress of Bhartpur were repulsed by the r&aacute;j&aacute;, Ranj&iacute;t Singh,
+an ally of Holkar. Though Holkar's bands were at last dispersed, a new
+dispute arose with Sindhia about the ownership of Gwalior and Gohad, which
+remained unsettled when Lord Wellesley resigned early in 1805, not so much
+because his policy was disapproved by the court of directors, for whom he
+always professed a sovereign contempt, as because he was no longer
+cordially supported by the home government.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_314" id="TOPIC_314"></a>In his despatch to the secret committee of the East India Company after
+the conclusion of the war with Sindhia, Wellesley describes the
+consolidation of the British empire and the pacification of all India, as
+the supreme result of his benefi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span>cent rule.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> That rule was followed by
+ten years of comparative repose, if not of reaction, but two events,
+occurring within this period, threw a significant light on the inherent
+danger of relying too much on a native army under British officers. Sepoy
+regiments had been raised and had served loyally on both sides in the
+struggles between the French and English during the eighteenth century.
+The Bengal sepoys were mostly R&aacute;jputs and showed the highest military
+qualities in many a wearisome march and hard fought field, from the days
+of Clive to those of Lake and Arthur Wellesley. But outbreaks bordering
+upon mutiny had occasionally taken place in the native armies of all the
+presidencies, and on July 10, 1806, a most formidable mutiny, ending in a
+massacre at Vellore, west of Madras, produced a sense of insecurity
+throughout all India. It was instigated by the family of Tip&uacute; who had been
+quartered in that fortress, and its immediate origin was the issue of
+certain vexatious regulations about uniform which offended native
+prejudices of caste. The European force, numbering some 370, was surprised
+and surrounded by a much larger body of sepoys, half of them were killed
+or wounded, and Tip&uacute;'s standard was hoisted. Within a few hours, however,
+cavalry and artillery arrived from Arcot, the mutineers were slaughtered
+by hundreds, and the disaffected regiments were broken up. Three years
+later, a serious mutiny broke out among the company's own officers at
+Madras, caused by a petty grievance affecting their profits on
+tent-contracts. It was appeased rather than suppressed, and,
+notwithstanding these discouraging symptoms of insecurity, the Company's
+army retained its separate organisation for half a century longer.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MINTO'S PACIFIC POLICY.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_315" id="TOPIC_315"></a>Lord Cornwallis, the successor of Lord Wellesley, was opposed by
+conviction to a progressive expansion of British territory, and
+represented not only the cautious views of the home government, but the
+financial anxieties of the East India Company, which always valued a
+steady revenue more highly than imperial supremacy. Wellesley had
+virtually reconstructed the map of India on lines destined to endure until
+a fresh period of annexation set in some forty years later. These lines
+were not disturbed by Cornwallis, who died on October 5, 1805, three
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span>months after his arrival, but he clearly indicated his desire to let the
+system of protectorates and subsidiary treaties fall gradually into
+abeyance. His correspondence with Lake, whose victories had won him the
+rank of baron, contains a somewhat peremptory warning against fresh
+engagements contemplated by that enterprising officer, whose vigorous
+remonstrance he did not live to receive.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a> Sir George Barlow, who
+became acting governor-general for two years, adopted the same passive
+attitude, and forebore to carry out a projected alliance with Sindhia,
+though he would not allow any interference with our paramount influence at
+Poona and Haidar&aacute;b&aacute;d. Lord Minto, father of the Earl of Minto who presided
+at the admiralty under Melbourne, arrived as governor-general in 1807. He
+was imbued with similar ideas, and was fortunate in finding the Mar&aacute;th&aacute;s
+too much weakened to be dangerous neighbours. His rule was, therefore,
+essentially pacific, but he did good service in maintaining internal
+order, and especially in putting down the organised brigandage, known as
+"dak&aacute;iti," which had been the curse of rural districts. The distinctive
+feature of his career, however, was a permanent enlargement of the horizon
+of Indian statesmanship to a sphere beyond the confines of India and even
+of Asia, a change due to new movements in the vast international conflict
+then engrossing the energies of Europe.</p>
+
+<p>However chimerical the designs of Napoleon against British India may now
+appear, there is no doubt that such designs were seriously entertained by
+him, nor is it self-evident that what Alexander the Great found possible
+would have proved impossible to one who combined with Alexander's
+superhuman audacity the command of resources beyond anything known in the
+ancient world. At all events, after the battle of Friedland and the peace
+of Tilsit, an expedition to be launched from Russian territory upon the
+north-west frontier of India, with the support of Persia on the flank,
+became a contingency which an Indian governor-general could not afford to
+neglect. It is, indeed, strange that a march across Europe and half of
+Asia should have appeared to Napoleon more practicable than a voyage
+across the English Channel, and it is highly improbable that he would have
+cherished the idea of it, if he could have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> foreseen the perils of the
+Russian expedition. But his conversations at St. Helena prove that it was
+not a mere vision but a half-formed design, and, even after it had been
+discouraged by Russia, he sent a preliminary mission to Persia. Minto lost
+no time in sending counter-missions, not only to Tihran, but to Lahore,
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, and Sind.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_316" id="TOPIC_316"></a>The Persian court was already in diplomatic relations with the Indian
+government. Colonel Malcolm, afterwards Sir John Malcolm, had been sent by
+Wellesley as envoy to the sh&aacute;h at the end of 1800, and in January, 1801, a
+treaty had been signed, establishing free trade between India and Persia,
+and binding the sh&aacute;h to exclude the French from his dominions, while the
+company undertook to provide ships, troops, and stores, in case of French
+invasion. This treaty, however, neither was nor could have been actively
+carried out on either side. Early in 1806 the sh&aacute;h, who had become
+embroiled with Russia, appealed to Calcutta for aid, regardless of the
+fact that hostilities with Russia were not a <i>casus f&oelig;deris</i>. Failing
+to obtain it, he appealed to France. Napoleon despatched General Gardane,
+who arrived in December, 1807. He obtained a treaty under which the sh&aacute;h
+engaged to banish all Englishmen on demand of the French emperor.
+Thereupon Malcolm was entrusted by Minto with a fresh mission, but never
+reached the Persian capital, where French influence was still paramount,
+and the peremptory tone of Malcolm's letters was resented. Meanwhile, Sir
+Harford Jones had been sent out by the British foreign office, and was
+received at Tihran in February, 1809, the peace of Tilsit having destroyed
+the Persian hope of French support against Russia. For a while, the right
+of negotiating with the sh&aacute;h was in dispute between the Indian government
+and the foreign office, and Sir John Malcolm reappeared at Tihran in the
+spring of 1810, as the representative of the former. In the end, however,
+he co-operated loyally with Jones, and a fresh treaty was signed, though
+both these rival emissaries were soon afterwards superseded by Sir Gore
+Ouseley as permanent ambassador.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ELPHINSTONE IN AFGH&Aacute;NIST&Aacute;N.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_317" id="TOPIC_317"></a>Two other envoys selected by Minto left names which are famous in
+Anglo-Indian history, and one achieved an important success. Charles
+Metcalfe, Minto's envoy to Lahore, succeeded with the advantage of an
+armed force within easy reach<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> of the Sikh frontier, in converting into an
+ally the redoubtable Ranj&iacute;t Singh (not to be confounded with Ranj&iacute;t Singh
+of Bhartpur), who had gathered into his own hands the Sikh confederacy and
+acquired sovereignty over the whole Punjab. He was now induced not only to
+accept the Sutlej river as the boundary line of his dominion, but to
+conclude a treaty of perpetual amity with the British government. This
+treaty remained unbroken until his death, and stood us in good stead
+during the perilous crisis of the first Afgh&aacute;n war. The embassy of
+Mountstuart Elphinstone to Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n was comparatively fruitless,
+chiefly owing to the unsettled state of that mysterious country. Sh&aacute;h
+Shuj&aacute;, its titular am&iacute;r, so far from being in a condition to resist French
+invasion, had lost possession of K&aacute;bul and Kandah&aacute;r, and was only anxious
+to obtain British aid against his elder brother Mahm&uacute;d. Elphinstone, of
+course, had no authority to entangle the Company in a civil war far beyond
+the Indian frontier and was obliged to content himself with a worthless
+treaty empowering Great Britain to defend Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n against France. This
+treaty had scarcely been ratified when Sh&aacute;h Shuj&aacute; himself was driven into
+exile, to play an ignoble part thirty years later in the great tragedy of
+the first Afgh&aacute;n war.</p>
+
+<p>However pacific Minto's policy was, he did not shut his eyes to the
+necessity of guarding the coasts and commerce of India against the enemy
+who still dominated Europe, and had not wholly abandoned his visions of
+eastern conquest. We have seen already that the "half way" naval station
+at the Cape of Good Hope had been retaken from the Dutch in 1806, the year
+in which the Berlin decree was issued. In 1810 the French were expelled
+from Java by an expedition despatched under Minto's orders, though it was
+soon to be restored to Holland. In the same year the islands of Mauritius
+and Bourbon were captured from the French and the sea route to India was
+finally secured. Lord Minto, who was recalled in 1813 and raised to the
+dignity of an earl, left India after six years of peaceful government in a
+state of tranquillity such as it had never before enjoyed, and the
+settlement of the country under British suzerainty appeared to have been
+assured. Yet the seeds of fresh trouble were already working, and his
+successor was to prove himself a second Wellesley, and add new territories
+of great extent to British India.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_318" id="TOPIC_318"></a>Lord Moira, better known by his later title as Marquis of Hastings,
+displayed qualities as governor-general of which his previous career had
+given no indication. He had already proved himself a good soldier, but he
+was a court favourite as well as a somewhat impracticable politician, and
+owed his appointment to other influences than his own merit. His arrival
+in India nearly coincided with the charter of 1813, which threw open the
+India trade, and virtually ushered in a new social era. He was at once
+confronted with an empty treasury, on the one hand, and, on the other,
+with alarming reports both from the northern frontier and from the central
+provinces, still under independent princes of doubtful fidelity. The
+earlier part of his nine years' residence in India was engrossed by most
+harassing operations against the Nep&aacute;l&iacute;s and the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, but these
+operations resulted in perfect success, and Hastings was able to show
+before he left India that he was eminent alike in civil and in military
+administration.</p>
+
+<p>The mountainous region of Nep&aacute;l, lying on the slopes of the Him&aacute;layas
+north of Bengal and Oudh, had been occupied by the warlike nation, still
+known as the G&uacute;rkhas, whose capital was at Kh&aacute;tm&aacute;ndu. Like the Mar&aacute;th&aacute;s,
+they had been in the habit of pillaging British territory as well as Oudh,
+and when part of Oudh was annexed by Wellesley, frontier disputes were
+added to former grounds of hostility. Minto remonstrated with them sharply
+but in vain, and Moira lost no time in declaring war against them. The
+first campaign of 1814, which followed, though skilfully conceived by
+Moira, who held the office of commander-in-chief, was carried out with
+little generalship, and was marked by disasters highly damaging to British
+prestige. Three out of four armies launched against the hill-tribes met
+with serious reverses, chiefly due to a contempt for the enemy, and a
+persistence in making frontal assaults on strong positions without
+practicable breaches, which have proved so fatal in many a later conflict
+between British troops and undisciplined foes. During the cold season,
+however, on the extreme north-west, the cautious but irresistible advance
+of General Ochterlony penetrated the hill ranges which had baffled all the
+other commanders, and retrieved the fortunes of the war. The G&uacute;rkhas were
+far, indeed, from being subdued, but Ochterlony's success among their
+strongest fastnesses, aided by that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> of Colonels Gardner and Nicholls in
+the district of Kum&aacute;un, induced them to sue for peace, and offer
+territorial cessions. The loss of the Tar&aacute;i, or belt of forest
+interspersed with pastures at the foot of the Him&aacute;layas, was the most
+onerous of the conditions imposed upon them by the treaty of Almora,
+signed in 1815. Rather than submit to it, the G&uacute;rkha chiefs refused to
+ratify the treaty, and resumed their arms. After two defeats, however, in
+February, 1816, they abandoned further resistance, and Moira afterwards
+wisely consented to a modification of the frontier-line. Retaining but a
+remnant of their dominions in the lowlands, the G&uacute;rkhas have ever since
+preserved their independence with their military training in the
+highlands, and have contributed some of the best fighting material to the
+British army in India.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE PIND&Aacute;R&Iacute;S.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_319" id="TOPIC_319"></a>While the war in Nep&aacute;l was still undecided, fresh troubles broke out in
+Central India, where Wellesley's settlement had left no permanent security
+for peace. The very submission of the great Mar&aacute;th&aacute; powers had set free
+large bands of irregular troops, with no livelihood but pillage, and ever
+ready, like the Italian <i>condottieri</i> of the later middle ages, to enlist
+in the service of any aggressive state. These mounted freebooters, now
+called the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, were secretly encouraged by the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; chiefs, who
+looked upon them as useful auxiliaries in the future, either against the
+government of India or against other native princes. Several of these
+still remained in a more or less dependent but restless condition, and the
+great leaders of the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; confederacy, Sindhia, Malh&aacute;r R&aacute;o Holkar, son
+and successor of Jaswant R&aacute;o, the Peshw&aacute;, and the R&aacute;j&aacute; of N&aacute;gpur, retained
+a large share of their former sovereignty. Of these subject-allies, the
+one most directly under British guidance and protection was the Peshw&aacute;,
+but even he took advantage of hostile movements among his neighbours to
+join in a combination against British rule, supported by the predatory
+raids of the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s. He had long been discontented with the subordinate
+position which he had occupied since the treaty of Bassein. The
+assassination in 1815 of an envoy of the G&aacute;ekw&aacute;r of Baroda, who had been
+sent to Poona on a special mission under British guarantees, nearly
+provoked hostilities. But in June, 1817, a treaty was concluded, by which
+the Peshw&aacute; accepted an increased subsidiary force,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[Pg 406]</a></span> ceded part of his
+territory, renounced his suzerainty over the G&aacute;ekw&aacute;r and undertook to
+submit all further disputes to the decision of the British government. In
+November, however, chafing under the restrictions imposed by this treaty,
+he broke out into hostility, burnt the British residency, and after vainly
+attacking the British troops, fled from Poona. Almost simultaneously
+Holkar and the R&aacute;j&aacute; of N&aacute;gpur rose. Holkar was defeated in a pitched
+battle at Mehidpur in M&aacute;lw&aacute;, while the sepoys successfully held their own
+against the R&aacute;j&aacute;'s troops at N&aacute;gpur. The fugitive Peshw&aacute; was energetically
+pursued, and captured, and was stripped of his dominions. The greater part
+of these was annexed by the East India Company, but a portion was reserved
+for the heir of the old Mar&aacute;th&aacute; kings who was established at S&aacute;t&aacute;ra. The
+R&aacute;j&aacute; of N&aacute;gpur was also compelled to cede a large portion of his
+dominions, and at the same time the Company acquired the overlordship of
+R&aacute;jput&aacute;na. Henceforth, the British government claimed a control over all
+the foreign relations of native Indian states, whose internal government
+was to be carefully watched by a British resident, and whose military
+forces were to be practically under the supreme command of the paramount
+power.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE END OF THE PIND&Aacute;R&Iacute;S.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_320" id="TOPIC_320"></a>Lord Moira, created Marquis of Hastings in 1816, was at last free to hunt
+down the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, with the sullen acquiescence of the Mar&aacute;th&aacute;
+governments, and he executed his task with extraordinary vigour. He would
+have undertaken it, at the instigation of Metcalfe, then resident at
+Delhi, a year earlier, but for the peremptory orders of Canning, at that
+time president of the board of control, who positively forbade him to
+embark on a new war. These orders were greatly relaxed after the
+bloodthirsty raid of Ch&iacute;tu, the famous Pind&aacute;r&iacute; leader, who in 1816
+desolated vast tracts of Central India. Still no effective action against
+the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s was possible until the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; lords who harboured and
+encouraged them had been crippled and overawed. With their connivance, a
+second Pind&aacute;r&iacute; raid, accompanied by shocking cruelties, was made in the
+same year, but in 1817, when Holkar's followers were severely defeated at
+Mehidpur, the secret coalition between these bandits and our nominal
+allies was thoroughly broken up. Even then it proved a most difficult
+enterprise to root out the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, who were not a race, or a tribe, or a
+sect, but bands of lawless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[Pg 407]</a></span> men of all faiths; for they met and vanished
+like birds of the air, outstripping regular cavalry by the length and
+rapidity of their marches, and carrying off their booty almost under the
+eyes of their pursuers. But the resolute tactics of Hastings prevailed in
+the end. Am&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n, their most powerful leader, disbanded his troops; and
+hemmed in on all sides, cut off from every place of shelter, and chased by
+successive detachments of horsemen almost as fleet as his own, Ch&iacute;tu
+became a hopeless fugitive, with a handful of faithful adherents, who
+shared his desperate efforts to escape, but advised him to surrender. He
+could not bring himself to do so, possessed, it is said, with an
+unspeakable horror of being transported across "the black sea," and he
+actually remained at large or in hiding for a year after his lair was
+discovered. Nor was he ever captured, for, by a strange fate, this
+ruthless scourge of the Deccan, after baffling human vengeance, found his
+last refuge in a jungle and died, a tiger's prey. By this time, all the
+wild bands which sprung into existence out of the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; war had been
+extirpated or dispersed, and after the year 1818 the dreaded name of
+Pind&aacute;r&iacute; was heard no more in history.</p>
+
+<p>The suppression of civil war and anarchy in Central India, which completed
+the work of Wellesley, was the greatest achievement of Hastings. One
+remarkable incident of it was a portentous outbreak of cholera in 1817,
+during a campaign in Gwalior conducted by Hastings in person. There had
+been several minor visitations of this disease in India. But it now first
+established itself as an endemic disease, and it has ever since infested
+the valley of the Ganges. So virulent was its onslaught, and so fearful
+the mortality in Hastings' army, that it was only saved by shifting its
+quarters, and the governor-general himself made preparations for his own
+secret burial, in case he should be among the victims. As we have seen
+already,<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> it was propagated from this centre through other regions of
+Asia, until it spread to Western Europe, and the "Asiatic cholera" of
+1831-32 may be lineally traced back to the last Mar&aacute;th&aacute; war.</p>
+
+<p>The position of Hastings in Indian history closely resembles that of
+Wellesley. Disregarding the instructions of the board of control, as well
+as of the board of directors, he forced upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[Pg 408]</a></span> them, like Wellesley, a
+large extension of their empire. But it cannot be doubted that his policy,
+dictated by exigencies beyond the ken of authorities sitting in London,
+was eminently successful and beneficent in its results. It went far to
+establish a "Pax Britannica" in the Indian Peninsula, and, if it took
+little account of dynastic rights, it broke the rod of oppression, and
+relieved millions upon millions from tyranny and intimidation which
+overshadowed their whole lives. He retired in 1823, after seven years'
+tenure of office, and died in 1826 as governor of Malta. Canning had been
+designated as his successor, and, having accepted the post, was on the eve
+of starting for Calcutta, when the tragical death of Castlereagh recalled
+him to the foreign office, and opened to him the most brilliant stage in
+his career. Thereupon Lord Amherst was appointed governor-general, with
+every prospect of a pacific vice-royalty, whereas it is now chiefly
+remembered for the annexation of new provinces on the south-east of
+Bengal, and the capture of Bhartpur.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE FIRST BURMESE WAR.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_321" id="TOPIC_321"></a>The first Burmese war arose out of persistent aggressions by the new
+kingdom of Ava or Burma on what is now the British province of Assam, but
+was then an independent, though feeble, state. There had been earlier
+frontier disputes between the Indian government and Burma about the
+districts lying eastward of Chittagong along the Bay of Bengal, but it was
+not until Burma conquered Arakan, invaded Assam, and occupied passes on
+the north-east overlooking the plains of Bengal, that serious action was
+felt to be necessary. Indeed, while Hastings was engaged with the war in
+Nep&aacute;l and the suppression of the Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, even he was in no mood to
+embark on a fresh campaign beyond the borders of India. The incursions of
+the Burmese, however, became more and more threatening both on the coast
+line and on the mountains above the Brahmaputra river, and in February,
+1824, Amherst resolved to check the extension of their dominion.
+Notwithstanding the experience recently gained in Nep&aacute;l, the first
+operations of the Anglo-Indian troops were conducted with little knowledge
+of the country, and met with very doubtful success. Rangoon was easily
+captured, but the expedition was disabled from advancing up the river
+Irawadi by the want of adequate supplies and the deadliness of the
+climate. Part of the Tenasserim coast was subdued, but a British force was
+defeated in Arakan.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[Pg 409]</a></span> These reverses were retrieved in the following year,
+1825, when one army under Sir Archibald Campbell made its way up the river
+to Prome, while another army conquered Arakan, and a third, moving along
+the valley of the Brahmaputra, established itself in Assam. The Burmese
+now abandoned further resistance. Assam, Arakan, and the Tenasserim
+provinces were ceded to the company, whose protectorate was also
+recognised over other territories upon the course of the Brahmaputra. It
+was not until February, 1826, that the King of Ava could be induced to
+sign the treaty embodying these cessions, and many years were to elapse
+before the port of Rangoon was opened to British commerce.</p>
+
+<p>The strong fortress of Bhartpur, in the east of R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, and near to
+Agra, had acquired an unique importance, in the eyes of all India by its
+successful resistance to Lake's assaults during the Mar&aacute;th&aacute; war of 1805.
+It was still held until 1825 by its own petty r&aacute;j&aacute;, the son of Ranj&iacute;t
+Singh, who remained on terms of respectful amity with the Indian
+government, though his little principality was a notorious focus of native
+disaffection. In that year he died, and his child, after being
+acknowledged by the Indian government as his successor, was forcibly
+ousted by a usurper. Sir David Ochterlony, the hero of the Nep&aacute;lese war,
+then resident in M&aacute;lw&aacute; and R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, undertook to support the legitimate
+heir, but was overruled by orders from Amherst. On his resignation he was
+succeeded by Metcalfe, who had become Sir Charles Metcalfe by his
+brother's death in 1822, and who now obtained authority to carry out
+Ochterlony's policy, if necessary, by armed intervention. As negotiation
+failed, Lord Combermere, as commander-in-chief, proceeded to reduce the
+virgin fortress, not by the slow process of siege, but by a well-organised
+assault. Having cut off the water supply, and mined the mud walls, he
+poured in a storming party and overpowered the garrison. The feat was
+probably not so great, from a military point of view, as many that have
+left no record, but its effect on the superstitious native mind was
+prodigious, especially as it nearly coincided with the victorious issue of
+the Burmese war. Nevertheless, Amherst was shortly afterwards recalled,
+and left India in 1828. His annexation of Burmese territory and the
+increase of expenditure under his rule displeased both the Company and the
+home government, so often<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[Pg 410]</a></span> foiled in the attempt to enforce a pacific and
+economical policy. His successor was Lord William Bentinck, who had been
+compelled to retire from the governorship of Madras after the mutiny of
+Vellore.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_322" id="TOPIC_322"></a>Like Hastings, Bentinck showed a firmness and wisdom in his Indian
+administration strongly contrasting with the restless self-assertion of
+his earlier career. His lot was cast in an interval of tranquillity after
+a long period of warfare, and his name is associated with internal reforms
+and social progress in India, not unconnected with a like movement in
+England. The measure upon which his fame chiefly rests was the abolition
+of "sat&iacute;," that is, the practice of Hindoo widows sacrificing themselves
+by being burned alive on the funeral pile of their husbands. This
+practice, which specially prevailed in Bengal, has been explained by a
+false interpretation of certain texts in sacred books of the Hindus, by
+the selfish eagerness of the husband's family to monopolise all his
+property, and by the utterly desolate condition of a childless widow in
+native communities. At all events, it was deeply rooted in Hindu
+traditions, and no previous governor had dared to go beyond issuing
+regulations to secure that the widow should be a willing victim. Bentinck
+had the courage to act on the conviction that inhumanity, however
+consecrated by superstition and priestcraft, has no permanent basis in
+popular sentiment. With the consent of his council, he prohibited "sat&iacute;"
+absolutely, declaring that all who took any part in it should be held
+guilty of culpable homicide; and the native population acquiesced in its
+suppression.</p>
+
+<p>But this was only one of Bentinck's reforms. Armed with peremptory
+instructions from the home government, he effected large retrenchments in
+the growing expenditure of the Indian services, both civil and military,
+and a considerable increase in the Indian revenue. It may be doubted
+whether one of these retrenchments, involving a strict revision of
+officers' allowances known as "batta," was considerable enough to be worth
+the almost mutinous discontent which it provoked. Another, affecting the
+salaries of civilians, was aggravated, in their eyes, by the admission of
+natives to "primary jurisdiction," in other words, by enabling native
+judges to sit in courts of first instance. This important change had been
+gradually introduced before the arrival of Bentinck, but it was he who
+most boldly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[Pg 411]</a></span> adopted the idea of governing India in the interest and by
+the agency of the natives. On the other hand, it was he who, supported by
+Macaulay's famous minute, but contrary to official opinion in Leadenhall
+Street, issued the ordinance constituting English the official language of
+India. In a like spirit, he promoted the work of native education, partly
+for the purpose of developing the political and judicial capacity of the
+higher orders among the Hindus, but partly also for the purpose of making
+the English language and literature the instrument of their elevation. He
+earnestly desired to raise the standard of Indian civilisation, but he
+equally desired to fashion it in an English mould.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>THE EXTIRPATION OF "THAG&Iacute;".</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_323" id="TOPIC_323"></a>Under the rule of Bentinck, the revenue was largely augmented by a
+reassessment of land in the north-western provinces, where an increasing
+number of zam&iacute;nd&aacute;rs had fraudulently evaded the payment of rent, and by
+the imposition of licence-duties on the growers of opium in M&aacute;lw&aacute;, who had
+carried on a profitable but illicit trade through foreign ports. But the
+social benefit of the people was ever his first concern, and not the least
+of his claims to their gratitude was the final extirpation of "thag&iacute;".
+This institution was a secret association of highway robbers and murderers
+who had plagued Central India almost as widely as the roving troops of
+Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s. Their victims were travellers whom they decoyed into their
+haunts, plundered, strangled, and buried on the spot. For years they
+carried on their infamous trade with impunity, and no member of the
+conspiracy had turned informer. At last, however, a clue was found by a
+skilful and resolute agent of the government, and the spell of mutual
+dread which held together the murderous confederacy was effectually broken
+in India. Meanwhile, the same period of peaceful development witnessed the
+execution of important public works, the relaxation of restrictions on the
+liberty of the press, and a general advance towards a more paternal
+despotism, coincident with the progress of liberal ideas at home. These
+benign influences were favoured by the continuance of peace and the
+maintenance of non-intervention, disturbed only by the minor annexations
+of Cachar and Coorg, to which may be added the assumption of direct
+control over Mysore.</p>
+
+<p>When the charter of 1833 transformed the "company of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[Pg 412]</a></span> British merchants
+trading to the east" into the "East India Company," with administrative
+powers only, Bentinck was in failing health, and he soon afterwards
+returned home. On his resignation in 1835, Metcalfe became provisional
+governor-general, but his liberal policy displeased the court of
+directors, and Lord Heytesbury was selected by the short-lived government
+of Peel as Bentinck's successor. Palmerston, however, on resuming the
+foreign office, was believed to have used his influence to set aside this
+nomination, and to procure the appointment of Lord Auckland, then first
+lord of the admiralty. The supposed objection to Heytesbury was his known
+sympathy with Russia, at a moment when distrust of Russia's designs on the
+north-west frontier was about to become the keynote of Anglo-Indian
+statesmanship. During the interregnum between Bentinck's retirement and
+Auckland's accession, three more remedial measures were carried into
+effect, the wisdom of which is not even yet beyond dispute. These were the
+complete liberation of the Indian press, the abolition of the exclusive
+privilege whereby British residents could appeal in civil suits to the
+supreme court at Calcutta, and the definite introduction of English
+text-books into schools for the people. For all these reforms Macaulay was
+largely responsible, but the impulse had been given by Bentinck, and was
+accelerated by Metcalfe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_324" id="TOPIC_324"></a>During the years 1835-37 domestic affairs occupied much less space in the
+counsels of Indian statesmen than schemes for counteracting the growth of
+Russian influence at Tihran, and securing the predominance of British
+influence in Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n. For a time their anxiety was concentrated on
+Herat, which the Sh&aacute;h of Persia was besieging, with the intention of
+penetrating into the heart of Afgh&aacute;n territory, while the Afgh&aacute;n rulers
+themselves were suspected of secretly conspiring with Persia against our
+ally, Ranj&iacute;t Singh. Since Persia, having again lost faith in British
+support, was drifting more and more into reliance on Russia, this forward
+movement was regarded as the first step of the Russian advance-guard
+towards India. The fate of India was felt to depend on the defence of
+Herat under Pottinger, a young British officer, who volunteered his
+services without instructions from home. The siege, conducted under
+Russian officers, lasted ten months, and its ultimate failure was hailed
+as a triumph of British policy, for Herat was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[Pg 413]</a></span> recognised, since the days
+of Alexander the Great, as the western gate of India.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_325" id="TOPIC_325"></a>About the same time the question of a shorter route to India attracted
+much attention both in Russia and in England. The first project was that,
+ultimately adopted, of a sea passage by Malta to Alexandria, a land
+transit across Egypt to Suez, and a second voyage by the Red Sea to Indian
+ports. The alternative line was more properly described as an "overland
+route," since it was proposed to make the journey from some port in the
+eastern Levant across Syria and by the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf.
+Colonel Chesney was sent out in 1835 as the pioneer of an expedition by
+this route, and parliament twice voted money for its development, but it
+was vigorously opposed by Russia, and abandoned as impracticable owing to
+physical difficulties in navigating the Euphrates, then considered as a
+necessary channel of communication with the sea. The scheme has since been
+revived on a much grander scale in the form of a projected railway
+traversing Asia Minor to Baghdad, and running down the valley of the
+Tigris. In the meantime, the Red Sea route, at first discredited, has far
+more than justified the hopes of its promoters. With the aid of
+steam-vessels, since 1845, and of the Suez Canal, since 1869, it has
+reduced the journey to India from a period of four months to one of three
+weeks, and profoundly affected its relations with Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_326" id="TOPIC_326"></a>It would be well if the premature, but not unfounded, fear of Russian
+invasion had produced no further effects on Anglo-Indian policy.
+Unhappily, those who justly perceived the importance of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, as
+lying between Persia and the Punjab, were possessed with the delusion that
+it would prove a more solid buffer as a British dependency than as an
+independent state. In their ignorance of its internal condition and the
+sentiments of its unruly tribes, the Indian government despatched Sir
+Alexander Burnes to K&aacute;bul, nominally as a commercial emissary, but not
+without ulterior objects. They could not have chosen a more capable agent,
+for he added to a knowledge of several languages a minute geographical
+acquaintance with Central Asia and an insight into the character of its
+inhabitants which probably no other Englishman possessed. He was to
+proceed by way of Sind to Pesh&aacute;war, and in passing through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[Pg 414]</a></span> Sind he
+received news of the siege of Herat, the significance of which he was not
+slow to appreciate. Thenceforward his mission inevitably assumed a
+political complexion, since the future of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n became a practical
+question. His rash negotiations with Dost Muhammad, the Am&iacute;r of K&aacute;bul, and
+his brother at Kandah&aacute;r, his return to India, his second mission to
+Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n in support of a policy which he had deprecated, and his
+tragical death in the K&aacute;bul insurrection,&mdash;these are events which belong
+to a later chapter of history. But, though Burnes cannot be held
+responsible for the first Afgh&aacute;n war, there can be no doubt that his
+travels in disguise through Central Asia, and confidential reports on the
+border countries between the Russian and British spheres of influence,
+were the immediate prelude to a campaign the most ill-advised and the most
+disastrous ever organised by the Indian government and sanctioned by that
+of Great Britain.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a> Despatch of July 13, 1804, <i>Selection from Wellesley's
+Despatches</i>, ed. Owen, pp. 436-41. See Sir A. Lyall, <i>British Dominion in
+India</i>, p. 260.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a> Cornwallis to Lake, Sept. 19, 1805, <i>Cornwallis
+Correspondence</i>, iii., 547-55.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a> See p. <a href="#Page_310">310</a> above.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[Pg 415]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX.</h2>
+
+<h3>LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>The period which elapsed between the resignation of Pitt and the battle of
+Waterloo was hardly less eventful in the history of British civilisation
+than in the history of British empire. To some, the boundary line between
+the society of the eighteenth and that of the nineteenth century appears
+to be marked by the outbreak of the French revolution, and the
+far-reaching effects of that catastrophe upon ideas, manners, and politics
+in Great Britain, as well as upon the continent, are too evident to be
+denied. But it is equally certain that, before the French revolution, an
+intellectual and industrial movement was in progress which must have given
+a most powerful impulse to civilisation, even if the French revolution had
+never taken place. In this country, especially, the great writers,
+philanthropists, scientific leaders, inventors, engineers, and reformers
+of various types, who adorned the latter part of George III.'s reign,
+largely drew their inspiration from an age, just preceding the French
+revolution, which is sometimes regarded as barren in originality.</p>
+
+<p>When the nineteenth century opened, the classical authors of that
+pre-revolutionary age had mostly passed away. Hume died in 1776, Johnson
+in 1784, Adam Smith in 1790, Gibbon in 1794, Burns in 1796, Burke in 1797,
+Cowper in 1800. John Howard, the great pioneer of prison reform, became a
+martyr to philanthropy in 1790. The most remarkable of those manufacturing
+improvements and mechanical inventions upon which the commercial supremacy
+of England is founded date from the same period, and have been described
+in a previous volume. Steam navigation was still untried, but preliminary
+experiments had already been made on both sides of the Atlantic before
+1789. The application of steam to locomotion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[Pg 416]</a></span> by land had scarcely been
+conceived, but the facilities of traffic and travelling had been vastly
+developed in the first forty years of George III.'s reign.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_327" id="TOPIC_327"></a>It may truly be said, however, that English literature in the early party
+of the nineteenth century bears clear traces of the influence exercised on
+receptive minds by the French revolution. Three of the leading poets,
+Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, were deeply infected by its spirit,
+and indulged in their youth fantastic dreams of a social millennium;
+Wordsworth, especially, who in his maturer years could be justly described
+as the priest of nature-worship and the poet of rural life, had imbibed
+violent republican ideas during a residence of more than a year in France.
+These were passing off in 1798, when he published, jointly with Coleridge,
+the volume of <i>Lyrical Ballads</i> containing the latter's immortal tale of
+the <i>Ancient Mariner</i>. In the following year he settled in the English
+lake-country, where Coleridge established himself for a while, and Southey
+for life. Hence the popular but very inaccurate title of the "Lake
+School," applied to a trio of poets who, except as friends, had little in
+common with each other. Indeed, after Wordsworth had developed his theory
+of poetical realism in the preface to a volume published in 1800,
+Coleridge rejected and criticised it as wholly untenable. All three,
+however, may be considered as comrades in a revolt against the
+conventional diction of eighteenth century poetry, from which Coleridge's
+"dreamy tenderness" and mystical flights of fancy were as remote as
+Wordsworth's rusticity and almost prosaic studies of humble life.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>COLERIDGE AND SCOTT.</i></div>
+
+<p>Although Coleridge survived to 1834 and Wordsworth to 1850, both seem to
+have lost at an early date that power of imagination, whether displayed in
+sympathy or in creation, in which their greatness consisted. Wordsworth
+wrote assiduously during the whole of this period; in 1807 he published a
+volume of poems, including the famous <i>Ode on the Intimations of
+Immortality</i> and several of his finest sonnets; but of his later work only
+an occasional lyric deserves to be ranked beside the poems published in
+1800 and 1807. Coleridge, indeed, published two of his finest poems,
+<i>Christabel</i> and <i>Kubla Khan</i>, in 1816, but they were written long before,
+<i>Christabel</i>, partly in 1797 and partly in 1801, and <i>Kubla Khan</i> in 1798.
+Even the new metre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[Pg 417]</a></span> of <i>Christabel</i>, which is not the least of Coleridge's
+contributions to English poetry, had, as early as 1805, been borrowed in
+the <i>Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> by Scott, to whom Coleridge had recited the
+poem. Nevertheless, Coleridge continued to exercise a great influence,
+partly through the charm of his conversation and partly through his prose
+works, in which he introduced to a British public, as yet unused to German
+literature, a vision of that mystical German thought which finds its
+father in Kant, and was represented at that day by Hegel in philosophy and
+Goethe in poetry. It is uncertain how far the general ignorance of German
+literature in England was responsible for the influence exercised in their
+own day by the few English or Scottish thinkers, such as Coleridge,
+Hamilton, and Carlyle, who had either fallen under the spell or learned
+the secret of the German mystics. The most important of Coleridge's prose
+works was <i>Aids to Reflection</i>, which appeared in 1828, and whatever be
+its literary value, it deserves the notice of the historian, as the least
+unsystematic treatise of an author who gave the principal philosophical
+impetus to the Oxford movement.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_328" id="TOPIC_328"></a>Two other poets, eminently the product of their age, though not the
+offspring of the French revolution, Scott and Byron, were equally in
+revolt against conventional diction. Scott elevated ballad-poetry to a
+level which it had never before attained, and composed some of the most
+beautiful songs in the English language. If it be remembered that he was
+cramped by the drudgery of legal offices during the best years of his
+life, that he was nearly thirty when he made his first literary venture,
+that he was crippled by financial ruin and broken health during his later
+years, that his anonymous contributions to periodicals would fill volumes,
+and that he died at the age of sixty-one, his fertility of production must
+ever be ranked as unique in the history of English literature. Already
+known as the author of various lyrical pieces, and the <i>Border
+Minstrelsy</i>, he published the <i>Lay of the Last Minstrel</i> in 1805,
+<i>Marmion</i> (with its fine stanzas on Pitt and Fox) in 1808, the <i>Lady of
+the Lake</i> in 1809, <i>Don Roderick</i> in 1811, and <i>Rokeby</i> in 1813, as well
+as minor poems of high merit. He is said to have abandoned poetry in
+deference to Byron's rising star, and it is certain that he now fills a
+higher place in the roll of English classics as a prose writer than as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[Pg 418]</a></span>
+poet. His first novel, <i>Waverley</i>, appeared in 1814, and was followed In
+the next four years by six of the greatest "Waverley Novels," as the
+series came to be called&mdash;<i>Guy Mannering</i>, the <i>Antiquary</i>, the <i>Black
+Dwarf</i>, <i>Old Mortality</i>, <i>Rob Roy</i>, and the <i>Heart of Midlothian</i>. It is
+not too much to say that by these works, both in poetry and in prose, he
+created the historical romance in Great Britain. The legends of chivalry
+and the folk-lore of his native land had deeply stirred his soul, and
+fired his imagination from childhood, and though later "research" has far
+outstripped the range of his antiquarian knowledge, no modern writer has
+ever done so much to awaken a reverence for olden times in the hearts of
+his countrymen. The easy flow of his style, the vivid energy of his
+thought, the graphic power of his descriptions, his shrewd and robust
+sympathy with human nature, and the evident simplicity of his own
+character, not unmingled with flashes of true poetical insight, justly
+rendered him the most popular writer of his time.</p>
+
+<p>Byron was born in 1788, and first sprang into notice as the author of
+<i>English Bards and Scotch Reviewers</i>, a fierce and bitter reply to critics
+who had disparaged his first essay in poetry. This satire appeared in
+1809, when he was just of age, after which he travelled with Hobhouse, and
+it was not until 1812 that he "woke to find himself famous," on publishing
+the first two cantos of <i>Childe Harold</i>. During the next three years, he
+poured forth a succession of characteristic poems, including the <i>Giaour</i>,
+the <i>Bride of Abydos</i>, the <i>Corsair</i>, <i>Lara</i>, and the <i>Siege of Corinth</i>.
+His later work was of a more finished order, including the remaining
+cantos of <i>Childe Harold</i>, <i>Manfred</i>, <i>Cain</i>, and <i>Mazeppa</i>, and when he
+died at Mesolongi in 1824, he left unfinished what is, in some ways, the
+most remarkable of his works, <i>Don Juan</i>. Long before his death he had
+become the prophet and hero of a pseudo-romantic school, composed of young
+Englishmen dazzled by his intellectual brilliancy, and attracted rather
+than repelled by a certain Satanic taint in his moral sentiments. But he
+also won the admiration of Goethe, and the reaction against his fame in a
+later generation is as exaggerated as the idolatry of which he was the
+object under the regency. His morbid egotism, his stormy rhetoric, and his
+meretricious exaltation of passion, have lost their magical effect, but
+his poetical gifts would have commanded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[Pg 419]</a></span> homage in any age. The message
+which he professed to deliver was a false message, but few poets have
+surpassed him in daring vigour of imagination, in descriptive force, in
+wit, or in pathos. His style was eminently such as to invite imitation,
+yet no one has successfully imitated him. Had he been a better man, and
+had his life been prolonged, he might perhaps have towered above his
+literary contemporaries as Napoleon did among the generals and rulers of
+Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>KEATS, SHELLEY, TENNYSON.</i></div>
+
+<p>Yet among these contemporaries were Keats and Shelley, whom some critics
+of a younger generation would place above him in poetical originality.
+Their chief merit lay neither in thought nor in strength, but in an
+exquisite sweetness of expression, which in the case of Shelley at least
+was quite independent of the subject-matter. Keats, though junior to
+Shelley, has been described as his poetical father, but his chief poem,
+<i>Endymion</i>, did not appear until several years after Shelley had formed
+his own distinctive style. He died in 1821 at the age of twenty-six,
+leaving a poetical inheritance of the highest quality, which, though
+limited in quantity and unequal in workmanship, has gained an enduring
+reputation. Nevertheless his work lent itself readily to imitation, and he
+exercised a marked influence on the style of later poets, not only in this
+period, but in the Victorian age as well. The rebellious spirit of Shelley
+had already shown itself at an early age in his poetry, and especially in
+<i>Queen Mab</i>, printed in 1812. His ethereal fancy, his dreamy obscurity,
+and his witchery of language, designated him from the first as a master of
+lyrical poetry; though he wrote longer pieces, his fame rests on the
+numerous short poems which continued to appear till his death in 1822.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the greatest master of melody was one who was only coming to the
+front at the close of this period, Alfred Tennyson, born in 1809,
+contributed with two of his brothers to a collection of verses,
+misleadingly entitled <i>Poems by Two Brothers</i>, which appeared in 1826. At
+Cambridge his <i>Timbuctoo</i> won the chancellor's prize, but the first proof
+of his powers was given by a volume of short poems published in 1830,
+followed by a similar volume two years later. By far the greater part of
+his work lies in the next period, but the volume of 1833 already included
+some of his best known poems.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[Pg 420]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_329" id="TOPIC_329"></a>Among minor poets of this period the highest rank must perhaps be assigned
+to Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore as authors of some of the most
+stirring and graceful lyrics in the English language. The former had
+attained celebrity by the <i>Pleasures of Hope</i>, published before the end of
+the eighteenth century, but his choicest poems, such as <i>Ye Mariners of
+England</i>, the fine verses on Hohenlinden and Copenhagen, and <i>Gertrude of
+Wyoming</i>, appeared between 1802 and 1809. The series of Moore's Irish
+melodies, on which his poetical fame largely rests, was begun in 1807,
+though not completed until long afterwards. They were followed by other
+lyrical pieces of great merit, and by a series of witty and malicious
+lampoons, collected in 1813 into a volume called the <i>Twopenny Post Bag</i>.
+<i>Lalla Rookh</i>, his most ambitious effort, was not published until 1817.</p>
+
+<p>Two prose writers of the same epoch, Southey and Bentham, claim special
+notice, though Southey may also be numbered among the poets. Having
+established himself close to Keswick in 1804, he prosecuted a literary
+career with the most untiring industry until his mental faculties at last
+failed him some thirty-six years later. During this period he produced
+above a hundred volumes in poetry and prose, besides numerous scattered
+articles and other papers. Most of these were of merely ephemeral
+interest, but the <i>Life of Nelson</i>, published in 1813, may be said to have
+set a standard of simplicity, purity, and dignity in English prose which
+has been of permanent value. Bentham's style, on the contrary, was so
+wanting in beauty and perspicuity that one at least of his chief works is
+best known to English readers in the admirable French paraphrase of his
+friend Dumont. This is his famous <i>Introduction to the Principles of
+Morals and Legislation</i>, in which the doctrines of the utilitarian
+philosophy are rigorously applied to jurisprudence and the regulation of
+human conduct. Several of his numerous treatises had been planned, and
+others actually composed, before the end of the eighteenth century, but
+his practical influence, ultimately so great, first made itself felt in
+the early part of the nineteenth century. This influence may be compared
+within the sphere of social reform to that of Adam Smith within the sphere
+of economy. Many amendments of the law, an improved system of prison
+discipline, and even the reform of the poor law,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[Pg 421]</a></span> may be directly traced
+to his counsels, and it was he who inspired the leading radicals when
+radicalism was not so much a destructive creed as a protest against real
+and gross abuses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MALTHUS.</i></div>
+
+<p>Perhaps, next to Bentham, no writer of this period influenced educated
+opinion so powerfully as Malthus, whose <i>Essay on Population</i>, first
+published anonymously in 1798, attracted comparatively little attention
+until 1803, when it was republished in a maturer form. No work has ever
+been more persistently misrepresented. While he shows that population, if
+unchecked, will surely increase in a ratio far outstripping any possible
+increase in the means of subsistence, he also shows, by elaborate proofs,
+that it will inevitably be checked by vice and misery, whether or not they
+are aided by moral restraint. Later experience has done little to weaken
+his reasoning, but it has proved that "moral restraint" (in the most
+general sense) operates more widely than he ventured to expect, and that
+larger tracts of the earth's surface than he recognised could be brought
+under profitable cultivation. With these modifications, his theory holds
+the field, and the people of Great Britain only escape starvation by
+ever-growing importations of grain from countries whose production&mdash;for
+the present&mdash;exceeds their consumption.</p>
+
+<p>Several other writers of eminence, such as Sheridan and Paley, who lived
+in the latter days of George III. are more properly to be regarded as
+survivors of eighteenth century literature. Horne Tooke was returned for
+Old Sarum in 1801, and enjoyed a reputation in society until his death in
+1812, but his old-fashioned radicalism had long since been superseded by a
+newer creed. Dugald Stewart continued to lecture on moral philosophy until
+1809, and was fortunate in numbering among his pupils Palmerston,
+Lansdowne, and Russell. A younger student of philosophy was Richard
+Whately, who was born in 1787, and elected to a fellowship at Oriel
+College, Oxford, in 1811. He soon began to play an active part in
+university life, and, after being principal of St. Alban Hall, was removed
+to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831. Though not a great philosopher, he
+was an acute logician, and his <i>Logic</i>, published in 1826, entitled him to
+a high place among the thinkers of his generation. But it was not merely
+as a teacher<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[Pg 422]</a></span> and writer that Whately promoted the cause of philosophy in
+Oxford. He was one of the leaders in that organisation of studies which
+made philosophy one of the principal studies, if not the principal study,
+of the abler students in that university, and gave elementary logic a
+place in the ordinary "pass-man's" curriculum.</p>
+
+<p>The best work of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen appeared in the early
+part of the nineteenth century. Maria Edgeworth's novel, <i>Castle
+Rackrent</i>, was published in 1800, and rapidly followed by other tales
+descriptive of Irish life; four of Jane Austen's novels, <i>Sense and
+Sensibility</i>, <i>Pride and Prejudice</i>, <i>Mansfield Park</i>, and <i>Emma</i>, were
+published between 1811 and 1816, while <i>Northanger Abbey</i> and <i>Persuasion</i>
+appeared after her death in 1817. All her work displays a power of minute
+analysis of character shared by few, if any, of our other novelists. Both
+authors deserve gratitude not only for having inspired Scott with a new
+idea of novel-writing, but for having exercised a purifying influence on
+the moral tone of English romance.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_330" id="TOPIC_330"></a>The most typical feature of English literature in the earlier years of the
+nineteenth century was the extraordinary development of the periodical and
+newspaper press. The eighteenth century was the golden age of pamphlets.
+When the "governing classes" represented but a fraction of the population,
+mostly concentrated in London, the practical effect of such political
+appeals as those issued by Swift or Burke was incredibly great, and not to
+be measured by their limited circulation. The rise of journalism as a
+power in politics may be roughly dated from the notoriety of Wilkes'
+<i>North Briton</i>, and of the letters of "Junius" in the <i>Public Advertiser</i>.
+Thenceforward, newspapers, at first mere chronicles of passing events,
+inevitably grew to be organs of political opinion, and had now almost
+superseded pamphlets, as addressed to a far larger circle of readers.
+Notwithstanding the heavy stamp duties, as well as duties on paper and
+advertisements, six daily journals were published in London, of which the
+<i>Times</i> was already the greatest. Cobbett's <i>Weekly Political Register</i>,
+commenced in 1802, was diffusing new ideas among the middle classes, but
+it was not yet committed to radicalism, and did not win its way into
+cottages until its price was greatly reduced in 1816. After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">[Pg 423]</a></span> Cobbett's
+death in 1835, it ceased to appear. Still the ice was broken, and, as the
+educated public recovered from the panic caused by the French revolution,
+the newspaper press became a potent and independent rival of parliament
+and the platform.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>EDINBURGH AND QUARTERLY REVIEWS.</i></div>
+
+<p>But the influence of the <i>Edinburgh</i> and <i>Quarterly Reviews</i> was perhaps
+even greater among readers of the highest intelligence. The first of these
+was founded in 1802 by Jeffrey, Brougham, Horner, and Sydney Smith, but
+was supported at first by Scott and other able contributors. So remarkable
+a body of writers must have commanded attention in any age, but at a time
+when the only periodicals were annuals and miscellanies, the literary
+vigour and range of knowledge displayed by the new review carried all
+before it. For several years it had an unique success, but, as it
+identified itself more and more with the whig party, Canning, with the aid
+of Scott, determined to challenge its supremacy by establishing a new
+review to be called the <i>Quarterly</i>. Scott was finally estranged from the
+<i>Edinburgh</i> by an article against the war of independence in Spain, and
+the first number of the <i>Quarterly</i> appeared in February, 1809, with three
+articles by him. It was published by John Murray, and edited by Gifford,
+on much the same lines as the <i>Edinburgh</i>, but with a strong tory bias,
+and with somewhat less of literary brilliancy. <i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>
+followed a few years later, and the almost classical dualism of the
+<i>Quarterly</i> and <i>Edinburgh</i> has long since been invaded by a multitude of
+younger serials.</p>
+
+<p>After the loss of its early monopoly of talent, the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>
+still retained Jeffrey and Sydney Smith, and it was abundantly compensated
+for the loss of Scott by the acquisition in 1825 of the fluent pen of
+Macaulay. Born in 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay, who like many other
+philanthropists was on the tory side, he was early converted to the whig
+party. He was well fitted to be a popular writer. His thought, never deep,
+is always clear and vivid. None knew better how to seize a dramatic
+incident or a picturesque simile, or to strike the weak points in his
+adversary's armour. It has been said of him that he always chose to storm
+a position by a cavalry charge, certainly the most imposing if not the
+most effective method. Many of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_424" id="Page_424">[Pg 424]</a></span> his contributions to the <i>Edinburgh
+Review</i> were afterwards republished as <i>Essays</i>, and already in those
+earlier essays which appeared before 1837, we can see him assuming the
+<i>r&ocirc;le</i> of the historical champion of the whigs. Widely read and with a
+marvellous memory, he was generally accurate in his facts, but his
+criticism of Gladstone applies with even greater force to himself: "There
+is no want of light, but a great want of what Bacon would have called dry
+light. Whatever Mr. Gladstone sees is refracted and distorted by a false
+medium of passions and prejudices." The critic is sunk in the advocate,
+and even a good cause is spoiled by a too obvious reluctance to admit
+anything that comes from the other side. Perhaps his happiest, though far
+from his greatest, work is to be found in the stirring ballads of <i>Ivry</i>
+and the <i>Armada</i>, the precursors of the <i>Lays of Ancient Rome</i>. Deservedly
+popular and full of patriotic fire, the class of literature to which they
+belong renders questions of fairness or unfairness beside the point.</p>
+
+<p>Another contributor to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, also famous as a historian,
+was Thomas Carlyle. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in Dumfriesshire,
+and wrote for Brewster's <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia</i> and the <i>London Magazine</i> as well
+as the <i>Edinburgh</i>. In 1826 he married Jane Welsh, and in 1828 he retired
+from journalism to live humbly on her means. It was now that he began to
+produce his best work. <i>Sartor Resartus</i> appeared in 1833-34, and the
+<i>History of the French Revolution</i> in 1837. Even in the latter of these
+works he is as much a preacher as a historian. Perhaps no other writer of
+the age exercised a greater direct influence, and in his own country,
+which seems specially amenable to the preacher's powers, his message has
+been as effective in favour of broader views as the disruption of the
+Church of Scotland in 1843 was in favour of the old orthodoxy. His
+teaching has its roots in a German soil, but it bears the mark of his own
+strong personality. His style, with a wilful ruggedness, displays the
+German taste for the humour of an incongruous homeliness, where the
+subject seems to call for a more dignified treatment. Perhaps this obvious
+falseness of expression only relieves the weight of his stern earnestness
+of purpose and makes us the more ready to join in his constant
+denunciation of everything hollow and pretentious.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>LAMB.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_331" id="TOPIC_331"></a>Two new magazines appeared in or about 1817, <i>Blackwood's</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_425" id="Page_425">[Pg 425]</a></span> and the
+<i>London</i>. Brilliant as the leading contributors to the former were, none
+of them perhaps can claim a place in the front rank of English literature.
+Of the contributors to the <i>London</i> Lamb is doubtless entitled to the
+first place. Born in 1775, he was employed as a clerk in the East India
+House from 1792 to 1825. He was a schoolfellow of Coleridge and
+contributed to his earlier volume of poems It is, however, to the <i>Essays
+of Elia</i> that he owes his fame. These appeared in the <i>London Magazine</i>
+and were published in a collected form after his death in 1834. Few
+authors that have been so much admired have exercised so little influence.
+The reason for this is not far to seek. His style defies imitation, and he
+would have been the last man to endeavour to win disciples to his
+opinions. Another essayist who belongs to the same group of writers as
+Coleridge and Lamb is Thomas de Quincey. He wrote both for <i>Blackwood's</i>
+and for the <i>London Magazine</i>, in the latter of which appeared in 1821 his
+best known work, the <i>Confessions of an English Opium Eater</i>. He excelled
+in what was the dominant characteristic of English prose of this period,
+in imagery, a quality which is conspicuous in the light fancy of
+Coleridge's most famous poems, and which gives life to an author so
+uniformly in dead earnest as Macaulay. Viewed historically, this taste for
+imagery is the English side of the romantic movement, which in Germany
+reacted against the conventional, not only in works of the imagination,
+but in the heavier form of new philosophical systems. But these systems,
+in spite of Coleridge, never became native in England. The growth of the
+scientific spirit has made such thought and such language seem unreal in
+serious literature, and prevents a later generation from imitating, though
+not from admiring, the brilliance of the early essayists.</p>
+
+<p>Hazlitt's genius was of a heavier type. As an essayist his work breathes
+the spirit of an earlier age; but as a literary critic he is a leader, and
+displays an inwardness in his appreciation that makes him in a sense the
+model of the new age in which criticism has so largely supplanted
+creation. It may be doubted, however, whether the abnormal growth of
+criticism, as a distinct branch of English letters, has been a benefit on
+the whole to our literature. Certainly it has tended to substitute the
+elaborate study of other men's thoughts for original production, and,
+after<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_426" id="Page_426">[Pg 426]</a></span> all, the greatest critics have been those who, being more than
+critics, have shown themselves capable of constructive efforts.</p>
+
+<p>Two statesmen-novelists, Bulwer and Disraeli, are among the most
+interesting literary characters of the end of this period. The former of
+these, like his French contemporary Victor Hugo, had a remarkable gift for
+expressing each successive phase of popular taste. He resembled Disraeli
+in acquiring a pre-eminent position in letters in early youth, which was
+followed by political success at a later age. Though neither rose to
+cabinet rank before a time of life which must with literary men rank as
+"middle age," Bulwer had, in the midst of an active parliamentary career,
+been an active novelist, in fact the most popular novelist of his day.
+Disraeli, on the other hand, only entered parliament after the close of
+the period dealt with in this volume, and it is to this period, while he
+was still unknown to politics, that the greater part of his literary work
+belongs. One other resemblance between these writers is perhaps not less
+interesting to the historian than to the critic. Both made use of
+literature to establish for themselves a reputation as "men of the world,"
+an ambition which Bulwer's social position might easily justify, and
+without which it would be impossible to understand the career of Disraeli.
+Born in 1803 and 1804 respectively, both made their mark with their first
+novels in 1827, Bulwer with <i>Falkland</i>, Disraeli with a work in which his
+own career has been supposed to be foreshadowed&mdash;<i>Vivian Grey</i>. One other
+great novelist had appeared before the close of the reign of William IV.
+In 1836 Charles Dickens produced <i>Sketches by Boz</i> and began the <i>Pickwick
+Papers</i>, but he belongs properly to the next reign.</p>
+
+<p>Among the historians of this period the first place undoubtedly belongs to
+Henry Hallam. Born in 1788, he produced his <i>View of the State of Europe
+during the Middle Ages</i> in 1818, and his <i>Constitutional History of
+England</i> in 1827, while his <i>Introduction to the Literature of Europe</i>
+began to appear in 1837. Like Macaulay he represents the whig attitude
+towards politics, but does so less consciously and less emphatically than
+his younger contemporary. There is a sense in which no constitutional
+historian has adopted so strictly legal an attitude. It is not merely that
+his interest centres on the legal side of the constitution, but,
+lawyer-like, he judges every con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_427" id="Page_427">[Pg 427]</a></span>stitutional issue of the past in the
+light of the legal system which the law of his own day presupposes for the
+date in question. No one can deny the validity of this principle in a
+court of justice, but no one gifted either with historical imagination or
+with historical sympathy could wish to introduce it into a historical
+work. Yet the very narrowness of his outlook made it easier for him to
+adopt the impartiality of a judge; his criterion of justice is too
+definite to allow him to indulge in special pleading or to twist facts to
+suit his theories; and the student still turns to Hallam with a sense of
+security which he does not feel in reading Macaulay or Carlyle.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>FINE ART.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_332" id="TOPIC_332"></a>The fine arts cannot be said to have flourished in England during the
+period of the great war, and architecture was certainly at a low ebb, but
+several eminent names belong to this period. Sir Thomas Lawrence was by
+far the foremost English portrait painter, and fitly represents the
+elegance of the regency, while Raeburn enjoyed an equal reputation in
+Scotland. Turner, however, was painting in his earlier manner and showing
+originality even in his imitations of old masters. Constable, too, was
+producing some of those quiet English landscapes which, though little
+appreciated at the time, have since made him famous. Two other English
+landscape painters, Callcott and the elder Crome, were also in their
+prime, and Wilkie executed several of his best known masterpieces at this
+time. David Cox and Prout did not earn celebrity till a little later. The
+Water-Colour Society was founded in 1804. Soon afterwards Flaxman was in
+the zenith of his fame, being elected professor of sculpture by the Royal
+Academy in 1810, and Chantrey was beginning to desert portrait painting
+for statuary.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_333" id="TOPIC_333"></a>Science, especially in its practical applications, made greater strides
+than art in the early years of the nineteenth century. It was now that
+Jenner's memorable discovery of vaccination, dating from 1796, was
+generally adopted by the medical profession. In 1802 his claim to priority
+was recognised by a parliamentary committee, with the result that &pound;10,000
+were then voted to him, and a further grant of &pound;20,000 was made in 1807,
+when vaccination was established at the Small-pox Hospital. In 1814,
+George Stephenson, after many preliminary experiments, made a successful
+trial of his first locomotive engine. In 1812, Bell's steamboat, the
+<i>Comet</i> made its first<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_428" id="Page_428">[Pg 428]</a></span> voyage on the Clyde, and the development of steam
+navigation proceeded more rapidly than that of steam locomotion by land.
+Sir Humphry Davy began his researches in 1800, and took part in that year,
+with Count Rumford and Sir Joseph Banks, in founding the Royal
+Institution. His invention of the safety lamp was not matured until 1815.</p>
+
+<p>But if the principal contributions of England to physical science in the
+early years of the century were mainly in the direction of practical
+application, her contributions to pure theory under the regency and in the
+reign of William IV. were no less distinguished. Sir John Herschel,
+following in the footsteps of his father, began in 1824 his observations
+on double stars and his researches upon the parallax of fixed stars, while
+Sir George Airy published in 1826 his mathematical treatises on lunar and
+planetary theory. In Michael Faraday England possessed at once an eminent
+chemist and the greatest electrician of the age. The discovery of benzine
+and the liquefaction of numerous gases were followed by an investigation
+of electric currents, and in 1831 by the crowning discovery of induction.
+Not less valuable perhaps than these discoveries of his own were the
+fertile suggestions which he left to others. William Smith, sometimes
+called the father of modern English geology, vigorously followed up the
+work of James Hutton by publishing in 1815 his great map of English
+<i>strata</i> as identified by fossils. Charles Lyell's <i>Principles of Geology</i>
+marks a great advance in geological science. In this book, which appeared
+in 1833, the author advanced the view, now universally accepted, that the
+great geological changes of the past are not to be explained as
+catastrophes, followed by successive creations, but as the product of the
+continuous play of forces still at work. This theory contained all that
+was vital in the doctrine of evolution; but it was only at a later date,
+when the doctrine had become the property of zoologists as well as
+geologists and had been popularised by Darwin, that it came to exercise an
+influence over non-scientific thought.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>UNIVERSITY REFORM.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_334" id="TOPIC_334"></a>A review of the literary and scientific progress of this period would be
+incomplete without some notice of progress in higher education. The
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge with their numerous colleges had in
+the eighteenth century lapsed into that lethargic condition which seemed
+to be the common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_429" id="Page_429">[Pg 429]</a></span> fate of all corporations. They had to a certain extent
+ceased to be seats of learning. At Oxford the limitations imposed upon
+colleges by statute or custom in elections to fellowships and scholarships
+ensured the mediocrity of the teachers and gave the preference to
+mediocrities among the students. Where emoluments were not so restricted
+they were generally awarded by interest rather than by merit; and it was
+even the case that a scholarship at Winchester, carrying with it the right
+to a fellowship at New College, was often promised to an infant only a few
+days old. The Oxford examination system had not been reformed since the
+time of Laud, and the degree examinations had degenerated into mere
+formalities until the university in 1800 adopted a new examination
+statute, mainly under the influence of Dr. Eveleigh, provost of Oriel. The
+new statute, which came into operation in 1802, granted honours to the
+better students of each year. The number of candidates to whom honours
+were granted, at first very small, rapidly increased till in 1837 about
+130 received honours in a single year. The attention which the examination
+system received from the hebdomadal board, so often accused of
+sluggishness, is proved by the frequent changes in the regulations, which
+among other things differentiated between honours in "Liter&aelig; Humaniores"
+and in mathematics in 1807, and separated the honours and pass
+examinations in 1830. The same desire to encourage meritorious students
+showed itself in the institution of competitive examinations for
+fellowships, in which Oriel led the way. It was followed in 1817 by
+Balliol, which in 1827 threw open its scholarships as well. It was not,
+however, till the reign of Queen Victoria that the college statutes as a
+whole were so modified as to make open competition possible in more than a
+very few instances.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge suffered less than Oxford from restrictions as to the choice of
+fellows. In fact the majority of the fellowships, more especially of those
+which carried with them a vote in the government of the colleges, were, so
+far as the statutes went, open to all comers. Though the course of study
+was still nominally regulated by statutes dating from the Tudor period,
+which it would often have been ludicrous to enforce, an effective stimulus
+was given to mathematical studies by the mathematical tripos, which had
+existed from the middle of the eighteenth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_430" id="Page_430">[Pg 430]</a></span> century, and to which in 1824 a
+classical tripos was added. The ground covered by these honour
+examinations was certainly narrower than that which lay within the scope
+of the corresponding examinations at Oxford, but at both places the
+studies of most undergraduates were still directed more by the judgment of
+their tutors than by the regulations of the university.</p>
+
+<p>These two universities were, however, subject to two limitations, which
+prevented them from providing a higher education for all aspiring
+students. The expense of living at Oxford and Cambridge, and the close
+connexion of both universities with the Church of England, rendered them
+difficult of access to many. These limitations were emphasised by the fact
+that Scotland possessed five universities which were the opposite of the
+English in both respects, and not a few English students could always be
+found at the Scottish seats of learning. The reform ministry made a
+serious effort to remove or alleviate the grievances of dissenters. Among
+other reforms mooted was the abolition of theological tests for
+matriculation and graduation. In 1834 a bill, which proposed to effect
+this change, but which left intact such tests as existed for fellowships
+and professorships, passed its second reading in the commons by a majority
+of 321 against 174, and its third reading by 164 against 75. It was,
+however, thrown out on the second reading in the lords by 187 votes
+against 85. Though in this particular case the demands of the dissenters
+were moderate, they were themselves opposed to other measures introduced
+for their benefit, and the question of tests at Oxford and Cambridge was
+not unnaturally allowed to rest for another twenty years.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_335" id="TOPIC_335"></a>It was only in the reign of George IV. that anything was done to provide a
+university education for those who were unable to proceed to the ancient
+seats of learning. But the movement, once started, progressed rapidly. The
+oldest of the university colleges, as they are now called, is St. David's
+College, Lampeter, which was founded in 1822, mainly through the exertions
+of Dr. Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St. David's, who was supported by many
+others among the Welsh clergy. The college was opened in 1827, but at
+first it had no power of conferring degrees, and contented itself with the
+education of candidates for holy orders. A more important movement was
+initiated in 1825. In a public letter written by the poet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_431" id="Page_431">[Pg 431]</a></span> Campbell to
+Brougham, the project of founding a university of London, which should be
+free from denominational restrictions, was advocated. The scheme was
+warmly embraced by many whose names are found associated with other
+movements of the times. Among them were Hume, Grote, Zachary Macaulay,
+Dudley, and Russell. A large proportion of the promoters of the new
+university had been educated at Scottish universities, and had therefore a
+clear idea of the type of university which they might establish, and the
+movement, although started primarily in the interests of dissenters,
+received the support of many who still valued the connexion of the
+universities with the Church. The "London University," as it was called,
+was opened in 1828, when classes were formed in arts, law, and medicine,
+but not in divinity. It was technically a joint-stock company, and the
+attempt of the shareholders to obtain a charter of incorporation was
+successfully resisted by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile some of the original supporters of the movement, regarding the
+non-religious character of the new university with suspicion, had decided
+to transfer their support to a new college, where the doctrine and worship
+of the Church of England should be recognised. The Duke of Wellington took
+a lively interest in this movement, and King George IV.'s patronage gave
+the new institution the name of "King's College". There seemed every
+reason to expect that the foundation would be on a munificent scale, when
+Wellington's acceptance of catholic emancipation offended many of the
+subscribers so deeply that they immediately withdrew from the undertaking,
+and the college was in consequence left almost entirely without endowment.
+State recognition, however, was given it from the first. It was
+incorporated in 1829, and opened in 1831. In 1835 the demand of "London
+University" for a charter received the support of the house of commons,
+and Lord Melbourne's government decided to propose a compromise, by which
+the so-called "London University" was to be converted into University
+College, and an examining body was to be created under the title of the
+University of London, while the work of teaching was to be performed by
+University College, King's College, and other colleges, which might from
+time to time be named by the crown. These terms were accepted by the
+existing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_432" id="Page_432">[Pg 432]</a></span> "university," and charters were given to the new university and
+to University College, London, in 1836. It was thus left open to students
+or their parents to select either a denominational or an undenominational
+college, according to their preference.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile another university had been founded in the north of England. The
+dean and chapter of Durham had determined to set aside a part of their
+emoluments for the foundation of a university, and the bishop had
+undertaken to assist them by attaching prebendal stalls in the cathedral
+to some of the professorships. An act of parliament was obtained in 1832,
+authorising the establishment of the new university, which was opened in
+October, 1833, and was incorporated by a royal charter on June 1, 1837. As
+an ecclesiastical foundation, the university of Durham was of course in
+the closest connexion with the established Church.</p>
+
+<p>None of these new foundations could compare in respect of endowments with
+the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, yet it was not altogether
+without reason that the founders of University College, London, hoped to
+give as good an education at a greatly reduced cost. It must be remembered
+that only a small fraction of the endowments of the old universities and
+their colleges was at this time applied to strictly educational purposes,
+and, until they should either be reformed or become more sensible of their
+opportunities, there was a fair field for an energetic rival.</p>
+
+<p>The beginning of the nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous expansion
+of manufacturing industry, not so much caused by new discoveries as by the
+energetic application of those made at the end of the last century, by the
+growth of the factory-system, and, above all, by the monopoly of
+English-made goods during the great war. The innovation of
+machine-spinning and weaving by power-looms had an instant effect in
+stimulating and cheapening the production of cottons, but that of
+woollens, cramped by heavy duties on the raw material, languished for some
+time longer under traditional methods of handspinning. When
+stocking-frames and other forms of machinery penetrated at last into its
+strongholds in the West Riding of Yorkshire and in the midland counties,
+the demand for "hands" was inevitably reduced, and "frame-breaking"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_433" id="Page_433">[Pg 433]</a></span> riots
+ensued, which lasted for several years. From this period dates the
+industrial revolution which gradually abolished domestic industries,
+separated mill-owners and mill-hands into almost hostile classes,
+undermined the system of apprenticeship, and brought about a large
+migration of manufactures from centres with abundant water-power to
+centres in close proximity to coal-fields.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_336" id="TOPIC_336"></a>The progress of British agriculture during the period under review was
+almost as marked as that of British manufactures. Under the impulse of war
+prices, and of the improvements adopted at the end of the eighteenth
+century, the home-production of corn almost kept pace with the growing
+consumption, and between 1801 and 1815 little more than 500,000 quarters
+of imported corn were required annually to feed the population. No doubt,
+when the price of bread might rise to famine-point, the consumption of it
+fell to a minimum per head; still, the rural population continued to
+multiply, though not so rapidly as the urban population, and neither could
+have been maintained without a constant increase in the production of the
+soil. This result was due to a progressive extension of enclosure and
+drainage, as well as to wise innovations in the practice of agriculture.
+Not the least important of such innovations was the destruction of useless
+fences and straggling hedge-rows, the multitude and irregular outlines of
+which had long been a picturesque but wasteful feature of old-fashioned
+English farming. This was the age, too, in which many a small farm
+vanished by consolidation, and many an ancient pasture was recklessly
+broken up, some of which, though once more covered with green sward, have
+never recovered their original fertility. Happily, the use of crushed
+bones for manure was introduced in 1800, and the efforts of the national
+board of agriculture, aided by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy,
+brought about a far more general application of chemical science to
+agriculture, partly compensating for the exhaustion of the soil under
+successive wheat crops. Not less remarkable was the effect of mechanical
+science in the development of new agricultural implements, which, however,
+retained a comparatively rude form of construction. The Highland Society
+of Scotland took a leading part in encouraging these gradual experiments
+in tillage, as well as in the breeding of sheep and cattle, with a
+special<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_434" id="Page_434">[Pg 434]</a></span> regard to early maturity. Had the farmers of Great Britain during
+the great war possessed no more skill than their grandfathers, it would
+have been impossible for the soil of this island to have so nearly
+supported its inhabitants before the ports were freely thrown open.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_337" id="TOPIC_337"></a>The great triumphs of engineering in the fifteen years before the battle
+of Waterloo were mainly achieved in facilitating locomotion, and are
+specially associated with the name of Telford. It was he who, following in
+the footsteps of Brindley and Smeaton, constructed the Ellesmere and
+Caledonian Canals; he far eclipsed the fame of General Wade by opening out
+roads and bridges in the highlands, and first adopted sound principles of
+road-making both in England and Wales, afterwards to be applied with
+marvellous success by Macadam. It is some proof of the impulse given to
+land-travelling by such improvements that 1,355 public stage-coaches were
+assessed in 1812, and that a rate of speed little short of ten miles an
+hour was attained by the lighter vehicles. But Telford's labours were not
+confined to roads or bridges; they extended also to harbours and to
+canals, which continued to be the great arteries of heavy traffic until
+the development of railways. The new power destined to supersede both
+coaches and barges was first recognised practically when Bell's little
+steam vessel the <i>Comet</i> was navigated down the Clyde in 1812, to be
+followed not many years later by a steamship capable of crossing the
+Atlantic Ocean. In a few years steam packets were numerous, but it was not
+till well into the reign of Victoria that steam navigation was used in the
+royal navy.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>RAILWAYS.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_338" id="TOPIC_338"></a>The most conspicuous improvement in the social and economic condition of
+the country between 1815 and 1837 is undoubtedly the invention of the
+steam locomotive engine. A few steam locomotives had been invented before
+the former date, but they had met with little success and were as yet more
+costly than horse traction. It was only in or about the year 1815 that
+George Stephenson, enginewright in Killingworth colliery, succeeded in
+inventing a locomotive engine which was cheaper than horse-power. The
+value of railways was by this time better understood. Short railways
+worked by horses were common in the neighbourhood of collieries, and a few
+existed elsewhere. In 1821 Edward Pease obtained parliamentary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_435" id="Page_435">[Pg 435]</a></span> powers to
+construct a railway between Stockton and Darlington. A visit to
+Killingworth persuaded him to make use of steam-power. In 1823 an act
+authorising the use of steam on the proposed railway was carried, and in
+1825 the railway was opened. In 1826 an act was passed for the
+construction of a railway between Liverpool and Manchester. Stephenson was
+employed as engineer to make the line, and his success as a road-making
+engineer proved equal to his brilliance as a mechanical inventor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1829 the line was completed. The directors were at first strongly
+opposed to the use of steam-locomotion, but were induced by Stephenson,
+before finally rejecting the idea, to offer a reward of &pound;500 for the best
+locomotive that could be made. Of four engines which were entered for the
+competition, Stephenson's <i>Rocket</i> was the only one that would move, and
+it proved able to travel at the rate of thirty-five miles an hour. The
+opening of the railway in 1830, and the fatal accident to Mr. Huskisson
+which attended it, have been noticed already. The accident did more to
+attract attention to the power of the locomotive than to discredit it. The
+opposition to railways was not, however, at an end. A proposal for a
+railway between London and Birmingham was carried through parliament, only
+after a struggle of some years' duration, but the construction of the line
+was at length authorised in 1833. The English railway system now developed
+with great rapidity, and by the end of the reign of William IV. lines had
+been authorised which would when complete form a system, joining London
+with Dover, Southampton, and Bristol, and both London and Bristol with
+Birmingham, whence lines were to run to the most important places in
+Yorkshire and Lancashire, and on to Darlington. Numerous small lines
+served other portions of the country, partly in connexion with these, but
+more often independently.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more conspicuous metropolitan improvements of this age may be
+mentioned the introduction of gas and the incipient construction of new
+bridges over the Thames, in which the engineer Rennie took a leading part.
+Before the end of the eighteenth century the workshops of Boulton and Watt
+had been lit by gas, and Soho was illuminated by it to celebrate the peace
+of Amiens. By 1807 it was used in Golden Lane, and by 1809, if not
+earlier, it had reached Pall Mall, but it scarcely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_436" id="Page_436">[Pg 436]</a></span> became general in
+London until somewhat later. At the beginning of the century the
+metropolis possessed but three bridges, old London bridge and the old
+bridges at Blackfriars and Westminster. The first stone of the Strand
+Bridge (afterwards to be called Waterloo Bridge) was laid on October 11,
+1811, and Southwark Bridge was commenced in 1814, but these bridges were
+not completed till 1817 and 1819 respectively. The existing London Bridge,
+designed by Rennie, but built after his death, was completed in 1831. In
+1812, the architect Nash was employed in laying out the Regent's Park, and
+in 1813 an act was passed for the construction of Regent Street, as a
+grand line of communication between it and Carlton House, the residence of
+the regent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_339" id="TOPIC_339"></a>The work of geographical discovery had been well commenced before the end
+of the eighteenth century, and was inevitably checked during the great
+war. The wonderful voyages of Cook had revealed Australia and New Zealand;
+Flinders had carried on the survey of the Australian coast; Vancouver had
+explored the great island which bears his name with the adjacent shores;
+Rennell had produced his great map of India; Bruce had published his
+celebrated travels in Abyssinia; and an association had been formed to
+dispel the darkness that hung over the whole interior of Africa. Among its
+first emissaries was Mungo Park, who afterwards was employed by the
+British government, and died in the course of his second expedition in
+1805-6. The idea of Arctic discovery was revived early in the nineteenth
+century, and was no longer confined to commercial aims, such as the
+opening of a north-east or north-west passage, but was rather directed to
+scientific objects, not without the hope of reaching the North Pole
+itself. Meanwhile, the ordnance survey of Great Britain itself was in full
+progress, and that of British India was commenced in 1802, while the
+hydrographical department of the admiralty, established in 1795, was
+organising the system of marine-surveying which has since yielded such
+valuable fruits.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_340" id="TOPIC_340"></a>The progress of philanthropy, based on religious sentiment was very marked
+during the later years of the war. The institution of Sunday schools
+between 1780 and 1790 had awakened a new sense of duty towards children in
+the community, and the growing use of child-labour, keeping pace with the
+constant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_437" id="Page_437">[Pg 437]</a></span> increase of machinery, forced upon the public the necessity of
+legislative restrictions, which have been noticed in an earlier chapter.
+Banks of savings, the forerunners of savings banks under parliamentary
+regulation, had been suggested by Jeremy Bentham, and one at least was
+instituted in 1802. The idea of penitentiaries, for the reformation as
+well as for the punishment of criminals, had originated with the great
+philanthropist, John Howard. It was adopted and popularised by Jeremy
+Bentham, and might have been further developed but for the introduction of
+transportation, which promised the well-conducted convict the prospect of
+a new life in a new country. Meanwhile, prison reform became a favourite
+study of benevolent theorists in an age when the criminal law was still a
+relic of barbarism, when highway robbery was rife in the neighbourhood of
+London, when sanitation was hardly in its infancy, when pauperism was
+fostered by the poor law, and when the working classes in towns were
+huddled together, without legal check or moral scruple, in undrained
+courts and underground cellars. So capricious and shortsighted is the
+public conscience in its treatment of social evils.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>CANADA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_341" id="TOPIC_341"></a>At the opening of the nineteenth century the colonial empire of Great
+Britain was in a transitional state. The secession of thirteen American
+colonies had not only robbed the mother country of its proudest
+inheritance, but had also shattered the old colonial system of commercial
+monopoly for the supposed benefit of British interests. Its immediate
+effect was to annul the navigation act as affecting American trade, which
+became free to all the world, and by which Great Britain itself profited
+largely. Canada at once gained a new importance, and a new sense of
+nationality, which Pitt recognised by dividing it into two provinces, and
+giving each a considerable measure of independence, both political and
+commercial. It was troubled by the presence of a conquered race of white
+colonists side by side with new colonists of English blood, who were,
+however, united in their resistance to the revolted colonies in the war of
+1812-14. After the war a steady stream of immigration poured into Canada.
+In 1816 the population was estimated at 450,000; between 1819 and 1829
+Canada received 126,000 immigrants from England, and during the next ten
+years 320,000. The result was that the French element ceased to be
+preponderant,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_438" id="Page_438">[Pg 438]</a></span> except in Lower Canada. The French Canadians felt that they
+did not enjoy their share of the confidence of government; the home
+government, ready enough to grant any favour that home opinion would
+permit, was trammelled by a public opinion, which suspected all who were
+of a French origin of a desire to restore the supremacy of the Roman
+Catholic religion and to assert political independence. A vacillating
+policy was the result, which only increased suspicions, and led in the
+first year of the reign of Victoria to a civil war.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mauritius and the West Indies the one event of importance in this
+period is the abolition of slavery. It was found impossible to obtain from
+free negroes as much work as had been obtained from slaves, and their
+place had to be supplied by Indian coolies in the Mauritius, and by
+Chinese in Jamaica. At the same time the West Indies had begun to suffer
+from the competition of the United States.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_342" id="TOPIC_342"></a>The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was still peopled almost entirely by
+blacks or by the descendants of Dutch settlers, known as <i>boers</i>, or
+peasants. Four thousand British colonists went out in 1820 to Algoa Bay,
+but these were a mere handful compared with the Dutch. Unfortunately the
+government adopted a line of policy which produced great irritation in the
+Dutch population. They were granted no self-government, and in 1826
+English judicial forms were introduced, and English was declared the sole
+official language. The reform administration made matters worse by
+defending the blacks against the boers. In 1834 it set free the slaves,
+offering &pound;1,200,000, payable in London, very little of which ever reached
+the boers, as compensation for slaves valued at &pound;3,000,000. A Kaffir war
+in 1834 had led to the conquest of Kaffraria, but in 1835 the home
+government restored the independence of the Kaffirs, and appointed a
+lieutenant-governor to defend their rights. After this the boers
+considered their position intolerable, and in 1835 began their first
+"trek" into the country now known as Natal.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>AUSTRALIA.</i></div>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_343" id="TOPIC_343"></a>Meanwhile, the great discoveries of Captain Cook, and the first settlement
+of New South Wales, brought within view a possible extension of our
+colonial dominion, which might go far to compensate for its losses on the
+North American continent. Governor Phillip had been sent out by Pitt to
+Botany Bay in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_439" id="Page_439">[Pg 439]</a></span> 1787-88, but it was many years before the earliest of
+Australian colonies outgrew the character of a penal refuge for English
+convicts. The first convict establishments were at Sydney and Norfolk
+Island, but another settlement was founded on Van Diemen's Land in 1805,
+and in 1807, after this island had been circumnavigated by Flinders and
+Bass, it became the headquarters of that convict system, whose horrors are
+not yet forgotten. Between 1810 and 1822 the resources of New South Wales
+were vastly developed by the energetic policy of Governor Macquarie. While
+his efforts to utilise convict labour, and to educate convicts into free
+men, may have retarded the influx of genuine colonists, he prepared the
+way for settlement by constructing roads, promoting exploration, and
+raising public buildings, so that when he returned home the population of
+New South Wales had increased fourfold, and its settled territory in a
+much greater proportion. This territory comprised all English settlements
+on the east coast, and included large tracts of what is now known as
+Queensland, which did not become a separate colony until 1859.</p>
+
+<p><a name="TOPIC_344" id="TOPIC_344"></a>The early history of Australia, it has been said, is chiefly a tale of
+convict settlements, bush-ranging, and expeditions of discovery. There is
+much truth in this saying, but the real basis of Australian prosperity was
+the introduction of sheep-farming on a large scale, after the merino-breed
+had been imported and acclimatised by Macarthur at the beginning of the
+century. Long before the region stretching northward from the later Port
+Phillip grew into the colony of Victoria, sheep-owners were spreading over
+the vast pastures of the interior, though many years elapsed before the
+explorer Sturt opened out the great provinces further westward.</p>
+
+<p>The development of Australia made rapid progress during the generation
+following the great war. Though Australia itself and Van Diemen's Land,
+now called Tasmania, were still in the main convict settlements, free
+settlers had been arriving at Sydney for some time, and in 1817 they began
+to arrive in moderate numbers in Van Diemen's Land. In 1825 that island
+had sufficiently progressed to be recognised as a separate colony. The
+attempt to found a colony in western Australia in 1829 was, on the other
+hand, an almost complete failure. But in 1824 a new centre of colonisation
+in New South Wales<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_440" id="Page_440">[Pg 440]</a></span> had been established at Port Phillip. Meanwhile a
+sharp cleavage of parties had arisen. The convicts and poorer colonists
+were opposed to the large sheep-owners, who were endeavouring to form an
+aristocracy. Governor Macquarie favoured the convicts, and Governor
+Darling (1825-31) the sheep-owners. In 1823 a legislative council,
+consisting of seven officials, had been instituted; in 1828 it was
+developed into one of fifteen members, chosen entirely from among the
+wealthiest colonists.</p>
+
+<p>Gibbon Wakefield's <i>Letter from Sydney</i>, published in 1829, marks an epoch
+in the history of Australian colonisation. In this work he proposed that
+the land should be sold in small lots at a fairly high price to settlers,
+and that the proceeds of the sales should be used to pay the passage of
+emigrants going out as labourers. This idea had hardly been published when
+it was adopted by the home government, and five shillings an acre was
+fixed as the minimum price of land. The number of emigrants increased
+rapidly, but the new system threatened ruin to the owners of sheep-runs.
+Unable to pay the stipulated price, they only moved further into the
+interior and occupied fresh land without seeking government permission, an
+unlicensed occupation which has left its mark upon the language in the
+word "squatter". At last in 1837 a compromise was arranged, by which the
+squatters were to pay a small rent for their runs, the crown retaining the
+freehold with the right to sell it to others at some future date. In 1834
+the British government sanctioned the formation of a new colony, that of
+South Australia. It was to be settled from the outset on the Wakefield
+system, and no convicts were ever sent to it. The first lots were sold as
+high as twelve shillings an acre, and in 1836 a company of emigrants went
+out and founded Adelaide.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_441" id="Page_441">[Pg 441]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h2 class="gap4"><a name="APPENDICES" id="APPENDICES"></a>APPENDICES.</h2>
+
+<div style="margin-left:50%;">
+<div style="margin-left:-9em;">
+<ol class="ru gap2">
+<li><a href="#APPENDIX_I">ON AUTHORITIES.</a></li>
+
+<li><a href="#APPENDIX_II">ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_443" id="Page_443">[Pg 443]</a></span></li>
+</ol>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2 class="gap4"><a name="APPENDIX_I" id="APPENDIX_I"></a>APPENDIX I.</h2>
+
+<h3>ON AUTHORITIES.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a></h3>
+
+
+<p>(1) General histories of England for the period 1801-1837: <span class="smcap">Massey</span>,
+<i>History of England during the Reign of George the Third</i> (4 vols., 2nd
+ed., 1865), closes with the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and therefore barely
+touches this period. There is still room for a general history of England
+on an adequate scale between 1802 and 1815. After that date we have
+<span class="smcap">Harriet Martineau</span>, <i>History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace</i>
+(1816-1846, 2 vols., 1849, 1850). This was begun by Charles Knight, the
+publisher, who brought it down to 1819. From 1820 onwards it is Miss
+Martineau's own work. It is too nearly contemporary to depend on any
+authorities except such as were published at the time, and it represents
+in the main the popular view of public events and public men held by
+liberals at the time. Sir <span class="smcap">Spencer Walpole's</span> <i>History of England from the
+Conclusion of the Great War in 1815</i> (6 vols., revised ed., 1890), a work
+of high quality and thoroughly trustworthy, full of references to the best
+published authorities, sympathises with the whigs and more liberal tories.
+Reference is sometimes made in this volume to <span class="smcap">Goldwin Smith</span>, <i>The United
+Kingdom, a Political History</i> (2 vols., 1899), but the work is too slight
+to be regarded as an authority. Sir <span class="smcap">T. E. May's</span> (Lord Farnborough)
+<i>Constitutional History of England from 1760 to 1860</i> (3 vols., 10th ed.,
+1891) is also useful.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The <i>Annual Register</i> is probably the most useful authority for this
+period. In addition to more general information, it contains a very full
+report of the more important parliamentary debates and the text of the
+principal public treaties and of numerous other state papers. The
+narrative is not often coloured by the political partisanship of the
+writer, but allowance must be made for the strong tory bias of the volumes
+dealing with the reign of William IV. The <i>Parliamentary History</i> closes
+in 1803, at which date Cobbett's <i>Parlia<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_444" id="Page_444">[Pg 444]</a></span>mentary Debates</i> had begun to
+appear. After 1812 Cobbett ceased to superintend the work and his name was
+dropped, and in 1813 and afterwards the title-page acknowledged that the
+work was "published under the superintendence of T. C. Hansard," who had
+also been the publisher of Cobbett's series and of the <i>Parliamentary
+History</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE.</i></div>
+
+<p>(3) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence. The following
+have been noticed among the authorities for volume x.: <span class="smcap">Pellew</span>, <i>Life and
+Correspondence of H. Addington, Viscount Sidmouth</i> (3 vols., 1847), very
+full wherever Sidmouth was directly concerned, written with a strong bias
+in favour of the subject of the biography. Lord <span class="smcap">Stanhope</span>, <i>Life of Pitt</i>
+(4 vols., 3rd ed., 1867). The appendix to the last volume contains Pitt's
+correspondence with the king in the years 1804-1806. Lord <span class="smcap">Rosebery</span>, <i>Pitt</i>
+(Twelve English Statesmen Series, 1891), brilliant but not always sound.
+Lord <span class="smcap">John</span> (Earl) <span class="smcap">Russell</span>, <i>Memorials and Correspondence of C. J. Fox</i> (4
+vols., 1853-1854), and <i>Life and Times of C. J. Fox, 1859-1866</i>. <i>Memoirs
+of the Courts and Cabinets of George III.</i> (4 vols., 1853-1855; 1801 falls
+in vol. iii.), continued in <i>Memoirs of the Court of England during the
+Regency</i> (2 vols., 1856), <i>Memoirs of the Court of George IV.</i> (2 vols.,
+1859), and <i>Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and
+Victoria</i> (2 vols., 1861; 1837 is reached in vol. i.); these volumes,
+edited by the Duke of Buckingham, contain the correspondence of the
+Grenville family. The first series alone, which contains many important
+letters of Lord Grenville, is of first-rate importance. The editing is
+often inaccurate. <i>Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of
+Malmesbury</i> (4 vols., 1844), edited by the third earl (vol. iv. extends
+from February, 1801, to July, 1809), authoritative and useful, especially
+for the crisis of 1807. <i>Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis</i> (3 vols.,
+1859), edited by C. Ross, valuable for the negotiations at Amiens and for
+Cornwallis's brief second governor-generalship of India. The notes are
+full of useful biographical material concerning the persons mentioned in
+the correspondence. <i>Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose</i> (2 vols.,
+1860), edited by L. V. Harcourt. <i>The Diary and Correspondence of Charles
+Abbot, Lord Colchester</i>, edited by his son (3 vols., 1861, extending from
+1795 to 1829), with interesting notices of Perceval, and generally useful
+from 1802-1817, when Abbot was Speaker. Lord <span class="smcap">Holland</span>, <i>Memoirs of the Whig
+Party</i> (2 vols., 1852), edited by his son, Lord Holland. These memoirs do
+not extend beyond the year 1807. Volume ii., which covers the period
+during which Holland was a member of the Grenville cabinet, is of special
+importance. His memory is not always accurate, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_445" id="Page_445">[Pg 445]</a></span> he writes with a whig
+bias which makes him a harsh judge of George III. Holland's <i>Further
+Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1807-1821</i>, edited by Lord Stavordale, the
+present Lord Ilchester (1905), interesting, and, like the earlier volumes,
+full of personal detail, but of less value, since Holland was not in
+office again till 1830.</p>
+
+<p>Similar in character to the above, but only of importance after 1801 are
+the following: <i>Life of Perceval</i> (2 vols., 1874), by his grandson, Sir
+Spencer Walpole, written largely from the Perceval papers, especially
+valuable for the ministerial crisis of 1809. The <i>Memoirs and
+Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh</i> (12 vols., 1850-1853), edited by
+his brother the third Marquis of Londonderry, consisting mainly of
+military and diplomatic correspondence. Sir <span class="smcap">Archibald Alison</span>, <i>Lives of
+Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, the Second and Third Marquesses
+of Londonderry</i> (3 vols., 1861), much more political than biographical;
+valuable and appreciative, but not rich in documents. <i>The Dispatches of
+the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in India, Denmark
+[etc.], from 1799 to 1818</i> (12 vols., 1834-1838), compiled by
+Lieut.-Colonel <span class="smcap">Gurwood</span> (really extending to 1815 only); <i>Supplementary
+Despatches and Memoranda of the Duke of Wellington</i> (15 vols., 1858-1872),
+edited by his son, the second Duke of Wellington, extending from 1797 to
+1818; <i>Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda of the Duke of
+Wellington</i> (8 vols., 1867-1880), by the same editor, extending from 1819
+to 1832. The second and third of these series contain not only the duke's
+despatches, but the vast mass of political correspondence which passed
+through his hands. In spite of the great size of the collection, very
+little that can be considered trivial is included. It is our most
+important authority for all foreign relations between 1815 and 1827, and
+between 1828 and 1830. Sir <span class="smcap">Herbert Maxwell</span>, <i>The Life of Wellington</i> (2
+vols., 1899). <span class="smcap">Horace Twiss</span>, <i>Life of Eldon</i> (3 vols., 1844). <span class="smcap">C. Phipps</span>,
+<i>Memoir of R. Plumer Ward</i> (2 vols., 1850), containing important political
+correspondence from 1801 onward, and Ward's diary from 1809 to 1820. Ward
+held numerous minor offices in the government and was on terms of intimacy
+with Perceval and Mulgrave. <span class="smcap">Moore</span>, <i>Life of Sheridan</i> (2 vols., 1826),
+valuable for the crisis of 1811. <i>The Greville Memoirs; a Journal of the
+Reigns of King George IV. and King William IV.</i> (3 vols.), edited by Henry
+Reeve. References are to the first edition, 1874. New edition, also
+including 1837-1860 in 8 vols. (1888). Greville was clerk to the privy
+council from 1821 to 1859, and as such possessed exceptional opportunities
+for making himself acquainted with secret political transactions and with
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_446" id="Page_446">[Pg 446]</a></span> personal qualities of successive statesmen. <i>The Creevey Papers</i> (2
+vols., 1903), edited by Sir Herbert Maxwell, not of first-rate historical
+importance, full of gossip and scandal. Creevey was a whig member of
+parliament, 1802-1818, 1820-1828 and 1831-1832, and treasurer of the
+ordnance, 1830-1834. <span class="smcap">Stapleton</span>, <i>The Political Life of George Canning
+(from September 1822 to August 1827)</i> (3 vols., 1831), very full and
+valuable, especially for foreign relations; strikingly deficient in
+documents and dates. <i>George Canning and His Times</i> (1859), by the same
+author, largely written from memory and therefore untrustworthy. <span class="smcap">Yonge</span>,
+<i>Life and Administration of Lord Liverpool</i> (3 vols., 1868). <i>Memoirs of
+Sir Robert Peel</i> (2 vols., 1856-1857), prepared by Peel himself, and
+dealing with the Roman Catholic question, the administration of 1834-1835,
+and the repeal of the corn laws. The memoirs, which are of the highest
+importance, consist mainly of correspondence and are studiously fair.
+<span class="smcap">Parker</span>, <i>Sir Robert Peel</i> (3 vols., 1891-1899), a large collection of
+Peel's correspondence with a brief connecting narrative by the editor, of
+great value even for the periods covered by the <i>Memoirs</i>. <i>The
+Correspondence of King William IV. and Earl Grey, from November 1830 to
+June 1832</i> (2 vols., 1867), edited by Henry, Earl Grey, valuable for the
+history of the reform. <i>The Melbourne Papers</i> (1889), edited by Sanders,
+throw light on Melbourne's relations with William IV. and with Brougham.
+<span class="smcap">Torrens</span>, <i>Memoirs of Melbourne</i> (2 vols., 1878), polemical, and sadly
+deficient in documents. Lord <span class="smcap">Hatherton</span>, <i>Memoir and Correspondence
+relating to June and July, 1834</i> (published 1872), edited by H. Reeve, on
+events connected with the fall of Grey's ministry. <i>The Croker Papers</i> (3
+vols., 1884), edited by L. J. Jennings. Croker was secretary to the
+admiralty from 1809 to 1830. The papers, which are very full from 1809
+onwards, consist of correspondence and selections from Croker's journals
+and correspondence. <span class="smcap">L. Horner</span>, <i>Memoir of Francis Horner</i> (1843). <span class="smcap">E.
+Herries</span>, <i>Public Life of J. C. Herries</i> (1880), a defence of Herries
+against the sneers of whig writers. Lord <span class="smcap">Dudley</span>, <i>Letters to the Bishop of
+Llandaff</i> (Copleston), (1840), and <i>Letters to Ivy</i> (1905, edited by
+Romilly), interesting and often vivacious, but not of first-rate
+importance. Sir <span class="smcap">Henry Bulwer</span> (Lord Dalling), <i>Life of Palmerston</i> (2
+vols., 1870), extending to 1840. The first chapter of a third volume,
+edited by Evelyn Ashley (1874) makes good a few omissions belonging to
+this period. The work consists mainly of correspondence and extracts from
+Palmerston's journal. <i>Memoirs of Baron Stockmar</i> (2 vols., 1872-1873), by
+his son Baron E. von Stockmar, edited by F. Max M&uuml;ller. Stockmar was a
+confi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_447" id="Page_447">[Pg 447]</a></span>dential agent of Leopold, King of the Belgians. The memoirs contain
+a narrative by William IV. of the political history of his reign to 1835,
+including the circumstances of Melbourne's resignation in 1834. <span class="smcap">Campbell</span>,
+<i>Lives of the Chancellors</i> (8 vols., 1848-1869). The last volume contains
+excellent sketches of Lyndhurst and Brougham, based largely on personal
+knowledge. <i>Correspondence of Princess Lieven and Earl Grey, 1824-1834</i>,
+edited by G. le Strange (1890). <i>Letters of Dorothea, Princess Lieven
+during Her Residence in London, 1812-1834</i>, edited by L. G. Robinson
+(1902). <i>Letters of Harriet, Countess Granville, 1810-1845</i> (2 vols.,
+1894).</p>
+
+<p>(4) Miscellaneous books. Sir <span class="smcap">G. C. Lewis</span>, <i>Administrations of Great
+Britain (1783-1830)</i>, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, has been mentioned
+among the authorities for volume x. It is a valuable history of the inner
+political life of England, but suffers from a strong whig bias. <span class="smcap">Lecky</span>,
+<i>History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i> (5 vols., 1892), though
+nominally closing at the union, throws light on Irish history at the
+beginning of the nineteenth century. <span class="smcap">A. V. Dicey</span>, <i>Lectures on the
+Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth
+Century</i> (1905), is very suggestive. <span class="smcap">Hal&eacute;vy</span>, <i>La formation du radicalisme
+philosophique</i> (3 vols., 1901-1904), and Sir <span class="smcap">L. Stephen</span>, <i>The English
+Utilitarians</i>, vols. i., ii. (1900), are valuable for the history of the
+radical party. <span class="smcap">C. Creighton</span>, <i>History of Epidemics in Britain</i> (2 vols.,
+1894), contains an excellent account of the cholera epidemic.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ON THE GREAT WAR.</i></div>
+
+<p>(5) Books dealing with the great war are numerous. The following have been
+already noticed among the authorities for volume x.: Dr. <span class="smcap">Holland Rose</span>,
+<i>Life of Napoleon I.</i> (2 vols., 1904), our most trustworthy guide for the
+career of the French emperor. The book has gained not a little from its
+author's independent researches at the British Foreign Office. Captain
+<span class="smcap">Mahan</span>, <i>Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire</i> (2
+vols., 1893), and <i>Life of Nelson</i> (2 vols., 1897), valuable for their
+general view of the naval warfare and commercial policy of the period.
+<span class="smcap">James</span>, <i>Naval History of Great Britain, 1793-1820</i> (6 vols., ed. 1826;
+vols. iii.-vi. extend from 1801-1820), very full and accurate, largely
+used in this volume for the American war. Sir <span class="smcap">John Laughton</span>, <i>Nelson</i>
+(English Men of Action Series, 1895), and articles in the <i>Dictionary of
+National Biography</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To these must be added <span class="smcap">Alison's</span> <i>History of Europe from the Commencement
+of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in
+1815</i> (20 vols., 1847, 1848), an uncritical but still a standard work. The
+reaction against Alison is probably due in large measure to political
+causes. In addition to the European history which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_448" id="Page_448">[Pg 448]</a></span> gives its title to the
+book, it contains a narrative of the American war of 1812-1814. The
+classical though far from trustworthy narrative on the French side is
+<span class="smcap">Thiers</span>, <i>Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire</i> (21 vols., 1845-1869),
+translated into English by Campbell and Stebbing (12 vols., 1893-1894).
+See also <span class="smcap">Lanfrey's</span> incomplete <i>History of Napoleon I.</i>, English
+translation (4 vols., 1871-1879), bitterly anti-Napoleonic. The
+negotiations precedent to the outbreak of war in 1803 are to be found in
+Mr. <span class="smcap">O. Browning's</span> <i>England and Napoleon in 1803</i>, containing despatches of
+Whitworth and others, published in 1887, and in <span class="smcap">P. Coquelle</span>, <i>Napoleon and
+England, 1803-1813</i>, translated by <span class="smcap">G. D. Knox</span> (1904), based on the reports
+of Andr&eacute;ossy, the French ambassador at London. Sir <span class="smcap">H. Bunbury's</span> <i>Narrative
+of Certain Passages, etc.</i> (1853) is of the highest value for the war in
+the Mediterranean. The <i>Times</i> of September 16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, and
+October 19, 1905, contains an excellent series of articles on Nelson's
+tactics at Trafalgar. For the Moscow campaign, the Marquis <span class="smcap">de Chambray's</span>
+<i>Histoire de l'Exp&eacute;dition de Russie</i> (3 vols., 1839) is perhaps the most
+reliable of contemporary narratives. There is a good account of the
+campaign in the Rev. <span class="smcap">H. B. George's</span> <i>Napoleon's Invasion of Russia</i>
+(1899). For the Peninsular war, <span class="smcap">W. Napier's</span> <i>History of the War in the
+Peninsula and in the South of France</i> (6 vols.; vols. i.-iii., ed.
+1835-1840; iv.-vi., 1834-1840) is of the highest literary as well as
+historical value. <span class="smcap">C. Oman's</span> <i>History of the Peninsular War</i> (in progress,
+vols. i., ii., 1902-1903, extending at present to September, 1809) makes
+good use of Spanish sources of information. The <i>Wellington Dispatches</i>
+have been noticed already in section 3. The <i>Diary of Sir John Moore</i>,
+edited by Sir J. F. Maurice (2 vols., 1904), is of value for the campaign
+of 1808-1809. For Waterloo, in addition to Maxwell's <i>Life of Wellington</i>,
+and Rose's <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>, Chesney's <i>Waterloo Lectures</i>, 1868; <span class="smcap">W.
+O'Connor Morris</span>, <i>The Campaign of 1815</i> (1900), and <span class="smcap">J. C. Ropes</span>, <i>The
+Campaign of Waterloo</i>, may be studied with profit. Morris's work must,
+however, be discounted for his extravagant admiration of Napoleon's genius
+and his faith in the Grouchy legend. For the disputes with the United
+States and war of 1812-1814, see chapters in the <i>Cambridge Modern
+History</i> (vol. vii., 1903); <span class="smcap">Bourinot</span>, <i>Canada</i> (Story of the Nations),
+(1897); <span class="smcap">J. Schouler</span>, <i>History of the United States of America under the
+Constitution</i> (6 vols., 1880-1889); and <span class="smcap">Mahan</span>, <i>Sea Power in Its Relations
+to the War of 1812</i> (2 vols., 1905).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote"><i>ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS.</i></div>
+
+<p>(6) For European politics and foreign relations generally, in addition to
+some of the books mentioned in the last section, we have <span class="smcap">C.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_449" id="Page_449">[Pg 449]</a></span> A. Fyffe's</span>
+<i>History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878</i> (ed. 1895), a very readable book,
+which includes the results of some original study, and <span class="smcap">Seignobos</span>,
+<i>Political History of Contemporary Europe</i>, English translation (2 vols.,
+1901), an useful but not always accurate book. The great French work,
+<i>Histoire g&eacute;n&eacute;rale du IV<span style="vertical-align:super">e</span> Si&egrave;cle &agrave; nos jours</i> (vols. ix., x., 1897-1898),
+by numerous authors, edited by MM. Lavisse and Rambaud, is naturally of
+varying merit; the chapters on France and Russia are the best, and there
+is a very full bibliography at the close of each chapter. The <i>Cambridge
+Modern History</i>, vol. ix., <i>Napoleon</i> (1906), is a similar compilation by
+English writers. <span class="smcap">Alfred Stern's</span> <i>Geschichte Europas seit den Vertr&auml;gen von
+1815</i> (3 vols., 1894-1901, to be continued to 1871) is perhaps the best
+general history of the period following the great war. <i>The Memoirs of
+Prince Metternich</i> (5 vols., English translation, 1881-1882, edited by
+Prince Richard Metternich, extending to 1835) contain much that is
+valuable for diplomatic history. For French history see <span class="smcap">Duvergier de
+Hauranne</span>, <i>Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en France</i> (1814-1848,
+10 vols., 1857-1872), which, in spite of the title, does not extend beyond
+1830. For the Greek revolt, vols. vi. and vii. of <span class="smcap">G. Finlay's</span> <i>History of
+Greece</i> (7 vols., ed. 1877) are important. American policy is treated by
+<span class="smcap">J. W. Foster</span>, <i>A Century of American Diplomacy</i> (1901). Sir <span class="smcap">Edward
+Hertslet's</span> <i>Map of Europe by Treaty</i> (4 vols., 1875-1891), while
+professedly confined to the treaties dealing with boundaries, contains the
+majority of those of general historical interest. It covers the period
+1815-1891. <span class="smcap">Le Comte de Garden</span>, <i>Histoire g&eacute;n&eacute;rale des trait&eacute;s de paix</i> (14
+vols., 1848-1888, vols. vi.-xv., extending to 1814), and <span class="smcap">F. de Martens</span>,
+<i>Recueil des trait&eacute;s et conventions, conclus par la Russie</i> (tomes xi.,
+xii. (Angleterre), 1895-1898), contain the principal treaties belonging to
+the period. The <i>Castlereagh</i> and <i>Wellington</i> <i>Despatches</i> have been
+noticed under section 3.</p>
+
+<p>(7) For Indian history: <span class="smcap">James Mill</span> and <span class="smcap">Wilson</span>, <i>History of British India</i>
+(10 vols., 1858), vols. vi.-ix., noticed as an authority for volume x.,
+ends in 1835; Sir <span class="smcap">Alfred C. Lyall's</span> <i>Rise and Expansion of the British
+Dominion in India</i> (1894) contains a brief and masterly sketch of the
+subject. See also <i>A Selection from the Despatches, Treaties and Other
+Papers of the Marquess Wellesley</i> (1877), well edited by S. J. Owen; the
+first two series of the <i>Wellington Dispatches</i>, noticed under section 3;
+and the vast mass of information collected in Sir <span class="smcap">W. W. Hunter's</span> <i>Imperial
+Gazetteer of India</i> (14 vols., 1885-1887).</p>
+
+<p>(8) For social and economic history: Dr. <span class="smcap">W. Cunningham's</span> <i>The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_450" id="Page_450">[Pg 450]</a></span> Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times</i>, vol. iii., <i>Laissez Faire</i>
+(1903), extending from 1776 to 1850, is now the standard work. Reference
+has also been made to <span class="smcap">G. R. Porter</span>, <i>Progress of the Nation</i> (1847), a
+work abounding more in statistics than in narrative, and to Sir <span class="smcap">George
+Nicholls</span>, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i> (2 vols., 1854). Nicholls took
+an active interest in social and economic questions from 1816 till his
+death in 1857. He probably understood the working of the poor-law better
+than any other man of that date, and the poor-law legislation of 1834 and
+1838 was largely founded on his suggestions. He was one of the poor-law
+commissioners of 1834, and was permanent secretary to the poor-law board
+from 1847 to 1851. Sir <span class="smcap">G. C. Lewis</span>, <i>The Government of Dependencies</i>
+(1891), edited by C. P. Lucas, and <span class="smcap">Lucas</span>, <i>Historical Geography of the
+British Colonies</i>, vols. i.-v. (1888-1901), are of value. For literary
+history, <span class="smcap">Saintsbury's</span> <i>History of Nineteenth Century Literature,
+1780-1895</i>, (1896), is an excellent guide. For educational progress at
+Oxford University reference may be made to the <i>Report of H.M.'s
+Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State, etc., of the University
+and Colleges of Oxford</i> (1852), which contains a good historical summary.
+The report of the similar commission appointed for Cambridge hardly
+touches the progress of studies, and is therefore of less value to the
+historical student.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a> The dates given are, as far as possible, those of the
+editions used by the authors of this volume.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_451" id="Page_451">[Pg 451]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX_II" id="APPENDIX_II"></a>APPENDIX II.</h2>
+
+<h3>ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.</h3>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">1. ADDINGTON, <span class="smcap">March</span>, 1801.</p>
+
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Addington Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury and chanc. exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">H. Addington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="hangindent right" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Duke of Portland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Pelham, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1801.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Yorke, <i>succeeded</i> Aug., 1803.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Hawkesbury.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Hobart.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Chatham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Portland, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1801.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Eldon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Westmorland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl St. Vincent.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Chatham, <i>appointed</i> June, 1801.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Lewisham (July, 1801, Earl of Dartmouth), <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1802 <i>admitted to cabinet</i> Oct., 1802.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Hardwicke, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Yorke, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Bragge, <i>succeeded</i> Aug., 1803, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">2. PITT, <span class="smcap">May</span>, 1804.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Pitt Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury and chanc. exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Pitt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_452" id="Page_452">[Pg 452]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Lord Hawkesbury.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Harrowby.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave, <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1805.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Camden.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1805.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Portland (after Jan., 1805, <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Sidmouth (<i>before</i> H. Addington), <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1805.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Camden, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1805.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Eldon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Westmorland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melville (<i>before</i> H. Dundas).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Barham, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1805.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Chatham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Montrose.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Buckinghamshire (<i>before</i> Lord Hobart), <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1805, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Harrowby, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1805, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Hardwicke, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Powis, <i>succeeded</i> Nov., 1805, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Dundas, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">3. GRENVILLE, <span class="smcap">February</span>, 1806.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Grenville Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Grenville.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="4" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="4" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Earl Spencer.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. J. Fox.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Howick, <i>succeeded</i> Sept.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Windham</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Fitzwilliam (after Oct., <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Sidmouth, <i>succeeded</i> Oct.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Erskine.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Sidmouth.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Holland, <i>succeeded</i> Oct.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_453" id="Page_453">[Pg 453]</a></span><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord H. Petty.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grey (April, Viscount Howick).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. Grenville, <i>succeeded</i> Sept.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Moira.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Chief justice, King's bench</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Ellenborough, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Bedford, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">R. Fitzpatrick, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center gap2">4. PORTLAND, <span class="smcap">March</span>, 1807.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Portland Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Portland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Lord Hawkesbury (1808 Earl of Liverpool).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Canning.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Camden.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Eldon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Westmorland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chanc. exchequer and duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">S. Perceval.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Chatham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Bathurst, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">R. S. Dundas, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of (<i>before</i> Lord) Harrowby, <i>succeeded</i> July, 1809, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Richmond, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. Pulteney, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord G. Leveson Gower, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1809, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">5. PERCEVAL, <span class="smcap">October</span>, 1809.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Perceval Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury, chanc. exchequer and duchy of Lancaster</i><a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">S. Perceval.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">R. Ryder.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td  rowspan="3" valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Bathurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>succeeded</i> Dec., 1809.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh, <i>succeeded</i> March, 1812.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Liverpool.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_454" id="Page_454">[Pg 454]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Camden (after April, 1812, <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Sidmouth, <i>succeeded</i> April, 1812.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Eldon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Westmorland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Yorke, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1810.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Chatham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1810.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Bathurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Richmond, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">6. LIVERPOOL, <span class="smcap">June</span>, 1812</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Liverpool Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Liverpool.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Viscount Sidmouth (after Jan., 1822, <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">R. Peel, <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1822.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td  rowspan="2" valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Castlereagh (1821 Marquis of Londonderry).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Canning, <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1822.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Bathurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Harrowby.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Eldon (1821 Earl of Eldon).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Westmorland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">N. Vansittart.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">F. J. Robinson, <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1823.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melville (<i>before</i> R. S. Dundas).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Mulgrave (Sept., 1812, Earl of Mulgrave), (from 1818-May, 1820, <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington, <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1819.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Clancarty, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">F. J. Robinson,<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1818, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Huskisson,<a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a> <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1823, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Buckinghamshire, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Canning, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1816, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. B. Bathurst, <i>succeeded</i> Jan., 1821, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_455" id="Page_455">[Pg 455]</a></span>C. W. Wynn, <i>succeeded</i> Feb., 1822, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Master of the mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Clancarty, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. W. Pole (1821 Lord Maryborough), <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1814, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. Wallace, <i>succeeded</i> Oct., 1823, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. B. Bathurst (<i>before</i> C. Bragge).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">N. Vansittart (March, 1823, Lord Bexley), <i>succeeded</i> Feb., 1823.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Without office</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Camden (Sept., 1812, Marquis Camden), <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Richmond, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Whitworth (1815 Earl Whitworth), <i>succeeded</i> Aug., 1813, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Talbot, <i>succeeded</i> Oct., 1817, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>succeeded</i> Dec., 1821, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">7. CANNING, <span class="smcap">April</span>, 1827.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Canning Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury and chanc. exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Canning.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="4" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="4" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">W. S. Bourne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne (<i>before</i> Lord H. Petty), <i>succeeded</i> July.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Dudley.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Goderich (<i>before</i> F. J. Robinson).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Harrowby.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Lyndhurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Portland (<i>after</i> July, <i>without office in cabinet</i>).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Carlisle, <i>succeeded</i> July.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord high admiral</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Clarence, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade and treasurer of navy</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Huskisson.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. W. Wynn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Master of the mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. Wallace, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Tierney, <i>succeeded</i> May, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>First commissioner of woods and forests</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_456" id="Page_456">[Pg 456]</a></span></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Arbuthnot, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Carlisle <i>succeeded</i> May, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. S. Bourne, <i>succeeded</i> July, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Bexley.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Without office</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne, May-July, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">8. GODERICH, <span class="smcap">September</span>, 1827.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Goderich Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Goderich.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl (<i>before</i> Viscount) Dudley.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Huskisson.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Portland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Lyndhurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Carlisle.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">J. C. Herries.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord high admiral</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Clarence, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Anglesey, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade and treasurer of navy</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. W. Wynn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Master of the mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">G. Tierney.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First commissioner of woods and forests</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. S. Bourne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Bexley.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">9. WELLINGTON, <span class="smcap">January</span>, 1828.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Wellington Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">R. (May, 1830, Sir R.) Peel.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Dudley.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Aberdeen, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1828.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. Huskisson.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir G. Murray, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1828.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Bathurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Lyndhurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Ellenborough.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Rosslyn, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1829.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">H. Goulburn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Clarence (<i>lord high admiral</i>), <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melville, <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1828, <i>in cabinet</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_457" id="Page_457">[Pg 457]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade and treasurer of navy</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">W. V. Fitzgerald, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1828.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melville.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Ellenborough, <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1828.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Master of the mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">J. C. Herries.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Aberdeen, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Arbuthnot, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1828, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Anglesey, Feb., 1828, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Northumberland, <i>succeeded</i> Feb., 1829, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir H. Hardinge, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1828, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">10. GREY, <span class="smcap">November</span>, 1830.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Grey Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl Grey (<i>before</i> Viscount Howick).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="5" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Viscount Melbourne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Goderich.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">E. G. Stanley, <i>succeeded</i> March, 1833.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. S. Rice, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Brougham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Durham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Ripon (<i>before</i> Viscount Goderich) <i>succeeded</i> April, 1833.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Carlisle, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Althorp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. R. Graham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Thomson, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Master of mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">J. Abercromby, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Holland, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Postmaster-general</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Richmond, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Conyngham, <i>succeeded</i> June, 1834, <i>not in cabinet</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_458" id="Page_458">[Pg 458]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Holland, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Paymaster of forces</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord J. Russell, <i>admitted to cabinet</i> June, 1831.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Without office</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Carlisle (to June, 1834).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Anglesey, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1833, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Chief secretary for Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">E. G. Stanley, <i>admitted to cabinet</i> June, 1831.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. C. Hobhouse, <i>succeeded</i> March, 1833, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">E. J. Littleton, <i>succeeded</i> May, 1833, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. W. Wynn, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir H. Parnell, <i>succeeded</i> April, 1831, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. Hobhouse, <i>succeeded</i> Feb., 1832, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">E. Ellice, <i>succeeded</i> April, 1833, <i>admitted to cabinet</i> June, 1834.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">11. MELBOURNE, <span class="smcap">July</span>, 1834.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of first Melbourne Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melbourne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Viscount Duncannon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. S. Rice.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Brougham.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Mulgrave.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Althorp.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade and treasurer of navy</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Thompson.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grant.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Master of mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">J. Abercromby.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First commissioner of woods and forests</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. C. Hobhouse, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Holland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Paymaster of forces</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord J. Russell.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis Wellesley, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">E. Ellice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_459" id="Page_459">[Pg 459]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATION, <span class="smcap">November</span>, 1834.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Provisional Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Lyndhurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Denman.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">12. PEEL, <span class="smcap">December</span>, 1834.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of Peel Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury and chanc. exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir R. Peel.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">H. Goulburn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Duke of Wellington.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Aberdeen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Rosslyn.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Lyndhurst.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Wharncliffe.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl de Grey.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Ordnance</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir G. Murray, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade and master of the mint</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">A. Baring.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Ellenborough.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Paymaster of forces</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir E. Knatchbull.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Haddington, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">J. C. Herries.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="center gap2">13. MELBOURNE, <span class="smcap">April</span>, 1835.</p>
+<table style="width:100%" summary="Members of second Melbourne Administration.">
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>First lord of treasury</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Melbourne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="right hangindent" style="width:25%"><i>Secretaries of state</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" class="bottom top hangindent" style="width:3%">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top" style="width:17%"><i>home</i></td>
+    <td style="width:55%" class="hangindent">Lord J. Russell.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top"><i>foreign</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Palmerston.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top" class="xbottom hangindent"><i>war and colonies</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. Grant (May, 1835, Lord Glenelg).</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord president</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Marquis of Lansdowne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Lord chancellor</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Great seal in commission.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Cottenham, <i>appointed</i> Jan., 1836.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord privy seal</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Duncannon.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Chancellor of exchequer</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">T. S. Rice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_460" id="Page_460">[Pg 460]</a></span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" valign="top" class="hangindent"><i>Admiralty</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Auckland.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Minto, <i>succeeded</i> Sept., 1835.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of trade</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">C. P. Thompson.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Board of control</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Sir J. C. Hobhouse.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Duchy of Lancaster</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Lord Holland, <i>in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Lord-lieutenant Ireland</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Earl of Mulgrave, <i>not in cabinet</i>.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td colspan="3" class="hangindent"><i>Secretary at war</i></td>
+    <td class="hangindent">Viscount Howick.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes gap2"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a> On May 23, 1812, after Perceval's death, the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a> Also treasurer of the navy.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_461" id="Page_461">[Pg 461]</a></span></p></div>
+</div>
+
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="indnewlet"><a name="Ind_Abbot_Charles" id="Ind_Abbot_Charles"></a>Abbot, Charles (afterwards Lord Colchester), speaker, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abercromby, James (afterwards Lord Dunfermline), master of the mint, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">speaker, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abercromby, Sir Ralph, general, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aberdeen, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aberdeen, Earl of (Gordon), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">&Aring;bo, treaty of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abolition of slavery, acts for the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abolition of slave trade, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abrantes, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Abyssinia, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Academy, Royal. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Acarnania, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Acre, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Acte Additionnel</i>, the, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adams, John Quincy, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Addington_Henry" id="Ind_Addington_Henry"></a>Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">relations with Pitt, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacked by Pitt, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">his adherents, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">becomes Viscount Sidmouth and lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Addington, John Hiley, M.P., <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adelaide, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen (afterwards queen of William IV.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adige, river, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adour, river, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Adrianople, peace of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">&AElig;gean islands, the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">sea, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">&AElig;tolia, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_414">414</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with East India Company, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first Afgh&aacute;n war, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Africa, interior of, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Agra, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Agriculture, condition of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ahmadnagar, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Airy, Sir George, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aix, island, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Akkerman, treaty of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alava, Spanish admiral, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Albuera, battle, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Albuquerque, Duke of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alcantara, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alemtejo, province, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alessandria, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alexandria, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle and capitulation of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retention by England, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">expeditions to, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Algarve, province, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Algeciras, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Algiers, Dey of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bombardment of, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conquest of, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Algoa bay, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alliance, La Belle, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"All the Talents" ministry. See <a href="#Ind_Ministries">ministries, Grenville's</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Almaraz, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Almeida, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Almora, treaty of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alps, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alsace, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Alten, Count, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Althorp, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Spencer), <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>-<a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_462" id="Page_462">[Pg 462]</a></span>Amager, island, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Amascoas, battle, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Ambigu, L'</i>, newspaper, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Amelia, Princess (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">America, British North, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See also <a href="#Ind_Canada">Canada</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">America, South, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See also <a href="#Ind_Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="#Ind_Portugal">Portugal</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Amherst, Earl, governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Amherstburg, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Amiens, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiations, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">preliminary treaty, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">definitive treaty, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Am&iacute;r Kh&aacute;n, Pind&aacute;r&iacute; leader, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Andalusia, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Anglesey, Marquis of. See <a href="#Ind_Paget_Lord">Paget, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Angoul&ecirc;me, Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_Louis_Antoine">Louis Antoine, dauphin</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ansbach, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Anti-Duelling Association, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Antioch, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Antwerp, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Apsley House. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aragon, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arakan, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aranjuez, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arapiles hills, the, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Archangel, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Archipelago, the, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arcis-sur-Aube, battle, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arcot, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arden, Lord (Perceval), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arg&aacute;um, battle, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Argentine" id="Ind_Argentine"></a>Argentine, the (La Plata), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Argus</i>, the, American ship, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arkwright, Sir Richard, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Arta, gulf of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Artois, Count of. See <a href="#Ind_Charles_X">Charles X. of France</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ascot races, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Ashley_Lord" id="Ind_Ashley_Lord"></a>Ashley, Lord (Ashley-Cooper), afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Asia Minor, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aspern, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Aspropotamo, river, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Assam, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Assaye, battle, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Astorga, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Attwood, Thomas, M.P., <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Auckland, first Lord (Eden), president of the board of trade, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Auckland, second Lord (Eden), afterwards Earl of, first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor-general of India, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Auerst&auml;dt, battle, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Augusta, Princess of Hesse, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Augusta, Princess (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Austen, Jane, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Austerlitz, battle, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Australia" id="Ind_Australia"></a>Australia, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>-<a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">New South Wales, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Queensland, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">South Australia, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Victoria, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">West Australia, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Austria" id="Ind_Austria"></a>Austria, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">guarantees independence of Malta, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with France, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">third coalition, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Ulm and peace of Pressburg, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">struggle with France, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with England, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Bavaria, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">piece of Vienna, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">national bankruptcy, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with France, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacks North Italy, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">diplomacy, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>-<a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">truce with Russia, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ried, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Teplitz, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with France, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">alliance with Murat, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1814, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret treaty of Vienna, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">acquires Venetia and Lombardy, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">holy alliance, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Modena and Parma, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Troppau, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Laibach, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">army in Italy, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Verona, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at London, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">joins conference of London, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret convention at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at Berlin, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ava. See <a href="#Ind_Burma">Burma</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Azores, islands, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Azzara, Chevalier, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Bacon, Lord, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Badajoz, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baden, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baghdad, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bailey, Old. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baird, David (afterwards Sir David), general, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Balkans, the, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baltic, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Baltic_Battle" id="Ind_Baltic_Battle"></a>Baltic, battle of the, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baltimore, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_463" id="Page_463">[Pg 463]</a></span>Banda Oriental. See <a href="#Ind_Uruguay">Uruguay</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bank charter acts, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bank of England, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">notes made legal tender, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bank restriction act, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bankes, Henry, M.P., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Banks, Sir Joseph, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Barcelona, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Barclay, Commander, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Barham_Lord" id="Ind_Barham_Lord"></a>Barham, Lord (Sir Charles Middleton), first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baring, Alexander (afterwards Lord Ashburton), <a href="#Page_304">304</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of board of trade and master of the mint, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baring, Francis (afterwards Lord Northbrook), <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Barlow, Sir George, governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Barnstaple, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Baroda" id="Ind_Baroda"></a>Baroda, G&aacute;ekw&aacute;r of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Barrosa, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Basque provinces, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Basque roads, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bass, George, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bassein, treaty of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Batavian republic. See <a href="#Ind_Holland">Holland</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bath, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bath (Holland), <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bathurst, Charles Bragge-. See <a href="#Ind_Bragge_Charles">Bragge, Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bathurst, Earl, president of the board of trade, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Battersea Fields. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bautzen, battle, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Bavaria" id="Ind_Bavaria"></a>Bavaria, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Austria, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ried, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Baylen, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bayonne, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">road to, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beachy Head, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beauharnais, Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beauharnais, Eug&egrave;ne, viceroy of Italy, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bedford, Duke of (Russell), lord lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beilan, pass, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beira, province, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Belgium" id="Ind_Belgium"></a>Belgium, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Prince of Orange proclaimed, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">troops, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo campaign, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>-<a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">united to Holland, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolution, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">elects Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Holland, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with Holland, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Belgrade, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bell, Henry, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Belleisle, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Bellerophon</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Belliard, French general, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bellingham, John, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Benevente, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bengal, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bentham, Jeremy, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bentinck, Lord William, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor-general of India, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>-<a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ber&aacute;r, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Nagpur">N&aacute;gpur</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berbice, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beresford, Lord George, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Beresford, William (afterwards Lord and later Viscount), <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berezina, river, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berkeley, Vice-admiral, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berkshire, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berlin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berlin decree, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bernadotte, Marshal (afterwards Charles XIV. of Sweden), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Berry, Duke of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bessarabia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bessborough, Earl of (Ponsonby), <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bessi&egrave;res, Marshal, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Betanzos, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bexley, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Vansittart">Vansittart, Nicholas</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bhartpur, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Bickersteth_Henry" id="Ind_Bickersteth_Henry"></a>Bickersteth, Henry (afterwards Lord Langdale), <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bidassoa, river, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bilbao, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Birmingham, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Biscay, province, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bishopp, British officer, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blackburn, Francis, attorney-general for Ireland, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blackfriars. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blackheath. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Blackwood's Magazine</i>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bladensburg, battle, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blake, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blandford, Marquis of (Churchill), afterwards Duke of Marlborough, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blanketeers, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Blomfield, bishop of London, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bl&uuml;cher, Marshal, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo campaign, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>-<a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bohemia, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bombay, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_464" id="Page_464">[Pg 464]</a></span>Bona, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bonaparte, Joseph, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">King of Naples, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">King of Spain, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon), <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Bonaparte" id="Ind_Bonaparte"></a>Bonaparte, Napoleon, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>-<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">concordat with the pope, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">refuses overtures of peace, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">meets Cornwallis, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">elected president of the Italian republic, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">plans for the invasion of England, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacked by French exiles in London, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">consul for life, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Fox presented to him, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">annexes Piedmont, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">mediates in Switzerland and Germany, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">schemes of colonial expansion, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Whitworth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">declared emperor, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">plots against his life, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coronations, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Ulm and Austerlitz, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Jena and Auerst&auml;dt, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Eylau, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Friedland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">meets Alexander, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"continental system," <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">manifesto, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">at Erfurt, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Eckm&uuml;hl and Wagram, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Borodino, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Leipzig, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">marriage with Maria Louisa, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">fiscal policy, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first abdication, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in Spain, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Russia, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1813, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">L&uuml;tzen and Bautzen, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Dresden, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1814, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">La Rothi&egrave;re, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Arcis-sur-Aube, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Elba, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"The Hundred Days," <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Ligny, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Quatre Bras, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second abdication, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">St. Helena, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">designs on India, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>-<a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bond, Nathaniel, M.P., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bonnymuir, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bordeaux, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">road to, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bordeaux, Henry, Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_Chambord_Count">Chambord, Count of</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Borisov, battle, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Borodino, battle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bosphorus, the, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Boston (United States), <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Botany Bay, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Boulogne, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Boulton, Matthew, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bourbon, island, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bourbon, Duke of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bourne, W. Sturges, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first commissioner of woods and forests, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Braga, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Bragge_Charles" id="Ind_Bragge_Charles"></a>Bragge, Charles (afterwards Bragge-Bathurst), <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brahmaputra, the, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Braine l'Alleud, Belgian village, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brand, M.P., <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brazil, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">commercial treaty with England, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brereton, Colonel, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Breslau, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brest, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brewster's <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia</i>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Bridgwater Treatises</i>, the, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brienne, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brighton, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brindley, James, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bristol, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">British Association, the, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brittany, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brock, Major-general, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Broke, Captain, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brooks's club. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brougham, Henry (afterwards Lord Brougham and Vaux), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>-<a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord chancellor, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">legal reforms, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Broussa, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brown, American commander, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bruce, Michael, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Br&uuml;nn, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brunswick, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brunswick (Charles), Duke of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brunswick (Frederick William), Duke of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brunswick, troops, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brunswick clubs, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Brussels, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Bucentaure</i>, the, French ship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bucharest, treaty of, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buckingham, Marquis of (Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville), afterwards Duke of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buckingham palace. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buckinghamshire, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buckinghamshire, third Earl of (Hobart), <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_465" id="Page_465">[Pg 465]</a></span>Buckinghamshire, fourth Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Hobart_Lord">Hobart, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buckland, William, Dean of Westminster, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bukowina, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bulgaria, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bull-baiting, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Bullion committee," the, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">B&uuml;low, Frederick William von, General, afterwards Count, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bulwer, Edward Lytton (afterwards Lord Lytton), <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burdett, Sir Francis, M.P., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>-<a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burgess, Thomas, bishop of St. Davids, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burgos, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burgundy, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burke, Edmund, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burlington Heights, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Burma" id="Ind_Burma"></a>Burma, first Burmese war, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with East India Company, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burnes, Sir Alexander, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burns, Robert, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Burrard, Sir Harry, general, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bussaco, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Butrinto, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Buxton, Thomas Fowell, M.P., <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Bylandt, Dutch general, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Byron, Lord, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>-<a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Cachar, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cadiz, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cadoudal, Georges, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cairo, capture of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Calabria, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Calcott, Sir Augustus, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Calcutta, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Calder, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Caledonian canal, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cambridge. See <a href="#Ind_Universities">Universities</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cambridge (Adolphus), Duke of (son of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cambridgeshire, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Camden, Earl (Pratt), afterwards Marquis Camden, secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Camelford, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Campbell, Lord, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Campbell, Sir Archibald, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Campbell, Sir Neil, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Campbell, Thomas, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Canada" id="Ind_Canada"></a>Canada, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacked by the United States, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>-<a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Candia. See <a href="#Ind_Crete">Crete</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cannes, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Canning, George, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><i>jeux d'esprit</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Canning, Sir Stratford (afterwards Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Canterac, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Canterbury, archbishop of (Howley), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cape Finisterre, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cape Formoso, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cape St. Vincent, battle, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cape Trafalgar, battle, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Capodistrias, Greek president, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carcassonne, road to, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carinthia, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlile, agitator, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlisle, sixth Earl of (Howard), first commissioner of woods and forests, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlos, Don. <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlsbad, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlton House. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlyle, Jane Welsh, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carlyle, Thomas, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carnot, French statesman, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Caroline" id="Ind_Caroline"></a>Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales (afterwards queen of George IV.), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Carr, R. J., bishop of Worcester, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cartwright, Edmund, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cartwright, Major, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Casimir-Perier, French premier, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Caspian Sea, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Castalla, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Casta&ntilde;os, Francisco Xavier de, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Castlereagh_Viscount" id="Ind_Castlereagh_Viscount"></a>Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), afterwards second Marquis of Londonderry, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>-<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>-<a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_466" id="Page_466">[Pg 466]</a></span>death, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>-<a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Catalonia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cathcart, Lord (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of), <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Catholic Apostolic Church, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Catholic Association, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Catholic emancipation, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>-<a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">abandoned, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">opposition to, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">carried, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cato Street conspiracy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cattaro, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Caulaincourt, French diplomatist, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cawnpur, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Census, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ceylon, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chadwick, Edwin, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chamb&eacute;ry, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Chambord_Count" id="Ind_Chambord_Count"></a>Chambord, Count de, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chambray, Marquis de, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Champagne, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Champlain, lake, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chandos, Marquis of (Brydges-Chandos-Temple-Grenville), afterwards second Duke of Buckingham, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"Chandos clause," <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charity Commission, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charleroi, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Charles_X" id="Ind_Charles_X"></a>Charles, Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France), <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles IV., King of Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles XII., King of Sweden, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles XIII., King of Sweden and Norway, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles, Archduke, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles Albert, Prince, of Carignano (afterwards King of Sardinia), <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charles Felix, King of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charlotte, Princess (daughter of the Prince Regent), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>-<a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charlotte, Queen-dowager of W&uuml;rtemburg (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charlotte, queen of George III., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Charlotte, queen of John VI. of Portugal, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chartism, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chass&eacute;, D. H., Dutch general, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chateauguay, battle of river, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chatham, Earl of (John Pitt), lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ch&acirc;tillon-sur-Seine, congress at, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chaumont, treaty of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">extended at Paris, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chauncey, Commodore, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cherbourg, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chesapeake Bay, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">estuary, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Chesapeake</i>, the, American frigate, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chesney, Francis Rawdon, colonel, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chester, bishop of (Sumner), <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chichagov, Russian general, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chichester, first Earl of (Pelham), <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chile, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">China, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coolies, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chios, island, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chippewa, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chiswick, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chittagong, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ch&iacute;tu, Pind&aacute;r&iacute; leader, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cholera, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Christian, Prince (afterwards Christian VIII. of Denmark), <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Chrystler's Farm, battle, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Church, Sir Richard, general, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Church, Irish, temporalities act, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Church rates, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Church, Scottish, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> n., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Church, states of the. See <a href="#Ind_Papal_States">Papal states</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cilicia, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cinque Ports, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cintra, convention of, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Cisalpine_Republic" id="Ind_Cisalpine_Republic"></a>Cisalpine republic (Italian republic), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ciudad Real, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ciudad Rodrigo, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Civil list, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clancarty, Earl of (Le Poer-Trench), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clare election, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clare, Earl of (Fitzgibbon), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clarence (William), Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_William_IV">William IV</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clarke, Mrs., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clausel, General, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cleves, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clinton, Sir Henry, general, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clive, Lord, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Clyde, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coa, river, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Cobbett" id="Ind_Cobbett"></a>Cobbett, William, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><i>Weekly Register</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coblenz, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cochrane, Lord (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_467" id="Page_467">[Pg 467]</a></span>Codrington, Admiral, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coercion acts (Irish), <a href="#Page_330">330</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coimbra, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Colchester, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Abbot_Charles">Abbot, Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cole, General (afterwards Sir) G. L. <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Colle, La, Mill, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Collingwood, Admiral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Collingwood, the Lord</i>, British ship, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cologne, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Colombia, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Combermere, Lord (Cotton), afterwards Viscount, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Combination laws, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Comet</i>, the, steamboat, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Concordat, the, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Congreve rockets, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Conservative," origin of name, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Constable, John, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Constantinople, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Constitution</i>, the, American frigate, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Continental system, the, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>-<a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Convention act (Irish), <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Conyngham, Marquis of, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cook, Captain, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cooke, General, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coorg, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Baltic_Battle">Baltic, battle of the</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Copley_John" id="Ind_Copley_John"></a>Copley, Sir John (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>-<a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>-<a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord chancellor, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Corn, price of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a> n., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Corn laws, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cornwall, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cornwall (Canada), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cornwall, revenues of duchy of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cornwallis, Admiral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cornwallis, Marquis, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of ordnance, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiates treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">warns England, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Corporation act, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Corporation act (Irish), <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Coru&ntilde;a, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cottenham, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Pepys_Charles">Pepys, Sir Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Countries, the Low. See <a href="#Ind_Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="#Ind_Holland">Holland</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cowper, William, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cox, David, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cracow, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cradock, Sir John, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Craig, Sir James, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor of Canada, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Craufurd, Robert, general, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Crete" id="Ind_Crete"></a>Crete, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Criminal law, reform of, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Croker, John Wilson, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Crome, John, the elder, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cronstadt fleet, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cuba, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cuesta, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cumberland (Ernest), Duke of (son of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Curtis, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Curwen, John Christian, M.P., <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Cuttack, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Czartoryski, Prince Adam, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Czernowitz, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Dak&aacute;iti, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dalmatia, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_Soult">Soult, Marshal</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dalrymple, Sir Hew, general, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Danube, the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Danubian principalities. See <a href="#Ind_Moldavia">Moldavia</a> and <a href="#Ind_Wallachia">Wallachia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Danzig, surrender of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dardanelles, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Darling, Governor, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Darlington, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Darnley, Earl of (Bligh), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dartmouth, Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Lewisham_Viscount">Lewisham, Viscount</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Darwin, Charles, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Daulat R&aacute;o Sindhia. See <a href="#Ind_Sindhia">Sindhia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Davo&ucirc;t, Marshal, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Davy, Sir Humphry, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dawson, George, M.P., <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Days, the Hundred." See <a href="#Ind_Bonaparte">Bonaparte, Napoleon</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dearborn, American general, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Decaen, French general, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Deccan, the, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Delaborde, French officer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Delaware, estuary, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Delhi, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Demerara, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Denman, Thomas (afterwards Lord Denman), <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Denmark, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>-<a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of Kiel, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">loses Norway, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_468" id="Page_468">[Pg 468]</a></span>Dennewitz, battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">De Quincey, Thomas, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Derby, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Derby, twelfth Earl of (Smith-Stanley), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Derbyshire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Derry, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Desno&euml;ttes, General Lefebvre-, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Despard, Edward Marcus, colonel, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Detroit, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Devonshire, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">D'Eyncourt. See <a href="#Ind_Tennyson_Charles">Tennyson, Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dickens, Charles, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Diebitsch, Russian general, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dijon, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Disraeli, Benjamin (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield), <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Dissenters" id="Ind_Dissenters"></a>Dissenters, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">disabilities of, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Donauw&ouml;rth, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dost Muhammad, Am&iacute;r of K&aacute;bul, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Douro, the, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dover, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Downs, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Drake, British envoy, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dresden, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dropmore, seat of Lord Grenville, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Drummond, Sir Gordon, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dublin, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">castle, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">police bill, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">archbishop of (Whately), <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Roman Catholic archbishop of (Curtis), <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Duckworth, Sir John, admiral, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dudley, Viscount and Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Ward_J_W">Ward, J. W.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Duhesme, French general, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dumont, Pierre &Eacute;tienne Louis, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Duncannon, Viscount (Ponsonby), afterwards Earl of Bessborough, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Duncombe, Thomas S., M.P., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dundas, Sir David, commander-in-chief, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Dundas_Henry" id="Ind_Dundas_Henry"></a>Dundas, Henry (afterwards first Viscount Melville), <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">impeachment, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Dundas_Robert" id="Ind_Dundas_Robert"></a>Dundas, Robert S. (afterwards second Viscount Melville), president of board of control, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of board of control, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dundee, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Dupont, General, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Durham. See <a href="#Ind_Universities">Universities</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Durham, Lord (Lambton), afterwards Earl of, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">East India Company. See <a href="#Ind_India">India</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">East Retford, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ebrington, Viscount (Fortescue), afterwards second Earl Fortescue, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ebro, the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ecclefechan, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ecclesiastical commission, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Eckm&uuml;hl, battle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Edgeworth, Maria, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Edgware Road. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Edinburgh Review</i>, the, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Education, national, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Irish, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Edwards, George, informer, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Egmont, Earl of (Perceval), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Egypt, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of Kiutayeh, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elba, island, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elbe, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Eldon, Lord (Scott), afterwards Earl of Eldon, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord chancellor, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>-<a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elections, general. See <a href="#Ind_Parliament">Parliament</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Eliot, Lord (afterwards Earl of St. Germans), <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ellenborough, first Lord (Law), lord chief justice, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ellenborough, second Lord, afterwards Earl (Law), <a href="#Page_328">328</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ellesmere canal, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ellice, Edward, secretary at war, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elphinstone, Mountstuart, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elsinore, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Elvas, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Embargo act (United States), <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Emmet, Robert, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Empire_Holy_Roman" id="Ind_Empire_Holy_Roman"></a>Empire, Holy Roman, dissolved, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Lun&eacute;ville, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Enghien, Duke of, murder of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">England, negotiates with France, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>-<a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conquests, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">signs treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">industrial and agricultural depression, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">fresh discord with France, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war declared against France, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">preparations for invasion, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_469" id="Page_469">[Pg 469]</a></span>third coalition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Russia, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>:</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">expeditions to Naples, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Anglo-Hanoverian expedition to North Germany, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiations with France, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">state of army in 1806, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1807, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1813, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">troops in Sweden, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">troops in Denmark, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">orders in council, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">commercial warfare, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Spanish junta, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Walcheren expedition, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>:</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Austria, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Sweden declares war on, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with Russia and Sweden, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with United States, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>-<a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of Reichenbach, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Teplitz, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ried, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Kiel, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">visit of the allied sovereigns, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Spain, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo campaign, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">union of Irish and English exchequers, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">expedition against the Barbary States, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conferences of Vienna, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Troppau, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">the Eastern question, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Verona, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">assists Portugal, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">commercial treaty with Brazil, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conferences of London, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with United States, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of London, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with Portugal, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of Alexandria, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with France and Holland, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">triple and quadruple alliances, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with Indian states, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Persia, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Epirus, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Erfurt, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Erie, lake, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Erlon, d', French general, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Erskine, Lord, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord chancellor, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Esdremadura, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Espinosa, battle, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Essequibo, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Essex, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Essling, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Etruria, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Euphrates, the, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Evans, De Lacy (afterwards Sir de Lacy), <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Eveleigh, Dr., <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Evora, convention at, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ewart, William, M.P., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Exchange, Royal. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Exeter, bishop of (Phillpotts), <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Exmouth, Lord (Pellew), afterwards Viscount, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Eylau, battle, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Fabvier, Colonel, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Factory acts, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>-<a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Falmouth, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Faraday, Michael, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fath Ali, Sh&aacute;h of Persia, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fauvelet, French agent, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fawkes, Guy, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferdinand VII., King of Spain, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferrol, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ferronays, De la, French foreign minister, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Finance, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>-<a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">income and property tax, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">currency reform, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fines, act for abolition of, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Finland, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Finn, W. F., M.P., <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fischer, Danish commander, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fitzgerald, Vesey, M.P., <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fitzherbert, Mrs., <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fitzwilliam, Earl, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Flaxman, John, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fletcher, Colonel, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fleurus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Flinders, Matthew, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Florence, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Florida, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Flushing, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">decree <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_470" id="Page_470">[Pg 470]</a></span>Fort Erie, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fortescue, first Earl, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fort George, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fort Sandusky, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fouch&eacute;, French politician, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fox, Charles James, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>-<a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>-<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">relations with George III., <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">abolition of slave trade, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Foy, French general, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">France, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of Lun&eacute;ville and Aranjuez, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Florence, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiations resulting in treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">proposed invasion of England, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war declared against England, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">alliance with Spain, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">encroachments in Europe, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Austria, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Russia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"army of England," <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of Pressburg, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with the Two Sicilies, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Sch&ouml;nbrunn, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Prussia, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Prussia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Milan decree, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Austria, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of Vienna, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">loss of foreign possessions, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">annexations, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">breach with Russia, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Prussia, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Russia, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1813, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Prussia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Austria, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1814, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">the allies enter, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress at Ch&acirc;tillon-sur-Seine, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo campaign, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Troppau, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">dispute with Spain, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Verona, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of London, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">the Eastern question, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of London, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conquest of Algiers, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolution of July, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">assists Belgium, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with England and Holland, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacks Portugal, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">quadruple alliance, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">officers in India, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Persia, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">France, Isle of. See <a href="#Ind_Mauritius">Mauritius, the</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Franche-Comt&eacute;, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor (afterwards Francis I., Emperor of Austria), <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Francis IV., Duke of Modena, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frankfort, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Franklin, Benjamin, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fraser, General, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frasnes, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick, Prince Regent of Denmark (afterwards Frederick VI.), <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick, Prince, of Orange, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick II., the Great, King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick Joseph, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick William III., King of Prussia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frederick William, Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Frederick William IV.), <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fr&eacute;jus, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Frenchtown, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Freyre, English officer, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Friedland, battle, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Frolic</i>, the, British sloop, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Fuentes d'O&ntilde;oro, battle, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">G&aacute;ekw&aacute;r. See <a href="#Ind_Baroda">Baroda, G&aacute;ekw&aacute;r of</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Galicia, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gambier, Admiral (afterwards Lord), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gamonal, battle, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ganges, the, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gantheaume, French admiral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gardane, French general, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gardner, Colonel, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Garonne, the, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gascoyne, General, M.P., <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gatton, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gebora, river, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Genappe, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Genoa, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bay of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">George III., <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>-<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">insanity, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">relations with Fox, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">jubilee, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">family, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">character, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_George_IV" id="Ind_George_IV"></a>George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), his friends, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_471" id="Page_471">[Pg 471]</a></span>regent for George III., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">marriage relations, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>-<a href="#Page_197">197</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">character, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">king, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>-<a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coronation, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">G&eacute;rard, General (afterwards Marshal), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Germany, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">redistribution of territory, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">forces in the Peninsula, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">organisation of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See also <a href="#Ind_Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="#Ind_Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, <a href="#Ind_Hanover">Hanover</a>, <a href="#Ind_Prussia">Prussia</a>, etc.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gerona, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ghent, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ghika, Alexander, Hospodar of Wallachia, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gibbon, Edward, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gibraltar, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor of, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">straits of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Giessen, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gifford, William, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gillray, James, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gladstone, William Ewart, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Glasgow, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Glenelg, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Grant_Charles">Grant, Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gloucester (William), Duke of (nephew of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Goderich, Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Robinson_F_J">Robinson, F. J.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Godoy, Spanish statesman, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Goethe, Wolfgang von, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gohad, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Golden Lane. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gordon, Robert, diplomatist, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Goulburn, Henry, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gower, Lord Francis Leveson (afterwards Earl of Ellesmere), <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gower, Lord Granville Leveson- (afterwards Earl Granville), secretary at war, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Graham, Sir James, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Graham, Sir Thomas (afterwards Lord Lynedoch), <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grampound, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Granby, Marquis of (Manners), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grand, river, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Grant_Charles" id="Ind_Grant_Charles"></a>Grant, Charles (afterwards Lord Glenelg), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">board of trade, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grattan, Henry, M.P., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Graves, Rear-admiral, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Greece, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolts against Turkey, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">independent, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">boundary fixed, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Greenock, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grenoble, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grenville, Thomas, first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grenville, Lord, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">his followers, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">opposition to Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Greville, Charles, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Grey_Charles" id="Ind_Grey_Charles"></a>Grey, Charles (afterwards Viscount Howick and later second Earl Grey), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">opposition to Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>-<a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grey, Earl de, first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grossbeeren, battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grosvenor Square. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grote, George, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Grouchy, Marshal, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guadeloupe, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guadiana, the, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guarda, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Guerri&egrave;re</i>, the, British frigate, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guildhall. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guilleminot, French diplomatist, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Guizot, French statesman, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gujr&aacute;t, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">G&uacute;rkhas, the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Gwalior, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Sindhia">Sindhia</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet"><i>Habeas corpus act</i>, suspension of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>-<a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hague, the, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Haidar&aacute;b&aacute;d, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Niz&aacute;m of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Bassein, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hal, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Halifax</i>, the, British sloop, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hallam, Henry, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hamburg, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hamilton, English commodore, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hamilton, Sir William, philosopher, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hampden clubs, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hampshire, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_472" id="Page_472">[Pg 472]</a></span>Hampton, General, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hampton roads, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hanau, battle, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Hannibal</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Hanover" id="Ind_Hanover"></a>Hanover, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hanoverian troops, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hanse Towns, the, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hardenberg, Prussian minister, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hardinge, Henry (afterwards Sir Henry and later Viscount Hardinge), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary at war, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hardwicke, Earl of (Yorke), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Harrison, American general, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Harrowby_Earl" id="Ind_Harrowby_Earl"></a>Harrowby, Lord (Dudley Ryder), afterwards Earl of Harrowby, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hartwell, Bucks, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Harwich, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hasselt, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hastings, Marquis of. See <a href="#Ind_Moira_Earl">Moira, Earl of</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hastings, Warren, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Haugwitz, Prussian minister, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Hawkesbury_Lord" id="Ind_Hawkesbury_Lord"></a>Hawkesbury, Lord (Jenkinson), afterwards Earl of Liverpool, foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">called to the house of lords, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">declines office as first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>-<a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hay, Lord John, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Haye, La, farm, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Haye Sainte, La, farm, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hayti, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hazlitt, William, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Health, board of, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hegel, Georg, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Heligoland, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Helvetian republic. See <a href="#Ind_Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Helvoetsluis, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Henry IV., King of France, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Henry, John, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Herat, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Herries, J. C., chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master of the mint, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary at war, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Herschel, Sir John, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hesse, Princess' Augusta of (Duchess of Cambridge), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Heytesbury, Lord, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hill, Rowland (afterwards Sir Rowland and later Viscount Hill), <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Him&aacute;layas, the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Hobart_Lord" id="Ind_Hobart_Lord"></a>Hobart, Lord (afterwards fourth Earl of Buckinghamshire), secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hobhouse, Sir John Cam (afterwards Lord Broughton), <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first commissioner of woods and forests, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hohenlinden, battle, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Holkar" id="Ind_Holkar"></a>Holkar, Jaswant R&aacute;o Holkar, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Malh&aacute;r R&aacute;o Holkar, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Holland" id="Ind_Holland"></a>Holland (Batavian republic), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a> <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Louis Bonaparte, king of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">loss of Cape of Good Hope, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Walcheren expedition, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">annexed by France, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolts, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Prince of Orange proclaimed King of the Netherlands, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Dutch at Waterloo, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">united to Belgium, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">separation from Belgium, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with Great Britain and France, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with Belgium, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">settlers in South Africa, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Holland, Lord (Vassall-Fox), <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Holyhead, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Homs, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hone, William, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hope, John (afterwards Sir John, later Lord Niddry and Earl of Hopetoun), <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Horner, Francis, M.P., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Hornet</i>, the, American ship, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hougoumont, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Howard, John, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Howick, Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Grey_Charles">Grey, Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Howick, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Grey), <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary at war, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Huddersfield, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hudson, James (afterwards Sir James Hudson), <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hugo, Victor, <a href="#Page_426">426</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_473" id="Page_473">[Pg 473]</a></span>Hull, American general, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hume, David, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hume, Joseph, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hunt, "Orator," <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Huron, lake, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Huskisson, William, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the board of trade, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hutchinson, General, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hutton, James, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Hydriots, the, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Ibrahim, Pasha, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Illyrian provinces, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Imp&eacute;rieuse</i>, the, British frigate, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Inconstant</i>, the, Napoleon's brig, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Indemnity acts, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_India" id="Ind_India"></a>India, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_414">414</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">French towns in India, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">East India Company, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">acts and charters relating to East India Company, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>-<a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>-<a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coolies, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Indians (America), <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Indies, East, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Indies, West, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Indore. See <a href="#Ind_Holkar">Holkar</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ingilby, Sir W. A., M.P., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Inglis, Sir Robert, M.P., <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Inn, river, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Insurrection act, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Inverness, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ionian islands, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Irawadi, the, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ireland, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">condition of, in 1801, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1821, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1824, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1828, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1829, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1830, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1831-32, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1833, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1834, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">in 1837, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">French spies, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Emmet's rebellion, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">scheme for representative assembly, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">union of Irish and English exchequers, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Clare election, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">disfranchisement of forty shilling freeholders, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">famine, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">reform bill, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">agitation against tithe, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">church, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">processions act, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">education, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coercion act, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>-<a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">church temporalities act, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second coercion act, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">municipal corporations bill, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Irving, Edward, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Isabella II., Queen of Spain, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Isabella Maria, Regent of Portugal, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ischia, island, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Isle-aux-noix, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Istria, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Isturiz, Spanish premier, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Italy, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Napoleon crowned King of Italy, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Italian republic. See <a href="#Ind_Cisalpine_Republic">Cisalpine republic</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Jackson, Andrew (afterwards President of the United States), <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jackson, Francis J., British envoy, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jails, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jaswant R&aacute;o Holkar. See <a href="#Ind_Holkar">Holkar</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Java, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Java</i>, the, British frigate, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jefferson, Thomas, President of the United States, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jeffrey, Francis (afterwards Lord), <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jena, battle, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jenner, Dr. Edward, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jessor, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jesuits, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jews, disabilities of, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">John VI., King of Portugal, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Johnson, Samuel, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jones, Sir Harford (afterwards Brydges), <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jones, John Gale, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jordan, Mrs., <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jourdan, Marshal, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Jumna, river, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Junot, Duke of Abrantes, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">K&aacute;bul, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kaffraria, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kalisch, treaty of, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kandah&aacute;r, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kant, Immanuel, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Karavasara, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Karn&aacute;tik, the, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Katzbach, the, battle, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Keats, John, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Keble, John, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kehl, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kellermann, French general, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kent, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kent (Edward), Duke of (son of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kent (Victoria Mary), Duchess of <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Keswick, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Key, Sir John, M.P., <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_474" id="Page_474">[Pg 474]</a></span>Kh&aacute;tm&aacute;ndu, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kiel, treaty of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kilkenny, murders in, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Killingworth colliery, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kilwarden, Viscount (Wolfe), <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">King's College. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kiutayeh, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kl&eacute;ber, French general, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Knatchbull, Sir Edward, paymaster of forces, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Knights of St. John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">property of the order, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Konieh, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">K&ouml;nigsberg, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kotzebue, murder of, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Krasnoe, battle, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kronborg, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kruse, Dutch officer, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kulm, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kum&aacute;un, district of, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Kutuzov, Russian general, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Labedoy&egrave;re, Colonel, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Laconia, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Laffitte, French premier, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lahore, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Laibach, treaty of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lake, General (afterwards Lord and later Viscount Lake), <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lamb, Charles, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Lamb_William" id="Ind_Lamb_William"></a>Lamb, William (afterwards Viscount Melbourne), <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lampeter, St. David's College, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lancashire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lancaster, revenues of duchy of, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Landau, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Langdale, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Bickersteth_Henry">Bickersteth, Henry</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lansdowne, Marquis of. See <a href="#Ind_Petty_Henry">Petty, Lord Henry</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lasw&aacute;ri, battle, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Laud, William, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lauderdale, Earl of (Maitland), <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lauriston, General (afterwards Marshal), <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lawley, Sir Robert, M.P., <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lawrence, Captain, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lawrence, Sir Thomas, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leach, Sir John, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leadenhall Street. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leeds, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leghorn, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leicestershire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leinster, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leipzig, battle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leon, plains of, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Leopard</i>, the, British flagship, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Leopold, Prince, of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians), <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lepanto, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">L'Estrange, Colonel, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Levant, the, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lewis I., King of Bavaria, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Lewisham_Viscount" id="Ind_Lewisham_Viscount"></a>Lewisham, Viscount (Legge), afterwards Earl of Dartmouth, president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Lichfield House Compact," <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Li&egrave;ge, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ligny, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ligurian republic, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lille, negotiations at, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Limburg, province, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lincolnshire, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lincoln's Inn Fields. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Linois, French admiral, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lisbon, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>-<a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>-<a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>-<a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Littleport, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Littleton, Edward John (afterwards Lord Hatherton), <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Liverpool, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Liverpool, Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Hawkesbury_Lord">Hawkesbury, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lloyd, Charles, bishop of Oxford, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lobau, island, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lobau, Prince of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lombardy, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See also <a href="#Ind_Cisalpine_Republic">Cisalpine republic</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">London, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bishop of (Blomfield), <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_London" id="Ind_London"></a>London:&mdash;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Apsley House, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Battersea Fields, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Blackheath, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Bridges: Blackfriars, London, Southwark, Strand (Waterloo), Westminster, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Brooks's Club, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Buckingham Palace, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Carlton House, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Cato Street, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Corporation of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Edgware Road, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Golden Lane, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Guildhall, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Grosvenor Square, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">King's College, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Leadenhall Street, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Lincoln's Inn Fields, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">"London University," <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">university of London, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Newgate, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_475" id="Page_475">[Pg 475]</a></span>Old Bailey, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Pall Mall, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Regent Street and Park, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Royal Academy, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Royal Exchange, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">St. Paul's, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Small-pox Hospital, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Southwark, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Spa Fields, Bermondsey, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Spitalfields, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Tower, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">University College, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Westminster, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Westminster Abbey, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Westminster Hall, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">White Conduit House, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">London, conferences of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">protocols of, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>-<a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>London Magazine</i>, the, <a href="#Page_424">424</a>, <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Londonderry, second Marquis of. See <a href="#Ind_Castlereagh_Viscount">Castlereagh, Viscount</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Londonderry, third Marquis of. See <a href="#Ind_Stewart_Charles">Stewart, Sir Charles</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lonsdale, Earl of (Lowther), <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lorraine, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Loughborough_Lord" id="Ind_Loughborough_Lord"></a>Loughborough, Lord (Wedderburn), afterwards first Earl of Rosslyn, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Louis XIV., King of France, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Louis XVI., King of France, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Louis XVIII., King of France, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>-<a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Louis_Antoine" id="Ind_Louis_Antoine"></a>Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoul&ecirc;me (afterwards dauphin), <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Louis_Philippe" id="Ind_Louis_Philippe"></a>Louis Philippe, Duke of Orl&eacute;ans (afterwards King of France), <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>-<a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Louisiana, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Louvain, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Low Countries. See <a href="#Ind_Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="#Ind_Holland">Holland</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">L&uuml;beck, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Luddite riots. See <a href="#Ind_Riots">Riots</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lugo, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lundy's Lane, battle, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lun&eacute;ville, treaty of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">L&uuml;tzen, battle, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Luxemburg, grand duchy of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lyell, Charles (afterwards Sir C.), <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lyndhurst, Lord. See <a href="#Ind_Copley_John">Copley, Sir John</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Lyons, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Maas, river, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maastricht, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macadam, John Loudon, roadmaker, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macarthur, John, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macaulay, Thomas Babington (afterwards Lord Macaulay), <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>-<a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macaulay, Zachary, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macdonald, Marshal, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Macedonian</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mack, Austrian general, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mackinac, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mackintosh, Sir James, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mackworth, Major, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Macquarie, Governor, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Madison, James, President of the United States, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>-<a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Madras, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Madrid, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>-<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Magdeburg, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mahm&uacute;d, Am&iacute;r of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mahmud II., Sultan of Turkey, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maida, battle, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maine, state, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mainots, the, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mainz, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maitland, Captain, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Majorca, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malcolm, Sir John, colonel, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malden, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malh&aacute;r, R&aacute;o Holkar. See <a href="#Ind_Holkar">Holkar</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malmaison, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malmesbury, Earl of (Harris), <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malta, possession of, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">independence guaranteed, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">parliamentary debate on, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retention by England, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Malthus, Thomas Robert, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">M&aacute;lw&aacute;, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Manchester, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mansfield, first Earl of (Murray), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mansfield, third Earl of (Murray), <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mar&aacute;th&aacute; wars, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Marcoff, Count, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Marengo, battle, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maria II., da Gloria, Queen of Portugal, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maria Louisa, empress of Napoleon I., <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mariembourg, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Marlborough, Duke of (Churchill), <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Marmont, Marshal, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Marriage reform bills, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">act, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Martinique, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mary, Duchess of Gloucester (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mass&eacute;na, Marshal, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_476" id="Page_476">[Pg 476]</a></span>Maumee, river, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Mauritius" id="Ind_Mauritius"></a>Mauritius, the (Isle of France), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Maya, pass, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">McClure, General, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">McDonnell, Colonel, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Medellin, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Medina de Rio Seco, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mediterranean, the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mehidpur, battle, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Melampus</i>, the, British warship, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Melbourne, Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Lamb_William">Lamb, William</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Melcombe Regis, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Melville, first Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Dundas_Henry">Dundas, Henry</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Melville, second Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Dundas_Robert">Dundas, Robert S.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Menou, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Merton, Surrey, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mesolongi, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Metcalfe, Charles (afterwards Sir Charles and later Lord Metcalfe), <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Methodist revival, the, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Metternich, Prince, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>-<a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mexico, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Miaoulis, Greek admiral, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Michigan, lake, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">state, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Middle Ground shoal, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Middleton, Sir Charles. See <a href="#Ind_Barham_Lord">Barham, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Miguel, Dom (afterwards King of Portugal), <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>-<a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at Evora, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Milan, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">decree, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">commission, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Milhaud, French officer, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Militia, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Militia balloting bill, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Militia transfer bill, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mina, guerilla leader, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Minho, province, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Ministries" id="Ind_Ministries"></a>Ministries: Addington's, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>-<a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Pitt's, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Grenville's (All the Talents), <a href="#Page_45">45</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Portland's, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Perceval's, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Liverpool's, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>-<a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Canning's, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Goderich's, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Wellington's, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>-<a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Grey's, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>-<a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>-<a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Melbourne's, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-<a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">provisional administration, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peel's, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Melbourne's, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>-<a href="#Page_375">375</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>-<a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Minorca, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Minto, second Earl of (Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound), first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Minto, Lord (Elliot), afterwards first Earl of Minto, governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>-<a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Modena, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Austria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Moira_Earl" id="Ind_Moira_Earl"></a>Moira, Earl of (Rawdon-Hastings), afterwards Marquis of Hastings, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Moldavia" id="Ind_Moldavia"></a>Moldavia, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>-<a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mol&eacute;, French foreign minister, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Molesworth, Sir William, M.P., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moltke, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moncey, Marshal, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mondego, river, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mongolia, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Moniteur</i>, newspaper, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Monroe, James, President of the United States, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Monroe doctrine, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mons, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Monson, Colonel, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Montb&eacute;liard, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Montenegrins, the, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Monte Video, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Montmorency, French diplomatist, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Montreal, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Montrose, Duke of (Graham), president of the board of trade, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mont St. Jean, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moore, Sir John, general, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moore, Thomas, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moravia, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moraviantown, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Morea" id="Ind_Morea"></a>Morea, the, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>-<a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moreau, General, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Morpeth, Lord (afterwards seventh Earl of Carlisle), <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Morrison, Colonel, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mortier, Marshal, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moscow, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Moss, convention of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mughal emperor, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Muhammad, Sh&aacute;h of Persia, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">M&uuml;hlhausen, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mulgrave, Lord (Phipps) (afterwards first Earl of Mulgrave), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n.;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mulgrave, second Earl of (Phipps), lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord-lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_477" id="Page_477">[Pg 477]</a></span>M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz, secret convention at,<a href="#Page_395">395</a>,<a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Munich, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Municipal corporations act, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>-<a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bill (Ireland), <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Murat, Joachim, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">King of Naples, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Muraviov, Russian general, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Murray, Colonel, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Murray, Sir George, secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Murray, John, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Murray, Sir John, general, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Mysore, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet"><a name="Ind_Nagpur" id="Ind_Nagpur"></a>N&aacute;gpur, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">R&aacute;j&aacute; of, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Namur, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Napier, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Charles Napier), <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Napier, General Sir W., <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Naples, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bay of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Naples, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See also <a href="#Ind_Sicilies">Sicilies, the Two</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Naples, Prince of, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Napoleon, King of Rome, son of Napoleon I., <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nash, John, architect, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nassau, troops, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">National debt, the, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in 1802, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in 1815, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"National Political Union," <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nauplia, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Navarino, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Navarre, province, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Navigation laws, reform of the, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Neapolitan States. See <a href="#Ind_Sicilies">Sicilies, the Two</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nelson, Lord (afterwards Viscount), <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">expedition to Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Trafalgar, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nemours, Louis, Duke of, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nep&aacute;l, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Almora, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nesselrode, Russian diplomatist, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Netherlands, the. See <a href="#Ind_Belgium">Belgium</a> and <a href="#Ind_Holland">Holland</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Neuch&acirc;tel, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Neuville, De, French ambassador, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newark (Canada), <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newark (England), <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newcastle, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newcastle, Duke of (Fiennes-Pelham-Clinton), <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">New England, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newfoundland, fishery, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newgate. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newman, John Henry, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">New Orleans, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"New poor law," <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">New South Wales. See <a href="#Ind_Australia">Australia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Newspaper stamp act, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">New York, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">state, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">New Zealand, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ney, Marshal, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>-<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Niagara, river, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">falls, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nicholls, Colonel, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Niemen, the, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nile, the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle of the, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nive, river, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nivelle, river, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nivelles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nonconformists. See <a href="#Ind_Dissenters">Dissenters</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Non-intercourse act (United States), <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Norfolk (United States), <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Norfolk Island, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>North Briton</i>, the, journal, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Northern confederacy, the, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Northumberland, Duke of (Percy), lord lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Northumberland</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Norway, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">ceded to Sweden, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at Moss, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nottingham, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">castle, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nottinghamshire, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Novara, battle, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nugent, John, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Nugent, Lord (Grenville-Nugent-Temple), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Oca&ntilde;a, battle, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ochterlony, General (afterwards Sir David), <a href="#Page_404">404</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">O'Connell, Daniel, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>-<a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>-<a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oder, the, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ohio, state, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Old Bailey. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oldenburg, duchy of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oldham, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Old Sarum, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ol&eacute;ron, island, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Olivenza, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oliver, the spy, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ontario, lake, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oporto, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Orange lodges, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Orangemen, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_478" id="Page_478">[Pg 478]</a></span>Orenburg, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Orfordness, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Orl&eacute;ans, Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_Louis_Philippe">Louis Philippe</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Orl&eacute;ans, Philip, Duke of, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Orthez, battle, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Otranto, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Otto, French diplomatist, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Otto, Prince of Bavaria (afterwards King of Greece), <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Oudh, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Naw&aacute;b Waz&iacute;r of, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ouseley, Sir Gore, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Oxford_Movement" id="Ind_Oxford_Movement"></a>Oxford, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bishop of (Lloyd), <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">movement, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">university. See <a href="#Ind_Universities">Universities</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet"><a name="Ind_Paget_Lord" id="Ind_Paget_Lord"></a>Paget, Lord (afterwards Earl of Uxbridge and later Marquis of Anglesey), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord-lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">recalled, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord-lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Paisley, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pakenham, Sir Edward, general, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Palatinate, the, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Palermo, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Paley, William, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pall Mall. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Palmella, Portuguese statesman, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Palmerston, Viscount (Temple), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary at war, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pamplona, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>-<a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Papal_States" id="Ind_Papal_States"></a>Papal States, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Papelotte, farm, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Paraguay, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Parga, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Paris" id="Ind_Paris"></a>Paris: the Tuileries, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first capitulation, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second capitulation, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second treaty of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Chaumont extended at, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolution of July, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">cholera at, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Park, Mungo, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Parker, Sir Hyde, admiral, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>-<a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Parliament" id="Ind_Parliament"></a>Parliament: general election of 1802, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1806, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1807, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1812, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1818, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1820, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1826, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1830, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1831, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1832, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">of 1835, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">reform, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">liberals and conservatives, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">houses destroyed by fire, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Parma, duchy of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Austria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Parnell, Sir Henry, M.P., <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pasages, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Paskievitch, Russian general, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Patten, Colonel, M.P., <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Patuxent, river, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Paul, Tsar of Russia, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Peacock</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pease, Edward, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peel, Sir Robert (first baronet), <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peel, Robert (afterwards Sir Robert), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>-<a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>-<a href="#Page_373">373</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>-<a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>-<a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>-<a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pelham, Lord (afterwards second Earl of Chichester), home secretary, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resigns office, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Pelican</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peloponnese, the, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Morea">Morea, the</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peltier, Jean, editor, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pe&ntilde;a, La, Spanish commander, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pennsylvania, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Penryn, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Pepys_Charles" id="Ind_Pepys_Charles"></a>Pepys, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord and later Earl Cottenham), lord chancellor, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Perceval, Spencer, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a> n., <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, etc., <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">assassination, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Perry, Commodore, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Persia, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with East India Company and Great Britain, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Perth, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peru, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pesh&aacute;war, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Peshwa" id="Ind_Peshwa"></a>Peshw&aacute;, the, of Poona, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Bassein, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peter (afterwards Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, and Peter IV., King of Portugal), <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peter II., Emperor of Brazil, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Peterloo, massacre of. See <a href="#Ind_Riots">Riots</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Petty_Henry" id="Ind_Petty_Henry"></a>Petty, Lord Henry (afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne), <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">president of the council, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Philippeville, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Philippon, governor of Badajoz, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Phillip, Governor, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span>Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pichegru, French general, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Picton, Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Piedmont, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pind&aacute;r&iacute;s, the, <a href="#Page_404">404</a>-<a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pitt, William, the elder (first Earl of Chatham), <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pitt, William, the younger, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>-<a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">his resignation in 1801, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">alienation from Addington's ministry, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiations with Addington, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attacks Addington, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">overtures from Eldon, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">interview with the king, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">organises third coalition, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">loss of Melville, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">collapse of the third coalition, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">his adherents, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pius VII., Pope, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Plasencia, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Plata, La. See <a href="#Ind_Argentine">Argentine, the</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Plattsburg (United States), <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Plunket, William (afterwards Lord Plunket), <a href="#Page_239">239</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">attorney-general of Ireland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Plymouth, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Poictiers</i>, the British ship, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Poischwitz, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Poland, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pole &amp; Co., <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pole, W. Wellesley (afterwards Lord Maryborough), master of the mint, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Polignac, French statesman, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pomerania, Swedish, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pondicherri, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">French towns in India, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ponsonby, Sir William, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ponsonby, Lord (afterwards Viscount Ponsonby), <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Poona, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Peshwa">Peshw&aacute;</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Poor law, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">poor rates, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"new poor law," <a href="#Page_340">340</a>-<a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">poor law board, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Ireland, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Popham, Sir Home, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Poros, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Porte, the. See <a href="#Ind_Turkey">Turkey</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Portland, third Duke of (Cavendish-Bentinck), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">minor reforms, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">changes in his ministry, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Portland, fourth Duke of (Cavendish Scott Bentinck), lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">in cabinet without office, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Port Mahon, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Port Phillip, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Portsmouth, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Portugal" id="Ind_Portugal"></a>Portugal, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of Badajoz and Madrid, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Junot's expedition to, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>-<a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolutions, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>-<a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">cortes, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">junta, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">relations with Brazil, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>-<a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at London, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">triple and quadruple alliances, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of Evora, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Posen, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pottinger, British officer, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Potwallopers, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Prague, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Prescott, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Presqu'isle (Pennsylvania), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Press, liberty of the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Indian press, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pressburg, peace of, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Press-gang, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Preston, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Prevost, Sir George, governor of Canada, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Privy Council, acts relating to the, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Processions act (Ireland), <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Procida, island, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Proclamation act, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Proctor, English colonel, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Prome, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Prout, Samuel, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Prussia" id="Ind_Prussia"></a>Prussia, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>-<a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">guarantees independence of Malta, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">vacillation, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Sch&ouml;nbrunn, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with France, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with France, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of Tauroggen, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of <a href="#Page_181">181</a>3, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with Russia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Kalisch, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Reichenbach, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Teplitz, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ried, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1814, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1815, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">gains Swedish Pomerania, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span>second treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Holy Alliance, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Troppau, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Laibach, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Verona, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of London, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret convention at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at Berlin, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pruth, river, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Public Advertiser</i>, the, newspaper, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Puebla, pass, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Punjab, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pusey, Edward Bouverie, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Putney, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Pyrenees, the, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Quadruple alliance, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Quakers, the, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Quarterly Review</i>, the, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Quatre Bras, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>-<a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Queen's County, murders in, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Queensland. See <a href="#Ind_Australia">Australia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Queenstown (Canada), <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Raeburn, Sir Henry, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Railways, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Raisin, river, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">R&aacute;jput&aacute;na, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rangoon, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Ranjit_Singh" id="Ind_Ranjit_Singh"></a>Ranj&iacute;t Singh, R&aacute;j&aacute; of Bhartpur, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ranj&iacute;t Singh, Sikh ruler, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with East India Company, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ratisbon, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">R&eacute;, island, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reciprocity of duties act, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Redesdale, Lord (Mitford), <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Redoutable</i>, the, French ship, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Red Sea, the, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reform, movement for, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>-<a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">partial reforms, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first bill of <a href="#Page_183">183</a>1, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>-<a href="#Page_291">291</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second bill, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>-<a href="#Page_296">296</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">third bill, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>-<a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Scotch and Irish bills, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Regency act (1811), <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Regency act (1830), <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Regent Street and Park. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Register, Weekly</i>. See <a href="#Ind_Cobbett">Cobbett</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Registration bill, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">acts, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reichenbach, treaties of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reille, French general, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Religious movements, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>-<a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rennell, James, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rennie, John, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rensselaer, Van, American general, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reshid, Turkish general, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Revel, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rey, Emmanuel, governor of St. Sebastian, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Reynier, French general, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rhine, the, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">confederation of the, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Riall, General, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rice, Thomas Spring (afterwards Lord Monteagle), <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Richelieu, Duke of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Richmond, Charlotte, Duchess of, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Richmond, third Duke of (Lennox), <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Richmond, fifth Duke of (Lennox), postmaster-general, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ried, treaty of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rieti, battle, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Riga, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rio Janeiro, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Riot act, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Riots" id="Ind_Riots"></a>Riots, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Luddite, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bread, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">agricultural, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Spa Fields, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Derbyshire insurrection, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">"Peterloo" or "Manchester massacre," <a href="#Page_178">178</a>-<a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">reform bill, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>-<a href="#Page_298">298</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Riou, Edward, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ripon, Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Robinson_F_J">Robinson, F. J.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Robinson_F_J" id="Ind_Robinson_F_J"></a>Robinson, Frederick John (afterwards Viscount Goderich, later Earl of Ripon), president of the board of trade, etc., <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rochefort, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rodil, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roebuck, John, M.P., <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rohilkhand, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roli&ccedil;a, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rolleston, magistrate, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roma&ntilde;a, Spanish general, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roman Empire, Holy. See <a href="#Ind_Empire_Holy_Roman">Empire, Holy Roman</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roman States. See <a href="#Ind_Papal_States">Papal States</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rome, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Romilly, Sir Samuel, M.P., <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roncesvalles, pass, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rose, George, M.P., <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rosetta, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ross, General, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span>Rosslyn, first Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Loughborough_Lord">Loughborough, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rosslyn, second Earl of (St. Clair Erskine), president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord president of the council, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rothi&egrave;re, La, battle, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Roussin, French admiral, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Royal Institution, the, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Royal Sovereign</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">R&uuml;gen, island, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rumelia, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rumford, Count, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Russell, Lord John (afterwards Earl Russell), <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">paymaster of the forces, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Russia, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>-<a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">holy alliance, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war of third coalition, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with England, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Sweden, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Tilsit, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Turkey, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret convention at Erfurt, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">breach with France, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>-<a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">armistice with Turkey, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with France, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>-<a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>-<a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with England, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">fleet, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">alliance with Sweden, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of &Aring;bo, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Bucharest, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with England and Sweden, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention of Tauroggen, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention with Prussia, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Kalisch, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Reichenbach, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Teplitz, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ried, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">campaign of 1814, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Chaumont, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Vienna, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>-<a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">gains Finland, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">second treaty of Paris, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>-<a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Troppau, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Laibach, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">breach with Turkey, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of Verona, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Akherman, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference of London, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_268">268</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_386">386</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of London, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>-<a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Turkey, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of Adrianople, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Poland, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">assists Turkey, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret convention at M&uuml;nchengr&auml;tz, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">convention at Berlin, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Turkey, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">influence in the east, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>-<a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Rutlandshire, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ryder, Dudley. See <a href="#Ind_Harrowby_Earl">Harrowby, Earl of</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ryder, Richard, home secretary, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Saale, river, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sackett's Harbour, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sadler, Michael, M.P., <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sahagun, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Albans, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Amand, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>St. Antoine</i>, the, French ship, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. David's, bishop of (Burgess), <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. George's Channel, American privateers in, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Helena, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Jean de Luz, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Lawrence, river, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">fishery, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Lucia, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Marcial, battle, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Paul's cathedral. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Petersburg, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Sebastian, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">St. Vincent, Earl of (Jervis), first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Salaberry, Colonel de, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Salamanca, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Salda&ntilde;a, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Salzburg, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sambre, river, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Samos, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">San Domingo, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sandvliet, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Santa Ana</i>, the, Spanish ship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Santander, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Santarem, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Santha Martha, Miguelite general, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Sant&iacute;sima Trinidad</i>, the, Spanish ship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sardinia, kingdom of, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sartorius, Admiral, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sarum, Old, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">S&aacute;t&aacute;ra, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Sat&iacute;," <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Saumarez, Sir James (afterwards Baron), admiral, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Savary, French minister, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Savings-banks, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Savoy, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Saxony, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span>Scarlett, James (afterwards Lord Abinger), <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scharnhorst, Prussian statesman, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scheldt, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>-<a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sch&ouml;nbrunn, treaty of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Schwarzenberg, Austrian general, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>-<a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scientific discoveries, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>-<a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scotland, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">reform bill, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">church of, <a href="#Page_360">360</a> n., <a href="#Page_424">424</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scott, Sir Walter, <a href="#Page_417">417</a>, <a href="#Page_418">418</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scott, Sir William (afterwards Lord Stowell), <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Scylla, castle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">S&eacute;bastiani, French officer (afterwards foreign minister), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Secretaries of state, division of departments of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Selim III., Sultan of Turkey, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sepoys, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Septennial act, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Seringapatam, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Servia, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Seville, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Shaftesbury, Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Ashley_Lord">Ashley, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sh&aacute;h Shuj&aacute;, Am&iacute;r of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Shannon</i>, the, British frigate, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Shaw, Sir Robert, M.P., <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sheaffe, Major-general, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sheil, Richard Lalor, M.P., <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Shelley, Percy Bysshe, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Sicilies" id="Ind_Sicilies"></a>Sicilies, the Two, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Florence, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of neutrality with France, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sicily, island and kingdom of, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">army in Spain, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sidmouth, Viscount. See <a href="#Ind_Addington_Henry">Addington, Henry</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sikhs, the, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">See <a href="#Ind_Ranjit_Singh">Ranj&iacute;t Singh, Sikh ruler</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Silesia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Silistria, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Simmons, Dr. Samuel Foart, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sind, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>, <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Sindhia" id="Ind_Sindhia"></a>Sindhia, Daulat R&aacute;o Sindhia, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_399">399</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Six acts, the, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Skaw, the, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Small-pox, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">hospital, See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smeaton, John, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smohain, hamlet, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smith, Adam, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smith, Sydney, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smith, William, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Smyth, American general, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Socialists, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Society, Highland, <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Society, Kildare Place, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Society of friends of the people, <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Society, Water-colour, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Soissons, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sombreffe, French general, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Somerset, Lord Robert, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Somersetshire, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sophia, Princess (daughter of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sophia, Princess, of Gloucester (niece of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Souham, French general, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Soult" id="Ind_Soult"></a>Soult (Duke of Dalmatia), French general, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>-<a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>-<a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">South Australia. See <a href="#Ind_Australia">Australia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Southey, Robert, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>, <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Southwark. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spa Fields, Bermondsey. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a> and <a href="#Ind_Riots">Riots</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Spain" id="Ind_Spain"></a>Spain, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>-<a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties of Aranjuez, Badajoz and Madrid, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">alliance with France, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>-<a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_423">423</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">juntas, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret treaty of Fontainebleau, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">abdication of Charles IV., <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Joseph Bonaparte, king of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with England, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">cortes, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">insurrection, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>-<a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">loss of colonies in America, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">dispute with France, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">aggressions in Portugal, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>-<a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">triple and quadruple alliances, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Carlist war, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>-<a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Speculation, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Speenhamland, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spenceans, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spencer, second Earl, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">home secretary, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spencer, General, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spitalfields. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Spithead, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stafford, Marquis of, afterwards Duke of Sutherland (Gower), <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Standard</i>, the, newspaper, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stanley, Edward Geoffrey Smith- (afterwards Lord Stanley, later fourteenth Earl of Derby), <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chief secretary for Ireland, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>-<a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>-<a href="#Page_327">327</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span>Steamboats, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stephenson, George, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Stewart_Charles" id="Ind_Stewart_Charles"></a>Stewart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stewart, later third Marquis of Londonderry), <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stewart, Dugald, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stockholm, treaty of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stockton on Tees, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Strachan, Sir Richard, admiral, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stralsund, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Strand Bridge. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Strangford, Viscount (Smythe), <a href="#Page_214">214</a>-<a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Strassburg, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Strikes, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stroud, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stuart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stuart de Rothesay), <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Stuart, Sir John, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sturt, Charles, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Subs&eacute;rra, Count of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Suchet, Marshal, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Suez, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">canal, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Suffolk, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> n.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sugden, Sir Edward (afterwards Lord St. Leonards), <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sumatra, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sumner, John B., bishop of Chester, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sunderland, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Surrey, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sussex, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sussex (Augustus), Duke of (son of George III.), <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sutlej, river, <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sutton, Charles Manners- (afterwards Sir C. Manners-Sutton, later Viscount Canterbury), speaker, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sweden, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">third coalition, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaties with Russia and England, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">declares war on England, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">ally of Russia, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of &Aring;bo, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Stockholm, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with France, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Kiel, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">acquires Norway (convention of Moss), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Swift, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Switzerland" id="Ind_Switzerland"></a>Switzerland (Helvetian republic), <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">civil war, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">invasion of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">revolts, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Sydney, <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Syria, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Tagus, the, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Talavera, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">battle, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Talleyrand, French statesman, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_382">382</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">"Tamworth manifesto," the, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tar&aacute;i, the, <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tarbes, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tarragona, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tasmania. See <a href="#Ind_Van_Diemens_Land">Van Diemen's Land</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tauroggen, convention of, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Taylor, Sir Herbert, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Telford, Thomas, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Temporalities, Irish Church, act, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>-<a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tenasserim, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>, <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Tenedos</i>, the, British frigate, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tennyson, Alfred (afterwards Lord), <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Tennyson_Charles" id="Ind_Tennyson_Charles"></a>Tennyson, Charles (afterwards Tennyson D'Eyncourt), M.P., <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Teplitz, treaty of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Terceira, island, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Terneuze, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Test act, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thag&iacute;, <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thames, the, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thames, river (Canada), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thermopyl&aelig;, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thiers, French statesman, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thistlewood, Arthur, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Thompson, Charles Poulett (afterwards Lord Sydenham), president of the board of trade, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ticino, river, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tierney, George, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master of the mint, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>-<a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tigris, the, <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tihran, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>, <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tilsit, treaty of, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_401">401</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Times</i>, the, newspaper, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Timur, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tip&uacute;, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tithe, agitation against (Ireland), <a href="#Page_313">313</a>-<a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tithe commutation act, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tithe commutation bills (Ireland), <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tobago, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tooke, Horne, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">act, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tormes, river, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Toronto, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Torres Vedras, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tortosa, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Toulon, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Toulouse, battle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tower of London. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tractarians. See <a href="#Ind_Oxford_Movement">Oxford movement</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Tracts for the Times</i>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trades Unions, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trafalgar, battle, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Traz-os-Montes, province, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span>Trekroner, the, battery, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trianon tariff, the, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trieste, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trinidad, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Triple alliance, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tripoli, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Bey of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tripolitza, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trondhjem, diocese of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Troppau, congress of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>-<a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Trotter, paymaster, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tudela, battle, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Tugendbund</i>, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tuileries, the. See <a href="#Ind_Paris">Paris</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tunis, Dey of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Turin, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Turkey" id="Ind_Turkey"></a>Turkey, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>-<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Amiens, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with France, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Russia, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">armistice, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Bucharest, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Greek revolt, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>-<a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>-<a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>-<a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">rupture with Russia, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with Russia, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Akherman, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of Adrianople, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty and protocol of London, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Egyptian revolt, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">assisted by Russia, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>-<a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Kiutayeh, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Austrian mediation, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with Russia, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Asiatic Turkey, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Turner, J. M. W., <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tuscany, treaty with Austria, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Tyrol, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Ucles, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ulm, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ulster, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Union, act of, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">movement for repeal, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">United States, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_438">438</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">sale to them of Louisiana, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">war with England, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>-<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">non-intercourse act, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of Ghent, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">buys Florida, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty with England, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>United States</i>, the, American ship, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Universities" id="Ind_Universities"></a>Universities, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>, <a href="#Page_430">430</a>;&mdash;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Cambridge, <a href="#Page_419">419</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>-<a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Dublin, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Durham, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Edinburgh, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Glasgow, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">London, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">King's College, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">University College, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</p>
+<p class="indsub">Oxford, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>, <a href="#Page_428">428</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">Balliol College, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">New College, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">Oriel College, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub2">St. Alban Hall, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Urfa, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Uruguay" id="Ind_Uruguay"></a>Uruguay (Banda Oriental), <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Utrecht, treaty of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Uxbridge, Earl of. See <a href="#Ind_Paget_Lord">Paget, Lord</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Valencia, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Valladolid, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vallais, republic of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vancouver, Captain, <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vandamme, French general, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vandeleur, Sir John Ormesby, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Van_Diemens_Land" id="Ind_Van_Diemens_Land"></a>Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Vansittart" id="Ind_Vansittart"></a>Vansittart, Nicholas (afterwards Lord Bexley), <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">envoy at Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the exchequer, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>-<a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vellore, <a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Venaissin, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vend&eacute;e, La, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Venetia, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Verdier, General, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Verona, congress of, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Victor, Marshal, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Victoria. See <a href="#Ind_Australia">Australia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Victoria, Princess (afterwards Queen), <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Victory</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vienna, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">peace of, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">congress of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>-<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secret treaty, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">treaty of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>-<a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>-<a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">final act, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">conference at, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">proposed conference, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vigo, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Villafranca, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Villa Real, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vill&egrave;le, French statesman, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Villeneuve, French admiral, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>-<a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vimeiro, battle, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vincennes, castle, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vincent, Colonel, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vistula, the, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vitoria, battle, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>-<a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vivian, Sir Richard H. (afterwards Lord), <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Volga, the, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Volhynia, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Volo, gulf of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Volunteer consolidation bill, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Vonitza, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Wade, General, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wadsworth, American general, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span>Wagram, battle, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Walcheren expedition, the, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>-<a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wales, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_434">434</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">amalgamation of English and Welsh benches, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wales, Caroline, Princess of. See <a href="#Ind_Caroline">Caroline, queen of George IV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wales (George), Prince of. See <a href="#Ind_George_IV">George IV.</a></p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Walker, George T. (afterwards Sir G. T.), <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Wallachia" id="Ind_Wallachia"></a>Wallachia, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>-<a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Walmoden, Hanoverian general, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Walpole, Sir Robert (afterwards Earl of Orford), <a href="#Page_205">205</a>-<a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Walpole, Lord (afterwards Earl of Orford), <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Ward, Henry, M.P., <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Ward_J_W" id="Ind_Ward_J_W"></a>Ward, John William (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of Dudley), <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wardle, Colonel, M.P., <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Warsaw, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">duchy of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wartburg festival, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Washington, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Wasp</i>, the, American sloop, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Waterford, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Waterloo, battle, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Waterloo Bridge. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Watsons, the, father and son, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Watt, James, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wavre, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>-<a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Weekly Political Register</i>, the. See <a href="#Ind_Cobbett">Cobbett</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_Wellesley_Arthur" id="Ind_Wellesley_Arthur"></a>Wellesley, Sir Arthur (afterwards Duke of Wellington), <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>-<a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>-<a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_293">293</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>-<a href="#Page_304">304</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>, <a href="#Page_431">431</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">chief secretary for Ireland, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">bombardment of Copenhagen, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Peninsular war, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>-<a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">viscount, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Vimeiro, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">commander-in-chief in the Peninsula, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Talavera, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Bussaco, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lines of Torres Vedras, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Fuentes d'O&ntilde;oro, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">earl, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Salamanca, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">marquis, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Vitoria, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">the Pyrenees, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">siege of St. Sebastian, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Bayonne, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>-<a href="#Page_117">117</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Toulouse, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">duke, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo campaign, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Waterloo, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>-<a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">master-general of the ordnance, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the treasury, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>-<a href="#Page_232">232</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>-<a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>-<a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>-<a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>-<a href="#Page_269">269</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>-<a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">duel with Winchilsea, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">provisional administration, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Indian campaign, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">Assaye and Arg&aacute;um, <a href="#Page_399">399</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wellesley, Sir Henry (afterwards Lord Cowley), <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wellesley, Richard, marquis, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">foreign secretary, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord-lieutenant of Ireland, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_344">344</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">governor-general of Bengal, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>-<a href="#Page_400">400</a>, <a href="#Page_402">402</a>-<a href="#Page_405">405</a>, <a href="#Page_407">407</a>, <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wellington, Duke of. See <a href="#Ind_Wellesley_Arthur">Wellesley, Sir Arthur</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wesel, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wesley, John, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Westbury, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">West Australia. See <a href="#Ind_Australia">Australia</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Westminster abbey and hall. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Westmorland, Earl of (Fane), lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Westphalia, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">troops, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wetherell, Sir Charles, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Weymouth, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wharncliffe, Lord (Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie), <a href="#Page_291">291</a>, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord privy seal, <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whately, Dr., archbishop of Dublin, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>, <a href="#Page_421">421</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whitbread, Samuel, M.P., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whiteboys, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">White Conduit House. See <a href="#Ind_London">London</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whitefeet, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whitelocke, General, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Whitworth, Lord (afterwards Earl), ambassador extraordinary to France, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">negotiates with French government, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wilberforce, William, M.P., <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wild, Jonathan, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wilkes, John, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>, <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wilkie, Sir David, <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wilkinson, American general, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><a name="Ind_William_IV" id="Ind_William_IV"></a>William, Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">marriage, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">lord high admiral, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">resignation, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">king, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>, <a href="#Page_278">278</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>-<a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>-<a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>-<a href="#Page_305">305</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>-<a href="#Page_352">352</a>, <a href="#Page_354">354</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>, <a href="#Page_368">368</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">coronation, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">death, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">William, Prince of Orange, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>-<a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span>William Frederick, Prince of Orange (afterwards William I., King of the Netherlands), <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">William, Prince of Orange (afterwards William II., King of the Netherlands), <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wilson, Sir Robert, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wiltshire, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Winchester, school, <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Winchilsea, Earl of (Finch-Hatton), <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Winder, American general, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Windham, William, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">secretary for war and colonies, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Windsor Castle, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain"><i>Windsor Castle</i>, the, British ship, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wittgenstein, Russian general, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Worcester, bishop of (Carr), <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wordsworth, William, <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">W&uuml;rtemburg, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Wynn, Charles Williams, president of the board of control, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Yanzi, gorge, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Yarmouth, Viscount (Ingram-Seymour Conway), afterwards third Marquis of Hertford, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Yeo, Sir James, captain, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Yorck, Count, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">York, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">York (Toronto), <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">York (Frederick), Duke of (son of George III.), <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a> n., <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Yorke, Charles Philip, home secretary, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">first lord of the admiralty, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>;</p>
+<p class="indsub">retirement, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Yorkshire, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_280">280</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>, <a href="#Page_432">432</a>, <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="indnewlet">Zadorra, river, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Zaragoza, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Zem&aacute;n Sh&aacute;h, King of Afgh&aacute;nist&aacute;n, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Znaim, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="indmain">Zumalacarregui, Carlist general, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center gap4">PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, ABERDEEN</p>
+
+<div class="txnotes">
+<h3>TRANSCRIBERS' NOTE</h3>
+<p class="footnote">The following images are thumbnails. Clicking on them will link to a larger version of the map</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter gap2" style="width: 173px;">
+<a name="MAP_I" id="MAP_I"></a>
+<a href="images/map1.png"><img src="images/map1th.png" width="173" height="325" alt="GREAT BRITAIN showing PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION according to the REFORM ACT OF 1832." title="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">GREAT BRITAIN showing PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION according to the REFORM ACT OF 1832.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter gap2" style="width: 237px;">
+<a name="MAP_II" id="MAP_II"></a>
+<a href="images/map2.png"><img src="images/map2th.png" width="237" height="178" alt="MAP OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL illustrating THE PENINSULAR WAR." title="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">MAP OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL illustrating THE PENINSULAR WAR.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter gap2" style="width: 196px;">
+<a name="MAP_III" id="MAP_III"></a>
+<a href="images/map3.png"><img src="images/map3th.png" width="196" height="213" alt="INDIA" title="" />
+</a>
+</div>
+<p class="caption center">INDIA</p>
+
+<div class="txnotes">
+<h3>TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES</h3>
+<p class="footnote">General: Changes to punctuation have not been individually documented</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 11: reopen standardised to re-open</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 13: Shortlived standardised to Short-lived</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 42, 187, 189, 466, 486, footnote 66: Spelling of
+Würtemberg, Würtemburg as in original</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 47, 296: short-sighted standardised to shortsighted</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 60: heartbreaking standardised to heart-breaking</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 66: Lord Granville Leveson Gower standardised to Leveson-Gower (note that
+Francis Leveson Gower never has a hyphen in the original or this version)</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 85: non-conformists standardised to nonconformists</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 94: shortlived standardised to short-lived</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 108, 113: rearguard standardised to rear-guard</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 109, 363: Spelling of make-shift, makeshift not standardised
+as usage differs</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 127: flag-ship standardised to flagship</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 176: lifelong standardised to life-long</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 182: it corrected to its after "measure of relief owes"</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 183: bank-notes standardised to banknotes</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 201: But replaced by but at start of page as it is a continuation of the
+sentence from the previous page</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 252: wofully as in original</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 260, 481, 484: Spelling of Akkerman, Akherman as in original</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 274: deathblow standardised to death-blow</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 289, 361 and 374: Spelling of rate-paying and ratepaying not
+standardised as it is used in two different contexts</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 298: ring-leaders standardised to ringleaders</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 316: tithe proctor standardised to tithe-proctor</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 316: beneficies as in original</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 335: house-holders standardised to householders</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 341: outdoor standardised to out-door</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 345: tithe proctors standardised to tithe-proctors</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 349: re-assembled standardised to reassembled</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 362: over-ride standardised to override</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 393, 403, 475: Spelling of Mahmud and Mahmúd not standardised as it
+is used in two different contexts</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 394: MUNCHENGRATZ standardised to MÜNCHENGRÄTZ</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 407, 416, 462: Spelling of Khan and Khán not standardised as it
+is used in two different contexts</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Pages 427, 465: Spelling of Callcott, Calcott as in original</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 443: Italicisation of "Constitutional History of England
+from 1760 to 1860" corrected</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 461: Aetolia standardised to Ætolia</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 461: Aegean standardised to Ægean</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 463: In entry Beauharnais, Eugene standardised to Eugène</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 464: Bridgewater standardised to Bridgwater</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 475: Malhar standardised to Malhár</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 475: In entry Louis Antoine, Angouléme standardised to Angoulême</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 475: In entry Louis Philippe, Orleans standardised to Orléans</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 479: Pressgang standardised to Press-gang</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 483: ) added to entry for Stewart, Sir Charles, after Londonderry</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 483: ) added to entry for Switzerland, after republic</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 483: Thermopylae standardised to Thermopylæ</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 484: Volgo standardised to Volga</p>
+
+<p class="footnote">Page 486: Ingram-Seymour Conway corrected to Ingram-Seymour-Conway</p>
+
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,22942 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol XI, by
+George Brodrick and J.K. Fotheringham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Political History of England - Vol XI
+       From Addington's Administration to the close of William
+       IV.'s Reign (1801-1837)
+
+Author: George Brodrick
+        J.K. Fotheringham
+
+Release Date: September 30, 2008 [EBook #26727]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Paul Murray, Brownfox and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                   _THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND_
+
+
+_Seventy-five years have passed since Lingard completed his_ HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND, _which ends with the Revolution of 1688. During that period
+historical study has made a great advance. Year after year the mass of
+materials for a new History of England has increased; new lights have
+been thrown on events and characters, and old errors have been
+corrected. Many notable works have been written on various periods of
+our history; some of them at such length as to appeal almost exclusively
+to professed historical students. It is believed that the time has come
+when the advance which has been made in the knowledge of English history
+as a whole should be laid before the public in a single work of fairly
+adequate size. Such a book should be founded on independent thought and
+research, but should at the same time be written with a full knowledge
+of the works of the best modern historians and with a desire to take
+advantage of their teaching wherever it appears sound._
+
+_The vast number of authorities, printed and in manuscript, on which a
+History of England should be based, if it is to represent the existing
+state of knowledge, renders co-operation almost necessary and certainly
+advisable. The History, of which this volume is an instalment, is an
+attempt to set forth in a readable form the results at present attained
+by research. It will consist of twelve volumes by twelve different
+writers, each of them chosen as being specially capable of dealing with
+the period which he undertakes, and the editors, while leaving to each
+author as free a hand as possible, hope to insure a general similarity
+in method of treatment, so that the twelve volumes may in their
+contents, as well as in their outward appearance, form one History._
+
+_As its title imports, this History will primarily deal with politics,
+with the History of England and, after the date of the union with
+Scotland, Great Britain, as a state or body politic; but as the life of
+a nation is complex, and its condition at any given time cannot be
+understood without taking into account the various forces acting upon
+it, notices of religious matters and of intellectual, social, and
+economic progress will also find place in these volumes. The footnotes
+will, so far as is possible, be confined to references to authorities,
+and references will not be appended to statements which appear to be
+matters of common knowledge and do not call for support. Each volume
+will have an Appendix giving some account of the chief authorities,
+original and secondary, which the author has used. This account will be
+compiled with a view of helping students rather than of making long
+lists of books without any notes as to their contents or value. That the
+History will have faults both of its own and such as will always in some
+measure attend co-operative work, must be expected, but no pains have
+been spared to make it, so far as may be, not wholly unworthy of the
+greatness of its subject._
+
+_Each volume, while forming part of a complete History, will also in
+itself be a separate and complete book, will be sold separately, and
+will have its own index, and two or more maps._
+
+The History is divided as follows:--
+
+Vol. I. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (to 1066). By
+    Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D., Fellow of University College,
+    London; Fellow of the British Academy. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. II. FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OF JOHN (1066-1216). By
+    George Burton Adams, D.D., Litt.D., Professor of History in Yale
+    University. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. III. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY III. TO THE DEATH OF EDWARD III.
+    (1216-1377). By T. F. Tout, M.A., Bishop Fraser Professor of
+    Mediaeval and Ecclesiastical History in the University of Manchester;
+    formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF RICHARD II. TO THE DEATH OF RICHARD III.
+    (1377-1485). By C. W. C. Oman, M.A., LL.D., M.P., Chichele Professor
+    of Modern History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of the British
+    Academy. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. V. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VII. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VIII.
+    (1485-1547). By the Right Hon. H. A. L. Fisher, M.A., M.P.,
+    President of the Board of Education; Fellow of the British Academy.
+    With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VI. FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD VI. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH
+    (1547-1603). By A. F. Pollard, M.A., Litt.D., Fellow of All Souls'
+    College, Oxford, and Professor of English History in the University
+    of London. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VII. FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. TO THE RESTORATION (1603-1660).
+    By F. C. Montague, M.A., Astor Professor of History in University
+    College, London; formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. With 3
+    Maps.
+
+Vol. VIII. FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE DEATH OF WILLIAM III.
+    (1660-1702). By Sir Richard Lodge, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Professor
+    of History in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Fellow of
+    Brasenose College, Oxford. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. IX. FROM THE ACCESSION OF ANNE TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE II.
+    (1702-1760). By I. S. Leadam, M.A., formerly Fellow of Brasenose
+    College, Oxford. With 8 Maps.
+
+Vol. X. FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. TO THE CLOSE OF PITT'S FIRST
+    ADMINISTRATION (1760-1801). By the Rev. William Hunt, M.A., D.Litt.,
+    Trinity College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XI. FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S
+    REIGN (1801-1837). By the Hon. George C. Brodrick, D.C.L., late
+    Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and J. K. Fotheringham, M.A.,
+    D.Litt., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; Lecturer in Ancient
+    History at King's College, London. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XII. THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA (1837-1901). By Sir Sidney Low,
+    M.A., Fellow of King's College, London; formerly Scholar of Balliol
+    College, Oxford, and Lloyd C. Sanders, B.A. With 3 Maps.
+
+
+
+
+                    The Political History of England
+
+                           IN TWELVE VOLUMES
+
+                  EDITED BY WILLIAM HUNT, D.LITT., AND
+                         REGINALD L. POOLE, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+                                   XI.
+
+                         THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+                   FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO
+
+                    THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S REIGN
+
+                                1801-1837
+
+
+
+
+                                 BY THE
+
+                     HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK, D.C.L.
+
+                  LATE WARDEN OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD
+
+                        COMPLETED AND REVISED BY
+
+                    J. K. FOTHERINGHAM, M.A., D.LITT.
+
+             FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD; LECTURER IN
+                ANCIENT HISTORY AT KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON
+
+
+                            _NEW IMPRESSION_
+
+
+                         LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
+
+                       39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+
+                  FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK
+
+                      BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+
+                                  1919
+
+
+
+
+_NOTE._
+
+
+_When the late Warden of Merton undertook the preparation of this volume
+he invited the assistance of Dr. Fotheringham in the portions dealing
+with foreign affairs. At the time of the late Warden's death in 1903
+three chapters (x., xii. and xviii.) were unwritten, and one (xx.) was
+left incomplete. It was also found that the volume had to be recast in
+order to meet the plan of the series. The necessary alterations and
+additions have been made by Dr. Fotheringham, who has been scrupulous in
+retaining the expression of the late Warden's views, and, where
+possible, his words._
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                              ADDINGTON.
+                                                                       PAGE
+
+   Mar., 1801. The new ministry                                           1
+               Condition of Ireland                                       2
+               Expedition to Copenhagen                                   3
+         Sept. Egypt evacuated by the French                              6
+               French diplomatic successes                                6
+               Bonaparte's concordat with the pope                        7
+               Peace negotiations with France                             8
+               Cornwallis at Amiens                                      10
+25 Mar., 1802. The treaty of Amiens                                      12
+               Parliamentary criticism of the treaty                     14
+         July. General election                                          15
+          Nov. Colonel Despard's conspiracy                              16
+               Further aggressions of Napoleon                           17
+               His colonial policy                                       18
+               Negotiations between Whitworth and the French government  19
+ 18 May, 1803. Renewal of the war with France                            22
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                          THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+23 July, 1803. Emmet's rebellion                                         23
+               Pitt's discontent with the ministry                       24
+               Ministerial changes                                       27
+   Jan., 1804. The king's illness                                        29
+        April. Addington's resignation                                   31
+               The exclusion of Fox                                      32
+       18 May. Napoleon declared emperor                                 33
+               Pitt's ministry                                           34
+               The impeachment of Melville                               36
+         July. The third coalition                                       37
+               Nelson's pursuit of Villeneuve                            39
+21 Oct., 1805. The battle of Trafalgar                                   40
+               Napoleon marches into Germany                             41
+          Dec. Austerlitz: the peace of Pressburg                        42
+               Collapse of the coalition                                 43
+23 Jan., 1806. Death of Pitt                                             43
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+                         GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+   Feb., 1806. Formation of the Grenville ministry                       45
+      13 Sept. Death of Fox                                              46
+       14 Oct. Jena and Auerstaedt                                        47
+               General election                                          48
+25 Mar., 1807. Abolition of the slave trade                              48
+               Fall of the whig government                               49
+               The Portland administration                               50
+               General election                                          50
+       7 July. The treaty of Tilsit                                      52
+               Seizure of the Danish fleet                               54
+               The "continental system" and orders in council            55
+               Fruitless expeditions                                     56
+       12 Oct. Conference of Erfurt                                      59
+               Army scandals                                             60
+               The Wagram campaign                                       63
+   July, 1809. The Walcheren expedition                                  64
+      21 Sept. Duel between Canning and Castlereagh                      67
+          Oct. Perceval's administration                                 68
+               Capture of the Ionian Isles and Bourbon                   69
+           25. Jubilee of George III.                                    69
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+                        PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+   Jan., 1810. Debates on the Walcheren expedition                       71
+        April. The arrest of Burdett                                     72
+               Appointment of the "Bullion committee"                    73
+               The king's insanity: regency bill                         74
+ 11 May, 1812. Assassination of Perceval                                 76
+      1809-11. Social reforms in his ministry                            77
+   July, 1810. Deposition of Louis Bonaparte                             78
+               Opposition in Europe to the continental system            78
+               Alliances formed by Russia and France                     81
+               Conquest of Java and Sumatra                              81
+   June, 1812. The formation of Liverpool's cabinet                      81
+      1811-12. Distress in town and country                              83
+   Oct., 1812. General election                                          85
+         1813. Confirmation of the East India Company's charter          86
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                          THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+   1807, 1808. The origin of the war                                     87
+               Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. seek the
+                   protection of Napoleon                                87
+         1808. Napoleon's plans for the conquest of Spain                88
+      24 July. Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain                 89
+       13 Aug. Landing of Wellesley                                      90
+           21. Battle of Vimeiro                                         91
+Oct., 1808.-   Expedition of Sir John Moore                              92
+   Jan., 1809.
+       16 Jan. Battle of Coruna                                          95
+               Wellesley returns to Portugal                             97
+      27 July. Battle of Talavera                                        98
+  Sept., 1810. Bussaco: the lines of Torres Vedras                      101
+               Struggle for the frontier fortresses                     103
+ 16 May, 1811. Battle of Albuera                                        103
+Jan.-April,    Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz                     105
+         1812.
+      22 July. Battle of Salamanca                                      107
+   1812, 1813. Wellington reorganises the Spanish and Portuguese armies 109
+21 June, 1813. Battle of Vitoria                                        110
+               Battle of the Pyrenees                                   113
+               Siege of St. Sebastian                                   113
+        8 Oct. Wellington crosses the Bidassoa                          115
+               Battles round Bayonne                                    115
+   Feb., 1814. The investment of Bayonne                                117
+     10 April. Battle of Toulouse                                       119
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                       THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+         1812. French treaties with Prussia and Austria                 122
+               Alliances made by Russia                                 123
+         June. Napoleon's advance into Russia                           124
+               His retreat                                              125
+               War between England and the United States                126
+               Attacks on Canada                                        129
+               American successes at sea                                131
+   Feb., 1813. Treaty of Kalisch                                        134
+               Austrian diplomacy                                       135
+    2, 21 May. Luetzen and Bautzen                                       135
+    Aug., Oct. Dresden and Leipzig                                      137
+               France loses Saxony, Holland, and Switzerland            138
+               American war continued                                   138
+       1 June. Duel of the _Shannon_ and _Chesapeake_                   142
+Jan.-Mar.,     Campaign in France                                       143
+         1814.
+        April. Napoleon deposed: Louis XVIII. recalled                  145
+       24 Dec. Treaty of Ghent                                          147
+         July. Visit of Alexander and Frederick William to England      148
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+                          VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+30 May, 1814.  The first treaty of Paris                                149
+               English blockade of Norwegian ports                      150
+               Union of Sweden and Norway                               150
+               Restoration of Ferdinand VII. and Pius VII.              150
+               Attempts to abolish the slave trade                      151
+Sept., 1814-   Congress of Vienna                                       152
+   June, 1815.
+ 3 Jan., 1815. Secret treaty between England, France, and Austria       153
+      1 March. Napoleon's return from Elba                              153
+               Flight of Louis XVIII.: the _Acte Additionnel_           155
+               Plans of the allies                                      156
+               Defeat and death of Murat                                157
+         June. Wellington at Brussels: his army                         158
+           16. Ligny and Quatre Bras                                    159
+           18. Waterloo                                                 160
+         July. Paris occupied by the allies                             163
+      22 June. Second abdication of Napoleon                            165
+               His surrender to England                                 165
+               Restoration of Louis XVIII.: treaty of Vienna            166
+               Resettlement of Europe                                   166
+       20 Nov. Second treaty of Paris: English gains                    167
+      26 Sept. The Holy Alliance                                        168
+               Napoleon at St. Helena                                   169
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                        THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+         1816. Depression and discontent                                171
+               Vansittart's financial policy                            173
+               Union of British and Irish exchequers                    174
+ 2 Dec., 1816. Spa Fields riot                                          175
+               Prosecution of Hone                                      177
+         1818. General election                                         178
+16 Aug., 1819. The "Manchester massacre"                                178
+          Dec. The six acts                                             180
+   1817, 1819. Institution of savings banks: currency reform            182
+ 6 Nov., 1817. Death of Princess Charlotte                              184
+         1818. Royal marriages                                          184
+29 Jan., 1820. Death of George III.                                     185
+               Royalist reaction in Europe                              187
+         1816. Expedition against the Barbary states                    187
+         1819. Murder of Kotzebue                                       189
+30 Sept.,      Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle                            189
+         1818.
+               Spain asks for assistance from the allies                190
+               The European alliance                                    190
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+                   THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+         1820. The Cato Street conspiracy                               192
+               Dissolution of parliament                                193
+               The "queen's trial"                                      194
+ 7 Aug., 1821. Her death                                                196
+         1822. Changes in the cabinet                                   199
+       12 Aug. Death of Castlereagh                                     199
+         Sept. Canning foreign secretary                                200
+          Jan. Peel home secretary                                      201
+         1823. Reform of the navigation laws                            202
+               Agricultural discontent                                  203
+         1825. Speculative frenzy and financial panic                   205
+      1823-26. Robinson's finance                                       206
+               General election of 1826                                 207
+               Close of Liverpool's ministry                            208
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                     PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+         1820. Revolution in Spain: policy of non-intervention          210
+    July, Aug. Revolutions in the Two Sicilies and Portugal             211
+       20 Oct. Congress of Troppau                                      211
+   Jan., 1821. Congress of Laibach                                      212
+  Mar., April. Revolution in Piedmont: Austrian intervention            213
+               Insurrections in the Morea and Central Greece            214
+          Aug. "Sanitary cordon"                                        215
+               Ultra-royalist parties in France and Spain               215
+               Loss of Spanish colonies in America                      215
+         1822. Conference at Vienna                                     216
+       20 Oct. Congress of Verona                                       217
+               Offer of mediation declined                              218
+7 April, 1823. War between France and Spain                             220
+12 Oct., 1822. Independence of Brazil                                   221
+   July, 1825. Conference at London                                     222
+ 2 Dec., 1823. The Monroe doctrine                                      223
+      1824-25. Conference at St. Petersburg                             224
+ 1 Dec., 1825. Death of the Tsar Alexander I.                           225
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+                  TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+  April, 1827. Formation of Canning's ministry                          227
+               Additions to the ministry                                228
+        8 Aug. Death of Canning                                         228
+         Sept. Goderich's cabinet                                       229
+               Dissensions: resignation of Goderich                     230
+ 9 Jan., 1828. Wellington accepts office                                230
+               The Eastern question                                     232
+20 Oct., 1827. Navarino                                                 233
+         1828. Repeal of the test and corporation acts                  235
+    May, June. Changes in the ministry                                  236
+   June, July. The Clare election                                       237
+         1821. Measures for catholic relief                             239
+         1825. Further measures                                         241
+               George IV.'s opposition to catholic relief               244
+         1829. Wellington and Peel adopt catholic relief                245
+  Mar., April. Debates on the bill                                      246
+     13 April. The royal assent                                         249
+       21 Mar. Duel between Wellington and Winchilsea                   250
+               Exclusion of O'Connell from Parliament                   251
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+                          PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+10 Mar., 1826. Death of John VI. of Portugal                            253
+        2 May. Peter abdicates in favour of his daughter Maria          254
+      31 July. Miguel proclaimed king by the absolutists                254
+          Dec. England sends troops to help the Portuguese government   255
+ 3 Mar., 1828. Peter appoints Miguel regent for Maria                   258
+   Dec., 1827. The sultan defies Russia                                 260
+26 April,      Russia makes war on the Turks                            263
+         1828.
+               Negotiations for settlement of Greek question            264
+    Oct., Nov. French troops expel the Turks from the Morea             265
+               Terms of settlement agreed on at Poros and London        266
+14 Sept.,      Peace of Adrianople                                      267
+         1829.
+ 3 Feb., 1830. Greece independent: throne offered to Prince Leopold     268
+               France conquers Algiers                                  269
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+                            PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+         1830. Amalgamation of English and Welsh benches                271
+               Motions for reform                                       271
+      26 June. Death of George IV.                                      272
+               General election                                         274
+      15 Sept. Death of Huskisson                                       275
+               Wellington's opposition to reform                        277
+               Fall of his ministry                                     278
+          Nov. Grey accepts office                                      278
+               His cabinet                                              279
+               The regency bill                                         281
+   Feb., 1831. Althorp's first budget                                   283
+               Public demand for reform                                 285
+               Draft of the first reform bill                           287
+               System of representation in the unreformed house         288
+               Popular excitement: second reading of the bill           291
+               Dissolution of parliament                                292
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+                              THE REFORM.
+
+         1831. General election                                         293
+      24 June. Second reform bill introduced                            294
+        8 Oct. Rejection by the lords                                   296
+               Reform bill riots                                        296
+               Attempts at compromise in the lords                      299
+       12 Dec. Final reform bill introduced                             300
+               Gradual loss of the king's confidence in the ministry    302
+  9 May, 1832. Grey resigns                                             302
+               Wellington unable to form a ministry                     303
+               The king recalls Grey                                    304
+       4 June. Third reading of the bill                                304
+               Scotch and Irish reform bills carried                    306
+       26 Oct. The cholera epidemic                                     309
+         1831. The census                                               311
+               State of Ireland                                         312
+               O'Connell's agitation                                    312
+               The "tithe-war" in Ireland                               314
+               Legislation for Ireland                                  316
+               The Kildare Place Society                                317
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+                         FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+         1832. General election                                         318
+         1833. Irish coercion bill                                      320
+               Irish Church temporalities bill                          322
+               Ministerial changes                                      325
+               Abolition of colonial slavery                            326
+               Factory acts                                             327
+               The East India Company act                               328
+               Bank charter act                                         330
+               Formation of judicial committee of the privy council     332
+               Act for the abolition of fines and recoveries            333
+1831, 1832,    Althorp's budgets                                        334
+         1833.
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+                RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+         1833. The Tractarian movement                                  336
+         1832. First meeting of the British Association                 338
+               Foundation of the Catholic Apostolic Church              339
+         1834. The "new poor law"                                       340
+               Creation of a central poor law board                     343
+               Ministerial discord                                      344
+       9 July. Grey's resignation                                       346
+               Formation of Melbourne's ministry                        347
+       16 Oct. Destruction of the houses of parliament                  349
+       14 Nov. Melbourne's resignation                                  350
+               Wellington's provisional government                      351
+          Dec. Peel's cabinet                                           352
+               The Tamworth manifesto                                   353
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                           PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+   Jan., 1835. General election                                         354
+          Feb. Abercromby elected speaker                               354
+               The "Lichfield House compact"                            356
+        April. Peel's resignation                                       356
+               Melbourne's second ministry                              357
+               Exclusion of Brougham                                    357
+               Municipal corporations act                               360
+   Jan., 1836. Cottenham lord chancellor                                363
+               Conflict with the lords on Irish bills                   365
+               Tithe commutation act (English)                          365
+               Reformed marriage law                                    366
+               Registration system                                      366
+   1835, 1836. Crusade against Orange lodges                            367
+         1836. The paper duties lowered                                 369
+               Committee on agricultural distress                       370
+   1836, 1837. Agitation in Ireland                                     371
+         1837. Irish municipal bill                                     372
+               Church rates                                             373
+               Burdett secedes from the whig party                      374
+      20 June. Death of William IV.                                     375
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+                    FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+   July, 1830. The revolution of July                                   376
+               Recognition of Louis Philippe by the Powers              377
+         Sept. Belgian provinces in revolt                              379
+       20 Dec. Protocol of London                                       381
+   June, 1831. Election of Leopold as King of the Belgians              383
+          Aug. War between Belgium and Holland                          384
+               French troops enter Belgium                              384
+          Nov. British and French fleets blockade the Scheldt           386
+   Nov., 1833. Convention between Holland and Belgium                   387
+         1830. Insurrections in Switzerland, Poland, Italy, etc.        387
+   1831, 1832. Capture of Warsaw; Polish constitution abolished         388
+7 April, 1831. Peter leaves Brazil for Portugal                         388
+               Carlist rebellion in Spain                               389
+22 April,      The quadruple alliance                                   389
+         1834.
+       26 May. Miguel renounces his claims                              390
+ 9 Oct., 1831. Capodistrias (Greek president) assassinated              392
+         1832. Otto of Bavaria becomes King of Greece                   392
+         1831. War between Ibrahim and the Sultan                       393
+         1833. Treaties of Kiutayeh and Unkiar Skelessi                 394
+       8 Sept. Secret convention at Muenchengraetz                        395
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+                             BRITISH INDIA.
+
+         1801. Annexation of the Karnatik                               397
+         1803. Assaye and Argaum                                        399
+         1805. Resignation of Lord Wellesley                            399
+10 July, 1806. Mutiny at Vellore                                        400
+               Lord Minto's pacific policy                              401
+      1801-10. Treaties with Persia                                     402
+               Elphinstone in Afghanistan                               403
+         1813. Lord Moira appointed governor-general                    404
+               The Pindari war                                          405
+         1818. Subjugation of the Pindaris                              407
+               First Burmese war                                        408
+               Abolition of sati                                        410
+               Extirpation of thagi                                     411
+               Defence of Herat                                         412
+               Communication with India                                 413
+               Burnes's mission to Kabul                                413
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+                    LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+               The "Lake school"                                        416
+               Scott's novels                                           418
+               Minor poets: philosophical works                         420
+               Newspapers and reviews                                   422
+               Essayists and historians                                 425
+               The arts: painting, sculpture                            427
+               Scientific discoveries                                   428
+               University reform                                        429
+               Formation of London University                           431
+               Improvements in agriculture                              433
+               Steam navigation                                         434
+               The first railways                                       435
+               Geographical discovery                                   436
+               Philanthropy                                             436
+               Canada                                                   437
+               South Africa                                             438
+               Convict settlements in Australia                         438
+               Development of Australia                                 439
+
+
+APPENDIX    I. On Authorities                                           443
+           II. Administrations, 1801-37                                 451
+
+
+                              MAPS.
+
+                   (AT THE END OF THE VOLUME.)
+
+1. Great Britain, showing the parliamentary representation after the
+   reform.
+2. Spain and Portugal, illustrating the Peninsular war.
+3. India.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I.
+
+                              ADDINGTON.
+
+
+When, early in March, 1801, Pitt resigned office, he was succeeded by
+Henry Addington, who had been speaker of the house of commons for over
+eleven years, and who now received the seals of office as first lord of
+the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer on March 14, 1801. He was
+able to retain the services of the Duke of Portland as home secretary,
+of Lord Chatham as president of the council, and of Lord Westmorland as
+lord privy seal. For the rest, his colleagues were, like himself, new to
+cabinet rank. Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards the second Earl of Liverpool)
+became foreign secretary, and Lord Hobart, son of the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire, secretary for war. Loughborough reaped the due reward
+of his treachery by being excluded from the ministry altogether; with a
+curious obstinacy he persisted in attending cabinet councils, until a
+letter from Addington informed him that his presence was not desired. He
+received some small consolation, however, in his elevation to the
+Earldom of Rosslyn. Lord Eldon was the new chancellor and was destined
+to hold the office uninterruptedly, except for the brief ministry of Fox
+and Grenville, till 1827. Lord St. Vincent became first lord of the
+admiralty, and Lord Lewisham president of the board of control.
+Cornwallis had resigned with Pitt, but it was not till June 16 that a
+successor was found for him as master general of the ordnance. It was
+then arranged that Chatham should take this office. Portland succeeded
+Chatham as lord president, and Lord Pelham, whose father had just been
+created Earl of Chichester, became home secretary instead of Portland.
+An important change was introduced into the distribution of work between
+the different secretaries of state, the administration of colonial
+affairs being transferred from the home to the war office, so that
+Hobart and his successors down to 1854 were known as secretaries of
+state for war and the colonies. Soon afterwards Lewisham succeeded his
+father as Earl of Dartmouth.
+
+Though the Addington ministry has, not without justice, been derided for
+its weakness as compared with its immediate predecessor, it is
+interesting to observe that in it one of the greatest of English judges
+as well as a future premier, destined to display an unique power of
+holding his party together, first attained to cabinet rank; and in the
+following year it was reinforced by Castlereagh, who disputes with
+Canning the honour of being regarded as the ablest statesman of what was
+then the younger generation. The weakness of the ministry must therefore
+be attributed to a lack of experience rather than a lack of talent. It
+was unfortunate in succeeding a particularly strong administration, but
+is well able to bear comparison with most of the later ministries of
+George III. Addington himself was in more thorough sympathy with the
+king than any premier before or after. Conversation with Addington was,
+according to the king, like "thinking aloud"; and with a king who, like
+George III., still regarded himself as responsible for the national
+policy, hearty co-operation between king and premier was a matter of no
+slight importance.
+
+In the early days of the new administration Pitt loyally kept his
+promise of friendly support, and it is to be deplored that Grenville and
+Canning did not adopt the same course. While the issue of peace and war
+was pending, domestic legislation inevitably remained in abeyance. In
+Ireland serious disappointment had been caused by the abandonment of
+catholic emancipation; but the disappointment was borne quietly, and the
+Irish Roman catholics doubtless did not foresee to what a distance of
+time the removal of their disabilities had been postponed. The just and
+mild rule of the new lord lieutenant, Lord Hardwicke, contributed to the
+pacification of the country. But in reality the conduct of the movement
+for emancipation was only passing into new hands; when it reappeared it
+was no longer led by catholic lords and bishops, but was a peasant
+movement, headed by the unscrupulous demagogue O'Connell. In these
+circumstances it is to be regretted that the new administration
+neglected to carry that one of the half-promised concessions to the
+catholics which could not offend the king's conscience, namely, the
+commutation of tithe. Nothing in the protestant ascendency was so
+irritating to the catholic peasantry as the necessity of paying tithe to
+a protestant clergy, and its commutation, while benefiting the clergy
+themselves, would have removed the occasion of subsequent agitation. The
+spirit of disloyalty, however, was believed to be by no means extinct
+either in Ireland or in Great Britain, and two stringent acts were
+passed to repress it. The first, for the continuance of martial law in
+Ireland, was supported by almost all the Irish speakers in the house of
+commons, where it was carried without a division, and was adopted in the
+house of lords by an overwhelming majority, after an impressive speech
+from Lord Clare. The second, for the suspension of the _habeas corpus_
+act in the whole United Kingdom was framed to remain in force "during
+the continuance of the war, and for one month after the signing of a
+definitive treaty of peace".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE HORNE TOOKE ACT._]
+
+The only other measure of permanent interest which became law in this
+session was the so-called "Horne Tooke act," occasioned by the return of
+Horne Tooke, who was in holy orders, for Old Sarum. Such a return was
+contrary to custom, but the precedents collected by a committee of the
+house of commons were inconclusive. It was accordingly enacted that in
+future clergymen of the established churches should be ineligible for
+seats in parliament, while Horne Tooke was deemed to have been validly
+elected, and retained his seat. The house of commons found time,
+however, for an important and well-sustained debate on India, in which
+among others Dundas, now no longer in office, showed a thorough
+knowledge of questions affecting Indian finance and trade.
+
+The naval expedition which had been prepared in the last days of Pitt's
+administration sailed for Copenhagen on March 12, 1801, under Sir Hyde
+Parker, with Nelson as second in command. The admiral in chief was of a
+cautious temper, but was wise enough to allow himself to be guided by
+Nelson's judgment when planning an engagement, though not as to the
+general course of the expedition. The fleet consisted of sixteen ships
+of the line and thirty-four smaller vessels; all these with the
+exception of one ship of the line reached the Skaw on the 18th. A
+frigate was sent in advance with instructions to Vansittart, the
+British envoy at Copenhagen, to present an ultimatum to the Danish
+government,[1] demanding a favourable answer to the British demands
+within forty-eight hours. For three days Parker waited at anchor
+eighteen miles from Elsinore, and it was only when Vansittart brought an
+unfavourable reply on the 23rd that he took Nelson into his counsels. He
+readily adopted Nelson's plan of ignoring the Danish batteries at
+Kronborg and making a circuit so as to attack Copenhagen at the weak
+southern end of its defences, but set aside his project of masking
+Copenhagen and making straight for a Russian squadron of twelve ships of
+the line which was lying icebound at Revel. The fair weather of the 26th
+was wasted in irresolution, and it was not till the 30th that the fleet
+was able to weigh anchor. It passed Kronborg in safety and anchored five
+miles north of Copenhagen.
+
+Parker placed under Nelson's immediate command twelve ships of the line
+and twenty-one smaller vessels, by far the greater part of the British
+fleet. With these he was to pass to the east of a shoal called the
+Middle Ground and attack the defences of Copenhagen from the south,
+while Parker with the remainder of the fleet was to make a demonstration
+against the more formidable northern defences. The wind could not of
+course favour both attacks simultaneously, and it was agreed that the
+attack should be made when the wind favoured Nelson. The nights of the
+30th and 31st were spent in reconnoitring and laying buoys. On April 1 a
+north wind brought Nelson's squadron past the Middle Ground, and on the
+next day a south wind enabled him to attack the Danish fleet, if fleet
+it may be called. At the north end of the Danish position stood the only
+permanent battery, the Trekroner, with two hulks or blockships; the rest
+consisted of seven blockships and eleven floating batteries, drawn up
+along the shore. An attack on the south end of the line was also exposed
+to batteries on the island of Amager. Nelson's intention was to close
+with the whole Danish fleet, but three of his ships of the line were
+stranded and he was obliged to leave the assault on the northern end
+entirely to lighter vessels.
+
+[Pageheading: _BATTLE OF THE BALTIC._]
+
+The Danish batteries proved more powerful than had been anticipated, and
+as time went on and the Danish resistance did not appear to lose in
+strength, Parker grew doubtful of the result of the battle and gave the
+order to cease action. The order was apparently not intended to be
+imperative, but it had the effect of inducing Riou, who commanded the
+frigate squadron, to sail away to the north. For the rest of the fleet
+obedience was out of the question. Nelson acknowledged, but refused to
+repeat the order, and, jocularly placing his glass to his blind eye,
+declared that he could not see the signal. At length the British
+cannonade told. Fischer, the Danish commander, had had to shift his flag
+twice, at the second time to the Trekroner, and all the ships south of
+that battery had either ceased fire or were practically helpless. The
+Trekroner, however, was still unsubdued and rendered it impossible for
+Nelson's squadron to retire, in the only direction which the wind would
+allow, without severe loss. He accordingly sent a message to the Danish
+Prince Regent, declaring that he would be compelled to burn the
+batteries he had taken, without saving their crews, unless firing
+ceased. If a truce were arranged until he could take his prisoners out
+of the prizes, he was prepared to land the wounded Danes, and burn or
+remove the prizes. A truce for twenty-four hours was accordingly
+arranged, which Nelson employed to remove his own fleet unmolested.
+
+The destruction of the southern batteries left Copenhagen exposed to
+bombardment, and the Danes, unable to resist, yet afraid to offend the
+tsar by submission, prolonged the time from day to day till news arrived
+which removed all occasion for hostility. Unknown to either of the
+combatants, the Tsar Paul, the life and soul of the northern
+confederacy, had been murdered on the night of March 23, ten days before
+the battle, and with his death the league was practically dissolved.
+When Nelson advanced further into the Baltic, he found no hostile fleet
+awaiting him, and the new tsar, Alexander, adopting an opposite policy,
+entered into a compromise on the subject of maritime rights. The battle
+of the Baltic is considered by some to have been Nelson's masterpiece.
+It won for him the title of viscount and for his second in command,
+Rear-Admiral Graves, the gift of the ribbon of the Bath, but the
+admiralty, for official reasons, declined to confer any public reward
+or honour on the officers concerned in it.
+
+At the same time, the French occupation of Egypt was drawing towards its
+inevitable close. Kleber, who was left in command by Bonaparte, perished
+by the hand of an assassin, and Menou, who succeeded to the command, was
+not only a weak general, but was prevented from receiving any
+reinforcements by the naval supremacy of Great Britain in the
+Mediterranean. On March 21, 1801, the French army was defeated at the
+battle of Alexandria by the British force sent out under Sir Ralph
+Abercromby, who was himself mortally wounded on the field. His
+successor, General Hutchinson, completed his work by taking Cairo,
+before the arrival of General Baird, who had led a mixed body of British
+soldiers and sepoys from the Red Sea across the desert to the Nile. The
+capitulation of Alexandria soon followed. In September the French
+evacuated Egypt, the remains of their army were conveyed to France in
+English ships, and Bonaparte's long-cherished dreams of eastern conquest
+faded away for ever--not from his own imagination, but from the
+calculations of practical statesmanship.
+
+French arms, and French diplomacy supported by armed force, were more
+successful elsewhere. The treaty of Luneville was only the first of a
+series of treaties, by which France secured to herself a political
+position commensurate with her military glory. By the treaty of Aranjuez
+between France and Spain, signed on March 21, Spain ceded Louisiana to
+France, reserving the right of pre-emption, and undertook to wage war on
+Portugal in order to detach it from the British alliance. Spain and
+Portugal were both lukewarm in this war, and on June 6 signed the treaty
+of Badajoz, by which Portugal agreed to close her ports to England, to
+pay an indemnity to Spain, and to cede the small district of Olivenza,
+south of Badajoz. Bonaparte was intensely irritated by this treaty,
+which deprived him of the hope of exchanging conquests in Portugal for
+British colonial conquests in any future negotiations; he declared that
+Spain would have to pay by the sacrifice of her colonies for the
+conquered French colonies which he still hoped to recover. A French army
+was despatched to Portugal and enabled Bonaparte to dictate the treaty
+of Madrid, signed on September 29, whereby Portugal ceded half Guiana to
+France and undertook, as at Badajoz, to close her ports against
+England.
+
+[Pageheading: _INFLUENCES MAKING FOR PEACE._]
+
+This last condition was equally imposed on the King of the Two Sicilies
+by the treaty of Florence, concluded on March 28, and before the end of
+the year France had established friendly relations with the Sultan of
+Turkey and the new Tsar of Russia. More important still, as
+consolidating Bonaparte's power at home, was the concordat signed by him
+and the pope on July 15 recognising Roman Catholicism as the religion of
+the majority of Frenchmen, and of the consuls, guaranteeing stipends,
+though on an abjectly mean scale, to the clergy, and placing the entire
+patronage of the French Church in the hands of the first consul. Never
+since the French revolution had the Church been thus acknowledged as the
+auxiliary, or rather as the handmaid, of the state, and probably no one
+but the first consul could have brought about the reconciliation. After
+such exertions, even he may have sincerely desired an honourable peace,
+as the crown of his victories, or at least as a breathing time, to
+enable him to mature his vast designs for reorganising France. Perhaps
+he did not yet fully recognise that war was a necessity of his political
+ascendency, no less than of his own personal character. The French
+people still clung to republican institutions; and the consulate was a
+nominal republic, with all effective power vested in the first consul.
+Time was to show how largely this unique position depended on his unique
+capacity of conducting wars glorious to French arms; for the present,
+France was satisfied, and longed for peace.
+
+The English ministry, too, was impelled by strong motives to enter upon
+the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Amiens. Not only was
+Great Britain crippled by the loss of nearly all her allies, but the
+high price of bread had roused grave disaffection,[2] and intensified
+among British merchants a desire for an unmolested extension of
+commerce; above all, English statesmen now recognised the consulate,
+under Bonaparte, as the first stable and non-revolutionary government
+since the fall of the French monarchy. Both countries, therefore, were
+predisposed to entertain pacific overtures, but the very fact that these
+were in contemplation stirred both sides to further endeavours in order
+to secure better terms of peace. A French squadron, commanded by Admiral
+Linois and containing three ships of the line besides smaller boats, was
+making a movement for the Straits of Gibraltar in order to strengthen
+the force at Cadiz. Sir James Saumarez with five ships of the line and
+two smaller vessels engaged Linois off Algeciras on July 5, but the
+French ships were supported by the land batteries, and one of the
+British ships, the _Hannibal_ (74), ran aground, and Saumarez was
+eventually compelled to leave her in the hands of the enemy. This
+victory was hailed with delight throughout France, but it was fully
+retrieved a week later. The French squadron had in the meantime been
+reinforced by one French and five Spanish ships of the line, and on the
+12th it made a fresh attempt to reach Cadiz; it was, however, engaged in
+the Straits by Saumarez with five ships of the line. In the ensuing
+battle two Spanish ships blew up, and the French _Saint Antoine_ was
+captured. The remainder succeeded in reaching Cadiz, but Saumarez was
+able to resume the blockade a few weeks later.
+
+Meanwhile there was no relaxation of French preparations for an invasion
+of England, or of naval activity on the part of Great Britain. No sooner
+had Nelson returned from the Baltic than he was, on July 24, placed in
+command of a "squadron on a particular service," charged with the
+defence of the coast from Beachy Head to Orfordness. With this he not
+only blockaded the northern French ports, but assumed the aggressive,
+and bombarded the vessels therein collected. A more daring attempt to
+cut out the flotilla moored at Boulogne by a boat attack was repelled
+with some loss on the night of August 15. But couriers under flags of
+truce were already passing between London and Paris, and hostilities
+ceased in the autumn of the year 1801.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE QUESTION OF MALTA._]
+
+The history of the negotiations which ended in the peace of Amiens
+derives a special interest from the events which followed it. The
+earliest overtures for peace were made by Hawkesbury on March 21, 1801.
+At first Bonaparte refused to listen to them, but the destruction of the
+northern confederacy inclined him to more pacific counsels. On April 14
+the British government stated its demands. They mark a distinct advance
+on those which had been made in vain at Lille in 1797. France was to
+evacuate Egypt, and Great Britain Minorca, but Great Britain claimed to
+retain Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Trinidad, Essequibo, Demerara,
+Berbice, and Ceylon. She was willing to surrender the Cape of Good Hope
+on condition that it became a free port, and stipulated that an
+indemnity should be provided for the Prince of Orange. At the outset,
+Bonaparte opposed all cessions by France and her allies, but the steady
+improvement in the fortunes of England in the north and in Egypt at last
+determined him to grant some of the British demands, and as the
+evacuation of Egypt became inevitable, he was resolved to gain something
+in exchange for it before it was too late. The preliminary treaty was
+accordingly signed by Bonaparte's agent Otto on behalf of France and
+Hawkesbury on behalf of Great Britain on October 1, the day before the
+news of the French capitulation in Egypt reached England. Great Britain
+had already consented to relinquish Malta, provided that it became
+independent. She now consented to relinquish all her conquests from
+France, and with the exception of Ceylon and Trinidad all her conquests
+from the French allies, requiring, however, that the Cape should be
+recognised as a free port. The French were to evacuate not only Egypt,
+but the Neapolitan and Roman States. Malta was to be restored to the
+knights of St. John under the guarantee of a third power. Prisoners of
+war were to be released on payment of their debts, and the question of
+the charge for their maintenance was to be settled by the definitive
+treaty in accordance with the law of nations and established usage.
+
+No mention was made of the Prince of Orange, but Otto gave a verbal
+assurance that provision would be made to satisfy his claims. He also
+gave the British government to understand that France would be willing
+to cede Tobago in consideration of the expenses incurred in the
+maintenance of French and Dutch prisoners. The omission of all reference
+to the continental relations of France is conspicuous. In France it was
+interpreted as indicating that Great Britain renounced her interest in
+continental politics. The Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian
+republics, the kingdom of Etruria, and the whole east bank of the Rhine
+were, however, supposed to be already protected against French
+encroachment by the treaty of Luneville, and Great Britain had no wish
+to impose terms involving a recognition of these new creations. Again,
+no mention was made of commercial relations apart from the Newfoundland
+and St. Lawrence fisheries, for Great Britain was too ready to believe
+that a separate commercial treaty would be practicable, and was
+naturally loth to delay the conclusion of peace by a difficult
+negotiation.
+
+Cornwallis was appointed to negotiate the definitive treaty, and had
+some hope that he might arrive at an informal understanding with
+Bonaparte at Paris before he proceeded to Amiens. But he was offended by
+Bonaparte's manner, and, dreading to be pitted against so subtle a
+diplomatist as Talleyrand, he left Paris before anything was
+accomplished, and arrived at Amiens on November 30. There France was
+represented by Joseph Bonaparte, the first consul's elder brother, and
+the negotiator of Luneville. At Amiens, the position of the British
+government was compromised from the first by its renewed insistence on a
+point which had been omitted from the preliminary treaty, namely, the
+compensation of the Prince of Orange. This demand was accompanied by an
+endeavour to obtain compensation for the King of Sardinia. Joseph
+Bonaparte, on the other hand, entrenched himself behind the letter of
+the treaty, and acknowledged no further obligation. Any additional
+concession to Great Britain could only be purchased by British
+concessions to France. Other difficulties arose over the question of
+Malta, the payment for the maintenance of prisoners, and the inclusion
+of allies as parties to the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORNWALLIS AT AMIENS._]
+
+On the first of these questions the French would appear to have aimed
+throughout at reducing the knights to as impotent a position as
+possible. The British, on the other hand, ostensibly desiring to see the
+strength of the order maintained, were chiefly interested in securing
+its neutrality. At the time of the signature of the preliminary treaty,
+Russia was the power that seemed to Great Britain the fittest guarantor
+of the independence of the knights. On the refusal of Russia to accept
+this position, Naples appeared to be the next best alternative, but it
+was eventually agreed to substitute for the guarantee of a third power
+the obviously futile guarantee of all the powers. Neither party foresaw
+that the impossibility of obtaining such a guarantee was destined to
+leave the whole clause about Malta inoperative. After much dispute over
+the future constitution of the order, France proposed to obviate the
+chief source of difficulty by the demolition of the forts. This plan
+commended itself to Cornwallis, but was rejected by the British
+government. By the end of December it was agreed that a Neapolitan
+garrison was to occupy the islands provisionally, until the new
+organisation should be established. Great Britain proposed that this
+garrison should be maintained at the joint expense of Great Britain and
+France. It did not occur to the British government to propose any
+guarantee for the preservation of the property of the order, and this
+omission ultimately proved material. The question of including allies in
+the treaty was less complicated. France preferred a number of separate
+treaties so as to keep the British interest in Europe at a minimum.
+Great Britain, on the other hand, wished to make France a party to the
+cessions made by her allies, and successfully insisted on the
+negotiation of a single comprehensive treaty. Joseph Bonaparte granted
+this point on December 11, but, as he had not full powers to negotiate
+with any power except Great Britain, he continued to interpose delays
+till the end of the year.
+
+In the meantime France had failed in her attempts to meet the British
+claims on behalf of the Prince of Orange by demands for further
+privileges and territory in the oceans and colonies. On the whole, the
+first month's negotiations had contributed much to a settlement, without
+giving a decided advantage to either side. The lapse of time, however,
+turned the balance in favour of the negotiator who was the more
+independent of his country's desire for peace. On January 1, 1802,
+Hawkesbury wrote to Cornwallis, treating the acquisition of Tobago as
+unimportant; on the 2nd Addington expressed his readiness to accept a
+separate arrangement with the Batavian republic for the Prince of
+Orange. By the 16th Hawkesbury had yielded the claim of Portugal to be a
+party to the treaty. The refusal of the French to cede Tobago in lieu of
+payment for the French prisoners, and the difficulty of assessing the
+payment, opened a way to the evasion of compensation altogether.
+Cornwallis, preferring to sacrifice this claim rather than re-open the
+war, suggested to Joseph Bonaparte on the 22nd that the treaty should
+provide for commissioners to assess the payment, while it should be
+secretly provided that they should not be appointed. On the same day,
+Joseph Bonaparte communicated his brother's consent to a clause engaging
+France to find a suitable territorial possession in Germany for the
+Prince of Orange.
+
+If Hawkesbury and Cornwallis imagined that they had made sure of an
+early peace by these extensive concessions, they were greatly mistaken.
+Napoleon, flushed with this unexpected success, was encouraged to make
+further trial of the pliability of the British diplomatists. Two events
+occurred at this stage of the negotiations which tried the temper of
+both sides to the uttermost. On January 26, Bonaparte was elected
+president of the Cisalpine republic, to be styled henceforth the Italian
+republic. This event seems to have taken the British government by
+surprise; they thought it a distinct indication that he still
+contemplated further aggressions in spite of the series of treaties by
+which he appeared to be securing peace, and were therefore much less
+inclined than formerly to make concessions. About the same time
+Bonaparte was not unreasonably enraged at the outrageous attacks made on
+him in the press conducted in London by French exiles, especially by
+Jean Peltier, the editor of a paper called _L'Ambigu_, and he blamed the
+British government for permitting their publication. He therefore
+instructed his brother Joseph to raise further difficulties over the
+garrison and permanent organisation of Malta, as well as over the
+proposed accession of the sultan to the treaty. Vain attempts were also
+made by Joseph to retain Otranto for France till the British should have
+evacuated Malta, and to secure the inclusion of the Ligurian republic in
+the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+At last on March 8 Napoleon agreed that no important difference
+remained, and urged his brother to conclude the treaty. A little more
+time was wasted in providing for a temporary occupation of Malta by
+Neapolitan troops, and a more marked division of opinion arose as to the
+compensation for the Prince of Orange. In spite of instructions to the
+contrary from Hawkesbury, Cornwallis accepted an engagement on the part
+of France to find a compensation, not defined, for the house of Nassau,
+instead of charging it on the Dutch government; and the treaty was
+finally concluded on March 25. It was signed by Great Britain, France,
+Spain, and the Batavian republic, while the Porte was admitted as an
+accessory power. It differed from the preliminary convention in no
+important respect, except in the illusory safeguards for the claims of
+the Prince of Orange, the secret arrangement for evading the cost of the
+French prisoners, and the provisions concerning Malta, pregnant with the
+seeds of future enmity. These provisions were as follows: Malta was to
+be restored to the knights of St. John, from whose order both French and
+British were hereafter to be excluded. The evacuation was to take place
+within three months of the ratification of the treaty, or sooner if
+possible. At that date Malta was to be given up, provided the grand
+master or commissaries of the order were present, and provided the
+Neapolitan garrison had arrived. Its independence was to be under the
+guarantee of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, and Prussia.
+Two thousand Neapolitan troops were to occupy it for one year, and until
+the order should have raised a force sufficient, in the judgment of the
+guaranteeing powers, for the defence of the islands.[3]
+
+On October 29, 1801, parliament was opened with a speech from the throne
+briefly announcing the conclusion of a convention with the northern
+powers, and of preliminaries of peace with the French republic. General
+Lauriston, bearing the ratification of the preliminaries by the first
+consul, had reached London on the 10th, when he was received by the
+populace with tumultuous demonstrations of joy. Soon afterwards the
+"feast of the peace" was celebrated in Paris with equal enthusiasm.
+Short-lived as they proved to be, these pacific sentiments were
+doubtless genuine on both sides of the channel. The industrial, though
+not the military, resources of France were exhausted by her prodigious
+efforts during the last eight years; while England, suffering grievously
+from distress among the working-classes and financial difficulties,
+welcomed the prospect of cheaper provisions and easier times, as well as
+of emerging from the political difficulties originating in the French
+revolution.
+
+The preliminary treaty, however, did not escape hostile criticism in
+either house of parliament. It was the subject of discussion in the
+lords on November 3, and in the commons on the 3rd and 4th. Its most
+strenuous assailants were Lord Grenville, who had been foreign secretary
+under Pitt, and the whigs who had joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, among
+whom Lords Spencer and Fitzwilliam and above all Windham call for
+special notice. Windham's powerful and comprehensive speech contained
+more than one shrewd forecast of the future. For once, Pitt and Fox
+supported the same measure, and Pitt, dwelling on _security_ as our
+grand object in the war, specially deprecated any attempt on the part of
+Great Britain "to settle the affairs of the continent". Fox, in
+advocating peace, fiercely denounced the war against the French
+republic, and gloated over the discomfiture of the Bourbons.[4] It was
+admitted on all sides that France was stronger than ever in a military
+and political sense. She had already made treaties with Austria, Naples,
+Spain, and Portugal; other treaties with Russia and Turkey were on the
+point of being signed; while the still more important concordat with the
+pope was already ratified. On the other hand, Great Britain had largely
+increased her colonial possessions, and the chief question now discussed
+was whether she would be the weaker for abandoning some of these recent
+conquests. The general feeling of the nation was fitly expressed by
+Sheridan in the phrase: "This is a peace which all men are glad of, but
+no man can be proud of". Malmesbury, the negotiator of Lille, was absent
+from the debates; but he has recorded in his diary his disapproval both
+of the peace and of the violent opposition to it The king told
+Malmesbury on November 26 that he considered it an experimental peace,
+but unavoidable.[5]
+
+[Pageheading: _DEBATES ON TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+The debates on the definitive treaty of Amiens took place on May 13 and
+14, 1802, and though vigorously sustained, were to some extent a
+repetition of those on the preliminaries of peace. The opposition to it
+was headed by Grenville in the lords and in the commons by Windham, who
+compared it unfavourably with the preliminaries; and the stipulations
+with respect to Malta were justly criticised as one of its weakest
+points. Strange to say, Pitt took no effective part in the discussion,
+which ended in overwhelming majorities for the government. As in the
+previous session, domestic affairs, except in their bearing on foreign
+policy, received comparatively little attention from parliament. The
+income tax was repealed, almost in silence, as the first fruits of
+peace, and Addington, as chancellor of the exchequer, delivered an
+emphatic eulogy on the sinking fund by means of which he calculated that
+in forty-five years the national debt, then amounting to L500,000,000,
+might be entirely paid off. The house of commons showed no want of
+economical zeal in scrutinising the claims of the king on the civil
+list, and those of the Prince of Wales on the revenues of the duchy of
+Cornwall. Nor did it neglect such abuses as the non-residence of the
+parochial clergy, and the cruel practice of bull-baiting, though it
+rejected a bill for the suppression of this practice, after a
+characteristic apology for it from Windham, in which he dwelt upon its
+superiority to horse-racing. In this session, too, a grant of L10,000
+was voted to Jenner for his recent invention of vaccination. In
+supporting it, Wilberforce stated that the victims of small-pox, in
+London alone, numbered 4,000 annually.
+
+The parliament, which had now lasted six years, was dissolved by the
+king in person on June 28, and a general election was held during the
+month of July. The new house of commons did not differ materially from
+the old, and even in Ireland the recent national opposition to the union
+did not lead to the unseating of a single member who had voted for
+it.[6] Meanwhile the ministry was strengthened by the admission to
+office of Lord Castlereagh, already distinguished for his share in the
+negotiations precedent to the union with Ireland. On July 6 he was
+appointed president of the board of control in succession to Dartmouth,
+and was admitted to a seat in the cabinet in October. The new parliament
+did not meet till November 16. During the interval members of both
+houses, with vast numbers of their countrymen, flocked to Paris, which
+had been almost closed to English travellers since the early days of the
+revolution. Fox was presented to Napoleon, as Bonaparte, since the
+decree which made him consul for life, preferred to be styled. Napoleon
+conceived a great admiration for him, and afterwards persuaded himself
+that, had Fox survived, the friendly relations of England and France
+would not have been permanently interrupted. On the very day on which
+parliament assembled, a conspiracy was discovered, which, however insane
+it may now appear, attracted much attention at the time. A certain
+Colonel Despard with thirty-six followers, mainly labourers, had plotted
+to kill the king and seize all the government-buildings, with a view to
+the establishment of what he called the "constitutional independence of
+Ireland and Great Britain" and the "equalisation of all civic rights".
+The conspiracy had no wide ramifications, and the arrest of its leader
+and his companions brought it to an immediate end. Despard was found
+guilty of high treason and was executed on February 21, 1803.
+
+When parliament met, the king's speech referred ominously to fresh
+disturbances in the balance of power on the continent; and votes were
+passed for large additions to the army and navy, in spite of Fox's
+declaration that he saw no reason why Napoleon, satisfied with military
+glory, should not henceforth devote himself to internal improvements in
+France. Nelson, on the contrary, speaking in the house of lords, while
+he professed himself a man of peace, insisted on the danger arising from
+"a restless and unjust ambition on the part of our neighbours," and
+Sheridan delivered a vigorous speech in a like spirit. On the whole, in
+January, 1803, the prospects of assured peace and prosperity were much
+gloomier than they had been in January, 1802, before the treaty of
+Amiens. The funds were going down, the bank restriction act was renewed,
+and Despard's conspiracy still agitated the public mind. In the month of
+February a strong anti-Gallican sentiment was roused by Mackintosh's
+powerful defence of the royalist Jean Peltier, accused and ultimately
+convicted of a gross libel on the first consul. On March 8 came the
+royal message calling out the militia, which heralded the rupture of the
+peace.
+
+The renewal of the war, fraught with so much glory and misery to both
+nations, can have taken neither by surprise. The ink was scarcely dry on
+the treaty of Amiens when fresh causes of discord sprung up between
+France and Great Britain. More than one of these, indeed, had arisen
+between the signature of the preliminary convention and the actual
+conclusion of peace. During the negotiations, the first consul had, as
+we have seen, never ceased to protest against the violent attacks upon
+himself in the English press, while Cornwallis persistently warned his
+own government against the menacing attitude of France in Italy and
+elsewhere. The proclamation of the concordat in April, 1802, and the
+recognition of Napoleon as first consul for life in August, however they
+may have strengthened his position in France, were no legitimate
+subjects for resentment in England; but his acceptance of the presidency
+of the "Italian" republic in January, followed by his annexation of
+Piedmont in September, revived in all its intensity the British mistrust
+of his aggressive policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRENCH AGGRESSIONS._]
+
+The month of October witnessed a renewed aggression on Switzerland. A
+French army, commanded by Ney, advanced into the interior of the
+country, and forced the Swiss, who were in the midst of a civil war, to
+accept the mediation of Napoleon. The new constitution which he framed
+attempted, by weakening the federal government, to place the direction
+of Helvetian external relations in the hands of the French first consul.
+Our government vainly endeavoured to resist this interference by sending
+agents with money and promises. In Germany the redistribution of
+territory necessitated by the peace of Luneville was carried out
+professedly under the joint mediation of France and Russia, but really
+at the dictation of Napoleon. The final project, which destroyed all
+except three of the spiritual principalities and all except six of the
+free cities, was proposed by France on February 23, 1803, and accepted
+by the Emperor Francis on April 27.
+
+Against these rearrangements, Great Britain could have nothing to say;
+their importance is that while the negotiations were pending, Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia all had a strong motive for standing well with
+France. Bonaparte's attitude towards Switzerland was, in so far as it
+was backed by force, an infringement of the treaty of Luneville, to
+which, however, Great Britain was not a party. The neutrality of
+Piedmont had not been safeguarded either at Luneville or at Amiens; it
+had already been occupied by France before the treaty was signed, and
+Napoleon claimed to have as much right to annex territory in Europe
+without the consent of Great Britain as Great Britain had to annex
+territory in India without the consent of France.
+
+Napoleon's schemes of colonial expansion, though equally within the
+letter of the treaty, were not less disconcerting. The reconquest of San
+Domingo appeared necessary in order to obtain a base for the effective
+occupation of the new French possession, Louisiana. The despatch of an
+expedition for this purpose in December, 1801, had excited grave
+suspicion, and when two-thirds of the army had died of yellow fever and
+the remainder had returned home, fresh troops were sent out to take
+their place. A new naval expedition was prepared in the Dutch port of
+Helvoetsluis, but it was impossible to persuade British public opinion
+that its real destination was San Domingo. Finally, on the eve of
+hostilities, in the spring of 1803 Napoleon, despairing of advance in
+this direction and disregarding the Spanish right of pre-emption, sold
+Louisiana to the United States for 80,000,000 francs. Still more
+embarrassing was Bonaparte's eastern policy. In September, 1802, Colonel
+Sebastiani was sent as "commercial agent" to the Levant. He was
+instructed to inspect the condition of ports and arsenals, to assure the
+sheykhs of French favour, and to report on the military resources of
+Syria, Egypt, and the north African coast. His report, which was
+published in the _Moniteur_ of January 30, 1803, set forth the
+opportunities that France would possess in the event of an immediate
+return to hostilities, and was naturally interpreted as disclosing an
+intention to renew the war on the first opportunity. Six thousand French
+would, he said, be enough to reconquer Egypt; the country was in favour
+of France. In March, 1803, Decaen left France with open instructions to
+receive the surrender of the five towns in India restored to France, but
+with secret orders to invite the alliance of Indian sovereigns opposed
+to Great Britain. On his appearance at Pondicherri, the British
+commander prepared to seize him, but he escaped to the Mauritius, which
+he put in a state of defence, and made a basis for attacks on British
+commerce which lasted from 1803 to 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAUSES OF MISTRUST AFTER AMIENS._]
+
+Ireland also was visited by political spies, passing as commercial
+agents. It may not be easy to say how far Emmet's rebellion, to be
+recorded hereafter, was the result of these visits. At all events a
+letter fell into the hands of the British government, addressed by
+Talleyrand to a French agent at Dublin, called Fauvelet, directing him
+to obtain answers to a series of questions about the military and naval
+circumstances of the district, and "to procure a plan of the ports, with
+the soundings and moorings, and to state the draught of water, and the
+wind best suited for ingress and egress". The British government
+naturally complained of these instructions, but Talleyrand persistently
+maintained that they were of a purely commercial character.[7] It is, of
+course, true that these preparations in view of a possible recurrence of
+hostilities, however obvious their intention, were not in themselves
+hostile acts. Still, they were just grounds for suspicion, and, with our
+retrospective knowledge of Napoleon's later career, we may seek in vain
+for the grounds of confidence which had made the conclusion of a treaty
+possible. Great Britain was guilty of more direct breaches of the peace
+of Amiens. Russia refused her guarantee for the independence of Malta,
+and the British government was therefore technically justified in
+retaining it. No similar justification could, however, be alleged for
+the retention of Alexandria and the French towns in India. These
+measures were, as will be seen, defended on broader grounds of public
+policy. Not the least of the causes of discontent with the new situation
+was the refusal of Napoleon to follow up the treaty of peace with a
+commercial treaty. He had even retained French troops in Holland, and
+thus shown that he meant to close its ports against British commerce.
+The hope of a renewal of trade with France had been a main cause of the
+popular desire for peace, and had reconciled the British public to the
+sacrifices with which the treaty of Amiens had been purchased. It soon
+became clear that further concessions would be made the price of a
+commercial treaty, and it was felt in consequence that the sacrifices
+already made were made in vain.
+
+In September, 1802, Lord Whitworth was sent as ambassador extraordinary
+to the French Republic. The instructions which he carried with him from
+Hawkesbury fully reflect the prevailing spirit of mistrust. He was to
+watch for any new leagues which might prejudice England or disturb
+Europe; he was to discover any secret designs that might be formed
+against the East or West Indies; he was to maintain the closest
+surveillance over the internal politics of France, but especially over
+the dispositions of influential personages in the confidence of the
+first consul, as well as over the financial resources and armaments of
+the republic.[8] Two months later, he was expressly warned in a secret
+despatch not in any way to commit His Majesty to a restoration of Malta,
+even if the provisions made at Amiens for this purpose could be
+completely executed; and the principle was laid down, from which the
+British government never swerved, that Great Britain was entitled to
+compensation for any acquisitions made by France since the treaty was
+signed. Accordingly, the retention of Malta was justified as a
+counterpoise to French extensions of territory in Italy, the invasion of
+Switzerland, and the continued occupation of the Batavian republic.[9]
+This resolution was naturally confirmed by the publication of
+Sebastiani's report.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AND WHITWORTH._]
+
+The long negotiations between Whitworth and the French government,
+during the winter of 1802 and the spring of 1803, only bring into
+stronger relief the importance of the issues thus raised, and the
+hopelessness of a pacific solution. Napoleon firmly took his stand
+throughout on the simple letter of the treaty, which pledged Great
+Britain, upon certain conditions, to place the knights of St. John in
+possession of Malta, but did not contemplate the case of further
+accessions of French territory on the continent. Although the conditions
+specified were never fully satisfied, it is abundantly clear that the
+British ministers, having at last grasped the value of Malta, created
+all the difficulties in their power, and determined to cancel this
+article of the treaty. They alleged, in self-defence, that the spirit of
+the treaty had been constantly violated by Napoleon, in repeated acts of
+hostility to British subjects, in the refusal of all redress for such
+grievances, and, above all, in that series of aggressions on the
+continent which he declared to be outside the treaty and beyond the
+province of Great Britain.[10] None of the compromises laboriously
+discussed in the winter of 1802 betoken any desire on the part of
+either government to retreat from its main position, though it does not
+follow that either sought to bring about a renewal of the war. Whitworth
+constantly reported that no formidable armaments were being prepared,
+and clung for months to a belief that Napoleon, knowing the instability
+of his own power and the ruinous state of his finances, would ultimately
+give way. On the other hand, Talleyrand and Joseph Bonaparte never
+ceased to hope that Great Britain would make concessions which might be
+accepted.
+
+Such hopes were rudely dispelled by the king's message to parliament on
+March 8, 1803, complaining of aggressive preparations in the ports of
+France and Holland, and recommending immediate measures for the security
+of his dominions. This message, with the consequent embodiment of the
+militia, startled the whole continent, and was followed five days later
+by the famous scene in which the first consul addressed Whitworth in
+phrases little short of insult. During a public audience at the
+Tuileries on the 13th, Napoleon, after inquiring whether the British
+ambassador had received any news from home, broke out with the words:
+"And so you are determined to go to war". The altercation which ensued
+is best told in Whitworth's own words[11]:--
+
+"'No, first consul,' I replied, 'we are too sensible of the advantages
+of peace.' 'We have,' said he, 'been fighting these fifteen years.' As
+he seemed to wait for an answer, I observed only, 'That is already too
+long'. 'But,' said he, 'you desire to fight for fifteen years more, and
+you are forcing me to it,' I told him that was very far from his
+majesty's intentions. He then proceeded to Count Marcoff and the
+Chevalier Azzara, who were standing together at a little distance from
+me, and said to them, 'The English are bent on war, but if they are the
+first to draw the sword, I shall be the last to put it back into the
+scabbard. They do not respect treaties. They must be covered with black
+crape.' I suppose he meant the treaties. He then went his round, and was
+thought by all those to whom he addressed himself to betray great signs
+of irritation. In a few minutes he came back to me, to my great
+annoyance, and resumed the conversation, if such it can be called, by
+something personally civil to me. He then began again, 'Why these
+armaments? Against whom these measures of precaution? I have not a
+single ship of the line in the French ports; but if you wish to arm, I
+will arm also; if you wish to fight, I will fight also. You may perhaps
+kill France, but will never intimidate her.' 'We wish,' said I, 'neither
+the one nor the other. We wish to live on good terms with her.' 'You
+must respect treaties then,' replied he; 'woe to those who do not
+respect treaties; they shall answer for it to all Europe.'"
+
+Too much stress has been laid upon this incident, so characteristic of
+Napoleon's studied impetuosity. Little more than a fortnight later he
+received the British ambassador with courtesy. Overtures now succeeded
+overtures, and much was expected on both sides from the influence of the
+Tsar Alexander, to whom France suggested that Malta might be ceded.[12]
+At the last moment, a somewhat more conciliatory disposition was shown
+by the French diplomatists; and the British government was blamed by its
+opponents, alike for having failed to break off the negotiations earlier
+on the broadest grounds, and for breaking them off too abruptly on
+grounds of doubtful validity. But we now see that national enmity,
+fostered by the press on both sides, rendered friendly relations
+impossible, and that, even had Napoleon been willing to refrain from
+aggressions, peace was impossible. On May 12, two months after the
+king's message, Whitworth, having presented an ultimatum, finally
+quitted Paris. A few days later an order was issued for the detention of
+all British subjects then resident in France, and justified on the
+ground that French seamen (but not passengers) were liable to capture at
+sea. On June 10 Talleyrand announced the occupation of Hanover and the
+treatment as enemies of Hanoverian soldiers serving under the King of
+Great Britain. Meanwhile, on May 16, the rupture of peaceful relations
+was announced to both houses of parliament; on May 18 war was declared,
+and in June volunteers were already mustering to resist invasion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] So Vansittart himself, in Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, i., 371.
+Southey and Captain Mahan have erroneously supposed that Vansittart
+accompanied the naval expedition and was sent by Parker in the frigate
+from the Skaw.
+
+[2] _Annual Register_, xliii. (1801), chapter i. The average price of
+wheat in 1800 was 112s. 8d. the quarter, whereas the highest annual
+average in the half century before the war had been 64s. 6d. On March 5,
+1801, the price of the quartern loaf stood as high as 1s. 101/2d. On
+July 23 it was still 1s. 8d. The harvest of this year was, however, an
+excellent one. The price fell rapidly during August, and by November 12
+was as low as 101/2d.
+
+[3] Cornwallis, _Correspondence_, iii., 382-487.
+
+[4] In a letter to Charles Carey, dated October 22, Fox went the length
+of expressing extreme pleasure in the triumph of the French government
+over the English (_Memorials of C. J. Fox_, iii., 349).
+
+[5] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 60, 62.
+
+[6] Lecky, _History Of Ireland_, v., 465.
+
+[7] Lanfrey, _Napoleon I._ (English edition), ii., 202; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 164.
+
+[8] Browning, _England and Napoleon in 1803_, pp. 1-6.
+
+[9] Browning, _ibid._, pp. 6-10.
+
+[10] See especially Hawkesbury's despatch in Browning, _ibid._, pp.
+65-68, and Whitworth's despatches, _ibid._, pp. 73-75, 78-85.
+
+[11] Whitworth's despatch of March 14, in Browning, _England and
+Napoleon_, p. 116.
+
+[12] Browning, _England and Napoleon_, p. 218.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER II.
+
+                          THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+
+The period following the rupture of the peace of Amiens, though crowded
+with military events of the highest importance, was inevitably barren in
+social and political interest. Disappointed in its hopes of returning
+prosperity, the nation girded itself up with rare unanimity for a
+renewed contest. In July the income-tax was reinstituted and a bill was
+actually carried authorising a levy _en masse_ in case of invasion.
+Pending its enforcement, the navy was vigorously recruited by means of
+the press-gang; the yeomanry were called out, and a force of infantry
+volunteers was enrolled, which reached a total of 300,000 in August, and
+of nearly 400,000 at the beginning of the next session. Pitt himself, as
+warden of the Cinque Ports, took command of 3,000 volunteers in Kent,
+and contrasted in parliament the warlike enthusiasm of the country with
+the alleged apathy of the ministry. On July 23 a rebellion broke out in
+Ireland, instigated by French agents and headed by a young man named
+Robert Emmet. The conspiracy was ill planned and in itself
+insignificant, but the recklessness of the conspirators was equalled by
+the weakness of the civil and military authorities, who neglected to
+take any precautions in spite of the plainest warnings. The rebels had
+intended to attack Dublin Castle and seize the person of the lord
+lieutenant, who was to be held as a hostage; but they dared not make the
+attempt, and after parading the streets for a few hours were dispersed
+by the spontaneous action of a few determined officers with a handful of
+troops, but not before Lord Kilwarden, the chief justice, and several
+other persons, had been cruelly murdered by Emmet's followers. Futile as
+the rising was, it sufficed to show that union was not a sovereign
+remedy for Irish disaffection.
+
+Meanwhile the relations between the prime minister and his predecessor
+had been growing less and less cordial. Throughout the year 1801 Pitt
+was still the friend and informal adviser of the ministry, and it is
+difficult to overrate the value of his support as a ground of confidence
+in an administration, personally popular, but known to be deficient in
+intellectual brilliance. In 1802 he generally stood aloof, and though in
+June of that year he corrected the draft of the king's speech, he
+absented himself from parliament, for he was dissatisfied with the
+measures adopted by government. His dissatisfaction was known to his
+friends, and in November a movement was set on foot by Canning to induce
+Addington to withdraw in Pitt's favour; but Pitt, though willing to
+resume office, refused to allow the ministry to be approached on the
+subject. He preferred to wait till a general wish for his return to
+power should be manifested. In December he visited Grenville at
+Dropmore, and expressed a certain discontent with the government.[13] It
+was his intention still to treat the ministers with tenderness, but to
+return to parliament and criticise their policy. It is easy to see that
+his object at this date was not to drive the government from office, but
+to give rise to a desire to re-enlist his own talents in the service of
+the country, and thus prepare the way for a peaceable resumption of the
+position he had abandoned in the preceding year.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS FOR PITT'S RETURN._]
+
+No sooner had rumours of Pitt's willingness to resume office reached
+Addington in the last days of December, than he opened negotiations with
+Pitt with a view to effecting this object. Pitt did not receive his
+overtures very warmly. He doubtless wished to be brought back because he
+was felt to be indispensable, without any appearance of intrigue. Time
+was in his favour, and he allowed the negotiations to proceed slowly. As
+the proposals took shape, it became clear that Addington did not wish to
+be openly superseded by Pitt, but preferred that they should serve
+together as secretaries of state under a third person; and Addington
+even suggested Pitt's brother, the Earl of Chatham, then master-general
+of the ordnance, as a suitable prime minister. Pitt's reply,
+communicated to Addington by Dundas, now Viscount Melville, in a letter
+dated March 22, 1803, was to the effect that Pitt would not accept any
+position in the government except that of prime minister, with which was
+to be coupled the office of chancellor of the exchequer. Addington
+readily acceded to Pitt's claim to this position, but Grenville refused
+to serve in a ministry where Addington and Hawkesbury held "any
+efficient offices of real business," and Addington declined to abandon
+ministerial office for a speakership of the house of lords, which Pitt
+proposed to create for him. Finally, on April 10, Pitt at a private
+conference with Addington proposed as an indispensable condition of his
+own return to office that Melville, Spencer, Grenville, and Windham
+should become members of his cabinet. This meant a reconstruction of the
+whole ministry, and Pitt stipulated that the changes should be made by
+the king's desire and on the recommendation of the existing ministry.
+
+The situation had become an impossible one. Nothing was more reasonable
+than that Pitt, the friend and protector of the existing ministry,
+should assume the direction of affairs now that the nation appeared to
+be on the brink of war. But Pitt could not honourably desert those
+former colleagues, who had resigned with him on the catholic question.
+Two of these, however, Grenville and Windham, though doubtless men of
+the highest capacity, had bitterly attacked the existing ministry; and
+it was not to be expected that that ministry, supported as it still was
+by overwhelming majorities in both houses of parliament, supported as it
+had hitherto been by Pitt himself, should consent to admit its opponents
+to a share of office. It is highly improbable that Grenville and Windham
+would then have co-operated with Addington and Hawkesbury, and their
+admission to office would have ruined the cohesion of the cabinet,
+unless it had been accompanied by the retirement of the leading members
+of the existing ministry which Pitt's previous attitude, together with
+the actual balance of parties in parliament, rendered it impossible to
+demand. How difficult it was to induce Grenville and Windham to enter
+into any combination future years were to prove. For the present the
+ministry took not merely the wisest, but the only course open to it.
+Addington, after vainly endeavouring to induce Pitt to modify his terms,
+laid them before a cabinet council on April 13; they were immediately
+rejected, though the cabinet declared itself ready to admit to office
+Pitt himself and those of his colleagues who had hitherto acted with the
+Addington ministry. Pitt could hardly have expected any other reply. No
+ministry could have granted such terms except on the supposition that
+Pitt was indispensable, and Pitt for the present hardly claimed such a
+position.[14]
+
+But if Pitt did not consider himself indispensable, his friends did, and
+both he and others came gradually to adopt their view. The rejection of
+his terms left him free to adopt the line of policy that he had sketched
+to Grenville in the previous December. He had not to wait long for an
+opportunity, but in the opinion of Pitt's friends at least the first
+provocation came from Addington. Unable to strengthen his ministry by
+any accession from Pitt and his followers, he had turned to the "old
+opposition," the whigs who, under the leadership of Fox, had
+consistently advocated a pacific policy. These had recently supported
+the ministry against the "new opposition," as the followers of Grenville
+and Windham were called. But since 1797 Fox and the majority of the "old
+opposition" had generally absented themselves from parliament, and
+George Tierney, member for Southwark, had led what was left of their
+party.[15] He now received and accepted the offer of the treasurership
+of the navy, one of the most important of the offices below cabinet
+rank. As a speaker Tierney was a valuable addition to the government
+which was sadly deficient in debating power; he had, however, been
+particularly bitter in his attacks on Pitt, with whom he had fought a
+duel in 1798, and had provoked the sarcastic wit of Canning, in whose
+well-known parody, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-grinder"
+(1798), the original illustration by Gillray depicted the friend of
+humanity with the features of Tierney and laid the scene in the borough
+of Southwark.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHANGES IN ADDINGTON'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The appointment, which Pitt himself does not appear to have resented,
+was announced on June 1, and Tierney took his place on the treasury
+bench on the 3rd. On the same evening Colonel Patten moved a series of
+resolutions condemning, in extravagant terms, the conduct of the
+ministry in the negotiation with France. Pitt seized the opportunity to
+move the orders of the day. In other words, he proposed that the
+question should be left undecided. He expressed the opinion that the
+ministry was not free from blame, but declared himself unable to concur
+in all the charges against it. He considered further that to drive the
+existing ministers out of office would only throw the country into
+confusion, and that it was therefore inadvisable to pursue the question.
+To this the ministerial speakers replied by demanding a direct censure
+or a total acquittal, and the consequent division served only to display
+the weakness of the opposition. The Addington, Fox, and Grenville
+parties combined to oppose Pitt's motion, which was rejected by 333
+votes against 56. Pitt and Fox, and their respective followers then left
+the house, leaving the ministerial party and the Grenville party to
+decide the fate of Patten's resolutions, which were negatived by 275
+votes against 34. A comparison of the figures of the two divisions,
+allowing for tellers, gives as the voting strength of Pitt's party 58,
+of Grenville's 36, of Fox's 22, and of Addington's 277. Of these the
+Grenville party alone desired to eject the ministers from office, while
+Fox's party openly professed a preference for Addington over Pitt.
+
+During the remainder of the session Pitt seldom took any part in
+parliamentary business, and never opposed the ministry on any question
+of importance. On August 12 parliament was prorogued after a session
+lasting nearly nine months, and the prime minister embraced the
+opportunity of making some slight reconstructions in the ministry.
+Pelham, who was removed from the home office, resigned his place in the
+cabinet, and was shortly afterwards consoled with the chancellorship of
+the duchy of Lancaster, an office which was not yet definitely
+recognised as political. Charles Philip Yorke, son of the chancellor who
+died in 1770 and half-brother of the third Earl of Hardwicke, resigned
+the office of secretary at war and succeeded to the home office on the
+17th. It was also considered advisable to strengthen the ministry in the
+upper house, where Grenville's oratory gave the opposition a decided
+advantage in debating power, and Hawkesbury was accordingly summoned to
+the lords on November 16 in his father's barony of Hawkesbury. After
+this rearrangement the cabinet contained eight peers and three
+commoners, no illiberal allowance of commoners according to the ideas of
+the age. The recess was further marked by a violent war of pamphlets
+between the followers of Addington and Pitt, which began early in
+September, and which, although no politician of the first order took any
+direct part in it, did much to embitter the relations of their
+respective parties.[16] Not less irritating were the _jeux d'esprit_
+with which Canning continued to assail the ministry in the newspaper
+press.[17] The most famous of these is the couplet:--
+
+    Pitt is to Addington
+    As London is to Paddington.
+
+A more openly abusive poem, entitled "Good Intentions," described the
+prime minister as "Happy Britain's guardian gander". The following
+verses refer to the appointment of Addington's brother, John Hiley
+Addington, to be paymaster-general of the forces, and of his
+brother-in-law, Charles Bragge, afterwards succeeded by Tierney, to be
+treasurer of the navy:--
+
+    How blest, how firm the statesman stands
+      (Him no low intrigue can move)
+    Circled by faithful kindred bands
+      And propped by fond fraternal love.
+
+      When his speeches hobble vilely,
+      What "Hear him's" burst from Brother Hiley;
+      When his faltering periods lag,
+      Hark to the cheers of Brother Bragge.
+
+      Each a gentleman at large,
+      Lodged and fed at public charge,
+      Paying (with a grace to charm ye)
+      This the Fleet, and that the Army.[18]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE KING'S ILLNESS._]
+
+When parliament reassembled on November 22 the opposition was still
+disunited, and, though Windham severely condemned the inadequacy of the
+provision made for national defence, he did not venture to divide
+against the government. But during the Christmas recess a distinct step
+was made towards the consolidation of the opposition by the reunion of
+the two sections of the whig party. Grenville had conceived a chimerical
+project of replacing the existing administration by one which should
+include all statesmen possessed of real political talent, whatever their
+differences in the past might have been. True to this policy, he
+persuaded Fox in January, 1804, to join him in attempting to expel the
+Addington administration from office as an essential preliminary to any
+further action. Sheridan, however, with some of the Prince of Wales's
+friends, still refused to enter into any combination which might result
+in the return of Pitt to power. The parliamentary session was resumed on
+February 1, but the course of events was complicated by a recurrence of
+the king's malady. Symptoms of this were observed towards the end of
+January; the disease took a turn for the worse about February 12, and on
+the 14th it was made known to the public. For a short time the king's
+life appeared to be in danger; his reason was affected during a longer
+interval, but the attack was in every way milder than in 1789, and on
+March 7 Dr. Simmons reported to Addington that "the king was competent
+to perform any act of government".[19] It is true that for many months
+the king's health did not allow him to give his full attention to public
+business, but there was nothing to prevent him from attending to such
+routine work as was absolutely necessary. There could, however, be no
+question of a change of ministers till there should be a marked
+improvement in the king's health.
+
+The king's illness was made the occasion on February 27 of a motion by
+Sir Robert Lawley for the adjournment of the house of commons. This was
+parried by Addington with the statement that there was no necessary
+suspension of such royal functions as it might be necessary for His
+Majesty to discharge at the present moment.[20] The emphasis here
+obviously lay on the word "necessary". A still bolder course was adopted
+shortly afterwards by the lord chancellor. When on March 9 the king's
+assent to several bills was given by commission, Fitzwilliam raised not
+unreasonable doubts as to whether the king was capable of resuming the
+functions of government. Eldon, however, declared that, as the result of
+a private interview with the king, he had come to the conclusion that
+the royal commissioners were warranted in assenting to the bills in
+question. Whether the chancellor was justified in assuming this
+responsibility must remain doubtful; at all events Pitt seems to have
+determined that the time was now ripe for a ministerial crisis. He had
+on February 27 criticised both the military and naval defences of the
+country, but he would not directly attack the government till the king's
+health was in a better condition. At last, on March 15, the first attack
+was made. Pitt selected the weak point in the administration. St.
+Vincent's obstinacy in refusing to believe in the possibility of a
+renewal of hostility and his excessive economy had brought about a
+marked deterioration in the strength and quality of the fleet. Pitt
+accordingly moved for an inquiry into the administration of the navy.
+Fox dissociated himself from Pitt's attacks on the first lord of the
+admiralty, but supported the motion on the ground that an inquiry would
+clear St. Vincent's character. On a division the government had a
+majority of 201 against 130. On the 19th, however, Pitt refused to join
+the Grenvilles in supporting Fox's motion for the re-committal of the
+volunteer consolidation bill. On the following day Eldon made overtures
+to Pitt, and on the 23rd Pitt dined _tete-a-tete_ with the chancellor,
+but no record has been preserved of the nature of their negotiations.
+
+On the 29th Pitt, in a letter to Melville, explained his position at
+length. He intended, as soon after the Easter recess as the king's
+health should permit, to write to the king explaining the dangers which,
+in his opinion, threatened the crown and people from the continuance of
+the existing government, and representing the urgent necessity of a
+speedy change; he would prefer an administration from which no political
+party should be excluded, but was unwilling, especially in view of the
+king's state of health, to force any minister upon him; if, therefore,
+he should be invited by the king to form a ministry from which the
+partisans of Fox and Grenville were to be excluded, he was prepared to
+form one from his own followers united with the more capable members of
+the existing government, excluding Addington himself and St. Vincent;
+should this measure fail of success, he would "have no hesitation in
+taking such ground in Parliament as would be most likely to attain the
+object".[21] As it happened, the parliamentary assault preceded the
+correspondence with the king. Immediately after the recess the ministry
+laid before parliament military proposals which Pitt felt bound to
+resist. On April 16 Pitt, supported by Windham, opposed the third
+reading of a bill for augmenting the Irish militia, and expressed a
+preference for the army of reserve. He was defeated by the narrow
+majority of 128 against 107. On the 23rd Fox proposed to refer the
+question of national defence to a committee of the whole house. He was
+supported by Pitt and Windham, and defeated by 256 votes only against
+204. The division which sealed the fate of the ministry was taken two
+days later on a motion that the house should go into committee on a bill
+for the suspension of the army of reserve. This was opposed by Pitt, who
+expounded a rival plan for the diminution of the militia and increase of
+the army of reserve. Fox and Windham demanded for Pitt's scheme a right
+to consideration, and on a division the motion was carried by no more
+than 240 against 203. The division of April 16 had convinced Addington
+that a reconciliation with Pitt was necessary. On Pitt's refusing to
+confer with him, he agreed to recommend the king to charge Eldon with
+the task of discovering Pitt's views as to the formation of a new
+ministry, in case the king wished to learn them.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADDINGTON'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+The king, however, expressed no such wish, and on April 22 Pitt sent an
+unsealed letter to Eldon to be laid before the king; announcing his
+dissatisfaction with the ministry and his intention of declaring this
+dissatisfaction in parliament.[22] It was not till the 27th that Eldon
+found a suitable opportunity of communicating Pitt's letter to the king.
+Before that date Addington, who considered that he could no longer
+remain in office with dignity after the divisions of the 23rd and 25th,
+had on the 26th informed the king of his intention to resign. The king
+reluctantly consented to his resignation, which was announced to the
+cabinet on the 29th. On the following day Eldon called on Pitt with a
+request from the king for a plan of a new administration. Pitt replied
+in a letter, setting forth at great length the arguments in favour of a
+combined administration, and requesting permission to confer with Fox
+and Grenville about the construction of the ministry.[23] The letter
+irritated the king, who demanded a renewed pledge against catholic
+emancipation, with which Grenville was specially associated in his mind,
+and refused to admit Pitt to office if he persevered in his purpose of
+consulting Fox and Grenville. Pitt then declared his adherence to the
+pledge given in 1801[24] and requested an interview with the king. The
+interview, which took place on May 7, lasted three hours, and ended in a
+compromise. The king agreed to admit Grenville and his friends to
+office, but, while ready to accept the friends of Fox, he refused, as
+much on personal as on political grounds, to give Fox a place in the
+cabinet. At the same time he declared himself ready to grant him a
+diplomatic appointment. At a later date the king went the length of
+declaring that, rather than accept Fox, he would have incurred the risk
+of civil war.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RETURN TO OFFICE._]
+
+Fox readily agreed to his own exclusion, which he had fully expected,
+and urged his followers to join Pitt, but Grenville and his friends
+refused to serve without Fox, while the friends of Fox and the more
+immediate followers of Addington refused to serve without their
+respective leaders. Addington always considered that Pitt had treated
+him ungenerously in driving him from office, when it was open to him to
+return to the head of affairs with the full consent of the existing
+ministers. More recently it has been the fashion to blame Pitt for
+bringing too little pressure to bear upon the king and thus losing the
+support of Fox and Grenville. Neither charge appears to be justified.
+Through the whole length of the Addington administration Pitt showed
+himself fully sensitive of what was due to the king, with whom he had
+worked cordially for eighteen years, to Grenville who had resigned in
+his cause, and to Addington who had assumed office under his protection.
+There was no trace of faction in Pitt's attitude towards the ministry.
+He merely opposed what he believed to be dangerous to the country, and
+when he was convinced of the necessity of removing Addington from a
+share in public business, he endeavoured to effect his purpose in such a
+way as to give the minimum of offence.
+
+On the other hand, Pitt's intended combination in a supreme crisis of
+his country's destiny with his life-long antagonist, Fox, was a heroic
+experiment, perhaps, but still only an experiment. The failure of the
+ministry of "All the Talents" renders it exceedingly doubtful whether
+such an alliance would have proved successful, and Fox's lukewarm
+patriotism would have been dearly purchased at the expense of the
+alienation of the king, perhaps even of his relapse into insanity. Nor
+is it certain that the strongest pressure would have induced George III.
+to accept Fox at this date. Addington was still undefeated and might
+have remained in office if Pitt had refused to assume the reins of
+government without Fox. Grenville is undoubtedly more responsible than
+any one else for the weakness of Pitt's second administration. It was
+from a sense of loyalty to Grenville that Pitt had suffered the
+negotiations for his return to office in 1803 to fall through, and now
+when the two statesmen could return together, and when, if ever, a
+strong government was needed, either a quixotic sense of honour or a
+wounded pride induced Grenville not only to stand aloof from the new
+administration himself, but to do his utmost to prevent others from
+giving it their support.[25] The new cabinet was quickly formed. Pitt
+received the seals of office on May 10, and took his seat in parliament
+after re-election on the 18th, the very day on which Napoleon was
+declared emperor by the French senate.
+
+This event, long foreseen, was doubtless hastened by the disclosure of
+the plot formed by Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal against the
+first consul. There was no proof of Moreau's complicity in designs on
+Napoleon's life, and the mysterious death of Pichegru in prison left the
+extent of his complicity among the insoluble problems of history, but
+there can be no doubt that Cadoudal was justly executed for plotting
+assassination. Unfortunately some of the under-secretaries in the
+Addington administration had not only shared the plans of the
+conspirators so far as they aimed at a rising in France, but had
+procured for them material assistance. They appear, however, to have
+been innocent of any attempt on Napoleon's life. Drake, the British
+envoy at Munich, was, however, deeper in the plot. The evidence of
+British complicity naturally received the very worst construction in
+Paris.[26] Napoleon himself certainly believed in an Anglo-Bourbon
+conspiracy, organised by the Count of Artois and other French royalists,
+when he caused the Duke of Enghien to be kidnapped in Baden territory
+and hurried off to the castle of Vincennes. He was, however, already
+aware of his prisoner's innocence when on March 21 he had him shot there
+by torch-light after a mock trial before a military commission. All
+Europe was shocked by this atrocious assassination, and though Napoleon
+sometimes attempted to shift the guilt of it upon Talleyrand, he
+justified it at other times as a measure of self-defence, and left on
+record his deliberate approval of it, for the consideration of
+posterity. Two months later he became Emperor of the French.
+
+When Pitt resumed office on May 10, 1804, he was no longer the
+heaven-born and buoyant young minister of 1783, strong in the confidence
+of the king and the anticipated confidence of the nation, with a
+minority of followers in the house of commons, but with the brightest
+prospects of political success before him. Nor was he the leader of a
+devoted majority, as when he resigned in 1801 rather than abandon his
+convictions on the catholic question. He had been compelled to waive
+these convictions, without fully regaining the confidence of the king,
+and, while the adherents of Fox retained their deep-seated hatred of a
+war-policy, the adherents of Addington and Grenville were in no mood to
+give him a loyal support. Windham and Spencer were no longer at his
+side, and his ministry was essentially the same as that of Addington,
+with the substitution of Dudley Ryder, now Lord Harrowby, for Hawkesbury
+as foreign secretary, Melville for St. Vincent as first lord of the
+admiralty, Earl Camden for Hobart as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and the Duke of Montrose for Auckland as president of the board of
+trade. Hawkesbury was transferred to the home office, vacated by Yorke,
+and the new chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, Lord Mulgrave, was
+given a seat in the cabinet. Of Pitt's eleven colleagues in the cabinet
+Castlereagh alone, who remained president of the board of control--a
+wretched speaker though an able administrator--had a seat in the lower
+house.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RECONCILIATION WITH ADDINGTON._]
+
+Military exigencies now engrossed all thoughts, and the king's speech,
+in proroguing parliament on July 31, foreshadowed a new coalition, for
+which the murder of the Duke of Enghien had paved the way. The
+preparations for an invasion of England had been resumed, and Napoleon
+celebrated his birthday in great state at Boulogne, still postponing his
+final stroke until he should be crowned, on December 2, at Paris by the
+helpless pope, brought from Italy for the purpose.[27] A month later he
+personally addressed another pacific letter to the King of England, who
+replied in his speech from the throne on January 15, 1805, that he could
+not entertain overtures except in concert with Russia and the other
+powers. Meanwhile, Pitt, conscious as he was of failing powers, retained
+his undaunted courage, and while he was organising a third coalition,
+did not shrink from a bold measure which could hardly be justified by
+international law. This was the seizure on October 5, 1804, of three
+Spanish treasure-ships on the high seas, without a previous declaration
+of war against Spain, though not without a previous notice that
+hostilities might be opened at any moment unless Spain ceased to give
+underhand assistance to France. The excuse was that Spain had long been
+the obsequious ally of France, and, as the alliance now became open,
+Pitt's act was sanctioned by a large majority in both houses of
+parliament in January, 1805. The parliamentary session which opened in
+this month found Pitt's ministry apparently stronger than it had been at
+the beginning of the recess. Despairing of any help from Grenville,
+except in a vigorous prosecution of the war, he had sought a
+reconciliation with Addington, who became Viscount Sidmouth on January
+12 and president of the council on the 14th. Along with Sidmouth his
+former colleague Hobart, now Earl of Buckinghamshire, returned to office
+as chancellor of the duchy. To make room for these new allies, Portland
+had consented to resign the presidency of the council, though he
+remained a member of the cabinet, while Mulgrave was appointed to the
+foreign office, in place of Harrowby, who was compelled by ill-health to
+retire.
+
+But this new accession of strength was soon followed by a terrible
+mortification which probably contributed to shorten Pitt's life.
+Melville, his tried supporter and intimate friend, was charged on the
+report of a commission with having misapplied public money as treasurer
+of the navy in Pitt's former ministry. It appeared that he had been
+culpably careless, and had not prevented the paymaster, Trotter, from
+engaging in private speculations with the naval balances. Although
+Trotter's speculations involved no loss to the state they were,
+nevertheless, a contravention of an act of 1785. Melville had also
+supplied other departments of government with naval money, but was
+personally innocent of fraud. There was a divergence of feeling in the
+cabinet as to the attitude to be adopted towards Melville. Sidmouth,
+himself a man of the highest integrity, was a friend of St. Vincent, the
+late first lord of the admiralty, and had not forgiven Melville for his
+part in the expulsion of himself and St. Vincent from office. He had
+therefore both public and private grounds to incline him against
+Melville. On April 8, Samuel Whitbread moved a formal censure on
+Melville in the house of commons. Pitt, with the approval of Sidmouth
+and his friends, moved the previous question on Whitbread's motion, and
+declared his intention of introducing a motion of his own for a select
+committee to investigate the charges. In spite of the support which Pitt
+derived from the followers of Sidmouth the votes were equally divided on
+Whitbread's motion, 216 a side. Abbot, the speaker, gave his casting
+vote in favour of Whitbread, and the announcement was received by the
+whig members with unseemly exultation.[28]
+
+[Pageheading: _MINISTERIAL CHANGES._]
+
+The censure was followed by an impeachment before the house of lords,
+where Melville was acquitted in the following year. Meanwhile, he had
+resigned office on April 9, the day after the vote of censure, and his
+place at the admiralty was taken by Sir Charles Middleton, who was
+raised to the peerage as Lord Barham. The appointment gave umbrage to
+Sidmouth, to whom Pitt had made promises of promotion for his own
+followers, and he was with difficulty induced to remain in the cabinet.
+Pitt was, however, irritated by the hostile votes of Sidmouth's
+followers, Hiley Addington and Bond, on the question of the impeachment,
+and regarded this as a reason for delaying their preferment. Sidmouth
+now complained of a breach of faith, as Pitt had promised to treat the
+question as an open one, and he resigned office on July 4.
+Buckinghamshire resigned next day. Camden was appointed to succeed
+Sidmouth as lord president, Castlereagh followed Camden as secretary for
+war and the colonies, retaining his previous position as president of
+the board of control, and Harrowby, whose health had improved since his
+resignation in January, took Buckinghamshire's place as chancellor of
+the duchy. Thus weakened at home, Pitt could derive little consolation
+from the aspect of continental affairs. On May 26, Napoleon was crowned
+King of Italy in the cathedral of Milan, and the Ligurian Republic
+became part of the French empire in the following month. The ascendency
+of France in Europe might well have appeared impregnable, and it might
+have been supposed that nothing remained for England but to guard her
+own coasts and recapture some of the French colonies given up by the
+treaty of Amiens.
+
+But Pitt's spirit was still unbroken, and by the middle of July he
+succeeded in rallying three powers, Russia, Austria, and Sweden, into a
+league to withstand the further encroachments of France. Such a league
+had been proposed by Gustavus IV. of Sweden, early in 1804, but nothing
+definite was done till Pitt's ministry entered upon office. Meanwhile,
+the assassination of the Duke of Enghien had led to a rupture of
+diplomatic relations between France and Russia, though war was not
+declared. Negotiations were presently set on foot for a league, which,
+it was hoped, would be joined by Austria and Prussia in addition to
+Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden. An interesting feature in the
+negotiations was the tsar's scheme of a European polity, where the
+states should be independent and enjoy institutions "founded on the
+sacred rights of humanity," a foreshadowing, as it would seem, of the
+Holy Alliance. The discussion of details between Great Britain and
+Russia began towards the end of 1804. Difficulties, however, arose about
+the British retention of Malta and the British claim to search neutral
+ships for deserters. A treaty between the two powers was signed on April
+11, 1805; but the tsar long refused his ratification, and it was only
+given in July, after a formal protest against the retention of Malta.
+
+The object of this alliance was defined to be the expulsion of French
+troops from North Germany, the assured independence of the republics of
+Holland and Switzerland, and the restoration of the King of Sardinia in
+Piedmont; 500,000 men were to be provided for the war by Russia and such
+other continental powers as might join the coalition. Great Britain,
+instead of furnishing troops, was to supply L1,250,000 a year for every
+100,000 men engaged in the war. After the close of the war an European
+congress was to define more closely the law of nations and establish an
+European federation. At the same time the allies disclaimed the
+intention of forcing any system of government on France against her
+will. It will be observed that the number of troops specified was far in
+excess of what Russia alone could place in the field; such numbers could
+only be obtained by the adhesion of Austria and of either Prussia or
+some of the smaller German states to the coalition. So far as Austria
+was concerned, Napoleon's Italian policy rendered war inevitable.
+Already in November, 1804, the Austrian court had entered into a secret
+agreement with Russia to make war on France in the event of further
+French aggressions in Italy. The coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy
+and the annexation of Liguria were, however, more than aggressions; they
+were open violations of the treaty of Luneville which had guaranteed the
+independence of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics. Austria hereupon
+determined on war, and secretly joined the coalition on August 9, 1805.
+Sweden, which was not a member of it, concluded separate treaties of
+alliance both with Great Britain and with Russia. Greater difficulties
+had to be surmounted in the case of Prussia. Frederick William III.
+cherished no enthusiasm for European liberty, and vacillated under the
+influence of Napoleon's offer of Hanover on the one hand and his
+numerous petty insults on the other. Prussia in consequence remained
+neutral throughout the most decisive period of the ensuing war.
+
+[Pageheading: _NELSON AND VILLENEUVE._]
+
+Long before the coalition was ready Napoleon's mind had recurred to his
+venturesome project for the invasion of England. An army, the finest
+that he ever led to victory, which, even after it had been transferred
+to another scene of action, he still saw fit to call the "army of
+England," was encamped near Boulogne. It was constantly exercised in the
+process of embarking on board flat-bottomed boats or rafts, which were
+to be convoyed by Villeneuve, admiral of the Toulon fleet, and
+Gantheaume, admiral of the Brest fleet, for whose appearance the French
+signalmen vainly scanned the horizon. In the meantime, Nelson had been
+engaged for two years, without setting foot on shore, in that patient
+and sleepless watch, ranging over the whole Mediterranean, which must
+ever rank with the greatest of his matchless exploits. At last, he
+learned in the spring of 1805, that Villeneuve, following a plan
+concerted by Napoleon himself, had eluded him by sailing from Toulon
+towards Cadiz, had there been joined by the Spanish fleet, and was
+steering for the West Indies. Nelson followed with a much smaller number
+of ships, and might have forced an action in those waters, but he was
+misled by false intelligence and missed the enemy, though his dreaded
+presence was effectual in saving the British islands from any serious
+attack.
+
+The combined fleets of France and Spain recrossed the Atlantic and in
+accordance with Napoleon's plans made for Ferrol on the coast of
+Galicia. After being repulsed with some loss off Cape Finisterre by Sir
+Robert Calder, who was court-martialled and severely reprimanded for
+neglecting to follow up his victory, they put in first at Vigo, and then
+with fifteen allied ships at Coruna. But, instead of venturing to carry
+out Napoleon's orders by challenging Admiral Cornwallis's fleet off
+Brest, and making a desperate effort to command the channel, Villeneuve
+now took advantage of his emperors recommendation to return to Cadiz in
+event of defeat, and set sail for that port in the middle of August.
+Nelson, ignorant of his movements, had vainly sought him off the Straits
+of Gibraltar, and came home to report himself at the admiralty. Arriving
+at Spithead on August 18, he was in England barely four weeks, most of
+which he spent in privacy at Merton. During this brief respite he
+received a general tribute of admiration and affection from his
+countrymen, which anticipated the verdict of posterity. On September 15
+he sailed from Portsmouth, with a presentiment of his own fate, after
+having described to Sidmouth the general design of his crowning sea
+fight: he would, he said, break the enemy's line in two places; and he
+did so. He joined Admiral Collingwood off Cadiz on the 29th, and on
+October 19 he received news that Villeneuve, smarting under the
+prospect of being superseded, had put to sea with the combined fleet.
+Complicated naval manoeuvres followed, but on the 21st the enemy was
+forced to give battle, a few leagues from Cape Trafalgar, and Nelson
+caused his immortal signal to be hoisted--"England expects that every
+man will do his duty".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR._]
+
+The French and Spanish fleet comprised thirty-three ships of the line,
+of which eighteen were French and fifteen Spanish; the British had only
+twenty-seven, but among these were seven three-deckers as against four
+on the side of the allies. It had the additional advantage of superior
+discipline and equipment, to say nothing of the genius of its commander.
+The British fleet advanced in two divisions, Nelson leading the weather
+division of twelve, and Collingwood the lee division of fifteen ships.
+According to Nelson's plan Collingwood was to attack the rear of the
+enemy's line, while he himself cut off and paralysed the centre and van.
+Both divisions advanced without regular formation, the ships bearing
+down with all the speed they could command and without waiting for
+laggards. Collingwood in the _Royal Sovereign_, steering E. by N., broke
+through the allies' line twelve ships from the rear, raking the _Santa
+Ana_, Alava's flagship, as he passed her stern, with a broadside which
+struck down 400 of her men. For some fifteen minutes the _Royal
+Sovereign_ was alone in action; then others of the division came up and
+successively penetrated the line of the allies, and engaging ship to
+ship completely disposed of the enemy's rear, their twelve rear ships
+being all taken or destroyed.
+
+Meanwhile, Nelson in the _Victory_, who had reserved to himself the more
+difficult task of containing twenty-one ships with twelve, held on his
+course, advancing so as to keep the allied van stationary and yet to
+prevent the centre from venturing to help the rear. He designed to pass
+through the end of the line in order to cut the enemy's van off from
+Cadiz, but, finding an opportunity, changed his course, passed down the
+line and attacked the centre. He passed through the line of the allied
+fleet, closely followed by four other ships of his division, and the
+five British ships concentrated their attacks on the _Bucentaure_,
+Villeneuve's flagship, the gigantic Spanish four-decker, the _Santisima
+Trinidad_, which was next ahead of her, and the _Redoutable_, which
+supported her. The centre of the allies was crushed and the van cut off
+from coming to the help of the rear, which was being destroyed by
+Collingwood.
+
+Before the battle ended, the naval force of France, and with it
+Napoleon's projects of invasion, were utterly and hopelessly ruined.
+Eighteen prizes were taken, and, though many of these were lost in a
+gale, four ships which escaped were afterwards captured, and the
+remainder lay for the most part shattered hulks at Cadiz. By this battle
+the supremacy of Great Britain at sea was finally established. Nelson,
+who, during the ship-to-ship engagement which followed his penetration
+of the enemy's line, was mortally wounded by a sharp-shooter from the
+mizzen-top of the _Redoutable_, died before the battle was over, though
+he was spared to hear that a complete victory was secure. His death is
+among the heroic incidents of history, and his last achievement, both in
+its conception and its results, was the fitting climax of his fame. The
+plan for the battle which he drew up beforehand for the instruction of
+his captains, and the changes which he made in it to meet the conditions
+of the moment are alike worthy of his supreme genius as a naval
+tactician. His arrangements were carried out by men who had learned to
+love and trust him, and who were inspired by the fire of his spirit, and
+hence it was that the allied fleet of France and Spain perished at the
+"Nelson touch".[29]
+
+Very different were the fortunes of war in central Europe, where
+Napoleon himself commanded the "army of England". It was not until the
+end of August that Napoleon knew that Villeneuve would be unable to
+appear in the Channel, but no sooner did he abandon his project of
+invasion in despair than he resolved on a campaign scarcely less
+arduous, and gave orders for a grand march into Germany. Pitt, as we
+have seen, had successfully negotiated an alliance with Russia and
+Austria, whose armies were converging upon the plains of Bavaria and
+were to have been reinforced by a large Prussian contingent. Unhappily,
+they had not effected a junction when Napoleon crossed the Rhine near
+Strassburg and the Danube near Donauwoerth, while he detached large
+forces to check the advance of the Russians and the approach of
+reinforcements expected from Italy. One of these movements involved an
+open violation of Prussian territory, but he could rely on the
+well-tried servility of Frederick William. The first decisive result of
+his strategy was the surrender of Mack at Ulm, with 30,000 men and 60
+pieces of ordnance. This event took place on October 20, the very day
+before the battle of Trafalgar, and opened the road to Vienna, which the
+French troops entered on November 13, occupying the great bridge by a
+ruse more skilful than honourable, during the negotiation of an
+armistice. Vienna was spared, while Napoleon pressed on to meet the
+remainder of the Austrian army, which had now been joined by a larger
+body of Russians near Bruenn. The allies numbered about 100,000 men;
+Napoleon's army was numerically somewhat less, but possessed the same
+kind of superiority as the British navy at Trafalgar. The result was the
+crushing victory of Austerlitz on December 2, followed by the peace of
+Pressburg, between France and Austria, signed on the 26th. The principal
+articles of this treaty provided for the cession of Venetia, Istria, and
+Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, and the aggrandisement of Bavaria and
+Wuertemberg, whose electors received the royal title as the price of
+their sympathetic alliance with France. Russia withdrew sullenly, having
+learned the hollowness of her league with Prussia, which had basely
+temporised while the fate of Germany was at stake, and whose minister,
+Haugwitz, suppressing the _ultimatum_ which he was charged to deliver,
+had openly congratulated the conqueror of Austerlitz.
+
+Great Britain had had no direct share in the conflict in Southern
+Germany and Moravia; she had, however, joined in two expeditions, the
+one in Southern, the other in Northern Europe. In spite of a treaty of
+neutrality between France and the Two Sicilies, ratified on October 8,
+an Anglo-Russian squadron was permitted to land a force of 10,000
+British troops under Sir James Craig, and 14,000 Russians on the shore
+of the Bay of Naples. These troops effected nothing, and the violation
+of neutrality was, as we shall see, destined to involve the Neapolitan
+monarchy in ruin. The expedition to North Germany was planned on a
+larger scale. Hanover had been occupied by France since June, 1803. Its
+recovery was attempted by an Anglo-Hanoverian force under Cathcart,
+which was to have been supported by a Russian and Swedish force acting
+from Stralsund. The co-operation of Prussia was also expected. In order
+to secure this alliance the British government offered Prussia an
+extension of territory so as to include Antwerp, Liege, Luxemburg, and
+Cologne, in the event of victory. In November the expedition landed. In
+December Prussia had definitely given her protection to the Russian
+troops in Hanover and offered it to the Hanoverians. Pitt computed that
+at the beginning of the next campaign nearly 300,000 men would be
+available in North Germany. But the vacillation of Prussia ruined all.
+On December 15 Haugwitz signed the treaty of Schoenbrunn, by which
+Prussia was to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with
+France and was to receive Hanover in return for Ansbach, Cleves, and
+Neuchatel. Frederick William could not yet stoop to such a degree of
+infamy, and therefore, instead of ratifying the treaty, resolved on
+January 3, 1806, to propose a compromise, which involved among other
+provisions the temporary occupation of Hanover by Prussia. In
+consequence of this determination he sent, on January 7, a request for
+the withdrawal of the British forces, which were accordingly
+recalled.[30]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF PITT._]
+
+The collapse of his last coalition was the death-blow of Pitt, cheered
+though he was for the moment by the news of Trafalgar. The fatal
+consequences of Austerlitz were reported to him at Bath, whence he
+returned by easy stages to his villa at Putney in January, 1806. His
+noble spirit was broken at last by the defection of Prussia, and after
+lingering a while, he died on the 23rd of that month, leaving a name
+second to none among the greatest statesmen of his country. His
+sagacious mind grasped the advantage to be gained by freeing trade from
+unnecessary restrictions, and anticipated catholic emancipation,
+parliamentary reform, and the abolition of slavery. He gave the nation,
+in the union with Ireland, the one constructive measure of the first
+order achieved in his time, and only marred by the weakness of more
+pliable successors in a lesser age. His dauntless soul, which bore him
+up against the bitterest disappointments, the desertion of friends, and
+the depression of mortal disease, inspired the governing classes of
+England to endure ten more years of exhausting war, to save Europe (as
+he foretold) by their example, and to crown his own work at Waterloo.
+His lofty eloquence, which has been described as a gift independent of
+statesmanship, was indeed a product of statesmanship, for it consisted
+in no mere witchery of words, but in a luminous and convincing
+presentation of essential facts. He may have been inferior to his own
+father in fiery rhetoric, to Peel in comprehensive grasp of domestic
+policy, and to Gladstone in the political experience gained by sixty
+years of political life, but in capacity for command he was inferior to
+none. If he was not an ideal war minister, he was not a war minister by
+his own choice; his lot was cast in times which suppressed the exercise
+of his best powers; and he was matched in the organisation of war,
+though not in the field, against the greatest organising genius known to
+history. He must be judged by what he actually did and meditated as a
+peace minister; his conduct of the war must be compared with that of
+those able but not gifted men who strove to bend the bow which he left
+behind him; and we must assuredly conclude that none of his colleagues
+or rivals was his peer either in powers or in public spirit.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 242; Lewis,
+_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 225.
+
+[14] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 282-90; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 113-31; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 20-39.
+
+[15] See vol. x., p. 399.
+
+[16] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 145-47; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_,
+iv., 88-93.
+
+[17] For a list of Canning's squibs, belonging to this period, see
+Lewis, _Administrations_, p. 249, note.
+
+[18] It was not fair to hold Addington entirely responsible for the
+promotion of his brother, who had been a junior lord of the treasury
+under Pitt. The taunt came with a particularly bad grace from Canning,
+who had himself been paymaster-general in the last administration.
+
+[19] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 250.
+
+[20] _Annual Register_, xlvi. (1804), p. 34.
+
+[21] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 135-44.
+
+[22] See the letter in Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp.
+i.-iii.
+
+[23] There is preserved a sketch in Pitt's handwriting of a combined
+administration with Melville, Fox, and Fitzwilliam as secretaries of
+state, and Grenville as lord president.
+
+[24] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp. xi., xii.
+
+[25] The best account of Pitt's return to power is to be found in
+Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 113-95; appendix, pp. i.-xiii. The story
+is told in a very spirited manner by Lord Rosebery, _Pitt_, pp. 238-44.
+
+[26] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, i., 450-53.
+
+[27] Napoleon actually crowned himself, although he had originally
+intended to be crowned by the pope.
+
+[28] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 338.
+
+[29] Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar are explained in a series of
+remarkable articles in _The Times_ of September 16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30,
+and October 19, 1905. For incidents of the battle see Mahan, _Life of
+Nelson_, ii., 363 _sqq._
+
+[30] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 53-57, 63-65.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER III.
+
+                        GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+
+The immediate effect of Pitt's death was the dissolution of his
+government. The king turned at first to Hawkesbury, afterwards destined
+as Earl of Liverpool to hold the office of premier for nearly fifteen
+years; but he then felt himself unequal to such a burden. He next sent
+for Grenville, who insisted on the co-operation of Fox, to which the
+king assented without demur, and the short-lived ministry of "All the
+Talents" was formed within a few days. It was essentially a whig
+cabinet, but it included two tories, Sidmouth as lord privy seal, and
+Lord Ellenborough, the lord chief justice. Grenville himself was first
+lord of the treasury, Fox foreign secretary, and Erskine lord
+chancellor. Charles Grey, the future Earl Grey, was first lord of the
+admiralty. Spencer home secretary, Windham secretary for war and the
+colonies, and Lord Henry Petty, the future Marquis of Lansdowne,
+chancellor of the exchequer. Fitzwilliam was lord president, and the
+Earl of Moira master-general of the ordnance. Ellenborough owed his
+place in the cabinet to the influence of Sidmouth. The appointment was a
+departure from the established constitutional practice. Since Lord
+Mansfield, who had ceased to be an efficient member in 1765, no chief
+justice had been a member of the cabinet, and it was argued in
+parliament by the opposition that a seat in the cabinet was inconsistent
+with the independence which a common law judge ought to maintain. It is
+also important to observe that Sidmouth when accepting office gave
+express notice to Grenville and Fox that under all circumstances "he
+would ever resist the catholic question".[31]
+
+The friendly relations of the king with Fox were creditable to both of
+them, and in the last few months of his life Fox showed himself a
+statesman. Besides the abolition of the slave trade, his grand object
+was the restoration of peace on a durable basis. There were some grounds
+for believing that this was possible. France, under an emperor, seemed
+no longer to represent a new principle in European politics, and was not
+necessarily a menace to her neighbours; the coalition was fairly beaten
+on land, while British supremacy had been reasserted on sea, and
+Napoleon might well wish for peace to enable him to consolidate his
+position on land and regain the power of using the sea, just as he had
+done in 1801. Fox lost no time in renewing a pacific correspondence with
+Talleyrand, afterwards carried on through the agency of Lord Yarmouth,
+an English traveller detained in France, and Lord Lauderdale, who was
+sent over as plenipotentiary. The principle of the negotiation was that
+of _uti possidetis_, but it failed, as Whitworth's efforts had failed,
+because the pretensions of France were constantly shifting, and
+especially because France, anxious to isolate Great Britain, insisted on
+negotiating separately with Great Britain and Russia, while Fox very
+properly refused to make peace without our ally. Grey himself, now Lord
+Howick, afterwards declared that France showed no disposition to grant
+any terms which could be accepted by Great Britain. On September 13, Fox
+died, and was buried in Westminster Abbey almost side by side with his
+great rival.
+
+While he was earnestly striving for peace, there was no cessation of
+warlike movements or political changes either in Central Europe or in
+Italy. In June, 1806, Napoleon converted the Batavian Republic into the
+kingdom of Holland, over which he set his brother Louis. In July the
+discord of Germany, which had long ceased to be a nation, was
+consummated by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which
+separated all the western states from the Holy Roman empire, and united
+them under the protection and control of France. On August 6, Francis
+II., who had assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804, formally
+renounced the title of Roman Emperor, and the Holy Roman Empire became
+extinct. The King of Prussia, with singular disregard of good faith and
+national interest, finally accepted on February 15 the bribe of Hanover
+for adhesion to France, but without the offensive and defensive alliance
+offered him in the previous December, and with the additional
+humiliation of being compelled to close his ports to English ships. He
+vainly strove to conceal this shameful bargain, and was, as will be
+seen, punished by the destruction of Prussian commerce. After all, he
+found himself overreached by Napoleon in duplicity, and was at last
+provoked into risking a single-handed contest with his imperious ally.
+He declared war on October 1, and within a fortnight the army of
+Prussia, inheriting the system and traditions of the great Frederick,
+was all but annihilated in the twin battles of Jena and Auerstaedt fought
+on October 14.
+
+[Pageheading: _SMALL EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+The British government, though not unwilling to forgive the perfidy of
+its former confederate, was powerless to strike a blow on his behalf
+until it was too late. Indeed, the only warlike operation undertaken by
+Great Britain in Europe during the year was in the extreme south of
+Italy. Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, had been driven out of his
+capital to make way for Joseph Bonaparte, who entered Naples on February
+15, and the exiled monarch took refuge in the island of Sicily. In
+accordance with the shortsighted policy of small expeditions, a British
+force under Sir John Stuart was landed in Calabria to raise the
+peasantry, and on July 4, defeated the French at the point of the
+bayonet in the battle of Maida. This action shook the confidence of
+Europe in the superiority of the French infantry, and saved Sicily from
+France, but the French troops remained in possession of the Italian
+mainland. The prestige of Great Britain was raised by the conquest of
+the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope in January by a naval and
+military force sent out by Pitt under the command of Sir Home Popham and
+General, now Sir David, Baird, but was damaged by a futile expedition to
+South America, undertaken by Popham without orders from the home
+government. The city of Buenos Ayres was taken, indeed, in June by
+General Beresford, but it was retaken by the Spaniards in August, and
+soldiers who could ill be spared from the European conflict now
+impending were lavished on a chimerical project on the other side of the
+Atlantic.
+
+The short administration of Grenville, so inactive in its foreign
+policy, is memorable only for one redeeming measure of home-policy--the
+abolition of the slave trade. Before Fox's death, the attention of
+parliament had been divided mainly between Windham's abortive scheme
+for a vast standing army, to be raised on the basis of limited service,
+and the secret inquiry into the conduct of the Princess of Wales. This
+resulted in her being acquitted of the more scandalous charges against
+her, but on the advice of the cabinet, she was censured by the king for
+unseemly levity of behaviour. On October 24 parliament was dissolved. It
+was a foolish dissolution, for ministerial convenience only, and aimed
+not merely at strengthening the ministry, but at weakening the tory
+section within the ministry. The election was not well managed, and the
+king withheld the subscription of L12,000 with which he was accustomed
+to assist his ministers for the time being at a general election. Still
+the ministry obtained a considerable majority.[32] The new parliament
+met on December 15, and on March 25, 1807, the abolition bill, having
+passed the house of lords in spite of strong opposition, was carried in
+the commons by 283 to 16. Thus ended a philanthropic struggle, which
+began in 1783, when the quakers petitioned against the trade. Three
+years later Clarkson began his crusade. Two bills in favour of abolition
+were carried by the house of commons before the close of the eighteenth
+century, but were thrown out in the house of lords. The same fate befell
+a bill for a temporary suspension of the slave trade, which passed the
+commons in 1804 under the spell of Wilberforce's persuasive eloquence;
+but Pitt's government caused a royal proclamation to be issued, which at
+least checked the spread of the nefarious traffic in the newly conquered
+colonies. A larger measure failed to pass the house of commons in 1805,
+but in 1806 Fox and Grenville succeeded in committing both houses to an
+open condemnation of the trade. This was followed on March 25, 1807, by
+an enactment entirely prohibiting the slave trade from and after January
+1, 1808, though it was not made felony to engage in it until a further
+act was carried by Brougham in 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _FALL OF GRENVILLE'S MINISTRY._]
+
+In default of important legislative tasks, the parliament which expired
+in 1806 devoted much attention to various features of the military
+system, as well as to proposed reforms in the public accounts. It
+sanctioned the principle of raising a great part of the war-expenses by
+special taxes rather than by loan. A property-tax of 10 per cent. was
+freely voted, and this was then represented to be its permanent limit.
+The assessed taxes were increased at the same time by 10 per cent., but
+with an allowance in favour of poorer taxpayers for every child above
+the number of two. It is worthy of notice that, while Grenville's
+ministry was in office, Whitbread brought forward an elaborate plan not
+only for reforming the poor laws but also for establishing a system of
+national education. Some changes in the cabinet were necessitated by the
+death of Fox. Howick became foreign secretary and was succeeded at the
+admiralty by Thomas Grenville, brother of the prime minister, most
+famous as a book-collector. Fitzwilliam retired at the same time on the
+ground of ill-health. He retained his seat in the cabinet, but was
+succeeded as lord president by Sidmouth, while Fox's nephew, Lord
+Holland, succeeded Sidmouth as lord privy seal.
+
+The fall of the whig government in March, 1807, was due to a cause
+similar to that which had brought about the retirement of Pitt in 1801.
+The Duke of Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, had urged the
+importance of making some concessions to Roman catholics. An Irish act
+of 1793 had opened commissions in the army as high as the rank of
+colonel to Roman catholics, and the ministry obtained the reluctant
+consent of the king to the extension of this concession to Roman
+catholics throughout his dominions. Without having fully ascertained the
+king's mind, Howick, on behalf of his colleagues, moved for leave to
+bring in a bill opening all commissions in the army and navy to Roman
+catholics. The king at once refused his sanction, and the government,
+finding that they could not carry their bill, agreed to withdraw it.
+This decision was announced to the king in a cabinet minute, drawn up at
+a meeting from which Ellenborough, Erskine, and Sidmouth, who
+sympathised with the king, were excluded, and from which Fitzwilliam and
+Spencer were absent owing to ill-health. The minute went on to record
+their adhesion to the policy embodied in the bill, reserving the right
+to advise the king on any future occasion in accordance with that
+policy. Thereupon, Sidmouth, who had already sent in his resignation,
+Eldon, Portland, and Malmesbury, with the concurrence of the Duke of
+York and Spencer Perceval, urged the king to make a stand upon his
+prerogative. He did so, by requiring the ministers who had signed the
+minute, to give him a written pledge that they would never press upon
+him further concessions, direct or indirect, to the Roman catholics.
+This pledge they properly declined, and accepted the consequence by
+resignation. Spencer was present at the meeting which arrived at this
+conclusion and concurred in the decision of his colleagues.[33]
+
+A new administration was formed by Portland, as nominal head, but with
+Perceval as its real leader and chancellor of the exchequer, Canning as
+foreign secretary, Hawkesbury as home secretary, and Castlereagh as
+minister for war and the colonies. Camden, Eldon, Westmorland, and
+Chatham resumed the offices they had held before the death of Pitt,
+Mulgrave became first lord of the admiralty, and Earl Bathurst president
+of the board of trade. In this government, too, Sir Arthur Wellesley,
+the future Duke of Wellington, who had returned in 1805 from a brilliant
+military career in India, held office outside the cabinet as chief
+secretary for Ireland. Spencer Perceval was a half-brother of the Earl
+of Egmont and brother of Lord Arden. He enjoyed a large practice at the
+bar and had made his mark as a parliamentary debater when filling the
+offices, first of solicitor-general, and then of attorney-general under
+Addington. He had held the latter office again under Pitt. Not the least
+source of his influence was his steady and determined opposition to the
+Roman catholic claims.
+
+[Pageheading: _NON-INTERVENTION._]
+
+After a short but animated debate on the important constitutional
+question raised by the circumstances of the change of ministers,
+parliament was again dissolved on April 27. The king's speech in closing
+the session was virtually a personal appeal to his people, and a
+majority was returned in favour of the new ministry. This result may be
+said to mark the last triumph of George III. in maintaining the
+principle of personal government. "A just and enlightened toleration"
+was announced as the substitute for catholic relief. Still, a certain
+revival of independent popular opinion may be traced in the return of
+Sir Francis Burdett and Lord Cochrane for Westminster. It was not until
+June 22 that parliament assembled, and the engrossing interest of
+foreign events left but little room for discussions on home-policy. A
+motion by Whitbread, however, bore fruit in a bill for establishing
+parochial schools, which Eldon successfully opposed in the house of
+lords, mainly on the ground that it would take popular education out of
+the hands of the clergy. The same not unnatural apathy about home
+affairs prevailed throughout the session of 1808, which began on January
+31, and though a large number of acts were placed on the statute book in
+this and succeeding years, the mass of them, including many relating to
+Ireland, were essentially of a local or occasional character. An
+exception must be recognised in the partial success of a motion for the
+reform of the criminal law, which was proposed by Sir Samuel Romilly,
+famous for his efforts in the cause of humanity, and which resulted in
+the abolition of capital punishment for the offence of pocket-picking.
+
+During this critical period, when Great Britain was gradually drifting
+into a position of isolation, the course of parliamentary history
+becomes inseparable from the progress of those mighty events on the
+continent, which Grenville's government would fain have treated as
+outside the sphere of British interests. For, notwithstanding Windham's
+schemes for a reconstruction of the army, that government had allowed
+the naval and military establishments of Great Britain to fall below
+their former standard. The leading idea of their policy was
+non-intervention, and at the opening of 1807, there was no longer any
+thought of sending a force to cope with Napoleon's veterans on the
+continent When in 1805 a British force was operating in North Germany,
+it was possible that if Prussia had been faithful to her engagements,
+the disaster of Austerlitz might at least have been partially retrieved.
+It was otherwise when, after the collapse of Prussia, France and Russia
+stood face to face with each other. The drawn battle of Eylau in East
+Prussia, marked by fearful carnage, was fought on February 8, 1807. This
+check, breaking the spell of Napoleon's victorious career, had a
+remarkable effect in raising the spirits of the allies, Russia, Sweden,
+and Prussia, some remains of whose army were still in the field. These
+powers now drew closer together, but they received a lukewarm support
+from Great Britain, which might have done much to save Europe by timely
+reinforcements and liberal subsidies. In reply to an urgent appeal from
+the tsar for a loan of L6,000,000, the Grenville ministry doled out
+L500,000 to Russia, and a still more pitiful gift to Prussia. No troops
+were sent to aid Sweden on the Baltic coast, although, when, at
+Napoleon's instigation, Turkey declared war against Russia, expeditions
+were despatched to Alexandria and the Dardanelles. The notion of making
+war on a large scale, in concert with allies, on the continent of
+Europe, as in the days of Marlborough, and even of Lord Granby, seems to
+have vanished from the minds of English statesmen, except Castlereagh,
+who always advocated concentrated action.
+
+The succession of Portland and Canning to Grenville and Howick brought
+no immediate change in our insular policy and the new government had
+been in office for above three months before a British force at last
+appeared in the Swedish island of Ruegen. It arrived too late, Danzig
+surrendered in May, and on June 14 Napoleon obtained a decisive victory
+over the Russian army and its Prussian contingent at Friedland. Russia
+now gave a supreme example of that national selfishness, and contempt
+for the rights of independent states which had dominated the counsels of
+sovereigns ever since the first partition of Poland. Doubtless the tsar
+might plead that Great Britain, too, had been wasting her strength in
+selfish attempts to secure her mastery of the seas, and to open new
+markets for her trade. He also deeply resented her recent failure to aid
+him in the hour of his utmost need, while he still cherished the policy
+of the "armed neutrality," and was eager to prosecute his designs
+against Turkey. Dazzled and flattered by Napoleon, he welcomed overtures
+for peace at the expense of Great Britain, and there is no doubt that
+his imaginative nature indulged in the vision of a regenerated Europe,
+divided between himself as emperor of the east and Napoleon as emperor
+of the west. It is therefore far from surprising that he should have
+held a private interview with Napoleon, on a raft in the Niemen, which
+led to the treaty of Tilsit on July 7.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF TILSIT._]
+
+This treaty, in which the King of Prussia shared as a helpless partner,
+contained both public and secret articles, but the distinction was not
+very material, for the secret articles almost immediately became known
+to Canning. The general effect of the whole agreement was the utter
+humiliation of Prussia, the recognition by that country and Russia of
+all Napoleon's acquisitions, and their combination with France against
+the maritime claims and conquests of Great Britain. The western
+provinces of Prussia were to be incorporated with other German
+annexations to form the new kingdom of Westphalia; Prussian Poland was
+to be converted into the duchy of Warsaw under the crown of Saxony, to
+which a right of passage through Silesia was reserved; and Berlin with
+other great Prussian fortresses were to remain in the hands of the
+French until an exorbitant war indemnity should have been paid.[34] At
+one stroke Prussia was thus reduced to a second-rate power, with a
+territory little greater than it possessed before the first partition of
+Poland. The rule of Joseph Bonaparte at Naples, that of Louis in
+Holland, and the confederation of the Rhine, were solemnly confirmed.
+Above all, Russia pledged herself to join France in coercing Sweden,
+Denmark, and Portugal into an adoption of the organised commercial
+exclusion, known as the "continental system," and hostility to Great
+Britain in the event of her resistance. If Sweden refused to join this
+league, Denmark was to be compelled to declare war on her.
+
+No sooner did it receive information of this alliance than the British
+government despatched a naval armament to Denmark and landed troops,
+which were soon reinforced by those withdrawn from Ruegen. There had been
+no open rupture with Denmark, though much irritation existed between
+Denmark and Great Britain with reference to neutral commerce. But there
+were the best reasons for believing that the Danish fleet, as well as
+that of Portugal, would be demanded by France and Russia, to be employed
+against Great Britain, and it was certain that Denmark could not
+withstand such pressure. The British envoy, Jackson, was accordingly
+instructed to offer Denmark a treaty of alliance, of which one condition
+was to be the deposit of her fleet on hire with the British government.
+The proposal was accompanied by a threat of force, and the crown prince,
+with a spirit worthy of admiration, refused the terms. In consequence a
+peremptory summons to deliver up her ships of war and naval stores was
+addressed to the governor of Copenhagen by the British commanders,
+Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, under whom Sir Arthur Wellesley was
+entrusted with the reserve. The surrender, if made peaceably, was to be
+in the nature of a deposit, and the fleet was to be restored at the end
+of the war. The governor returned a temporising reply, and a bombardment
+of Copenhagen followed (September 2); the fleet was brought to England
+as prize of war; and Denmark naturally became the enemy of Great
+Britain.[35] Sweden declined the proffered alliance of France and
+Russia, and actually invaded Norway, then a part of the Danish kingdom.
+The result was the loss of Finland and Swedish Pomerania. The king,
+Gustavus IV., resembled Charles XII. in quixotic temperament, but not in
+ability; and Sir John Moore, sent to his support with an army of 10,000
+men, found it hopeless to co-operate with him. Shortly afterwards, his
+subjects formed the same opinion, and he was compelled to make way for
+his uncle, who succeeded as Charles XIII. with Marshal Bernadotte as
+crown prince. In consequence of this change Sweden became reconciled to
+Russia, and estranged from Great Britain.
+
+The seizure of the Danish fleet, in time of so-called peace, roused
+great indignation throughout most of Europe, and, in some degree,
+strained the conscience of the British parliament itself. The justice
+and wisdom of it were strenuously challenged in both houses, especially
+by Grenville, Sidmouth, and Lord Darnley, who moved an address to the
+crown embodying an impressive protest against it. It was defended,
+however, by the high authority of the Marquis Wellesley, as well as by
+Canning and other ministers, on the simple ground of military necessity.
+Napoleon himself never ceased to denounce it as an international outrage
+of the highest enormity. This did not prevent his doing his best to
+justify it and to imitate it by sending Junot's expedition to Portugal,
+with instructions to seize the Portuguese fleet at Lisbon. It is strange
+that in the debates on this subject, peace with France was still treated
+on both sides as a possibility; but Canning declared that neither
+Russian nor Austrian mediation could have been accepted as impartial,
+or as affording the least hope of pacification. However, on September
+25, the king addressed a declaration to Europe, in which, after
+justifying himself in regard to Copenhagen, he professed his readiness
+to accept conditions of peace "consistent with the maritime rights and
+political existence of Great Britain".
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMERCIAL EXCLUSION._]
+
+Still more reasonable attacks, supported by strong petitions, were made
+by the opposition upon the "orders in council," whereby the British
+government retaliated against Napoleon's "continental system". This
+system was founded on a firm belief, shared by the French people, that
+Great Britain, as mistress of the seas, was the one great obstacle to
+his imperial ambition, and the most formidable enemy of French
+aggrandisement, only to be crushed by the ruin of her trade. Prussia
+had, in conformity with her treaty of February 15, 1806, issued a
+proclamation on March 28 of that year, closing her ports, which would
+now include those of Hanover, against British trade. The British
+government replied by first laying an embargo on Prussian vessels in the
+harbours of Great Britain and Ireland, and by proclaiming a blockade of
+the coast of Europe from Brest to the Elbe. This was followed on May 14
+by an order in council for seizing all vessels found navigating under
+Prussian colours. As yet the policy of commercial exclusion had not been
+carried to any great length, but the Berlin decree issued by Napoleon on
+November 21 after the battle of Jena proclaimed the whole of the British
+Isles to be in a state of blockade, prohibited all commerce with them
+from the ports of France and her dependent states, confiscated all
+British merchandise in such ports, and declared all British subjects in
+countries occupied by French troops to be prisoners of war. Howick
+replied by further orders in council in January, 1807, forbidding
+neutrals to trade between the ports of France and her allies, or between
+the ports of nations which should observe the Berlin decree, on pain of
+the confiscation of the ship and cargo. On the 27th another decree,
+issued at Warsaw, ordered the seizure in the Hanse Towns of all British
+goods and colonial produce. The reply of Great Britain was a stricter
+blockade of the North German coast.
+
+The accession of Russia to Napoleon's commercial policy at Tilsit seemed
+to have brought the combination against British trade to its furthest
+development, and it was answered by new orders in council, treating any
+port from which the British flag was excluded as if actually blockaded,
+and further limiting the carriage by neutral vessels of produce from
+hostile colonies. The Milan decree issued on December 17, and further
+orders in council published during the same winter, carried to greater
+extremes, if possible, this intolerable form of commercial warfare,
+under which neutral commerce was gradually crushed out of existence.
+Great Britain, owing to her command of the sea, was more independent of
+this kind of commerce than her rival, and both the decrees and the
+orders in council inflicted far more damage on France and her allies
+than on Great Britain. But neither party was able to enforce completely
+its policy of commercial exclusion. Europe could not dispense with
+British goods or colonial produce carried in British vessels. The law
+was deliberately set aside by a regular licensing system, and evaded by
+wholesale smuggling; neutral ships continued to ply between continental
+ports, and Napoleon did not disdain to clothe his troops with 50,000
+British overcoats during the Eylau campaign. Still, Great Britain was
+enabled to cripple, if not to destroy, the merchant shipping of all
+other countries, and the interests of consumers all over Europe were
+enlisted against the author of the continental system. On the other
+hand, a heavy blow was dealt to friendly relations between Great Britain
+and the United States, the chief victim of these belligerent
+pretensions.[36]
+
+[Pageheading: _FRUITLESS EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of Great Britain had been injured by three
+petty and abortive expeditions projected by the Grenville ministry. The
+first of these was sent out to complete the conquest of Buenos Ayres,
+the recapture of which was unknown in England. Sir Samuel Auchmuty, who
+commanded it, finding himself too late to occupy that city, attacked and
+took Monte Video by storm with much skill and spirit, on February 3,
+1807. Shortly afterwards, he was superseded by General Whitelocke,
+bringing reinforcements, with orders to recover Buenos Ayres. In this he
+signally failed, owing to gross tactical errors. The British troops were
+almost passively slaughtered in the streets, and Whitelocke agreed to
+withdraw the remains of his force, and give up Monte Video, on condition
+of all prisoners being surrendered. On his return home, he was tried by
+a court-martial and cashiered, being also declared "totally unfit to
+serve his majesty in any military capacity whatever".
+
+Equally ill-managed was the naval expedition, directed to support
+Russia, then in close alliance with Great Britain, by coercing the
+sultan into a rupture with France. Collingwood, who was not consulted,
+was required to entrust the command of this expedition, which started in
+February, 1807, to Sir John Duckworth. Everything depended on
+promptitude, and the admiral found little difficulty in forcing the
+passage of the Dardanelles, as it was then almost unfortified. Having
+reached Constantinople, he allowed himself to waste time in fruitless
+negotiations, contrary to Collingwood's earnest advice, and not only
+effected nothing but gravely imperilled his return. Instructed by the
+French minister Sebastiani, the Turks had armed their coasts, and
+erected batteries along the Dardanelles, through which the British fleet
+made its way with considerable loss. Instead of being detached from the
+French alliance, the Porte was thrown into its arms and became more
+embittered than ever against Russia. It was soon involved in a serious
+conflict with that country--for the possession of Wallachia and
+Moldavia--only to be deserted again by France under the compact made at
+Tilsit. The expedition to Egypt, planned in combination with the
+expedition to the Dardanelles, ended in a still worse disaster. Though
+General Fraser, its commander, was able to surprise Alexandria on March
+30, he awaited in vain the expected news of Duckworth's success; he
+proceeded to attack Rosetta with as little generalship as Whitelocke had
+shown at Buenos Ayres, and encountered a similar repulse. An attempt to
+besiege the town met with no better fortune: the British troops
+submitted to a capitulation, evacuated Egypt, and sailed for Sicily in
+September, 1807. In an imperial manifesto addressed to the French nation
+at the end of this year, the British failures at Buenos Ayres,
+Constantinople, and Alexandria were paraded, together with our alleged
+crime against the rights of nations at Copenhagen.
+
+In the early months of 1808 the continental system was extended by the
+establishment of French administration at Rome, and the annexation of
+the eastern ports of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy. On
+February 18 of the same year Austria under French pressure adopted the
+system. Sweden and Turkey were now the only continental countries left
+outside it, but the retention of Sicily by the Bourbon king rendered it
+easy for British commerce to enter Italy through that island. The
+irritation of neutrals increased as the area of commercial exclusion
+widened, but the United States were now the only neutral power of any
+consequence. After April 17 Napoleon took the high-handed step of
+confiscating all American shipping in his ports. In spite of this
+aggression, the president and congress of the United States continued to
+favour France against Great Britain. The story of the commercial warfare
+between Great Britain and the United States will be related more fully
+hereafter. For the present, it is sufficient to mention that an act,
+placing an embargo on foreign vessels in American ports, was passed by
+congress on December 22, 1807, and another on March 1, 1809, forbidding
+commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France and the colonies
+occupied by them.
+
+Meanwhile Great Britain continued to enforce her maritime rights,
+including that of searching American merchantmen for British-born
+sailors, and impressing them at the will of British naval officers.
+These grievances ultimately led to a war between Great Britain and
+America in 1812. The continental system, however, did not long remain so
+complete as in the beginning of 1808. Junot's expedition to Portugal had
+led to a French occupation of that country before the end of 1807. The
+conquest of Portugal was followed, as we shall see later, by a partial
+conquest of Spain. This threw the Spaniards back upon the British
+alliance and afforded an opportunity for the liberation of Portugal, so
+that from May, 1808, Great Britain once more had a large seaboard open
+to her commerce. The early success of the Spanish resistance to France,
+and other events in the peninsula hereafter to be recorded, encouraged
+Austria to arm again; and on the news of the capitulation of the French
+army at Baylen in July, she pushed forward her preparations with
+redoubled energy. A national movement arose simultaneously in North
+Germany, but the Prussian government dared not head it so long as
+Russia remained faithful to the French alliance.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ERFURT._]
+
+Notwithstanding a peremptory declaration from the tsar after the seizure
+of the Danish fleet, Russia had nothing to gain by war with Great
+Britain. She was bound to France by the prospect held forth to her at
+Tilsit of the conquest of Finland and the partition of Turkey, but she
+was inwardly desirous of peace with Great Britain. Napoleon, on the
+other hand, saw in the partition of Turkey an opportunity of striking at
+India, and had actually given orders for naval preparations to be made
+in Spain, when all thought of eastern conquest had to be postponed owing
+to the success of the Spanish patriots. After a conference between
+Napoleon and the tsar at Erfurt a secret convention was signed on
+October 12, by which France sanctioned Russian conquests in Finland and
+the Danubian provinces, and Russia recognised the Bonaparte dynasty in
+Spain and promised to assist France in a defensive war against Austria.
+The two powers despatched a joint note to Great Britain inviting her to
+make peace, on the principle of _uti possidetis_. Canning replied that
+he was prepared to negotiate if his allies, especially Sweden and the
+Spanish patriots, who were at that time in actual possession of almost
+the entire country, were included in the peace. On November 19 Napoleon
+expressed his willingness to treat with the British allies, but not with
+the Spanish "rebels," as he styled them. Alexander took up a similar
+position, speaking of the Spanish "insurgents," and expressly
+recognising Joseph as King of Spain. Thus ended these pacific overtures,
+and on November 3 the official _expose_, annually issued in Paris,
+described Great Britain as "the enemy of the world".
+
+The year 1808 is memorable in English history for the active
+intervention of Great Britain in the affairs of Spain which developed
+into the "Peninsular war".[37] This intervention was rendered possible
+and effective by the organisation of our army system in 1807, which was
+due to Castlereagh, though he received little credit for it. Under this
+system, the old constitutional force of the militia was made the basis
+of the whole military establishment. By the militia balloting bill and
+the militia transfer bill, that force, largely composed of substitutes,
+and bound only to home-service, was practically converted into a
+recruiting-ground for the regular army, and proved sufficient to make
+good all the losses incurred during the long campaigns in Portugal and
+Spain. The army thus raised contained, no doubt, many soldiers of bad
+character, whose misdeeds, after the furious excitement of an escalade,
+or under the heart-breaking stress of a retreat, sometimes brought
+disgrace upon the British name. But these men, side by side with
+steadier comrades, bore themselves like heroes on many a bloodstained
+field; they quailed not before the conquering legions of Austerlitz and
+Wagram; they could "go anywhere or do anything" under trusted leaders;
+and they restored the military reputation of their country before the
+eyes of Europe. To have forged such an instrument of war was no mean
+administrative exploit. To have maintained its efficiency steadily on
+the whole, though sometimes with a faint-hearted parsimony, and to have
+loyally supported its commander against the cavils of a factious
+opposition superior in parliamentary ability, for a period of seven
+years, must be held to redeem the tory government from the charge of
+political weakness.
+
+[Pageheading: _PARLIAMENTARY ZEAL._]
+
+At the beginning of 1809, however, the interest of parliament was less
+concentrated on Sir Arthur Wellesley's first campaign in Portugal, or
+even on the convention of Cintra, than on the scandals attaching to the
+office of commander-in-chief, held by the Duke of York. Though an
+incapable general, the duke had shown himself, on the whole, an
+excellent administrator, and in the opinion of the best officers had
+done much for the discipline and efficiency of the British army.
+Unfortunately, Mrs. Clarke, his former mistress, had received bribes for
+using her influence with the duke to procure military appointments.
+Colonel Wardle, an obscure member of parliament, to whom Mrs. Clarke had
+temporarily transferred herself after being discarded by the duke,
+animated by a desire to damage the ministry, came forward with charges
+directly implicating him in her corrupt practices, and incidentally
+brought similar accusations against Portland and Eldon. The government
+foolishly agreed to an inquiry on the Duke of York's behalf, and it was
+conducted before a committee of the whole house, which sat from January
+26 to March 20. In the course of this inquiry, Sir Arthur Wellesley
+bore strong testimony in his favour, and the duke addressed a letter to
+the speaker, declaring his innocence of corruption. Though Wardle and
+his associates pressed for his dismissal, Perceval ultimately carried a
+motion acquitting him not only of corruption but of connivance with
+corruption. The majority, however, was small, and the duke thought it
+necessary to resign on March 20, whereupon the house of commons decided
+to proceed no further. A curious sequel of this case was an action
+against Wardle by an upholsterer, who had furnished a house for Mrs.
+Clarke by Wardle's orders, in consideration of her services in giving
+hostile evidence against her former protector. The plaintiff obtained
+L2,000 damages, and the law-suit was the means of producing a reaction
+in popular feeling in favour of the duke.
+
+This scandal in high places quickened the zeal of parliament for general
+purity of administration, and led to a disclosure of some grave abuses.
+One of these, connected with the disposal of captured Dutch property,
+dated as far back as 1795. Others were found to exist in the navy
+department and the distribution of Indian patronage; others related to
+parliamentary elections. Perceval brought in a bill to check the sale
+and brokerage of offices, nor did Castlereagh himself escape the charge
+of having procured the election of Lord Clancarty to parliament by the
+offer of an Indian writership to a borough-monger. A frank explanation
+saved him from censure, especially as it appeared that the offer had
+never taken effect. The charge was renewed, in a different form, against
+both him and Perceval, and their accusers moved for a trial at bar. But
+as it turned out that undue influence rather than corruption was their
+alleged offence, and as the avowed object of the resolution was to force
+on parliamentary reform, it was negatived by an immense majority.
+Nevertheless, the object was not wholly defeated.
+
+The removal of the Duke of York from the command of the army was
+singularly inopportune, for Sir David Dundas had scarcely been appointed
+as his successor when a juncture arose specially demanding a combination
+of energy and experience. The British government, already engaged in the
+Peninsular war, had at last resolved to take a vigorous part in the new
+and desperate struggle between France and Austria in Southern Germany.
+The latent spirit of German nationality, aroused by Napoleon's ruthless
+treatment of Prussia, and quickened into a flame by sympathy with the
+uprising in Spain, was embodied in the secret association of the
+_Tugendbund_; and Austria, smarting under a sense of her own
+humiliation, mustered up courage to assume the leadership of a national
+movement. South Germany, governed by old dynasties, which profited by
+the French alliance, displayed as yet no symptoms of disaffection to
+France; but in North Germany the old dynasties had been either humbled
+or deposed, and the general ferment among the people, needed, as the
+Austrians believed, only the presence of a regular army to break out
+into a national revolt against the foreigner. Prussia, it is true, was
+still unwilling to move, because Russia was hostile; but the Austrian
+court knew well the lukewarmness of Russia's attachment to France, and
+hoped that a national upheaval would carry the Prussian government along
+with it. No one, in fact, had played a more active part in rousing
+Northern Germany than the Prussian minister, Stein, whom Frederick
+William, by Napoleon's advice, had called to his councils after Tilsit,
+and who was now compelled to resign his office and take refuge in
+Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON IN AUSTRIA._]
+
+The British government was aware of the situation in Germany when it
+received a request in January, 1809, for the despatch of a British force
+to the mouth of the Elbe. Austria was, however, still nominally at war
+with Great Britain, and George III., perhaps not unreasonably, refused
+to give her active military assistance till peace was concluded.
+Meanwhile a subsidy of L250,000 in bullion was despatched to Trieste,
+and inquiries were set on foot as to the means of supplying such a
+military expedition as Austria desired.[38] On March 22, Dundas, who had
+only been a few days in office as commander-in-chief, reported that
+15,000 men could not be spared from home service, and, in consequence,
+no extensive preparations were made until the muster rolls in June
+showed that 40,000 troops might safely be employed abroad. This
+convinced the government that a large force could be sent without
+interfering with home defence, as Castlereagh had long contended; and
+throughout June and July the naval and military departments were busy in
+preparing for what has since left a sinister memory as the Walcheren
+expedition. Meanwhile, as if the passion of frittering away resources
+were irresistible, a smaller force was despatched, as a kind of feint,
+against the kingdom of Naples. It consisted of 15,000 British troops and
+a body of Sicilians. Bailing from Palermo early in June it captured the
+islands of Ischia and Procida and the castle of Scylla, and threw Naples
+into consternation. But the attack was not pushed, and it was too late
+to be of any assistance to the Austrians who had already been expelled
+from the Italian peninsula. At last, in July, the treaty of peace with
+Austria was signed and the great armament was ready to sail.
+
+But Napoleon had not awaited the deliberations of British statesmen.
+Hurrying back from Spain, he remained in Paris only long enough to
+organise a campaign in South Germany, and left the capital to join his
+armies on April 13. A week earlier, the Archduke Charles, having
+remodelled the Austrian army, issued a proclamation affirming Austria to
+be the champion of European liberty. On the 9th Austria declared war
+against Bavaria, the ally of France, and her troops crossed the Inn. On
+the 17th, when Napoleon arrived at Donauwoerth, he found the archduke in
+occupation of Ratisbon. His presence turned the tide, and, after three
+victories, he was once more on the road to Vienna. The most important of
+these victories was that of Eckmuehl, and he regarded the manoeuvre by
+which it was won as the finest in his military career. On May 13 the
+French entered Vienna, but the Archduke Charles with an army of nearly
+200,000 men was facing him on the left bank of the Danube. Napoleon's
+army crossed and encountered the Austrians on the great plain between
+Aspern and Essling. He was repulsed and fell back upon Lobau, between
+which and the Vienna side of the Danube the bridge of boats had been
+swept away by a rise of the river and by balks of timber floated down by
+the Austrians. In this dangerous position he remained shut up for
+several weeks. He finally succeeded in throwing across a light bridge by
+which his army regained the left bank on the night of July 4. Finding
+their position turned the Austrians took up their stand on the tableland
+of Wagram. On July 6 another pitched battle was fought, which, in the
+number of combatants engaged and in the losses inflicted on both sides,
+must rank with the later conflicts of Borodino and Leipzig. A hard won
+victory rested with the French, but it was not such a victory as that of
+Austerlitz or Jena, though it secured the neutrality, at least, of
+Austria for the next four years. Her army retreated into Bohemia, and on
+July 12 an armistice was signed at Znaim in Moravia, which formed the
+basis of a peace concluded at Vienna on October 14.
+
+Nothing remained for Great Britain but to abandon the auxiliary
+enterprise so long planned, but so often delayed, or to carry it through
+independently, with little hope of a decisive issue. The latter
+alternative was adopted. The very day on which the news of the armistice
+arrived witnessed the departure of the greatest single armament ever
+sent out fully equipped from the shores of Great Britain. The deplorable
+failure of the Walcheren expedition has obscured both its magnitude and
+its probable importance had it only proved successful. The command of
+the fleet was given to Sir Richard Strachan, a competent admiral; that
+of the army to Chatham, who sat in the cabinet as master-general of the
+ordnance, an incompetent general, who owed his nomination to royal
+favour. This was the first blunder; the second was the utter neglect of
+medical and sanitary precautions against the notoriously unhealthy
+climate of Walcheren in the autumn months. The armament sailed from the
+Downs on July 28, in the finest weather and with a display of intense
+national enthusiasm. It consisted of thirty-five ships of the line, with
+a swarm of smaller war-vessels and transports, carrying nearly 40,000
+troops, two battering-trains, and a complete apparatus of military
+stores. Its destination, though more than suspected by the enemy, had
+been officially kept secret at home. Castlereagh must be held largely
+responsible for the delays and for the unwise choice of a general which
+marred its success, but he showed true military sagacity in designating
+the point of attack. Inspired by him, the British government,
+distrusting the national movement in North Germany, had decided to
+strike at Antwerp, which Napoleon had supplied with new docks, and
+which, now that the mouth of the Scheldt had been reopened, threatened
+to become the commercial rival of London. The town was entirely
+unprepared, and a blow dealt here seemed the best way of doing as much
+harm as possible to France and at the same time gaining a national
+advantage for Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE WALCHEREN EXPEDITION._]
+
+Chatham had received very precise instructions from Castlereagh, the
+objects prescribed to him being, (1) the capture or destruction of the
+enemy's ships, either building or afloat at Antwerp or Flushing, or
+afloat in the Scheldt; (2) the destruction of the arsenals and dockyards
+at Antwerp, Terneuze, and Flushing; (3) the reduction of the island of
+Walcheren; (4) the rendering of the Scheldt no longer navigable to ships
+of war. These objects were named, as far as possible, in the order of
+their importance, and Chatham was specially directed to land troops at
+Sandvliet and push on straight to Antwerp, with the view of taking it by
+a _coup de main_. Napoleon, who clearly foretold the catastrophe
+awaiting the British troops in the malarious swamps of Walcheren,
+afterwards admitted that Antwerp could have been captured by a sudden
+assault. Chatham obeyed his general orders, but, instead of taking them
+in the order of importance, gave precedence to the objects which could
+most easily be accomplished. By prompt action the French fleet, which
+was moored off Flushing, might have been captured, but it was allowed to
+escape to Antwerp. By August 2 the British were in complete possession
+of the mouth of the Scheldt, and had taken Bath opposite Sandvliet,
+while Antwerp was still almost unprotected. But Chatham concentrated his
+attention on the siege of Flushing, which surrendered, after three days'
+bombardment, on August 16, contrary to Napoleon's expectation. Antwerp
+had meanwhile been put in a state of defence, and was now protected by
+the enemy's fleet, while French and Dutch troops were pouring down to
+the Scheldt. After ten days of inactivity, Chatham advanced his
+headquarters to Bath, found that further advance was impossible, and
+recommended the government to recall the expedition, leaving 15,000 men
+to defend the island of Walcheren. This advice was adopted, but the
+garrison left in Walcheren suffered most severely from fever in that
+swampy island. Eventually, on December 24, Walcheren was abandoned, the
+works and naval basins of Flushing having been previously destroyed. The
+destruction of Flushing was the sole result of this expedition.
+
+The failure of the British to make any serious impression on the French
+either in the Low Countries or in Spain induced Austria to consent to
+peace with France. By the peace of Vienna, signed on October 14, she
+ceded Salzburg and a part of Upper Austria to Bavaria, West Galicia to
+the duchy of Warsaw, and a part of Carinthia with Trieste and the
+Illyrian provinces to France. A small strip of Galicia was ceded to the
+Russian tsar, who had rendered France some very half-hearted assistance
+and was further alienated by the extension of the duchy of Warsaw.
+Austria was enslaved to the will of Napoleon. She had abandoned the
+Tyrolese peasants whose loyal insurrection against the Bavarians was the
+most heroic incident in the war, and she now joined the other nations of
+the continent in excluding the commerce of Great Britain, which had made
+a powerful diversion in Spain and an imposing though futile diversion on
+the Scheldt to save her from national annihilation.
+
+While the Walcheren expedition was preparing, two additions were made to
+the cabinet. Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, brother of the Marquis of
+Stafford, was admitted in June as secretary at war, and in July
+Harrowby, who was created an earl, became president of the board of
+control with a seat in the cabinet. After the fate of the expedition
+became known, though before its final withdrawal, a serious quarrel took
+place between Canning and Castlereagh. Personal jealousies had long
+existed between these two statesmen, both half-Irish, half-English, and
+of approximately the same age, yet widely different in character.
+Canning was the most brilliant orator of his day, and no less persuasive
+in private conversation than in public orations, gifted with an agile
+brain that leaped readily from one idea or one project to another, but
+cursed with a bitter wit which lightly aroused enduring enmities, and
+which, coupled with an excessive vanity, rendered him unpopular with his
+colleagues, and made it difficult for any one to take him seriously;
+while his rival, not less able, and much more steady and trustworthy, a
+skilful manager of men, was scarcely able to pronounce a coherent
+sentence. Early in April Canning pressed upon the Duke of Portland the
+transfer of Castlereagh to another office. Private communications
+followed between various members of the cabinet, and it was understood
+that Camden, as Castlereagh's friend, should apprise him of the
+prevailing view, which the king himself had approved under a threat of
+Canning's resignation. The duke, however, begged Camden to postpone the
+disclosure, and others of Castlereagh's friends urged Canning not to
+insist upon the change pending the completion of the Walcheren
+expedition.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUEL BETWEEN CANNING AND CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+As the scheme took shape in July Camden was to resign, and thus make
+possible a shifting of offices, which was to result in the Marquis
+Wellesley succeeding Castlereagh as secretary for war. At last, on
+September 6, the duke informed Canning of his own intention to retire on
+the ground of ill-health, and at the same time disclosed the fact that
+no steps had been taken to prepare Castlereagh for the proposed change
+in his position. Thereupon Canning promptly sent in his own resignation,
+the duke resigned the same day, and Castlereagh, learning what had
+passed, followed his example two days later.[39] Believing that Canning
+had been intriguing against him behind his back, under the guise of
+friendship, he demanded satisfaction on the 19th, and on the 21st[40]
+the duel was fought, in which Canning received a slight wound. Such
+events provoked little censure in those days, and it is pleasant to
+know that Canning and Castlereagh afterwards acted cordially together as
+colleagues. Their enmity broke up the government. The Duke of Portland
+did not long survive his withdrawal from office, and died on October 29;
+Leveson-Gower insisted on following Canning into retirement.
+
+Perceval was entrusted with the task of forming an administration, but
+the new ministry was not formed without considerable negotiation.
+Canning vainly endeavoured to impress first on his colleagues and then
+on the king his own pretensions to the highest office, while attempts,
+to which the king gave a reluctant assent, had been made to enlist the
+co-operation of Grenville and Howick, who succeeded his father as Earl
+Grey, in 1807, but they failed as all later attempts were destined to
+fail. The most influential motive governing their conduct was,
+doubtless, their feeling that they would not as ministers possess the
+king's confidence. Sidmouth's following had also been approached.
+Sidmouth himself was considered too obnoxious to some of Pitt's
+followers to be a safe member of the new cabinet, but Vansittart was
+offered the chancellorship of the exchequer and Bragge, who had taken
+the additional surname of Bathurst, the office of secretary at war. They
+refused, however, to enter the ministry, unless accompanied by Sidmouth
+himself.
+
+Perceval eventually became prime minister, retaining his former offices;
+Lord Bathurst, while remaining at the board of trade, presided
+temporarily at the foreign office, which was offered to the Marquis
+Wellesley, then serving as British ambassador to the Spanish junta at
+Seville, and taken over by him in December. Hawkesbury, now Earl of
+Liverpool, succeeded Castlereagh as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and was followed at the home office by Richard Ryder, a brother of
+Harrowby. Harrowby himself gave up the board of control in November to
+Melville's son, Robert Dundas, who, however, was not made a member of
+the cabinet. Lord Palmerston, who had been a junior lord of the
+admiralty under Portland, declined the chancellorship of the exchequer,
+and though he accepted Leveson-Gower's post as secretary at war, he was
+by his own desire excluded from the cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW BRITISH CONQUESTS._]
+
+While the close of the year 1809 was darkened by national
+disappointment and political anxieties, the honour of British arms had
+been amply vindicated in the Spanish peninsula, and the brilliant
+exploit of Lord Cochrane in Basque Roads had recalled the glories of the
+Nile. Cochrane had already achieved marvels under Collingwood in the
+Mediterranean, and notably off the Spanish coast, when he was selected
+to conduct an attack by fireships on the French squadron blockaded under
+the shelter of the islands of Aix and Oleron. This he carried out on the
+night of April 11, with a dash and skill worthy of Nelson, and unless
+checked by Gambier, the admiral in command, who had been raised to the
+peerage after the seizure of the Danish fleet in 1807, he must have
+succeeded in destroying the whole of the enemy's ships. Gambier was
+afterwards acquitted by a court martial of negligence, but the verdict
+of the public was against him. In the autumn Collingwood reduced the
+seven Ionian islands, and gained an important advantage by cutting out a
+considerable detachment of the Toulon fleet in the Bay of Genoa. In the
+course of the year, too, all the remaining French territory in the West
+Indies, as well as the Isle of Bourbon in the Indian Ocean, was captured
+by the British navy. But this unchallenged supremacy on the high seas
+did not prevent the depredations of French gunboats on British
+merchantmen in the channel. Indeed after the battle of Trafalgar, the
+French "sea-wasps" infesting the Channel were more active and
+destructive than ever.
+
+On October 25, being the forty-ninth anniversary of his accession, the
+jubilee of George III. was celebrated with hearty and sincere
+rejoicings. His popularity was not unmerited. He was politically
+shortsighted, but within his range of vision few saw facts so clearly;
+he was obstinate and prejudiced, but his obstinacy was redeemed by a
+moral intrepidity of the highest order, and his prejudices were shared
+by the mass of his people. Having lived through the seven years' war,
+the war of the American revolution, and the successive wars of Great
+Britain against the French monarchy and the French republic, he was now
+supporting, with indomitable firmness, a war against the all-conquering
+French empire--the most perilous in which this country was ever engaged.
+The colonial and Indian dominions of Great Britain, reduced by the loss
+of the North American colonies, had been greatly extended during his
+reign in other quarters of the globe. His subjects regarded him as an
+Englishman to the core; they knew him to be honest, religious, virtuous,
+and homely in his life; they justly believed him, in spite of his
+failings, to be a power for good in the land; and they rewarded him with
+a respect and affection granted to no other British sovereign of modern
+times before Queen Victoria. They had good cause to desire the
+continuance of his life and reason, knowing the character of his
+heir-apparent, and contrasting the domestic habits of Windsor with the
+licence of Carlton House.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Colchester, _Diary_ (Feb. 4, 1806), ii., 35, 36.
+
+[32] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_, ii., 91-94.
+
+[33] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party,_ ii., 173-205, 270-320;
+Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 92-115; Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 357-72;
+Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, i., 223-33; Buckingham, _Courts and
+Cabinets_, iv., 117-50. Holland accuses the king of treachery and
+duplicity, and Lewis (_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 294)
+repeats this charge in milder terms. But the documents quoted do not
+prove any want of straightforwardness, and the king's conduct was the
+logical consequence of his action in 1801.
+
+[34] In the following year Napoleon consented to evacuate all the
+Prussian fortresses except three, on condition that the Prussian army
+should not exceed a total of 40,000 men.
+
+[35] _Annual Register_, xlix. (1807), 249-70, 731-38; Rose, in _English
+Historical Review_, xi. (1896), 82-92.
+
+[36] Captain Mahan, _The Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+Revolution and Empire_, ii., 272-357, shows that the policy of the
+orders in council was essential to British safety.
+
+[37] The course of this war is related continuously in chap. v.
+
+[38] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 190, note.
+
+[39] The best account of the quarrel, especially in its relation to the
+composition of the cabinet, is to be found in Walpole's _Life of
+Perceval_, vol. i., chap. ix., and vol. ii., chap. i. Lewis,
+_Administrations_, pp. 314-15, finds a double ground for Canning's
+resignation in his failure to obtain the removal of Castlereagh from the
+war office and in the refusal of the king and cabinet to allow him to
+succeed Portland as prime minister. It is quite clear, however, that at
+the time of Canning's resignation no decision had been come to about a
+successor to Portland. Some correspondence had passed between Canning
+and Perceval, in which each had refused to serve under the other, but
+that this correspondence was unknown to the cabinet as a whole is proved
+by Mulgrave's letters to Lord Lonsdale of September 11 and 15 (Phipps,
+_Memoir of Ward_, pp. 210-17); in the former of these he discusses
+Canning's probable conduct without referring to this correspondence,
+while in the latter he only knows of such negotiations as subsequent to
+the resignations of September 6 and 8. So, too, Eldon's letter to his
+wife of September 11 (Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 88-90), places the
+whole correspondence between Canning and Perceval after Portland's
+resignation on September 6. The king was not informed of Canning's views
+as to a successor to Portland till September 13, and the cabinet minute
+of September 18, advising co-operation with Grenville and Grey, mentions
+the selection of Canning as prime minister as a course open to the king.
+
+[40] This is the date commonly given. The _Annual Register_, li. (1809),
+239, gives the 22nd, while Perceval refers to the result of the duel in
+a letter dated the 20th (Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 209). It is clear,
+however, that Canning did not receive Castlereagh's challenge till the
+morning of the 20th (see his letter in _Annual Register_, _loc. cit._,
+505, also his detailed statement to Camden, _ibid._, 525), and therefore
+the duel cannot have taken place till the 21st. Lord Folkestone in a
+letter dated the 21st refers to the duel as having been fought at "7
+o'clock this morning" (_Creevey Papers_, i., 96).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IV.
+
+                        PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The administration of Perceval, covering the period from October, 1809,
+to May, 1812, coincided with a lull in the continental war save in the
+Peninsula, though it saw no pause in the progress of French annexation.
+Nor was it marked by many events of historical interest in domestic
+affairs. When parliament was opened on January 23, 1810, it was natural
+that attention should chiefly be devoted to the Walcheren expedition,
+which the opposition illogically and unscrupulously contrived to use to
+disparage the operations of Sir Arthur Wellesley, now Viscount
+Wellington, in Spain. Grenville, who argued with some reason that 40,000
+British troops could have been employed to far better purpose in North
+Germany, would have been on stronger ground if he had complained that
+for want of them the British army had been unable to occupy Madrid.
+Castlereagh, indeed, had confessed to Wellesley that he could not spare
+the necessary reinforcements, after the reserves had been exhausted in
+Walcheren; but it is by no means certain that Wellesley could have
+collected provisions enough to feed a much larger force, or specie
+enough to pay for them. Liverpool was driven in reply to Grenville to
+magnify the value of the capture of Flushing, as the necessary basis of
+the naval armaments which Napoleon had intended to launch against
+England from the Scheldt. The government was also defended by the young
+Robert Peel, lately elected to parliament. As the calamity was
+irreparable, a committee of the whole house spent most of its time on a
+constitutional question, regarding a private memorandum placed before
+the king by Chatham in his own defence. So irregular a proceeding was
+properly condemned, and Chatham resigned the mastership of the ordnance,
+but the policy of the Walcheren expedition was approved by a vote of the
+house of commons. Mulgrave received the office Chatham had vacated, and
+was himself succeeded by Yorke at the admiralty.
+
+Parliament was next occupied by a question of privilege, in which Sir
+Francis Burdett, member for Westminster, then a favourite of the
+democracy, played a part resembling that of John Wilkes a generation
+earlier. Burdett had been for fourteen years a member of parliament, and
+had been conspicuous from the first for the vehemence of his opposition
+to the government, and more especially to its supposed infringements of
+the liberty of the subject. He had more recently taken an active part on
+behalf of Wardle's attack on the Duke of York and had supported the
+charges of ministerial corruption in the previous session. On the
+present occasion one John Gale Jones, president of a debating club, had
+published in a notice of debate the terms of a resolution which his club
+had passed, condemning in extravagant language the exclusion of
+strangers from the house of commons. This was treated as a breach of
+privilege, and Jones was sent to Newgate by order of the house itself.
+Burdett, in a violent letter to Cobbett's _Register_, challenged the
+right of the house to imprison Jones by its own authority, and, after a
+fierce debate lasting two nights, was adjudged by the house, on April 5,
+to have been guilty of a still more scandalous libel. Accordingly, the
+speaker issued a warrant for his committal to the Tower. Burdett
+declared his resolution to resist arrest, the populace mustered in his
+defence, the riot act was read, and he was conveyed to prison by a
+strong military escort, on whose return more serious riots broke out,
+and were not quelled without bloodshed. On his release at the end of the
+session a repetition of these scenes was prevented by the simple
+expedient of bringing him home by water. During his imprisonment he
+wrote an offensive letter to the speaker, and his colleague, Lord
+Cochrane, presented a violently worded petition from his Westminster
+constituents. In the following year he sued the speaker and the
+sergeant-at-arms in the court of king's bench, which decided against him
+on the ground that a power of commitment was necessary for the
+maintenance of the dignity of the house of commons, and its decision
+was confirmed, on appeal, by the court of exchequer chamber and the
+house of lords.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+The most important subject of internal policy discussed in the session
+of 1810 was the state of the currency. Since 1797 cash payments had been
+suspended, the issue of banknotes had been nearly doubled, and the price
+of commodities had risen enormously. Whether these results had in their
+turn promoted the expansion of foreign commerce and internal industry
+was vigorously disputed by two rival schools of economists. The one
+thing certain was the increasing scarcity of specie, and the serious
+loss incurred in its provision for the service of the army in the
+Peninsula. Francis Horner, then rising to eminence, obtained the
+appointment of what became known as the "bullion committee" to inquire
+into the anomalous conditions thus created, and took a leading part in
+the preparation of its celebrated report, published on September 20. The
+committee arrived at the conclusion that the high price of gold was
+mainly due to excess in the paper-currency, and not, as alleged, to a
+drain of gold for the continental war. They attributed that excess to
+"the want of a sufficient check and control in the issues of paper from
+the Bank of England, and originally to the suspension of cash-payments,
+which removed the natural and true control". While allowing that paper
+could not be rendered suddenly convertible into specie without
+dislocating the entire business of the country, they recommended that an
+early provision should be made by parliament for terminating the
+suspension of cash-payments at the end of two years. These conclusions
+were combated by Castlereagh and Vansittart, who afterwards, in 1811,
+succeeded in carrying several counter-resolutions, of which the general
+effect was to explain the admitted rise in the price of gold, for the
+most part by the exclusion of British trade from the continent, and the
+consequent export of the precious metals in lieu of British
+manufactures. The last resolution, while it recognised the wisdom of
+restoring cash-payments as soon as it could safely be done, affirmed it
+to be "highly inexpedient and dangerous to fix a definite period for the
+removal of the restriction on cash-payments prior to the conclusion of a
+definitive treaty of peace". These counsels prevailed, and the
+restriction was not actually removed until Peel's act was passed in
+July, 1819.
+
+The last domestic event in the inglorious annals of 1810 was the final
+lapse of the king into mental derangement in the month of November. For
+more than six years his sight had been failing, but he had suffered no
+return of insanity since 1804. Now he lost both his sight and his
+reason. This event, impending for some time, was precipitated by the
+illness and death of the Princess Amelia, his favourite daughter, and
+was perhaps aggravated by the Walcheren expedition and the disgrace of
+the Duke of York. Parliament met on November 1, and was adjourned more
+than once before a committee was appointed to examine the royal
+physicians. Acting on their report, the ministers proposed and carried
+resolutions declaring the king's incapacity, and the right and duty of
+the two houses to provide for the emergency. It was also determined to
+define by act of parliament the powers to be exercised in the king's
+name and behalf. This implied a limitation of the regent's authority,
+and was resented by the Prince of Wales and his friends. Perceval,
+however, was able to rely on the precedent of 1788, to which Grenville,
+for one, had been a party, and, after considerable opposition, the
+prince was made regent under several temporary restrictions. With
+certain exceptions, he was precluded from granting any peerage or office
+tenable for life; the royal property was vested in trustees for the
+king's benefit, and the personal care of the king was entrusted to the
+queen, with the advice of a council. In this form, the regency bill was
+passed on February 4, 1811, after a protest from the other sons of
+George III. and violent attacks upon Eldon by Grenville and Grey. On the
+5th, the regent took the oaths before the privy council, but, in
+accepting the restrictions, he delicately expressed regret that he
+should not have been trusted to impose upon himself proper limitations
+for the exercise of royal patronage. The interregnum thus established
+was to be provisional only, and was to cease on February 1, 1812, but
+the queen and her private council, with the concurrence of the privy
+council, were empowered to annul it at any time, by announcing the
+king's recovery, when he could resume his powers by proclamation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE REGENCY BILL._]
+
+The hopes of the opposition had been greatly excited by the prospect of
+a regency, and it was generally expected that a change of ministry would
+be its immediate consequence. Private communications had, in fact,
+passed between the prince and the whig lords, Grenville and Grey, but
+they were rendered nugatory by the dictatorial tone assumed by those
+lords and by the unwillingness of the prince to dispense with the advice
+of Moira and Sheridan. The two whig lords had by the prince's desire
+prepared a reply to the address from the houses of parliament,
+preparatory to the regency bill. Grenville had voted in favour of the
+restriction on the creation of peers, and it is therefore not surprising
+that the reply which he and Grey drafted appeared to the prince too weak
+in its protest against the limitations. He therefore adopted in its
+stead another reply which Sheridan had composed for him. The two lords
+thereupon addressed to the prince a remonstrance, which practically
+claimed for themselves the right of responsible ministers to be the sole
+advisers of their prince. This remonstrance provoked the ridicule of
+Sheridan, and certainly did not please the prince, who since the fall of
+the Grenville ministry had refused to be regarded as a "party man". The
+regent, accordingly, gave Perceval to understand that he intended to
+retain his present ministers, but solely on the ground that he was
+unwilling to do anything which might retard his father's recovery, or
+distress him when he should come to himself. This reason was probably
+genuine. The king appeared to be recovering; he had had several
+interviews with Perceval and Eldon, and had made inquiries as to the
+prince's intentions. Soon, however, the malady took a turn for the
+worse, and the physicians came to the conclusion that it was
+permanent.[41]
+
+Before February, 1812, when the restrictions expired, and a permanent
+regency bill was passed, the prince drifted further away from his former
+advisers, and had been pacified by the loyal attitude of Perceval and
+Eldon. Further overtures were conveyed to the whig lords through a
+letter from the prince regent to the Duke of York, in which he declared
+that he had "no predilections to indulge or resentments to gratify," but
+only a concern for the public good, towards which he desired the
+co-operation of some of his old whig friends, indicating Grenville and
+Grey. They declined in a letter to the Duke of York, alleging
+differences on grounds of policy too deep to admit of a coalition.
+Eldon, on his part, expressed a similar conviction, but the regent never
+fully forgave what he regarded as their desertion. Wellesley, who was
+strongly opposed to Perceval's policy of maintaining the catholic
+disabilities, resigned the secretaryship of foreign affairs, protesting
+against the feeble support given to his brother in the Peninsula, and
+was succeeded by Castlereagh. In April Sidmouth became president of the
+council in place of Camden, who remained in the cabinet without office;
+and in the next month, on May 11, Perceval was assassinated in the lobby
+of the house of commons by a man named Bellingham, who had an imaginary
+grievance against the government.
+
+A very general and sincere tribute of respect was paid by the house to
+Perceval's memory, for, though his statesmanship was of the second
+order, he was far more than a tory partisan; he was an excellent
+debater, and a thoroughly honest politician, and his private character
+was above all reproach or suspicion. The cabinet was bewildered by his
+death, and a fresh attempt was made to strengthen it by the simple
+inclusion of Canning as well as Wellesley. Wellesley stipulated that the
+catholic question should be left open, and that the war should be
+prosecuted with the entire resources of the country, while Canning
+declined co-operation on the ground of the catholic question alone. No
+agreement being found possible, the house of commons stepped in and
+addressed the regent, begging him to form a strong and efficient
+administration, commanding the confidence of all classes. He replied by
+sending for Wellesley, offering him the premiership and entrusting him
+with the formation of a comprehensive ministry; but Wellesley soon found
+that Liverpool and his adherents would not serve under him at all, while
+Grenville and Grey, who secretly condemned the Peninsular war, would
+only serve on conditions which he could not grant. Once more, the regent
+treated directly with these haughty whigs, now including Moira, to whom
+he committed the task of forming an administration. Grenville and Grey
+raised difficulties about the appointments in the royal household, which
+they wished to include in the political changes, and the negotiation was
+broken off. The regent at last fell back on Liverpool, a capable and
+conciliatory minister, who adopted Perceval's colleagues, and a spell of
+tory administration set in which remained unbroken for no less than
+fifteen years. Had more tact been shown on all sides, had the whigs been
+less peremptory in their demands, and had the trivial household question
+never arisen, the course of the war, if not of European history, might,
+whether for good or evil, have been profoundly modified.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL REFORMS._]
+
+During the later period of Perceval's administration, from 1811 to 1812,
+the strife of politics had been mainly concentrated on the regency
+question, the chance of ministerial changes, and the fortunes of the war
+in Spain. But it must not be supposed that social questions were
+neglected, even in the darkest days of the war, however meagre the
+legislative fruits may appear. Session after session, Romilly pressed
+forward reforms of the criminal law, the institution of penitential
+houses in the nature of reformatories, and the abolition of state
+lotteries. Others laboured, and with greater success, to remedy the
+delays and reduce the arrears in the court of chancery. Constant efforts
+were made to expose defalcations in the revenue, to curtail exorbitant
+salaries, and to put down electioneering corruption. In 1809 Erskine
+introduced a bill for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In 1810
+there were earnest, if somewhat futile, debates on spiritual
+destitution, the non-residence and poverty of the clergy, and the
+scarcity of places of worship. Moreover, early in 1811, a premonitory
+symptom of the repeal movement caused some anxiety in Ireland. It took
+the form of a scheme for a representative assembly to sit in Dublin, and
+manage the affairs of the Roman catholic population, under colour of
+framing petitions to parliament, and seeking redress of grievances. It
+was, of course, to consist of Roman catholics only, and to include Roman
+catholic bishops. The Irish government wisely suppressed the scheme, and
+Perceval justified their action, on the ground that a representative
+assembly in Dublin, with such aims in view, bordered upon an illicit
+legislature.
+
+Except for the war in the Spanish peninsula, and the war between Russia
+and the Porte on the Danube, the year 1810 was marked by undisturbed
+peace throughout the continent of Europe. France continued to make
+annexations, but they were at the expense of her allies, not of her
+enemies. Her supremacy was signalised in a striking way by the marriage
+of her _parvenu_ emperor, whose divorce the pope still refused to
+recognise, with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Though
+thirteen out of twenty-six cardinals present in Paris declined to attend
+it, this marriage was a masterstroke of Talleyrand's diplomacy; it
+secured the benevolent neutrality of Austria for the next three years,
+and weakened the counsels of the allies during the negotiations of
+1814-15. But it went far to estrange the Tsar of Russia, who, though he
+had courteously declined Napoleon's overtures for the hand of his own
+sister, was greatly offended on discovering that another matrimonial
+alliance had been contracted by his would-be brother-in-law before his
+reply could be received.
+
+It was only within the limits of the French empire that Napoleon's
+authority had been sufficient to enforce the rigorous exclusion of
+British goods. His allies, including Sweden, which closed her ports to
+British products in January, 1810, and declared war on Great Britain in
+the following November, had adopted the continental system; but
+administrative weakness, and the obvious interest that every people had
+in its infraction, rendered its operation partial. Napoleon, determined
+to enforce the system in spite of every obstacle, met this difficulty by
+placing in immediate subjection to the French crown the territories
+where British goods were imported. The first ally to suffer was his own
+brother, Louis, King of Holland. His refusal to enforce Napoleon's
+orders against the admission of British goods was followed at once by a
+forced cession of part of Holland to France and the establishment of
+French control at the custom houses, and shortly afterwards by the
+despatch of French troops into Holland and its annexation to France on
+July 9, 1810. In December the French dominion over the North Sea coast
+was extended by the annexation of a corner of Germany, including the
+coast as far as the Danish frontier, and the town of Luebeck on the
+Baltic. As a result of this annexation, the duchy of Oldenburg, held by
+a branch of the Russian imperial family, ceased to exist. The act was a
+conspicuous breach of the treaty of Tilsit, which Napoleon considered
+himself at liberty to disregard, as Russia had shown by her conduct
+during the campaign of 1809 that she was no longer more than a nominal
+ally of France. At last, on January 12, 1811, Russia asserted her
+independence in fiscal matters by an order which declared her ports open
+to all vessels sailing under a neutral flag, and imposed a duty on many
+French products. Still the course of French annexation crept onwards,
+and quietly absorbed the republic of Vallais in Switzerland, which had
+been a great centre of smuggling.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM._]
+
+Meanwhile, the restrictions and prohibitions which formed the
+continental system were made more and more severe. By the Trianon tariff
+of August, 1810, heavy duties were levied on colonial products, and by
+the Fontainebleau decree of October 18 all goods of British origin were
+to be seized and publicly burned. In November a special tribunal was
+created to try offenders against the continental system. Nevertheless,
+the fiscal and foreign policy of France at this date alike show how far
+the continental system had failed in its object, and to what extreme
+lengths it had become necessary to push it in order to give it a chance
+of success. The strain of the system on English commerce was immense,
+but the burden fell far more heavily on the continental nations.
+Colonial produce rose to enormous prices in France, Germany, and Italy,
+especially after the introduction of the Trianon tariff, and a subject
+or ally of the French emperor had to pay ten times as much for his
+morning cup of coffee as his enemy in London. The German opposition to
+Napoleon had failed in 1809 mainly through the political apathy of the
+German nation. Napoleon's fiscal measures were the surest way of
+bringing that apathy to an end, and converting it into hostility.
+
+The events of December, 1810, and January, 1811, constituted a distinct
+breach between France and Russia, which could only end in war, unless
+one party or the other should withdraw from its position. A few months
+sufficed to show that no such withdrawal would take place; but neither
+power was prepared for war, and seventeen months elapsed after the
+breach before hostilities began. The intervening period was spent in
+negotiation and preparation. Much depended on the alliances that the
+rival powers might be able to contract. Although Napoleon had bound
+himself not to restore Poland, he had by the creation and subsequent
+enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw given it a semblance of national
+unity, and had inspired the Poles with the hope of a more complete
+independence. The Polish troops were among the most devoted in the
+French army, and the position of their country rendered the support of
+the Poles a matter of great importance in any war with Russia. It
+occurred to the Tsar Alexander that he might win their support for
+himself by a restoration of Poland, under the suzerainty of Russia. He
+promised Czartoryski the restoration of the eight provinces under a
+guarantee of autonomy, and undertook to obtain the cession of Galicia.
+On February 13, 1811, he made a secret offer to Austria of a part of
+Moldavia in exchange for Galicia. Nothing came of this, but the massing
+of Russian troops on the Polish frontier in March was met by the hurried
+advance of French troops through Germany, and war seemed imminent until
+Russia postponed the struggle by withdrawing her troops.
+
+Meanwhile, other European powers looked forward to selling their
+alliance on the best possible terms. Sweden and Prussia both approached
+the stronger power first. Bernadotte, on behalf of Sweden, was prepared
+for a French alliance if France would favour the Swedish acquisition of
+Norway. Napoleon, on February 25, not only refused these terms, but
+ordered Sweden to enforce the continental system under pain of a French
+occupation of Swedish Pomerania. This threat Sweden ventured to ignore.
+Prussia, lying directly between the two future belligerents, was in a
+more dangerous position. Neutrality was impossible, because her
+neutrality would not be respected. She first offered her alliance to
+Napoleon in return for a reduction of the payments due to France and a
+removal of the limit imposed on her army. Napoleon did not reply to this
+offer at once. Meanwhile the movement of French troops already mentioned
+and the increase of the French garrisons on the Oder, though primarily
+intended for the defence of Poland, caused great alarm in Prussia and
+resulted in preparations to resist a French attack. In July Napoleon
+finally refused to discuss the Prussian terms. Ever since his marriage
+he had been inclined more and more to an Austrian alliance. On March 26
+of this year Otto, his ambassador at Vienna, had received information
+that France would support Austria if she would protest against the
+occupation of Belgrade by the Serbs. Napoleon even assured Otto that he
+was prepared to undertake any engagement that Austria desired. Rest
+was, however, essential to Austria. The military disasters of 1809 had
+been followed by national bankruptcy, and with the government paper at a
+discount of 90 per cent. she dared not incur further liabilities.
+
+Russia had an advantage over France in that she was able to free herself
+from her entanglement in Turkey, while Napoleon could not make peace
+either with Great Britain or with the Bourbon party in Spain. An
+armistice with the Porte was concluded on October 15. By that time all
+pretence of friendly intentions had been abandoned by France and Russia.
+Prussia, hoping still to save herself from an unconditional alliance
+with France, now turned to Russia, and Scharnhorst was despatched to
+seek a Russian alliance. Meanwhile Napoleon sent word to the Prussian
+court that, if her military preparations were not suspended, he would
+order Davout to march on Berlin, and at the same time disclosed his
+offer of an unconditional alliance against Russia. Prussia, hoping for
+Russian aid still, put aside the French demands, but the Tsar Alexander
+expressed a decided preference for a defensive campaign against France,
+and refused any assistance unless the French should commit an unprovoked
+aggression on Koenigsberg. Scharnhorst seems to have seen the wisdom of
+this policy. He now turned to Austria, but there again a definite
+alliance was refused. Russia was equally unable to move Austria to join
+her, so that Russia and Prussia were each isolated in their opposition
+to Napoleon.
+
+In the months of August and September of this year a British force,
+commanded by Auchmuty, effected the conquest of Java, the wealthiest of
+the East Indian islands. The island had been a Dutch colony, and like
+other Dutch colonies had passed into the hands of France. Sumatra fell
+into English hands along with Java, so that the supremacy of Great
+Britain in the East Indies was fully established.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The new ministry which entered on office in June, 1812, differed largely
+in composition from that which had preceded it. Ryder and Yorke retired
+at the death of Perceval, Harrowby returned to office, and places in the
+cabinet were found for Sidmouth's adherents, Buckinghamshire,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst. Sidmouth himself succeeded Ryder as
+home secretary, while Harrowby succeeded Sidmouth as president of the
+council. Earl Bathurst took Liverpool's place as secretary for war and
+the colonies. Vansittart succeeded Perceval at the exchequer and
+Bragge-Bathurst in the duchy of Lancaster. Robert Dundas, now Viscount
+Melville, followed Yorke at the admiralty, and Buckinghamshire took
+Melville's place at the board of control, which became once more a
+cabinet office. Eldon, Castlereagh, Westmorland, and Mulgrave retained
+their former offices, while Camden remained in the cabinet without
+office. In September Mulgrave was created an earl, and Camden a marquis.
+The internal history of England during the first two years of
+Liverpool's premiership has been entirely dwarfed by the interest of
+external events. For this period comprised not only the Russian
+expedition--the greatest military tragedy in modern history--the
+marvellous resurrection of Germany, with the campaigns which culminated
+in the stupendous battle of Leipzig, and the invasion of France which
+ended in the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, but also the
+brilliant conclusion of the Peninsular war, and the earlier stages of
+the war between Great Britain and the United States.
+
+The nation was contented to leave the guidance of home and foreign
+policy at that critical time to the existing ministers, all honest,
+experienced, and high-minded statesmen, but none gifted with any signal
+ability, and inferior both in cleverness and in eloquence to the leaders
+of the opposition. Napoleon was not far wrong in regarding the British
+aristocracy, which they represented, as his most inveterate and powerful
+enemy; but he was grievously deceived in imagining that this
+aristocracy, in withstanding his colossal ambition, had not the British
+nation at its back. The electoral body, indeed, to which they owed their
+parliamentary majority, was but a fraction of the population, and the
+public opinion which supported them may seem but the voice of a
+privileged class in these days of household suffrage. But there is
+little reason to doubt that, if household suffrage had then prevailed,
+their foreign policy would have received a democratic sanction; nor is
+it at all certain that some features of their home policy, now generally
+condemned, were not justified, in the main, by the exigencies of their
+time.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL DISTRESS._]
+
+The "condition of England," as it was then loosely termed, was the
+first subject which claimed the attention of Liverpool's government.
+While Perceval was congratulating parliament on the elasticity of the
+revenue, a widespread depression of industry was producing formidable
+disturbances in the midland counties. This depression was the
+consequence partly of the continental system, crippling the export of
+British goods to European countries; partly of the revival, in February,
+1811, of the American non-intercourse act, closing the vast market of
+the United States; and partly of the improvements in machinery,
+especially those in spinning and weaving machines introduced by the
+inventions of Cartwright and Arkwright. Unhappily, this last cause,
+being the only one visible to artisans, was regarded by them as the sole
+cause of their distress. During the autumn and winter of 1811 "Luddite"
+riots broke out among the stocking-weavers of Nottingham. Their name was
+derived from a half-witted man who had destroyed two stocking frames
+many years before. Frame-breaking on a grand scale became the object of
+an organised conspiracy, which extended its operations from
+Nottinghamshire into Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, and
+Yorkshire. At first frame-breaking was carried on by large bodies of
+operatives in broad daylight, and when these open proceedings were put
+down by military force, they were succeeded by nightly outrages,
+sometimes attended by murder. Early in 1812 a bill was passed making
+frame-breaking a capital offence.
+
+In spite of this riots grew into local insurrections, and a message from
+the prince regent on June 27 recommended further action to parliament.
+It was natural, in that generation to connect all disorderly movements
+with revolutionary designs, and this belief underlies an alarmist report
+from a secret committee of the house of lords on the prevailing tumults.
+Accordingly, Sidmouth obtained new powers for magistrates to search for
+arms, to disperse tumultuous assemblies, and to exercise jurisdiction
+beyond their own districts. In November many Luddites were convicted,
+and sixteen were executed by sentence of a special commission sitting at
+York. These stern measures were effectual for a time, and popular
+discontent in the manufacturing districts ceased to assume so acute a
+form until after the war was ended.
+
+The sufferings of the poor in the rural districts, though generally
+endured in silence, were at least equally severe with those of the
+artisan class, and it is difficult to say whether a good or bad harvest
+pressed more heavily on agricultural labourers. When the price of wheat
+rose to 130s. per quarter or upwards, as it did in 1812 and other years
+of scarcity, the farmers were able to pay comparatively high wages. When
+the price fell to 75s., as it did in years of plenty like 1813, wages
+were reduced to starvation-point, but supplemented out of the
+poor-rates, under the miserable system of indiscriminate out-door relief
+graduated according to the size of families. In either case, the entire
+income of a labourer was far below the modern standard, and the
+prosperity of trade meant to him an increase in the cost of all
+necessaries except bread. As for their employers, the golden age of
+farming, which is often identified with the age of the great war, had
+really ceased long before. Not only did the high price of a farmer's
+purchases go far to neutralise the high price of his sales, but the
+excessive fluctuations in all prices, due to the opening and closing of
+markets according to the fortunes of war, made prudent speculation
+almost impossible. The frequently recurring depressions were rendered
+all the more disastrous, because in times of high prices "the margin of
+cultivation" was unduly extended.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORN LAWS._]
+
+With a view to diminish the violence of these fluctuations, a select
+committee on the corn-trade was appointed by the house of commons in
+1813, and reported in favour of a sliding-scale. When the price of wheat
+should fall below 90s. per quarter, its exportation was to be permitted;
+but its importation was to be forbidden, until the price should reach
+103s., when it might, indeed, be imported, but under "a very
+considerable duty". It was assumed, in fact, that the normal price of
+wheat was above 100s. per quarter, and the price above which importation
+should be permitted was nearly twice as high as that fixed in 1801,
+when, moreover, it was to be admitted above 50s. at a duty of 2s. 6d.,
+and above 54s. at a duty of sixpence. It is remarkable that in the
+debates of 1814 upon the report of this committee, William Huskisson, as
+well as Sir Henry Parnell, supported its main conclusions, upon the
+ground that agriculture must be upheld at all costs, and the home-market
+preferred to foreign markets. Canning and others ably advocated the
+cause of the consumers, alleging that duties on corn injured them far
+more than they could benefit landowners or farmers. Finally, a bill
+embodying a modified sliding-scale was introduced by the government,
+and, though lost by a narrow majority in 1814, became law in 1815. Under
+this act the importation of foreign corn was prohibited, so long as the
+price of wheat did not rise above 80s. Above that price it might be
+imported free. Corn from British North America might, however, be
+imported free so long as the price of wheat exceeded 67s.
+
+The parliamentary debates of 1812 chiefly turned on Spanish affairs, the
+revocation of the orders in council, the subsequent rupture with the
+United States which had anticipated this great concession, and the
+wearisome cabinet intrigues which preceded the accession of Liverpool as
+prime minister. It is noteworthy that so conservative a house of commons
+should actually have pledged itself to consider the question of catholic
+emancipation in the next session, and should have passed an act
+relieving nonconformists from various disabilities. The next session of
+this parliament, however, never came, for an unexpected dissolution took
+place on September 29. This dissolution was attributed, with some
+reason, to a wish on the part of the government to profit by an abundant
+harvest, and to the restoration of comparative quiet both in England and
+in Ireland. A new parliament assembled at the end of November. The
+prince regent's speech in opening it, though it noticed the suppression
+of the Luddite disturbances, was inevitably devoted to the great events
+in Spain and Russia, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia, and the
+American declaration of war. After the Christmas recess, Castlereagh
+presented an argumentative message from the prince fully discussing the
+points at issue between Great Britain and the United States, upon which
+Canning, though out of office, delivered a vigorous speech in defence of
+the British position. Eldon, in the house of lords, went further, boldly
+justifying the right of search, and denying the American contention that
+original allegiance could be cancelled by naturalisation without the
+consent of the mother-country. The Princess of Wales, who had long been
+separated from the prince, was the cause of more parliamentary time
+being wasted by a complaint which she addressed to the speaker against
+the proceedings of the privy council. That body had approved
+restrictions which her husband had thought fit to place on her
+intercourse with her daughter, the Princess Charlotte. Parliament,
+however, took no action in the matter.
+
+Perhaps the most important measure enacted in the session of 1813 was
+the so-called East India company's act. By this act the charter of the
+company was renewed with a confirmation of its administrative privileges
+and its monopoly of the China trade, but subject to material
+reservations: the India trade was thrown open from April 10, 1814, and
+the charter itself, thus restricted, was made terminable by three years'
+notice after April 10, 1831. In this year the naval and military
+armaments of Great Britain, considered as a whole, perhaps reached their
+maximum strength, and the national expenditure rose to its highest
+level, including, as it did, subsidies to foreign powers amounting to
+about L10,500,000. Of the aggregate expenditure, about two-thirds,
+L74,000,000, were provided by taxation, an enormous sum relatively to
+the population and wealth of the country at that period. Patiently as
+this burden was borne on the whole by the people of Great Britain, we
+cannot wonder that Vansittart, the chancellor of the exchequer, should
+have sought to lighten it in some degree by encroaching upon the sinking
+fund, as founded and regulated by Pitt. The debates on this complicated
+question, in which Huskisson and Tierney stoutly combated Vansittart's
+proposal, belong rather to financial history. What strikes a modern
+student of politics as strange is that Vansittart, tory as he was,
+should have advocated the relief of living and suffering taxpayers, upon
+the principle, then undefined, of leaving money "to fructify in the
+pockets of the people"; while the whig economists of the day stickled
+for the policy of piling up new debts, if need be, rather than break in
+upon an empirical scheme for the gradual extinction of old debts.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] For the whole crisis see Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, ii., 157-96,
+and for Sheridan's share in the transactions, Moore, _Life of Sheridan_,
+ii., 382-409.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V.
+
+                         THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+
+Reference has already been made to the conflict maintained for six years
+by Great Britain against France for the liberation of Spain and
+Portugal, which has since been known in history as the Peninsular war.
+It had its origin in two events which occurred during the autumn of 1807
+and the spring of 1808. The first was the secret treaty of Fontainebleau
+concluded between France and Spain at the end of October, 1807; the
+second was the outbreak of revolutionary movements at Madrid, followed
+by the intervention of Napoleon in March, April, and May, 1808. The
+treaty of Fontainebleau was a sequel of the vast combination against
+Great Britain completed by the peace of Tilsit, under which the
+continental system was to be enforced over all Europe. Portugal, the
+ally of this country and an emporium of British commerce, was to be
+partitioned into principalities allotted by Napoleon, the house of
+Braganza was to be exiled, and its transmarine possessions were to be
+divided between France and Spain, then ruled by the worthless Godoy in
+the name of King Charles IV. Whether or not the subjugation of the whole
+peninsula was already designed by Napoleon, his troops, ostensibly
+despatched for the conquest of Portugal under the provisions of the
+treaty, had treacherously occupied commanding positions in Spain, when
+the populace of Madrid rose in revolt, and, thronging the little town of
+Aranjuez, where the court resided, frightened the king into abdication.
+His unprincipled son, Ferdinand, was proclaimed in March, 1808, but
+Murat, who now entered Madrid as commander-in-chief of the French troops
+in that city, secretly favoured the ex-King Charles. In the end, both he
+and Ferdinand were enticed into seeking the protection of Napoleon at
+Bayonne. Instead of mediating or deciding between them, Napoleon soon
+found means to get rid of both. They were induced or rather compelled to
+resign their rights, and retire into private life on large pensions; and
+Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on his brother Joseph, whose
+former kingdom of Naples was bestowed on Murat.
+
+In the meantime, sanguinary riots broke out afresh at Madrid, hundreds
+of French were massacred, and the insurrection, as it was called, though
+sternly put down by Murat, spread like wildfire into all parts of Spain.
+A violent explosion of patriotism, resulting in anarchy, followed
+throughout the whole country. Napoleon was taken by surprise, but the
+combinations which he matured at Bayonne for the conquest of Spain were
+as masterly as those by which he had well-nigh subdued the whole
+continent, except Russia. He established a base of operations in the
+centre of the country, and organised four campaigns in the north-west,
+north-east, south-east, and south. Savary, who had succeeded Murat at
+Madrid, was supposed to act as commander-in-chief, but was really little
+more than a medium for transmitting orders received from Napoleon at
+Bayonne. The campaign of Duhesme in Catalonia was facilitated by the
+treacherous seizure of the citadel of Barcelona in the previous
+February. It was not long, however, before effective aid was rendered on
+the coast by the British fleet under Collingwood, and especially by Lord
+Cochrane in the _Imperieuse_ frigate; the undisciplined bands of
+Catalonian volunteers were reinforced by regular troops from Majorca and
+Minorca; the fortress of Gerona made an obstinate resistance; the siege
+of it was twice raised, and Barcelona, almost isolated, was now held
+with difficulty.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE OCCUPIES THE PENINSULA._]
+
+Marshal Moncey vainly besieged Valencia, while Generals
+Lefebvre-Desnoettes and Verdier were equally unsuccessful before
+Zaragoza. In the plains of Leon, Marshal Bessieres gained a decisive
+victory over a superior force of Spaniards under Cuesta and Blake, at
+Medina de Rio Seco, on July 14. Having thus secured the province of
+Leon, and the great route from Bayonne to Madrid, he was advancing on
+Galicia when his progress was arrested by disaster in another quarter.
+General Dupont, commanding the southern army, found himself nearly
+surrounded at Baylen, and solicited an armistice, followed by a
+convention, under which, "above eighteen thousand French soldiers laid
+down their arms before a raw army incapable of resisting half that
+number, if the latter had been led by an able man".[42] The convention,
+signed on July 20, stipulated for the transport of the French troops to
+France, but its stipulations were shamefully violated; some were
+massacred, others were sent to sicken in the hulks at Cadiz, and
+comparatively few lived to rejoin their colours. Meanwhile a so-called
+"assembly of notables," summoned to Bayonne, consisting of ninety-one
+persons, all nominees of Napoleon, assumed to act for the whole nation,
+had accepted the nomination of Joseph Bonaparte as king, and proceeded
+to adopt a constitution. On July 20, the very day of the capitulation of
+Baylen, Joseph entered Madrid, and on the 24th was proclaimed King of
+Spain and the Indies. But the military prestige of the grand army
+received a fatal blow in the catastrophe, of which the immediate effect
+was the retirement of Joseph behind the Ebro, and the ultimate effects
+were felt in the later history of the war.
+
+At this moment almost the whole of Portugal was in possession of the
+French. In November, 1807, under peremptory orders from Napoleon, Junot
+with a French army and an auxiliary force of Spaniards, but without
+money or transport, had marched with extraordinary rapidity across the
+mountains to Alcantara in the valley of the Tagus. He thence pressed
+forward to Lisbon, hoping to anticipate the embarkation of the royal
+family for Brazil, which, however, took place just before his arrival
+and almost under his eyes. With his army terribly reduced by the
+hardships and privations of his forced march, he overawed Lisbon and
+issued a proclamation that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign".
+A fortnight later a Spanish division occupied Oporto, and meanwhile
+another Spanish division established itself in the south-east of
+Portugal, but, as the French stragglers came in and reinforcements
+approached, Junot felt himself strong enough to cast off all disguise;
+he suppressed the council of regency, took the government into his own
+hands, and levied a heavy war contribution. During the early months of
+1808 he was employed in reorganising his own forces, and the resources
+of Lisbon, where an auxiliary Russian fleet of nine ships was lying
+practically blockaded. In a military sense, he was successful, but the
+rapacity of the French, the contagion of the Spanish uprising, the
+memory of the old alliance with England, and the proximity of English
+fleets, stirred the blood of the Portuguese nation into ill-concealed
+hostility. The Spanish commander at Oporto withdrew his troops to
+Galicia, and the inhabitants declared for independence. Their example
+was followed in other parts of Portugal. Junot acted with vigour,
+disarmed the Spanish contingent at Lisbon, and sent columns to quell
+disturbances on the Spanish frontiers, but he soon realised the
+necessity of concentration. He therefore resolved to abandon most of the
+Portuguese fortresses, limiting his efforts to holding Lisbon, and
+keeping open his line of communication with Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _VIMEIRO AND CINTRA._]
+
+Such was the state of affairs in the Peninsula when Sir Arthur Wellesley
+landed his army of some 12,000 men on August 13, 1808. He had been
+specially designated for the command of a British army in Portugal by
+Castlereagh, then secretary for war and the colonies, who fully
+appreciated his singular capacity for so difficult a service. Sir John
+Moore, who had just returned from the Baltic, having found it hopeless
+to co-operate with Gustavus IV. of Sweden, was sent out soon afterwards
+to Portugal with a corps of some 10,000 men. Both these eminent soldiers
+were directed to place themselves under the orders not only of Sir Hew
+Dalrymple, the governor of Gibraltar, as commander-in-chief, but of Sir
+Harry Burrard, when he should arrive, as second in command. Wellesley
+had received general instructions to afford "the Spanish and Portuguese
+nations every possible aid in throwing off the yoke of France," and was
+empowered to disembark at the mouth of the Tagus. Having obtained
+trustworthy information at Coruna and Oporto, he decided rather to begin
+his campaign from a difficult landing-place south of Oporto at the mouth
+of the Mondego, and to march thence upon Lisbon. He was opportunely
+joined by General Spencer from the south of Spain, and chose the
+coast-road by Torres Vedras. At Rolica he encountered a smaller force
+under Delaborde, sent in advance by Junot to delay his progress, and
+routed it after a severe combat. Delaborde, however, retreated with
+admirable tenacity, and Wellesley, expecting reinforcements from the
+coast, pushed forward to Vimeiro, without attempting to check the
+concentration of Junot's army. There was fought, on August 21, the first
+important battle of the Peninsular war. The British troops, estimated at
+16,778 men (besides about 2,000 Portuguese), outnumbered the French
+considerably, but the French were much stronger in cavalry, and boldly
+assumed the offensive, confident in the prestige derived from so many
+victories in Italy and Germany. Wellesley's position was strong, but the
+attack on it was skilfully designed and pressed home with resolute
+courage. It was repelled at every point of the field, and the French,
+retiring in confusion, might have been cut off from Lisbon. But Burrard,
+who had just landed and witnessed the battle without interfering, now
+absolutely refused to sanction a vigorous pursuit.
+
+On the following day he was superseded in turn by Dalrymple. The new
+commander determined to await the arrival of Moore, whose approach was
+reported, but who did not disembark his whole force until the 30th. In
+the meantime, overtures for an armistice were received from Junot, and
+ultimately resulted in the so-called "convention of Cintra," though it
+was first drafted at Torres Vedras and was ratified at Lisbon. Under
+this agreement the French army was to surrender Lisbon intact with other
+Portuguese fortresses, but was allowed to return to France with its arms
+and baggage at the expense of the British government. Having dissented
+from the military decision which had enabled Junot to negotiate, instead
+of capitulating, Wellesley also dissented from certain terms of the
+convention. He was, however, party to it as a whole, and afterwards
+justified its main conditions as securing the evacuation of Portugal at
+the price of reasonable concessions. This was not the feeling of the
+British public, which loudly resented the escape of the French army and
+insisted upon a court of inquiry. The verdict of this court saved the
+military honour of all three generals, but its members were so divided
+in opinion on the policy of the convention that no authoritative
+judgment was pronounced. Napoleon felt no such difficulty in condemning
+Junot for yielding too much, and the inhabitants of Lisbon were
+infuriated not only by the loss of their expected vengeance, but also by
+the shameless plunder of their public and private property by the
+departing French. Under a separate convention, the Russian fleet, long
+blockaded in the Tagus, was surrendered to the British admiral, but
+without its officers or crews.
+
+The capitulation of Baylen paralysed for a time the aggressive movements
+of France in Spain. Catalonia remained unconquered, even Bessieres
+retreated, and Joseph, as we have seen, abandoned Madrid. Happily for
+the French, the Spaniards proved quite incapable of following up their
+advantages, and though a "supreme junta" was assembled at Aranjuez, it
+wasted its time in vain wrangling, and did little or nothing for the
+organisation of national defence. Meanwhile, Napoleon was pouring
+veteran troops from Germany into the north of Spain, where they repulsed
+the Spanish levies in several minor engagements. On October 14 he left
+Erfurt, where he had renewed his alliance with the tsar, and reached
+Bayonne on November 3. His simple but masterly plan of campaign was
+already prepared, and was carried out with the utmost promptitude. On
+November 10-11, one of three Spanish armies was crushed at Espinosa; on
+the former day another was routed at Gamonal; on the 23rd the third was
+utterly dispersed at Tudela. Napoleon himself remained for some days at
+Burgos, awaiting the result of these operations; on December 4, after a
+feeble resistance, he entered Madrid in triumph, and stayed there
+seventeen days, which he employed with marvellous activity in maturing
+fresh designs, both civil and military, for securing his power in Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADVANCE OF SIR JOHN MOORE._]
+
+Already, on October 7, Sir John Moore had taken over the command of the
+British forces. He probably owed his appointment to George III., who
+seems on this occasion to have overruled his foreign and war ministers,
+Canning and Castlereagh. In spite of his unwillingness to offer the
+appointment to Moore, Castlereagh gave him the most loyal and efficient
+support during the whole campaign; and this loyalty to Moore was one of
+the reasons for Canning's desire to remove Castlereagh from the war
+office, which, as we have seen, led to the famous duel between those two
+statesmen. It was at first intended that Moore should co-operate with
+the Spanish armies which were then facing the French on the line of the
+Ebro. For this purpose he was to have the command of 21,000 troops
+already in Portugal and of about 12,000 who were being sent by sea to
+Coruna under Sir David Baird. Burrard was to remain in Portugal with
+another 10,000. Nothing had been done before Moore was appointed to the
+command to provide the troops with their necessary equipment or their
+commander with the necessary local information. The departure of the
+troops was therefore slow. By October 18 the greater part of the British
+troops in Portugal were in motion, but the whole army had not left
+Lisbon till the 29th. The main body travelled by fairly direct routes to
+Salamanca, where Moore arrived on November 13, but he was induced by
+information, which proved to be incorrect, to send his cavalry and guns
+with a column under Hope, by the more circuitous high road through Elvas
+and Talavera. When this route was adopted it was anticipated that the
+different divisions of the British army would be able to unite at, or
+near, Valladolid. But the advance of the French rendered this
+impossible, and Hope ultimately joined Moore at Salamanca on December 4.
+
+Baird suffered from even more vexatious delays. Though the greater part
+of his convoy had arrived at Coruna on October 13, the local junta would
+not permit them to land without express orders from the central junta at
+Aranjuez. Consequently the disembarkation did not begin till the 26th
+and was only finished on November 4. Transport and equipment were
+difficult to obtain, and on November 22 Baird was still only at Astorga.
+There exaggerated reports of the French advance induced him to halt, but
+by Moore's orders he continued his march. On the 28th the news of the
+defeat of Castanos at Tudela reached Moore at Salamanca. Co-operation
+with a Spanish army now appeared impossible, and even a junction with
+Baird seemed too hazardous to attempt. Moore therefore, ordered Baird to
+retire on Coruna and to proceed to Lisbon by sea, and, while waiting
+himself at Salamanca for Hope, made preparations for a retreat to
+Portugal. On December 5, the day after his junction with Hope, Moore
+determined to continue his advance. He had received news of the
+enthusiastic preparations for the defence of Madrid but did not know of
+its fall, and he considered that the Spanish enthusiasm justified some
+risk on the part of the British troops. He accordingly recalled Baird,
+whose infantry had retired to Villafranca, though his cavalry were still
+at Astorga. On the 9th came the news of the fall of Madrid, but Moore
+believed that an attack on the French lines of communication might still
+prove useful, and on the 11th the advance was renewed. Moore himself
+left Salamanca on the 13th. On the 12th he learned for the first time
+from some prisoners the true strength of the French army, 250,000 of all
+arms, and also discovered that the enemy were in complete ignorance of
+the position of his own army. Next day an intercepted despatch showed
+him that he might possibly be able to cut off Soult in an isolated
+position at Saldana. Having at last effected a junction with Baird's
+corps on the 19th he reached Sahagun on the 21st, and was on the point
+of delivering his attack under favourable conditions, though his triumph
+must have been short-lived.
+
+His real success was of another order. He had anticipated that Napoleon
+would postpone everything to the opportunity of crushing a British army,
+and the ultimate object of his march to Sahagun was to draw the French
+away from Lisbon and Andalusia. He was not disappointed. Napoleon at
+last divined that Moore was not flying in a south-westerly direction,
+but carrying out a bold manoeuvre in a north-easterly direction. He
+instantly pushed division after division from various quarters by forced
+marches upon Moore's reported track, while he himself followed with
+desperate efforts across the snow-clad mountains between Madrid and the
+Douro. Apprised of his swift advance, and conscious of his own vast
+inferiority in numbers, Moore had no choice but to retreat without a
+moment's delay upon Benevente and Astorga. He was now sufficiently far
+north to prefer to retire upon Galicia rather than upon Portugal. The
+retreat began on the 24th and was executed with such rapidity that on
+January 1, 1809, Napoleon gave up the pursuit at Astorga, leaving it to
+be continued by Soult. Whether he was influenced by intelligence of
+fresh armaments on the Danube, or of dangerous plots in Paris, must
+remain uncertain, but it is highly probable that he saw little honour to
+be won in a laborious chase of a foe who might prove formidable if
+brought to bay.
+
+Moore's army, disheartened as it was by the loss of a brilliant chance,
+and demoralised as it became under the fatigues and hardships of a most
+harassing retreat, never failed to repel attacks on its rear, where
+Paget handled the cavalry of the rear-guard with signal ability,
+especially in a spirited action near Benevente. In spite of some
+excesses, tolerable order was maintained until the British force, still
+25,000 strong, reached Astorga, and was joined by some 10,000 Spaniards
+under Romana. Thenceforward, all sense of discipline was abandoned by so
+many regiments that Moore described the conduct of his whole army as
+"infamous beyond belief," though it is certain that some regiments, and
+notably those of the reserve, should be excepted from this sweeping
+condemnation. Drunkenness, marauding, and other military crimes grew
+more and more general as the main body marched "in a drove" through
+Villafranca to Lugo, where Moore vainly offered battle, and onwards to
+Betanzos on the sea-coast. There a marvellous rally was effected,
+stragglers rejoined the ranks in unexpected numbers, the _moral_ of the
+soldiery was restored as the fearful strain of physical misery was
+relaxed, and by January 12, 1809, all the divisions of Moore's army were
+safely posted in or around Coruna. Bad weather had delayed the fleet of
+transports ordered round from Vigo, but it ran into the harbour on the
+14th, and the sick and invalids were sent on board.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF CORUNA._]
+
+Moore was advised to make terms for the embarkation of his entire
+command, but he was too good a soldier to comply. Those who took part in
+the battle of Coruna on the 16th, some 15,000 men in all, were no
+unworthy representatives of the army which started from Lisbon three
+months earlier. Soult, with a larger force, assumed the offensive, and
+made a determined attack on the British position in front of the harbour
+and town of Coruna. He was repulsed at all points, but Moore was
+mortally, and Baird severely, wounded on the field. Hope, who took
+command, knowing that Soult would soon be reinforced, wisely persisted
+in carrying out Moore's intention, evacuated Coruna, and embarked his
+army for England during the night and the following day. His losses were
+estimated by Hope at above 700, killed and wounded; those of the enemy
+were twice as great. Thus victory crowned a campaign which otherwise
+would have done little to satisfy the popular appetite for tangible
+success. The original object of supporting the Spanish resistance in the
+north had been rendered impossible of fulfilment by Napoleon's victories
+when Moore had barely crossed the Spanish frontier, and in this sense
+the expedition must be regarded as a failure, though its commander was
+in no sense responsible for its ill-success. On the other hand,
+considered as a skilful diversion, the expedition was highly successful.
+It drew all the best French troops and generals into the north-west
+corner of Spain, leaving all the other, and far richer, provinces to
+recover their power of resistance.[43]
+
+The spirit in which Napoleon had entered upon this contest is well
+illustrated in two sentences of his address to the citizens of Madrid.
+"The Bourbons," he said, "can no longer reign in Europe," and "No power
+under the influence of England can exist on the continent". The
+counter-proclamations of Spanish juntas were more prolix and equally
+arrogant, but one of them reveals the secret of national strength when
+it asserts that "a whole people is more powerful than disciplined
+armies". The British estimate of Napoleon's Spanish policy was tersely
+expressed by the Marquis Wellesley in the house of lords, "To him force
+and fraud were alike; force, that would stoop to all the base artifices
+of fraud; and fraud, that would come armed with all the fierce violence
+of force".
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY TAKES COMMAND._]
+
+For three months after the battle of Coruna, the Peninsular war, as
+regards the action of Great Britain, was all but suspended. Two days
+before that battle, a formal treaty of peace and alliance between Great
+Britain and the Spanish junta, which had withdrawn to Seville, was
+signed at London. Sir John Cradock was in command of the British troops
+at Lisbon, and took up a defensive position there, with reinforcements
+from Cadiz, awaiting the approach of Soult, who had captured Oporto by
+storm, and of Victor, who was in the valley of the Tagus. At the request
+of the Portuguese, Beresford had been sent out to organise and command
+their army. Early in 1809 the Spaniards were defeated with great
+slaughter at Ucles, Ciudad Real, and Medellin; Zaragoza was taken after
+another siege, and still more obstinate defence; and the national cause
+seemed more desperate than ever. On April 2, however, Sir Arthur
+Wellesley, who had returned home after the convention of Cintra, was
+appointed to the command-in-chief of our forces in the Peninsula.
+Before leaving England, he left with the ministers a memorandum on the
+conduct of the war which, viewed by the light of later events, must be
+accounted a masterpiece of foresight and sagacity. When it was laid
+before George III., his natural shrewdness at once discerned its true
+value, and he desired its author to be informed of the strong impression
+which it had produced on his mind.
+
+Wellesley, indeed, could not estimate beforehand the vast numerical
+superiority of the French while the rest of Europe was at peace, or the
+impotent vacillations of Spanish juntas, or the "mulish obstinacy" of
+Spanish generals, which so often wrecked his plans and spoiled his
+victories. Nor could he foresee the advantages which he would derive
+from the resources of guerilla warfare, the mutual jealousies of the
+French marshals, and the sudden recall of the best French troops for
+service in Germany and Russia. But his prescient and practical mind
+firmly grasped the dominant facts of the position--that Portugal,
+guarded by the ocean on the west and by mountain ranges on the east, was
+far more accessible to the British navy than to the French army; that,
+under British officers, its troops might be trained into an effective
+force; and that, with it as a basis, Great Britain might ultimately
+liberate the whole Peninsula. "I have always been of opinion," Wellesley
+said in this memorandum, "that Portugal might be defended, whatever
+might be the result of the contest in Spain; and that in the meantime
+the measures adopted for the defence of Portugal would be highly useful
+to the Spaniards in their contest with the French." On this simple
+principle all his detailed recommendations were founded, and he
+expressed a deliberate belief that, if 30,000 British troops were
+supported by an equal number of Portuguese regulars, and a reserve of
+militia was provided, "the French would not be able to overrun Portugal
+with less than 100,000 men". This forecast was verified, and upon its
+essential wisdom the fate of the Peninsular war, with all its
+consequences, may be said to have depended.[44]
+
+Wellesley landed at Lisbon on April 22, and was received with the utmost
+demonstrations of joy and confidence. He found not only the capital but
+the whole country in a state of tumult, if not of anarchy, due to a
+growing despair of the national cause. His arrival rekindled the embers
+of patriotism, and on May 5 he reviewed at Coimbra a body of troops
+consisting of 17,000 British and Germans, with about 8,000 Portuguese.
+The next day he marched towards the Douro, and on the 14th he effected
+the passage of that river in the face of the French army occupying
+Oporto, which the British forthwith recaptured. Soult beat a hasty and
+disorderly retreat into Galicia. Having driven Soult out of Portugal,
+the British general was encouraged to undertake a further advance into
+Spain, where Joseph with Victor and Sebastiani had collected a much
+larger army to bar the approaches to Madrid than Wellesley, relying on
+Spanish intelligence, had been led to expect. During June and the first
+days of July, he moved by Abrantes and the Tagus valley as far as
+Plasencia, little knowing that Soult was about to sweep round his rear,
+with 50,000 men, and intercept his communications with Lisbon. On July
+10 he held a conference with the Spanish general Cuesta, who insisted on
+making an aggressive movement with his own troops only, and met with a
+repulse.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TALAVERA CAMPAIGN._]
+
+On the 27th, the combined armies of Wellesley and Cuesta, numbering
+respectively about 20,000 British and 35,000 Spanish, confronted 46,000
+French troops, under Victor, in a strong position behind Talavera.[45]
+The Spanish forces occupied the right and the British the left of this
+position. Joseph was present, and disregarding the counsels of Jourdan,
+his proper military adviser, authorised Victor to assume the offensive.
+He failed in two preliminary attacks on the 27th, but renewed them on
+the 28th, when a general engagement ensued. The whole brunt of the
+battle fell upon the British troops, who gallantly withstood a desperate
+onset, first on their left and then on their centre and right, until the
+French quitted the field in confusion. The Spaniards, posted in
+entrenchments nearer Talavera itself, did and suffered comparatively
+little. Some of their regiments fled disgracefully, but the rest held
+their ground, and Wellesley in his despatch spoke favourably of their
+behaviour.[46] Perhaps the part which they played may be roughly
+estimated by their losses, amounting to 1,200, as compared with 6,268
+British and nearly 9,000 French. Wellesley, after further experience of
+Spanish co-operation, made up his mind to dispense with it altogether in
+future.
+
+The victory of Talavera won for Wellesley the rank of viscount, to which
+he was raised on September 4, with the title of Wellington. Although the
+victory revived the respect of foreign nations for the prowess of
+British arms, it was otherwise fruitless, and its sequel was fairly open
+to criticism. Wellesley found that Soult, with Ney and Mortier, had
+circumvented him, and that he must retreat through Esdremadura, on the
+south of the Tagus, upon Badajoz. Cuesta, who had advocated bolder
+counsels, undertook to guard the rear, and to protect the British
+wounded at Talavera. But he soon found it necessary to abandon that
+position. Fifteen hundred of the wounded were left behind, and were
+humanely treated by the French generals. Wellesley's retreat over the
+mountains was attended with great hardship and loss, for want of
+supplies either from Spain or from the coast, and his long encampment in
+the malarious valley of the Guadiana about Badajoz swelled the number of
+his sick to a frightful extent. It was not until December, when it got
+into better cantonments on Portuguese soil, that the British army,
+triumphant at Talavera, recovered either its health or its _moral_.
+Napoleon boasted, in a memorandum to be inserted in the Paris journals,
+that Wellington had really been beaten in Spain, and that "if affairs
+there had been properly conducted not an Englishman would have escaped".
+Without going quite so far as this, the parliamentary opposition in
+England made the least of the victory and the most of the retreat, which
+unfortunately coincided in time with the wreck of the Walcheren
+expedition. Even Wellington's best friends in England began to lose
+heart, as did many of his own officers. He remained undaunted, and
+having established his headquarters on the high ground between the Tagus
+and the Douro, meditated designs which, slowly matured, bore good fruit
+in later years.
+
+It is difficult to understand the inaction of Wellington for so many
+months after the Talavera campaign, without taking into account not only
+the difficulty of obtaining sufficient recruits and stores from England
+after the waste of both at the mouth of the Scheldt, but the greatly
+increased strength of the French in Spain during the long interval
+between the Wagram campaign and the Russian expedition. At the close of
+1809 all the fortresses of Spain had fallen into the enemy's hands, and
+all her principal armies had been defeated and dispersed in successive
+battles of which the greatest was that of Ocana in the month of
+November. Suchet was master of Aragon and the east of Spain, nor was he
+dislodged from it until the end of the war; Andalusia was nearly
+conquered; Cadiz was only saved by the self-reliant courage of the Duc
+d'Albuquerque, baffling the intrigues and treachery of the supreme junta
+there assembled; and Napoleon was preparing a fresh army to overrun
+Portugal, under the command of Massena. The Perceval ministry, in which
+Liverpool had taken Castlereagh's post of secretary for war and the
+colonies, adopting an optimistic tone at home, practically told
+Wellington that he must shift for himself; and he braced himself up to
+do so with extraordinary fortitude.
+
+He remained watching the gathering storm from the heights of Guarda,
+south-west of Almeida, and commanding two great roads from Spain into
+Portugal, but his thoughts were equally fixed upon the vast and famous
+lines of Torres Vedras, which he was constructing for the defence of
+Lisbon. His force, including the Portuguese regulars, did not exceed
+50,000 men; that of the French under Ney, Reynier, and Junot consisted
+of about 70,000, but they were not equally capable of being concentrated
+on a single point. The Portuguese militia, too, were being gradually
+disciplined, and the Portuguese civil authorities were being gradually
+schooled into the new lesson of sweeping their own country bare of all
+supplies before the coming French invasion. Wellington did not even
+strike a blow to save Ciudad Rodrigo, which Massena took on July 10,
+1810. But it was no part of his plan that Almeida should capitulate, as
+it did shortly afterwards, partly owing to the accidental explosion of a
+magazine, and partly as was suspected, to an act of treachery. Still,
+Massena delayed until urged by Napoleon, and deceived by false
+intelligence, he launched forth, at the beginning of September, on an
+enterprise which proved fatal to his reputation. Both he and Wellington
+issued appeals to the Portuguese nation, the contrast between which is
+significant. The French marshal, echoing the prevailing note of his
+master's proclamation, denounced Great Britain as the enemy of all
+Europe; Wellington called upon the Portuguese to remember their actual
+experience of French rapacity and outrage.
+
+[Pageheading: _BUSSACO AND TORRES VEDRAS._]
+
+The object of Massena was to reach Coimbra before Wellington. His
+manoeuvres to outflank Wellington's left were skilfully devised, but
+the British army marched steadily down the valley of the Mondego,
+carrying with it the population of the district, and took its stand on
+the ridge of Bussaco, north of Coimbra, barring Massena's progress.
+There was fought, on September 27, 1810, a battle as deadly as that of
+Talavera, and more decisive in its consequences. The French, as usual,
+were the assailants; the English and the Portuguese stood at bay. Never,
+in any of their brilliant victories, did French troops show more heroic
+daring than in this assault under Reynier on the British right, and
+under Ney on the British left. Both columns forced their way up bare
+heath-clad slopes, and reached the summit, whence they were only driven
+back after repeated charges. Their loss in killed and wounded exceeded
+4,500, that of the allies was about 1,300. The French generals threw the
+blame of defeat upon each other, but, in fact, the skill of Massena
+converted a defeat into an episode in his victorious advance. On the
+following day, he again found a way of turning Wellington's left, and,
+in an intercepted despatch, he naturally treated this as a compensation
+for the repulse at Bussaco, which he did not disguise. Compelled to
+retire once more with a vast drove of encumbered, panic-stricken, and
+famishing Portuguese fugitives, and conscious that no reserves awaited
+him, Wellington knew, nevertheless, that he was drawing Massena further
+and further away from his base, to encounter a terrible surprise. For,
+so useless had been the French scouts, and so worthless the information
+received from Portuguese sources, that no adequate conception of the
+obstacle presented by the lines of Torres Vedras had entered the mind of
+that experienced strategist.
+
+These elaborate works had been constructed in the course of a year by
+thousands of Portuguese labourers, directed by Colonel Fletcher of the
+royal engineers, upon a plan carefully thought out and laid down by
+Wellington himself. The first and principal chain of fortifications
+stretched for nearly thirty miles across the whole promontory between
+the river Tagus and the sea, about twenty-five miles north of Lisbon.
+The summits of hills were crowned with forts, their sides were escarped
+and protected with earthworks, their gorges were blocked with redoubts,
+a small river at the foot of them was made impassable by dams; in short,
+the utmost advantage was taken of the defences provided by nature, and
+these were supplemented by artificial entrenchments. Portuguese
+garrisons manned the greater part of the batteries, armed with guns from
+the arsenals of Lisbon; British troops were to occupy the most
+vulnerable points of attack. There was a second and third range of
+fortifications behind the first, in case these should be forced, but no
+such emergency arose. When Massena had carefully inspected the
+stupendous barrier reared in front of him, his well-trained eye
+recognised it as impregnable: he paused for some weeks under semblance
+of blockading the British forces, while he was really scouring the
+country for the means of feeding his own; but in November he began to
+retreat upon Santarem, Almeida, and Ciudad Rodrigo, with a half-starved
+and dispirited army, greatly reduced in numbers during the campaign.[47]
+
+The year 1811 was perhaps the least interesting, yet the most critical
+in the history of the Peninsular war. Wellington had not escaped
+criticism at home for allowing Massena to remain so long unmolested near
+Santarem. He described himself in a private letter, written in December,
+1810, as "safe for the winter at all events". More he could not have
+said, knowing, as he did, that Soult was in force before Cadiz, and
+might at any moment join Massena. This, in fact, he did; leaving his
+fields of plunder in Andalusia under the positive orders of Napoleon, he
+defeated the Spaniards at the Gebora on February 19, and captured
+Badajoz, as well as Olivenza. In his absence, Sir Thomas Graham, who
+commanded the British troops at Cadiz, sailed thence with La Pena, the
+Spanish commander, and a combined force of about 12,000 men, to make a
+flank march, and attack the French besiegers, under Victor, in the rear.
+A brisk action followed at Barrosa, in which Graham obtained a complete
+victory, but the Spanish troops, as usual, remained almost passive; the
+beaten army was not pursued, and the siege of Cadiz was not raised.
+This city was still the seat of the Spanish national government, but the
+feeble junta had been superseded by a national cortes, fairly
+representative of the nation, which passed some liberal measures, and
+dissolved the so-called regency which assumed to represent Ferdinand.
+
+[Pageheading: _FUENTES D'ONORO AND ALBUERA._]
+
+The two great frontier fortresses of Spain, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz,
+were now in the hands of the French. Massena had regained the Spanish
+frontier in March, after frequent combats with the pursuing enemy, and
+with heavy losses in men and horses, though he saved every gun except
+one. This retreat involved the evacuation of every place in Portugal
+except the fortress of Almeida. Wellington's pursuit would have been
+still more vigorous, but that his Portuguese troops were half-starved,
+and had lost discipline under intolerable privations. His next design
+seems to have been the recapture of the fortresses, but he was not
+without ulterior hopes--all too premature--of afterwards pushing on to
+Madrid and operating in the eastern provinces of Spain. He first
+invested Almeida, and, leaving General Spencer to continue the blockade,
+proceeded to Elvas in order to concert measures with Beresford for the
+siege of Badajoz. Thence he was suddenly recalled northward to repel a
+fresh advance of Massena, strongly reinforced, for the relief of
+Almeida. The battle which followed at Fuentes d'Onoro, south-east of
+Almeida, was among the most hardly contested struggles in the whole
+Peninsular war. It began on May 3, and, with a day's interval, concluded
+on the 5th. The British remained masters of the field, and claimed a
+somewhat doubtful victory, which at least secured the evacuation of
+Almeida. The garrison of that fortress blew it up by night, and
+succeeded, by masterly tactics, in joining the main French army with
+little sacrifice of life.
+
+Wellington returned to Badajoz, only to meet with disappointment.
+General Cole, acting under Beresford, had retaken Olivenza; but Soult,
+with a force of 23,000 men, was marching to succour Badajoz, when he was
+encountered by Beresford at Albuera. Beresford's force was numerically
+stronger than Soult's, but only 7,000 men were English, the rest being
+mostly Spanish. Measured by the proportion of losses to men engaged on
+both sides, this fight on May 16, 1811, must rank among the bloodiest on
+record. In four hours nearly 7,000 of the allies and 8,000 French were
+struck down. The decisive charge of the reserve was inspired and led by
+Hardinge, afterwards Governor-General of India; the French were routed,
+and Soult was checked, but little was gained by the victors.[48] The
+siege of Badajoz, indeed, was renewed, but its progress was slow for
+want of proper engines and artillery, and it was abandoned, after two
+futile attempts, on June 11. By this time, Marmont had succeeded
+Massena, and was carrying out Napoleon's grand plan for a junction with
+Soult's army and a fresh irruption into Portugal. With marvellous
+audacity, Wellington offered battle to both marshals, who, happily
+ignorant of his weakness, declined it more than once. In truth, he was
+never more nearly at the end of his resources than when he went into
+winter quarters at the close of 1811, having failed to prevent Marmont
+from provisioning Ciudad Rodrigo, and having narrowly escaped being
+overwhelmed by a much superior force. His army was greatly reduced by
+sickness, he was very ill-supplied from England, and he received no
+loyal support from the Portuguese government. Moreover, the French had
+apparently extended their hold on Spain, both in the eastern and
+northern provinces, while it was reported that Napoleon himself, not
+content with dictating orders from afar, would return to complete the
+conquest of the Peninsula.
+
+At this juncture, he must have been cheered by the arrival of so able a
+lieutenant as Graham from Cadiz, and by the brilliant success of Hill
+against a detached body of Marmont's army south of the Tagus. There were
+other tendencies also secretly working in favour of the British and
+their allies. Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain, openly protested
+against the extortions which he was enjoined to practise on his
+subjects, and went so far as to resign his crown at Paris, though he was
+induced to resume it. Again the broken armies of the Spanish had
+reappeared in the form of guerilla bands under leaders such as Mina;
+they could not be dispersed, since they had no cohesion, and were more
+formidable through their extreme mobility than organised battalions.
+Above all, the domination of France over Europe was already undermined
+and tottering invisibly to its fall. The Tsar Alexander had, as we have
+seen, been deeply offended by the preference of an Austrian to a Russian
+princess, as the consort of Napoleon, and still more by his imperious
+annexation of Oldenburg. Sweden, following the example of Russia, had
+begun to rebel against the continental system. A series of internal
+reforms had aroused a national spirit, and stealthily created the basis
+of a national army in Prussia, and the intense hostility of all North
+Germany to France was thinly disguised by the unwilling servility of the
+Prussian court. Napoleon, who seldom laboured under the illusions
+propagated by his own manifestoes and bulletins, well knew what he was
+doing when, in August, 1811, he allowed himself to burst into a storm of
+indignation against the Russian ambassador at the Tuileries. From that
+moment he clearly premeditated a rupture with Russia, and soon he
+withdrew 60,000 of his best troops from Spain, to be employed in that
+fatal enterprise of 1812 which proved to be his doom.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAPTURE OF CIUDAD RODRIGO AND BADAJOZ._]
+
+The winter of 1811-12 was spent by Wellington in preparing, with the
+utmost secrecy, for the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, as the
+first steps in an offensive campaign. In January, 1812, he struck a
+sudden blow against the former, and captured it by an assault, attended
+with great carnage, on the 19th of that month. In this furious conflict,
+lasting but half an hour, Craufurd, the renowned leader of the light
+division, fell mortally wounded. Shameful excesses sullied the glory of
+a splendid exploit. Marmont immediately drew in his troops towards
+Salamanca, leaving Soult in the valley of the Tagus; and Hill, with his
+southern army, moved northward. Wellington, who was created an earl in
+February, transferred the greater part of his troops to Badajoz, and
+began a regular siege, but with very imperfect materials, no organised
+corps of sappers and miners, and very few officers skilled in the art of
+taking fortified towns. He was greatly delayed on the route by the lack
+of transport, and the vexatious obstinacy of the Portuguese authorities,
+while time was of the utmost consequence lest any or all of three French
+armies should come to raise the siege. Hence the extreme rapidity of his
+final operations.
+
+After the capture of an outlying fort, three breaches were made in the
+walls, and on the night of April 6, under the cover of thick darkness,
+two divisions of British troops descended into the ditch, many carrying
+ladders or sacks of hay, and advanced to the foot of the _glacis_. Here
+they were almost overwhelmed with a hurricane of fiery missiles, and in
+mounting the breaches they had to face not only hand-grenades, trains of
+powder, and bursting shells, but a _chevaux-de-frise_ of sabre-blades
+crowning the summit. None of these attacks was successful; but another
+division under Picton scaled the castle, and a brigade under Walker
+effected an entrance elsewhere. After this, the French abandoned the
+breaches; the resistance waxed fainter, and at six in the morning,
+Philippon, the governor, with his brave garrison, surrendered
+unconditionally. The loss of the British and Portuguese in killed and
+wounded was stated at the enormous figure of 4,885, and it was avenged
+by atrocities prolonged for two days and nights, worse than had followed
+the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo. Wellington ordered the provost marshal
+to execute any soldiers found in the act of plunder, but officers vainly
+attempted to check their men at the peril of their own lives.
+
+[Pageheading: _SALAMANCA._]
+
+It had been the intention of Wellington to operate next against Soult,
+and drive him, if possible, from Esdremadura and Andalusia. But, as
+appears from one of his despatches to Lord Liverpool, he was ill
+satisfied with the conduct of his allies guarding Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+returned to resume command in that region. In the same despatch he
+complains bitterly of the niggardly policy of his government in regard
+to money and supplies. The same timidity on the part of ministers at
+home appears in a letter from Liverpool, almost forbidding him to accept
+the command-in-chief of the Spanish armies, which, however, was
+conferred upon him later in this year.[49] At present, he decided to
+march against Marmont in the plains of Leon. This movement was
+facilitated by the success of Hill in surprising a body of French
+troops, and seizing the important bridge of Almaraz over the Tagus on
+May 19, thereby breaking the French lines of communication and isolating
+Marmont's army for a time. Soon afterwards, Salamanca and its forts were
+captured by Wellington, but Marmont proved a very formidable opponent,
+and, having behind him another army under King Joseph, threatened the
+British lines of communication. In the series of manoeuvres which
+ensued, Wellington's forces met with more than one reverse, but the
+French marshal was determined to win a victory on a large scale.
+Wellington had no wish to risk a battle, unless Salamanca or his own
+rear should be seriously threatened, and he stood on the defensive, a
+little south of Salamanca, with Marmont's army encamped in front of him.
+
+Early on July 22, the French seized one of two hills called the Arapiles
+which formed the key of the position and commanded the road to Ciudad
+Rodrigo. Marmont then organised complicated evolutions, of which the
+ultimate object was to envelop the British right and cut off its
+expected retreat. To accomplish this, he extended his own left so far
+that it became separated by a gap from his centre. No sooner did
+Wellington, with a flash of military insight, perceive the advantage
+thus offered than he flung half of his troops upon the French left wing,
+and made a vigorous attack with the rest upon the French centre. It was
+too late for Marmont, himself wounded, to repair the mistake, the centre
+was driven in, and, as was said, 40,000 men were beaten in forty
+minutes. General Clausel, who took Marmont's place, showed great ability
+in the retreat, but the French army could scarcely have escaped
+destruction had not the Spaniards, who were entrusted with a post on the
+river Tormes, left the passage open for the flying enemy. Nevertheless,
+the battle of Salamanca was the greatest and most decisive yet fought by
+the British in the Peninsula; it established the reputation of our army,
+and placed Wellington in the first rank of generals. Three weeks later
+he entered Madrid in triumph, and was received with the wildest popular
+acclamations. Joseph once more abandoned his capital, joined Suchet in
+Valencia, and ordered Soult against his will to withdraw from Andalusia
+and move in the same direction. This concentration relieved Wellington
+from immediate anxieties, but exposed him to a serious danger of being
+confronted before long by forces thrice as great as his own. He also
+needed reinforcements, and was in still greater want of money.
+
+To students of military history it may seem a very doubtful question
+whether, under such circumstances, it was prudent to advance farther
+into Spain from his strongholds on the Portuguese frontier. But
+Wellington, who had been created a marquis on August 18, judged it
+necessary to crush if possible the remainder of Marmont's army which had
+retired northward under Clausel. He therefore left Hill with a
+detachment to cover Madrid, and marching through Valladolid occupied the
+town of Burgos. The castle of that place remained in the hands of a
+French garrison 2,000 strong and had been carefully fortified. Here
+again we may be permitted to doubt whether, after the experience gained
+at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, Wellington did wisely in resolving to
+invest and storm a fortress so formidable, without an adequate
+siege-train, and with the knowledge that Clausel might rally his forces
+in time to relieve it. Wellington himself afterwards admitted to
+Liverpool that he had erred in not taking with him the best of his own
+troops, and that he did not possess the means of transporting ordnance
+and military stores from Madrid and Santander, where there was abundance
+of them. The siege lasted a month, from September 19 to October 18; the
+garrison offered a most obstinate resistance, inflicting great loss on
+the besiegers by sorties, and in the end the attack failed. Souham, with
+Clausel, was closing in upon Wellington from the north, Soult from the
+south-east; Hill's position at Madrid was untenable, and another retreat
+became inevitable. It was the last and most trying in Wellington's
+military career. The army which had behaved nobly at Salamanca broke
+down under the strain of suffering and depression, like that of Sir John
+Moore before Coruna. The enemy was driven back in various rear-guard
+actions, but on the march the sense of discipline vanished and shameful
+disorders occurred. A scathing reprimand from Wellington, which might
+have been written by a French critic and which ought never to have been
+made public, threw all the blame of this disorganisation on the
+regimental officers, and denied that any scarcity of provisions could be
+pleaded in excuse of it.
+
+[Pageheading: _MILITARY REFORMS._]
+
+By the middle of November the campaign ended, and Wellington's
+headquarters were at Ciudad Rodrigo. For the present, Spain was still
+dominated by the French, but its southern provinces were clear of the
+invaders, and elsewhere the tide was already on the turn. The Russian
+war cast its shadow beforehand on the Spanish peninsula; the French
+army was constantly weakened in numbers and still more in quality, as
+conscripts were substituted for veterans, and inferior generals
+succeeded to high commands; the Portuguese and Spanish contingents of
+the British army were stronger and better disciplined. Wellington
+himself, tenacious of his purpose as ever, received heartier support
+from home, where Liverpool had become prime minister in June, and had
+been succeeded by Bathurst as secretary for war and the colonies; and
+though the Marquis Wellesley, no longer in the government, complained
+that his brother's operations had been crippled by ministerial apathy,
+the Peninsular war, on the eve of its completion, was adopted with pride
+and sympathy by the nation.
+
+The last chapter of the Peninsular war opens with the operations
+culminating in the battle of Vitoria, and closes with the battle of
+Toulouse. Having accepted the office of generalissimo of the Spanish
+armies, Wellington repaired to Cadiz during the winter of 1812-13, and
+formed the lowest estimate of the make-shift government there carried on
+under the dual control of the cortes and the regency. He failed to
+obtain a reform of this system, but succeeded in effecting a
+reorganisation of the Spanish army, to be in future under his own
+command. He next addressed himself, with the aid of Beresford and the
+British minister at Lisbon, to amend the monstrous abuses, civil and
+military, of Portuguese administration. By the beginning of May, 1813, a
+great improvement was visible in the equipment and _moral_ of the
+Spanish and Portuguese troops; a vigorous insurrection against the
+French occupation had broken out in the province of Biscay, endangering
+the great road into Spain; and an Anglo-Sicilian army of 16,000 men,
+under Sir John Murray, had repulsed Suchet, hitherto undefeated, at
+Castalla on the Valencian coast, without, however, completing their
+victory, or capturing any of the French guns in the narrow defile by
+which the enemy fled. The want of unity in the command of the French
+army, and of harmony between its generals, was more felt than ever now
+that Napoleon's master-mind was engrossed in retrieving the awful ruin
+of the Russian expedition.
+
+Yet Napoleon's instructions to Joseph show that he had fully grasped the
+critical nature of the situation. He enjoined Joseph to mass all his
+forces round Valladolid, and imperatively directed that at all hazards
+the communications with France should be maintained. The Spanish
+guerillas had long rendered communications so insecure that couriers
+with despatches had to be escorted by bodies of 250 cavalry or 500
+infantry; they were now so effectually intercepted that Napoleon's own
+despatch reached Joseph more than two months late, by way of Barcelona
+and Valencia. Meanwhile, Joseph was openly accusing Soult, in a letter
+to his brother, of criminal ambition--a charge to which he laid himself
+open before in Portugal--and did not hesitate to add, "the Duke of
+Dalmatia or myself must quit Spain". In England, on the contrary,
+parties were at last united in the desire to bring the war to a
+triumphant end, and parliament grudged neither men nor money to aid
+Wellington's plan of campaign. It was, then, under happier auspices than
+in former years that he broke up from his cantonments then stationed on
+the Coa, a little to the north-west of Ciudad Rodrigo, and set forward
+with 70,000 British and Portuguese troops, besides 20,000 Spaniards, to
+drive the French out of Spain. So confident was he of success that, as
+Napier relates, he waved his hand in crossing the frontier on May 22,
+and exclaimed, "Farewell, Portugal".[50]
+
+[Pageheading: _VITORIA._]
+
+He advanced by the valley of the Douro; then, turning to the north-east,
+he compelled the French to evacuate Burgos, and passed the Ebro on June
+13. Graham in command of his left wing there joined him, after forcing
+his way by immense efforts across the mountains of the Portuguese
+frontier. Hill, commanding the right wing of his composite but united
+army, was already with him. A depot for his commissariat and a military
+hospital were established at Santander, where a British fleet was lying,
+and whence he could draw his supplies direct from home. The French army,
+under Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, fell back before him by a forced night
+march on the 19th and took up its position in front of Vitoria, in the
+province of Biscay. Here, on the plain of the river Zadorra, was fought
+on the 21st the greatest battle of the Peninsular war. Wellington had
+encountered serious physical difficulties in his passage from the valley
+of the Ebro to that of the Zadorra; but for once his plans had been
+executed with admirable precision, and all his troops arrived at the
+appointed time on the field of battle. The French, conscious of their
+impending expulsion from Spain, were encumbered by enormous
+baggage-trains containing the fruits of five years' merciless spoliation
+"not of a province but of a kingdom," including treasures of art from
+Madrid and all the provincial capitals, with no less than 5,500,000
+dollars in hard cash, besides two years' arrears of pay which Napoleon
+had sent to fill the military chest of Joseph's army. A vast number of
+vehicles, loaded with the whole imperial and royal treasure, overspread
+the plain and choked the great road behind the French position, by which
+alone such a mass of waggons could find its way into France.
+
+The French army consisted of about 60,000 men, with 150 pieces of
+cannon, but strong detachments, under Foy and Clausel respectively, had
+been sent away to guard the roads to Bilbao and Pamplona. The British
+army numbered nearly 80,000, inclusive of Portuguese and Spanish, with
+90 guns. The French were posted on strong ground, and held the bridges
+across the river. Graham, with the left column of the British, made a
+circuit in the direction of Bilbao, working round to cut off the French
+rear on the Bayonne road. Hill, with the right column, forced the pass
+of Puebla, in the latter direction, carried the ridge above it after
+much hard fighting, and made good his position on the left flank of the
+French. Wellington himself, in the centre, under the guidance of a
+Spanish peasant, pushed a brigade across one of the bridges in his
+front, weakly guarded, and thus mastered the others; his force then
+expanded itself on the plain and bore down all opposition. Graham had
+met with a more obstinate resistance from the French right, under
+Reille, but at last got possession of the great Bayonne road.
+Thenceforward a retreat of the French army, partly encircled, became
+inevitable, but it was conducted at first in good order and with
+frequent halts at defensible points. The only outlet left open was the
+mountain road to Pamplona, and this was not only impracticable for heavy
+traffic but obstructed by an overturned waggon. The orderly retreat was
+soon converted into a rout; the flying throng made its way across
+country and over mountains towards Pamplona, leaving all the artillery,
+military stores, and accumulated spoils as trophies of the British
+victory.
+
+The value of these was prodigious, but the great mass of booty, except
+munitions of war, fell into the hands of private soldiers and
+camp-followers. Wellington reported to Bathurst that nearly a million
+sterling in money had been appropriated by the rank and file of the
+army, and, still worse, that so dazzling a triumph had "totally
+annihilated all order and discipline".[51] The loss in the battle had
+been about 5,000, but Wellington stated that on July 8 "we had 12,500
+men less under arms than we had on the day before the battle". He
+supposed the missing 7,500, nearly half of whom were British, to be
+mostly concealed in the mountain villages.[52] A large number of
+stragglers afterwards rejoined their colours, but too late to aid in an
+effectual pursuit of the enemy. The immediate consequence of this great
+victory was the evacuation by the French of all Spain south of the Ebro.
+Even Suchet abandoned Valencia and distributed his forces between
+Tarragona and Tortosa. To his great credit, Wellington addressed to the
+cortes an earnest protest against wreaking vengeance on the French party
+in Spain, many of whom might have been driven into acceptance of a
+foreign yoke "by terror, by distress, or by despair". At the same time,
+he vigorously followed up his success by chasing and nearly surrounding
+Clausel's division, while Hill invested Pamplona, and Graham drove Foy
+across the Bidassoa, in his advance upon the fortress of St. Sebastian.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF THE PYRENEES._]
+
+The fortifications of St. Sebastian were in a very imperfect condition,
+but the governor, Emmanuel Rey, was nevertheless able to defend the
+place with success. Wellington, after laying siege to it, sanctioned a
+premature attempt to scale the breaches which cost Graham's force a loss
+of more than 500 men. This check was succeeded by another, still more
+serious, in the historic pass of Roncesvalles. Napoleon, hearing at
+Dresden of the battle of Vitoria, and instantly fathoming its momentous
+import, despatched Soult, as "lieutenant of the emperor," to assume
+command of all the French armies at Bayonne and on the Spanish frontier,
+still amounting nominally to 114,000 men, besides 66,000 under Suchet in
+Catalonia. Soult reached Bayonne on July 13, fortified it strongly, and
+reorganised his troops with amazing energy, inspiriting them with a
+warlike address in the well-known style of Napoleon's proclamations. On
+the 25th he set his forces in motion, with the intention of crushing the
+British right by a sudden irruption, and relieving Pamplona. He all but
+achieved his object, for, by well-concerted and well-concealed
+movements, he actually carried the passes of Roncesvalles and Maya, in
+spite of a gallant resistance and the French troops were on the point of
+pouring down the Pyrenees on the Spanish side, when Wellington arrived
+at full speed from his position before St. Sebastian.
+
+He was opportunely reinforced, and gave battle on the rugged heights in
+front of Pamplona to a force numerically superior, but for the most part
+charging uphill. Never, even at Bussaco, did the French show greater
+ardour and _elan_ in attack, and it was only after a series of bloody
+hand-to-hand combats on the summits and sides of the mountains that they
+were compelled to recoil and rolled backward down the ridge. Baffled in
+his attempt to relieve Pamplona, Soult turned westwards towards St.
+Sebastian, but was anticipated by Wellington, and faced by three
+divisions of Hill on his right. A second engagement followed, in which
+the Portuguese earned the chief honours, and 3,000 prisoners were taken.
+At last Soult gave orders for a retreat, and in the course of it was all
+but entrapped in a narrow valley where he could not have escaped the
+necessity of surrender. It is said that he was warned just in time by
+the sudden intrusion of three British marauders in uniform; at all
+events, he instantly changed his line of march, and ultimately led his
+broken army back to France, but in the utmost confusion, and not without
+fresh disasters. One of these befell Reille's division in the gorge of
+Yanzi, and another the French rear-guard under Clausel, which defended
+itself valiantly, but was driven headlong down the northern side of the
+Pyrenees from which this series of battles derives its name.
+
+The siege of St. Sebastian was immediately renewed with a far more
+powerful battering train, but its defences had also been strengthened by
+the indefatigable governor. The final assault took place on August 31,
+and rivalled the storming of Badajoz in the murderous ferocity of the
+_melee_ at the breaches, as well as in the horrors practised on the
+inhabitants by the victorious assailants, which Wellington and Graham
+vainly endeavoured to check. So desperate was the defence, and so
+insuperable appeared the obstacles to an entrance by the breaches, that
+Graham adopted the heroic expedient of causing his artillery to fire a
+few feet only over the heads of the forlorn hope, until a clear opening
+had been made, and deadly piles of combustibles had been exploded behind
+the main breach, blowing into the air 300 of the garrison. A hideous
+conflagration destroyed the greater part of the town. A few days later
+the castle, to which the governor had retired, yielded to an
+irresistible cannonade, and he surrendered at discretion with about
+1,200 men. Several hundred wounded, including a large number of British
+prisoners, were found there in the hospitals.
+
+On the 30th, the day before St. Sebastian was stormed, Soult attempted a
+diversion for its relief by crossing the Bidassoa, and on the following
+day he engaged a large body of Spaniards at St. Marcial. On this
+occasion Wellington held the British troops in reserve, and the
+Spaniards without their aid defeated the French with great slaughter. So
+ended a well-planned and well-executed effort to reconquer the Spanish
+frontier. Pamplona was still untaken, and Suchet was still in Catalonia,
+but no further offensive movement was undertaken by the French against
+Spain. Both Soult and Wellington had shown remarkable powers of
+generalship, and there was a moment when Soult might have snatched the
+prize of victory by raising the siege of Pamplona. But his ultimate
+success was hopeless, and his failure was complete. Before the fall of
+St. Sebastian and the battle of St. Marcial, Wellington estimated the
+French losses at 15,000 men, who could ill be spared in the interval
+between Napoleon's last gleam of victory at Dresden and on his signal
+defeat at Leipzig.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ENTERS FRANCE._]
+
+But the Peninsular war, in the historical sense, was not yet over.
+During the summer of 1813 a mixed force of British, Germans, Spaniards,
+and Sicilians had been carrying on an intermittent war against the
+French under Suchet in the eastern provinces. Their commander, Sir John
+Murray, who had allowed the beaten enemy to escape at Castalla, proved
+equally irresolute in an attempt to capture Tarragona, countermanded the
+assault, and re-embarked his troops on the approach of Suchet. Soon
+afterwards he was superseded by Lord William Bentinck, and Suchet after
+the battle of Vitoria was compelled to retire behind the Ebro. Bentinck
+renewed the investment of Tarragona, but permitted Suchet without a
+battle to relieve it, demolish its fortifications, and withdraw its
+garrison at the end of August. An ill-judged advance of the British
+general into Catalonia brought about another misfortune, and, upon the
+whole, the series of operations conducted against Suchet were by no
+means glorious to British arms or generalship, however important their
+effect in preventing a large body of French veterans from reinforcing
+Soult's army at a critical time in the Western Pyrenees. Wellington
+himself inclined to complete the deliverance of Spain by clearing the
+province of Catalonia of the invaders, but the British government,
+having in view the prospect of crushing Napoleon in Germany, urged him
+to undertake an immediate invasion of France. Accordingly he moved
+forward on October 7, leaving Pamplona closely blockaded, threw his army
+across the Bidassoa on the 8th by a stroke of masterly tactics, forced
+the strong French lines on the north side of it, and established himself
+on the enemy's soil. Before entering France he issued the most stringent
+proclamations against plundering, which he enforced by the sternest
+measures, and announced that he would not suffer the peaceful
+inhabitants of France to be punished for the ambition of their ruler. On
+the 31st the French garrison of Pamplona, despairing of relief,
+surrendered as prisoners of war.
+
+The prolonged defence of Pamplona gave Soult time to strengthen his
+position on the Nivelle. The lines which he constructed rivalled those
+of Torres Vedras, and the several actions by which they were at last
+forced and turned were among the most desperate of the whole war. The
+first was fought in the early part of November, and resulted in the
+occupation by Wellington's army of the great mountain-barrier south of
+Bayonne, with six miles of entrenchments along the Nivelle, and of the
+port of St. Jean de Luz. A month later Wellington became anxious to
+establish his winter-cantonments between the Nive and the Adour, partly
+for strategical reasons, and partly in order to command a larger and
+more fertile area for his supplies. On December 9, therefore, Hill with
+the right wing forded the Nive and drove back the French left upon their
+camp in front of Bayonne. Then followed three most obstinate combats on
+the 10th, 11th and 13th, in which Soult took the offensive, with Bayonne
+as the centre of his operations, and with the advantage of always moving
+upon interior lines resting upon a strong fortress. In the first of
+these attacks, he surprised and nearly succeeded in overwhelming the
+British left, under Hope, now Sir John, before Wellington could bring
+other divisions to its support. In the second, he fell suddenly on the
+same troops, exhausted by fatigue, and still more or less isolated, but
+they were rallied by Hope and Wellington in person, and remained masters
+of the field. In the third he concentrated his whole strength upon the
+British right under Hill, aided by a thick mist, and by a flood upon the
+Nive, which swept away a bridge of boats, and separated Hill from the
+rest of the army. Nevertheless, that able general, emulating the noble
+example of Hope in the earlier encounters, succeeded in repelling
+assault after assault, until Wellington himself appeared with
+reinforcements of imposing strength, and converted a stubborn defence
+into a victory.
+
+The loss of the allies since crossing the Nive had exceeded 5,000; that
+of the French was 6,000, besides 2,400 Germans who deserted to the
+British during the night of the 9th in obedience to orders from home.
+Ever since he assumed the command Soult had shown military ability of a
+rare order. Bayonne, the base of all his operations, was indefensible
+before he fortified it. A great proportion of his troops were raw
+conscripts, or demoralised by defeat, before he inspired them with his
+own courage and vigour. He was practically dependent for subsistence in
+his own country on the very system of pillage which had roused a
+patriotic frenzy of resentment in Spain and other lands ravaged by
+French armies. He now stood at bay in the south of France, as Wellington
+had so long stood at bay in Portugal, and continued there during the
+early part of 1814 a defensive campaign not unworthy of comparison with
+the prodigious exploits of Napoleon himself against the invaders of his
+eastern provinces.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INVESTMENT OF BAYONNE._]
+
+A respite of two months succeeded the battles on the Nive. During this
+interval Wellington's difficulty in paying his troops was great, owing
+to the enormous drain of specie from England into Central Europe. He was
+further embarrassed by the appearance of the Duke of Angouleme, elder
+son of Charles, Count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., at his
+headquarters. The British government was by no means committed to a
+restoration of the Bourbons, and Wellington deprecated the duke's
+appearance as at least premature. He therefore insisted upon his
+remaining incognito and as a non-combatant at St. Jean de Luz. Soult
+was in great straits, not only because he was compelled to "make war
+support war" by exorbitant requisitions upon the French peasantry, but
+also because the exigencies of Napoleon were such that large drafts of
+the best troops were drawn from the army of the south. When hostilities
+were resumed in the middle of February, 1814, the Anglo-Portuguese and
+Spanish force combined outnumbered the French by nearly five to three,
+but Soult retained the decisive advantage of having a strong _point
+d'appui_ in Bayonne at the confluence of the Nive and Adour. Careful
+preparations were made by Wellington for throwing a large force across
+the Lower Adour below Bayonne, in concert with a British fleet. Contrary
+winds and a violent surf delayed the arrival of the British gunboats,
+but on February 23 Hope sent over a body of his men on a raft of
+pontoons in the face of the enemy's flotilla, with the aid of a brigade
+armed with Congreve rockets, which had been first used at Leipzig, and
+produced the utmost consternation in the French ranks. The gunboats soon
+followed, but with the loss of one wrecked and others stranded in
+crossing the bar. By the joint exertions of soldiers and sailors a
+bridge was then constructed, by which Hope's entire army with artillery
+passed over the river, and, two days afterwards, began the investment of
+Bayonne.
+
+Meanwhile, the centre and right wing, under the command of Wellington,
+had forced a passage across the Upper Adour and threatened Bayonne on
+the other side. Leaving a garrison of 6,000 men in Bayonne, Soult took
+his stand at Orthez, with an army of about 40,000 men, on the summit of
+a formidable ridge. Wellington attacked this ridge on the 27th, with a
+force of nearly equal strength in three columns so disposed as to
+converge from points several miles distant from each other. The veterans
+of the French army, admirably handled, fought with tenacity, and all but
+succeeded in foiling the attack before Wellington could bring up his
+reserves. The conscripts, however, were not equally steady, and when
+Hill, advancing from the extreme right, pressed upon the French left,
+Soult's orderly retreat became a precipitate flight. The French loss
+greatly exceeded the British, and was soon afterwards swelled by
+wholesale desertions; the road to Bordeaux was thrown open, and the
+royalist reaction against Napoleon, stimulated by the depredation of
+the French troops, ripened into a general revolt.
+
+Meanwhile, Napoleon had lost Germany by the battle of Leipzig; early in
+1814 the allied armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia had entered
+France, and a congress was being held at Chatillon-sur-Seine, to
+formulate, if possible, terms of peace. The city of Bordeaux was the
+first to declare itself openly in favour of the Bourbons. Wellington
+sent a large detachment to preserve order, with strict instructions to
+Beresford, who commanded it, to remain neutral, in the event of Louis
+XVIII. being proclaimed, pending the negotiations with Napoleon at
+Chatillon. But the excitement of the people could not be restrained, and
+the arrival of the Duke of Angouleme evoked a burst of royalist
+enthusiasm which anticipated by a few weeks only the abdication of
+Napoleon at Fontainebleau. The defection of Bordeaux forced Soult to
+fall back rapidly on a very formidable position in front of Toulouse.
+The British army followed in pursuit, encumbered with a great artillery
+and pontoon train. After a lively action at Tarbes, it arrived in front
+of Toulouse on March 27, to find the Garonne in flood, and the French
+army strongly entrenched around the town, with a prospect of being
+joined by 20,000 or 30,000 veterans, under Suchet, from Catalonia.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TOULOUSE._]
+
+The dispositions of Wellington, ending in the battle of Toulouse, on
+April 10, have not escaped criticism. Hill, with two divisions and a
+Spanish contingent, threw a bridge across the Garonne below Toulouse,
+but discovered that he could make no progress in that direction, owing
+to the impassable state of the roads. Beresford crossed the river with
+18,000 men at another point, but a sudden flood broke up the pontoon
+bridge in his rear, and he remained isolated for no less than four days,
+exposed to an attack from Soult's whole army. Having missed this rare
+opportunity, Soult calmly awaited the attack, with a force numerically
+inferior, but with every advantage of position. On the 10th Wellington's
+troops advanced in two columns, separated from each other by a perilous
+interval of two miles. One of these, including Freyre's Spaniards and
+Picton's division, was fairly driven back after furious attempts to
+storm the ramparts of the fortified ridge held by the French. Beresford,
+however, who in this battle combined generalship with brilliant
+courage, restored the fortunes of the day by a dashing advance against
+the redoubts on the French right. Having carried these he swept along
+the ridge, which became untenable, and Soult withdrew his army within
+his second line of defences. Two days later, seeing that Hill menaced
+Toulouse on the other side, and fearing that if defeated again he would
+lose his only line of retreat along the Carcassonne road, he evacuated
+Toulouse by that route, leaving his magazines and hospitals in the hands
+of the British army. By so doing he left to Wellington the honour and
+prize of victory, but few victories have been so dearly bought, and the
+loss in killed and wounded was actually greater on the side of the
+victors than on that of the vanquished.
+
+Toulouse received Wellington on the 12th with open arms, and as news
+reached him on the same day announcing the proclamation of Louis XVIII.
+at Paris, he no longer hesitated to assume the white cockade. Soult
+loyally declined to accept the intelligence until it was officially
+confirmed, when a military convention was made on the 18th, whereby a
+boundary line was established between the two armies. Suchet had already
+withdrawn from Spain, and at last recalled the garrisons from those
+Spanish fortresses in which Napoleon had so obstinately locked up picked
+troops which he sorely needed in his dire extremity. But on the 14th, a
+week after Napoleon's abdication, the famous "sortie from Bayonne" took
+place, in which each side lost 800 or 900 men, and Hope, wounded in two
+places, was made prisoner. For this waste of life the governor of
+Bayonne must be held responsible, since he was informed of the events at
+Paris by Hope, and instead of awaiting official confirmation, like
+Soult, chose to risk the issue of a night combat, which must needs be
+deadly and could not be decisive.
+
+Thus ended the Peninsular war. This war on the British side has seldom
+been surpassed in the steady adherence to a settled purpose, through
+years of discouragement and failure, maintained by the general whose
+name it has made immortal. Neither his strategy nor his tactical skill
+was always faultless; and afterwards in comparing himself with Soult, he
+is reported to have said, that he often got into scrapes, but was
+extricated by the valour of his army, whereas Soult, when he got into a
+scrape, had no such men to get him out of it. However this might be,
+Wellington's foresight in appreciating the place to be filled by the
+Peninsular war in the overthrow of Napoleon's domination, and his truly
+heroic constancy in striving to realise his own idea will ever
+constitute his best claim to greatness. No other man in England or in
+Europe discerned as he did, that with Portugal independent and guarded
+by the power of Great Britain on its western coast and its eastern
+frontier, the permanent conquest of Spain by the French would become
+impossible. No one else saw beforehand, what Napoleon discovered too
+late, that a war in Portugal and Spain would drain the life-blood of his
+invincible hosts, and at length help towards the invasion of France
+itself. No other general would have shown equal statesmanship in
+managing Spanish juntas and controlling even Spanish guerillas, or equal
+forbearance in sparing the French people the evils which a victorious
+army might have inflicted upon them.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[42] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (3rd edition), i., 123.
+
+[43] For Moore's campaign see Napier, _Peninsular War_, i., pp.
+xxi.-xxv., lvii.-lxxvi., 330-44, 431-542, and Oman, _Peninsular War_,
+i., 486-602; and compare Moore's _Diary_, edited by Maurice, ii.,
+272-398. Sir F. Maurice has not completely answered Professor Oman's
+criticisms.
+
+[44] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 261-63 (March 7, 1809).
+
+[45] For the exact figures see Oman, _Peninsular War_, ii., 645-48.
+
+[46] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 536 (July 29, 1809).
+
+[47] For Massena's lines of march see T. J. Andrews in _English
+Historical Review_, xvi. (1901), 474-92.
+
+[48] The battle is picturesquely described by Napier, _Peninsular War_,
+iii., 536-66. See also _ibid._, pp. xxxv.-li.
+
+[49] Wellington, _Supplementary Dispatches_, vii., 318-19.
+
+[50] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (first edition), v., 513.
+
+[51] Wellington, _Dispatches_, x., 473 (June 29, 1813).
+
+[52] _Ibid._, x., 519 (July 9, 1813).
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VI.
+
+                       THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+
+The war between France and Russia, publicly threatened in August,
+1811,[53] was long deferred. On Russia's part the adherence to a
+defensive policy delayed action until France was ready. But there was
+another reason why the preparations for war were only slowly pushed
+forward. Even at the court of St. Petersburg there was a French party
+which retarded such preparations as committing Russia too definitely to
+an open rupture. On the part of France, also, delay was necessary.
+Though deliberately provoked by himself, the war was not altogether
+welcome to Napoleon. It suited him best to have a strong but friendly
+neighbour in Russia, and victory promised him but the half-hearted
+friendship of a power to which he could no longer dare to leave much
+strength. Besides it was necessary to make far more extensive
+preparations than had been required for any of his previous campaigns.
+Russia was too poor and too thinly peopled for it to be possible for war
+to support itself, and immense supplies with correspondingly large
+transport arrangements were needed for a large army which would have to
+fight at so vast a distance from its base. It would have been impossible
+to be ready in time for a summer campaign in 1811; the country was not
+favourable to transport on a large scale during winter, and the war was
+therefore postponed till the summer of 1812. The end of May or beginning
+of June was the date originally selected for the beginning of
+operations, as it was expected that the difficulty of providing fodder
+would be greatly reduced when the grass had grown. But the preparations
+were not sufficiently advanced by that date, and hostilities were only
+opened on June 24.
+
+The interval was spent by both powers in securing allies and pacifying
+enemies. Early in the year 1812 Prussia had made a last attempt to avert
+a French alliance by inviting Russia to join in a peaceful compromise.
+After the failure of this negotiation her position was helpless, and
+resembled that of Poland before its national extinction. Russia could
+not become her active ally without exposing her own army to destruction
+at a second Friedland, and Prussia could not fight France alone.
+Frederick William, therefore, accepted the terms dictated by Napoleon.
+By a treaty concluded on February 24 he agreed to supply the emperor
+with 20,000 men to serve as a part of the French army, and was to raise
+no levies and give no orders without his consent. The king was also to
+afford a free passage and provide food and forage for the French troops,
+payment for which was to be arranged afterwards. In return for this a
+reduction was made in the war indemnity due to France. This was probably
+as much as Napoleon could have obtained without authorising a dangerous
+increase in the Prussian army.
+
+[Pageheading: _RUSSIAN ALLIANCES._]
+
+Austria was more fortunate, because an Austrian war would have been a
+serious diversion, not a step towards the invasion of Russia. She was in
+consequence able to impose her own terms on France. These terms, so far
+as the nature and extent of the Austrian assistance to France were
+concerned, had been sketched by Metternich to the British agent, Nugent,
+as far back as November, 1811, and they were accepted by France in a
+treaty of March 16, 1812.[54] Austria was to provide an army of 30,000
+men to guard Napoleon's flank in Volhynia. In return France guaranteed
+the integrity of Turkey, and secretly promised a restoration of the
+Illyrian provinces to Austria in exchange for Galicia, which was to form
+a part of a reconstituted Poland. Elsewhere Napoleon's negotiations were
+unsuccessful. In January he fulfilled his threat of occupying Swedish
+Pomerania, but it had no effect on Swedish policy, and when in March he
+offered Finland and a part of Norway as the price of an alliance, his
+terms were rejected and Sweden allied herself with Russia. On April 17
+Napoleon made overtures for peace with Great Britain, offering to
+evacuate Spain and to recognise the house of Braganza in Portugal and
+the Bourbons in Sicily, if the British would recognise the "actual
+dynasty" in Spain and Murat in Naples. The offer was certainly illusory.
+"Actual dynasty" was an ambiguous phrase, but would naturally mean the
+Bonapartes. Castlereagh declined to recognise Joseph, but declared his
+readiness to discuss the proposed basis if "actual dynasty" meant a
+recognition of Ferdinand VII. in Spain. Napoleon was enabled to say that
+his offers of peace had been rejected, and made no answer to
+Castlereagh.
+
+Russia in her turn had to conciliate the Porte, Sweden, Persia, and
+Great Britain. The Turkish negotiations were prolonged, and it was only
+in May that the treaty of Bucharest was signed, by which Russia gave up
+all her conquests except Bessarabia. Sweden had offered Russia her
+alliance in February. She was prepared to surrender Finland to Russia on
+condition that Russia should assist her in the conquest of Norway. A
+joint army was to effect this conquest and then make a descent on North
+Germany, threatening the rear of the French army of invasion. The
+adhesion of Great Britain was to be invited. On April 5 an alliance
+between Russia and Sweden was signed on the terms suggested. This was
+followed on August 28 by the treaty of Abo, which was signed in the
+presence of the British representative, Lord Cathcart. By this treaty
+Russia was to assist Sweden with 30,000 men and a loan, Sweden undertook
+to support Russia's claim, when it should be made, for an extension of
+her frontier to the Vistula. Shortly afterwards it was agreed to
+postpone the attack on Norway till the following year, and thus at
+length the Russian army in Finland was set free. The treaties with the
+Porte and Sweden were too late to liberate troops to oppose Napoleon's
+advance, but the troops thus liberated greatly endangered his retreat.
+With Persia no peace could be made. Great Britain was still nominally at
+war both with Russia and with Sweden. Negotiations with Russia in April
+came to nothing because the British government refused to take over a
+loan of L4,000,000, but on July 18 a treaty of alliance between the
+three powers was signed, in which Great Britain promised pecuniary aid
+to Russia. A further sign of friendship was given when the tsar handed
+over the Cronstadt fleet for safekeeping to the British. The formal
+treaty was, however, only the public recognition of a friendship and
+mutual confidence which had begun with the breach between Russia and
+France. This good understanding was shared by the nominal allies of
+France, Prussia and Austria. Russia was fully informed of the military
+and political plans of Austria, and knew that her forces would not fight
+except under compulsion.
+
+At last, on June 24, Napoleon's grand army began the passage of the
+Niemen, which formed the boundary between the duchy of Warsaw and the
+Russian empire. The main body, at least 300,000 strong, was commanded by
+Napoleon himself. A northern division, including the Prussian
+contingent, was commanded by Macdonald, and, after advancing to Riga,
+which it pretended to besiege, remained idle throughout the campaign.
+The Austrians, under Schwarzenberg, formed a southern division, but they
+merely manoeuvred, and made no serious attempts to impede the
+movements of the southern Russian army on its return journey from the
+war on the Danube. Napoleon himself drove the main Russian armies before
+him in the direction of Moscow. At last Kutuzov, who had taken over the
+command of the Russians in the course of the retreat, made a stand at
+Borodino, where on September 7 one of the bloodiest battles on record
+was fought. The figures are variously given, but the French army
+probably lost over 30,000 in killed and wounded out of a force of
+125,000; and the Russians lost not less than 40,000 out of an army of
+slightly smaller dimensions. This awful carnage ended, after all, in
+little more than a trial of strength. The French gained the ground, but
+the Russians made good their retreat, and six days later Kutuzov retired
+through the streets of Moscow, taking the better part of the population
+and all the military stores with him. The French vanguard entered on the
+14th, and Napoleon himself next day. A fire, kindled either by accident
+or by Russian incendiaries, raged from the 14th to the 20th and
+destroyed three-fourths of the city.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW._]
+
+The capture of Moscow was far from being the triumph that the French
+emperor had anticipated. Deceived by his recollections of Tilsit, he had
+fully counted upon receiving pacific overtures from Alexander or at
+least upon his eager acceptance of conciliatory assurances from himself.
+But as the weeks passed and the vision of negotiation with the Russians
+proved illusory, retreat became inevitable. On the night of October 18
+the French army, now about 115,000 strong, evacuated Moscow. Kutuzov,
+who was stronger in cavalry, though perhaps still weaker in infantry,
+hung upon its rear, and, while avoiding a pitched battle, was able to
+prevent Napoleon from retreating by any other route than the now
+devastated line of his advance. It has often been questioned whether
+Kutuzov did not deliberately refrain from destroying the French army. He
+certainly informed Sir Robert Wilson on one occasion that he did not
+wish to drive Napoleon to extremities, lest his supremacy should go to
+the power that ruled the sea. The remark may have been nothing more than
+an outburst of ill-temper, but, whatever the motive, there can be no
+doubt as to the policy adopted. The retreating French army suffered
+terrible hardships from the cold, for which it was ill prepared. Twice
+it seemed on the point of falling into the hands of the Russians; at
+Krasnoe 26,000 prisoners are said to have been captured by Kutuzov's
+army, while at Borisov the southern army under Chichagov and the army
+returning from Finland under Wittgenstein joined hands, and disputed the
+French passage of the Berezina on November 26-29. According to
+Chambray's calculation, the French army numbered 31,000 combatants
+before the passage, of whom but 9,000 remained on December 1. All the
+non-combatants had been left in the hands of the enemy.
+
+This was the last direct attack made by the Russians on the relics of
+the grand army. But the worst ravages of the Russian winter had yet to
+come. On December 3 the cold became intense. As the survivors of the
+expedition dragged themselves homewards through the Polish provinces,
+they were met by large bodies of reinforcements pouring in from the
+west; these recruits, comparatively fresh, were at first appalled by the
+gaunt and famine-stricken aspect of the returning veterans, but soon
+perished themselves in nearly equal numbers. It is estimated that
+altogether only 60,000 men recrossed the frontier out of a total of
+630,000, and in the estimate of 60,000 is included Macdonald's division,
+which was exposed to comparatively little hardship. That division with
+the Prussian contingent began to fall back on December 19. On the 30th,
+however, the Prussians were reduced to neutrality by the convention of
+Tauroggen, signed by the Prussian commander, Yorck, with the Russians,
+without the sanction of his government. Had Russia been in a condition
+to press onwards at once and carry the war into French territory, it is
+possible that Europe might have been spared the misery and bloodshed of
+the next few years. But, for the moment, her strength and resources were
+exhausted, nor was it until months had elapsed that other nations, or
+even France herself, became aware of the magnitude of the catastrophe
+which had overtaken Napoleon's host. That he was able to rally himself
+after it, to carry the French people with him, to enforce a new
+conscription, and to assume the aggressive in the campaign of 1813, must
+ever remain a supreme proof of his capacity for empire.
+
+[Pageheading: _DISPUTES WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+In the year 1812 war broke out between Great Britain and the United
+States. For a time the continental warfare had led to a great increase
+in American commerce, which was free from the attacks of privateers and
+from the restrictions which the opposing parties placed on one another.
+Presently, however, both parties attempted to force the United States
+into a virtual alliance with themselves. Orders in council on the one
+side and imperial decrees on the other had, as we have seen, declared a
+blockade of the ports of the continent of Europe and of Great Britain,
+and the United States saw their commerce threatened with disabilities
+approximating to those suffered by the belligerent powers. President
+Jefferson, who was supported by the republican party, adhered to a
+policy of strict neutrality, and prepared to suffer any commercial loss
+rather than be drawn into an European war. The only action which he took
+was the defence of the river mouths with a view to resisting any
+offensive movement. The federalist party on the other hand were in
+favour of energetic action against France, so as to secure English
+favour and the great commercial privileges which the mistress of the
+seas could bestow. For a time no hostilities resulted, but constant
+irritation was caused by the British claim to a right of search and to
+the impressment of sailors of British nationality found on American
+ships, while American ships accused of infringing the blockade were
+seized by either of the European combatants. To some extent the
+differences between Great Britain and the United States depended on
+rival views of the law of allegiance. The British maintained the
+doctrine _nemo potest exuere patriam_, and regarded all British-born
+persons, unless absolved from their allegiance by the act of the
+mother-country, as British subjects. The law of the United States, on
+the other hand, permitted an alien to become a citizen after fourteen
+years' residence, and previously to 1798 had required a residence of
+five years only. In this way it often happened that sailors who had
+received the American citizenship were impressed for service on British
+ships, and sometimes sailors of actual American birth were impressed.
+But it was impossible to justify the practice to which the Americans
+resorted of receiving deserters of British nationality from British
+ships of war, who were induced by offers of higher pay to transfer
+themselves to the American service.
+
+Jefferson at first preferred to coerce the European powers by
+retaliatory legislation. As early as April, 1806, a law had been passed
+forbidding the importation of certain British wares, but was suspended
+six weeks after it came into operation. In June, 1807, irritation was
+intensified by the incident of the _Leopard_ and the _Chesapeake_. Five
+men, four of whom were British born and one an American by birth, were
+known to have deserted from the British sloop _Halifax_, lying in
+Hampton roads, and to have taken service on an American frigate, the
+_Chesapeake_. After application for their surrender had been made in
+vain to the magistrates of the town of Norfolk, where the _Chesapeake's_
+rendezvous was, and to the officer commanding the rendezvous,
+Vice-admiral Berkeley sent his flagship, the _Leopard_, carrying fifty
+guns, with an order to the British captains on the North American
+station to search the _Chesapeake_ for deserters from six ships named,
+including the _Halifax_, in case she should be encountered on the high
+seas. The _Leopard_ arrived in Chesapeake bay in time to follow the
+_Chesapeake_ beyond American waters, and then made a demand to search
+for deserters. On the captain of the _Chesapeake_ refusing compliance,
+the _Leopard_ opened fire. The _Chesapeake_ was not in a condition to
+make any effectual reply, and, after receiving three broadsides, struck
+her flag. Only one of the deserters from the _Halifax_, an Englishman,
+was found on the _Chesapeake_; but three deserters from the British
+warship _Melampus_, which had not been named in Berkeley's order, all
+Americans by birth, were removed from the _Chesapeake_, which was now
+permitted to return to port.[55] Although the British government offered
+reparation for this action, recalled Berkeley, and disavowed the right
+to search ships of war for deserters, the incident could not fail to
+make a bad impression on American opinion.
+
+But still Jefferson adhered to a policy of pacific coercion. In
+December, 1807, the act of April, 1806, was again put into force, and an
+embargo act, passed by the American congress, now cut off all foreign
+countries from trade with the United States. But the policy of embargo
+was disastrous to its promoters. It ruined the commerce and emptied the
+treasury of the United States. On March 1, 1809, a non-intercourse act,
+applying only to France, Great Britain, and their dependencies, was
+substituted for the embargo act.[56] The new act enabled the president
+to remove the embargo against whichever country should cancel its orders
+or decrees against American trade. Three days later Jefferson was
+succeeded by Madison as President of the United States. The change made
+no difference to the policy of the United States government. But the
+opposition was now much stronger and more violent than formerly; so much
+so that Sir James Craig, the Canadian governor, actually despatched a
+spy, John Henry, to sound the willingness of New England, where the
+federalist party was the stronger, to secede from the union and join
+Great Britain against the United States. This venture becomes the less
+surprising when we observe that in the previous year, 1808, John Quincy
+Adams, the future president, had predicted such a secession. Nothing,
+however, came of the attempt. Madison attempted to obtain concessions
+from the British government, but while the Perceval ministry lasted he
+met with no success. In May, 1810, the non-intercourse act expired, but
+a proviso was enacted that, if before March 3, 1811, either Great
+Britain or France should cancel her decrees against American trade the
+act should, three months after such revocation, revive against the power
+that maintained its decrees. Madison was cajoled into believing that
+Napoleon had recalled his decrees on November 1, 1810, and the
+non-intercourse act was accordingly revived against Great Britain and
+her dependencies in February, 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+Almost the first act of the Liverpool administration was to cancel the
+restrictions on American trade. But it was too late. Five days earlier
+the United States had declared war against Great Britain on June 18,
+1812. The explanation of this step must be sought in the party politics
+of the United States. While the federalists courted British alliance,
+the younger members of the republican party had conceived a hope of
+conquering Canada as a result of a victorious war against Great Britain.
+This was the reply of the national party in the United States to the
+action of the Canadian governor. Madison knew the impracticability of
+such a step, but, finding that he could only carry the presidential
+election of 1812 with the support of this section of his party, he
+declared war. Great Britain, with her best troops in the Peninsula, was
+in no condition to use her full strength in America, but the United
+States were entirely unprepared for war. Their treasury was still empty,
+and their army and navy were small, while Canada generally was contented
+and loyal to the British crown. Upper Canada was full of loyalists, who
+had been expelled from the revolted colonies, and who with their
+descendants hated the men that had driven them from their homes; lower
+Canada was half-French and had nothing in common with the United States,
+while the Roman catholic clergy threw the whole weight of their
+influence on the British side. General Hull, who commanded the forces
+employed against Canada, succeeded in crossing the river Detroit in July
+and threatened the British post of Malden. But an alliance with the
+Indians enabled the British first to possess themselves of Mackinac, at
+the junction of lakes Huron and Michigan, and afterwards to imperil
+Hull's communications through the Michigan territory.
+
+Hull accordingly fell back on Detroit. The British, with 750 men under
+Major-General Brock, together with 600 Indians, now prepared to attack
+Hull at that place. Hull, who believed his retreat to be cut off by the
+Indians, did not await the British attack, but surrendered on August 16
+with 2,500 men and thirty-three guns. The effect of the capitulation was
+to place the British in effectual possession, not merely of Detroit, but
+of the territory of Michigan, and thus to render any attack on Canada
+from that quarter extremely difficult. The advantages gained by the
+British through this success were unfortunately neutralised by the
+policy pursued by Sir George Prevost, who had succeeded Craig as
+governor of Canada. Prevost was of opinion that, when the news of the
+withdrawal of the orders in council reached Washington, the United
+States government would be ready to abandon hostilities; and he
+accordingly concluded a provisional armistice with General Dearborn, the
+commander-in-chief of the enemy's forces in the northern states. But
+President Madison, having engaged in war, was anxious to try the effect
+of another attack on Canada before negotiating for peace, and therefore
+declined to ratify the armistice. The interval enabled the United States
+to bring up reinforcements, but their new army failed in an attack on a
+British post on the Maumee river.
+
+Meanwhile a second attempt was made to invade Upper Canada, this time
+from the side of Niagara. On October 13, Brigadier-General Wadsworth,
+acting under the orders of General Van Rensselaer, led an attack on the
+British position of Queenstown on the Canadian bank of the Niagara
+river. Brock commanded the defence, but was killed early in the fight.
+The position was momentarily seized by the enemy, but was presently
+recaptured by the British, who had in the meantime been reinforced by
+Major-General Sheaffe, the son of a loyalist, with a force from Fort
+George, and before the day closed Wadsworth found himself compelled to
+surrender with 900 men. The remainder of the enemy's forces, consisting
+of militia, rather than exceed their military obligations by crossing
+the frontier, chose to leave these men to their fate. In spite of the
+ignominious surrenders with which the first two expeditions against
+Canada had terminated, a third attempt was made by Brigadier-General
+Smyth to force the Canadian frontier; but on November 28 he was repulsed
+with loss by the British under Bishopp between Chippewa and Fort Erie,
+above the Niagara Falls, and at the end of the year the Canadian
+frontier still remained unpierced.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES AT SEA._]
+
+The glory of the British military successes was unfortunately obscured
+in large measure by American successes on the sea. The maritime war
+resolved itself into a series of fights between individual frigates.
+This was the necessary result of the nature of the British force kept in
+American waters. Ever since the renewal of hostilities with France in
+1803 a species of blockade had been maintained along the coast of the
+United States by British vessels on the watch for deserters or
+contraband of war. It was also found necessary to employ ships of war
+to guard against pirates in the West Indies and to protect British
+commerce in that quarter against French privateers. For all these
+purposes speed was of more importance than strength, and the British
+force in the west contained a disproportionate number of smaller vessels
+as compared with line of battle ships. The actual numbers of British
+warships in North American waters at the beginning of 1812 were three
+ships of the line, twenty-one cruisers and frigates, and fifty-three
+small craft. The United States navy was still weaker, and amounted
+merely to seven efficient frigates and nine small craft.[57] There was
+no question of a contest between fleets, and though the numbers of the
+British warships enabled them to destroy American trade, they were ship
+for ship inferior to the American frigates, which were thus enabled to
+win an empty glory in single-ship encounters. The American frigates
+were, in fact, superior in every respect to the British ships which
+nominally belonged to the same class. They were larger and more strongly
+built, a frigate being as strong as a British seventy-four. Their crews
+were more numerous, and were recruited entirely from seamen, about
+one-third of whom would appear to have been of British nationality,
+while, as has been seen, many of them had been decoyed from British
+war-vessels by offers of higher pay. The British ships on the other hand
+were manned largely by landsmen, often impressed from the jails. A false
+economy had induced the British admiralty to impose narrow limits on the
+use of ammunition for gunnery practice. The Americans on the other hand
+were very liberal in this respect, with the result that in the early
+years of the war they were greatly superior to their enemies in point of
+marksmanship.
+
+A good example of the disproportion between the British and American
+frigates is furnished by the fight between the British frigate
+_Guerriere_ and the American frigate _Constitution_, on August 19, one
+of the first naval actions in the war. The _Guerriere_ was armed with
+twenty-four broadside guns, discharging projectiles with a total weight
+of 517 pounds; the _Constitution_ with twenty-eight broadside guns,
+discharging a weight of 768 pounds. The crew of the _Guerriere_,
+counting men only, numbered 244, that of the _Constitution_ with a
+similar limitation 460. Finally the _Guerriere's_ tonnage amounted to
+1,092, as against the _Constitution's_ 1,533. The _Guerriere's_ guns
+proved very ineffectual from the start, while the marksmanship, not only
+of the American gunners but of the riflemen in the _Constitution's_
+tops, was the wonder of the British. It is stated that none of her shot
+fell short. After a fight lasting nearly two hours the _Guerriere_
+surrendered. The ship was a complete wreck, and she had lost fifteen men
+killed and six mortally wounded as against seven killed and three
+mortally wounded on board her opponent.
+
+The effect of the engagement both on British and on American public
+opinion was altogether out of proportion to its intrinsic importance.
+The inequality in strength of the opposing frigates was not understood,
+and any defeat of the mistress of the seas seemed an event of
+considerable significance. The Americans soon met with other similar
+successes. On October 18 their sloop _Wasp_, of eighteen guns, reduced
+the British sloop _Frolic_, a weaker vessel, though of similar armament,
+to a helpless hulk after a ten minutes' cannonade. The moral effect of
+this victory was not impaired by the fact that the conqueror and her
+prize were compelled to surrender a few hours later to the British
+seventy-four _Poictiers_. On the 25th the _United States_, of forty-four
+guns, captured the _Macedonian_, of thirty-eight, after three hours'
+fighting, and on December 29 the British thirty-eight-gun frigate
+_Java_, with a very inexperienced crew, was captured by the
+_Constitution_ after a running fight of three hours and a half.[58]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+With the retreat of the French army from Russia the main scene of
+operations on the continent was shifted from Russia to Germany. Great
+Britain took little part in the actual warfare in Germany, and if she
+had a larger share in the political negotiations which ultimately
+determined the distribution of forces, still Austria and not Great
+Britain was the power whose diplomacy had most effect on the course of
+events. The upheaval of Europe against Napoleon, however, would have
+been much less effective if it had not been supported by English
+subsidies, and Austria, in the crippled state of her finances, would
+probably have had to remain inactive if she had not been able to rely on
+English gold and perhaps still more on English credit.
+
+The campaign of 1813 falls naturally into three parts. During the first,
+from the beginning of January to the latter part of April the victorious
+Russians swept over North Germany, and, carrying the Prussian monarchy
+with them, strengthened a reaction which had already begun against the
+rule of Napoleon. The second part began with the arrival of Napoleon on
+the scene of action towards the end of April and lasted to the
+conclusion of an armistice on June 4. In this period of seven or eight
+weeks the allies were forced to retire at all points and the war was
+carried into Prussian territory. The armistice, which terminated on
+August 10, preceded the opening of the third part of the campaign in
+which Russia and Prussia were joined by Austria and Sweden, and, after
+gradually drawing closer round the main French position in Saxony,
+finally inflicted a crushing defeat upon Napoleon at Leipzig in the
+middle of October. The campaign was virtually over when Napoleon secured
+his retreat by the victory of Hanau on October 30; but it is impossible
+to sever it from the events outside Germany which were directly
+occasioned by the downfall of Napoleon's German domination. These are
+the revolt of Holland in November, that of Switzerland in December, and
+the Austrian attack on Northern Italy in October and November.
+
+In the opening months of the campaign the movements were merely a sequel
+to those of the previous year. The French retreat was continued from the
+Niemen to the Vistula, the Elbe, and finally the Saale. The Russians
+entered Prussia proper a few days after Yorck's capitulation, and the
+French retired before them. Stein, the Prussian statesman who had
+received a commission from Russia to administer the Prussian districts
+occupied by her, ordered the provincial governor to convoke an assembly.
+Although some indignation was felt at such a step being taken by Russian
+orders, the assembly met and voted the formation of the Landwehr. In
+this way Prussia actually began to arm against France, while the
+Prussian government still professed to maintain the French alliance. A
+few days later King Frederick William left Berlin, which was still
+occupied by the French, for Breslau. Before the end of February he had
+concluded the treaty of Kalisch with Russia, by which the two powers
+were to conduct the war against France conjointly, and Russia was not to
+lay down her arms till Prussia should be restored to a strength equal to
+that which she had possessed in 1806. On March 2 Cathcart arrived at
+Kalisch as British ambassador to the Russian court. He actively promoted
+Russia's alliance with Prussia, from which Great Britain stood apart for
+the present. He was able to obtain from Prussia a renunciation of her
+claims on Hanover, but Frederick William was still opposed to any
+increase of Hanoverian territory. On the 17th Prussia declared war on
+France. By that time the Russians had entered both Berlin and Breslau,
+and had freed Hamburg from French dominion, thus reopening Germany to
+British commerce. The declaration of war by Prussia was accompanied by a
+convention with Russia providing for the deliverance of Germany and the
+dissolution of the confederation of the Rhine. This convention embodied
+Stein's policy. It relied on popular support and it aimed at an unified
+government, at least in the territories occupied at that date by
+adherents of France.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+But the popular upheaval in Germany was confined to the kingdom of
+Prussia, and the attempt to spread it elsewhere only provoked distrust
+in Austria and the South German states; it was not until the
+conservative elements in Germany were won over by Metternich's policy
+that the anti-Napoleonic movement became truly national. For the present
+Austria played the part of mediator. Lord Walpole, who had been sent on
+a secret errand to Vienna in December, 1812, tried in vain to win
+Austria to the side of the allies by promising the restoration of the
+Tyrol, Illyria, and Venetia.[59] Her government would probably have
+preferred a reconciliation with France, which would have arrested the
+growth of Russia and left Germany divided, to a unified Germany such as
+Stein desired; but Metternich, who directed her policy, cherished little
+hope of the success of his endeavours, though he knew when to employ
+agents more optimistic than himself. The Austrian treasury was empty,
+and it therefore suited Austria to remain neutral as long as possible,
+while in the event of a doubtful struggle this very neutrality would
+raise the price of her ultimate alliance. It was in this way that she
+came at last to exercise a decisive voice in the resettlement of
+Germany, not to say of Europe. True to this policy, the Austrian court
+concluded a truce of indefinite duration with Russia at the beginning of
+the year, and withdrew its forces within its own borders. This was
+followed by an offer of mediation made to France, which was, however,
+declined. A renewed offer was declined early in April by both France and
+Great Britain. The British still distrusted Austria, while France
+desired to buy her active co-operation and made an offer of Silesia in
+return for an army of 100,000, should Prussia or Russia open
+hostilities. Austria did not, however, abandon her project, but notified
+Prussia and Russia that she would proceed with the task of armed
+mediation, and steadily busied herself with military preparations.
+
+The vigour of the Prussians in recruiting had surprised Napoleon, but
+his own vigour was the marvel of Europe. In spite of the losses of the
+Russian campaign, he was able to take the field at the end of April with
+an army which at the lowest estimate was 200,000 strong. But his
+soldiers were for the most part mere boys, and he was sadly deficient in
+cavalry. The veterans of Austerlitz, of Jena, of Friedland, and of
+Wagram had been recklessly sacrificed on the plains of Russia. He was
+victorious at Luetzen on May 2, was joined by the King of Saxony, entered
+Dresden, and thence pushed across the Elbe. On the 21st the victory of
+Bautzen enabled him to advance to the Oder and occupy Breslau. A renewed
+offer of Austrian mediation drew from him a declaration in favour of an
+armistice and a diplomatic congress. On June 4 an armistice was actually
+concluded at Poischwitz to last until August 1, and a neutral zone was
+provided to separate the combatants. On June 7 the demands of Austria
+were presented to Napoleon. They involved the renunciation by France of
+all territorial possessions, and even of a protectorate in Germany, and
+the restoration to Prussia and Austria of most of their lost provinces.
+Napoleon refused these terms, but accepted the mediation of Austria, and
+arranged for a congress which met at Prague in the middle of July. The
+armistice was prolonged till August 10. Both France and Austria were
+merely striving to gain time while they prepared for war, and there can
+be no doubt that the allies profited most by the delay. During the
+interval the news arrived of Wellington's great victory at Vitoria on
+June 21, and Napoleon, recalled to Mainz, occupied himself in arranging
+plans for the defence of the Pyrenees.
+
+During the armistice Prussia and Russia not only greatly reinforced
+their troops, but received valuable assistance from Great Britain,
+Sweden, and above all Austria. Already, on March 3, Great Britain had by
+the treaty of Stockholm given her sanction to the seizure of the whole
+of Norway by Sweden, after a vain attempt to induce Denmark to consent
+to a peaceable cession of the diocese of Trondhjem. At the same time
+Great Britain promised Guadeloupe as a personal gift to Bernadotte, and
+a subsidy of L1,000,000 for the Swedish troops fighting against
+Napoleon. A new treaty between Russia and Sweden on April 22 guaranteed
+the cession of Norway. On June 14 and 15 Cathcart, having at last
+obtained Prussia's consent to an increase in the territories of Hanover,
+signed treaties at Reichenbach with Prussia and Russia, by which Great
+Britain undertook to pay a subsidy of two-thirds of a million pounds to
+the former and a million and a third to the latter power. It was also
+agreed to issue federative paper notes to an extent not exceeding
+L5,000,000 to pay the expenses of the armies of the two powers during
+the year 1813, and Great Britain undertook the responsibility for
+one-half of these notes. Soon afterwards Austria received a promise of a
+loan of L500,000 as soon as she should join the allies. Half of this
+last sum was actually paid within a few days of the resumption of
+hostilities.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG._]
+
+When the armistice expired, French forces were threatening Austria from
+three sides--from Bavaria, Illyria, and Saxony; and Napoleon's intention
+seems to have been to amuse the Austrian court with negotiations until
+he could defeat the Prussian and Russian armies, after which he counted
+upon overwhelming the Austrians with his entire force. The task of
+defeating the Prussians was entrusted to his army in Saxony with which
+Davout was expected to co-operate from Hamburg, retaken by the French on
+May 30. Austria, however, declared war on France the moment the
+armistice had elapsed, August 12, and the main army of the allies,
+principally composed of Austrians with large Prussian and Russian
+contingents, assembled in Bohemia. Napoleon was opposed in Silesia by an
+army of Prussians and Russians, while Bernadotte, in command of a mixed
+army, consisting mainly of Swedes, Prussians and Russians, but including
+3,000 British troops and 25,000 Hanoverians under Walmoden, operated
+against him from the north. These three armies were eventually able to
+join hands, while Davout's army, the French armies in Italy and Illyria,
+and 170,000 French troops in various German fortresses were unable to
+render effective aid in the struggle. On August 26-27 Napoleon himself
+won the last of his great victories at Dresden over the main army of the
+allies, while his lieutenants were defeated by the northern army at
+Grossbeeren on August 23, and again at Dennewitz on September 6, and by
+the Silesian army at the Katzbach on August 26. The capitulation of
+Vandamme at Kulm, with some 10,000 men, neutralised Napoleon's victory
+at Dresden, and his enemies were increased by Austrian diplomacy. The
+treaty of Teplitz, concluded on September 9, and accepted by Great
+Britain on October 3, committed the allies to the complete independence
+of the several German states. On the 10th Bavaria renounced the French
+alliance, and on October 8, by the treaty of Ried, she engaged to join
+the allies with 36,000 men, in return for a promise that she should
+suffer no diminution of territory. On the 7th the northern and Silesian
+armies had united west of the Elbe; Napoleon, who had quitted Dresden on
+the 6th and vainly attempted to engage the separate northern army,
+arrived at Leipzig on the 14th. But it was now too late.
+
+On the 16th the allied armies, which had concentrated on Leipzig,
+compelled him to stand at bay, and to risk all upon the fortunes of a
+single battle. This battle, lasting three days, was not only one of the
+greatest but one of the most decisive recorded in modern history, for it
+finally crippled the warlike power of Napoleon, and inevitably
+determined the issue of the campaigns yet to be fought in 1814 and 1815.
+It would appear that Napoleon had under his command about 250,000 men,
+and that he lost at least 50,000 in killed and wounded on the field. The
+allied forces were much larger numerically, and their losses fully
+equalled those of the French. But their victory was crushing. One of its
+immediate results was that Napoleon was forced to abandon Saxony, and
+with it the French cause in Germany. The French garrisons were reduced
+one by one. Of the fortresses east of the Rhine, Hamburg, Kehl,
+Magdeburg, and Wesel alone held out until the conclusion of peace in
+1814. The general rising of Central Europe against French domination
+which followed the battle of Leipzig extended itself to Holland. The
+French were expelled in the middle of November, and on December 2 the
+Prince of Orange was proclaimed sovereign prince of the Netherlands. On
+the 29th the Swiss diet voted the restoration of the old constitution.
+The confederation of the Rhine was practically dissolved, but in Italy
+Napoleon's viceroy, Eugene Beauharnais, after falling back before the
+Austrian army, was able to hold the line of the Adige. On November 9 it
+was decided to offer peace to Napoleon on condition of the surrender of
+all French conquests beyond the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. These
+terms represented the policy of Metternich. The Earl of Aberdeen
+consented to them on behalf of Great Britain and Nesselrode on behalf of
+Russia, but they were not accepted by Napoleon before the date by which
+an answer was required, and the war proceeded. On December 31 the
+Prussians under Bluecher crossed the Rhine near Coblenz and opened a new
+campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES._]
+
+Meanwhile the war on the American continent was carried on with varying
+success, though the balance of fortune was rather on the side of the
+United States. The operations were in the main of a desultory character,
+no permanent conquests being made. The first engagement in the year 1813
+was at Frenchtown on the Raisin River in Michigan, where Colonel
+Proctor, commanding 500 regulars and militia, and 600 Indians, defeated
+an American force of 1,000 under Brigadier-General Winchester, and took
+500 prisoners, while many of the remaining Americans fell into the hands
+of the Indians. The immediate effect of this victory was that General
+Harrison, who was leading an American force of 2,000 men against
+Detroit, determined to retrace his steps. Three months later Proctor
+made a descent upon an American position on the Maumee River in the
+north of the State of Ohio. After besieging the enemy for a few days he
+was compelled to retire, but, before he left, an engagement took place
+on May 5, in which the British forces, with a total loss of less than
+100, inflicted severe losses on their opponents and made about 500
+prisoners. A subsequent attempt to capture Fort Sandusky, near the head
+of Lake Erie, was repulsed on August 2; ninety out of 350 British troops
+were returned as killed, wounded or missing.
+
+The British had hitherto commanded the lakes, but Commodore Perry now
+occupied himself in building a fleet at Presqu'isle in Pennsylvania on
+the coast of Lake Erie. Commander Barclay, in command of such ships as
+the British possessed, was badly supported and encountered the same
+difficulties in obtaining seamen as had been experienced for the
+sea-going ships. The ships in the service of the United States were in
+consequence again the more powerful and the better manned. On September
+10 the two squadrons engaged. The British had six vessels with a
+broadside of 459 lb., while the enemy had nine vessels with a broadside
+of 928 lb. With such odds the result could not be doubtful, and the
+whole British squadron was compelled to surrender. This success enabled
+the enemy to strike with effect at the south-western end of Lower
+Canada. The British immediately evacuated the whole territory of
+Michigan with the exception of Mackinac; and Proctor, now raised to the
+rank of major-general, commenced a retreat in the direction of Lake
+Ontario. On October 5 he was attacked at Moraviantown on the Thames by
+Harrison, and the greater part of his forces were captured in an
+engagement which reflected small credit on British generalship. The
+remainder of his forces reached Burlington Heights, at the west end of
+Lake Ontario, but the whole country to the west of the Grand River had
+to be abandoned to the enemy.
+
+On Lake Ontario the fortune of war was more equally divided. The
+Americans had been gradually collecting a naval squadron at Sackett's
+Harbour and had gained command of the lake as early as November, 1812.
+The command was, however, precarious, since it might be disturbed by the
+arrival or construction of new warships. One such was building at York,
+now known as Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, when, on April 27,
+1813, the American squadron under Commodore Chauncey attacked the town
+and succeeded in landing a detachment of troops under General Dearborn.
+The British general, Sheaffe, withdrew his regular forces from the town
+without awaiting an assault, but not before he had destroyed the ship of
+which the enemy were in quest. The Americans captured some naval stores,
+but did not attempt to hold the town; they set an evil precedent,
+however, by burning the parliament house and other public buildings
+before evacuating the place. On May 27 Chauncey co-operated again with
+Dearborn in an attack on Fort George, the capture of which threw the
+whole line of the Niagara into American hands. On the same day Prevost,
+whose naval strength had been reinforced, availing himself of Chauncey's
+absence, made an attack on Sackett's Harbour. The attack, which was
+renewed on the 29th, was miserably conducted, and ended in failure,
+though the Americans were compelled to burn the naval stores captured at
+York. The reinforcements had, however, transferred to the British the
+command of the lake, which was not challenged again till the end of
+July. Meanwhile their land forces were not idle. On June 6 the Americans
+were surprised by Colonel Vincent at Burlington Heights and over 100
+prisoners, including two brigadier-generals, were taken. This defeat,
+combined with the approach of the British naval squadron under Sir James
+Yeo, induced Dearborn to abandon his other posts on the Canadian side of
+the Niagara and to concentrate at Fort George, but on the 24th another
+surprise ended in the surrender of a detachment of more than 500
+Americans to a force of fifty British troops and 240 Indians. By the end
+of July Chauncey's squadron was once more strong enough to put to sea.
+It raided York on the 31st, but did not venture to join battle with Yeo;
+though a skirmish on August 10 enabled Yeo to capture two schooners.
+
+Meanwhile on the frontier of Lower Canada the British were everywhere
+successful. On June 3 two American sloops attacked the British garrison
+of Isle-aux-noix at the north end of Lake Champlain. Both ships were
+compelled to surrender. On August 1 a British force raided Plattsburg
+and destroyed the barracks and military stores. A combined movement on
+Montreal was now made by the forces of the United States; it was mainly
+owing to the loyalty of the French Canadians that they were repulsed.
+General Hampton advancing from the south with a force 7,000 strong was
+defeated at the river Chateauguay on October 26, by 900 men belonging to
+the Canadian militia, commanded by Colonel McDonnell and Colonel de
+Salaberry. The defeated general withdrew his troops into winter quarters
+at Plattsburg. Not long after, on December 7, the American general
+Wilkinson who had sailed down the St. Lawrence to Prescott and was
+marching towards Cornwall, was defeated with heavy loss by Colonel
+Morrison at Chrystler's Farm, and made no further attempt on Canada. In
+the same month General McClure, who commanded at Fort George, retired to
+the eastern bank of the Niagara before Colonel Murray's advance. His
+retreat was disgraced by the burning of the town of Newark, where women
+and children were turned homeless into the cold of a Canadian winter. At
+the same time the American forces were withdrawn from south-western
+Canada but still retained Amherstburg at the head of Lake Erie, the sole
+conquest of the campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVAL WARFARE._]
+
+The naval warfare of 1813 was less rich in individual encounters than
+that of 1812. The British captains were better acquainted with the
+strength of the American ships and did not rashly engage vessels
+stronger than their own. There was also a marked improvement in British
+gunnery, and an increase in the strength of the British naval force in
+American waters. At first the blockade of the American coast had not
+been strictly maintained further south than New York, but as
+reinforcements arrived it was made more complete, and after June of this
+year it was only occasionally that any warship or privateer contrived to
+elude the blockading vessels. Meanwhile the British constantly raided
+and harassed the American coast, and had no difficulty in availing
+themselves of the Chesapeake and Delaware estuaries as naval bases. A
+new feature of this year's warfare was the appearance of American
+cruisers, especially privateers, in British waters, and even in the St.
+George's Channel. To such ships the French ports were a very serviceable
+naval base. The Americans would appear to have captured more of British
+commerce than the British captured of theirs, but this was no
+compensation for the almost complete cessation of their foreign trade.
+Of single ship actions the destruction of the British _Peacock_ by the
+American _Hornet_, commanded by Captain Lawrence, on February 24, the
+capture of the American _Argus_ by the British _Pelican_ not far from
+the Welsh coast on August 14, and the famous duel between the
+_Chesapeake_ and the _Shannon_ on June 1 were the most important.
+
+The British frigate _Shannon_ (38) was commanded by Captain Broke, who
+was famous not merely for the attention he paid to gun practice, but for
+the care he had bestowed on the laying of his ship's ordnance. Ever
+since the beginning of April the frigates _Shannon_ and _Tenedos_ (38)
+had been lying off Boston, where they hoped to intercept any American
+frigate that dared to leave the harbour. Two succeeded in eluding them.
+The _Chesapeake_ frigate (36) commanded by Lawrence, lay in the harbour;
+and Broke, having detached the _Tenedos_ in order to tempt her out, sent
+a challenge to Lawrence on the morning of June 1, but before it could be
+delivered the _Chesapeake_ had sailed. She steered for the _Shannon_,
+who waited for her. The fight began at 5.50 P.M. about six leagues out
+from Boston; it was brief and bloody. After ten minutes' firing the
+_Chesapeake_ fell on board the _Shannon_, and was immediately boarded.
+In four minutes more every man on board had surrendered. In this short
+fight the _Shannon_ had lost out of a crew of 352 twenty-four killed and
+fifty-nine wounded, two of the latter mortally, while the _Chesapeake_,
+according to American official figures, had lost out of 386 forty-seven
+killed and ninety-nine wounded (fourteen of the latter mortally). No
+fewer than thirty-two British deserters were found on board the
+_Chesapeake_. The victory made the best possible impression. The two
+ships had been of approximately equal strength, the American having a
+slight superiority of force, and the _Chesapeake_ had been captured in
+the way in which most turns on individual courage, by boarding. Both
+captains had distinguished themselves in the fight, and both were
+severely wounded, Lawrence, as the event proved, fatally.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAMPAIGN IN FRANCE._]
+
+The abandonment of Germany by the French at the close of 1813 left the
+outlying provinces and allies of France exposed to invasion. The
+Austrian general, Nugent, aided by British naval and military forces,
+captured Trieste on October 31. Dalmatia had been invaded by the
+Montenegrins as early as September, 1813, and was afterwards attacked by
+Austrians and British marines, but the town of Cattaro held out till it
+was taken by the British in January, 1814. On the 14th of the same
+month Denmark was compelled by the treaty of Kiel to cede Norway to
+Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania and Ruegen, Sweden undertaking
+to assist Denmark in procuring a fuller equivalent for Norway at the
+conclusion of a general peace. A treaty signed between Denmark and Great
+Britain at the same time and place provided for the restitution to
+Denmark of all British conquests, with the exception of Heligoland,
+while Denmark undertook to do all in her power for the abolition of the
+slave trade. The people of Norway and their governor, Prince Christian
+of Denmark, refused to submit to the transference of their allegiance,
+and on February 19 the independence of Norway was proclaimed. At first
+the Swedish government attempted to obtain the submission of Norway by
+negotiation only, but so important a diversion of her interest and
+energies was sufficient to prevent Sweden from joining in the new
+campaign against France. In Italy on January 11 Napoleon's
+brother-in-law, Murat, whom he had made King of Naples in 1808, formed
+an alliance with Austria. The treaty was never confirmed by Great
+Britain, but the British government subsequently consented to support
+Murat, if he should loyally exert himself in Italy against Napoleon's
+forces. Although Murat did actually engage in hostilities against the
+French, the British were far from satisfied with his operations and
+considered that his remissness left them a free hand. Accordingly on
+March 9 a British fleet entered the port of Leghorn and landed 8,000
+men, of whom Lord William Bentinck took command. From Leghorn he marched
+upon Genoa which surrendered to him on April 18.
+
+Meanwhile the main forces of the allies were concentrated for a campaign
+against Napoleon in Champagne. Of the three armies which had combined at
+Leipzig the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenberg made its way through
+Switzerland, Alsace, and Franche-Comte, while Bluecher's army of
+Prussians and Russians passed through the region which afterwards became
+the Rhine province and Lorraine. The two armies united in the
+neighbourhood of Brienne in Champagne. Bernadotte's army did not as a
+whole take part in the campaign; but a portion of it, consisting of
+Russians under Wittgenstein and Prussians under Buelow, was engaged in
+the conquest of Belgium and was able to invade France itself later in
+the year. Schwarzenberg's army was accompanied by the Emperors of
+Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and the leading European
+diplomatists, including Castlereagh. From the outset there was a marked
+difference between the Austrian and Russian policies. Metternich was
+content with reducing France to the natural frontiers already offered to
+her, and aimed merely at compelling Napoleon to recognise the _fait
+accompli_ in Germany, and to evacuate Italy and Spain. He was therefore
+in favour of slow advances and of giving Napoleon every opportunity for
+coming to terms. The tsar, on the other hand, wished to reduce France to
+her ancient limits, and was anxious to enter Paris as a conqueror. He
+also excited Austrian jealousy by his scheme of annexing what had been
+Prussian Poland, and compensating Prussia with Saxony. Castlereagh and
+the Prussian minister, Hardenberg, supported the tsar's policy towards
+France, but without sharing his ardour.
+
+On the first arrival of the allies in Champagne the tsar had only
+induced Metternich to advance by threatening to prosecute the war alone.
+After they had gained what appeared to be a decisive victory over
+Napoleon at La Rothiere on February 1, negotiations were commenced at
+Chatillon. Napoleon insisted on continuing the war during the
+negotiations and interposed every possible delay. The allies first
+demanded that France should recede within the limits of 1791 and offered
+a partial restoration of French colonies, but refused to specify the
+colonies which they were willing to relinquish until France should
+accept the first condition. To this the French demurred, and on the 9th
+the tsar impetuously withdrew his minister. From the 10th to the 14th
+Napoleon inflicted a series of crushing blows upon Bluecher's army.
+Negotiations were now resumed; they lasted till the middle of March, but
+as Napoleon would not surrender his claim to Belgium and the Rhine
+provinces they were fruitless, notwithstanding the pacific efforts of
+Caulaincourt, the French negotiator. On the 21st Napoleon tried in vain
+to detach Austria from the allies by a private letter to the Emperor
+Francis, and on March 1 a permanent basis was given to the alliance by
+the treaty of Chaumont (definitely signed on the 9th), by which the four
+allied powers bound themselves to conclude no separate peace, and not to
+lay down their arms till the object of the war should have been obtained
+by the restriction of France to her ancient frontiers. Each power was
+to maintain 150,000 men regularly in the field, and Great Britain was to
+pay the three other powers a subsidy of L5,000,000 for the current year
+and a like sum for every subsequent year of warfare. The signatory
+powers were to maintain their present concert and armaments for twenty
+years if necessary.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S FIRST ABDICATION._]
+
+After this treaty on March 4 Bluecher united with Wittgenstein and Buelow
+near Soissons. On the 20th Napoleon was repulsed by Schwarzenberg's army
+at Arcis-sur-Aube, after which he attempted to cut off its
+communications by a movement to its rear. In consequence of this
+movement the allied armies advanced on Paris, while the Austrian emperor
+fled to Dijon taking Castlereagh and Metternich with him.[60] This left
+the war to be concluded under the influence of the most vigorous of the
+allied sovereigns, the Tsar of Russia. Paris capitulated on the 30th and
+on the next day was occupied by the allies. The tsar now issued "on
+behalf of all the allied powers" a proclamation in which he declared
+that they would not treat with Napoleon or his family, but were willing
+to respect the integrity of France, and to guarantee the constitution
+that the French people should adopt. This prepared the way for a
+reaction against Napoleon in France. A provisional government was formed
+on April 1; on the 3rd the French senate proclaimed the deposition of
+Napoleon, and on the 6th it published a constitution, and recalled the
+Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII., the younger brother of Louis
+XVI. On the same day Napoleon signed an unconditional abdication at
+Fontainebleau. On the 11th a treaty was signed between Napoleon and the
+sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by which he renounced all
+claim to the crowns of France and Italy, and was assigned the Isle of
+Elba as an independent principality and a place of residence, together
+with a liberal revenue charged on the French treasury, which, however,
+was never paid. The duchy of Parma was secured to the Empress Maria
+Louisa and was to descend to her son. The treaty was afterwards
+confirmed by Great Britain, with the exception of the clauses providing
+revenues for the fallen emperor and his family. The promise of Elba had
+been made by the tsar in the absence of Castlereagh and Metternich. It
+was vigorously opposed by Castlereagh's half-brother, Sir Charles
+Stewart, but the tsar considered his honour bound to it, and Napoleon
+sailed from Frejus for Elba on the 28th.
+
+In America the war was conducted with more vigour in 1814 than in
+previous years, but with equally small effect on either side. In March
+the American general, Wilkinson, advancing from Lake Champlain, was
+repulsed by a small British garrison at La Colle Mill. In July an
+American army under Brown invaded Upper Canada across the river Niagara.
+It was attacked by General Riall, near Chippewa, on the 5th, but it
+repelled the attack and occupied that place. Brown was, however, checked
+by British regulars and Canadian militia under Sir Gordon Drummond at
+Lundy's Lane, near Niagara Falls, on the 25th. Both sides claim the
+victory, but on the reinforcement of the British troops Brown abandoned
+the invasion. After the close of the Peninsular war some of the best
+regiments of the Peninsular army, numbering about 14,000 men, were sent
+to America. But they were not commanded by any of the generals who had
+made their names illustrious in that war, and did not effect so much as
+had been expected. On August 19 and 20 General Ross landed with 5,000
+men at the mouth of the Patuxent in Chesapeake Bay. On the 24th he
+defeated a large body of militia under General Winder at Bladensburg,
+and occupied Washington, where he burned all the public buildings.
+However deplorable such an act may seem, it is well to note that it was
+a fair and even merciful reprisal after the action of the Americans at
+York and Newark. Ross did not attempt to retain the city, but evacuated
+it on the next day and re-embarked on the 30th. On September 12 he
+landed near Baltimore, but was immediately killed in an attack on the
+town. The attack had to be abandoned because it proved impossible to
+obtain adequate support from the fleet, and the troops returned to the
+ships on the 15th.
+
+On September 1 Prevost invaded New York State by Lake Champlain. He
+advanced against Plattsburg, which he bombarded on the 11th, but his
+flotilla was defeated by an American flotilla during the bombardment,
+and he felt himself compelled to retreat into Canada. At the end of the
+year Sir Edward Pakenham took command of a force operating against New
+Orleans, but on January 8, 1815, he was defeated and killed by the
+American forces under the future president, Andrew Jackson. No
+expedition was ever worse planned than this; the veterans of the
+Peninsula were mowed down by a withering fire, and, losing confidence in
+their leaders, forfeited their reputation for invincible courage in
+attack. The fighting, however, was desperate while it lasted, and was
+compared by one engaged in it with the storm of Badajoz, and the deadly
+charges at Waterloo. It was but a small compensation for these failures
+that the British were able to annex a strip of territory belonging to
+the State of Maine. On the sea no general engagement took place, nor was
+there any naval duel so famous as that between the _Shannon_ and the
+_Chesapeake_ in the previous year. The Americans lost two of their best
+frigates, but, with crews largely composed of British sailors, captured
+several British ships of war.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF GHENT._]
+
+As early as January, 1814, advances had been made towards negotiations
+for peace, but they were not actually begun till August 6. In the course
+of a few days a serious difficulty arose, as the British commissioners
+demanded the delimitation of an Indian territory which should be exempt
+from territorial acquisitions on the part of either power, and also
+claimed the military occupation of the lakes for their own government.
+The Americans thereupon suspended the negotiations, and Castlereagh
+expressed grave discontent with the conduct of the British negotiators
+in pressing these points. Late in the year negotiations were resumed,
+when the British abandoned these claims. The far more comprehensive
+questions about the rights of neutrals, which had occasioned the war,
+had ceased to be of practical importance now that peace was restored in
+Europe. They were therefore, by tacit consent, suffered to drop, and a
+treaty signed at Ghent on December 24, 1814, ended a war of which the
+Canadians alone had reason to be proud.
+
+The most dramatic incident in the domestic annals of England in this
+year was the visit of the allied sovereigns to this country, after their
+triumphal entry into Paris, and the signature of a convention, to be
+described hereafter, for the resettlement of Europe. Louis XVIII. left
+his retreat at Hartwell on April 20, and reached his capital on May 3
+to find it occupied by foreign armies, and to discover that his French
+escort, composed of Napoleon's old guard, was of doubtful loyalty. On
+July 8 the Tsar of Russia and the King of Prussia, having accepted an
+invitation from the prince regent, which the Emperor of Austria
+declined, landed at Dover, and were afterwards received with the utmost
+enthusiasm in London. Their appearance betokened the supposed
+termination of the greatest, and almost the longest, war recorded in
+European history, but it was also accepted as a tribute of gratitude for
+the unique services rendered by Great Britain, the only European power
+which had never bowed the knee to the French Republic or the French
+Empire. They attended Ascot races, were feasted at the Guildhall,
+witnessed a naval review at Portsmouth, and were decorated with honorary
+degrees at Oxford, where Bluecher was the hero of the day with the
+younger members of the university. There were men of calmer minds and
+maturer age, who must have remembered the time, but seven years before,
+when Alexander swore eternal friendship with Napoleon, on the basis of
+enmity to Great Britain, and Frederick William of Prussia shrunk from no
+depths of dishonour, first to aggrandise his kingdom and then to save
+the remnants of it from destruction. Others foresaw that a restoration
+of the Bourbons portended reaction, in its worst sense, throughout all
+the continent of Europe. But such memories and forebodings were hushed
+in the sincere and general rejoicing over the return of peace, marred by
+no suspicion of the new trials and privations which peace itself was
+destined to bring with it for the working classes of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[53] See p. 105.
+
+[54] George, _Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_, p. 33.
+
+[55] James, _British Naval History_, iv., 470-84.
+
+[56] See above, p. 58.
+
+[57] See _Cambridge Modern History_, vii., 336, 338.
+
+[58] For details of the naval warfare of this year see James, _British
+Naval History_, vi., 115-202.
+
+[59] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 372.
+
+[60] For the importance of this flight of the Emperor Francis see Rose,
+_Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 418, 425. The flight did not take place till
+after the advance on Paris was begun.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VII.
+
+                          VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+
+After the restoration of Louis XVIII. as a constitutional king, the
+treaty of Paris between France and the allied powers was signed on May
+30, 1814. The treaty amounted to a settlement in outline of those
+territorial questions in Europe in which France was concerned, and aimed
+mainly at the construction of a strong barrier to resist further
+encroachments by France on her neighbours. The French boundaries were to
+coincide generally with the limits of French territory on January 1,
+1792, but with certain additions. The principle adopted was that France
+should retain certain detached pieces of foreign states within her own
+frontier (such as Muehlhausen, Montbeliard, and the Venaissin), while the
+line of frontier was extended so as to include certain detached
+fragments belonging to France before 1792, such as Landau, Mariembourg,
+and Philippeville, as well as Western Savoy with Chambery for its
+capital. She was moreover allowed to regain all her colonies except the
+Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago. The Spanish portion of San Domingo was
+restored to the Spanish government. Holland was placed under the
+sovereignty of the house of Orange, and was to receive an increase of
+territory; so much of Italy as was not to be ceded to Austria was to
+consist of independent sovereign states; and Germany was to be formed
+into a confederation. Finally an European congress was to meet at Vienna
+in two months' time "to regulate the arrangements necessary for
+completing the dispositions of the treaty". At the same time secret
+articles provided that the disposition of territories was to be
+controlled at Vienna by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia;
+that Austria, was to receive Venice and Lombardy as far as the Ticino;
+and that the former territories of Genoa were to be annexed to
+Sardinia, and the late Austrian Netherlands to Holland.
+
+In the midst of the general restoration of legitimate princes
+difficulties were occasioned by the exceptional cases in which
+territories were reserved for the new dynasties that had arisen during
+the Napoleonic wars. France, Spain, and Sicily objected to the retention
+of the kingdom of Naples by Murat, Spain resented the cession of Parma
+to the Bonapartes, and Norway was in revolt against the attempt to
+subjugate it to the king of Sweden and his heir Marshal Bernadotte. The
+Norwegian government under Prince Christian vainly endeavoured to secure
+the British recognition of the independence of Norway. The British
+government, on the contrary, held itself bound to support the claims of
+Sweden, and on April 29 notified a blockade of the Norwegian ports,
+which was promptly carried into effect. Meanwhile a new constitution was
+promulgated in Norway, and Prince Christian was proclaimed king. While
+the British maintained the blockade Sweden attempted to gain its ends by
+negotiation. At last, on July 30, the Swedes invaded Norway. After some
+Swedish successes a convention was signed at Moss on August 14, which
+recognised the new Norwegian constitution, but provided for a personal
+union of the crowns of Sweden and Norway. This constitution was accepted
+by Charles XIII. of Sweden in the following November, and Norway
+retained almost complete independence, though united to Sweden.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SLAVE TRADE._]
+
+Among the last acts of Napoleon's government had been the release and
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. of Spain and of Pope Pius VII. Ferdinand,
+supported by the vast mass of Spanish opinion, declared against the
+rather unpractical constitution established in his absence, and entered
+Madrid as an absolute king on May 14. One of his first acts was the
+revival of the inquisition. There was some apprehension among British
+representatives lest the two restored Bourbon monarchies should renew
+the family compact, and also lest they should attempt to assert the
+Bourbon claims to Naples and Parma. Sir Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord
+Cowley, was, however, successful in negotiating a treaty of alliance
+between Great Britain and Spain, which made provision against any
+renewal of the family compact, restored the commercial relations of the
+two countries to the footing on which they had been before 1796, and
+promised the future consideration of means to be adopted for the
+suppression of the slave trade. Spain was in fact too dependent on
+British credit to be able to adopt a line of her own in politics. But
+the hold which Great Britain had thus gained over Spain was somewhat
+weakened by the British attitude towards the slave trade.
+
+It is remarkable how large a space the abolition of the slave trade
+occupied in the foreign policy of Great Britain, when the liberties of
+Europe were at stake. During the months preceding the meeting of the
+congress of Vienna, which had been postponed till September by the tsar,
+British diplomacy had been engaged in a strenuous effort to obtain the
+co-operation of such European powers as possessed American colonies in
+securing this philanthropic object. Sweden had already consented to it,
+and now Holland also gave her consent. Portugal agreed to relinquish the
+trade north of the equator, on condition that the other powers consented
+to impose a similar restriction on themselves. Strong pressure was
+brought to bear upon France to consent to the immediate abolition of the
+trade, and Wellington, who had been created a duke in May and who
+arrived at Paris in August in the capacity of British ambassador, was
+authorised by Liverpool to offer the cession of Trinidad or the payment
+of two or three million pounds to obtain this end. By the treaty of
+Paris only French subjects were allowed to trade in slaves with the
+French colonies, and French subjects were excluded from trading
+elsewhere; and the whole trade was to cease within French dominions
+after five years. Talleyrand, negotiating with Wellington, refused to
+consent to a general abolition, but, on being pressed to surrender the
+slave trade north of the equator, consented to abandon it to the north
+of Cape Formoso. In the following year Napoleon on his return from Elba
+ordered its immediate suppression, and this was not the least
+significant act of the Hundred Days. With Spain our diplomatists were
+less successful. The British government refused to renew its subsidy to
+Spain for the last half of 1814 except on condition that Spain
+relinquished the slave trade north of the equator at once, and consented
+to relinquish that south of the equator in five years' time; while it
+would not issue a loan except on condition that Spain abolished the
+whole trade immediately. Even these terms did not prevail with Spain,
+and the most that she would grant at the congress was to relinquish the
+trade at the conclusion of eight years.
+
+Meanwhile Talleyrand was endeavouring to induce Great Britain to combine
+with France in a joint mediation between Austria and Russia at the
+congress, in the event of Russia demanding the duchy of Warsaw.
+Wellington, while expressing himself in favour of an understanding,
+refused to accept anything which might seem equivalent to a declaration
+in favour of mediation by the two powers in every case. At the congress
+itself Great Britain was first represented by Castlereagh, who was
+succeeded in February, 1815, by Wellington. The two principal
+difficulties were the questions of Poland and Saxony. The tsar desired
+to erect the duchy of Warsaw, Prussia's share in the two partitions of
+Poland in 1793 and 1795, into a constitutional monarchy attached to the
+Russian crown, while Prussia, though not unwilling to resign her claims
+to Polish dominion, wished to increase her territory by the
+incorporation of Saxony in her monarchy. Austria was naturally averse
+from any increase of strength in the states on her northern borders, and
+she was also opposed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy
+in Poland which might serve as a centre for political discontent in her
+own dominions. Even France urged this objection to a constitutional
+Poland. Great Britain alone was willing to see an independent Poland,
+but preferred to join France, Prussia, and Austria in demanding its
+repartition between the two latter powers rather than its annexation to
+Russia. All through October Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia
+endeavoured to induce the tsar to withdraw his demand. Early in November
+he won over the King of Prussia to whom he promised the kingdom of
+Saxony, proposing to indemnify the Saxon king with a new state on that
+lower Rhine which France was not allowed to have, but which no other
+power desired.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE RETURN OF NAPOLEON._]
+
+It was no longer possible to resist Russia's claims on Poland, but
+Austria was determined not to allow Prussia to receive the proffered
+compensation. On December 10 Metternich notified the Prussian minister,
+Hardenberg, that he would not allow Prussia to annex more than a fifth
+part of Saxony. Great Britain, France, Bavaria, and the minor German
+states joined Austria in this action, and thus the attempt to effect a
+settlement of Europe by a concert of the four allied powers broke down.
+On January 3, 1815, a secret treaty was concluded between Austria,
+France, and Great Britain in defence of what their diplomatists called
+"the principles of the peace of Paris". Each of these powers was to be
+prepared, if necessary, to place an army of 50,000 men in the field.
+Bavaria joined them in their preparations for war, and many of the
+troops which occupied Paris in 1815 would have been disbanded or
+dispersed, but for the prospect of a rupture between the allies
+themselves. But a compromise was soon arranged, and on February 8 it was
+agreed that Cracow, the Polish fortress which threatened Austria most,
+should be an independent republic, and that Prussia should retain enough
+of Western Poland to round off her dominions, while the remainder of the
+duchy of Warsaw became a constitutional kingdom under the tsar. Prussia
+was to be allowed to annex part of Saxony, and was to receive a further
+compensation on the left bank of the Rhine and in Westphalia. The most
+thorny questions were now settled, and Castlereagh had left Vienna when
+the congress was electrified by the news that Napoleon had reappeared in
+France.
+
+The episode of "the Hundred Days" interrupted, but did not break up, the
+councils of the congress at Vienna. It cannot be said that Napoleon's
+escape from Elba took the negotiators altogether by surprise. They were
+already aware of his correspondence with the neighbouring shores of
+Italy, and his removal to St Helena or some other distant island had
+been proposed by the French government, though never discussed at the
+congress. Sir Neil Campbell, the British commissioner at Elba, had gone
+so far as to warn his government of Napoleon's suspected "plan," and to
+indicate, though erroneously, the place of his probable descent upon the
+Italian coast. Owing to an almost incredible want of precaution, he
+embarked on February 26 with the least possible disguise, and
+accompanied by 400 of his guards, on board his brig the _Inconstant_,
+eluded the observation of two French ships, and landed near Cannes on
+March 1. Thence he hastened across the mountains to Grenoble, passing
+unmolested, and sometimes welcomed, through districts where his life had
+been threatened but a few months before. The commandant of Grenoble was
+prepared to resist his further progress, but a heart-stirring appeal
+from Napoleon induced a regiment detached to oppose him to join his
+standard, and the rest of the garrison was brought over by Colonel
+Labedoyere, one of the officers who had conspired to bring him back.
+Thence he proceeded to Lyons, issuing decrees, scattering proclamations,
+and gathering followers at every stage. He was lavish of promises, not
+perhaps wholly insincere, that he would adopt constitutional
+government--already established by the charter of Louis XVIII.--and
+cease to wage aggressive wars. He relied unduly on the discontent
+provoked by the blind partisans of the Bourbons, who, it was said, had
+learned nothing and forgotten nothing. This was true, if the spirit of
+the restoration were to be measured by the parade of expiatory masses
+for the execution of royalists under the revolution, the ostentatious
+patronage of priests, the preference of returned _emigres_ to well-tried
+servants of the republic and the empire, or the anticipated expulsion of
+landowners in possession of "national domains" for the purpose of
+dividing them among their old proprietors. All this naturally
+exasperated those who had imbibed the principles of the revolution, but
+it was more than compensated in the eyes of millions of Frenchmen by the
+cessation of conscription and the infinite blessings of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _"THE HUNDRED DAYS."_]
+
+The king was amongst the least infatuated of the royalists. On hearing
+of Napoleon's proclamation, he had the sense to appreciate the danger of
+such a bid for sovereignty and the magic of such a name, while his
+courtiers regarded Napoleon's enterprise as the last effort of a madman.
+He addressed the chamber of deputies in confident and dignified
+language; the Duke of Angouleme was employed to rouse the royalist party
+at Bordeaux; the Duke of Bourbon was sent into Brittany, the Count of
+Artois, with the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Macdonald, visited Lyons,
+upon the attitude of which everything, for the moment, seemed to depend.
+Most of the marshals remained faithful to the restored monarchy, and Ney
+was selected to bar the progress of Napoleon in Burgundy, and has been
+credited with a vow that he would bring him back in an iron cage. But it
+was all in vain. The Count of Artois was loyally received by the
+officials and upper classes at Lyons, but he soon found that Napoleon
+possessed the hearts of the soldiers and the mass of the people. Ney
+yielded to urgent appeals from his old chief, signed and read to his
+troops a proclamation drawn up by Napoleon himself, and was followed in
+his treason by his whole army. As Napoleon approached Paris, all armed
+opposition to him melted away. On March 19, Louis XVIII., seeing that
+his cause was hopeless, proclaimed a dissolution of the chambers, and
+retired once more into exile, fixing his residence at Ghent.
+
+Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries on the 20th, after a journey which he
+afterwards described as the happiest in his life. But his penetrating
+mind was not deceived by the manifestations of popular joy. He well knew
+that he was distrusted by the middle classes, as well as by the
+aristocracy, and threw himself more and more on the sympathy of the old
+revolutionists. When he came to fill up the higher offices, he met with
+a strange reluctance to accept them, and was driven to enlist the
+services of two regicides, the virtuous republican, Carnot, and the
+double-dyed traitor Fouche. Feeling the necessity of resting his power
+on a democratic basis, he promulgated a constitution modelled on the
+charter of Louis XVIII., and known as the _Acte Additionnel_, which,
+however, satisfied no one. The royalists objected to its anti-feudal
+spirit, the revolutionists and moderates to its express recognition of
+an hereditary peerage, and its tacit recognition of a dictatorial power.
+It was by no means with a light heart that Napoleon took leave of Paris
+on June 7, having appointed a provisional government, to place himself
+at the head of his army.
+
+Attempts had been made in the southern provinces and La Vendee to
+organise armed rebellion against the emperor, and met for a time with
+considerable success. But they were soon quelled by the overwhelming
+imperialism not only of the regular army, but of vast numbers of
+disbanded soldiers and half-pay officers, dispersed throughout France,
+and disgusted with their treatment under the restored monarchy. Even
+among the _bourgeoisie_ Napoleon had an advantage which he never
+possessed before. Disguise it as he might, all his former wars had been
+essentially wars of conquest, and, however patiently they might endure
+it, the peasantry of France, in thousands upon thousands of humble
+cottages, groaned under the exaction of crushing taxes--worst of all,
+the blood-tax of conscription--in order to enable one man, in the name
+of France, to usurp the empire of the world. Now, however, as in the
+early days of the revolution, France was put on its defence, and called
+upon to repel an invasion of its frontiers. For the news of Napoleon's
+escape, announced by Talleyrand on March 11, instantly stilled the
+quarrels and rebuked the jealousies which had so nearly proved fatal to
+any settlement at Vienna. For the moment, the designs of Russia in
+Poland, the selfish demands of Prussia, and the half-formed coalition
+between Great Britain, France, and Austria, were thrust into the
+background. Austria thought it necessary to repudiate decisively the
+audaciously false assertion of Napoleon that he was returning with the
+concurrence of his father-in-law, and would shortly be supported by
+Austrian troops. Metternich, therefore, assumed the lead in drawing up a
+solemn manifesto, dated March 13, in which Napoleon was virtually
+declared an outlaw "abandoned to public justice," and the powers which
+had signed the treaty of Paris in the preceding May bound themselves, in
+the face of Europe, to carry out all its provisions and defend the king
+of France, if need be, against his own rebellious subjects.
+
+By a further convention made at the end of March, they engaged to
+provide forces exceeding 700,000 men in the aggregate, to be
+concentrated on the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine, and the Low Countries,
+with an immense reserve of Russians to be rapidly moved across Germany
+from Poland. Wellington having succeeded Castlereagh at Vienna, was
+appointed to command the British, Hanoverian, and Belgian contingents on
+the north-east frontier of France; Bluecher's headquarters were to be on
+the Lower Rhine, within easy reach of that frontier; for, whichever side
+might take the offensive, it was there that the first shock of war might
+be expected. The recent conclusion of peace with America at Ghent on
+December 24, 1814, left England free to use her whole military power.
+Enormous sums were voted by Parliament, with a rare approach to
+unanimity, for the equipment of a British army, and a sum of L5,000,000
+for subsidies to the allied powers. A small section of the opposition
+led by Whitbread opposed the renewal of war. On April 7 he moved an
+amendment to the address in reply to the prince regent's message
+announcing that measures for the security of Europe were being concerted
+with the allies, but he was only supported by 32 votes against 220. On
+April 28 his motion for an address to the prince regent, deprecating
+war with Napoleon, was defeated by 273 votes against 72. This was
+Whitbread's last prominent appearance in parliament. On July 6, during a
+fit of insanity, he died by his own hand. The subsidies to the allies
+were opposed by Bankes, but were carried on May 26 by 160 votes against
+17. There can be no doubt that the majorities in the house of commons
+correctly expressed the national sentiment. Nobody wished to dictate to
+France the form of government which she was to adopt, but it was
+generally felt that Napoleon's character rendered peace with him
+impossible.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CAMPAIGN OF 1815._]
+
+In the end, about 80,000 men were assembled in Belgium under
+Wellington's orders, but of these not half were British soldiers,
+including untrained drafts from the militia, who replaced veteran
+Peninsular regiments still detained in Canada and the United States. Yet
+Napoleon admitted the British contingent to be equal, man for man, to
+his own troops, while he estimated these to be worth twice their own
+number of Dutchmen, Prussians, or other Germans. The first blow in the
+war was struck by Murat. Already in February, dissatisfied with his
+ambiguous position, he had levied troops and summoned Louis XVIII. to
+declare whether he was at war with him. As soon as he heard of
+Napoleon's return, he invaded the Papal States, and summoned the
+Italians to rise in the cause of Italian unity and independence. Though
+disowned by Napoleon, he persevered in this plan, but he was attacked
+and twice defeated by an Austrian army. On May 22 the British and
+Austrians took the city of Naples, and Murat fled to France. In October
+he made an attempt to recover his kingdom, but was captured and shot. It
+is noteworthy that, on hearing of his fate at St. Helena, Napoleon
+showed but little sympathy with his brother-in-law.
+
+On the morning of June 12, Napoleon left Paris, saying as he entered his
+carriage that he went to match himself with Wellington. All his troops
+were already marshalled on the Belgian frontier, and numbered 124,588
+men, with 344 guns. The Imperial Guard alone was 20,954 strong, and the
+whole army was largely composed of seasoned veterans. The Prussian army
+consisted of 116,897 men, with 312 guns under Marshal Bluecher, whose
+headquarters were at Namur. Though the majority of these were veterans,
+there was a considerable leaven of inferior troops, hastily raised from
+the Westphalian and Rhine militia. Between this town and Quatre Bras lay
+the Prussian line of defence, Sombreffe being the centre, with Ligny and
+St. Amand in front of it, and rather on the south-west. Wellington's
+headquarters were at Brussels, and, having no certain intelligence of
+Napoleon's movements, he kept the various divisions of his army within
+easy distance of that capital until the very eve of the final conflict.
+Of the 93,717 men under his command, 31,253 were British, two-thirds of
+whom had never been under fire; 6,387 were of the king's German legion;
+15,935 Hanoverians; 29,214 (including 4,300 Nassauers in the service of
+the Prince of the Netherlands) Dutch and Belgians; 6,808 Brunswickers;
+2,880 Nassauers; the engineers, numbering 1,240, were not classified by
+nationality. He fully expected that Napoleon would move upon Brussels
+along the route by Mons and Hal, and maintained in later days that such
+would have been the best strategical course. Napoleon thought otherwise,
+and resolved to strike in between the Prussian and British armies,
+crushing the former before the latter could be fully assembled. He very
+nearly succeeded, and, if all had gone as he hoped, he could scarcely
+have failed to win one of his greatest victories.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS._]
+
+On the evening of the 15th, Wellington was still at Brussels, with the
+great body of his army, and only a weak force of Dutch and Belgians was
+at Quatre Bras, some sixteen miles to the south. Bluecher, with about
+three-fourths of his army, was at Sombreffe, a few miles south-east of
+Quatre Bras. Napoleon himself was at or close by Charleroi, ten or
+twelve miles south of Quatre Bras; the mass of his army was at Fleurus,
+south-west of Sombreffe, with Ligny and St. Amand between it and the
+Prussians; and Marshal Ney, with Reille's corps, was at Frasnes,
+opposite to and due south of Quatre Bras. On the morning of the 16th,
+Napoleon arrived from Charleroi at Fleurus, and carefully inspected his
+enemy's position, but delayed his attack upon Ligny and St Amand until
+half-past two in the afternoon. The Prussians outnumbered the French,
+and a murderous conflict ensued among the streets, gardens, and
+enclosures of these little towns, which lasted until eight or nine
+o'clock. At last Napoleon ordered his guard to advance, and the plateau
+behind Ligny was taken, with a loss to the French of 12,000, and to the
+Prussians of over 20,000. Bluecher himself was unhorsed and severely
+bruised in a furious charge of cavalry, but the Prussians retired in
+good order towards Wavre, north of the battlefield.
+
+Had Ney been in a condition to obey an urgent message from Napoleon, and
+to envelop the Prussian right and rear, this defeat would have been
+overwhelming in its effect. But while the battle of Ligny was raging,
+another battle was going on at Quatre Bras, six miles distant, in which
+the French sustained a serious check. Happily for the British, Ney
+failed to bring up his divisions for an attack on Quatre Bras until two
+o'clock in the afternoon, when the Dutch and Belgians under the Prince
+of Orange were still his only opponents. The news for which Wellington
+had been waiting did not reach him until just before the memorable ball,
+given by the Duchess of Richmond at Brussels on the night of the 15th,
+which he nevertheless attended, hurrying off his troops to Quatre Bras.
+They arrived just in time to reinforce the Prince of Orange and save the
+position; but Ney, too, was receiving fresh reinforcements every hour,
+the Duke of Brunswick was killed, and a fearful stress fell on Picton's
+division and the Hanoverians, who alone were a match for Ney's splendid
+infantry and Kellermann's cuirassiers.
+
+These made a charge like that which had borne down the Austrians at
+Marengo, but the British squares were proof against it, and when a
+division of guards came up from Nivelles, the French in turn were put on
+the defensive and retreated to Frasnes. The loss on the British side was
+4,500 men; that on the French somewhat less. It is not difficult to
+imagine what the issue of the battle must have been if D'Erlon's corps
+had been brought into action. This corps was occupied in marching and
+countermarching, under contradictory orders from Napoleon and Ney,
+between the British left and the Prussian right during the whole of this
+eventful day. Its appearance in the distance just when Napoleon was
+about to launch his guard against the Prussians at Ligny, caused him to
+hesitate long, and lose the decisive moment for demolishing his enemy.
+Its failure to appear at Quatre Bras, and to roll up the wavering
+Dutch-Belgians, before Picton took up the fighting, enabled Wellington
+to hold his ground at first, to repulse Ney afterwards, and on hearing
+of Bluecher's defeat at Ligny, to fall back in good order on Waterloo.
+Even then, something was due to good fortune. Had Napoleon joined Ney
+and marched direct on Quatre Bras early on the 17th, it is difficult to
+see how his advance to Brussels could have been arrested. But whether he
+was exhausted by his incessant labours since leaving Paris, or whether
+his marvellous intuition was deserting him, certain it is that he
+allowed that critical morning to slip by without an effort--and without
+a reconnaissance. He assumed that Bluecher must retire upon Namur as his
+base of operations, and that Wellington, retiring towards Brussels,
+would be cut off from his allies. He therefore despatched Marshal
+Grouchy, with 33,000 men, to follow up the Prussians eastward by the
+Namur road. His assumption was unfounded. Bluecher, loyal to his
+engagements, retired upon Wavre; Wellington, relying upon Bluecher's
+loyalty, took his stand on the field of Waterloo; and this error on the
+part of Napoleon determined the fortunes of the campaign.[61]
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The British army retreated upon Waterloo almost unmolested. Ney was
+probably awaiting orders, and Napoleon, believing the Prussians to be at
+Namur, probably thought he might safely rest himself and his army before
+crushing Wellington at his leisure. When they realised that Wellington
+was deliberately moving his army to a position nearer Brussels, they
+both followed in pursuit along different roads converging at Quatre
+Bras, and a brisk skirmish took place near Genappe between Ney's cavalry
+and that of the British rear-guard. Heavy rain came on, and the two
+armies spent a miserable night, half a mile from each other, close to
+Mont St. Jean, and south of Waterloo. Napoleon rose before daybreak on
+the 18th, reconnoitred the British position, and convinced himself that
+Wellington intended to give battle. He expressed to his staff his
+satisfaction and confidence of victory, when General Foy, who had
+experience of the Peninsular war, replied in significant words: "Sire,
+when the British infantry stand at bay, they are the very devil
+himself". Why Napoleon did not begin the battle at eight o'clock has
+been the subject of much discussion. It is said that he waited for
+Grouchy to join him before the close of the action. But neither he nor
+Grouchy, though aware that at least a large force of Prussians had gone
+to Wavre and not to Namur, suspected that Bluecher had promised
+Wellington to march with his whole army on the morning of the 18th to
+support the British at Waterloo. It is more likely that he waited for
+his men to assemble and for the ground to dry and become more
+practicable for his powerful artillery.[62]
+
+Exception has been taken to the conduct of Wellington in detaching
+17,000 men to guard the approach to Brussels at Hal, and, still more, in
+not recalling them, when he must have ascertained that nothing was to be
+feared on that side, and when such a reinforcement of his right wing
+must have been all-important. But it must be remembered that in this
+force there were only 1,500 English troops, and 2,000 Hanoverian
+militia. The rest were Dutch and Belgians. At all events, Napoleon left
+his right flank undefended, though he was already somewhat anxious about
+the Prussian movements, and Wellington fought the battle of Waterloo
+with a force numerically inferior to that under Napoleon's command,
+though it might have been rendered superior by the accession of the Hal
+contingent. The effective part of this force, numbering in all 67,661
+men, consisted of 24,000 British soldiers, 6,000 soldiers of the king's
+German legion, and about 11,000 Hanoverians. Napoleon's force numbered
+72,000 men, and it was stronger both in cavalry and in guns. It
+represented the flower of the French army; there were few, if any,
+recruits as raw as those who swelled the ranks of the British regiments;
+there were thousands upon thousands who had formed part of that _Grande
+Armee_ which had overawed the continent of Europe. It is fair, however,
+to record that, while the British rank and file suffered much for want
+of sufficient food, the French had fared still worse, and that very many
+of them could have been in no fit condition for the struggle impending
+over them.
+
+Both armies occupied ground extending from west to east, on opposite
+ridges, and crossed at right angles by the great highway running north
+and south from Charleroi to Brussels. In front of the British right were
+the chateau and enclosures of Hougoumont which were occupied by the
+British; nearly in front of the centre were the large farm-house and
+buildings of La Haye Sainte. Further to the left were the hamlet of
+Smohain and the farms Papelotte and La Haye. Wellington had arranged his
+brigades so as to distribute the older troops as much as possible among
+the less experienced. Sir Thomas Picton's fifth division formed the left
+of the line; to his right was Alten's second division, and beyond him to
+the right was the guards division under Cooke. Further to the right and
+partly in reserve was Clinton's second division, while Chasse's Dutch
+division on the extreme right occupied the village of Braine l'Alleud.
+Somerset's brigade of heavy cavalry and Kruse's Dutch cavalry were
+posted behind Alten's division, and Ponsonby's "union brigade,"
+consisting of the royal dragoons, Scots greys, and Inniskillings, was
+stationed in Picton's rear. The whole line lay on the inner slopes of
+the ridge with the exception of Bylandt's Dutch-Belgian brigade which
+was posted on the outer slope in front of Picton's division. D'Erlon's
+corps was opposite the British left, Reille's opposite the British
+right. Squadrons of cavalry covered the outer flank of either of the two
+French corps. The magnificent squadrons of French cavalry, 15,000
+strong, under Milhaud, Kellermann, and other famous leaders, were in the
+second line; the imperial guard, as usual, was massed in the rear.
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The battle opened about half-past eleven with a furious attack on
+Hougoumont. It was defended with desperate gallantry, mainly by the
+British guards, who reopened the old loopholes in the garden-walls, and
+closed by sheer muscular force the eastern gate of the yard, which had
+been forced open by the French. In the fruitless siege of Hougoumont, as
+it may be called, the French left wing thus wasted most of its strength,
+and incurred enormous loss. Meanwhile, the French right wing under
+D'Erlon, advanced to attack the British left, which had been assailed
+for an hour and a half by the fire of a battery with seventy-eight guns.
+The Dutch and Belgians, who in their exposed position had suffered
+severely from the French artillery fire, soon gave way; but Picton's
+division, after a single volley, charged with the bayonet and drove
+their assailants reeling backward, though Picton himself fell dead on
+the field. Without orders from Wellington, Lord Uxbridge, in command of
+the British cavalry, seized the opportunity, and launched the union
+brigade with other regiments upon the flying masses. This whirlwind of
+British horsemen swept all before it, slaughtering many of the French
+cavalry in passing, taking 3,000 prisoners, sabring the gunners of Ney's
+battery, and spiking fifteen of the guns. But their ardour carried them
+too far. By Napoleon's orders a large force of French cuirassiers and
+lancers fell upon their flank before they could take breath again, and
+their ranks were frightfully thinned in a disorderly retreat. But their
+charge had saved the day.
+
+At one o'clock, while the fate of D'Erlon's onslaught was still
+undecided, Napoleon observed Prussian troops on his right. An
+intercepted despatch proved these to be Buelow's corps. He instantly sent
+off a despatch to Grouchy, whom he supposed to be within reach, ordering
+him to attack Buelow in the rear. Then followed the memorable succession
+of charges by the whole of the French cavalry upon the squares of the
+British infantry. Not one of these squares was broken; a great part of
+the French cavalry was mown down by volleys or cut to pieces by the
+British cavalry in their precipitate retreat, and the British line
+remained unmoved, though grievously weakened, behind its protecting
+ridge. This was the crisis of the fight. Much of the British artillery
+was dismounted, and Wellington confessed to one of his staff that he
+longed for the advent of night or Bluecher. Napoleon next felt himself
+compelled to detach Lobau's corps for the purpose of meeting the
+advancing Prussians. Soon afterwards Ney carried La Haye Sainte by a
+most determined assault, aided by the failure of ammunition within its
+defences, and thus captured the key of the British position. But
+Napoleon saw that his one chance of victory lay in a final _coup_ before
+the Prussians could wrest it from him. He ordered the imperial guard to
+the front, leading it himself across the valley, and then handing over
+the command to Ney. The guard was but the remnant of its original
+strength, for all its cavalry had been wrecked in wild charges against
+the British squares, and several battalions of its infantry were kept in
+reserve to hold back the Prussians and protect the baggage train.
+Nevertheless, the advance of this superb corps, the heroes of a hundred
+fights, who had seldom failed to hurl back the tide of battle at the
+most perilous junctures, was among the most impressive spectacles in the
+annals of war. They swerved a little to the left, thereby exposing
+themselves to the fire of the British footguards and of a battery in
+excellent condition. The former were lying down for shelter, but when
+the imperial guard came within sixty paces of them they started up at
+the word of command from Wellington himself. The footguards poured a
+deadly fire into the front, and the 52nd regiment into the flank of
+their columns; as they wavered under the storm of shot a bayonet charge
+followed, and the imperial guard, hitherto almost invincible, was
+dissolved into a mob of fugitives scattered over the plain.
+
+It was now past eight o'clock; Buelow's Prussians had long been engaged
+on the British left, and Bluecher, with indomitable energy, was pressing
+forward with all his other divisions. Wellington first sent Vandeleur's
+and Vivian's cavalry, still comparatively fresh, to sweep away what
+remained of the French reserves, and then ordered a general advance. The
+French retreat speedily became a rout, and a rout to which there is no
+parallel except that which succeeded the battle of Leipzig. Wellington
+and Bluecher met at La Belle Alliance on the high road, just south of the
+battlefield, and lately the French headquarters. The British troops were
+utterly tired out, but the Prussian cavalry never drew rein until they
+had driven the last Frenchman over the river Sambre in their relentless
+pursuit. The slaughter had been prodigious, though far short of that at
+Borodino. The British army lost 13,000 men, the Prussian 7,000, and the
+French 37,000[63] (including prisoners), besides the whole of their
+artillery, ammunition, baggage-waggons, and military train. But the
+battle was one of the most decisive recorded in history, and was the
+real beginning of a peace which lasted over the whole of Europe for
+nearly forty years. Grouchy heard the cannonade of Waterloo on his march
+from Ligny to Wavre, and was strongly urged by Gerard to hasten across
+country, with his whole force, in the direction of the firing. But he
+pleaded the letter of Napoleon's instructions, and reached Wavre only to
+find Bluecher gone. After an encounter with a Prussian corps, which had
+been left behind, he received news of Napoleon's defeat, and ultimately
+escaped into France.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S SECOND ABDICATION._]
+
+The march of the allies into France after the battle of Waterloo was not
+wholly unchecked, but it was far more rapid than in 1814. The French
+could not be rallied, and in the first week of July Paris was occupied
+by Anglo-Prussian troops. The Austrians and Prussians were moving again
+upon the eastern frontiers of France, but were still far behind. The
+Prussian general and soldiers were animated by the bitterest spirit of
+vengeance, and it needed all the firmness of Wellington to prevent the
+bridge of Jena from being blown up, and a ruinous contribution levied on
+the citizens of Paris. Napoleon himself was now at Rochefort, having
+quitted Paris after a second abdication on June 22, but four days after
+the battle. No other course was open to him. When he started for his
+last campaign, he was no longer the champion of an united nation, and
+consciously staked his all on a single throw. When he returned from it,
+discomfited and without an army, he found the chambers actively hostile
+to him. Carnot, who had formerly opposed his assumption of the imperial
+title, was now the only one of his ministers to deprecate his
+abdication, but Napoleon himself saw no hope of retaining his power, or
+transmitting it to his son, without a reckless appeal to revolutionary
+passions. From this he shrank, and he represented himself at St. Helena
+as having sacrificed personal ambition to patriotism.
+
+The chamber of deputies appointed an executive commission of five,
+including the infamous Fouche, and from this body the late emperor
+actually received an order to quit Paris. He retired to Malmaison, where
+he received a fresh order to set out for Rochefort, which he reached on
+July 3. On the next day Paris capitulated to the allies, and the
+necessity for his leaving the shores of France became more urgent. Two
+frigates were assigned for his escape to America, but a British squadron
+was lying ready to intercept them. Some of his bolder companions devised
+a scheme for smuggling him on board a swift merchant ship, but it was
+foiled by the vigilant watch of the British squadron off the islands of
+Oleron and Re. At last he surrendered himself on board the
+_Bellerophon_, relying, as he said, on the honour of the British nation,
+and claiming the generous protection of the prince regent. He was,
+however, clearly informed that he would be at the disposal of the
+government. Under an agreement with the allied powers, the ministers
+decided, and were supported by the nation in deciding, that he could not
+be detained in England, either as a guest or as a prisoner, with any
+regard to public safety or the verdict of Europe at Vienna. The proposal
+of banishing him to St. Helena, suggested in the previous year, was
+finally adopted, and he sailed thither in the _Northumberland_ on August
+8, vehemently protesting against the bad faith of Great Britain. Louis
+XVIII. was restored, and the treaty of Vienna, signed on the eve of the
+Waterloo campaign, was but slightly modified.
+
+The action of Murat had solved the difficulties which the congress had
+to face in Italy. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies reverted to the
+Bourbon, Ferdinand; and the Bourbons also acquired a right of reversion
+in Parma, where the protest of Spain against the rule of Maria Louisa
+could now be ignored. Genoa was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia; the
+pope received back the states of the Church; the Grand Duke of Tuscany
+and the Duke of Modena were restored; while Austria had to be content
+with Venetia and Lombardy as far as the Ticino. The organisation of
+Germany occupied the congress until June, and was the least durable part
+of its work. The basis of it was a confederation of thirty-eight states,
+represented and in theory controlled by a diet under the presidency of
+Austria. This diet naturally resolved itself into a mere permanent
+congress of diplomatists for the purpose of settling the mutual
+relations of the constituent states. Each state was ordered to adopt a
+constitutional form of government, but, as no provision was made for
+enforcing this clause, it remained a dead letter. Prussia regained her
+provinces on the left bank of the Rhine, with a population exceeding
+1,000,000, and was allotted the northern part of Saxony, with a
+population of 800,000, besides retaining her original share of Poland,
+with the province of Posen, which had formed part of the duchy of
+Warsaw. Most of this duchy was annexed by Russia, but Cracow was left a
+republic. Prussia also gained Swedish Pomerania. Bavaria, Hanover, and
+Denmark profited more or less by the repartition of Germany. Denmark,
+however, finally lost Norway, and Sweden paid the price of this
+acquisition by resigning Finland to Russia. The neutrality of
+Switzerland was proclaimed and her constitution simplified. The Belgian
+Netherlands were united to Holland, the two forming together the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, to which Austria ceded all her claims in the Low
+Countries.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SECOND TREATY OF PARIS._]
+
+The treaty of Vienna left the boundaries of France itself as they had
+been defined by the first treaty of Paris in 1814. The second treaty of
+Paris, however, signed on November 20, 1815, was less favourable to
+France, which had already ceded Western Savoy to Sardinia, and was now
+required to abandon Landau and other outlying territories beyond the
+frontier of 1792. She was also compelled to restore all the works of art
+accumulated during the war.
+
+Great Britain had failed to obtain from the congress any binding
+regulation on the subject of the slave trade. The most that she could
+obtain was a solemn denunciation of that trade issued on February 8,
+which declared it to be "repugnant to the principles of civilisation and
+of universal morality". The moderation of the British demands, as
+embodied in these treaties, excited not only the amazement but the
+contempt of Napoleon, who discussed the subject at St. Helena with great
+freedom. Well knowing that his paramount object throughout all his wars
+and negotiations had been to crush Great Britain, and that Great Britain
+had been the mainstay of all the combinations against him, he could find
+no explanation of our self-denial except our insular simplicity. Perhaps
+it might be attributed with greater reason to politic magnanimity; nor,
+indeed, could Great Britain, as a member of the European council,
+dictate such terms as Napoleon suggested. Still, the gains of Great
+Britain were substantial. She retained Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope,
+the Isle of France (Mauritius), Trinidad, St. Lucia, Tobago, and, above
+all, Malta. She also obtained possession of Heligoland and the
+protectorate of the Ionian Islands, both of which she has since resigned
+of her own accord. If she afterwards lost the commanding position which
+she had attained among the allied powers, it was chiefly because the
+colossal empire which she had defied was effectually shattered, because
+neither her armies nor her subsidies were any longer needed on the
+continent of Europe, and perhaps because the energies of her statesmen
+were no longer braced up by the stress of a struggle for national life.
+
+Even before the allied armies entered Paris Wellington considered it
+necessary to induce Louis XVIII. to make advances to certain politicians
+of the revolution so as to inspire national confidence in him, and to
+anticipate the risk of a "White Terror," or a continuance of the war.
+Fouche was accordingly summoned to power, and he had sufficient
+influence to prevent any national opposition to the Bourbon restoration.
+Napoleon remained at large for three weeks after his abdication, that
+is, for eight days after the allied troops had entered Paris, and the
+fear of a future Bonapartist revolution inclined the British government
+under Liverpool to entertain favourably the demand of Prussia for the
+cession of Alsace, Lorraine, and the northern fortresses. When, however,
+Napoleon had placed himself on board the _Bellerophon_, the situation
+changed. A contented France seemed preferable to an impotent France, and
+Wellington argued that the Bourbon restoration could not last, if French
+opinion connected it with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The tsar took
+this line from the first, and Wellington won for it the adhesion first
+of his own government and then of Austria. Prussia had finally to be
+contented with a provision for the cession of the outlying districts,
+which the treaty of Paris of 1814 had left to France. The second treaty
+of Paris, which embodied this stipulation, also provided for an
+indemnity of L40,000,000 to be paid by France to the allies, and for the
+temporary occupation of Northern France by the allied armies. On the
+same day Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia signed a treaty
+pledging themselves to act together in case fresh revolution and
+usurpation in France should endanger the repose of other states, and
+providing for frequent meetings of congresses to preserve the peace of
+Europe.
+
+In addition to the formal treaties of alliance signed at Chaumont,
+Vienna, and Paris, an attempt was made by the Tsar Alexander to bind
+together the European sovereigns in an union based on the principles of
+Christian brotherhood. A form of treaty was accordingly drawn up which
+gave expression to these motives, dealt with all Christians as one
+nation, and committed their sovereigns to mutual affection and
+reciprocal service. This treaty of the holy alliance was signed on
+September 26, by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. All European princes
+except the sultan were invited to adhere to it, and all except the pope
+and the sultan ultimately either accepted it or expressed their sympathy
+with its principles. But in England there was hardly a statesman who
+regarded the treaty seriously, Wellington avowed his distrust of it, the
+prince regent declined to join it, and its effective value in promoting
+the subsequent concert of the powers was less than nothing. Still,
+however visionary and extravagantly worded, it remains as an unique
+record embodying the deliberate adoption of the principle of
+international brotherhood, and the sacrifice of separate national
+interests for the sake of European peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA._]
+
+It is remarkable that so little public discussion took place on two
+questions which have since been so hotly debated--the legal _status_ of
+Napoleon after he surrendered himself, and the moral right of Great
+Britain to banish him to St. Helena. One reason for this apparent
+indifference to the fate of one who had overawed all Europe may be found
+in the fact that parliament was not sitting when the decision of the
+government was taken, and that, when it met on February 1, 1816, that
+decision was virtually irrevocable. We know, however, that the first
+question was fully considered by the allied powers and the British
+ministry before his place of exile was fixed, and Great Britain
+undertook the custody of his person. The view which prevailed was that,
+after his escape from Elba, he could neither be treated as an
+independent sovereign nor as a subject of the French king, but must be
+regarded as a public enemy who had fallen into the hands of one among
+several allied powers. Accordingly, it was by their joint mandate that
+he remained the prisoner of Great Britain, and was to be under the joint
+inspection of commissioners appointed by the other powers. Still the
+minds of Liverpool, Ellenborough, and Sir William Scott, judge of the
+court of admiralty, were not altogether easy on the legal aspect of the
+case, which Eldon reviewed in an elaborate and exhaustive memorandum.
+His conclusion was that Napoleon's position was quite exceptional, that
+he could not rightly be made over to France as a French rebel, but was a
+prisoner of war at the disposal of the British government, both on the
+broad principles of international law, and under the express terms of
+his surrender, as reported officially by Captain Maitland of the
+_Bellerophon_.
+
+It was thought expedient, however, to pass an act of parliament in the
+session of 1816 for the purpose of setting at rest any objections which
+might afterwards be raised. This measure was introduced on March 17 by
+Lord Castlereagh, who defended it on grounds of national justice and
+national policy. It met with no opposition in the house of commons, but
+Lords Holland and Lauderdale criticised it in the house of lords, not
+as sanctioning a wrong to Napoleon, but as implicitly admitting the
+right of other powers to join in arrangements for his custody. Little
+attention was then bestowed by parliament or the public on the moral
+aspect of his life-long detention at St. Helena, the restrictions to be
+there imposed upon his liberty, or the provision to be made for his
+comfort. Yet these subjects have ever since exercised the minds of
+myriads both in England and France, and have given birth to a copious
+literature for more than three generations.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[61] For the movements of June 15, 16, see Chesney, _Waterloo Lectures_,
+pp. 70-137; Ropes, _The Campaign of Waterloo_, pp. 44-196.
+
+[62] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 494, 495.
+
+[63] Oman in _English Historical Review_, xix., 693, and xxi., 132.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER VIII.
+
+                        THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+
+When Parliament met on February 1, 1816, after a recess of unusual
+length, Castlereagh was received with loud acclamations from all parts
+of the house as the chief actor in the pacification of Europe. There
+was, of course, a full debate upon the treaties, but the opposition
+dwelt less upon the arbitrary partition of Europe than upon their
+alleged tendency to guarantee sovereigns against the assertion of
+popular rights and upon the manifest intention of the government to
+"raise the country into a military power". From this moment dates the
+whig and radical watchword of "Peace, Retrenchment, and Reform". The
+nation was, in fact, entering upon a period of unprecedented depression
+and discontent, which lasted through the last four years of George
+III.'s reign. At the close of 1815, however, the whole horizon was
+apparently bright. Great Britain had saved Europe by her example, and,
+however small her army in comparison with those of continental states,
+she stood foremost among the powers which had crushed the rule of
+Napoleon. Her national debt, it is true, had reached the prodigious
+total of L861,039,049, and the interest on it amounted L32,645,618, but
+the expansion of our national resources had kept pace with it. In spite
+of the continental system, the orders in council, and the American war,
+the imports and exports had enormously increased, chiefly by means of an
+organised contraband traffic; the carrying trade of the world had passed
+into the hands of British shipowners; British manufactures were largely
+fostered by warlike expenditure at home and the suspension of many
+industries abroad; while population, stimulated by a vicious poor law,
+was rapidly on the increase. In this last element, then considered as a
+sure sign of prosperity, really consisted one of the chief national
+dangers.
+
+So long as the war lasted, low as the rate of wages might be, there was
+generally employment enough in the fields or in the factories for nearly
+all the hands willing to labour. When the inflated war prices came to an
+end, and wheat fell below 80s. or even 70s. a quarter, until it reached
+52s. 6d. early in 1816, labourers were turned off and wages cut down
+still further; bread was not proportionately cheapened, and agrarian
+outrages sprang up. The continent, impoverished by the war, no longer
+required British goods for military purposes, and, as its own domestic
+industries revived, ceased to absorb British products, flung in
+profusion on its markets. Hence came a reduction of 16 per cent. in the
+export trade, and of nearly 20 per cent. in the import trade, which
+resulted in bankruptcies and the dismissal of workpeople. If we add to
+these causes of distress, the influence of over-speculation, the
+accession of disbanded soldiers to the ranks of the unemployed, and the
+substitution of the factory system with machinery for domestic
+manufactures with hand labour, we can partly understand why Great
+Britain, never harried by invading armies, should have suffered more
+than France itself from popular misery and disaffection for several
+years after the restoration of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _VANSITTART'S FINANCE._]
+
+The history of these years is mainly a history of social unrest, and
+attempts to cure social evils by legislation or coercion. Liverpool and
+his colleagues, with the possible exception of Eldon, were not bigoted
+tories, and it is sometimes forgotten that among them, together with
+Sidmouth, Castlereagh, and Vansittart, were Canning, Palmerston, and
+Peel. One of the first parliamentary struggles was on the proposal of
+the government to reduce the income tax from 10 to 5 per cent., and to
+apply this half of it, producing about L7,500,000, towards the expense
+of maintaining an army of 150,000 men. Since the income tax has become a
+favourite of democratic economists, as pressing specially upon the rich,
+we may be surprised to find that its total repeal was successfully
+advocated by Henry Brougham, the leading democrat of that day--a man
+whose noble services to progress and to humanity in the earlier part of
+his career have been obscured by the inordinate vanity and unprincipled
+egotism which he displayed in the later phases of his long public life.
+He had entered parliament in 1810, and rapidly became the most active of
+the opposition speakers. He now employed without scruple all the arts of
+agitation, petition-framing, and parliamentary obstruction to achieve
+his object, and succeeded, by the aid of bankers and country-gentlemen,
+in defeating the government by a majority of thirty-seven. This vote
+might be justified, more or less, on the principle laid down by Pitt,
+that the income tax should be held in reserve as a war tax only, or on
+the ground that it was equally wasteful and mischievous to keep up so
+large a peace-establishment, especially if it might be used to bolster
+up despotism abroad. It was also unfortunate that Castlereagh, ignoring
+the heroic efforts made by the people of England for more than twenty
+years, should have deprecated "an ignorant impatience to be relieved
+from the pressure of taxation". Still, it is remarkable that friends of
+the people and the ultra-liberal corporation of London, as it then was,
+should have concentrated their indignant protests against the financial
+policy of the government, not on the corn laws, or any other indirect
+tax, but on the income tax.
+
+Public confidence in the economic wisdom of the ministers was further
+weakened by the gratuitous abandonment of the malt tax, apparently in a
+fit of petulance, on the ground, explicitly stated, that, if another war
+tax must be raised, two or three millions more or less would make little
+difference. By a temporary suspension of the sinking fund, a deficit
+might be converted into a surplus; Vansittart, however, neglected to
+take advantage of this simple expedient, and raised L11,500,000 by loan.
+His waning reputation was almost shattered by this absurd proceeding.
+Finally, the excessive and irregular expenditure upon the civil list
+provoked a searching inquiry into its abuses, prefaced by a scathing
+attack from Brougham upon the character of the prince regent. His
+character was, in fact, indefensible, and had justly forfeited the
+respect of the nation. He was a debauchee and gambler, a disobedient
+son, a cruel husband, a heartless father, an ungrateful and treacherous
+friend, and a burden to the ministries which had to act in his name and
+palliate his misdoings. That of Liverpool carried a measure for the
+better regulation of the civil list, upon which, swollen as it was by
+the wrongful appropriation of other public funds, many official
+salaries had been charged hitherto. For these parliament now made a
+separate provision. The house of commons, which properly grudged the
+prince regent the means of reckless luxury and self-indulgence, was
+unanimous in voting L60,000 for outfit and L60,000 a year to the
+Princess Charlotte on her marriage, on May 2, to Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg, looking forward to a reign under which virtue and a sense
+of public duty would again be the attributes of royalty. In this
+session, too, it conferred a boon upon Ireland, which earned little
+gratitude, by the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers.
+Ireland was virtually insolvent before this measure was passed. With the
+union of the exchequers the union of the countries was completed. The
+administration, discredited by its financial policy, was strengthened in
+June by the acquisition of Canning, who succeeded Buckinghamshire as
+president of the board of control. In September, 1814, Wellesley Pole, a
+brother of the Marquis Wellesley and the Duke of Wellington, had been
+admitted to the cabinet as master of the mint, so that with Castlereagh,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst, there were now five members of the
+cabinet in the lower house.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL RIOTS._]
+
+The disturbances which broke out again and again during the years
+1816-19 were partly the outcome of sheer destitution among the working
+classes, and partly of a growing demand for reform, whether
+constitutional or revolutionary. The statesmen of the regency must not
+be too severely judged if they often confounded these causes of
+seditious movements, and failed to distinguish between the moderate and
+violent sections of reformers. Those who remembered the bloodthirsty
+orgies of the French revolution, ushered in by quixotic visions of
+liberty, equality, and fraternity, may perhaps be excused for
+distrusting the moderate professions of demagogues who deliberately
+inflamed the passions of ignorant mobs. Moreover, the whigs and moderate
+reformers, who privately condemned the excesses of their violent
+followers, made light of these in their public utterances, and reserved
+all their censures for the repressive policy of the government. Bread
+riots had begun before the harvest, which proved a total failure. The
+price of wheat, which was as low as 52s. 6d. a quarter in January, 1816,
+rose to 103s. 1d. in January, 1817, and to 111s. 6d. in June, 1817. And
+when rickburning set in as a consequence of agricultural depression,
+tumultuary processions as a consequence of enforced idleness in the coal
+districts, and a revival of Luddism as a consequence of stagnation in
+the various textile industries, itself due to a glut of British goods on
+the continent, the reform party, now raising its head, was held
+responsible by the government for a great part of these disorders.[64]
+The writings of Cobbett, especially his _Weekly Register_, certainly had
+a wide influence in stirring up discontent against existing
+institutions, but it must be admitted that he condemned the use of
+physical force, and pointed to parliamentary reform as the legitimate
+cure for all social evils. Reform, however, in Cobbett's meaning
+included universal suffrage with annual parliaments, and the Hampden
+clubs, all over the country, agitated for the same objects in less
+guarded language. Still, looking back at these democratic agencies by
+the light of later experience, we can hardly adopt the opinion expressed
+by a secret committee of the house of commons that their avowed objects
+were "nothing short of a revolution".
+
+It was on December 2, 1816, that the extreme section of reformers, now
+for the first time known as radicals, in alliance with a body of
+socialists called Spenceans, first came into open collision with the
+forces of the law. A meeting was announced to be held on that day in Spa
+Fields, Bermondsey, and was to be addressed by "Orator" Hunt, Major
+Cartwright, the two Watsons, and other demagogues. Hunt was a gentleman
+of Somerset, and had stood for Bristol in 1812. Though a prominent
+speaker, he in no sense directed the movement. Burdett and Cochrane, the
+orthodox leaders of London reformers, were not concerned in this
+demonstration, which, according to an informer who gave evidence, was to
+be the signal for an attack upon the Tower and other acts of atrocity.
+As it was, before Hunt chose to appear, the mob, headed by the younger
+Watson, broke into gunsmiths' shops, not without bloodshed, and marched
+through the Royal Exchange, but were courageously met by the lord mayor,
+with a few assistants, and very soon dispersed. The alarm produced in
+the whole nation by this riotous fiasco was quite out of proportion to
+its real importance, and was reawakened by an insult offered to the
+prince regent on his return from opening parliament on January 28, 1817.
+Even Canning, a life-long opponent of reform, did not scruple to magnify
+these and similar evidences of popular restlessness into proofs of a
+deep-laid plot against the constitution, and committees of both houses
+urged the necessity of drastic measures to put down a conspiracy against
+public order and private property. These measures took the form of bills
+for the suppression of seditious meetings, and for the suspension until
+July 1 of the _habeas corpus_ act, which had been uninterruptedly in
+force since its suspension by Pitt had expired in 1801. This last bill
+was passed on March 3, and, before the other became law, the so-called
+march of the Blanketeers took place at Manchester. The march was the
+ridiculous sequel of a very large meeting got up for the purpose of
+carrying a petition to London, and presenting it to the prince regent in
+person. The meeting was dispersed by the soldiers and police, after the
+riot act had been read, and a straggling crowd of some three hundred who
+began their pilgrimage, carrying blankets or overcoats, melted away by
+degrees before they had got far southward.
+
+[Pageheading: _SIDMOUTH'S UNPOPULARITY._]
+
+A far more serious outbreak at Manchester seems to have been clumsily
+planned soon afterwards, but it ended in nothing, and the enemies of the
+government freely attributed this and other projects of mob violence to
+the instigation of an _agent-provocateur_, well known as "Oliver the
+Spy". This man was also credited with the authorship of "the Derbyshire
+insurrection," for which three men were executed and many others
+transported. Here there can be no doubt that a formidable gang, armed
+with pikes, terrorised a large district, pressing operatives to join
+them in overt defiance of the law, and killing one who held back. Being
+confronted by a Nottinghamshire magistrate named Rolleston, with a small
+body of soldiers, they fled across the fields, and the bubble of
+rebellion burst at a touch. Whether they were legally guilty of high
+treason, for which they were unwisely tried, may perhaps be doubted, but
+it would certainly be no palliation of their crime if it could be shown,
+as it never was shown, that Oliver had led them to rely on a jacobin
+revolution in London. What does appear very clearly is that Sidmouth
+was greatly alarmed by the reports of his agents on the disturbed state
+of the country, but that he was highly conscientious in his instructions
+and in the use of his own powers. The great majority of those imprisoned
+for political offences at this time were liberated or acquitted, but the
+suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act was renewed at the beginning of
+July.
+
+Moreover, a circular was addressed by Sidmouth to the lords-lieutenant
+of counties, for the information of the magistrates, intimating that, in
+the opinion of the law officers, persons charged on oath with seditious
+libel might be apprehended and held to bail. No act of Sidmouth called
+forth such an outburst of reprobation as this; yet it is not
+self-evident that instigations to outrage, being criminal offences,
+should be treated by magistrates differently from other offences for
+which bail may be required, with the alternative of imprisonment. On the
+other hand, it is hardly becoming for a home secretary to interpret the
+law, and, since the forensic triumphs of Erskine, it had been declared
+by an act of parliament that in cases of libel, as distinct from all
+other criminal trials, both the law and the fact were within the
+province of the jury. At all events, William Cobbett, feeling himself to
+be at the mercy of informers and the crown, took refuge in America in
+December, 1817. Hone, an antiquarian bookseller, was thrice prosecuted
+for blasphemous libels, in which the ministers had been held up to
+contempt. All these ill-judged, if not vindictive, prosecutions ended in
+signal failure. Ellenborough, the chief justice, before whom the two
+last trials were held, strained his judicial authority to procure a
+conviction of Hone, but the prisoner, with a spirit worthy of a martyr,
+defied the intimidation of the court, and thrice carried the sympathies
+of the jury with him. His triple acquittal led to Ellenborough's
+resignation, and perceptibly shook the prestige of the government.
+
+In the year 1818 there was a temporary improvement in the economic
+condition of the country. The depression of the preceding year was
+followed in this year by a rapid increase of revenue. The importance the
+ministry attached to finance was emphasised by the admission to the
+cabinet in January of Frederick John Robinson, afterwards prime minister
+as Lord Goderich, who had been appointed president of the board of
+trade and treasurer of the navy. The chancellor of the exchequer and the
+master of the mint were already members of the cabinet. The suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act having expired, the reform agitation revived,
+but assumed a less dangerous character, and no serious outbreak
+occurred. A bill of indemnity was passed to cover any excesses of
+jurisdiction in arresting suspected persons or in suppressing tumultuous
+assemblies. A parliamentary inquiry showed both that the disorders of
+the previous year had been exaggerated, and that, after all, the
+extraordinary powers of the home office had been used with moderation.
+Nevertheless, the early part of the session was largely occupied by
+party debates on these questions, the employment of spies, and
+apprehensions for libel. Parliament was dissolved in June, and the
+general election which followed resulted in a gain of several seats to
+the opposition.[65] The ministry was strengthened in January, 1819, by
+the appointment of Wellington to be master-general of the ordnance, in
+succession to Mulgrave, who remained in the cabinet without office.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE "MANCHESTER MASSACRE"._]
+
+Before the end of the year 1818, a strike of Manchester cotton-spinners
+was attended by the usual incidents of brutal violence towards workmen
+who refused to join in it, but a few shots from the soldiers, one of
+which killed a rioter, proved effectual in quelling lawlessness.
+Manchester, however, remained the centre of agitation, and during the
+summer of 1819 a series of reform meetings held in other great towns
+culminated in a monster meeting originally convened for August 9, but
+postponed until the 16th. The history of this meeting ending in the
+so-called "Manchester" or "Peterloo massacre," has been strongly
+coloured by party spirit and sympathy with the victims of reckless
+demagogy no less than of blundering officialism. It is certain that
+drilling had been going on for some time among the multitudes invited to
+attend the meeting of the 9th; that its avowed object was to choose a
+"legislatorial representative," as Birmingham had already done, and
+that, on its being declared illegal by the municipal authorities, who
+declined to summon it on their own initiative, its organisers
+deliberately resolved to hold it a week later, whether it were legal or
+not.
+
+The contingents, which poured in by thousands from neighbouring towns,
+seem to have carried no arms but sticks, and to have conducted
+themselves peaceably when they arrived at St. Peter's Fields, where
+Orator Hunt, puffed up with silly vanity, was voted into the chair on a
+hustings. Unfortunately, instead of attempting to prevent the meeting,
+the county magistrates decided to let the great masses of people
+assemble, and then to arrest the leaders in the midst of them. They had
+at their disposal several companies of infantry, six troops of the 15th
+hussars, and a body of yeomanry, besides special constables. The chief
+constable, being ordered to arrest Hunt and his colleagues, declared
+that he could not do so without military aid, whereupon a small force of
+yeomanry advanced but soon became wedged up and enclosed by the densely
+packed crowd. One of the magistrates, fancying the yeomanry to be in
+imminent danger, of which there is no proof, called upon Colonel
+L'Estrange, who was in command of the soldiers, to rescue them and
+disperse the mob. Four troops of the hussars then made a dashing charge,
+supported by a few of the yeomanry; the people fled in wild confusion
+before them; some were cut down, more were trampled down, and an
+eye-witness describes "several mounds of human beings" as lying where
+they had fallen. Happily, the actual loss of life did not exceed five or
+six, but a much larger number was more or less wounded, the real havoc
+and bloodshed were inevitably exaggerated by rumour, and a bitter sense
+of resentment was implanted in the breasts of myriads, innocent of the
+slightest complicity with sedition, but impatient of oligarchical rule,
+and disgusted with so ruthless an interference with the right of public
+meeting.
+
+It would have been wise if Sidmouth and his colleagues had recognised
+this widespread feeling, had seen that famine and despair were at the
+bottom of popular discontent, and had admitted error of judgment, at
+least, on the part of the Lancashire magistrates. On the contrary, they
+felt it so necessary to support civil and military authority, at all
+hazards, that they induced the prince regent to express unqualified
+approbation of the course taken, and afterwards defended it without
+reserve in parliament. Even Eldon expressed his opinion privately that
+it would be hard to justify it, unless the assembly amounted to an act
+of treason, as he regarded it; whereas Hunt and his associates were
+prosecuted (and convicted in the next year) not for treason, but only
+for a misdemeanour. At all events, the storm of indignation excited by
+this sad event, and not confined to the working classes, powerfully
+fomented the reform movement. Large meetings were held over all the
+manufacturing districts, and a requisition to summon a great Yorkshire
+meeting was signed by Fitzwilliam, the lord-lieutenant, who attended it
+in person. For these acts he was properly dismissed, but, in spite of
+inflammatory speeches, nearly all the meetings passed off quietly and
+without interference. Nevertheless, the government thought it necessary
+to hold an autumn session, and strengthen the hands of the executive by
+fresh measures of repression. These having been passed in December after
+strenuous opposition, were afterwards known as the six acts, and
+regarded as the climax of Sidmouth's despotic _regime_.
+
+Two of the six acts, directed against the possession of arms and
+military training for unlawful purposes, cannot be considered oppressive
+under the circumstances then prevailing. Nor can exception be taken on
+the ground of principle to another for "preventing delay in the
+administration of justice in cases of misdemeanour," which, indeed, was
+amended, by Holland, with Eldon's consent, so as to benefit defendants
+in state prosecutions. Two were designed to curb still further the
+liberty of the press. One of these made the publication of seditious
+libels an offence punishable with banishment, and authorised the seizure
+of all unsold copies. When we consider the extreme virulence of
+seditious libels in those days, this act does not wear so monstrous an
+aspect as its radical opponents alleged, but happily it soon became a
+dead letter, and was repealed in 1830. The other, imposing a stamp-duty
+on small pamphlets, only placed them on the same footing with
+newspapers. The last of the new measures--"to prevent more effectually
+seditious meetings and assemblies"--was practically aimed against all
+large meetings, unless called by the highest authorities in counties and
+corporate towns, or, at least, five justices of the peace. It was,
+therefore, a grave encroachment on the right of public meeting, and the
+only excuse for it was that it was passed under the fear of a
+revolutionary movement, and limited in duration to a period of five
+years.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL LEGISLATION._]
+
+Nor can it be denied that, as a whole, this restrictive code was
+successful. From a modern point of view it may appear less arbitrary
+than the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act for a whole year
+(1817-18), but it was assuredly tainted with a reactionary spirit, and
+was capable of being worked in a way inconsistent with civil liberty.
+That it was not so worked, on the whole, and caused less hardship than
+had been anticipated, was not so much the result of changes in the
+government itself, as of economic progress in the nation, aided by a
+healthier growth of public opinion. The violence which marked the early
+stages of the reform movement has been described as a safety-valve
+against anarchy; it was, in reality, the chief obstacle to a sound and
+comprehensive reform bill. While it lasted, the middle classes and
+liberals of moderate views were estranged from the cause; when it
+ceased, the demand for a new representative system became irresistible.
+
+Whatever allowance may be made for the coercive policy of the government
+during the dark period of storm and stress which succeeded the great
+war, it is hard to find any excuse for its neglect of social
+legislation. Then, if ever, was a time when the work of Pitt's best days
+should have been resumed, when real popular grievances should have been
+redressed, and when the long arrears of progressive reform should have
+been gradually redeemed. Yet very little was done to better the lot of
+men, women, and children in Great Britain, and that little was chiefly
+initiated by individuals. In 1816, on the motion of a private member, an
+inquiry was commenced into the state of the metropolitan police, which
+disclosed most scandalous abuses, such as the habitual association of
+thieves and thief-takers, encouraged by the grants of blood-money which
+had been continued since the days of Jonathan Wild. In 1817 a committee
+sanctioned by the ministers recommended a measure for the gradual
+abolition of sinecures, which then figured prominently in the domestic
+charter of reform. Their recommendations were adopted, and a large
+number of sinecure offices were swept away. But inasmuch as sinecures
+had been largely given to persons who had held public offices of
+business, it was thought necessary to institute pensions to an amount
+not exceeding one-half of the reduction. In 1816 a private member, named
+Curwen, brought forward a fanciful scheme of his own for the amendment
+of the poor laws, which in effect anticipated modern projects of old
+age pensions. He obtained the appointment of a select committee, which
+reported in 1817, but their proposals were thoroughly inadequate, and no
+sensible improvement came of them.
+
+It was also in 1816 that the cause of national education, the importance
+of which had been vainly urged by Whitbread, was taken up in earnest by
+Brougham. His motion for the appointment of a select committee was
+confined to the schools of the metropolis. It sat at intervals until
+1818, when its powers were enlarged, and its labours somewhat diverted
+into a searching exposure of mismanagement in endowed charities. The one
+direct fruit of the committee was the creation of the charity
+commission, but in the opinion of Brougham himself it was of the highest
+value in opening the whole education question. The almost universal
+prevalence of distress in 1817, and the excessive burden thrown upon
+poor rates, induced parliament to authorise an expenditure of L750,000
+in Great Britain and Ireland for the employment of the labouring poor on
+public works. A far sounder and more fruitful measure of relief owes its
+origin to the same year. It was now that the institution of savings
+banks, hitherto promoted only by single philanthropists, emerged from
+the experimental stage and claimed the attention of parliament. A bill
+for their regulation, introduced by Pitt's friend, George Rose, did not
+pass into an act; but the establishment of savings banks was now
+directly encouraged by the legislature, and there were thoughtful men
+who already dimly foresaw the manifold benefits of their future
+development.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+In the year 1819 was initiated a very important reform in the currency,
+which had long been delayed. When the bullion committee reported in
+1810, Bank of England notes were at a discount of about 131/2 per cent.
+There were several reasons why this should be the case. Continental
+trade was then compelled to pass through British ports, and a large
+supply of gold was needed to serve as the medium of this trade. There
+was also a steady drain of gold to the Spanish peninsula to meet war
+expenses, while troubles in South America diminished the annual output
+of the precious metals. In 1811 Bank of England notes were made legal
+tender, but no further action was then taken, and the depreciation
+continued until 1814. The magnificent harvest of 1813, together with
+other causes, brought about a sudden fall of prices, in consequence of
+which no less than 240 country banks stopped payment in the years
+1814-16. The decrease and popular distrust of private banknotes produced
+an increased demand for Bank of England notes, which in 1817 had nearly
+risen in value to a par with gold. In 1819, when they were at a discount
+of only 41/2 per cent., a committee was appointed by the house of
+commons to reconsider the policy of resuming cash payments, and Peel,
+young as he was, became its chairman. In this character he abandoned his
+preconceived views and induced the house to adopt those which had been
+advocated by Horner. It was not thought prudent to fix an earlier date
+than 1823 for the actual resumption of cash payments, but the directors
+of the Bank of England anticipated this date, and began to exchange
+notes for specie on May 1, 1821. The new standard was definitely one of
+gold. A considerable fall of prices ensued, and it is still a disputed
+question whether the return to a single standard was entirely
+beneficial.
+
+But for what is called the public, the readers of newspapers and the
+frequenters of clubs or taverns, the rivalry of party leaders or the
+incidents of court life excite a much keener interest than painful
+efforts for the good of the humbler classes. During the closing years of
+George III.'s reign there were no party conflicts of special intensity.
+The whigs acquiesced in their self-imposed exclusion from office, and
+contented themselves with damaging criticism; the radicals had not yet
+acquired the confidence or respect of the electors. Liverpool remained
+prime minister; Castlereagh, foreign secretary; Sidmouth, home
+secretary; Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer. Meanwhile there were
+startling vicissitudes in the fortunes of the royal family. The king,
+indeed, remained under the cloud of mental derangement which darkened
+the last ten years of his life, and the Princess of Wales, who had been
+the object of so much scandal, was now out of sight and residing abroad.
+The Princess Charlotte, however, the only daughter of the regent, had
+centred in herself the loyalty and hopes of the nation in a remarkable
+degree, and was credited, not unjustly, with private virtues and public
+sympathies contrasting strongly with the disposition of her father. Her
+marriage with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who bore a high character,
+had been hailed with national enthusiasm, for it was known that, like
+Queen Victoria, she had been carefully trained and had disciplined
+herself, physically and morally, for the duties of a throne. It has been
+truly said that her death in childbirth, on November 6, was the great
+historical event of 1817. The prince regent, with his constitution
+weakened by dissipation, was not expected to survive her long, and so
+long as his wife lived there was no prospect of other legitimate issue,
+unless he could procure a divorce. There was no grandchild of George
+III. who could lawfully inherit the crown, and the apprehension of a
+collateral succession became more and more generally felt.[66]
+
+In the following year four royal marriages were announced. The Princess
+Elizabeth espoused the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg; the Duke of Clarence,
+the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; the Duke of Cambridge, the
+Princess Augusta of Hesse; the Duke of Kent, the Princess Victoria Mary
+of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of Sussex was already married, but not with the
+necessary consent of the crown, and the Duke of Cumberland was
+childless, having married three years earlier a divorced widow whom the
+queen, for private reasons, declined to receive. It is a striking proof
+of the discredit into which the royal family had fallen, since the old
+king virtually ceased to reign, that parliament, in spite of its
+anxiety about the succession, displayed an almost niggardly parsimony
+when it was moved to increase the allowances of the princes about to
+marry. No application was made on behalf of the Princess Elizabeth or
+the Duke of Sussex, who was already married morganatically. The
+additional grant of L6,000 a year asked on behalf of the Duke of
+Cumberland was refused by a small majority, partly, no doubt, because
+his anti-liberal opinions and untrustworthy character were no secret to
+public men. L10,000 a year was asked for the Duke of Clarence, and
+justified by Canning as less than he might fairly have claimed, but it
+was reduced to L6,000 and declined by the duke as inadequate; he
+afterwards married without a parliamentary grant. The provision of
+L6,000 a year for the Dukes of Cambridge and Kent respectively was
+stoutly opposed but ultimately carried. Of all George III.'s sons, the
+Duke of Kent was perhaps the most respected. It has been truly said that
+if the nation could have expressed its dearest wish, in the spirit of
+prophecy, after the death of the Princess Charlotte, it would have been
+that the issue of the Duke of Kent's marriage with Prince Leopold's
+sister might succeed, as Queen Victoria, to the crown of her
+grandfather.[67]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF GEORGE III._]
+
+On November 17, 1818, Queen Charlotte died, having filled her great and
+most difficult position for nearly sixty years with sound judgment,
+exemplary moral integrity, and a certain homely dignity. The Duke of
+York succeeded her as guardian of the king's person. Little more than a
+year later she was followed to the grave by the Duke of Kent, who died
+on January 23, 1820, and by the king himself, who died on January 29, in
+the eighty-second year of his age. He was not a great sovereign, but, as
+a man, he was far superior to his two predecessors, and must ever stand
+high, if not highest, in the gallery of our kings. His venerable figure,
+though shrouded from view, was a chief mainstay of the monarchy. Narrow
+as his views were, and obstinately as he adhered to them, he was not
+incapable of changing them, and could show generosity towards enemies,
+as he ever showed fidelity to friends. His reception of Franklin after
+the American war, and of Fox after the death of Pitt, was that of a
+king who understood his kingly office; and his strict devotion to
+business, regardless of his own pleasure, could not have been exceeded
+by a merchant engrossed in lucrative trade. The many pithy and racy
+sayings recorded of him show an insight into men's characters and the
+realities of life not unworthy of Dr. Johnson. His simplicity,
+kindliness, and charity endeared him to his subjects. His undaunted
+courage and readiness to undertake sole responsibility, not only during
+the panics of the Gordon riots and of the impending French invasion, but
+in many a political crisis, compelled the respect of all his ministers,
+and his disappearance from the scenes, to make way for the regency of
+his eldest son, was almost as disastrous for English society as the
+exchange, in France, of Louis XIV.'s decorous rule for that of the
+Regent Orleans.
+
+The European concert which had been called into existence by the war
+against Napoleon, and had effected a continental settlement at Vienna,
+continued to act for the maintenance of peace. The treaty of alliance of
+1815 only bound the four powers to common action in the event of a fresh
+revolution in France which might endanger the tranquillity of other
+states. The holy alliance was more comprehensive and wider in its aims,
+but was too vague to form the practical basis of a federation. The
+settlement of Europe by the treaty of Vienna was, however, the work of
+all the powers, and they had therefore an interest in everything that
+might be likely to affect that settlement. The habit of concerted
+action, once formed, was not lightly abandoned, and the succeeding age
+was an age of congresses. But though there was a general sentiment in
+favour of concerted action it manifested itself in different ways. The
+causes of the recent struggle with France had been political in their
+origin, and it was agreed that a recurrence of disorder from France
+could be best prevented by the establishment of a government in that
+country which should be at once constitutional and legitimist. England
+favoured, and Russia, the most autocratic of states, favoured still more
+vehemently, the development of constitutions wherever it might be
+practicable, while Austria, being composed of territories with no
+national cohesion, endeavoured rather to thwart the growth of
+constitutions. But Russia was also the most active advocate of joint
+interference where a constitutional reform was effected by
+unconstitutional means. Great Britain and Austria, on the other hand,
+with a juster instinct, considered armed interference an extreme remedy
+which might often be worse than the disease of a revolution.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYALIST REACTION IN EUROPE._]
+
+The numerous restorations of 1814 and 1815 were followed by a royalist
+and aristocratic reaction in many countries of Europe. In France Louis
+XVIII. found himself confronted by an ultra-royalist chamber of deputies
+which clamoured for vengeance on the partisans of the republican and
+imperial _regimes_ and for the restoration of the privileges and estates
+of the Church. Ferdinand VII. of Spain swept away the unwieldy
+constitution of 1812 amid the rejoicings of his people, who little
+foresaw his future tyranny; and Great Britain did not venture to resist
+the action of Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies in abolishing a constitution
+which British influence had induced him to grant his island kingdom in
+1813. In Prussia the government dealt sternly with the liberal press,
+and the provincial estates opposed the institution of a national diet;
+while in Wuertemberg a parliament assembled under a liberal constitution
+demanded the restoration of the ancient privileges of the nobility and
+clergy. In the Two Sicilies British influence, supported by that of
+Austria, was used to prevent outrages on the defeated party; in Spain
+the moderate counsels of Great Britain were less successful. Austria
+endeavoured to prevent future disturbance in the Italian peninsula by a
+secret treaty, which obtained the sanction of the British government,
+requiring the Two Sicilies to adopt no constitutional changes
+inconsistent with the principles adopted by Austria in the
+Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Similar treaties were concluded by Austria
+with Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and she thus gained an ascendency in
+Italy, from which only Sardinia and the papal states were exempt.
+Russian agents meanwhile began to conduct a liberal propaganda in Spain
+and Italy, and Russia was even credited with a desire to make a
+liberalised Spain a counterpoise to England on the sea.
+
+For a time, however, there were no European complications of a
+formidable nature. In 1816 a British squadron was sent out under Lord
+Exmouth lo execute the decree of the congress of Vienna against the
+Barbary states. The Dey of Algiers and the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli
+were called upon to recognise the Ionian Islands as British, to accept
+British mediation between them and the courts of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia, to restore their Christian captives, and not to authorise
+further piracy. These terms were accepted by the Beys of Tunis and
+Tripoli, and the two first demands were granted by the Dey of Algiers.
+He was allowed a delay of three months in order to obtain the sultan's
+permission for granting the remainder, but in the interval a massacre of
+Italian fishermen took place at Bona. Lord Exmouth now sailed from
+Gibraltar to attack Algiers. On his demands being again ignored, he
+bombarded that city on August 27 for more than six hours. The arsenal
+and storehouses and all the ships in the port were burned, and on the
+next day the dey accepted Exmouth's terms; peace was signed on the 30th,
+the principal terms being the abolition of Christian slavery, and the
+delivery of all slaves to Exmouth on the following day.
+
+The treaty of Vienna in placing the Ionian Islands under British
+protection had made no mention of the towns of Parga and Butrinto on the
+mainland of Epirus which had passed under British rule along with the
+islands. These places were now surrendered to Turkey in accordance with
+a former treaty, in return for the Turkish recognition of the British
+protectorate over the islands. The inhabitants of Parga were, however,
+vehemently opposed to such a transference of their allegiance, and they
+were conveyed to the Ionian Islands and compensated for the loss of
+their property. The Turks entered into occupation of Parga in 1819. In
+1817 and 1818 wild rumours of Russian aggression in the direction of the
+Mediterranean began to circulate in England. It was reported that Spain
+had promised to cede Port Mahon to Russia; and that Russia was preparing
+a great military force, to be employed, if necessary, in alliance with
+the Bourbon states, France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies, to counteract
+British and Austrian influence. This influence, with that of Prussia,
+had really been employed to keep the Dardanelles closed against Russian
+ships. Meanwhile Austria had won over Prussia to her conservative policy
+in Germany.
+
+The violent language of the liberal party, especially at the
+universities, already began to terrify the Prussian government. The
+first danger signal was given at the Wartburg festival of delegates from
+the German universities in 1817, at which the students indulged in some
+boyish manifestations of their sympathies; their proceedings made some
+stir in Germany, and Metternich declared that they were revolutionary.
+The horror of liberalism was destined to be heightened in 1819 by the
+murder of the tsar's agent, the dramatist Kotzebue, by a lunatic member
+of a political society at Giessen. Its immediate result was a conference
+of German ministers at Carlsbad, where several resolutions for the
+suppression of political agitation were passed, and afterwards adopted
+by the diet at Frankfort. This policy was embodied in the "final act" of
+a similar conference held at Vienna in the following year (1820), which
+empowered the greater states of Germany to aid the smaller in checking
+revolutionary movements. At the same time it reaffirmed the general
+principle of non-intervention, and even laid down the pregnant doctrine
+that constitutions could not be legitimately altered except by
+constitutional means. The union of Austria and Prussia on the
+conservative side had rather the effect of throwing the secondary states
+of southern Germany upon the liberal side. In the spring and summer of
+1818 Bavaria and Baden framed constitutions, and in 1819 Wuertemberg once
+more essayed parliamentary government, which the reactionary policy of
+her first parliament had compelled her to abandon. The significant fact
+in European politics was that Frederick William III. of Prussia, always
+accustomed to being led, had passed from the influence of Russia to that
+of Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONFERENCE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE._]
+
+Such were the general tendencies of European politics when the
+conference of Aix-la-Chapelle assembled on September 30, 1818. The
+primary object of this conference was to consider the request of France
+for a reduction in the indemnity demanded of her and for the evacuation
+of her territories by the four allied powers. Wellington and
+Castlereagh, who represented Great Britain, earned the gratitude of
+France by readily agreeing to these requests, which were granted without
+any difficulty. This question was obviously one which required such a
+conference to settle it; but the conference, having once assembled, was
+urged to deal with other difficulties that less directly concerned it.
+One of these was a dispute between Denmark and Sweden about the
+apportionment of the Danish debt, which, in consideration of the
+annexation of Norway to Sweden, under the treaty of Kiel, was to be
+partly borne by Sweden. Denmark appealed to the four powers,
+representing that treaty as in fact a part of their own settlement of
+Europe. Sweden would not admit the right of the powers to intervene, but
+finally settled her difficulty with Denmark by a separate negotiation
+conducted by the mediation of Great Britain in 1819.
+
+A still more doubtful question was raised by the request of Spain for
+the assistance of the allied powers against her revolted colonies. The
+Spanish dependencies in America had declined to acknowledge Joseph
+Bonaparte, and had lapsed into a state of chaos; the restoration of
+Ferdinand VII. had induced most of them to return to their allegiance,
+but the three south-eastern colonies, Banda Oriental (Uruguay), La Plata
+(the Argentine), and Paraguay, continued in revolt. In 1817 fortune
+turned still further against Spain; Monte Video, the capital of Banda
+Oriental, was taken by Portugal, or rather by Brazil, and Chile revolted
+against Spain. On February 12, 1818, Chile proclaimed her independence,
+and she began at once to procure warships in England and the United
+States, of which Lord Cochrane took command. The four allied powers and
+France had protested against the seizure of Monte Video, but otherwise
+Spain had been left to herself. Great Britain seemed to have more to
+gain than to lose by the insurrection. The revolted colonies were open
+to her commerce, and by weakening Spain they had strengthened the
+maritime supremacy of Great Britain. Nevertheless Great Britain was
+willing to mediate, on condition that Spain would make reasonable
+concessions. Spain, however, refused to make any concessions at all, and
+called on the allied powers to aid her in crushing the insurrection by
+force. Great Britain did not regard an unconditional subjection of the
+colonies as either expedient or practicable, and opposed this course;
+Austria took the same view, and thus placed intervention out of the
+question.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EUROPEAN ALLIANCE._]
+
+But the principal question before the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle was
+not one relating to any particular difficulty, but the permanent form of
+the European alliance. The tsar desired a general confederacy of
+European powers, such as had signed the treaty of Vienna and the holy
+alliance. This confederacy was to guard against two evils--that of
+revolutionary agitation and that of arbitrary administration and
+sectional alliances. Such a project, though doubtless proposed in good
+faith, practically gave Russia an interest in the domestic movements,
+both reactionary and constitutional, of every country, while it forbade
+any political combination to which Russia was not a party. Castlereagh
+agreed with Metternich in thinking that such an extension of Russian
+Influence was more to be dreaded than local disorder, and Great Britain
+and Austria proposed therefore that the alliance should be based on the
+treaty of Chaumont, as renewed at Vienna and Paris, though they were
+willing to have friendly discussions from time to time without extending
+the scope of the alliance. All parties desired to include France in
+their alliance, but the tsar pertinently objected that France could not
+be admitted to an alliance aimed solely against France. A compromise was
+therefore adopted. The quadruple alliance for war, in case of a
+revolution in France, was secretly renewed, and centres for mobilisation
+were fixed, while France was publicly invited to join the deliberations
+of the allied powers. A secret protocol was then signed providing for
+the meeting of congresses from time to time, and giving the minor
+European powers a place in these congresses when their affairs should be
+under discussion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] For details of the riots see _Annual Register_, lviii. (1816),
+60-73. They were particularly numerous in May, 1816, and in the counties
+of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk. At Littleport in Cambridgeshire, on
+May 24, it was found necessary to fire on the rioters. Two men were
+killed and five were afterwards executed.
+
+[65] Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 2; Walpole, _History of England_, i., 392,
+393.
+
+[66] The curious may be interested in the following list of the names
+and ages of the persons who stood next in order of succession to the
+crown after the death of Princess Charlotte. It will be observed that of
+the fourteen who stood nearest the throne, not one was under forty years
+of age, and not one had a legitimate child:--
+
+                                          Age.    Relation to king.
+    1. George, Prince Regent                   55     Son.
+    2. Frederick, Duke of York                 54     Son.
+    3. William, Duke of Clarence               52     Son.
+    4. Edward, Duke of Kent                    50     Son.
+    5. Ernest, Duke of Cumberland              46     Son.
+    6. Augustus, Duke of Sussex                44     Son.
+    7. Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge             43     Son.
+    8. Charlotte, Queen-Dowager of Wuertemberg  51     Daughter.
+    9. Princess Augusta                        48     Daughter.
+    10. Princess Elizabeth                     47     Daughter.
+    11. Mary, Duchess of Gloucester            41     Daughter,
+    12. Princess Sophia                        40     Daughter.
+    13. William, Duke of Gloucester            41     Nephew.
+    14. Princess Sophia of Gloucester          44     Niece.
+    15. Charles, Duke of Brunswick             13     Great nephew.
+
+[67] See, however, the _Creevey Papers_, i., 268-71, 284.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER IX.
+
+                   THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The only important events of domestic interest in the year 1820, after
+the death of George III., were the Cato Street conspiracy, and the
+so-called trial of Queen Caroline. For the accession of the king, who
+had so long exercised royal functions as regent, produced no visible
+effect either on the personal composition or on the general policy of
+the government. Immediately after his proclamation he was attacked by a
+dangerous illness, but on his recovery he promptly raised two questions
+which nearly involved a change of ministry. One of these was a proposal
+to increase his private revenue, which he was induced to abandon for the
+present. The other was a demand for a divorce, which the ministers
+firmly resisted, though they ultimately agreed to a compromise, under
+which the divorce question was to be deferred, so long as the queen
+remained quietly abroad, but action was to be taken in case she returned
+to assert her rights.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATO STREET CONSPIRACY._]
+
+In the midst of these difficulties the lives of the ministers were
+threatened by a plot somewhat like those of the seventeenth century.
+Later writers have represented it as contemptible in its conception, and
+as directly provoked by the "Manchester massacre". So it may be said
+that Guy Fawkes was an insignificant person, and that his employers were
+exasperated by the severe treatment of popish recusants. The facts are
+that Arthur Thistlewood, the author of the Cato Street conspiracy, was a
+well-known confederate of the Watsons and other members of the extreme
+reform party, and that his plan for murdering the assembled cabinet in a
+private house would probably have been effectual, had it not been
+detected by the aid of an informer. This informer, Edwards, had warned
+the authorities in November, 1819, of the impending stroke, and may or
+may not have instigated Thistlewood's gang to execute it at a moment and
+place well-calculated to secure their arrest. At all events twenty-four
+conspirators armed themselves in Cato Street, near the Edgware Road,
+London, for the purpose of assassinating the ministers at a cabinet
+dinner in Harrowby's house in Grosvenor Square, and some of their
+associates were posted near the door of that house to summon them when
+the guests should have assembled. Harrowby's dinner was of course put
+off, but the watchers were deceived by the arrival of carriages for a
+dinner party next door, and failed to apprise the gang in Cato Street.
+The police rushed in upon the gang, but a body of soldiers ordered to
+support them reached the spot too late, a policeman was stabbed, and
+Thistlewood, with twelve or fourteen others, contrived to escape. He was
+captured the next morning, and executed with four of his accomplices,
+five more were transported for life, and the atrocity of the enterprise
+was naturally treated in the king's speech as a justification for the
+repressive measures in operation. In the following April a petty
+outbreak in Scotland was easily put down by a few troops at a place
+called Bonnymuir. It was, however, preceded by a treasonable
+proclamation, which spread terror among the citizens of Glasgow for
+several hours, and was sufficiently like an attempt at armed rebellion
+to confirm the alarm excited by the Cato Street conspiracy. In the face
+of such warnings, the energy of the government in stamping out disorder
+could hardly be censured.
+
+The last parliament of George III. was prorogued on February 28, 1820,
+and dissolved on the following day. One of its last debates was on Lord
+John Russell's proposal to suspend the issue of writs to the boroughs of
+Grampound, Penryn, Barnstaple, and Camelford. This was carried in the
+house of commons, but lost in the house of lords. The new parliament was
+opened by George IV. in person on April 21. Widespread excitement
+occasioned by the question of the divorce prevented the business of the
+first session from attracting much attention. A deficit in the revenue,
+coinciding with growing expenditure, compelled Vansittart to fall back
+on a fresh manipulation of the sinking fund. One measure, however, of
+the highest importance was introduced by Brougham. The committee of 1814
+on national education had amassed a great body of valuable evidence,
+and he now founded upon its report a comprehensive bill extending to the
+whole country. It placed the management and teaching of elementary
+schools entirely in the hands of Churchmen, and was dropped after the
+first reading, but the conscience of the nation was roused by it, and it
+bore fruit later. Further slight mitigations of the criminal law were
+carried as a result of attacks made by Sir James Mackintosh, upon whom
+the mantle of Romilly had fallen, and it is worthy of notice that even
+Eldon, the stout opponent of such mitigations, condemned the use of
+spring-guns, as a safeguard against poaching. The only ministerial
+change in this year was the final retirement in May of Lord Mulgrave,
+who had held high office in every ministry except that of Grenville
+since 1804, and had voluntarily surrendered his post at the head of the
+ordnance in 1818 to make room for Wellington.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUEEN CAROLINE._]
+
+The "queen's trial," as it is erroneously called, was the last act but
+one in a domestic tragedy which had lasted twenty-five years. The
+Princess Caroline of Brunswick was a frivolous and ill-disciplined young
+woman when she was selected by George III. as a wife for the
+heir-apparent, already united and really attached to Mrs. Fitzherbert.
+The princess could not have been married to a man less capable of
+drawing out the better side of her character, nor was she one to inspire
+his selfish and heartless nature with a sentiment, if not of conjugal
+love, yet of conjugal friendship. From the first there was no pretence
+of affection between them. A few years after her marriage she was
+relegated, not unwillingly, to live independently at Blackheath, where
+many eminent men accepted her hospitality. During this period, as we
+have seen, a "delicate investigation" into her conduct was instituted in
+1806. Though she emerged from it with less stain on her character than
+had been expected, she never enjoyed the respect of the royal family or
+of the nation, and there was no question of her sharing the home of her
+husband. Instead of being a bond of concord between them, the education
+of her daughter was the subject of constant discord, requiring the
+frequent intervention of the old king until he lost his reason. After
+she went abroad in 1814, she travelled widely, but her English
+attendants soon retired from her service, and she incurred fresh
+suspicion by her flighty and undignified conduct. She had no part in the
+rejoicing for the marriage, or in the mourning for the death, of the
+Princess Charlotte; and in 1818 a secret commission, afterwards known as
+the Milan commission, was sent out by the prince regent to collect
+evidence for a divorce suit. Not only Liverpool, but Eldon, who had
+formerly stood her friend, concurred in the appointment of this
+commission, promoted by Sir John Leach, and its report was the
+foundation of the proceedings now taken against her.
+
+These proceedings were immediately due to her own action in returning to
+England in June, 1820, but this action was not wholly unprovoked. She
+had long and bitterly resented her official exclusion from foreign
+courts, and when, after the king's accession, her name was omitted from
+the prayer-book, she protested against it as an intolerable insult.
+Contrary to the advice of her wisest partisans, including Brougham, she
+persisted in braving the wrath of the king and throwing herself upon the
+people. She was received at Dover with acclamations from immense
+multitudes; and her journey to and through London was a continued
+ovation. Not that her innocence was established even in the popular
+mind, but that, innocent or guilty, she was regarded as a persecuted
+woman, and persecuted by a worthless husband. The ministry fulfilled its
+promise to the king by moving the house of lords to institute an inquiry
+into the queen's conduct. Pending this, conferences took place between
+Wellington and Castlereagh, on the part of the king, and Brougham and
+Denman on that of the queen. It was at once laid down as a preliminary
+basis of the negotiation that neither should the king be understood to
+retract, nor the queen to admit, any allegation against her. The points
+upon which she inflexibly insisted were, the recognition of her royal
+status at foreign courts, through an official introduction by the
+British ambassador, and the insertion of her name in the prayer-book.
+
+The house of commons, on the motion of Wilberforce, offered to protect
+her honour (whatever that might import) on condition of her waiving this
+last point, but she courteously declined its conciliatory proposals on
+June 22. On July 4 a secret committee of the house of lords recommended
+a solemn investigation, to be carried out "in the course of a
+legislative proceeding," and on the 8th Liverpool introduced a bill of
+pains and penalties, to deprive her of her title, and to dissolve her
+marriage. The second reading of this bill was formally set down for
+August 17, and for several weeks afterwards the house of lords was
+occupied in hearing evidence in support of the charges against her. The
+whole country was deluged with the squalid details of this evidence, the
+ministers were insulted, and the sympathy of the populace with her cause
+was obtrusively displayed in every part of the kingdom. On October 3,
+after an adjournment of the lords, Brougham opened the defence in the
+most celebrated of his speeches. On November 2 the lord chancellor,
+Eldon, moved the second reading of the bill, and on the 8th it was
+carried by a majority of twenty-eight. Four days later, on the third
+reading, the majority had dwindled to nine only. Knowing the temper of
+the house of commons, Liverpool treated such a victory as almost
+equivalent to a defeat, and announced that the government would not
+proceed further with the measure.
+
+Had the queen possessed the virtue of self-respect or dignity, she would
+have been satisfied with this legislative, though not morally decisive,
+acquittal. But she was intoxicated with popular applause, largely due to
+her royal consort's vices, and, after London had been illuminated for
+three nights in her honour, she declined overtures from the government,
+and appealed for a maintenance to the house of commons, which granted
+her an annuity of L50,000 in the next session. But she never lived to
+enjoy it After going in procession to St. Paul's, to return thanks for
+her deliverance, on the 29th, and vainly attempting, once more, to
+procure the mention of her name in the prayer-book, she concentrated her
+efforts on a claim of right to be crowned with the king. No government
+could have conceded this claim, and, when it had been refused by the
+privy council, her solemn protests were inevitably vain. Even her least
+prudent counsellors would assuredly have dissuaded her from the attempt
+which she made to force an entrance into Westminster Abbey on the
+coronation day, July 19, 1821. It was a painful scene when she, who had
+so lately been the idol of the fickle populace, was turned away from the
+doors amidst conflicting exclamations of derision and pity. A fortnight
+later, on August 2, she was officially reported to be seriously ill; on
+the 7th she was no more. In accordance with her own direction her body
+was buried at Brunswick. Her ill-founded popularity was shown for the
+last time, when a riotous multitude succeeded in diverting her funeral
+procession, and forcing it to pass through the city on its way to
+Harwich. But it did not survive her long; the people were becoming tired
+of her, and the king, who had forfeited the respect of the middle and
+upper classes, was less hated by the lower classes after her death.
+
+[Pageheading: _GEORGE IV. IN IRELAND._]
+
+The personal character and opinions of George IV. seem to have
+influenced politics less during the early years of his reign than during
+his long regency. His coronation was celebrated with unprecedented
+magnificence, and amidst external demonstrations of loyalty, hard to
+reconcile with the unbounded enthusiasm which the queen had so lately
+inspired. Soon afterwards, he sailed in his yacht from Portsmouth on a
+voyage to Ireland, but put into Holyhead and there awaited news of the
+queen's expected death. This reached him at last, and probably impressed
+him, no less than his ministers, as "the greatest of all possible
+deliverances, both to his majesty and the country".[68] He proceeded to
+Dublin in one of the earliest steam-packets, and secluded himself until
+"the corpse of his wife was supposed to have left England".[69] He then
+plunged into a round of festivities, and pleased all classes of Irishmen
+by his affable and condescending manners. He was, indeed, the first
+sovereign of England who had appeared in Ireland on a mission of peace.
+John William Ward, afterwards fourth Viscount Dudley in his letters,
+describes him as having behaved like a popular candidate on an
+electioneering trip, and surmises that "if the day before he left
+Ireland, he had stood for Dublin, he might have turned out Shaw or
+Grattan ".[70] Certain it is that his visit to Ireland was regarded as
+an important political event. The same kind of success attended his
+visit to Scotland in August of the following year, 1822. Thenceforth, he
+scarcely figures in political life until the resignation of Lord
+Liverpool in 1827, and though he consented with reluctance to Canning's
+tenure of the foreign office, he did not attempt to interfere with the
+change in foreign policy consequent upon it. He was, in fact, sinking
+more and more into an apathetic voluptuary; but he could rouse himself,
+and exhibit some proofs of ability, under the impulse of his brothers,
+the honest Duke of York and the arch-intriguer, the Duke of Cumberland.
+
+The cry for retrenchment, now taken up by the country gentlemen, and not
+unmingled with suggestions for a partial repudiation of the national
+debt, compelled the government to adopt a policy of strict economy.
+Accordingly, in 1822, Vansittart introduced a scheme for the conversion
+of the so-called "Navy 5 per cents.," which resulted in a saving of
+above L1,000,000 annually. He also carried a more questionable scheme
+for the payment of military, naval, and civil pensions, which then
+amounted to L4,900,000 a year, but were falling in rapidly; the money
+required for this purpose was to be borrowed by trustees, and was to be
+repaid in the course of forty-five years at the rate of L2,800,000 a
+year; in this way an immediate saving of about L2,000,000 annually was
+effected at the cost, however, of the next generation. By means of these
+expedients, with a considerable reduction of official salaries, the
+government was enabled to repeal the additional duty on malt, to
+diminish the duties on salt and leather, and, on the whole to remit
+about L3,500,000 of taxes. When the entire credit of financial reform is
+given to Huskisson, Joseph Hume, and other economists of the new school,
+it should not be forgotten that a beginning was made by economists of
+the old school, before Huskisson joined the government in 1823, or
+Robinson took Vansittart's place as chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+From the beginning of this reign a more enlightened spirit may be traced
+in parliamentary debates. This was aided by the growth of a
+constitutional movement in favour of reform in parliament as the first
+step towards a redress of grievances. The movement left its first trace
+on the statute-book in a measure carried by Lord John Russell in the
+session of 1821 for the disfranchisement of Grampound, though the vacant
+seats were transferred to the county of York, instead of to the
+"village" of Leeds or some other of the great unrepresented cities. This
+was the first instance of the actual disfranchisement of a constituency,
+though it was not without precedent that the franchise of a corrupt
+borough should be extended to the freeholders of the surrounding
+district. A notable sign of the progressive change was the
+reconstruction of the cabinet in 1822. Liverpool, who always possessed
+the gift of working harmoniously with colleagues of different views and
+felt the weakness of his present ministry, once more attempted to bring
+about a coalition with the Grenville party in the opposition. Grenville
+had long been drifting away from his alliance with Grey, and had been a
+stout advocate of repressive legislation which the more advanced whigs
+opposed. Though he declined office for himself, several of his relatives
+and adherents were rewarded with minor appointments, his cousin, Charles
+Wynn, became president of the board of control, in succession to
+Bragge-Bathurst, who had himself succeeded Canning in the previous year,
+and his nephew, the Marquis of Buckingham, obtained a dukedom. Such
+recruits added little strength to the Liverpool government, and Holland
+well said that "all articles are now to be had at low prices, except
+Grenvilles".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+But Liverpool gained far more powerful coadjutors in the Marquis
+Wellesley, Peel, and Canning. In December, 1821, Wellesley undertook the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, which had relapsed into so disturbed a
+state that it had been proposed to make Wellington both viceroy and
+commander-in-chief. The significance of this selection was increased by
+the appointment of Plunket as attorney-general. Sidmouth, while
+retaining his seat in the cabinet, retired, by his own wish, from the
+office of home secretary, with a sense of having pacified the country,
+and was succeeded by Peel. Castlereagh, now Marquis of Londonderry,
+remained foreign secretary, but on August 12, 1822, as he was on the
+point of setting out for the congress of Verona, he died, like Whitbread
+and Romilly, by his own hand. His suicidal act was clearly due to a
+morbid fit of depression, under the stress of anxieties protracted over
+more than twenty years; and the disordered state of his mind had been
+observed, not only by Wellington, but also by the king. His successor
+was Canning, who also became leader of the house of commons.
+
+The characters and political aims of these rival statesmen have often
+been contrasted by historians of a later age, who have seldom done
+justice to Castlereagh. It is remembered that he was the author of the
+Walcheren expedition; it is forgotten that he was the advocate of
+sending a powerful force to the Baltic coast at the critical moment
+between Jena and Eylau, that he was not altogether responsible for the
+delays which rendered the Walcheren expedition abortive or for the
+choice of its incompetent commander, that his prime object was to strike
+a crushing blow at Napoleon's naval power, and that, if his
+instructions had been obeyed, this would have been effected by a rapid
+advance upon Antwerp when nearly all the French troops had been
+withdrawn from the Netherlands. It is remembered that he was at the war
+office when the operations of Wellington in the Peninsula were crippled
+for want of supplies; it is forgotten that it was he who selected
+Wellington, and that he loyally strained every nerve to keep him
+supplied with troops, provisions, and specie, when few but himself
+believed in the policy of the Peninsular war, and Sir John Moore had
+assured him that if the French dominated Spain, they could not be
+resisted in Portugal. It is remembered--or rather it is assumed--that he
+was the eager promoter of coercive and reactionary legislation at home;
+it is forgotten, or ignored, that he was among the earliest and
+staunchest advocates of catholic emancipation, and that a despotic
+temper is belied by the whole tone of his speeches. Above all, he is
+unjustly credited, in the face of direct evidence to the contrary, with
+being the champion of absolutism in the councils of Europe, the fact
+being not only that his voice was always on the side of moderation and
+conciliation, but that Canning himself, on succeeding him, dissociated
+Great Britain from the holy alliance by taking his stand upon an
+admirable despatch of Castlereagh and adopting it as his own. When he
+met with his tragical end, the brutal shouts of exultation raised by a
+portion of the crowd at his funeral were the expression of sheer
+ignorance and not of intelligent public opinion. He was a tory, in days
+when most patriots were tories, but he was a tory of the best type; and
+we of a later generation can see that few statesmen of George III.'s
+reign have left a purer reputation or rendered greater services to their
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING AND PEEL._]
+
+George Canning, his successor, has been far more favourably judged by
+posterity, and not without reason, if intellectual brilliancy is a
+supreme test of political merit. A firm adherent of Pitt, and a somewhat
+unscrupulous critic of Addington, he was probably the first
+parliamentary orator of the nineteenth century, with the possible
+exception of Sheridan. Pitt's eloquence was of a loftier and simpler
+type, Fox's was more impetuous and spontaneous; Peel's range of
+political knowledge was far wider; Gladstone excelled all, not only in
+length of experience but in readiness and dialectical resource.
+Canning's rhetoric was of a finer quality and was combined with great
+debating power, but he was a man to inspire admiration rather than
+confidence, and had not held one of the higher political offices since
+his resignation in 1809, after his quarrel with Castlereagh. He accepted
+a mission to Portugal, however, and was in Lisbon when Napoleon returned
+from Elba. In 1816, as has been seen, he became president of the board
+of control, but, having been formerly one of the queen's advisers, he
+declined to have anything to do with her trial and remained abroad
+during its continuance. In December, 1820, he returned, but persisted in
+resigning his place at the board of control on the supposed ground that
+further parliamentary discussion of the queen's case was inevitable. On
+this occasion he received a special vote of thanks from the directors of
+the East India Company for his services on the board. The king objected
+to his readmission after the queen's death, and he was a private member
+of parliament when he was offered and undertook the governor-generalship
+of India in March, 1822. But his departure was delayed until August, and
+he was on his way to bid farewell to his constituents at Liverpool when
+Castlereagh destroyed himself. It was generally felt that no other man
+was so well qualified as Canning to succeed him. But the king declared
+his "final and unalterable decision" to sanction no such change. Though
+he afterwards relented, on the remonstrances of Wellington, he did so
+with a bad grace; but there was no delay on Canning's part in accepting
+the foreign secretaryship thus offered. From his acceptance may be dated
+the most remarkable part of his career.
+
+The accession of Peel to the Liverpool ministry, in the capacity of home
+secretary; was only less important than that of Canning. Hitherto, Peel
+had mostly been known to the British public as chief secretary for
+Ireland, and as chairman of the committee which, in 1819, recommended
+the early resumption of cash payments. In both these posts he displayed
+a certain moderation and independence of mind, combined with a rare
+capacity for business, which marked him out as a great administrator.
+This promise he amply fulfilled as home secretary. He was the first
+minister of the crown who took up the philanthropic work of Romilly and
+Mackintosh, largely reducing the number of offences for which capital
+punishment could be inflicted. He was also the first to reform the
+police system of London, and to substitute for a multitude of decrepit
+watchmen, incapable of dealing with gangs of active criminals, a
+disciplined body of stalwart constables, which has since been copied in
+every county and large town of Great Britain. Above all, while he cannot
+be said to have shown a statesmanlike insight or foresight of the
+highest order, he could read the signs of the times and the temper of
+his countrymen with a sagacity far beyond that of his predecessor,
+Sidmouth, or of such politicians as Eldon and Castlereagh. In him was
+represented the domestic policy of Pitt in his earlier days, as Pitt's
+financial views were represented in Huskisson, who had actually served
+under him.
+
+Though Huskisson was only made president of the board of trade, in
+January, 1823, and not chancellor of the exchequer, it is certain that
+his mind controlled that of Robinson, who succeeded Vansittart in that
+position. Vansittart, who was created Lord Bexley, succeeded
+Bragge-Bathurst as chancellor of the duchy. The cabinet changes were
+completed in October by the removal of Wellesley Pole, now Lord
+Maryborough, from the office of master of the mint. Huskisson, if any
+man, was the leading pioneer of free trade, and there can be little
+doubt that, had he not died prematurely, its adoption would have been
+hastened by ten or fifteen years. In his first year of office he
+welcomed petitions for the repeal of the import duties on foreign wool,
+but failed to convince the wool manufacturers that it must be
+accompanied by the abolition of export duties on British wool. The
+proposed reform was, therefore, dropped, and a like fate befell his
+attempt in the same year to benefit the silk trade by abolishing certain
+vexatious restrictions upon it, including the practice of fixing the
+wages of Spitalfields weavers by an order of the magistrates. For the
+moment the ignorant outcry of the journeymen themselves prevailed over
+their real interests, but in the following year, 1824, Huskisson carried
+a much wider measure, providing that foreign silks, hitherto excluded,
+should be admitted subject to a duty of 30 per cent. in and after 1826,
+and another measure for the joint relief of wool growers and wool
+manufacturers which imposed a small duty of equal amount on the
+importation and the exportation of wool.
+
+His great achievement in 1823 was the reform of the navigation laws.
+These acts, dating from the commonwealth and the restoration, gave
+British shipowners a qualified monopoly of the carrying trade, since
+they prohibited the importation of European goods except in British
+ships or ships of the producing country, while the importation of goods
+from other quarters of the world was confined to British ships only.
+America had protested against this exclusive system, and it was
+abandoned, as regards the United States, by the treaty of Ghent in 1814.
+The mercantile states of Europe soon followed the example of America,
+and the reciprocity of duties bill, introduced by Huskisson on June 6,
+1823, conceded equal rights to all countries reciprocating the
+concession, only retaining the exclusion against such countries as might
+reject equality of trade. The change involved some hardship to
+shipowners who had built their vessels with timber bought at prices
+raised by heavy duties, but they were too shortsighted to accept the
+compromise offered by Huskisson. Before long, however, the act was
+justified, and the shipowners compensated by a rapid increase in British
+shipping.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGRICULTURAL DISCONTENT._]
+
+For nearly five years after the accession of George IV. the state of the
+country was, on the whole, more prosperous, and the industrial classes
+were more contented, than in the five years next preceding. Such
+restlessness as there was prevailed among farmers and agricultural
+labourers rather than among workmen in the manufacturing districts, and
+in 1823 every branch of manufactures was reported to be flourishing. It
+is difficult for a later generation, accustomed to consider 30s. a
+quarter a fair price for wheat, to understand the perennial complaints
+and petitions of the agricultural interest when 60s. a quarter was
+regarded as a low price for wheat, and the cultivation of wheat extended
+over a vastly larger area than it does at present. Nor is the difficulty
+lessened, when we remember the miserably low rate of wages then paid by
+farmers. A partial explanation may be found in the fact that what they
+saved in wages they lost in poor rates, and that most agricultural
+products except corn were sold at a very small profit. The high poor
+rates were the result of the disastrous system of giving allowances to
+labourers.
+
+But there were other evils caused by the vicious policy pursued by the
+government. The encouragement of home production had led to the
+enclosure of land not fit for cultivation, so that a slight fall in
+prices meant ruin to many farmers. Moreover, the corn laws, though
+framed for the purpose of arresting fluctuations in price, actually
+increased fluctuations and thus enhanced the risks attending
+agricultural enterprise. Nor were landlords who had thriven on war
+prices, and raised the scale of their establishments as if these prices
+were to be perpetual, willing to reduce their rents on the return of
+peace. Rent was said to have risen 70 per cent. since 1792; but the
+landlords were often embarrassed, because their lands had too often been
+burdened with jointures, settlements, and mortgages during the war. It
+was in their interest that the act of 1815, which aimed at maintaining
+war prices, had been passed. But the deeper reason for all this clamour
+from the rural districts was the stagnation of ideas, and incapacity of
+improvement, engendered by an artificial monopoly of the national food
+supply. This was not the special lesson impressed upon landlords or
+tenants by Cobbett, whose violent and delusive writings had a large
+circulation in the country. But his teaching was so far beneficial that
+it quickened the demand for parliamentary reform, though the fruits of
+that reform were destined to be very different from the expectations
+which he excited.
+
+[Pageheading: _SPECULATIVE FRENZY._]
+
+The spell of general prosperity which, in spite of some distress in the
+rural districts, prevailed in the years 1820-23 was somewhat broken in
+1824 by strikes and outrages in the manufacturing districts. Strikes for
+higher wages naturally arose out of the increase in mill owners'
+profits, and the ferocious spirit displayed by the strikers against
+masters and fellow-workmen was attributed by reformers to the one-sided
+operation of the combination laws. Accordingly, a committee of the house
+of commons reported in favour of repealing these laws, and also part of
+the common law which treated coercion either by trade unions or by
+masters as conspiracy. A bill founded on this report was hastily passed,
+with the natural result that strikes broke out in every quarter of the
+country; wholesale and cruel oppression was practised by trade
+unionists, and it became necessary for parliament to retrace its steps.
+Under a new act, passed in 1825, which continued in force until very
+recent times, trade unions were recognised as legal, but their worst
+malpractices were once more brought within the control of the criminal
+law.[71] So far the commercial policy of Huskisson was justified, as a
+whole, by its effects on trade, and the session of 1824 was closed on
+June 25 by a cheerful speech from the king, in which the disturbed state
+of Ireland was the only topic suggestive of anxiety. Already, however,
+the revival of commercial hopefulness at home, with the opening of new
+markets in South America, was paving the way for the most ruinous mania
+of speculation known in England since the south sea bubble. It was well
+that sound and sober-minded economists now guided the action of the
+government, and that Liverpool proved himself a worthy successor of Sir
+Robert Walpole during the great financial crisis of 1825.[72]
+
+The speculative frenzy of 1825 differed from the railway mania of the
+next generation in that it had no solid basis of remunerative
+investment. The development of the railway system, after the application
+of locomotive steam engines to iron tramways, offered a legitimate
+promise of large profits, and this promise would have been still more
+amply realised but for the shameful waste of capital on competition and
+law expenses. It was otherwise with the dupes and victims of the rage
+for speculation which possessed all classes of society in 1825, and
+arose out of an immense accumulation of wealth for which no safe
+employment could be found at home except at a modest rate of interest.
+The weakening of the hold of Spain on South America left her colonies
+open to foreign trade, but the enterprises there and elsewhere which
+absorbed the hard-won savings of humble families, by thousands and tens
+of thousands, were nearly all chimerical, and some of them grotesque in
+their absurdity. Whether or not warming-pans and skates were actually
+exported to the tropics, it is certain that Scotch dairy-women emigrated
+to Buenos Ayres for the purpose of milking wild cows and churning butter
+for people who preferred oil. The incredible multiplication of
+bubble-companies was facilitated by a marvellous cheapness of money,
+largely due to an inordinate issue of notes by country bankers, and even
+by the Bank of England, in spite of the fact that gold and silver were
+known to be leaving the country in vast quantities, especially in the
+shape of loans to France. The inevitable reaction came when the Bank of
+England contracted its issue of notes in order to arrest the drain of
+gold; goods recklessly bought up had to be sold at a fearful loss, bills
+upon which advances had been made proved to be of no value, and several
+great London banking houses stopped payment, bringing down in their fall
+a much larger number of country banks dependent on them.
+
+In the month of December, 1825, the crisis was at its height, and it is
+stated that within six or seven weeks after the failure of the banking
+firm of Pole & Company on the 5th, sixty or seventy banks had broken.
+The king's speech in July had congratulated parliament on increasing
+prosperity and had betrayed no misgivings about its stability. When the
+crash came, however, the ministers showed no want of firmness or
+resource. They could not repair the consequences of national folly, but
+they devoted themselves with intelligence to a restoration of credit.
+For this purpose they suppressed at once the further issue of small
+notes from country banks by a high-handed act of authority, for which
+they admitted that an act of indemnity might be needed. At the same time
+they rapidly increased the supply of small notes from the Bank of
+England, and of coin from the mint. Moreover, they induced the Bank of
+England to establish branches in a few provincial towns and to make
+advances upon merchants' goods to the amount of three millions. It cost
+a greater effort to break down the monopoly of the Bank of England by
+legalising joint-stock banks in the provinces, though not within a
+distance of sixty-five miles from London. Such practical expedients as
+these, seconded by the good sense of the mercantile community, proved
+sufficient to avert a catastrophe only less disastrous than national
+bankruptcy. With the subsidence of alarm, the causes of alarm also
+subsided, the recuperative powers of the country reasserted themselves,
+as during the great war, and the heart-breaking anxieties of 1825-26
+were ignored, if not forgotten, in the political excitement of 1827.[73]
+
+[Pageheading: _ECONOMIC REFORM._]
+
+The budgets of 1823-26 indeed mark a memorable advance in financial
+reform, which the commercial panic of 1825 scarcely interrupted. There
+had been a reduction of the national debt by about L25,000,000. "The
+poorer householders had been relieved from the pressure both of house
+tax and window tax. The manufacturing classes had been encouraged by
+the reduction of the duties on silk, wool, and iron. The consuming
+classes had been benefited by the reduction of duties on spirits, wines,
+coffee, and sugar."[74] Owing to Huskisson's enlightened policy the old
+navigation laws had been repealed upon the condition of reciprocity; the
+combination laws had been liberally revised; various bounties had been
+abandoned on free trade principles, and the monstrous evils of smuggling
+had been greatly abated. If the chancellor of the exchequer could show
+no surplus in 1826, he could at least boast that after so desperate a
+crisis there was no deficit, and he had no reason to be ashamed of
+Cobbett's nickname, "Prosperity Robinson," which he owed to his
+optimism, largely founded upon facts. Before the close of the year 1826,
+however, this optimism received a rude shock. The agitation against the
+corn laws assumed an acuter form than ever, and Huskisson prudently
+deprecated it on the simple ground that no effective action could be
+taken in an expiring parliament. Distress had recurred in the
+manufacturing districts; mills and power-looms were again destroyed. The
+free trade policy of Huskisson was vigorously attacked in parliament,
+but it was successfully defended in powerful speeches by Canning as well
+as by himself. Ultimately the government, having obtained limited powers
+from parliament to admit foreign corn during the temporary emergency,
+had the courage to exceed those powers and seek an indemnity from the
+next parliament.
+
+The dissolution of 1826, closing the life of one of the longest
+parliaments in modern times, was the prelude to a very eventful year.
+The general election brought into prominence the two burning questions
+of catholic relief and the corn laws, and unseated for the moment
+Brougham, Cobbett, Hunt, and Lord John Russell, but it produced no
+material change in the balance of parties. Little was done in the short
+autumn session, but when parliament met again early in February, 1827,
+great events had already cast their shadows before. The Duke of York,
+heir-presumptive to the crown, had died on January 5. He was known to be
+a strong tory in politics, but, in spite of this, and of the scandals
+which attached to his name in earlier years, he enjoyed a considerable
+share of popular confidence. Compared with his elder brother, he was
+respected; he was a true Englishman, like his father, whom he resembled
+in character; his administration of the army had survived hostile
+criticism, while a declaration which he had recently made against
+catholic emancipation had produced a profound impression on public
+opinion. Much less was known of the Duke of Clarence, who stood next in
+succession. He had already injured himself in public estimation by
+declining the increased allowance offered him, and then claiming it with
+arrears; nor did he now improve his position in the eyes of his future
+subjects by stickling for a larger addition to it than parliament was
+disposed to grant. But the Duke of York's death was followed by a far
+more important incident. Liverpool was disabled by illness from
+attending his funeral, which, occurring in the depth of winter, proved
+directly fatal to one of those who were present, and seriously weakened
+the constitutions of others, including Canning. On February 8, the first
+day of the session, Liverpool was in his place, though in broken health,
+and on the 17th he took a feeble part in the debate on the grant to the
+Duke of Clarence. On the following morning he was struck down by a
+paralytic seizure, and, though his life was prolonged for two years, he
+never recovered the use of his faculties.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLOSE OF LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+Liverpool's disappearance from the political scenes may be said to mark
+an epoch in the later history of England. Though only fifty-six years of
+age, he had been continuously in office for twenty years, and prime
+minister for fifteen, a tenure of power which none of his predecessors
+had exceeded except Walpole and Pitt. His lot was cast in the most
+critical period of the great war, and in the long night of adversity and
+anxiety which ushered in the "thirty years' peace". As foreign secretary
+he conducted the negotiations for the peace of Amiens; as home secretary
+he led the house of lords and was responsible for the government of
+Ireland; as secretary for war and the colonies he gave Wellington a
+steady, if not ardent, support in those apparently barren campaigns
+which strained the national patience; as prime minister he guided the
+ship of state in all the difficulties of foreign and domestic affairs
+which arose between 1812 and 1827. Castlereagh may have been the most
+influential minister in the earlier years of his administration, and
+Canning in the later, but he was never the mere tool of either; on the
+contrary, it Is certain that he was treated with respect and deference
+by all his numerous colleagues. In general capacity and debating power
+he was inferior to few of them; in temper, judgment, and experience he
+was superior to all.
+
+He may be said to have lived and died without "a policy," in so far as
+he forebore to identify himself with any of the great questions then
+pressing for solution. His real policy both at home and abroad was one
+of moderation and conciliation; he looked at party divisions almost with
+the eyes of a permanent official who can work loyally with chiefs of
+either party; and he succeeded in keeping together in his cabinet
+ambitious rivals who never would have co-operated under any other
+leader. This is not the road to fame, neither is it the course which men
+of imperious character like Castlereagh, or Canning, or Wellington, in
+his place, would have adopted. But Canning and Wellington actually
+proved themselves incapable of winning the confidence which Liverpool so
+long retained, and the whig government which followed them fell to
+pieces in two years. Moderation in statesmanship does not always imply
+mediocrity of ability; and if Liverpool failed to see how many
+institutions needed radical amendment, he was not so blind as some of
+his more celebrated associates. Not only was he more liberal in his
+views than Eldon and Castlereagh, but he was less opposed to free trade
+than most of his cabinet, to parliamentary reform than Canning, and to
+catholic emancipation than Wellington or Peel. His fault was that he did
+not act upon his own inward convictions with sufficient promptitude, or
+assert his own authority with sufficient energy. Had he done so, the
+beneficial measures of the last years of his administration might have
+been anticipated, and the country might have been spared much of the
+misery which darkened the close of George III.'s reign.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[68] Lord Londonderry in Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 432.
+
+[69] Harriet Martineau, _History of England During the Thirty Years'
+Peace_, i., 274.
+
+[70] _Letters to Copleston_, p. 295.
+
+[71] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_ (edit. 1903), pp. 756-59. Compare Dicey, _Law and Opinion in
+England_, pp. 190-200.
+
+[72] The graphic description of this crisis in Harriet Martineau's
+_History of the Thirty Years' Peace_, i., 355-66, deserves to be studied
+and remembered as a masterpiece of social portraiture by a contemporary.
+
+[73] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_, p. 823.
+
+[74] Walpole's _History of England_, vol. ii., p. 187.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X.
+
+                     PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+The events of the year 1820 subjected the European concert to a severe
+strain. An insurrection broke out in Spain on January 1, and on March 9
+the king was forced to swear fidelity to the obsolete constitution of
+1812. The result was to plunge the country into disorder, as both the
+clerical party and the extreme revolutionists refused to accept the
+constitution. Meanwhile the assassination by a working man of the Duke
+of Berry, who died on February 14, 1820, had occasioned a new royalist
+reaction in France, and had increased the general fear of the
+revolutionary party. The Bourbon succession had seemed to depend on his
+life, for his son, the Count of Chambord, was posthumous. On receiving
+the news of the Spanish revolution the tsar, already tiring of his
+liberal enthusiasm, fell back on his scheme for exercising paternal
+discipline over Europe. He proposed in April that the ambassadors at
+Paris should issue a joint remonstrance requiring the Spanish cortes to
+disavow the revolution, and to enact severe laws against sedition.
+Failing this, he proposed joint intervention, and offered for his own
+part to send an army of 15,000 men through North Italy and southern
+France to co-operate in the suppression of the revolution. To this
+Castlereagh replied that England would never consent to a joint
+intervention in Spain. Metternich was too much displeased with the
+Russian encouragement of secret societies in Italy to wish to see
+Russian troops in that country, and both Castlereagh and Metternich
+wished to keep Spain free from French influence. In the face of this
+opposition Russia could not, and France would not, do anything, and all
+thought of intervention was postponed. It was the last time that
+Castlereagh was able to assert the principle of non-intervention
+without breaking up the European concert.
+
+[Pageheading: _REVOLUTIONS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE._]
+
+July and August saw three new revolutions. A rebellion at Nola on July 2
+ended in King Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies taking the oath on the 13th
+to the Spanish constitution, then regarded as a model by the liberals of
+Southern Europe. But the grant of a constitution to Naples suggested a
+demand for independence at Palermo. On July 17-18 that city rose in
+revolt and was only subdued by the Neapolitans in the beginning of
+October. Portugal, too, was in a disturbed state. The royal family had
+been absent for nearly thirteen years, and the country had for five
+years been governed by Lord, afterwards Viscount, Beresford as marshal
+and commander of the Portuguese army. In April, 1820, he sailed for
+Brazil, intending to induce the king, John VI., to return. During his
+absence a revolution took place at Oporto on August 24, a provisional
+government was established, and all British officers were dismissed.
+This was followed by a similar revolution at Lisbon on September 15.
+Beresford on his return was forbidden to land, and retired to England.
+On November 11, the Spanish constitution was proclaimed in Portugal, but
+six days later another proclamation left the question of determining the
+constitution to the cortes which were to be elected on a popular
+suffrage.
+
+The Neapolitan revolution raised at once the question of intervention.
+In this case Castlereagh held that Austria had a right to interfere,
+because her position as an Italian power was endangered by the
+revolution, and because the revolution was a breach of the secret treaty
+of 1815 which had received the sanction of the British government. He
+still objected to any joint interference and was opposed to the
+reference of the question to a congress. Austria could not have
+interfered alone without offending the tsar, who clung to the principle
+of joint action. The question of intervention was therefore postponed
+for the present. France, however, being jealous of Austrian influence in
+Italy, demanded the meeting of a congress, and such a meeting was
+accordingly held at Troppau on October 20. To this congress Austria,
+France, Prussia, and Russia sent plenipotentiaries. Great Britain
+carried her opposition to joint interference so far as to refuse to join
+in the deliberations, though Sir Charles, now Lord, Stewart was sent to
+Troppau to watch the proceedings. Metternich, on finding that he could
+not avoid the meeting of a congress, determined to lead its proceedings,
+and, before it met, drew up a memorandum defining his own views about
+intervention. These views were accepted at the congress by Prussia and
+Russia as well as by Austria; and a protocol was issued by the three
+powers declaring that a state in which a revolution should occur was
+dangerous to other states, and ceased to be a member of the European
+alliance, until it could give guarantees for its future stability. If
+such a revolution placed other states in immediate danger, the allied
+powers were bound to intervene by peaceful means, if possible, or if
+need were, by arms. Before parting, the congress invited Ferdinand of
+the Two Sicilies to attend an adjourned meeting, to assemble early in
+the following year at Laibach.[75] Against these decisions Castlereagh
+protested in vigorous terms, and more especially against any possible
+application of the principle of intervention to England; France under
+the Duke of Richelieu joined in neither the protocol nor the protest.
+The liberal tendencies of the tsar had been quenched by recent events,
+so that, instead of a concert of Europe, there was left only a concert
+of absolute monarchs.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRIAN INTERVENTION._]
+
+In January, 1821, the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia met the
+King of the Two Sicilies at Laibach. France had vainly attempted to
+mediate between the King of the Two Sicilies and his people. But the
+Neapolitans were not satisfied with any vague promise of a constitution,
+and before allowing their king to depart for Laibach, held him pledged
+to the observance of an impossible condition, the maintenance of the
+Spanish constitution of 1812. The king's oath to preserve this
+particularly objectionable constitution was regarded by Austria as
+sufficient to preclude negotiation, and it was resolved that she should
+restore him by force as an absolute monarch, and should occupy the
+Neapolitan territory. The duration of this occupation was reserved as a
+question to be discussed at the next European congress, which it was
+intended to hold at Florence in the autumn of the next year. After a
+show of resistance at Rieti the Neapolitans submitted, and the Austrian
+army entered Naples on March 24. The restoration of absolute government
+was accompanied by severities towards the constitutionalists, but
+Austria would not allow any repetition of the bloodshed of 1799.
+
+While the Austrian army was marching southwards, a new revolution broke
+out in Piedmont. The Spanish constitution was proclaimed at Alessandria
+on March 10, and at Turin on the 12th. On the 13th, Victor Emmanuel I.,
+King of Sardinia, abdicated, appointing as regent his distant cousin
+Prince Charles Albert of Carignano, who had been in communication with
+the revolutionary party. The regent immediately accepted the Spanish
+constitution on condition of the maintenance of the line of succession
+and of the Roman catholic religion. The new king, Charles Felix, was at
+Modena when the revolt occurred. He refused to acknowledge the new
+constitution, and ordered Charles Albert to betake himself to Novara,
+where the royalist troops were collecting. On the night of the 21st,
+Charles Albert fled from Turin to Novara, but the constitutional party
+did not submit without a struggle. On April 8 the Austrians crossed the
+frontier and, uniting with the royalists, defeated the constitutionalists
+at Novara. Two days later the royalist army entered Turin. The two
+Italian revolutions had thus ended in an Austrian occupation of the two
+largest Italian states which were not ruled by members of the imperial
+house. The Papal States were now the only Italian principality of any
+size which was not dominated by Austria.
+
+So far Austria had been sufficiently powerful in the congresses of the
+powers to be able to prevent interference with other states where it was
+not to her interest, and to incline the balance in favour of it where
+intervention would strengthen her. The reopening of the Eastern question
+made her ascendency more difficult to maintain. The congress of Laibach
+had been closed, but the sovereigns had not yet departed, when the news
+arrived that a revolt, engineered by Greeks with the pretence of Russian
+support, had broken out against the Turks in Moldavia and Wallachia.
+Russia at once agreed with Austria that the principle laid down at
+Troppau applied to this revolt; the insurrectionary leaders were
+disowned by Russia, and by the end of June Turkish authority was
+restored in the Danubian principalities. So far the action of Russia had
+met with the approval not only of Austria but of Great Britain, and
+Castlereagh had written to Alexander urging him not to join the Greek
+cause, which appeared to him to be part of an universal revolutionary
+movement.
+
+Early in April, however, a more serious insurrection broke out in the
+Morea, and was followed a few weeks later by one in Central Greece. The
+war was disgraced from the first by inhuman massacres on both sides. The
+Greek patriarch at Constantinople together with three archbishops was
+executed by the Turks on Easter Sunday, April 22. A great ferment in
+Russia was the result, where the people were anxious to assist their
+co-religionists and to avenge the death of the patriarch, whom they
+regarded as a martyr. The grievances of the Orthodox religion were
+seconded by the proper grievances of Russia. Greek ships, sailing under
+the Russian flag, had been seized in the Dardanelles; the principalities
+of Moldavia and Wallachia had not been evacuated by the Turkish troops
+as was required by treaty, while an ancient treaty rendered it possible
+to regard the wrongs of the Greek Church as the political wrongs of
+Russia. A Russian ultimatum was despatched on June 28; and, while
+awaiting a reply, Russia consulted the other powers as to the course
+they would pursue in the event of war breaking out between Russia and
+Turkey, and the system with which they would propose to replace the
+Turkish domination if it came to be destroyed. The principle of joint
+intervention, adopted at Troppau, seemed to require the powers to give
+their support to Russia. Great Britain and Austria, however, refused to
+treat war with Turkey as a possibility. The Greek revolt seemed to them
+to express the principle of revolution, and the tsar himself became
+inclined to take this view of the situation when the Greeks established
+an advanced republican form of government. They accordingly
+distinguished between the treaty rights of Russia, which the four powers
+would urge Turkey to respect, and the provision of a more secure state
+of order in Turkey, which would be discussed at a European congress. The
+Russian ambassador had been withdrawn from Constantinople on August 8,
+and the negotiation was conducted mainly by Lord Strangford, the British
+ambassador at Constantinople, who was supported by Austria, France, and
+Prussia. He succeeded in inducing Turkey to evacuate the principalities
+and to open the Dardanelles to ships of all nations, but Turkish
+obstinacy deferred the conclusion of a treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish question became more critical. As time went on
+Spain grew less instead of more settled, while the ultra-royalist party
+gained strength in France. To them the position to which the Bourbon
+King of Spain had been reduced seemed at once an insult and a menace to
+France. The establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy made them long
+for French supremacy in Spain. In August, 1821, the presence of yellow
+fever in Spain was made the occasion for establishing a body of troops,
+professing to act as a sanitary cordon, upon the frontier. They were
+retained there when the fever had disappeared, and their numbers were
+gradually raised to 100,000. In December, 1821, an ultra-royalist
+ministry entered on office in France under the leadership of Villele.
+Villele, like King Louis XVIII., was opposed to war, but he might easily
+be forced to adopt the war policy which was popular with his party.
+Fresh evidence was given of the contagious nature of the Spanish
+revolution by the adoption, on the 27th of the preceding June, by the
+Portuguese cortes, of a constitution modelled on that of Spain. Six days
+later the Portuguese king arrived at Lisbon and was induced to sign the
+new constitution. This event was the more significant in the eyes of the
+powers, because the proclamation of the constitution had been
+accompanied by an insult to the Austrian embassy.
+
+If Spanish liberalism placed Spain in danger of a war with France, Spain
+was in equal danger of a war with Great Britain because she was not
+liberal enough. The revolution of 1820, instead of reconciling the
+revolted colonies, had served as an example to the loyal colonies to
+seek their liberty. By the summer of 1822 Upper Peru was the only part
+of the American mainland where Spain held more than isolated posts; she
+had been compelled to sell Florida to the United States, and San Domingo
+had joined the revolted French colony of Hayti. The Spanish cortes,
+however, were even more resolute than the king had been to maintain the
+authority of the mother country, and protested against the right which
+the British had claimed and exercised of trading with the revolted
+colonies. The disorderly state of these colonies encouraged the growth
+of piracy, which flourished even in the ports which still acknowledged
+the supremacy of Spain. Special irritation was caused in 1822 by the
+condemnation of the _Lord Collingwood_ for trading with Buenos Ayres, a
+place over which Spain had exercised no authority for twelve years. In
+the same year the new navigation acts greatly increased the facilities
+for trading with Great Britain enjoyed by such places in America as
+admitted British ships. In April, 1822, the United States recognised the
+independence of Colombia, but Great Britain refrained as yet from
+recognising any of the Spanish-American states, partly because of their
+unsettled condition and partly because the threat of recognition was a
+valuable diplomatic counter in negotiations with Spain.
+
+Instead of a congress being held at Florence it was finally determined
+that the Italian questions should be referred to a congress which was to
+meet at Verona in September, 1822, and was to be preceded by a
+conference at Vienna on the Eastern question; there could, however, be
+little doubt that the Spanish question would also be raised.
+Castlereagh, or as we should now call him Lord Londonderry, would have
+preferred that Great Britain should stand aloof from the Spanish and
+Italian questions, but he desired that she should participate in the
+discussion of the Eastern question; it was accordingly arranged that he
+should represent Great Britain at the conference of Vienna, and he had
+actually drawn up instructions in favour of non-intervention in Spain
+and of accrediting agents to some of the South American republics, when
+his departure was prevented by his death on August 12. He was succeeded
+by Wellington as plenipotentiary, and by Canning as foreign secretary.
+The change was, however, one of persons rather than of policies. Canning
+was less conciliatory in manner, and had less sympathy with the
+principle of European congresses, but was prepared to carry on
+Castlereagh's policy on the questions which for the time being agitated
+the world.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONGRESS OF VERONA._]
+
+The Spanish question was, as a fact, the one question which occupied the
+attention of the powers at Vienna and Verona. In consequence of the
+efforts of Strangford at Constantinople and his own growing
+dissatisfaction with the Greeks, the tsar was willing to allow the Greek
+question to drop; at the same time the kings of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia themselves desired the continuance of Austrian occupation, and
+thus postponed the Italian question. As in 1820, Austria held the
+balance between two rival policies. She had then thrown her weight on
+the side of non-intervention, and, had the Spanish question stood by
+itself, she would probably have done so again. But in Metternich's
+opinion the Spanish question was of less importance than the Eastern,
+and it was important that the tsar should not doubt her loyalty to the
+principle on which she had persuaded him to refrain from an attack upon
+the Porte.
+
+On passing through Paris on his way to Vienna, Wellington found Villele
+desirous of avoiding war, but counting on it as a probability. He
+arrived at Vienna too late for the actual conference, but in time to
+have some conversation with Metternich and the tsar before leaving for
+Verona. So far it appeared that Montmorency, the more active of the
+French representatives, though professing to desire a peaceful
+termination to the dispute between France and Spain, advocated French
+intervention, if intervention should be necessary, but was opposed to
+the passage of foreign troops through France. Metternich and the tsar
+distrusted French troops when brought face to face with revolutionists,
+and Metternich was therefore opposed to intervention, while the tsar
+still desired to be allowed to march a Russian army on behalf of the
+combined powers through Piedmont and southern France into Spain.
+Metternich of course did not wish to see any Russian troops to dispute
+Austria's supremacy in Italy. But all three desired the suppression of
+the Spanish constitution, if they could find a trustworthy instrument.
+Wellington adhered to Castlereagh's policy of non-intervention.[76]
+
+When the congress opened at Verona on October 20, Montmorency proposed
+three skilfully drawn questions. Avoiding the direct discussion of
+hostilities, he asked whether, if France were compelled to withdraw her
+ambassador from Madrid, the other powers would do the same. Then,
+assuming their sympathy, he asked what form of moral support they would
+give her in event of war. Lastly, he propitiated Russian views of joint
+action by asking what form of material support the powers would give
+France, if she should require it. Wellington refused to consider
+hypothetical cases, but the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia
+answered the first question in the affirmative, and assured France of
+their moral, and, if necessary, of their material support. So far no
+power had abandoned its original attitude, but the promises had been
+given in a form which lent itself best to the sole interference of
+France, as the representative of the congress. Metternich now advocated
+British mediation, but this was refused by Montmorency on the ground of
+the differences between the policy adopted by Great Britain and that
+adopted by the other powers. It was then agreed that Austria, France,
+Prussia, and Russia should address notes of the same tenor to their
+ambassadors at Madrid, who should make corresponding representations to
+the Spanish government, and a _proces verbal_ was concluded between
+these four powers defining the causes which would justify the recall of
+their ambassadors.
+
+As the French king was not present at Verona, the sending of the French
+note was made conditional on the approval of the French government. The
+occupation of Spain by foreign troops was to be discussed when the King
+of Spain should have been restored to liberty. The tenor of the notes
+agreed on seemed to Wellington more likely to inflame the Spanish
+government than to win concessions, and he lost no time in informing
+Villele through Sir Charles Stuart, the British ambassador at Paris, of
+the course of negotiations.[77] Although Wellington had been assured at
+Verona that Villele's decision would not affect the transmission of
+notes from the other courts, he hoped and Canning believed that it was
+still in the power of Villele to arrest the machinery that Montmorency,
+his representative at Verona, had set in motion. On November 30
+Wellington left Verona, but the emperors remained. On December 5 Villele
+sent a message to Verona proposing to postpone sending the despatches
+till an occasion for breaking off diplomatic relations as defined in the
+_proces verbal_ should arise, and suggesting that the ambassadors at
+Paris should determine when such an occasion had occurred. This proposal
+was rejected. It was inconsistent with Russia's desire for war, while
+Austria was anxious to please Russia in the west, so long as she
+remained pacific in the east. The three eastern powers therefore
+resolved that they would only delay sending their notes till the French
+note was ready.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+While this negotiation was pending, Wellington arrived at Paris, where,
+under strong pressure from Canning,[78] he renewed his offer of
+mediation with Spain. It was declined. On the arrival of the reply from
+Verona, Wellington was informed that even if the other powers sent their
+despatches to Madrid, France would withhold hers. In the end, Villele
+dismissed Montmorency for the independent line he had taken, and sent a
+milder note than the three eastern powers, but withdrew his ambassador
+from Madrid soon after the other ambassadors had departed. Great Britain
+was in consequence the only great power which still continued diplomatic
+relations with Spain at the end of January, 1823. In the course of the
+negotiations two curious suspicions had occurred to Canning and Villele
+respectively. Canning imagined that France would employ the threats of
+her allies as a show of force to compel Spain to join her in an attack
+on British commerce in the West Indies, while Villele suspected that the
+British defence of the political independence of Spain was to be
+recompensed by the cession of some Spanish colonies in America.
+
+Meanwhile, the war party before which Villele had had to bow, was having
+its own way in France. On January 28 Louis XVIII. in opening the
+chambers announced the withdrawal of his ambassador, and declared that
+100,000 Frenchmen were ready to march to preserve the throne of Spain to
+a descendant of Henry IV., and to reconcile that country with Europe.
+The sole object of any war that might arise would be to render Ferdinand
+VII. free to give his people institutions which they could not hold
+except from him, and which, by securing their tranquillity, would
+dissipate the unrest in France. Canning protested against the apparent
+implication that no valid constitution could rest on any other basis
+than that of France did, as also against the apparent claim to interfere
+in virtue of the family relation of the dynasties of France and Spain;
+but he vainly endeavoured to persuade the Spanish government to come to
+some agreement with its king. On March 31, when war seemed imminent,
+Canning despatched a note to Paris defining the limits of British
+neutrality. The independence of Spain and integrity of its dominions
+were to be recognised; it was not to be permanently occupied by a
+military force, and France was not to attempt to gain either by conquest
+or by cession any of the revolted colonies of Spain in America. At the
+same time he disclaimed any intention of acquiring any of those colonies
+for Great Britain.[79]
+
+[Pageheading: _PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL._]
+
+War between France and Spain began with the passage of the frontier by
+the Duke of Angouleme on April 7. On May 23 he entered Madrid. On
+October 1 the Spanish constitutionalists were compelled to set their
+king at liberty to join the French, and on November 1 the war was
+terminated by the surrender of Barcelona to the royalists. The
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. to absolute power was followed by a
+furious and vindictive reaction, which Angouleme strove in vain to
+moderate. For the next five years French troops occupied the country,
+but Angouleme showed his disapproval of the method of government by
+refusing the decorations offered him by Ferdinand. The restoration of
+absolutism in Spain led to events in Portugal which forced Great Britain
+to intervene and strengthened the difference between her policy and that
+of the continental powers. The new Portuguese constitution was
+unpopular, especially in the army, and as early as February, 1823, there
+was a revolt against the constitution, but order was restored in April.
+On May 26 another absolutist revolt broke out, and the rebels were
+joined next day by the king's second son, Dom Miguel, then twenty years
+of age; on the 29th the revolt spread to Lisbon; on the 31st the king
+promised a revised constitution, and on June 2 the cortes ceased to sit.
+The government resolved itself into an absolute monarchy, which
+continued till the following year, in spite of the appointment of a
+junta under the presidency of Palmella to draw up a new constitution.
+The ambassadors of Austria, Prussia, and Russia opposed the granting of
+a new constitution, and Dom Miguel still maintained a threatening
+attitude. Palmella accordingly applied to Great Britain for troops to
+support his government. This request created no little difficulty. It
+was impossible for Great Britain to allow the government of Portugal to
+fall into the hands of a party resting for support on the absolutists
+in Spain and the French army, and it was equally impossible to employ
+British troops to maintain the cause of the King of Portugal against his
+ultra-royalist subjects when Great Britain had protested so vigorously
+against the kings of Spain and the Two Sicilies receiving foreign
+assistance against their liberal subjects; there were moreover no troops
+that could well be spared.
+
+Canning accordingly contented himself with despatching a naval squadron
+to the Tagus to act as a moral support to the king. As the event proved,
+this squadron was sufficient to determine the course of events. At the
+same time Canning refused to guarantee any constitution, though when
+France joined the eastern powers in threatening the proposed
+constitution, he intimated his readiness to resist by force of arms any
+foreign intervention in Portugal. On April 30, 1824, Dom Miguel
+attempted another _coup d'etat_, and was for nine days in possession of
+Lisbon, where he made wholesale arrests of his political opponents. John
+VI. was, however, supported by all the foreign ambassadors, and on March
+9, by their advice, he went on board the British ship of war, _Windsor
+Castle_, where he summoned his son to appear before him. Dom Miguel
+thought it wisest to obey; the king sent him abroad, and the attempt at
+a revolution was over for the present. The junta appointed in the
+previous year to frame a constitution now reported in favour of a
+revival of the ancient cortes, and this proposal was accepted by the
+king. The cortes were not, however, actually assembled; still, the mere
+fact of Dom Miguel's absence left the government a little stronger.
+
+Meanwhile, the relations between Portugal and Brazil occasioned
+difficulties between the former country and Great Britain. On leaving
+Brazil, King John VI. had entrusted the government to his elder son,
+Peter, to whom he had given secret instructions to proclaim himself
+Emperor of Brazil in case he found it impossible to maintain the union
+between Brazil and the mother country. Acting on these instructions,
+Peter had proclaimed the independence of Brazil on October 12, 1822,
+adopting for himself the style of constitutional emperor. Next month
+Lord Cochrane, who had been in the service of Chile, quitted it for that
+of Brazil. Neither party in Portugal was prepared for the separation of
+Brazil, and it was therefore opposed, but without much effect, by the
+home government. By the end of 1823 Cochrane had captured all the
+Portuguese posts in Brazil, and in August, 1824, he suppressed a
+republican movement in the north of that country. On July 23 of the same
+year Great Britain signed a commercial treaty with the new empire. This
+irritated the Portuguese government. Meanwhile, Beresford, who had
+returned to Portugal in a private capacity, had been requested to resume
+the command of the Portuguese army. This he refused to do so long as the
+Count of Subserra, a French partisan, held office at home. There was a
+difficulty in forming a ministry without him, and eventually Subserra
+became virtual prime minister, and Beresford was excluded from office.
+In order to obtain an excuse for the introduction of French troops into
+Portugal, Subserra sent a request to Great Britain for a force of four
+or five thousand, knowing it would be refused. Great Britain's refusal
+had not, however, the expected consequence, because the influence of the
+other powers at Lisbon was weakened by their anti-constitutional policy.
+In July, 1825, the representatives of Austria, Brazil, Great Britain,
+and Portugal assembled at London to consider the relations of Portugal
+and Brazil. While the conference was sitting it was discovered that
+Subserra was carrying on separate negotiations with Brazil. Canning was
+now able to obtain his dismissal, which was followed by the recall of
+the French ambassador, De Neuville, who had been the principal opponent
+of British influence at Lisbon. As a result of this conference the
+Portuguese government on August 29 recognised the independence of
+Brazil.[80]
+
+The restoration of absolute government in Spain revived the question of
+Spanish America. Ferdinand VII., on recovering his authority, proposed a
+congress at Paris for the consideration of South American affairs.
+Canning, however, declined his invitation, and it was thought useless to
+hold a congress without the participation of Great Britain. The position
+in which Great Britain had been placed by the negotiations of Verona, as
+diplomatic champion of Spain, had caused her to suspend her complaints
+about the treatment of her merchant vessels trading with the revolted
+colonies; but disorder continued, and on one occasion the British
+admiral was authorised to land in Cuba to extirpate the pirates using
+the Spanish flag. Canning was determined that French force should not be
+employed to reduce the revolted colonies, and in October, 1823, he
+informed the French ambassador, Polignac, that he would acknowledge the
+independence of those colonies if France assisted Spain in her attempts
+to reduce them[81]--a somewhat empty threat, as the commercial interests
+of Great Britain would have compelled him to acknowledge them in any
+case as soon as there should be settled governments in existence with
+which he could treat. Diplomatic agents were in fact appointed in most
+of the revolted colonies before the end of this year.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE MONROE DOCTRINE._]
+
+What, however, rendered French interference hopeless was the attitude of
+the United States, as expressed in President Monroe's historic message
+to congress on December 2, 1823. In this message occur the words, since
+known as the Monroe doctrine: "With the governments who have declared
+their independence, and maintained it, and whose independence we have,
+on great consideration, and on just principles, acknowledged, we could
+not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or
+controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in
+any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition
+towards the United States." After this the recognition of the
+independence of the Spanish colonies was only a matter of time.[82]
+Great Britain recognised the independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and
+Mexico, in 1824, and the rest soon after. In spite of the temporary
+successes of Canterac, Peru, the last of the mainland provinces, was
+lost to Spain in 1825, and the other European powers did not now delay
+their recognition of the American republics. In April of that year
+France recognised the virtual independence of her own revolted colony of
+Hayti.
+
+The Eastern question advanced more slowly. On March 25, 1823, Canning
+recognised the Greeks as belligerents. After this step Great Britain
+enjoyed the advantage of being able to hold the Greek government
+responsible for piracy committed by Greek ships; but, coming as it did
+after the isolated action of Great Britain at Verona, it created a
+suspicion among the eastern powers of a desire to effect a settlement
+of the Eastern question without the co-operation of other states. In
+October, 1823, the Tsar Alexander and the Emperor Francis had a meeting
+at Czernowitz in Bukowina. Here they discussed joint intervention in
+Greece as a means of forestalling the isolated intervention of Great
+Britain. During the meeting the news arrived of the Turkish concessions
+to the Russian demands of 1821. Before the conference broke up, the tsar
+informally suggested a conference at St. Petersburg to arrange joint
+intervention on the basis of the erection of three principalities under
+Turkish suzerainty in Greece and the AEgean. In January, 1824, the same
+proposal was made formally in a Russian circular addressed to the great
+powers. Metternich and Canning both opposed the scheme, thinking that
+the principalities would fall under Russian influence.
+
+Metternich met it by a counter proposal for the complete independence of
+Greece. Canning preferred to adopt neither course, and to watch the
+sequence of events. In April, however, he consented that Great Britain
+should be represented at the conference at St. Petersburg on condition
+that no coercion should be applied to Turkey, and that diplomatic
+relations should have been previously restored between Russia and
+Turkey; in August the Greek government sent to London its protest
+against the Russian proposals, and in November Canning, finding that
+neither Greeks nor Turks would accept the decision of the conference,
+and being still opposed to violent interference, refused to take part in
+it. At the same time he offered British mediation to the Greeks in case
+it should be absolutely necessary. Early in 1825 Metternich induced
+Charles X., the new King of France, to support his proposal. Russia,
+however, would not hear of the independence of Greece, which might mean
+the creation of a rival to her influence in the Turkish dominions. The
+conference therefore merely resolved that the Porte should grant
+satisfaction to its subjects, failing which the powers offered their
+mediation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I._]
+
+Turkey refused the offer. She was in fact busily engaged in restoring
+order in her own way. In February, 1825, an Egyptian army was landed in
+the Morea, and met with rapid successes of such a nature as to arouse a
+suspicion that it was the fixed policy of its commander, Ibrahim, the
+adopted son of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, to depopulate the Morea.
+His advance upon Nauplia was checked by an order of the British
+commodore, Hamilton, and he retired towards Tripolitza and Navarino. The
+Turkish successes induced Canning to make proposals to Russia through
+Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, for a
+joint intervention of the powers on condition that there should be no
+coercion of Turkey. The tsar refused to accept the condition and made
+preparations for war. Canning meanwhile declined an offer of the Greek
+government to place itself under British protection, and on August 18
+Alexander declared that he would solve the Eastern question by himself.
+He then set out for the south of Russia, where his army had collected.
+Canning now dropped his scheme of an united intervention and opened
+negotiations for a separate intervention on the part of Great Britain
+and Russia alone. Meanwhile he informed the Greek government that he
+would allow no power to effect a settlement without British
+co-operation, and that if Russia invaded Turkey he would land troops in
+Greece. The negotiations with Russia were proceeding favourably when
+they were interrupted by the death of Alexander on December 1.
+
+One event of the year 1825 which attracted little attention at the time
+was destined to be a cause of friction at a much later date. In 1824 the
+boundary between British America and the United States had been
+partially delimited, and this was followed early in the following year
+by a treaty, which attempted to settle the boundary between British and
+Russian America. Unfortunately the words used in this treaty were
+somewhat indefinite, and, although no difficulty was experienced for two
+generations, the discovery of gold in the north-west of America
+subsequently led to a bitter dispute between Canada on the one side and
+the United States, which had acquired the rights of Russia, on the
+other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] Metternich, _Memoirs_, Sec. 484, English translation, iii., 446.
+
+[76] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 343-48.
+
+[77] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 518-23. For a French account of
+the congress see Duvergier de Hauranne, _Gouvernement Parlementaire en
+France_, vii., 130-229.
+
+[78] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 650. Compare pp. 638, 653-57.
+
+[79] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 18, 19.
+
+[80] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., chapters x., xi.
+
+[81] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 26-33.
+
+[82] See J. W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_, pp. 442-50;
+Stapleton, _George Canning and his Times_, p. 375.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XI.
+
+                 TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+
+The sudden illness of Liverpool in February, 1827, disclosed the dualism
+and mutual jealousies which had enfeebled his cabinet. One section,
+represented by Canning, advocated catholic emancipation, encouraged the
+practical application of free trade doctrines, and was prepared to
+support the principle of national independence, not only in South
+America, but in Greece and Portugal. This section was dominant in the
+house of commons. The other section, led by Wellington and Peel, which
+was dominant in the house of lords, was strictly conservative on all
+these questions, though Peel was beginning to show an open mind on one,
+at least, of them. The king's known distrust of Canning, largely shared
+by his own party, naturally suggested the hope of rallying it under the
+leadership of some politician with the moderate and conciliatory temper
+of Lord Liverpool. But no such politician could be found, nor was there
+any prospect of Canning accepting a subordinate position in a new
+ministry. For nearly six weeks the premiership was in abeyance, while
+Liverpool's recovery was treated as a possible event. Canning himself
+was in broken health, but, ill as he was, he proposed and carried in the
+house of commons a sliding scale of import duties upon corn, variable
+with its market price. He also made a fierce attack on Sir John Copley,
+then master of the rolls, who had vigorously opposed a motion of Burdett
+for catholic relief. At last the king, having consulted others, made up
+his mind to send for Canning, who had been suffering from a relapse. It
+was in vain that Canning advised him, unless he were prepared for
+concession on the catholic question, to summon a body of ministers
+sharing his own convictions. There was, in fact, no alternative to
+Canning's succession, except that of Wellington or Peel. The former
+declared that he would be worse than mad to accept the premiership; the
+latter was still young for the office and deprecated as hopeless the
+formation of any exclusively "protestant" cabinet. The selection of
+Canning became inevitable, and on April 10 the king determined upon it,
+irritated by what he regarded as an attempt to force his hand in the
+choice of a minister.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+From that moment, during the short remainder of his life Canning had to
+undergo the same bitter experience as Pitt in 1804, and to suffer a
+cruel retribution for his aggressive petulance. All his strongest
+colleagues, except Huskisson, deserted him. The resignation of Lord
+Eldon, since 1821 Earl of Eldon, must have been expected, terminating,
+as it did, the longest chancellorship since the Norman conquest. But
+Canning seems to have really hoped that he might secure the support of
+Wellington by the assurance of his desire to carry out the principles of
+Liverpool's government. The duke, however, repelled his overtures with
+something less than courtesy, and even retired from the command of the
+army. Peel had already intimated privately that a transfer of the
+premiership from an opponent to a champion of emancipation would make it
+impossible for him to retain office. Three peers, Bathurst, Melville,
+and Westmorland, followed his example. Canning had no resource but to
+enlist colleagues from the ranks of the whigs. In this he was at first
+unsuccessful. Sturges Bourne was appointed to the home office, Viscount
+Dudley became foreign secretary, and Robinson, who was raised to the
+peerage as Viscount Goderich, became secretary for war and the colonies.
+Canning himself united the offices of first lord of the treasury and
+chancellor of the exchequer. The Duke of Portland became lord privy
+seal. Palmerston, the secretary at war, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+Harrowby, Huskisson, Wynn, and Bexley, retained their former posts, and
+Sidmouth, hitherto an unofficial member of the cabinet, finally retired.
+One important office outside the cabinet, that of chief secretary for
+Ireland, was given to a whig, William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne.
+It was a happy idea to make the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral
+without a seat in the cabinet, and without any power of acting
+independently of his council, while Copley (as Lord Lyndhurst) proved a
+good successor to Eldon.
+
+In May some of the whigs were induced to join the ministry. Tierney
+entered the cabinet as master of the mint and the Earl of Carlisle as
+first commissioner of woods and forests. The Marquis of Lansdowne, the
+former Lord Henry Petty, joined the cabinet without taking office. Other
+minor posts were assigned to whigs, and several whig chiefs, such as
+Holland and Brougham, while they remained outside the government,
+tendered it a friendly support. In July Lansdowne became home secretary,
+Bourne was transferred to the woods and forests department, Carlisle
+became lord privy seal, and Portland remained in the cabinet without
+office.
+
+The new cabinet was therefore still in an unsettled state when it met
+parliament at the beginning of May. It there encountered a storm of
+unsparing criticism even in the house of commons, but still more in the
+house of lords. Lord Stewart, who had succeeded his brother as Marquis
+of Londonderry, and the Duke of Newcastle denounced Canning in the most
+intemperate language; and the veteran whig, Lord Grey, who had not been
+consulted, delivered an elaborate oration against him not the less
+virulent because it was carefully studied and measured. This attack was
+so keenly felt by Canning that he was supposed to meditate the
+acceptance of a peerage, that he might reply to it in person. The climax
+of his vexations was reached when a corn bill, prepared by the late
+cabinet, and passed by the house of commons, was finally wrecked in the
+house of lords through an amendment introduced by Wellington. There was
+some excuse for the duke's action in letters which had passed between
+him and Huskisson, but Canning naturally resented his mischievous
+interposition, and unwisely declared that he must "have been made an
+instrument in the hands of others". So ended the session on July 2,
+amidst discords and divisions which boded ill for the future, but threw
+a retrospective light on the rare merits of Liverpool.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CANNING._]
+
+The days of Canning were already numbered. Before the end of July he was
+unable to attend a council, and retired for rest to the Duke of
+Devonshire's villa at Chiswick. As in the case of Castlereagh, the king
+had noticed the symptoms of serious illness, and on August 5 the public
+was informed of his danger. On the 8th he died of internal inflammation
+in the room which had witnessed the death of Fox. His loss was deeply
+felt, not only by the king who never showed him confidence, but also by
+the best part of the nation, and his funeral was attended by a great
+concourse of mourners, both whigs and tories. No one doubted that he was
+a patriot, and his noble gifts commanded the admiration of his bitterest
+opponents. He belonged to an age of transition, and it must ever be
+deplored that he missed the opportunity of showing whether his mind was
+capable of further growth in the highest office of state; for the
+inconsistencies of his opinions, obstinately maintained for years, would
+have demanded many changes of conviction or policy. He was as stout an
+enemy of reform at home as he was a resolute friend of constitutional
+liberty abroad. He detested the system of repression consecrated by the
+holy alliance, but he defended the necessity of such measures as the six
+acts and arbitrary imprisonment for a limited period. He never swerved
+in his advocacy of Roman catholic relief, but he was unmoved by
+arguments in favour of repealing the test and corporation acts.
+Probably, at the head of a coalition, embracing the ablest of the
+moderate tories and reformers, and loyally supported by his colleagues,
+he might have proved the foremost British statesman of the nineteenth
+century. But it is more than doubtful whether his proud and sensitive
+nature would have enabled him so to cancel past memories as to
+consolidate such a coalition, or to inspire such loyalty in its members.
+
+The death of Canning involved for the moment far less political change
+than might have been expected. The king at once sent for Sturges Bourne
+and Goderich, as the most intimate adherents of Canning. He then
+commanded Goderich to form, or rather to continue, a ministry of
+compromise, and this was done with little shifting of places. Wellington
+resumed the command of the army, thereby revealing his motive in giving
+it up so abruptly. But a very unwise choice was made in the appointment
+of John Charles Herries, rather than Palmerston, as chancellor of the
+exchequer, and it carried with it the seeds of an early disruption.
+Palmerston had originally been proposed for the office, but the king
+strongly favoured Herries, though he showed good sense in deferring to
+public opinion, and desiring Huskisson to take the post himself.
+Unfortunately, Huskisson preferred the colonial office, and, as neither
+Sturges Bourne nor Tierney would accept the position, royal influence
+prevailed, and Herries found himself at the exchequer. Meanwhile
+Portland succeeded Harrowby as lord president, Charles Grant succeeded
+Huskisson at the board of trade, and Lord Uxbridge, who had been created
+Marquis of Anglesey after the battle of Waterloo, and who was now
+master-general of the ordnance, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+
+In the course of November it was decided by Goderich, in concert with
+Huskisson and Tierney, that a finance committee should be appointed
+early in the next session to consider the state of the revenue. Lord
+Althorp, the son of Earl Spencer, was designated as chairman, and
+provisionally undertook to act, but the chancellor of the exchequer,
+who, contrary to all precedent, had not been taken into counsel,
+strongly protested against the nomination, as soon as he was informed of
+it. Out of this dispute arose the ignoble fall of the Goderich
+administration, though it was preceded by more serious dissensions on
+foreign policy. The king, whose activity revived with the increasing
+weakness of his ministers, committed himself, without asking their
+opinion, to a hearty approval of Codrington's action at Navarino, in
+which, as will be recorded hereafter, that admiral had co-operated in
+the destruction of the Turkish navy, though the British government
+professed to be at peace with the Porte. The king was also adverse to a
+proposal for the admission of Holland and Wellesley into the cabinet.
+Goderich in consequence resigned, but had withdrawn his resignation when
+the quarrel between Huskisson and Herries broke out afresh. Driven to
+distraction by difficulties to which he was utterly unequal, Goderich
+once more abandoned his post. The king gladly dispensed with his
+services, and after some negotiation with Harrowby sent for Wellington
+on January 9, 1828, giving him a free hand to invite any co-operation
+except that of Grey. It was stipulated, however, "that the Roman
+Catholic question was not to be made a cabinet question," and that both
+the lord chancellors, as well as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, were to
+be "protestants".[83]
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+It must ever be regretted, for the sake of the country not less than of
+his own fame, that Wellington undertook the premiership. He was beyond
+all dispute the greatest man in England, and exercised up to the end of
+his life a more powerful influence in emergencies than any other
+subject. But he had judged himself rightly when he declared that he was
+wholly unfit to be prime minister, and his administration was among the
+weakest of modern times. The firmness which had sustained him in so many
+campaigns, the political sagacity which had enabled him to grapple with
+the complications of Spanish affairs, and with the great settlement of
+Europe, equally failed him in party management and in the estimation of
+public opinion at home. He understood better than any man how to deal
+with the king, and overbore not only the king's own prejudices but the
+machinations of the Duke of Cumberland with masterly resolution. He set
+a good example in declining to regard himself as a mere party leader and
+in refusing to study the arts of popularity hunting, but he never
+grasped the principle that constitutional government ultimately rests on
+the will of the people. Still he was too good a general not to see when
+facts were too strong for him. His chief manoeuvres on the field of
+politics consisted in somewhat inglorious though not unskilful retreats;
+when he afterwards carried boldness to the point of rashness, he
+encountered a signal defeat. Nevertheless, while he utterly lost his
+political hold on the masses, and even the confidence of shrewd
+politicians, he never ceased to retain the profound respect of his
+countrymen, not only as the first of English generals, but as the most
+honest of public servants.
+
+Wellington naturally applied first to Peel, and, by his advice, attempted
+a reconstruction of the Goderich cabinet, but with the addition of certain
+new elements. Five of Canning's followers--Lyndhurst, Dudley, who had been
+created an earl, Huskisson, Grant, and Palmerston retained their old
+offices, and Palmerston gave an extraordinary proof of patience by
+cheerfully remaining secretary at war after eighteen years' service in
+that capacity. These cabinet ministers were now joined or rejoined by Peel
+as home secretary, Earl Bathurst as lord president, Henry Goulburn as
+chancellor of the exchequer, Melville as president of the board of
+control, Lord Aberdeen as chancellor of the duchy, and Lord Ellenborough,
+son of the former chief justice, as lord privy seal. Herries was
+transferred from the exchequer to the mastership of the mint. Outside the
+cabinet Anglesey became lord lieutenant of Ireland, where Lamb remained
+chief secretary. It was understood that Eldon, now in his seventy-seventh
+year, would have willingly accepted the presidency of the council, and
+felt hurt that no offer or communication was made to him. On the other
+hand, the whigs were by no means satisfied, while the inclusion of
+Huskisson equally offended extreme tories and the widow of Canning, who
+spoke of him as having become an associate of her husband's murderers.
+This association was not destined to be long lived. The formation of the
+ministry was not completed until the end of January, and very soon after
+parliament met on the 29th of that month a rupture between Huskisson and
+Wellington became imminent. For this Huskisson was mainly responsible.
+Having to seek re-election at Liverpool, and irritated by the attacks made
+upon his consistency, he delivered a very imprudent speech, in which he
+implied, if he did not state, that he had obtained from his chief pledges
+of adhesion to Canning's policy. Such a declaration from such a man was
+inevitably understood as applying at least to free trade and the conduct
+of foreign affairs. Both Huskisson and the duke in parliamentary speeches
+disclaimed the imputation of any bargain; still the rift was not closed,
+and it was speedily widened by events on which harmony between tories and
+friends of Canning was impossible.
+
+For six years the so-called war of Greek independence had been carried
+on with the utmost barbarity on both sides. The sympathies of Canning,
+as foreign secretary, had been entirely with the Greeks, as they had
+been with the South American insurgents, but he was equally on his guard
+against the armed "mediation" of Russia and her claim to be the supreme
+protector of the Greek Christians. We have seen how at last, in 1825,
+hopeless discord between the great continental powers led to overtures
+for the peaceful intervention of Great Britain, and how at this juncture
+the Tsar Alexander died on December 1, 1825. Wellington, at Canning's
+request, undertook a special embassy to St. Petersburg for the
+ostensible purpose of congratulating the new tsar, Nicholas, on his
+accession, and succeeded, during April, 1826, in concluding an
+arrangement for joint action by Russia and Great Britain with a view to
+establishing the autonomy of Greece under the sovereignty of Turkey.
+Meanwhile the impulsive enthusiasm which has so often seized the English
+people on behalf of "oppressed nationalities" had been fanned into a
+flame by the cause of Greek independence. Byron had already sacrificed
+his life to it in April, 1824; Cochrane now devoted to it an energy and
+a naval reputation only second to Nelson's; volunteers joined the Greek
+levies, and subscriptions came in freely. In the course of 1826 Canning
+succeeded in procuring the adhesion of the French government to the
+Anglo-Russian agreement. Early in 1827 the three powers demanded an
+armistice from Turkey, and, on the refusal of the Porte, signed the
+treaty of London for the settlement of the Greek question. This treaty,
+dated July 6, 1827, was almost the last public act of Canning. It was
+moderate in its terms, embodying the conditions laid down in the
+previous year at St. Petersburg, and making the self-government of
+Greece subject to a payment of tribute to the Porte. It provided for a
+combination of the British, French, and Russian fleets in the event of a
+second refusal from Turkey; but Canning died in the hope that
+hostilities might be avoided.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVARINO._]
+
+This hope was not likely, nor was it destined, to be realised. The Porte
+remained inflexible, and would grant no armistice; indeed, it had
+summoned a contingent of ships from Egypt, and a fleet of twenty-eight
+sail under Ibrahim Pasha was lying in the Bay of Navarino awaiting
+further reinforcements. Admiral Codrington, who commanded the allied
+fleet, now before Navarino, showed much forbearance. In concert with the
+French admiral, he warned Ibrahim Pasha not to leave the harbour, and
+obtained assurances which were speedily broken. Futile negotiations went
+on during the early part of October, ending in a massacre among the
+inhabitants of the coast by the direction of Ibrahim. The admirals of
+the allied fleet no longer hesitated. On the 20th the fleet entered the
+harbour. The first shots were fired by the Turco-Egyptian fleet, which
+was skilfully ranged in three lines, and in the form of a horseshoe. An
+action ensued, which lasted four hours, and resulted in the almost
+complete destruction of the Ottoman armament. Had the allied fleet at
+once proceeded to Constantinople, the Greek question might perhaps have
+been settled promptly, instead of being left to perplex cabinets for two
+years longer.
+
+The news of Navarino reached England when the ministry of Lord Goderich
+was already tottering, and caused its members far more anxiety than
+satisfaction. Probably the wisest of them foresaw that, unless
+immediate action were taken, Russia would declare war single-handed
+against Turkey and enforce her own terms, but nothing in fact was done,
+and Wellington, on coming into power, found the question of our
+relations with Turkey and Greece still open. In spite of his own share
+in bringing about the co-operation of Russia with Great Britain, he was
+by no means prepared for a crusade on behalf of Greek independence, or
+for a definite rupture with Turkey. Hence the memorable phrases inserted
+in the king's speech of January 29, 1828, which described the battle of
+Navarino as "a collision wholly unexpected by His Majesty" and as "an
+untoward event," which His Majesty hoped would not be followed by
+further hostilities. These expressions, however much in accord with the
+pacific tone of the treaty of London, provoked an outburst of
+indignation from the friends of Greece in both houses. Lords Holland and
+Althorp, Lord John Russell, and Brougham recorded earnest protests
+against any disparagement of Admiral Codrington's action. The
+infatuation of the Porte, and the consequent war with Russia, checked
+further agitation on the subject, and Wellington's government was able
+to fall back on the policy of non-intervention proposed, though not
+always practised, by Canning. But the reactionary tendency of
+Wellington's foreign policy betrayed in the king's speech had its effect
+in alienating the more liberal of his colleagues. Nor was his position
+strengthened by his irresolute home policy. During the session of 1828
+issues were raised which inevitably divided and ultimately broke up the
+cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _TEST ACTS REPEALED._]
+
+The first of these difficulties was caused by the success of Lord John
+Russell's motion for the repeal of the test and corporation acts, under
+which dissenters were precluded from holding municipal and other
+offices. It was, indeed, a grave blot on the consistency of reformers
+that, while the claims of Roman catholics, and especially of Irish Roman
+catholics, had been vehemently urged for nearly thirty years, those of
+protestant nonconformists had been coldly neglected. Their legal
+disabilities, it is true, had gradually become almost nominal, and an
+indemnity act was passed yearly to cover the constant breaches of the
+obnoxious law. Still, the law was maintained, and was stoutly defended
+by such tories as Eldon on the principle that it was an important
+outwork of the union between Church and State. Even the Canningite
+members of the government supported it against Russell's attack, but on
+the very opposite ground--that it had become a dead letter. However, the
+measure for its repeal was carried in the house of commons by a majority
+of forty-four, including some well-known Churchmen. This measure would
+assuredly have been rejected in the house of lords had not Peel
+judiciously procured the insertion of a clause substituting for the
+sacramental test a declaration binding the office-holder to do nothing
+hostile to the Church. Thus modified, it passed the house of lords, with
+the assent of several bishops, in spite of the implacable opposition of
+Lords Eldon and Redesdale, and the Duke of Cumberland. But the
+declaration was amended by the addition of the words "upon the true
+faith of a Christian," which incidentally continued the statutable
+exclusion of Jews.
+
+The enforced acceptance of this enactment was equivalent to a decisive
+reverse, and could not but injure the prestige of the government, but it
+did not actually cause a schism in the cabinet. It was otherwise when
+the duke proposed a corn bill in lieu of that rejected at his instance
+in the previous year. The difference between these measures was not very
+material, but the duke insisted upon certain regulations of detail,
+which Huskisson persistently opposed. Peel suggested a compromise which,
+after long altercation and some threats of resignation, was adopted. But
+the effect was to weaken the government still further in the eyes of the
+public, inasmuch as the principle of duties on a graduated scale had
+prevailed at last against the declared opinions of the duke. The
+inevitable rupture was only deferred for a few weeks, and arose out of
+motions for disfranchising East Retford and Penryn--a premonitory
+symptom of the great reform bill. These were among the most corrupt of
+the old "rotten boroughs," and the scandalous practices which flourished
+in both of them had more than once shocked even the unreformed
+parliament. In 1827 a bill for disfranchising Penryn had actually been
+carried by the house of commons in spite of Canning's dissent, and one
+for disfranchising East Retford would probably have been carried, but
+that it was introduced too late.
+
+The motions now introduced by Lord John Russell and Charles Tennyson
+respectively could scarcely have been thrown out by the same house, but
+squabbles arose in the cabinet, partly on the comparative guiltiness of
+the two venal constituencies, but chiefly on the disposal of the seats
+to be vacated. It was agreed at last that Penryn should be merged in the
+adjacent hundred, and the majority of the cabinet, represented by Peel,
+were for dealing in like manner with East Retford. The liberal section,
+however, represented by Huskisson, was bent on transferring its
+representation to Birmingham, and voted against Peel in the house of
+commons. Having thus vindicated his independence, Huskisson, somewhat
+too hastily, placed his resignation in the hands of the premier on May
+20. The duke, having fairly lost patience with his insubordinate
+colleagues, was equally prompt in accepting it, and declined to receive
+the explanations offered. In the end, Palmerston, Dudley, Grant, and
+Lamb, followed the fortunes of Huskisson, and Wellington's government
+was completely purged of Canning's old supporters.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLARE ELECTION._]
+
+Two military officers, without political experience, were now imported
+into the ministry. Sir George Murray succeeded Huskisson at the colonial
+office, and Sir Henry Hardinge replaced Palmerston as secretary at war,
+but was not admitted to the cabinet; Lord Aberdeen became foreign
+secretary, and Vesey Fitzgerald president of the board of trade, while
+Lord Francis Leveson Gower succeeded Lamb as chief secretary for
+Ireland. So purely tory an administration had not been formed since the
+days of Perceval. Looking back we can see that, for that very reason, it
+was doomed; but to politicians of 1828 Wellington's ascendency seemed
+assured, and it was not actually broken for above two years. By far the
+most important event of domestic history within that period was the
+crisis ending in the catholic emancipation act, and this crisis was
+immediately precipitated by the almost casual appointment of Vesey
+Fitzgerald. He was a popular Irish landlord, who had always supported
+catholic relief, and his re-election for the county of Clare was
+regarded as perfectly secure. The landlords were known to be entirely in
+his favour, and Irish tenants, miscalled "forty shilling freeholders,"
+had been used to vote obsequiously for the candidate of their landlords.
+Indeed, these counterfeit freeholds had been manufactured recklessly
+throughout Ireland for the very purpose of extending landlord influence.
+Perhaps the recent defeat of a Beresford at Waterford by a nominee of
+Daniel O'Connell, who had made himself the leader of the movement for
+Catholic relief, ought to have undeceived the Irish tories, but no one
+could have foreseen so daring an act as the candidature of O'Connell
+himself, notwithstanding that, as a catholic, he was incapable of
+sitting in the house of commons.
+
+The contest began on June 30 and lasted five days. All the gentry and
+electors of the higher class supported Fitzgerald, but all the poorer
+electors, headed by their priests, flocked to the poll and voted for
+O'Connell, who, on Fitzgerald's retirement, was triumphantly elected.
+The violence of O'Connell's language was unmeasured, and as was said by
+Sheil, "every altar became a tribune," but perfect order was maintained
+throughout. The terrorism which has since disgraced Irish elections and
+vitiated the whole representation of Ireland had no place in this
+startling victory, and the impression produced by it was thereby
+infinitely enhanced. Two conclusions were instantly drawn from it: the
+one, that electoral power in Ireland could not safely be left in the
+hands of the forty-shilling freeholders; the other, that, whether or not
+they were disfranchised, nothing short of political equality of the
+catholics of Ireland could avert the risk of civil war. It is seldom
+that momentous changes can be so clearly traced to a single cause as in
+the case of catholic emancipation. The whole interval between July,
+1828, and April, 1829, was occupied by the discussion of this question,
+or circumstances arising out of it, and it may truly be said to have
+filled the whole horizon of domestic politics. The first and final
+recognition by a responsible government of emancipation as a political
+necessity dates immediately from the Clare election.
+
+The question of catholic emancipation had been the only reason for the
+resignation of Pitt in 1801, but we have seen that he resumed office in
+1804 under a pledge not to re-open it. It is certain that he never
+contemplated a complete emancipation of the catholics without safeguards
+for the interests of the established church. Such a safeguard (though
+ineffective against a future attack through disestablishment) was
+provided by the act of union,[84] which inviolably united the Irish and
+English churches. The catholic leaders, on their part, were profuse in
+their disavowals of hostility to that establishment and to the
+protestant government in Ireland. In their first solemn memorial,
+presented by Grenville on March 25, 1805, they expressly declared that
+"they do not seek or wish, in the remotest degree, to injure or encroach
+upon the rights, privileges, immunities, possessions, and revenues
+appertaining to the bishops and clergy of the protestant religion, or to
+the churches committed to their charge". They further volunteered an
+expression of their belief that no evil act could be justified by the
+good of the Church, and that papal infallibility was no article of the
+catholic faith. Thenceforward, frequent motions in support of the
+"catholic claims" were made in both houses of parliament. In 1810 such a
+motion was proposed in a very eloquent speech by Grattan, but
+Castlereagh, though a staunch friend of the cause, deprecated it as
+inopportune, since the catholics had injured themselves by imprudent
+conduct, and fresh declarations inconsistent with their former
+assurances. The motion was therefore rejected, and a similar fate befell
+motions of the same kind in the two following years, especially in the
+house of lords, where Eldon inflexibly resisted any concession, and
+always commanded a majority.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+When Liverpool replaced Perceval as prime minister in 1812, catholic
+emancipation became an open question in the cabinet. In that year
+Canning succeeded in carrying triumphantly a resolution pledging the
+house of commons to consider the question seriously in the next session,
+and a like resolution was only lost by one vote in the house of lords.
+Accordingly, in 1813, Grattan's motion for a committee of the whole
+house on catholic disabilities was accepted, and a bill for their
+removal passed its second reading. But it was loaded with vexatious
+securities in committee and wrecked by the vigorous opposition of the
+speaker, Abbot, who on May 24 carried by a majority of four an amendment
+withholding the right to sit and vote in parliament. After this, the
+bill was of course abandoned, but another was unanimously passed
+exempting from penalties Roman catholics holding certain military and
+civil offices, to which, by a harsh construction of law, they were not
+eligible. In 1817 the question was debated at great length in the house
+of commons, and several leading men took part in it, but the motion for
+catholic relief was again defeated by a majority of twenty-four. It was
+revived in 1819 by Grattan, who delivered on this occasion one of his
+greatest speeches, and succeeded in reducing the majority to two only.
+In 1821 a further advance was made by Plunket's success in obtaining a
+committee to consider the claims of the catholics. This was carried by a
+majority of six, and followed up by two bills, removing all catholic
+disabilities with very slight exceptions, but subject to stringent and
+somewhat illusory securities for the loyalty of the priesthood.
+Ultimately on April 2 a comprehensive measure of catholic relief passed
+the house of commons by a majority of nineteen. All the most influential
+members of the lower house now voted in its favour, but the attitude of
+the upper house remained unchanged. The spirit of Eldon still ruled the
+peers, and his speech against Plunket's relief bill contains a complete
+armoury of protestant arguments. But the catholics had a still more
+doughty opponent in the Duke of York, who delivered on this occasion the
+first of his famous declarations, binding himself to life-long
+hostility. As Eldon said, "he did more to quiet this matter than
+everything else put together".[85]
+
+The year 1821 marks a turning point in the history of the catholic
+question, since the protestant cause, no longer safe in the house of
+commons, was felt by its champions to depend on the crown and the house
+of lords. But it would be an error to suppose that catholic relief was
+ever a popular cry in this country, like retrenchment and reform. On the
+contrary, the feelings of the masses in Great Britain were never roused
+in regard to it, and, if roused at all, would probably have been
+enlisted on the other side. It would be too much to say that the
+controversy was merely academical, for it was keen enough to split up
+parties and produce dualism in cabinets. But it was never a hustings
+question. It filled a much larger space in the minds of statesmen than
+in the minds of the people, and even among statesmen it was so far
+secondary that it could be treated as an open question in Liverpool's
+ministry for a period of fifteen years. No doubt the disturbed state of
+Ireland, which ultimately supplied the motive power for carrying the
+emancipation act, contributed at an earlier stage to damp the zeal of
+its advocates. Whatever the merits of the union, it had failed to pacify
+the country, thereby verifying the warning of Cornwallis, that, although
+Ireland could not be saved without the union, "you must not take it for
+granted that it will be saved by it".
+
+In 1800, the very year of the union, the _habeas corpus_ act had been
+suspended and another act passed for the suppression of rebellion.
+Though repealed in the following year, these coercive measures were
+renewed in 1803, after Emmet's abortive rising, and continued in 1804.
+In 1805, when they expired, special commissions were appointed for the
+repression of crime in the south and west of Ireland. In 1807 the
+_habeas corpus_ act was again suspended and a rigorous insurrection act
+passed which continued in force until 1810. In that year a Catholic
+Committee was formed, anticipating the more notorious Catholic
+Association. An essential part of the scheme was the formation of a
+representative assembly in Dublin, to discuss and procure redress for
+the wrongs of catholics. This project was put down by the Irish
+government, which treated it as a breach of the convention act of 1793.
+The next ten years seem to have been somewhat quieter in Ireland, and
+the disturbances which followed the peace in Great Britain had no
+counterpart in that country. Still, it was thought necessary to suppress
+another catholic convention in 1814, and to renew the insurrection act,
+which remained in force with one interval till 1817. It can well be
+imagined that a population so lawless, and so prone to horrible outrages
+which shock Englishmen more than a thousand crimes against property,
+should have excited little general sympathy by their complaints of
+political grievances. These grievances were justly denounced by party
+leaders, but in the eyes of ordinary politicians, and still more of
+electors, coercion rather than concession was the appropriate remedy for
+the ills of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+Canning, however, though suspected of lukewarmness, did not let the
+question rest in 1822. On April 30, while still out of office, he
+introduced a bill which he could scarcely have expected to become law,
+for enabling Roman catholic peers to sit and vote in the house of lords.
+This bill was passed in the commons by a majority of five, but rejected
+in the lords by a majority of forty-four, in spite of somewhat
+transparent assertions that it was not intended to prejudice the main
+issue. On April 18, 1823, an angry protest from Burdett against the
+"annual farce" of motions leading to nothing was followed by a quarrel
+between Canning and Brougham, who accused Canning, then foreign
+secretary, of "monstrous truckling for the purpose of obtaining office";
+and when Plunket moved, as usual, for the relief of catholics, a
+temporary secession of radicals took place, which left him in a
+ridiculous minority. In spite of this discomfiture, Lord Nugent
+succeeded in carrying through the commons a bill, granting the
+parliamentary franchise to Roman catholics in Great Britain. The bill
+was lost in the lords, and the question remained dormant in 1824; but in
+1825 it received a fresh impulse. This time it was Burdett who, at the
+instance of Lansdowne and Brougham, appeared as spokesman of the
+catholics. His action was in some respects inopportune, as the "Catholic
+Association," founded by O'Connell and Sheil in 1823, was now usurping
+the functions of a government, and regularly levying taxes under the
+name of "rent". The necessity of suppressing it, though not apparent to
+Lord Wellesley, the lord-lieutenant, was strongly felt on both sides of
+the house of commons. A bill for this purpose, but applicable to all
+similar associations, was rapidly carried by large majorities in both
+houses, and the opposition was fain to rely mainly on the declaration
+that it would be put in force against catholic associations only, and
+not against those of the Orangemen, as the more violent of the Irish
+protestants were called. It is needless to say that it was evaded by the
+former, but on March 1, while it was still before the house of lords,
+Burdett took courage to move another preliminary resolution in favour of
+the catholics, and obtained a majority of thirteen. A bill founded on
+this resolution was at once introduced.
+
+The debates on this bill were memorable in several respects and opened
+the last stage but one in the long history of catholic relief. In the
+first place, more than one opponent publicly avowed his conversion to
+it; in the second place, now that its "settlement" was actually within
+view, the necessity of providing a counterpoise became admitted.
+Accordingly, one independent member proposed a state grant of L250,000 a
+year for the endowment of the catholic clergy, who might thus be
+indirectly bound over to good behaviour, while another proposed the
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders. Both of these bills were read
+a second time, but held over until the fate of the main relief bill
+should be determined. That bill passed the house of commons on May 10,
+1825, by a majority of twenty-one, and Peel tendered his resignation to
+Lord Liverpool.[86] Two days later, the Duke of York, on presenting a
+petition against the bill in the house of lords, delivered another
+speech which fell like a thunder-clap on the country, and has been
+celebrated ever since as an audacious breach of constitutional usage. In
+this speech, he justified the inflexible attitude of his father, whose
+mental disorder he expressly attributed to the agitation of the catholic
+question. He concluded by declaring that his principles were the same,
+imbibed in early youth and confirmed by mature reflection, and that he
+would maintain them up to the latest moment of his existence, "whatever
+might be his situation in life". It is certain that, in thus pledging
+himself, he acted without having consulted the king, who somewhat
+resented so direct an allusion to his prospect of succession. Still, the
+sensation produced by the duke's utterance was prodigious, and he
+remained the favourite champion of the protestant cause until his death.
+Brougham attacked him with furious sarcasm in the commons, but the lords
+threw out Burdett's relief bill by a majority of forty-eight, and the
+No-popery cry influenced the general election of 1826. In that year no
+further effort was made by the friends of catholic claims, but O'Connell
+showed his growing power in Ireland by exciting a political revolt of
+the peasantry at Waterford, and procuring the defeat of Lord George
+Beresford.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+In the session of 1827, before Canning succeeded Lord Liverpool, Burdett
+renewed his motion of 1825 on the catholic question, but found himself
+defeated by four votes. The division had taken place in a full house,
+after the fierce encounter, already mentioned, between Copley and
+Canning; but it cannot be regarded as a decisive token of contrast
+between the old and the new parliament, since relief was now claimed
+without any mention of "securities". The subject was in abeyance during
+the short administrations of Canning and Goderich, but was raised again
+by Burdett in May, 1828, after the repeal of the test and corporation
+acts. The number of votes on the catholic side, 272, was the same as in
+1827, that on the protestant side, 266, was less by ten, the result
+being a majority of six for the motion. A similar resolution was lost in
+the house of lords, as a matter of course; but the language held by the
+new lord chancellor, Lyndhurst, and by Wellington himself, as prime
+minister, prepared observant men for an impending change of policy. Then
+followed the Clare election, which revealed nothing which might not have
+been foreseen, but which had the same effect in precipitating the
+removal of catholic disabilities as the Irish famine afterwards had in
+precipitating the repeal of the corn laws.
+
+We now know that Peel had made up his mind to yield shortly after the
+Clare election,[87] partly influenced by the alarming reports of
+Anglesey, the Irish lord-lieutenant, on the state of Ireland. We also
+know that Wellington himself was more than half convinced of the
+necessity of concession, and was preparing to strengthen his government
+for the coming struggle, in the event of Peel feeling bound to retire.
+Meanwhile a vacancy in the ministry had been created by the Duke of
+Clarence's resignation of his office of lord high admiral. In spite of
+the limitations imposed on his power, he had insisted on hoisting his
+flag, and assumed command. For this he was severely reprehended by the
+king and Wellington, and was virtually forced to resign office. Melville
+now became once more first lord of the admiralty, and was succeeded by
+Ellenborough at the board of control. Ellenborough retained his former
+office of lord privy seal, which Wellington was holding in reserve with
+a view to strengthening the government. But the public of those days
+remained in entire ignorance of their intentions until the meeting of
+parliament on February 5, 1829.
+
+The speech of George Dawson, Peel's brother-in-law, at Derry, on August
+12, had greatly startled protestants. As it was never publicly
+disavowed, Brunswick clubs were formed to repel the rising tide of
+sympathy with the catholics, but the only tangible indication of
+Wellington's personal sentiments favoured the belief that nothing would
+be done. The circumstances under which this indication was given were
+peculiar. The duke had written a letter to the Roman catholic archbishop
+of Dublin, an old correspondent, deprecating agitation on the catholic
+question, as likely to prejudice its future settlement, of which,
+however, the duke saw "no prospect".[88] This letter was improperly
+sent by the archbishop to O'Connell as well as to Anglesey. O'Connell
+read it to the Catholic Association as a sign of conciliatory
+inclinations; Anglesey's reply suggested, at least, that agitation might
+continue. He was promptly recalled, and his recall was rendered the more
+significant by the appointment of the Duke of Northumberland, a known
+"protestant," as his successor. What the public could not then know was
+that behind all other difficulties, political or personal, lay the
+almost insuperable difficulty of inducing the king to allow the cabinet
+to be even consulted. Indolent and unprincipled as George IV. was, he
+was still capable of rousing and asserting himself. Probably no one but
+Wellington could have prevailed against his anti-catholic prejudices,
+shared, as they were, not only by most of the peers, both spiritual and
+temporal, but also by the mass of the English people. At this juncture
+Peel informed the duke that, rather than risk the success of the
+proposed measure, he would remain at his post. His example was followed
+by his "protestant" colleagues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+During the winter of 1828-29 the strongest pressure was brought to bear
+on the king by his ministers to procure his consent to a measure of
+relief, accompanied by safeguards. Though he afterwards assured Eldon
+that he had never explicitly given such a consent, the old chancellor,
+on seeing the documents, felt obliged to express a contrary opinion. It
+is certain that he gave way most reluctantly, and probable that his
+scruples were as sincere as was consistent with his character; but he
+knew well that, if he dismissed his ministers, he would be left
+isolated, and he bowed to necessity. Indeed even the "protestant"
+members of the cabinet had urged him to yield. His assent was, in fact,
+only given by degrees; after each member of the cabinet, who had
+previously opposed catholic emancipation, had had a separate interview,
+the king consented on January 15 to the consideration of the subject by
+the cabinet, but reserved the right to reject its advice. After this no
+great difficulty was experienced in obtaining the royal assent to the
+introduction of a bill.[89] Accordingly the king's speech, delivered by
+commission on February 5, 1829, distinctly recommended parliament to
+consider whether the civil disabilities of the catholics could not be
+removed "consistently with the full and permanent security of our
+establishments in Church and State". This recommendation, however, was
+preceded by a severe condemnation of the Catholic Association and the
+expression of a resolution to put down the disorders caused by it. The
+sensation produced by the king's speech was increased by the
+simultaneous resignation by Peel of his seat for the university of
+Oxford. Considering that he was originally preferred to Canning mainly
+on protestant grounds, he could not have honourably acted otherwise.
+Many of his old friends stood by him, in spite of differences on the
+catholic question, and Eldon's grandson, who had been proposed as a
+candidate, was set aside as too weak an opponent. Ultimately Sir Robert
+Inglis was put forward by the "protestants," and was returned by 755
+votes against 609. Peel obtained a seat for the borough of Westbury,[90]
+and moved a preliminary bill for suppressing the Catholic Association.
+This passed both houses in February, but was already ineffective when it
+became law, since the association had been shrewd enough to dissolve
+itself upon the advice of its English well-wishers. The catholic relief
+bill was therefore introduced under favourable auspices.
+
+The motives which actuated Wellington and Peel in espousing the cause
+which they had so persistently opposed admit of no doubt whatever. In
+the memoir which Peel left as embodying his own defence, no less than in
+his speech introducing the emancipation bill, he affects no essential
+change of conviction. He rests his case entirely on the public danger of
+leaving the question "unsettled" after the disclosures of the Clare
+election, and argues calmly, as the agitators had been arguing for
+nearly thirty years, that no settlement was practicable short of
+complete, though not unconditional, surrender. There is no pretence of
+consistency. All the constitutional, political, and religious objections
+to civil equality between protestants and catholics in Ireland remained
+unanswered and unabated. Indeed the increasing power and defiant tone of
+the catholic demagogues might well have appeared a crowning reason for
+refusing them seats in parliament. Peel, however, had adopted, and
+pressed upon Wellington, the delusive opinion of Anglesey that by
+"taking them from the Association and placing them in the house of
+commons" they might be reduced to comparative impotence. He lamented, it
+is true, the premature announcement of a new policy by Dawson, and he
+had submitted his own resignation to the duke in the belief, apparently
+sincere, that he could render better service in an independent position.
+But he seems not to have felt the least scruple in urging the duke to
+break all his pledges to his protestant supporters, and conciliate the
+followers of O'Connell. Nor did his advice fall on unwilling ears.
+Trained in a vocation where private conscience is subordinate to
+military duty, where enemies must sometimes be welcomed as allies if it
+may further the plan of campaign, and where a masterly retreat is as
+honourable as a victory, Wellington did not shrink from undertaking the
+part of an opportunist minister. He had always regarded himself as a
+servant of the crown and the nation, rather than as a party leader, and
+he saw no personal difficulty in adopting any political measure as the
+less of two evils. Having once satisfied himself that civil war in
+Ireland was the only alternative to emancipation, he abandoned
+resistance to it as he would have abandoned a hopeless siege, and called
+upon his tory followers to change their front with him.
+
+Notice had been given of a resolution to be moved by Peel on March 5,
+preparing the way for the catholic relief bill, when the king raised
+fresh obstacles to its progress. As the day drew near, George,
+encouraged by the Duke of Cumberland, grew very excited. He had violent
+interviews with his ministers, and finally on March 3 he informed
+Wellington, Lyndhurst, and Peel that he could not assent to any
+alteration in the oath of supremacy. The three ministers accordingly
+tendered their resignations, which were accepted. But the king soon
+found that no alternative administration was possible, and on the
+following day the existing ministers received permission to proceed with
+the bill.[91]
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+Peel's great speech on March 5, in favour of his resolution, contains a
+comprehensive review of the Irish question, as well as an elaborate
+defence of his own position, resting solely on grounds of expediency. He
+advocated the measure itself as the only means of pacifying Ireland,
+reducing the undue power of the catholics, and securing the protestant
+religion. It was simple in its main outlines, applying to the whole
+United Kingdom, and purporting to open all political and civil rights to
+catholics, with a very few specified exceptions. It contained, however,
+a number of provisions, in the nature of securities against catholic
+aggression. By the new oath, to be substituted for the oaths of
+allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, a member of parliament, or holder
+of an office, was no longer required to renounce transubstantiation, the
+invocation of saints, or the sacrifice of the mass. But he was still
+obliged not only to swear allegiance, but to profess himself resolved to
+maintain the protestant settlement of the crown, to condemn absolutely
+all papal jurisdiction within the realm, and to disclaim solemnly any
+intention of subverting the existing Church establishment or weakening
+the system of protestant government. Moreover, priests were expressly
+denied the privilege of sitting in parliament. Catholics were still
+excluded from the high positions of sovereign, regent, lord chancellor
+of England or Ireland, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. They were enabled
+to become ministers of the crown, but were debarred from the power of
+advising the crown on presentations to ecclesiastical dignities or
+benefices, nor were they allowed to exercise such patronage in their
+personal capacity. They were still to be disabled from holding offices
+in the ecclesiastical courts, or in the universities, and their bishops
+were forbidden to assume diocesan titles already appropriated by the
+establishment. Other clauses were directed against the use of catholic
+vestments except in their chapels and private houses, and against the
+importation of Jesuits or members of similar religious orders, with a
+saving clause for those already resident and duly registered. Two other
+safeguards, often proposed, were deliberately omitted from the bill.
+There was no provision for a state endowment of catholic priests, or for
+a veto of the crown on the appointment of catholic bishops. These
+omissions, whether justifiable or not, were pregnant with serious
+consequences.
+
+The debates in both houses on Peel's bill, as it was rightly considered,
+are chiefly interesting as throwing light on contemporary opinion. The
+arguments for and against it had been fairly exhausted in previous
+years, and would carry no great weight in a later age. The
+constitutional objections to it, which seemed vital to Eldon, and
+weighty to every statesman of his time, were at a later date put aside,
+when they were pleaded against the dissolution of the Irish church,
+directly guaranteed by the act of union. The criticisms on the personal
+consistency of Wellington and Peel belong to biography rather than to
+history. But no one can read the speeches of leading men on either side
+without recognising the superior foresight, at least, of those who
+opposed the bill, and distrusted the efficacy of the safeguards embodied
+in it. Two assumptions underlay the whole discussion, and were treated
+as axioms by nearly all the speakers. The one was that catholic
+emancipation must be judged by its effect on the future peace of
+Ireland; the other, that it could not be justified, unless it would
+strengthen, rather than weaken, protestant ascendency, then regarded as
+a bulwark of the constitution. Posterity may contemplate it from a
+different and perhaps higher point of view; but it is certain that, if
+its consequences had been foreseen by those who voted upon it, the bill
+would have been rejected. It is no less certain that its adoption was a
+victory of the educated classes, represented by nomination-boroughs,
+over the unrepresented masses of the people.
+
+The actual result in the division lists was all that its promoters could
+have desired. Though the secret had been so well kept by the government
+that few of its supporters knew what to expect, and though piles of
+petitions showed the preponderance of protestant sentiment outside
+parliament, that sentiment was not reflected in the division lists. The
+first reading of the bill in the house of commons was carried by a
+majority of 348 to 160; the second reading by a majority of 353 to 180;
+the third reading by a majority of 320 to 142. The debates were
+enlivened on the protestant side by a brilliant speech from Michael
+Sadler, a tory friend of the working classes, returned by the Duke of
+Newcastle for Newark, and a violent invective from Sir Charles
+Wetherell, the attorney-general, who was thereupon dismissed from
+office. Peel, who had borne the brunt of these attacks, replied on March
+30, when the bill was sent up to the lords, and on April 2, the second
+reading of it in the upper house was moved by Wellington. His candid
+admission that he was driven to concession by the fear of civil war has
+since become historical, and served as the watchword of many a lawless
+agitation in Ireland. It was natural that most of the peers, and
+especially of the spiritual peers, who took part in the discussion
+should be opponents of the measure, but Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford, severed
+himself from the rest of his order, and vigorous speeches were made in
+support of it by Anglesey and Grey, neither of whom could be regarded as
+friendly to Wellington's government.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+Anglesey, who had been recently dismissed from the lord-lieutenancy of
+Ireland, went beyond the duke in the use of purely military arguments;
+Grey ventured to prophesy not only a future reign of peace in Ireland,
+but an extension of protestantism, as the consequence of catholic
+emancipation. The hopeless attempt of Lyndhurst to vindicate his own
+consistency, and a forensic duel between Eldon and Plunket, who had been
+raised to the peerage in 1827, relieved the monotony of the debate, but
+probably did not influence a single vote. The old guard of the
+anti-catholic party remained firm, but the mass of tory peers followed
+their leader in his new policy, as they had followed him in his old, and
+the relief bill was read a third time in the house of lords on the 10th,
+by a majority of 104. Three days later it received the royal assent.
+Lord Eldon had virtually encouraged the king to refuse this, at the last
+moment, though he was too honest to accept the assurance of George IV.
+that the bill was introduced without his authority. But the son of
+George III. had not inherited his father's resolute character. After a
+few childish threats of retiring to Hanover and leaving the Duke of
+Clarence to make terms with the ministry, he abandoned further
+resistance and capitulated to Wellington, as Wellington had capitulated
+to O'Connell.
+
+The disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders and the
+substitution of a ten-pound suffrage was the price to be paid for
+catholic emancipation, and no time was lost in completing the bargain.
+In days when it is assumed that every change in the electoral franchise
+must needs be in a downward direction, it may well appear amazing that
+so wholesale a destruction of privileges enjoyed for thirty-six years
+should have provoked so feeble an opposition. It is still more amazing
+that it should have passed without a protest from O'Connell himself, who
+had solemnly vowed to perish on the field or on the scaffold rather than
+submit to it. Yet so it was. These ignorant voters, it is true, had
+never ventured to call their souls their own, and had only ceased to be
+the servile creatures of their landlords in order to become the servile
+creatures of their priests. Still, it was they who, by their action in
+the Waterford and Clare elections, had forced the hand of the
+government, and achieved catholic emancipation. It may safely be said
+that after the reform act of 1832 it would have been politically
+impossible to disfranchise them; and even in the unreformed parliament
+it would have been scarcely possible if gratitude were a trustworthy
+motive in politics. On the other hand, the government could never have
+secured a majority for catholic emancipation, unless it had been
+distinctly understood to carry with it the extinction of democracy in
+Ireland. This, rather than declarations and restrictions of doubtful
+efficacy, was the real "security" on which the legislature relied for
+disarming the disloyalty of Irish catholics. For some time it answered
+its purpose so far as to keep the representation of that disloyalty
+within safe limits in the house of commons. But it naturally produced a
+contrary effect in Ireland itself, and was destined to be swept away
+before a fresh wave of agitation.
+
+A few days before the relief bill passed the house of commons an episode
+occurred which is chiefly interesting for the light which it throws on
+the ideas then prevalent in the highest society. In 1828 Wellington had
+presided at a meeting for the establishment of King's College, London,
+an institution which was to be entirely under the influence of the
+established church, and which was intended as a counterpoise to the
+purely secular institution which had been recently founded under the
+title of the "London University". The Earl of Winchilsea, a peer of no
+personal importance, but a stalwart upholder of Church and State,
+published in the _Standard_ newspaper of March 16, 1829, a virulent
+letter, describing the whole transaction "as a blind to the protestant
+and high church party," and accusing the prime minister of insidious
+designs for the introduction of popery in every department of the state.
+The duke at once sent Hardinge with a note couched in moderate language,
+demanding an apology. Winchilsea made no apology, but offered to express
+regret for having mistaken the duke's motives, if the duke would declare
+that when he presided at the meeting in question he was not
+contemplating any measure of catholic relief. Whereupon the duke
+demanded "that satisfaction which a gentleman has a right to require,
+and which a gentleman never refuses to give". A hostile meeting took
+place on March 21 in Battersea fields. The duke intentionally fired
+wide, and Winchilsea, after discharging his weapon in the air, tendered
+a written apology, in conformity with the so-called rules of honour. The
+duke was conscious that his conduct must have "shocked many good men,"
+but he always maintained that it was the only way, and proved an
+effectual way, of dispelling the atmosphere of calumny in which he was
+surrounded. It is probable that he judged rightly of his contemporaries,
+and that he gained rather than lost in reputation by an act which, apart
+from its moral aspect, risked the success of a great measure largely
+depending on the continuance of his own life. It may be noticed that he
+afterwards became not only the personal friend of his antagonist, but
+the most influential member of the Anti-Duelling Association.[92]
+
+[Pageheading: _EXCLUSION OF O'CONNELL._]
+
+Another episode, or rather sequel, of the great contest on catholic
+relief had more serious political consequences. Though O'Connell was the
+undoubted leader of the movement, and might almost have claimed to be
+the father of the act, he was most unwisely but deliberately excluded
+from its benefits. His exclusion was effected by a clause which rendered
+its operation strictly prospective, for the very purpose of shutting out
+the one catholic who had been elected under the old law. It had been
+decided by a committee of the house of commons that he was duly
+returned, the only question being whether he could take his seat without
+subscribing the oath now abolished. This question was brought to a test
+by the appearance of O'Connell in person in the house itself. The
+speaker, Charles Manners-Sutton, declared that he could not properly be
+admitted to be sworn under the new law, upon which O'Connell claimed a
+hearing. A long and futile discussion followed as to whether he should
+be heard at the table or at the bar. In the end he was heard at the bar,
+and produced a very favourable impression upon his opponents as well as
+his friends by the ingenuity of his arguments and the studied moderation
+of his tone. His case, however, was manifestly untenable from a legal
+point of view, and a new writ was ordered to be issued for the county of
+Clare.
+
+Then was shown both the folly of stirring up so needlessly the
+inflammable materials of Irish sedition and the futility of imagining
+that catholic emancipation, right or wrong, would prove a healing
+measure. Having exhibited the better side of his character in his speech
+before the house of commons, O'Connell exhibited its worst side without
+stint or shame in his addresses to the Irish peasantry. Skilfully
+avoiding the language of sheer treason, he set no bounds to his coarse
+and outrageous vituperation of the nation which had sacrificed even its
+conscience to appease Ireland; nor did he shrink from denouncing
+Wellington and Peel as "those men who, false to their own party, can
+never be true to us". The note which he struck has never ceased to
+vibrate in the hearts of the excitable people which he might have
+educated into loyal citizenship, and the spirit which he evoked has been
+the evil genius of Ireland from his day to our own. He openly unfurled
+the standard of repeal, but the repeal he demanded did not involve the
+creation of an Irish republic. Ireland was still to be connected with
+Great Britain by "the golden link of the crown," and though agitation
+was carried to the verge of rebellion, the great agitator never actually
+advised his dupes to rise in arms for a war of independence. Short of
+this he did all in his power, and with too much success, to inflame them
+with a malignant hatred of the sister country. If the promoters of
+catholic emancipation had ever looked for any reward beyond the inward
+satisfaction of having done a righteous act, they were speedily and
+wofully undeceived.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[83] Wellington to Peel, January 9, 1828, in Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_,
+ii., 27.
+
+[84] Lecky, _History of Ireland_, v., 358-60, _n._; Stapleton, _Life of
+Canning_, ii., 131-34.
+
+[85] Eldon to Sir William Scott, Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 416. For
+Eldon's Speech, see Twiss, iii., 498-512.
+
+[86] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, i., 372-75.
+
+[87] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 54-60.
+
+[88] Wellington to Curtis, December 11, 1828, Wellington, _Despatches,
+etc._, v., 326.
+
+[89] For the king's qualified assent see Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+82-85; Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 297, 298, 310.
+
+[90] See Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 3, for his unpopularity at Westbury.
+
+[91] Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 343-49; Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 189, 190,
+201, 202.
+
+[92] See Maxwell, _Life of Wellington_, ii., 231-36, for the incident.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XII.
+
+                          PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+
+It is now time to turn to the general course of foreign policy during
+the closing years of the reign of George IV. The only foreign problems
+which gave serious trouble during this period were the Eastern and
+Portuguese questions. The influence which the former exercised on
+domestic policy has rendered it necessary to trace its course as far as
+the battle of Navarino in the last chapter. We must now take up the
+other question where we left it, at the recognition of the independence
+of Brazil and the expulsion of the Spanish troops from the mainland of
+America.
+
+Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, though an independent sovereign, was still
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, and the ultra-royalists hoped
+that, in spite of the provisions of the Brazilian constitution, his
+succession to his ancestral crown would restore the unity of the
+Portuguese dominions. The death of King John VI. on March 10, 1826,
+brought the matter to a crisis. Four days before his death he had
+appointed a council of regency which was to be presided over by his
+daughter, Isabella Maria, but from which the queen and Dom Miguel, then
+twenty-three, were both excluded. By this act the absolutist party were
+deprived of power until they should be restored to it by the action of
+the new king, or by a revolution. The regency wished the new king to
+make a speedy choice between the two crowns; and it was anticipated that
+he would abdicate the Portuguese crown in favour of his seven-year-old
+daughter, Maria da Gloria. The absolutists on the other hand hoped that
+the king might by procrastination avoid the separation of the crowns.
+
+What was their surprise when they discovered that the king had indeed
+determined to procrastinate, but in such a way as to displease the
+absolutists as much as the friends of constitutional government? No
+sooner had the news of his father's death reached Peter at Rio Janeiro,
+than he issued a charter of 145 clauses, conferring a constitution on
+Portugal. This constitution which was destined to alternate for nearly a
+generation with absolute monarchy or with the revolutionary constitution
+of 1821, had the advantage of being the voluntary gift of the king. It
+was, however, composed in great haste, and, except that it retained the
+hereditary nobility as a first chamber in the cortes, was almost
+identical with the constitution established in Brazil in the previous
+December. Among other provisions it subjected the nobility to taxation
+and asserted the principle of religious toleration. A few days later, on
+the 2nd of May, King Peter executed an act of abdication in favour of
+his daughter Maria, providing, however, that the abdication should not
+come into effect until the necessary oaths had been taken to the new
+constitution and until the new queen should have been married to her
+uncle, Dom Miguel.
+
+[Pageheading: _CIVIL WAR IN PORTUGAL._]
+
+This compromise pleased nobody. It is true that it seemed to make
+permanent the separation of Brazil from Portugal, since the former state
+was destined for Peter's infant son, afterwards Peter II.; but the
+Brazilian patriots would have preferred a more definite abandonment of
+the Portuguese throne, and Peter's half-measure of abdication was one of
+the main causes of the discontent which drove him to resign the
+Brazilian crown five years later. The Portuguese liberals were alarmed
+at the prospect of a restoration of Dom Miguel to power, while the
+absolutists were indignant at the imposition of a constitution. From the
+very first it encountered opposition. The new constitution was indeed
+proclaimed on July 13, and the necessary oaths were taken on the 31st.
+But on the same day a party, consisting mainly of Portuguese deserters
+in Spanish territory, proclaimed Miguel as king and the queen-mother as
+regent during his absence. Miguel, however, gave no open support to this
+party; on October 4 he actually took the oath to the new constitution,
+and on the 29th he formally betrothed himself at Vienna to the future
+Queen of Portugal. But the Portuguese insurgents were not deterred by
+the apparent defection of the prince whose claim to reign they
+asserted, and they received a thinly disguised encouragement from the
+Spanish government, which certainly did nothing to interfere with their
+organisation in Spanish territory. On the 10th the last insurgents had
+been expelled from Portuguese territory, but in November they were
+openly joined by some Spanish soldiers, and on the 22nd of that month
+they invaded the Portuguese province of Traz-os-Montes. Another division
+made a simultaneous irruption into the province of Alemtejo. This latter
+body was quickly expelled from the kingdom and marched through Spanish
+territory to join its more successful comrades in Northern Portugal. The
+whole province of Traz-os-Montes had fallen into the hands of the
+absolutists in a few days, and its defection was followed by that of the
+northern part of Beira, when the arrival of British forces gave the
+constitutional party the necessary encouragement to enable them to
+arrest the progress of the insurrection.
+
+As in 1823, the Portuguese government, represented in London by
+Palmella, applied for British assistance against the ultra-royalists at
+home. But on the present occasion Portugal was able to appeal to
+something more than the general friendship of Great Britain. By the
+treaties of 1661 and 1703, renewed as recently as 1815, Great Britain
+was bound to defend Portugal against invasion, and Portugal now claimed
+the fulfilment of these treaties. The formal demand was received by the
+British ministry on December 3, but it was not till Friday, the 8th,
+that official intelligence was received of the invasion. Not a moment
+was lost in despatching 5,000 troops to Portugal. This resolution was
+formed by the cabinet on the 9th, approved by the king on the 10th, and
+communicated to parliament on the 11th. On the evening of the 12th
+Canning was able to inform the house of commons that the troops were
+already on the march for embarkation.
+
+The debate in the house of commons on the address in answer to the royal
+message announcing the request of the Portuguese government, was the
+occasion of two of the most famous speeches that Canning ever delivered.
+After recounting the treaty obligations of this country to Portugal, and
+the circumstances of the Portuguese application for assistance, and
+disclaiming any desire to meddle with the domestic politics of
+Portugal, he referred to a previous anticipation that the next European
+war would be one "not so much of armies as of opinions". "Not four
+years," he proceeded, "have elapsed, and behold my apprehension
+realised! It is, to be sure, within narrow limits that this war of
+opinion is at present confined: but it is a war of opinion that Spain
+(whether as government or as nation) is now waging against Portugal; it
+is a war which has commenced in hatred of the new institutions of
+Portugal. How long is it reasonable to expect that Portugal will abstain
+from retaliation? If into that war this country shall be compelled to
+enter, we shall enter into it with a sincere and anxious desire to
+mitigate rather than exasperate, and to mingle only in the conflict of
+arms, not in the more fatal conflict of opinions. But I much fear that
+this country (however earnestly she may endeavour to avoid it) could
+not, in such case, avoid seeing ranked under her banners all the
+restless and dissatisfied of any nation with which she might come in
+conflict. It is the contemplation of this new power in any future war
+which excites my most anxious apprehension. It is one thing to have a
+giant's strength, but it would be another to use it like a giant. The
+consciousness of such strength is undoubtedly a source of confidence and
+security; but in the situation in which this country stands, our
+business is not to seek opportunities of displaying it, but to content
+ourselves with letting the professors of violent and exaggerated
+doctrines on both sides feel that it is not their interests to convert
+an umpire into an adversary."
+
+In his reply at the close of the debate Canning vindicated his
+consistency in resisting Spanish aggression upon Portugal, while
+offering no resistance to the military occupation of Spain by France,
+which had not yet terminated. He pointed out that the Spain of his day
+was quite different from "the Spain within the limits of whose empire
+the sun never set--the Spain 'with the Indies' that excited the
+jealousies and alarmed the imaginations of our ancestors". He admitted
+that the entry of the French into Spain was a disparagement to the pride
+of England, but he thought it had been possible to obtain compensation
+without offering resistance in Spain itself. Then came the famous
+passage: "If France occupied Spain, was it necessary, in order to avoid
+the consequences of that occupation, that we should blockade Cadiz? No.
+I looked another way--I sought materials of compensation in another
+hemisphere. Contemplating Spain, such as our ancestors had known her, I
+resolved that if France had Spain, it should not be Spain 'with the
+Indies'. I called the new world into existence to redress the balance of
+the old."[93]
+
+[Pageheading: _TROOPS SENT TO PORTUGAL._]
+
+The two speeches were greeted with applause both in parliament and in
+the country, but their vanity was excessive. So far from "creating the
+new world," Canning had merely recognised the existence of states which
+had already won their own independence, and even so he was only
+following the example of the United States. It was not only extremely
+foolish, but altogether disingenuous, to maintain that the recognition
+of the South American republics had been resolved on as a counterpoise
+to French influence in Spain. The reasons which prompted this
+recognition were commercial, not political, and it had been announced to
+the powers as our ultimate policy before any invasion of Spain had taken
+place. The king had only consented to the step on condition that it was
+not to be represented as a measure of retaliation, and Canning himself
+when he delivered these speeches knew that the French had promised to
+evacuate Spain in the following April.[94] But however little justified
+by facts, the two speeches made a profound impression throughout Europe.
+Whatever Canning might desire, it was quite clear that he contemplated
+the possibility of a military alliance between this country and the
+revolutionary factions on the continent, and the impression gained
+ground that he desired to pose as the champion of liberalism against
+legitimate government.
+
+The first detachment of the British army reached Lisbon on Christmas
+day. It was not destined, however, to play an active part in the
+Portuguese struggle. The insurgent army was as greatly discouraged as
+the loyal troops were elated by its arrival, and the government was
+moreover enabled to employ a larger force on the scene of hostilities.
+The insurgents were in consequence driven out of the province of Beira
+and the greater part of Traz-os-Montes. A new invasion from Spanish
+territory, supported by some Spanish soldiers and Spanish artillery,
+took place during January, 1827. The greater part of the province of the
+Minho fell into the hands of the rebels, and on February 2 they captured
+the important town of Braga. But the forces of the regency proved too
+strong for them, and early in March the insurgents evacuated Portugal
+altogether. The Spanish government, now that little could be effected by
+further assistance to the Portuguese refugees, determined at length to
+perform the duties of a neutral power, and disarmed them.
+
+The British troops remained in Portugal till March, 1828. By that time
+the disturbances had assumed a purely domestic character, and it was
+ultimately decided to recall them. But a firmer policy than that
+actually followed would have been necessary in order to extricate Great
+Britain from the strife of Portuguese factions, in which her recent
+action had given a decided advantage to the constitutional party. That
+party had been driven into opposition before the British troops were
+recalled. On July 3, 1827, King Peter had issued a decree appointing Dom
+Miguel his lieutenant, and investing him with all the powers which
+belonged to him as king under the charter. Miguel, after visiting
+London, arrived at Lisbon on February 22, 1828, and was sworn in as
+regent four days later. As he was twenty-five years old, and therefore
+of full age according to Portuguese law, he could not with any show of
+equity have been kept out of the regency longer. Miguel's installation
+as regent was followed by a series of riots as well on the part of the
+absolutists, who desired to make him king, as on the part of the
+constitutionalists who feared that he would make himself king. It was
+not long before he definitely identified himself with the absolutist
+party.
+
+[Pageheading: _MIGUEL'S USURPATION._]
+
+On March 14 the cortes were dissolved. On May 3 Miguel summoned the
+ancient cortes in his own name, and on June 26 they acknowledged him as
+king. The immediate result of this act was that all the ambassadors,
+except those of Spain and the Holy See, quitted Lisbon, and the lapse of
+time did not induce them to change their attitude towards Miguel. A
+further complication was introduced by Peter's definite abdication in
+favour of his daughter on March 3, executed before he had any suspicion
+of Miguel's designs, which placed Miguel in the position of regent for
+his infant niece instead of for his brother. After this formal
+abdication Peter despatched his daughter to Europe, intending that she
+should proceed to Vienna. When, however, she arrived at Gibraltar on
+September 2, her conductors, hearing of Miguel's usurpation, determined
+to take her to England, and she landed at Falmouth on the 24th. Peter,
+on hearing of Miguel's usurpation, naturally considered the regency
+terminated, and claimed to act as the guardian of the infant queen; the
+Brazilian ministers in Europe acted as his agents, while his partisans
+assembled in England and attempted to use this country as a basis for
+warlike operations in Portuguese territories.
+
+The situation of 1826 was thus reversed. Instead of an ultra-royalist
+party resting on Spain, a constitutionalist party resting on Brazil and
+attempting to rest on England was now threatening the established
+government at Lisbon. Wellington was anxious to maintain a strict
+neutrality, but he failed to prevent a ship of war and supplies of arms
+and ammunition going from Plymouth to Terceira in the Azores, where
+Donna Maria was acknowledged as queen. He succeeded, however, in
+preventing a larger armament, which had been raised under the name of
+the Emperor of Brazil, with Rio Janeiro as its nominal destination, from
+landing at Terceira. This action, though the logical consequence of the
+British opposition to the conduct of Spain in 1826, was severely
+criticised in England as equivalent to an intervention on behalf of
+Miguel.
+
+Meanwhile Canning's attempt to prevent the separate action of Russia in
+the Eastern question had been doomed to disappointment. The destruction
+of the Turkish navy at Navarino was naturally regarded at Constantinople
+as an outrage, and the Porte demanded satisfaction from the ambassadors
+of the allied powers. This they refused to grant on the ground that the
+Turks had been the aggressors, and they in their turn demanded an
+armistice between the Turkish troops and the Greek insurgents. As the
+Porte remained obdurate, the ambassadors of France, Great Britain, and
+Russia, acting in accordance with their instructions, left
+Constantinople on December 8, 1827. But though war seemed imminent, the
+tsar still disowned all idea of conquest, and professed to desire
+nothing further than the execution of the treaty of London. A protocol
+was accordingly signed on the 12th by which the three powers confirmed
+a clause in the treaty, providing that, in the event of war, none of
+them should derive any exclusive benefit, either commercial or
+territorial.
+
+The British government imagined that the powers might still effect their
+object by diplomacy, and that it would not be necessary to abandon the
+Turkish alliance. But any such idea must have been rudely shaken by the
+hati-sherif of December 20. In that document the sultan enlarged on the
+cruelty and perfidy of the Christian powers and summoned the Muslim
+nations to arms: he denounced Russia in particular as the prime mover of
+the Greek rebellion, the instigator of the other powers, and the
+arch-enemy of Islam; and he declared the treaty of Akkerman, by which
+the outstanding disputes between Russia and the Porte had been settled
+in October, 1826, to have been extorted by force and only signed in
+order to save time. This defiance of Russia, if not of all Christendom,
+was followed by a levy of Turkish troops and the expulsion of most of
+the Christian residents from Constantinople. No course was now open to
+Russia but to make war. It remained to be seen whether any other power
+would join her. On January 6, 1828, a Russian despatch announced the
+tsar's intention of occupying the Danubian principalities, and suggested
+that France and Great Britain should force the Dardanelles and thus
+compel the Porte to comply with the provisions of the treaty of London.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON'S EASTERN POLICY._]
+
+It is possible that if the direction of British foreign policy had
+remained in the hands of Goderich and Dudley, our government might have
+lent its support to a settlement of the Eastern question which would in
+effect have been the work of Russia only. The more daring policy of
+Canning, by which Great Britain had attempted to take the lead as
+opportunity offered, either in active co-operation with Russia or in
+active opposition to her, could only be directed by a more versatile
+statesman than the nation now possessed. The accession to office of
+Wellington, though it left Dudley at the foreign office, was really
+marked by a return to the policy of Castlereagh, a policy which, if not
+brilliant, was at least honourable, consistent, and considerate, and
+which in the hands of Wellington was managed with a sufficient measure
+of firmness, though with less tact and insight than had been shown by
+Castlereagh. The first object of this policy was to keep the special
+grievances of Russia distinct from the complaints which Europe at large
+or, in the present situation, the three allied powers were able to bring
+against the Porte. By so doing the British government hoped to prevent
+Russia from dragging other powers into a war for her private benefit,
+and also to render it impossible for Russia to use her special
+grievances as a lever by which she might effect a separate settlement of
+the general question. For some years this policy was successful. Russia
+did indeed wage a separate war with the Turks, but the Greek question
+was settled by the three powers conjointly, and Great Britain rather
+than Russia took the lead in the settlement. It was only after
+Palmerston had succeeded to the direction of our foreign policy in 1830,
+that it was discovered how far the victory of Russia in war had placed
+her in a position to dictate the general policy of the Ottoman court.
+
+Wellington experienced no difficulty in striking out a line of policy
+along which he could carry France with him. On February 21 De la
+Ferronays, who had been recalled from the French embassy at St.
+Petersburg to occupy the post of foreign minister in the new liberal
+administration, which had been formed in France in December, 1827,
+despatched a note urging the immediate employment of energetic measures
+against the Porte. He saw that the hati-sherif gave special occasion of
+war to Russia, and he was naturally anxious to anticipate her isolated
+action by combined measures of coercion. He had, however, nothing better
+to suggest than the execution of the Russian proposals of January 6.
+Wellington, in his reply, dated the 26th, rightly minimised the
+seriousness of the hati-sherif, and characterised the proposed measures
+of coercion as destined to be ineffectual. He also expressed the fear
+that if the three powers combined to make war on the Turks there would
+be a general insurrection of the subject races in the Turkish dominions
+which might last indefinitely. He therefore proposed first to settle the
+Greek question by local pressure, after which he anticipated no serious
+trouble about events at Constantinople. On the same day he drafted a
+memorandum to the cabinet in which he proposed that the allied squadrons
+should proceed to the Archipelago, blockade the Morea and Alexandria,
+destroy the Greek pirates, stop the warfare in Chios and Crete, and call
+upon the Greek government to withdraw the forces which were operating
+in western and eastern Greece respectively under the command of two
+foreign volunteers, General Church and Colonel Fabvier. In other words,
+he proposed to coerce not the Porte but the actual combatants, Greece
+and Egypt, and to check each party where it was the aggressor. If the
+prime object of the government in the eastern question was the
+maintenance of order, these proposals were excellent. The one capital
+defect of the whole scheme was that it ignored the Russian desire for
+war, which rendered it impossible for the tsar to postpone the
+settlement of his own grievances until an arrangement should be come to
+on the Greek question; on the other hand, by isolating the Greek
+question, it left it possible for the western powers to proceed with its
+solution in spite of the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and the
+Turks.[95]
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY._]
+
+Russia's determination to act singly was, however, already made. On the
+same day, February 26, on which Wellington sketched his policy,
+Nesselrode issued a despatch declaring that war was inevitable,
+including among his reasons the repudiation of recent treaties by the
+Porte and the proclamation by it of a holy war. At the same time he
+endeavoured to disarm any possible opposition on the part of the powers
+by an invitation to them to make use of the coming war to carry out the
+treaty of London. In any case Russia would execute the treaty, but if
+she were left to herself, the manner of execution would be determined by
+her own convenience and interest.[96] So far Russia had done nothing
+directly inconsistent with the maintenance of her concert with France
+and Great Britain, whose representatives had been sitting in conference
+with hers at London since January, 1827. But the reference in this last
+note to the possibility of a settlement of the Greek question according
+to the convenience and interest of Russia appeared like a threat of
+breaking up the alliance in case France and Great Britain refused to
+send their fleets to the Mediterranean. At least Wellington so
+understood it, and, rather than be a party to the war, he dissolved the
+conference of London in the middle of March. But he soon found that by
+so doing he lost the co-operation of France, and he was therefore
+compelled to accept the assurances of Russia that she intended to keep
+within the limits of the treaty of London, and to regard the
+Mediterranean as a neutral area. The conference was in consequence
+reopened at the beginning of July. Meanwhile hostilities had actually
+begun between Russia and the Turks. Russia declared war on April 26. On
+May 7 her troops crossed the Pruth. They rapidly overran the Danubian
+provinces, and on June 7 crossed the Danube into Bulgaria. They were
+destined, however, to spend more than a year between the Danube and the
+Balkans before they could force their way into Rumelia.
+
+During the interval considerable progress was made with the settlement
+of the Greek question. The treaty of London in providing for the
+autonomy of Greece had specified no boundaries, and the first problem
+demanding the attention of the powers that had assumed the task of the
+settlement of Greece was to determine the limits within which that
+settlement was to be effected. It might be urged that all the Greeks who
+had accepted the armistice imposed by the powers in consequence of the
+treaty of London had a right to share in the settlement at which that
+treaty aimed. But the armistice had been broken by Greek attacks on
+Chios and Crete, and Wellington held that the powers were, in
+consequence, free from any obligation imposed by the nominal acceptance
+of the armistice. He, accordingly, desired to adopt the simple principle
+of granting the proposed autonomy to those parts of Greece in which the
+insurrection had proved successful, namely, the Morea and the AEgean
+Islands, and refusing it in Northern and Central Greece, where the
+Turkish forces still held their own. But the British cabinet was far
+from being unanimous; many, among whom Palmerston was specially
+prominent, urged the concession of a greatly increased territory. The
+changes which took place in the British ministry towards the end of May,
+1828, deprived Palmerston of his share in its deliberations, and by
+substituting Aberdeen for Dudley at the foreign office, placed our
+foreign relations under the direction of a man of talent and experience,
+who had already exercised an important influence on British policy and
+who was more in sympathy with the policy of the prime minister than
+Dudley had been, but who was not content, like Dudley, to be a mere
+cipher in the department over which he was called to preside. Aberdeen,
+though opposed to the narrow boundaries which Wellington wished to
+assign to liberated Greece, was no less antagonistic than his chief to
+any attempt to make the new Greek state politically important; and he
+was even of opinion that the Russian declaration of war had released
+Great Britain from any further obligation under the treaty of London.
+
+Such were the composition and policy of the British government when the
+conference of London reassembled in July. The differences between the
+powers had prevented any active intervention in Greece, since the battle
+of Navarino. The ports in the Morea, still occupied by Ibrahim, had
+indeed been blockaded, but it had been found impossible to induce
+Austrian vessels to acknowledge a blockade of such questionable
+legality, and the allied fleets had even permitted the embarkation of
+Ibrahim's sick and wounded together with 5,500 Greek prisoners, who were
+sold into slavery on their arrival at Alexandria. The renewal of the
+concert of the three powers was followed by a rapid change in the
+situation. On the 19th it was decided that France should send an
+expedition to expel the Turco-Egyptian troops from the Morea, while
+Great Britain should render her any naval assistance that might be
+necessary. This step was valued by the British government as definitely
+committing France to a share in the settlement of the Greek question,
+and therefore interesting that power in opposition to any attempt at a
+separate settlement by Russia. It also furnished a safe outlet for
+French military ardour, disappointed by the results of the Spanish
+expedition. In fact, the evacuation of Spain, which was in progress at
+the date when this agreement was concluded, materially reduced the
+strain which the new undertaking imposed upon the French government.
+France immediately prepared to send out a force amounting to nearly
+22,000 men. But before they could arrive, the greater part of their task
+had been performed by other hands.
+
+[Pageheading: _TURKS EXPELLED FROM THE MOREA._]
+
+Codrington's conduct in permitting the embarkation of the Turkish sick
+and wounded with their prisoners had given great dissatisfaction at
+home, and the cabinet had resolved on his recall before the ministerial
+crisis of the latter part of May. That crisis occasioned a fortnight's
+delay, and, in consequence, Codrington was able, before his successor
+arrived, to make a naval demonstration before Alexandria and on August 6
+to obtain the consent of Mehemet Ali to the following proposals: an
+exchange of prisoners was to take place, involving the liberation of
+the recently enslaved Greeks, and the Egyptian army was to be withdrawn
+from the Morea, but Ibrahim was to be allowed to leave behind 1,200
+Egyptian troops to help to garrison five fortresses which were held by
+the Turks. Before either the new London protocol or the Alexandria
+convention could be carried into effect, further differences had arisen.
+Russia had proclaimed a blockade of the Dardanelles and ordered her
+admiral to carry it out. This proceeding was regarded by the British
+government as a breach of faith and a menace to British commerce. It
+was, however, impossible to abandon co-operation with Russia for fear
+that the Greek question might become involved in the issues at stake
+between her and the Porte. Wellington, in consequence, contented himself
+with obtaining certain exemptions from the operation of the blockade on
+behalf of British subjects trading with Turkey, and with the exclusion
+of the Russian fleet from the operations conducted in the Mediterranean
+in accordance with the orders of the London conference. The French force
+for expelling the Egyptians from the Morea arrived almost simultaneously
+with the Egyptian transports for removing them. On October 5 Ibrahim set
+sail for Egypt, with 21,000 men, leaving 1,200 behind in the five
+fortresses in accordance with the terms settled at Alexandria. The
+French began their attack on the remaining fortresses two days later,
+and by the end of November had expelled all the Turks from the Morea. By
+the terms of their engagements, they ought now to have departed. But it
+was hardly to be expected that France would so readily abandon the
+advantage that the presence of her troops gave her in the settlement of
+the eastern question.
+
+Meanwhile the negotiations made slow progress. On November 16 a protocol
+was issued placing the Morea with the neighbouring islands under the
+guarantee of the powers. Wellington had opposed any extension of the
+guarantee to Central Greece on the ground that the allies had to provide
+both the necessary military force and the cost of maintaining the Greek
+government, so that any undertaking beyond the Morea would involve heavy
+expense without rendering lighter the task of maintaining order. But the
+real decision of the question lay not with the diplomatists at London,
+but with the diplomatists on the spot. Representatives of the three
+powers had been sent to Poros to make detailed arrangements in
+accordance with the terms of the treaty of London. Stratford Canning,
+who represented Great Britain, was one of the supporters of an extended
+frontier, and in the end the ambassadors at Poros drew up a protocol in
+favour of erecting Greece south of a line connecting the Gulfs of Arta
+and Volo into a hereditary principality, which was also to include
+nearly all the islands. Even Samos and Crete were recommended to the
+benevolent consideration of the courts. All Mohammedans were to be
+expelled from this territory. The tribute payable to Turkey was to be
+fixed at 1,500,000 piastres, but this was to be paid not to the Turkish
+government, but to those who might suffer pecuniary loss by the
+confiscation of lands hitherto owned by Mohammedans.
+
+[Pageheading: _PEACE OF ADRIANOPLE._]
+
+The spring of 1829 was marked by events which went far to cancel the
+arguments on which Wellington had based his case for a restricted
+frontier. Not only the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth but Acarnania
+and AEtolia were liberated by the Greek forces under Sir Richard Church
+the castle of Vonitza falling on March 17, Karavasara shortly
+afterwards, Lepanto on April 30, and Mesolongi on May 17.[97] Meanwhile
+the terms agreed upon at Poros had been adopted and further defined by
+the conference at London on March 22. It was now provided that the
+future hereditary prince was to be chosen by the three powers and the
+sultan conjointly, and that the terms were to be offered to the Porte by
+the British and French ambassadors in the name of the three powers; any
+Turkish objections were to be weighed.[98] It was not till June that
+Robert Gordon and Guilleminot, representing Great Britain and France
+respectively, were able to lay these proposals before the Porte, and it
+was only after a Russian army under Diebitsch had crossed the Balkans
+that the Porte on August 15 accepted them, and even then only with
+extensive modifications. These limited the new state to the Morea and
+the adjacent islands, and left the tribute assigned to the same purposes
+as before the revolt; a limit was to be set to the military and naval
+forces of Greece, and Greeks were not to be allowed to migrate from
+Turkish dominions to the new state.
+
+Wellington was of opinion that these concessions were adequate. He
+attached great importance to the consent of the Porte, to dispense with
+which seemed to him a sure method of encouraging a general revolt in the
+Turkish dominions; and he also advocated a limited frontier in the
+interests of the Ionian Islands. He doubted whether it would be found
+possible to remove Capodistrias, who had been elected president of
+Greece for a period of seven years on April 14, 1827, from his office to
+make room for a hereditary prince, and he felt sure that if Capodistrias
+were once granted Central Greece he would not hesitate to attempt the
+conquest of the Ionian Islands. Capodistrias had in fact refused to
+accept any of the arrangements proposed by the London conference, and
+was still engaged in the vigorous prosecution of the war. Wellington did
+not, however, succeed in inducing France and Russia to remain content
+with the Turkish concessions. Diebitsch's successful march through
+Rumelia encouraged Russia to demand more, and filled the minds of the
+French ministers with the wildest schemes of aggression. They actually
+proposed to Russia that the northern part of the Balkan peninsula should
+be divided between Austria and Russia while the whole peninsula south of
+the Balkans, with Bulgaria to the north, was to be formed into a new
+state under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands, whose
+hereditary dominions were in their turn to be divided between France,
+Great Britain, and Prussia.
+
+Such chimerical projects were based on the assumption that
+Constantinople lay at the mercy of the army of Diebitsch; and this was
+believed to be the case not only by the court of Paris, but by that of
+London, and even by that of Constantinople. But no one knew better than
+Diebitsch how precarious his situation was, and, if Russia wished to
+obtain advantageous terms, it was necessary for her to make the most of
+the illusion while it lasted. On September 14 the peace of Adrianople
+was signed, which established the virtual independence of the
+principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia and secured for all powers at
+peace with Turkey a free passage for merchant ships through the
+Bosphorus and Dardanelles; Russia received a small addition to her
+Asiatic territories, and Turkey accepted both the treaty of London of
+July 6, 1827, and the protocol of London of March 22, 1829. The
+difficulties raised by Turkey's opposition to the full terms of the
+protocol were thus swept aside, and it was now clear that, if that
+protocol was to be further modified, it would be modified out of regard
+for the interests of Europe not by way of concession to Turkey. France
+and Great Britain were naturally averse from a settlement of the
+question by Russia alone, even when that settlement was on lines to
+which they had given their consent, and they might have been expected to
+propose some alteration in the scheme. But the conciliatory action of
+Russia rendered such proposals needless. On September 29, only fifteen
+days after the treaty, Aberdeen received a formal proposal from Russia
+that Turkey should be offered a restriction of the Greek boundary in
+return for a recognition of the total independence of Greece.[99] This
+proposal removed Wellington's fear that the new principality might be
+used as a basis for an attack on the Ionian Islands; while the
+maintenance of Turkish suzerainty seemed less important after the
+apparent prostration of Turkish military power in the recent war.
+
+It now remained for the allied powers to select a prince to whom the new
+crown should be offered. This subject engaged their attention from
+October, 1829, to January, 1830. Finally, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
+widower of the Princess Charlotte, was selected, greatly to the
+annoyance of King George IV. On February 3 Prince Leopold was formally
+offered the sovereignty of Greece as an independent state, bounded on
+the north by a line drawn from the mouth of the Aspropotamo to
+Thermopylae. Before accepting the crown he made an effort to obtain a
+stronger position for its future prince. He asked for a complete
+guarantee of independence from the three powers, some security for the
+Greek inhabitants of Crete and Samos, an extension of the boundary to
+the north, and financial and military support. The powers on February 20
+decided to grant the guarantee and a loan of L2,400,000, and to allow
+the French troops to remain in Greece for another year, but refused the
+extension of territory and would not recognise the right of the Greek
+state to interfere in the affairs of Crete and Samos. Leopold accepted
+the crown on these conditions on February 24, and they were accepted by
+the Porte on April 24. Capodistrias, who had no desire to make way for
+another ruler, invited Leopold to the country, but suggested that he
+would not be well received and that he would have to change his
+religion.[100] These considerations, combined with other causes, induced
+him to renounce the crown on May 21.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE CONQUERS ALGERIA._]
+
+One other foreign event exercised the minds of Wellington's cabinet
+during the last months of George IV.'s reign. This was the French
+punitive expedition to Algiers, which resulted In the conquest of that
+state. The expedition was originally planned in concert with Mehemet Ali
+of Egypt, and appeared to Wellington to be prompted by the idea that the
+defeat of the Turks by Russia afforded a convenient opportunity for a
+partition of Turkish territory. The British government was able by means
+of diplomatic pressure to induce Mehemet Ali to refrain from
+co-operating, but it could not deny the justice of the French expedition
+or prevent it from sailing.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[93] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, iii., 220-25, 227-35.
+
+[94] See Lloyd, _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_, N.S.,
+xviii. (1904), 77-105.
+
+[95] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, iv., 270-79.
+
+[96] _Ibid._, pp. 280-86.
+
+[97] So S. Lane-Poole, writing from Church's papers, _English Historical
+Review_, v., 519.
+
+[98] Hertslet, _Map of Europe by Treaty_, p. 142.
+
+[99] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, vi., 184.
+
+[100] See the letters in the _Annual Register_, lxxii. (1830), 389-401.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIII.
+
+                           PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+
+The year that elapsed between the prorogation of parliament on June 24,
+1829, and the death of George IV., on June 26, 1830, was barren in
+events of domestic importance. While Ireland was torn by faction, and
+the Orangemen of Ulster rivalled in lawlessness the catholics of the
+other provinces, England was undergoing another period of agricultural
+and commercial depression. The harvest of 1829 was late and bad; the
+winter that followed was the severest known for sixteen years; and a
+fresh series of outrages was committed by the distressed operatives,
+especially by the silk weavers in the east of London and the mill hands
+in the midland counties. In the district of Huddersfield, where the
+people bore their sufferings with admirable patience, a committee of
+masters stated as a fact that "there were 13,000 individuals who had not
+more than twopence half-penny a day to live on". When parliament met on
+February 4, 1830, the prevailing distress was recognised in the king's
+speech, but in guarded terms, and the ministers attributed it in the
+main, probably with justice, to unavoidable causes. This gave the
+enemies of free trade and currency reform an opportunity of renewing
+their protests against Peel's and Huskisson's financial policy. They
+failed to effect their object, but Goulburn, the chancellor of the
+exchequer, initiated a considerable reduction of expenditure and
+remission of taxes. The excise duties on beer, cider, and leather were
+now totally remitted, those on spirits being somewhat increased. The
+government even deliberated on the proposal of a property tax, and,
+stimulated by a motion of Sir James Graham, actually carried out large
+savings in official salaries. On the whole, this session was the most
+fruitful in economy since the conclusion of the peace. The system of
+judicature, too, was subjected to a salutary revision throughout Great
+Britain by the amalgamation of the English and Welsh benches, and the
+concentration of courts in Scotland. As the charter of the East Indian
+Company was about to expire, a strong committee was appointed to
+consider the whole subject of its territorial powers and commercial
+privileges. This committee was not the least beneficial result of a
+session which has left no great mark on the statute-book.
+
+[Pageheading: _MOVEMENT FOR REFORM._]
+
+The weakness of Wellington's position had long since become apparent to
+all. By his conduct in regard to catholic emancipation he had estranged
+a powerful section of his tory followers. By his jealousy and haughty
+attitude towards his whig allies, he had forfeited their good-will,
+never very heartily given. By his treatment of Huskisson, a small but
+able body of politicians was thrown into the ranks of a discordant
+opposition. No one else could have induced the king to give way on
+catholic emancipation, but the king had not forgiven him, and submitted
+to him out of fear rather than out of confidence. Though singularly
+deficient in rhetorical power, he still maintained his ascendency in the
+house of lords by the aid of more eloquent colleagues, but Peel was his
+only efficient lieutenant in the house of commons. The vacancy in the
+office of lord privy seal, occasioned by the transference of
+Ellenborough to the board of control, had at last been filled in June,
+1829, by the appointment of Lord Rosslyn, nephew of the first earl, who,
+however, added nothing to the strength of the ministry. In the meantime,
+reform had succeeded catholic emancipation as the one burning question
+of politics, but with this all-important difference that it roused
+enthusiasm in the popular mind. Political unions, like the branches of
+the catholic association, were springing up all over the country, and a
+series of motions was made in the house of commons which feebly
+reflected the feverish agitation in all the active centres of
+population. One of these, brought forward by the Marquis of Blandford,
+who had made a similar motion in the previous year, was really prompted
+by enmity against the author of catholic emancipation. Another,
+introduced by Lord Howick, son of Earl Grey, called for some general and
+comprehensive measure to remedy the admitted abuses of the electoral
+system. A third, and far more practical, attempt was made by Lord John
+Russell to obtain the enfranchisement of Manchester, Leeds, and
+Birmingham. A fourth, and perfectly futile proposal, was made by
+O'Connell, in the shape of a bill for triennial parliaments, universal
+suffrage, and vote by ballot, to which Russell moved a statesmanlike
+amendment, in favour of transferring members from petty boroughs to
+counties and great unrepresented towns. All these motions were defeated
+by larger or smaller majorities, but no one doubted that parliamentary
+reform was inevitable, and few can have imagined that Wellington was
+either willing or competent to grapple with it.
+
+While domestic affairs were in this state, George IV. died. His
+constitution, weakened by many years of self-indulgence, had been
+further depressed by a growing sense of loneliness and by the long
+struggle with his ministers over catholic emancipation. On April 15 his
+illness had been made public, and on May 24 it had been necessary to
+bring in a bill, authorising the use of a stamp, to be affixed in his
+presence in lieu of the royal sign manual. A month later, the disease of
+the heart from which he suffered took a fatal turn, and on June 26 he
+passed away, not without dignity, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
+Perhaps no other English king has been so harshly judged by posterity,
+nor is it possible to acquit him of moral vices which outweighed all his
+merits, considerable as they were. The Duke of Wellington, who knew him
+as well as any man, declared that he was a marvellous compound of
+virtues and defects, but that, on the whole, the good elements
+preponderated. Peel, who had become by his father's death Sir Robert,
+testified in Parliament that he "never exercised, or wished to exercise,
+a prerogative of the crown, except for the advantage of his people".
+These estimates assuredly err on the side of charity, and are quite
+inconsistent with other statements of the duke himself.
+
+George IV., it is true, possessed many royal gifts. He was a man of no
+ordinary ability, with a fine presence, courtly manners, various
+accomplishments, and clear-sighted intelligence on every subject within
+the sphere of his duties. But all these kingly qualities were marred by
+a heartlessness which rendered him incapable of true love or friendship,
+and a duplicity which made it impossible for him to retain the respect
+of his ministers. His private life was not wholly unlike that of the
+Regent Orleans and had much the same influence on the society of the
+metropolis. He was an undutiful son, a bad husband, a perfidious friend,
+with little sense of truth or honour, and destitute of that public
+spirit which atoned for the political obstinacy of his father. No one
+sincerely regretted his death, except the favourites who had been
+enriched by his extravagance, and actually succeeded in carrying off a
+large booty out of the valuables that he had amassed. Nevertheless, his
+regency is identified with a glorious period in our military history,
+and his reign ushered in a new age of reform and national prosperity. In
+the great struggle against Napoleon and the pacification of Europe he
+gave his ministers a cordial and effective support. To catholic
+emancipation he was honestly opposed, but he kept his opposition within
+constitutional limits, and his intense selfishness did not exclude a
+certain sentiment of philanthropy and even of patriotism.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+His successor, William IV., was greatly inferior to him intellectually,
+and infinitely less conversant with the business of state. Most of this
+prince's early life was spent at sea, where he saw a fair share of
+service, and became the friend of Nelson, but incurred his father's
+displeasure by infringing the rules of discipline. Having been created
+Duke of Clarence in 1789, he was rapidly promoted in the navy, but
+remained on shore without employment for some forty years before his
+accession, taking an occasional part in debates of the house of lords,
+and generally acting with the whig party. During this long period he was
+little regarded by his future subjects, and led a somewhat obscure life,
+at first in the company of Mrs. Jordan, by whom he had a numerous
+family. After his marriage with the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen
+in 1818, he became a more important personage, and, as we have seen, was
+made lord high admiral by Canning, but held office for little more than
+a year. He was thus entirely destitute of political training, and was
+living in privacy when he was called to ascend the throne on the eve of
+a singularly momentous crisis.
+
+The session was prolonged until July 23, when parliament was prorogued
+by the new king in person, and on the following day a dissolution was
+proclaimed, the writs being made returnable on September 14. During the
+month that elapsed between the death of George IV. and the prorogation,
+no serious business was done, but the leaders of opposition in both
+houses moved to provide for a regency, in view of a possible demise of
+the crown before a fresh parliament could be assembled. This course was
+clearly dictated by the highest expediency, for, had the king's life
+been cut short suddenly, the young Princess Victoria, then eleven years
+old, would have become sovereign with full powers, but without
+protection against the baleful influence of her uncle, the Duke of
+Cumberland, the least trustworthy person in the realm. In advocating it,
+however, the whigs showed an evident disposition to win the favour of
+William IV., who had never broken away, like his predecessor, from his
+whig connexion. These motions were defeated, but the opposition gained
+popularity at the expense of the government, by raising debates on
+certain state prosecutions for libel, and on the question of colonial
+slavery. Their position was further strengthened by a widespread
+impression that the king himself was a reformer at heart, and would
+seize an early opportunity of declaring his sentiments. His weakness had
+not yet disclosed itself, while his kindliness earned him golden
+opinions, as he "walked in London streets with his umbrella under his
+arm, and gave a frank and sailor-like greeting to all old
+acquaintances".
+
+The election of 1830, following close on the revolution of July in
+Paris, was the death-blow of the old tory rule in England. The
+widespread sympathy which the original uprising of 1789 had excited
+among Englishmen, but which the atrocities of jacobinism had quenched,
+was now revived by the comparatively bloodless victory of constitutional
+principles and the accession of a citizen-king in France. The growing
+enthusiasm for reform, thus stimulated, exercised a decisive effect in
+all the constituencies except the pocket-boroughs. Brougham was returned
+without opposition for Yorkshire, and Hume by a large majority for
+Middlesex, two brothers of Sir Robert Peel lost their seats, and Croker
+was defeated for Dublin University. Distrust of the government was
+equally shown in the counties and in the great cities, but in some
+instances ultra-tories were elected, in revenge for catholic
+emancipation or for alleged neglect of agricultural interests. It was
+calculated that fifty seats, in all, had changed hands, and the
+parliament which assembled in October 26 was very different in
+constitution and temper from any of those which supported tory
+ministries with unshaken constancy during the great war and the long
+period of agitation consequent on the peace.
+
+The losses of the government in Great Britain, partly due to its Irish
+policy, were not compensated by any gain in Ireland, which did not fail
+to display the ingratitude so often experienced by its benefactors.
+Catholic emancipation was now treated as a vantage ground on which the
+battle of repeal might be waged. Association after association was
+formed by O'Connell, only to be put down by proclamation and to
+re-appear under another name. The worst passions of the people were
+effectually roused, assassinations became frequent, and Peel's
+correspondence with Hardinge, then chief secretary, shows that he fully
+recognised the failure of his experiment, as a cure for Irish
+anarchy.[101] In the course of this new agitation, O'Connell used most
+offensive expressions for which Hardinge called him to account. The
+chief secretary's act may have been unjustifiable, but the shuffling and
+faint-hearted conduct of O'Connell in declining this and later
+challenges provoked by his foul language was fatal to his reputation for
+courage. The most insolent of bullies, he never failed to consult his
+own personal safety, by professing conscientious objections to duelling,
+as well as by keeping just outside the meshes of the criminal law.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF HUSKISSON._]
+
+A few weeks before parliament met a tragical accident closed the life of
+Huskisson, whose death was rendered all the more impressive by its
+circumstances. In 1825 the idea of railways for the rapid conveyance of
+goods and passengers bore fruit in an act for the construction of a line
+between Liverpool and Manchester. It was not in itself a new idea, for
+tramways had long been in use, and so far back as 1814 George Stephenson
+had constructed a locomotive engine for a colliery. But it was generally
+believed that such engines must always be limited to a speed of a few
+miles an hour, and even the great engineer, Telford, giving evidence
+before a committee in 1825, did not venture to speak of a higher maximum
+speed than fifteen or twenty miles an hour. Few indeed were far-sighted
+enough to credit this estimate, and the incredulity of ignorance was
+aided by the forces of self-interest, for the profits of canals,
+stage-coaches, and carriers' vans were directly threatened by the
+innovation of railways. However, George Stephenson quietly persevered,
+and from the moment that his pioneer engine, the "Rocket," won the prize
+in a great competition of locomotives, "the old modes of transit were
+changed throughout the whole civilised world". On September 15, 1830,
+the first public trial of this and other engines was made at the opening
+of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. Wellington, Peel, and other
+eminent personages were present, among whom was Huskisson, just returned
+for Liverpool. Two trains proceeded towards Manchester on parallel
+lines, and stopped at the Parkgate station. There several passengers got
+out, and Huskisson was making his way to shake hands with the duke when
+he was struck by a carriage of the other train, already in movement,
+fell upon the rails, and was fatally crushed. He bore his sufferings
+with great fortitude, but died during the night at a neighbouring
+vicarage to which he was carried. He could ill be spared by his party,
+for, though he was not the man to ride the storm which raged over the
+reform bill, his counsels might have saved the whigs from the just
+reproach of financial incapacity and have hastened the advent of free
+trade.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ON REFORM._]
+
+The winter session of 1830 opened with an ominous calm. It was believed
+that private negotiations were going on between the ministry and the
+survivors of Canning's following, which might result in a moderate
+scheme of parliamentary reform. These expectations were utterly
+discomfited by the king's speech delivered on November 2. It has
+unjustly been described as "the most offensive that had been uttered by
+any monarch since the revolution". On the contrary, it was tame and
+colourless for the most part, recording his majesty's resolution to
+uphold treaties and enforce order in the United Kingdom, but welcoming
+the new French monarchy in terms which Grey emphatically commended. It
+gave offence to liberals by describing the revolutionary movement in
+Belgium as a "revolt"; but what called forth an immediate outburst of
+popular resentment was its significant reticence on the subject of
+reform. This resentment was aggravated tenfold by the Duke of
+Wellington's celebrated speech in the lords, declaring against any
+reform whatever. The duke always refused to admit that this declaration
+was the cause of his subsequent fall, which he attributed, by
+preference, to his adoption of catholic emancipation. Speaking
+deliberately in reply to Grey, who had indicated reform as the only true
+remedy for popular discontent, the duke stated that no measure of reform
+yet proposed would, in his opinion, improve the representative system
+then existing, which, he said, "answered all the good purposes of
+legislation" to a greater degree than "any legislature in any country
+whatever". He went further, and avowed his conviction not only that this
+system "possessed the full and entire confidence of the country," but
+also that no better system could be devised by the wit of man. Its
+special virtue, according to him, consisted in the fact of its producing
+a representative assembly which "contained a large body of the property
+of the country, and in which the landed interests had a preponderating
+influence". Finally, he protested that he would never bring forward a
+reform measure himself, and that "he should always feel it his duty to
+resist such measures when proposed by others".
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the duke had consulted any of his
+colleagues before making this declaration. Indeed, it is known that Peel
+had just before received a confidential offer of co-operation in
+carrying a moderate reform bill from Palmerston, Edward Stanley,
+grandson of the Earl of Derby, Sir James Graham, and the Grants; nor had
+these overtures been definitely rejected.[102] Some lame attempts were
+made to clear the cabinet, as a whole, from responsibility for their
+chief's outspoken opinions, and Peel cautiously limited himself to a
+doubt whether any safe measure of reform would satisfy the reformers.
+But he would not separate himself from Wellington, and Wellington's
+ultimatum remained unretracted.
+
+Brougham at once gave notice of his intention to bring forward the
+question of parliamentary reform in a fortnight. In the meantime the
+duke had committed a mistake which irritated the people, and especially
+the inhabitants of London. It happened that the king and queen, with the
+ministers, were engaged to dine with the lord mayor on November 9. Three
+days earlier, the lord mayor-elect warned the prime minister that a riot
+was apprehended on that occasion, that an attempt would probably be
+made to assassinate him, and that it would be desirable to come attended
+by a strong military guard. Upon this intimation, confirmed by others,
+the cabinet most unwisely decided not to surround the mansion house with
+a large armed force, but to put off the king's visit to the city. A
+panic naturally ensued, consols fell three per cent. in an hour and a
+half, and the disorderly classes achieved a victory without running the
+smallest risk. There were local disturbances in the evening, and the
+duke arranged to join Peel at the home office, in case decisive measures
+should be required, but the new police were too strong for the mob, and
+the whole affair passed off quietly, though not without involving the
+government in some ridicule. The Marquis Wellesley, now in opposition to
+his brother, declared the postponement of the dinner to be "the boldest
+act of cowardice" within his knowledge.
+
+If Wellington sought to conciliate the ultra-tories by his unfortunate
+speech, he was soon undeceived. While Brougham's motion was pending, the
+government proposed a revision of the civil list which purported to
+effect slight economies for the benefit of the public. It was objected,
+however, that a greater reduction of charges should have been
+contemplated, and that parliament should have been invited to deal with
+the revenues derived from the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster, which,
+as Peel explained, formed no part of those placed at the disposal of
+parliament. Sir Henry Parnell moved to refer the civil list to a select
+committee; the chancellor of the exchequer directly opposed the motion,
+and, after a short discussion, a division was taken on November 15. The
+result, which had been foreseen, was a majority of twenty-nine against
+the government in a house of 437 members. There were many defections
+among the discontented tories, and the Wellington ministry preferred to
+fall on an issue of minor importance, rather than await a decisive
+contest on the reform question. On the following day, therefore, both
+the duke and Peel announced the acceptance of their resignations, and it
+was known that Grey had received the king's command to form a new
+administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _GREY ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+Grey was the inevitable head of any cabinet empowered to carry
+parliamentary reform. His dignified presence, his stately eloquence, his
+unblemished character, and his parliamentary experience, marked him out
+for leadership, and disguised his want of practical acquaintance with
+the middle and lower classes of his countrymen. His political career,
+ranging over forty-four years, though not destitute of errors, had been
+perfectly consistent. From the first he was a staunch adherent of Fox;
+he was among the managers who conducted the prosecution of Warren
+Hastings; his connexion with the Society of the Friends of the People,
+and his advocacy of reform during Pitt's first administration are
+described in the preceding volume of this history. On Pitt's death he
+became closely associated with Grenville; it will be remembered that he
+joined his short-lived government, originally as first lord of the
+admiralty, and afterwards as Fox's successor at the foreign office. It
+was he who carried through the house of commons the bill for the
+abolition of the slave trade, and it may truly be said that, in
+opposition, he was equally persistent in supporting every measure in
+favour of liberty, political or commercial, and in resisting every
+measure, necessary or otherwise, which could be interpreted as
+restricting it. We have seen how he more than once declined overtures
+for a coalition with his opponents, and showed a bitter personal
+antipathy to Canning, whom he was more than suspected of despising as a
+brilliant plebeian adventurer. This suspicion of aristocratic prejudice,
+ill harmonising with democratic principles, had never been quite
+dispelled, and was now to be confirmed by the composition of his own
+cabinet.
+
+All the members of this cabinet, with four exceptions, sat in the house
+of lords. No cabinet had contained so few commoners since the
+reconstruction of Liverpool's ministry in 1822. Of the four who now sat
+in the house of commons, Lord Althorp was heir-apparent to an earldom;
+Lord Palmerston was an Irish peer; Graham was a baronet of great
+territorial influence; Charles Grant was still a commoner, though he was
+afterwards raised to the peerage. In the distribution of offices, full
+justice was done to Canning's followers. Three of these occupied posts
+of the highest importance, Palmerston at the foreign office, Lamb, who
+had succeeded his father as Viscount Melbourne in 1828, at the home
+office, and Goderich at the colonial office, while Grant became
+president of the board of control. The selection of Graham as first lord
+of the admiralty did not escape criticism, but was due to his tried
+energy in financial reform, and was justified by the result. Lansdowne
+was made president of the council, and Holland chancellor of the duchy
+of Lancaster. Both of these had been Grey's colleagues in the
+administration of "All the Talents". Althorp, who succeeded Goulburn at
+the exchequer, and Carlisle, who accepted a seat in the cabinet without
+office, were both whigs of tried fidelity. But the Duke of Richmond, the
+new postmaster-general, was a deserter from the tory ranks, and Lord
+Durham, the premier's son-in-law, the new lord privy seal, was a radical
+of the most aggressive type, well qualified, as the event proved, to
+disturb the peace of any council to which he might be admitted. Three
+occupants of places outside the cabinet remain to be mentioned. One of
+these, the Marquis Wellesley, had been a warm supporter of catholic
+emancipation when the Duke of Wellington stoutly opposed it, and his
+brother's conversion on that question had not affected his own relations
+with the whig party, which now welcomed him as lord steward. Lord John
+Russell, the new paymaster of the forces, had identified himself as
+prominently as Grey himself with the promotion of parliamentary reform,
+and Stanley, the new chief secretary for Ireland, was probably selected
+for his brilliant powers in debate, as the natural and most worthy
+antagonist of the great demagogue, O'Connell.
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM BECOMES CHANCELLOR._]
+
+But the most formidable of all the "radical reformers" still remained to
+be conciliated, and provided with a post which might satisfy his
+restless ambition. At the end of 1830 Brougham was in the plenitude of
+his marvellous powers, and in the zenith of his unique popularity. As
+member for the great county of York, returned free of expense on the
+shoulders of the people, he already occupied the foremost position among
+British commoners, and it was feared that he might use it for his own
+purposes in a dictatorial spirit. He had recently declared in Yorkshire
+that "nothing on earth should ever tempt him to accept place," and that
+he was conscious of the power to compel the execution of measures which,
+before that democratic election, he could only "ventilate". So late as
+November 16, he assured the house of commons that "no change in the
+administration could by any possibility affect him," adding that he
+would bring forward his motion for parliamentary reform on the 25th,
+whatever might then be the state of affairs, and whatever ministers
+should then be in office. The great whig peers were most anxious to
+keep him out of the cabinet without losing his support, or, still worse,
+provoking his active hostility. With this view, Grey indiscreetly
+offered him the attorney-generalship, and we cannot be surprised that
+Brougham rejected the offer with some indignation and disdain. It was no
+secret that his supreme desire was to become master of the rolls--an
+office compatible with a seat in the house of commons--but his future
+colleagues well knew that, in that case, they would be at his mercy in
+the house. Thereupon it was suggested, probably by the king himself,
+that it might be the less of two dangers to entrust him with the great
+seal, which Lord Lyndhurst was quite prepared to resume under a fourth
+premier. Accordingly, it was known on November 20 that Brougham was to
+be the whig lord chancellor, and on the 22nd he actually took his place
+on the woolsack. His title was Baron Brougham and Vaux, but, though he
+lived to retain it for nearly forty years, he always preferred, with
+pardonable vanity, to sign his name as "Henry Brougham".
+
+Before the close of 1830 the new ministers found time to carry a regency
+bill, whereby the Duchess of Kent (unless she married a foreigner) was
+to be regent in the event of the Princess Victoria succeeding to the
+crown during her minority. Having adopted the watchword of "Peace,
+Retrenchment, and Reform," they gave an earnest of their zeal for
+retrenchment by instituting a parliamentary inquiry into the possible
+reduction of official salaries, including their own. The defeat of
+Stanley by "Orator" Hunt at Preston was a warning against undue reliance
+on popular confidence, for Preston was already a highly democratic
+constituency, largely composed of ignorant "potwallopers". A similar but
+more emphatic warning came from Ireland, where O'Connell did his utmost
+to insult and defy Anglesey, the new lord-lieutenant, in spite of his
+sacrifices for catholic emancipation, and his well-known sympathy with
+the cause of reform. In the southern counties of England, too, violent
+disturbances had broken out, and were marked by all the ferocity and
+terrorism characteristic of luddism in the manufacturing districts. They
+spread from Kent, Sussex, and Surrey into Hampshire, Wiltshire,
+Berkshire, and Buckinghamshire. In these four counties there was a
+wanton and wholesale destruction of agricultural machinery, of
+farm-buildings, and especially of ricks, as if the misery of labourers
+could possibly be cured by impoverishing their only employers. The
+rioters moved about in large organised bodies, and their anarchical
+passions were deliberately inflamed by the writings of unscrupulous men
+like Cobbett and Carlile.
+
+Happily, the ministers showed no sign of the weakness upon which the
+ringleaders had probably calculated. They promptly issued a proclamation
+declaring their resolution to put down lawless outrage, and promised
+effective support to the lords-lieutenant of the disturbed counties.
+Acting upon this assurance, Wellington himself went down to Hampshire,
+and took a leading part in quelling disorder. The government next
+appointed a special commission, which tried many hundreds of prisoners
+and sentenced the worst to death, though few were executed. This vigour
+soon overawed the organised gangs which, in one or two instances, had
+only been dispersed by military force. Finally, they prosecuted Carlile
+and Cobbett for instigating the poor labourers to crime. The former was
+convicted at the Old Bailey, and condemned to a long term of
+imprisonment, with a heavy fine. The trial of Cobbett was postponed
+until the following July, when the frenzy of reform was at its height.
+He defended himself with great audacity in a speech of six hours,
+calling the lord chancellor with other leading reformers as witnesses,
+and succeeded in escaping conviction by the disagreement and discharge
+of the jury.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S FIRST BUDGET._]
+
+Two other questions engaged the attention of parliament on the eve of
+the great struggle over the reform bill. One of these was the settlement
+of the civil list, which the Duke of Wellington's ministry had failed to
+effect. William IV. was not an avaricious sovereign, nor did he share
+the spendthrift inclination of his brother. But he was disposed to
+stickle for the hereditary rights of the crown, both public and private,
+and he greatly disliked the details of his expenditure being scrutinised
+by a parliamentary committee. Now, Grey and his colleagues stood pledged
+to such a committee, and could not avoid promoting its appointment. They
+propitiated the king, however, by excluding the revenues of the Duchy of
+Lancaster from the inquiry, and ultimately succeeded in persuading the
+house of commons to grant a civil list of L510,000 a year. But the
+publication of a return containing a complete list of sinecure offices
+and pensions was turned to good account by the economists, and produced
+an outburst of public indignation, which was by no means unreasonable.
+Great results were expected from the report of the select committee on
+the civil list, which revised the salaries of officials in the royal
+household, as well as the emoluments of pensioners. It was even demanded
+that no regard should be paid to vested interests, but Grey firmly
+supported the private remonstrances of the king against such an act of
+confiscation. In fact, the savings recommended by the committee were so
+trifling that it was thought better to waive the question for the time,
+and the first economical essay of the new _regime_ ended in failure.
+
+The budget introduced by Althorp soon after the meeting of parliament on
+February 3, 1831, and in anticipation of the reform bill, was equally
+unsuccessful as a specimen of whig finance. Finding that, after all, he
+could not effect a saving of more than one million on the national
+expenditure, as reduced by his capable predecessor, Goulburn, he
+nevertheless proposed to repeal the duties on coals, tallow candles,
+printed cottons, and glass, as well as to diminish by one half the
+duties on newspapers and tobacco. To meet the deficit thus created, he
+designed an increase of the wine and timber duties, new taxation of raw
+cotton, and, above all, a tax of ten shillings per cent. on all
+transfers of real or funded property. This last proposal was at once
+denounced by Goulburn, Peel, and Sugden, the late solicitor-general, as
+a breach of public faith between the state and its creditors. Their
+protests were loudly echoed by the city, and the obnoxious transfer duty
+was abandoned. The same fate befell the proposed increase of the timber
+duties, and Althorp only carried his budget after submitting to further
+modifications. Those who had relied on his promises of economical reform
+were signally disappointed, and, had not parliamentary reform
+overshadowed all other issues, the credit of the government would have
+been rudely shaken in the first session after its formation. But this
+great struggle, now to be described, so engrossed the attention of the
+country, that little room was left for the consideration of other
+interests, until it should be decided.
+
+It is probable that no great measure was ever preceded by so thorough a
+preparation of the public mind as the reform bills of 1831-32. Ever
+since the early part of the eighteenth century the abuses of the
+representative system had been freely acknowledged, and no one attempted
+to defend them in principle. The multitude of close boroughs, the
+smallness of the electoral body, the sale of seats in parliament, the
+wide prevalence of gross bribery, and the enormous expense of
+elections--these were notorious evils which no one denied, though some
+palliated them, and few ventured to assail them in earnest by drastic
+proposals, lest they should undermine the constitution. So far back as
+1770 Chatham had denounced them, and predicted that unless parliament
+reformed itself from within before the end of the century, it would be
+reformed "with a vengeance" from without. In 1780 the Duke of Richmond
+had introduced a bill in favour of universal suffrage, and Pitt had
+brought forward bills or motions in favour of parliamentary reform as a
+private member in 1782 and 1783, and as prime minister in 1785. But the
+French revolution persuaded him that the time was not favourable to
+reform, and he successfully opposed Grey's motion for referring a number
+of petitions in favour of reform to a committee in 1793.
+
+After this, a strong reaction set in, and the reform question had little
+interest for the governing classes during the continuance of the great
+war. It was never allowed to sleep, however, and in 1809, a bill
+introduced by Curwen to pave the way for reform by preventing the return
+of members upon corrupt agreements, actually passed both houses, though
+in so mutilated a form that it was practically a dead letter. Still, the
+cause was indefatigably pleaded by Brand, and Burdett, who in 1819 made
+himself the spokesman of the violent reform agitation then spreading
+over the country. Unfortunately, this violence, and the extravagance of
+the demands put forward by the democratic leaders, were themselves fatal
+obstacles to a temperate consideration of the question, and threw back
+the reform movement for several years. In 1821, when Grampound was
+disfranchised, it assumed, as we have seen, a more constitutional form,
+and motions in favour of reform were proposed by Russell in 1822, 1823,
+and 1826, and by Blandford in 1829. Had Canning placed himself at the
+head of the movement the course of domestic history during the reign of
+George IV. might have been very different. As it was, the number of
+petitions in favour of reform sensibly fell off in the last half of the
+reign, and its tory opponents vainly imagined that the movement had
+spent itself. We now know that, in the absence of noisy demonstrations,
+it was really and constantly gaining strength in the minds of thoughtful
+men until it reached its climax at the end of 1830.
+
+[Pageheading: _PUBLIC OPINION AND REFORM._]
+
+The first act of the great political drama which occupied the next
+eighteen months may be said to have opened with the fall of Wellington,
+and the formation of the whig ministry. These events, together with the
+success of the Paris revolution, supplied the motive power needed to
+combine the great body of the middle classes with the proletariat in a
+national crusade against the political privileges long exercised by a
+powerful landed aristocracy. It is true that reform, unlike catholic
+emancipation, had always appealed to broad popular sympathies, and had
+been advocated by men like Grey and Burdett as carrying with it the
+redress of all other grievances. But Canning was by no means the only
+liberal statesman who heartily dreaded it, and even the advanced
+reformers had not fully grasped the comprehensive meaning of the idea
+which they embraced, or the far-reaching consequences involved in it.
+The palpable anomaly of Old Sarum returning members to parliament, while
+Birmingham was unrepresented, was shocking to common sense, and so was
+the monopoly of the franchise by a handful of electors in some of the
+larger boroughs, especially in Scotland. But few appreciated how
+seriously constitutional liberty had been curtailed by the growth of
+these abuses (unchecked by the Commonwealth) since the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, how effectually home and foreign policy was
+controlled by a small circle of noble families dominant in the lower as
+well as in the upper chamber, how vast a transfer of sovereignty from
+class to class would inevitably be wrought by a thorough reform bill,
+and how certainly men newly entrusted with power would use it for their
+own advantage, whether or not that should coincide with the advantage of
+the nation. Such general aspects of the question are seldom noticed in
+the earlier debates upon it, and economical reform sometimes appears to
+occupy a larger space than parliamentary reform in the liberal
+statesmanship of the Georgian age.
+
+With Wellington's declaration against any parliamentary reform, this
+apathy vanished, and the movement, gathering up into itself all other
+popular aspirations thenceforward filled the whole political horizon.
+Reform unions sprang up everywhere, and instituted a most active
+propaganda. So rapid was its spread and so wild the promises lavished by
+radical demagogues, that Grey and his wiser colleagues soon felt
+themselves further removed from their own extreme left wing than from
+the moderate section of the conservatives. It is abundantly clear that
+Grey himself, faithful as he was to reform, never dreamed of
+inaugurating a reign of democracy. He often declared in private that
+such a bill as he contemplated would prove, in its effect, an
+aristocratic measure, and he doubtless believed that it would be
+possible to bring the new constituencies and the new electoral bodies
+under the same conservative influences which had been dominant for so
+many generations. He did not foresee, as Palmerston did thirty years
+later, that, even if the political actors remained the same, they "would
+play to the gallery" instead of to the pit or boxes. He would, indeed,
+have repudiated the maxim: "Everything for the people, and nothing by
+the people"; he was fully prepared to place the house of commons in the
+hands of the people, or at least of the great middle class, but he
+regarded the crown and the house of lords as almost equal powers, and he
+never doubted that property and education would practically continue to
+rule the government of the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRAFT OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+When the whigs came into office they were singularly fortunate in the
+high character and consistency of their chief, no less than in the
+divisions of their opponents, whose right wing showed almost as mutinous
+a spirit as their own left wing. Even between Wellington and Peel there
+was a want of cordial harmony and confidence, yet Peel was the only tory
+statesman of eminent capacity in the house of commons. The attitude of
+the king, too, was not only strictly constitutional but friendly, though
+it afterwards appeared that he relied too implicitly on Grey and Althorp
+to protect him against the machinations of the radicals. The letters
+written by his orders, though mostly composed by his private secretary,
+Sir Herbert Taylor, display marked ability together with a very shrewd
+and just conception of the situation. His loyal adoption of a moderate
+reform policy was a most important element of strength to his ministers
+at the outset of their great enterprise, and, if he afterwards held
+back, it was in deference to scruples which several of them shared in
+their hearts. Nor was the violence of the ultra-radicals, or the
+scurrilous language of O'Connell by any means an unmixed source of
+weakness to men engaged in framing and carrying a temperate reform bill.
+Their firm resistance to extravagant demands reassured many a waverer
+and showed how carefully their comprehensive plan had been matured. On
+the other hand, they had to contend against difficulties not yet fully
+revealed. One of these was their own want of administrative experience,
+contrasting unfavourably with the statesmanlike capacity of Peel.
+Another was the intractable character of two at least within their own
+innermost councils--Durham and Brougham. A third was the inflexible
+conservatism of a great majority in the house of lords, who, unlike the
+people at large, clearly understood that the impending conflict was a
+life-and-death struggle for political supremacy between themselves and
+the commons--the greatest that had been waged since the revolutions of
+the seventeenth century.
+
+It was privately known that a committee had been empowered to draft the
+bill awaited with so much impatience. This committee consisted of two
+members of the cabinet, Durham and Graham, together with two members of
+the administration not of cabinet rank, the Earl of Bessborough's eldest
+son, Lord Duncannon, then chief whip of the whig party, and Russell, who
+was second to none as a staunch and judicious promoter of parliamentary
+reform. In spite of his vanity and petulance, Durham deserves the credit
+of having drawn up the report, highly appreciated by the king, upon
+which the projected measure was founded. It originally included vote by
+ballot, and it is rather strange that on this point Durham was
+powerfully supported by Graham, but opposed by Russell. It is still more
+strange that Brougham, whose scheme of reform was locked up in his own
+breast, was honestly disturbed by the radicalism of his colleagues and
+specially objected to so large a disfranchisement of boroughs as they
+contemplated. Upon the whole, however, the bill was the product of an
+united cabinet, and received the express approval of the king in all its
+essential features. The elaborate letter which he addressed to Grey on
+February 4, 1831, betrays a sense of relief on finding that universal
+suffrage and the ballot were not to be pressed upon him In declaring
+that he never could have given his consent to such revolutionary
+innovations, he insists strongly on the necessity of maintaining an
+"equilibrium" between the crown, the lords, and the commons, as well as
+between the "representation of property" and that of numbers.
+
+The reform bill of 1831, which differed only in detail from the act
+passed in 1832, cannot be understood without some knowledge of the
+system which that act transformed. This system has been well described
+as "combining survivals from the middle ages with abuses of the
+prerogative in later times". The counties remained as they had remained
+for centuries; Rutland, for instance, returned as many representatives
+as Yorkshire, until in 1821 the two seats taken from Grampound were
+added to those already possessed by Yorkshire. On the other hand, the
+old franchise of the 40s. freeholders was more widely diffused since the
+value of money had been greatly depreciated. Still, the influence of the
+great county families was almost supreme, and they were firmly
+entrenched in the nomination boroughs, where there was scarcely a
+pretence of free election. The crown had originally a discretion in
+summoning members from boroughs, and used it by issuing writs to all the
+wealthiest as better able to bear taxation and more competent to
+sanction it. The poorer boroughs, too, were also glad to escape
+representation in order to save the expense of their members' wages. The
+discretionary power of the crown was afterwards used in creating petty
+boroughs such as "the Cornish group," for the purpose of packing the
+house of commons with crown nominees. This practice, however, ceased in
+the reign of Charles II., and these petty boroughs fell by degrees into
+the hands of great landowners, who dictated the choice of
+representatives.
+
+The result has been concisely stated as follows: "The majority of the
+house of commons was elected by less than fifteen thousand persons.
+Seventy members were returned by thirty-five places with scarcely any
+voters at all; ninety members were returned by forty-six places with no
+more than fifty voters; thirty-seven members by nineteen places with no
+more than one hundred voters; fifty-two members by twenty-six places
+with no more than two hundred voters. The local distribution of the
+representation was flagrantly unfair.... Cornwall was a corrupt nest of
+little boroughs whose vote outweighed that of great and populous
+districts. At Old Sarum a deserted site, at Gatton an ancient wall sent
+two representatives to the house of commons. Eighty-four men actually
+nominated one hundred and fifty-seven members for parliament. In
+addition to these, one hundred and fifty members were returned on the
+recommendation of seventy patrons, and thus one hundred and fifty-four
+patrons returned three hundred and seven members."[103] Household
+suffrage prevailed in a few boroughs, and here barefaced corruption was
+common. Seats for boroughs, appropriately called "rotten," were
+frequently put up to sale; otherwise, they were reserved for young
+favourites of the proprietor. Neither yearly tenants, nor leaseholders,
+nor even copyholders, had votes for counties. Of Scotland it is enough
+to say that free voting had practically ceased to exist both in counties
+and in boroughs, as the borough franchise was the monopoly of
+self-elected town councils, and the county franchise of persons, often
+non-resident, who happened to own "superiorities".
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+The reform bill of the whig ministry, drawn on broad and simple lines,
+struck at the root of this system. Its twofold basis was a liberal
+extension of the suffrage with a very large redistribution of seats. The
+elective franchise in counties, hitherto confined to freeholders, was to
+be conferred on L10 copyholders and L50 leaseholders; the borough
+franchise was to exclude "scot and lot" voters, "potwallopers" and most
+other survivals of antiquated electorates, but to include ratepaying L10
+householders. The qualification for this franchise had originally been
+fixed at L20, and the king deprecated any reduction, but the omission of
+the ballot reconciled him and other timid reformers to an immense
+increase in the lower class of borough voters. Sixty boroughs of less
+than 2,000 inhabitants, returning 119 members, were to be disfranchised
+altogether; forty-seven others, with less than 4,000 inhabitants, were
+to be deprived of one member, and Weymouth was to lose two out of the
+four members which it returned in combination with the borough of
+Melcombe Regis. Fifty-five new seats were allotted to the English
+counties, forty-two to the great unrepresented towns, five to Scotland,
+three to Ireland, and one to Wales. Altogether the numerical strength of
+the house of commons was to be reduced by sixty-two, and this entirely
+at the expense of England. Both the county and borough franchises in
+Scotland were to be assimilated generally to those established for
+England, and the L10 borough franchise was extended to Ireland. The bill
+contained many other provisions designed to amend the practice of
+registration, the voting power of non-resident electors, and the
+cumbrously expensive machinery of elections. It is important to notice
+that it also limited the duration of each parliament to five years--a
+concession to radicalism afterwards abandoned and never since adopted.
+
+On February 3 parliament met after the adjournment, and Grey stated that
+a measure of reform had been framed, but the nature of it was not
+disclosed to the house of commons until March 1, and during the interval
+the secret was kept with great fidelity. The task of explaining it was
+entrusted to Russell, whose thorough mastery of its letter and spirit
+fully justified the choice, partly suggested by his aristocratic
+connexions and historical name. His speech was remarkable for clearness
+and cogency rather than for rhetorical brilliancy, and he was careful to
+rest his case on constitutional equity and political expediency of the
+highest order rather than on vague and abstract principles of popular
+rights. The debate on the motion for leave to bring in the bill lasted
+seven nights, and was vigorously sustained on both sides. The drastic
+and sweeping character of the measure took the whole house by surprise,
+while its authors justly claimed some credit for moderation in rejecting
+the radical demands of universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and
+triennial, if not annual, parliaments. Not only inside but outside the
+walls of St. Stephen's the statement of the government had been awaited
+with the utmost impatience, and it was universally felt that an issue
+had now been raised which hardly admitted of compromise. The king
+himself, though much engrossed by minor questions affecting the civil
+list and the pension list, heartily congratulated Grey on the favourable
+reception and prospects of the measure, which he regarded as a safeguard
+against more democratic schemes. His great fear was of a collision
+between the two houses, and the sequel proved that it was not unfounded.
+For the present, however, all promised well. Peel denounced the bill
+with less than his usual caution, but declined to give battle upon it,
+and it passed the first reading on March 9 without a division. Indeed,
+the chief danger to the stability of the government arose from its
+defeat on the timber duties. This and other vexatious rebuffs so
+irritated Grey that he actually contemplated a dissolution, lest the
+reform bill itself should meet with a like fate. But the king would not
+hear of it, and the cabinet wisely decided to follow the example of Pitt
+and ignore an adverse division on a merely financial proposal, however
+significant of parliamentary feeling.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND READING OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+Between the 9th and the 21st, the date fixed for the second reading,
+popular excitement rose to a formidable height. Monster meetings were
+held in the great centres of population, and the political unions put
+forth all their strength. Nevertheless, the efforts of the
+"borough-mongers" were all but successful, and after only two nights
+debate the bill passed its second reading by a bare majority of one, 302
+voting for it, and 301 against it. After this demonstration of strength
+on the part of its opponents, no one could expect that it would survive
+the ordeal of discussion in committee, and a letter of Lord Durham,
+written in anticipation of the event, sums up with great force the
+reasons for an early dissolution. The crisis was precipitated by the
+action of General Gascoyne, member for Liverpool, who moved before the
+house could go into committee that in no case should the number of
+representatives from England and Wales be diminished. In the hope of
+conciliating some wavering members, the ministry framed certain
+modifications of their original scheme, but they do not seem to have
+entertained the idea of accepting Gascoyne's proposal in its entirety.
+In the division, which took place on April 19, they were defeated by 299
+votes to 291, and on the following morning advised the king to dissolve.
+In spite of his former refusal, more than once repeated, the king
+yielded to necessity, feeling that another change of government, in the
+midst of European complications, and in prospect of revolutionary
+agitation in the country, would be a greater evil than a general
+election.
+
+The opposition, flushed with victory, pressed its advantage to extremes,
+and successfully resisted a motion for the grant of supplies. Urged by
+Althorp, the cabinet promptly resolved on recommending that the
+dissolution should be immediate, and the king, roused to energy by
+indignation, eagerly adopted their recommendation. Indeed, on hearing
+that Lord Wharncliffe intended to move in the house of lords for an
+address to the crown against a dissolution, he strongly resented such an
+attempt to interfere with his prerogative, and declared himself ready to
+start at once and dissolve parliament in person. Difficulties being
+raised about preparing the royal carriages in time, he cut them short by
+remarking that he was prepared to go in a hackney-coach--a royal saying
+which spread like wildfire over the country. Both houses were scenes of
+confusion and uproar when he arrived, preceded by the usual discharges
+of artillery, which excited the angry disputants to fury. Lord
+Mansfield, who was supporting the motion for an address, continued
+speaking as the king entered, until he was forcibly compelled to resume
+his seat. Even Peel was only restrained by like means from disregarding
+the appearance of the usher of the black rod who came to summon the
+commons from the bar of the house. The king preserved his composure, and
+announced an immediate prorogation of parliament with a view to its
+dissolution, and an appeal to the country on the great question of
+reform. Such an appeal could only be made to constituencies under threat
+of thorough reconstruction or total extinction, but from this moment the
+ultimate issue ceased to be doubtful.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[101] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 160-62.
+
+[102] Arbuthnot to Peel, Nov. 1, 1830, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+163-66.
+
+[103] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 320.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIV.
+
+                              THE REFORM.
+
+
+The general election which took place in the summer of 1831 was perhaps
+the most momentous on record. The news of the sudden dissolution,
+carrying with it the assurance of the king's hearty assent to reform,
+stirred popular enthusiasm to an intensity never equalled before or
+since. From John o' Groat's to the Land's End a cry was raised of _The
+bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill_. This cry signified more
+than appears on the surface, and was not wholly one-sided in its
+application. No doubt it was a passionate and defiant warning against
+any manipulation or dilution of the bill in a reactionary sense, but it
+was also a distinct protest against attempts by the extreme radicals to
+amend it in an opposite direction. Now, as ever, the impulse was given
+by the middle classes, and they were in no mood to imperil their own
+cause by revolutionary claims. They could not always succeed, however,
+in checking the fury of the populace, which had been taught to clamour
+for reform as the precursor of a good time coming for the suffering and
+toiling masses of mankind. The streets of London were illuminated, and
+the windows of those who omitted to illuminate or were otherwise
+obnoxious were tumultuously demolished by the mob, which did not even
+spare Apsley House, the town residence of the Duke of Wellington. But,
+except in Scotland, no formidable riots occurred for the present, and
+some good resulted from the new experience of popular opinion gained by
+candidates even from unreformed constituencies hitherto obedient to
+oligarchical influence, but animated for the moment by a certain spirit
+of independence.
+
+Having sanctioned the dissolution, the king addressed an elaborate
+letter to Grey, in which he did not disguise his own misgivings about
+the perilous experiment of reform. Chiefly dreading a collision between
+the two houses, he never ceased to press on his ministers the expediency
+of making all possible sacrifices consistent with the spirit of the bill
+in order to conciliate opposition in the house of peers. Grey's constant
+reply was that no concessions would propitiate men bent on driving the
+government from office, and that no measure less efficacious than that
+already introduced would satisfy the just expectations of the people.
+Both of these arguments were perfectly sound, and the constitutional
+triumph ultimately achieved was largely due to the admirable tenacity of
+purpose which refused to remodel the original reform bill in any
+essential respect to please either the borough-mongers or the radicals.
+The elections were conducted on the whole in good order. Seventy-six out
+of eighty-two English county members (including the four Yorkshire
+members), and the four members for the city of London, were pledged to
+vote for the bill. Several notable anti-reformers were among the many
+county representatives who failed to obtain re-election; even some of
+the doomed boroughs did not venture to return anti-reformers; and the
+government found itself supported by an immense nominal majority. The
+new bill, introduced on June 24 by Lord John Russell, who had recently
+been admitted in company with Stanley to the cabinet, differed little
+from the old one. The number of boroughs to be totally disfranchised was
+slightly greater, that of boroughs to be partially disfranchised
+slightly less, but the net effect of the disfranchising and
+enfranchising schedules was the same, and the L10 rental suffrage was
+retained. The measure was allowed to pass its first reading after one
+night's discussion. The debates on the second reading lasted three
+nights, but the bill passed this stage on July 8 by a majority of 136 in
+a house of 598 members.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND REFORM BILL._]
+
+The victory, however, though great, was far indeed from proving
+decisive. By adopting obstructive tactics, of a kind to be perfected in
+a later age, the opposition succeeded in prolonging the discussion in
+committee over forty nights, until September 7. Though Peel separated
+himself from the old tories, and steadily declined to cabal with
+O'Connell's faction against the government, such an unprofitable waste
+of time could not have taken place without his tacit sanction. Only one
+important alteration was made in the bill. This was the famous "Chandos
+clause," proposed by Lord Chandos, son of the Duke of Buckingham,
+whereby the county suffrage was extended to all tenants-at-will of L50
+rental and upwards. A very large proportion of tenant farmers thus
+became county voters, and for the most part followed the politics of
+their landlords. It may be doubted whether Grey seriously lamented
+Chandos's intervention; at all events it went far to verify his own
+prediction that aristocratic dominion would not be undermined by
+reform.[104] Meanwhile, the country was naturally impatient of the
+vexatious delay, and a somewhat menacing conference took place between
+the political unions of Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow. Happily
+public attention was diverted to some extent by the coronation, which
+took place on the 8th. The bill was carried more rapidly through its
+later stages, and was finally passed in the house of commons on the
+21st, though by a reduced majority of 345 to 236.
+
+On the following day the bill reached the house of lords and was set
+down for its second reading on October 3. Thenceforth all the hopes and
+fears of its friends and enemies were concentrated on the proceedings in
+that house, whose ascendency in the state was at stake. The question:
+"What will the lords do?" was asked all over the country with the
+deepest anxiety. The debate lasted five nights, and is admitted to have
+been among the finest reported in our parliamentary history. All the
+leading peers took part in it, and several of them were roused by the
+occasion to unwonted eloquence, but the palm was generally awarded to
+the speeches of Grey, Harrowby, Brougham, and Lyndhurst. The first of
+these occupied a position which gave increased weight to his counsels,
+since he was the veteran advocate of reform and yet known to be a most
+loyal member of the nobility which now stood on its trial. In his
+opening speech he appealed earnestly to the bench of bishops, as
+disinterested parties and as ministers of peace, not to set themselves
+against the almost unanimous will of the people. Brougham's great
+oration on the last night of the debate contained a masterly review of
+the whole question, and, in spite of its theatrical conclusion, when he
+sank upon his knees, extorted the admiration of his bitterest critics as
+a consummate exhibition of his marvellous powers.
+
+But very few of the peers were open to persuasion; the votes of
+anti-reformers were mainly guided by a shortsighted conception of their
+own interests, and Eldon did not shrink from contending that nomination
+boroughs were in the nature of property rather than of trusts. A
+memorable division ended in the rejection of the second reform bill on
+the 8th by 199 votes to 158. Twenty-one bishops voted against it. The
+king lost no time in reminding Grey of his own warning against
+submitting the bill, without serious modifications, to the judgment of
+the house of lords. He also intimated beforehand that he could not
+consent to any such creation of peers as would convert the minority into
+a majority. Grey at once admitted that he could not ask for so
+high-handed an exercise of the royal prerogative, and undertook to
+remain at his post, on condition of being allowed to introduce a third
+reform bill as comprehensive as its predecessor. Thereupon the king
+abandoned his intention of proroguing parliament by commission, and came
+down in person to do so on the 20th when he delivered a speech clearly
+indicating legislation on reform as the work of the next session.
+
+[Pageheading: _REFORM BILL RIOTS._]
+
+During the interval between the 8th and the 20th it became evident that
+the reform movement, quickened by the action of the upper house, would
+rise to a dangerous height. A vote of confidence in the government,
+brought forward by Lord Ebrington, eldest son of Earl Fortescue, was
+carried by a majority of 131, and speeches were made in support of it
+which encouraged, in the form of prediction, every kind of popular
+agitation short of open violence. In the course of this debate Macaulay,
+the future historian of the English revolution, delivered one of those
+highly wrought orations which adorn the political literature of reform.
+The excitement in London was great, but kept for the most part within
+reasonable bounds, partly by the firm and sensible attitude of Melbourne
+as home secretary. The mob, however, vented its rage in window breaking
+and personal assaults on some prominent anti-reformers, one of whom,
+Lord Londonderry, was knocked off his horse by a volley of stones. In
+the provinces more serious disturbances broke out. At Derby the rioters
+actually stormed the city jail, releasing the prisoners, and were only
+repelled in their attack on the county jail by the fire of a military
+force. At Nottingham they wreaked their vengeance on the Duke of
+Newcastle by burning down Nottingham Castle, which belonged to him, and
+were proceeding to further outrages when they were overawed by a
+regiment of hussars. A great open-air meeting of the political union was
+held at Birmingham, while the bill was still before the house of lords,
+at which a refusal to pay taxes was openly recommended in the last
+resort, and votes of thanks were passed to Althorp and Russell. The
+former, in acknowledging it, wisely condemned such lawless proceedings;
+the latter unwisely made use of a phrase which gravely displeased the
+king: "It is impossible that the whisper of faction should prevail
+against the voice of a nation". Both were called to account in the house
+of commons for holding correspondence with an illegal association, but
+disclaimed any recognition of the Birmingham union as a body, and fully
+admitted the responsibility of the government for the maintenance of
+order.
+
+This assurance was about to be tested by the most atrocious outbreak
+which disgraced the cause of reform. On Saturday, the 29th, Wetherell,
+as recorder of Bristol, entered the city to open the commission on the
+following Monday. Of all the anti-reformers, he was perhaps the most
+vehement and unpopular, but his visit to Bristol was in discharge of an
+official duty, and had been sanctioned expressly by the government.
+Nevertheless, the cavalcade which escorted him was assailed by a furious
+rabble on its way to the guildhall, and from the guildhall to the
+mansion house, where he was to dine. For a while, they were kept back or
+driven back by a large force of constables, but, on some of these being
+withdrawn, their ferocity increased, and threatened a general assault on
+the mansion house. In vain did the mayor address them and read the riot
+act; they overpowered the constables, and carried the mansion house by
+storm, the mayor and the magistrates escaping by the back premises,
+while the recorder prudently left the city. At last the military were
+called upon to act, and two troops of cavalry were ordered out. But the
+military as well as the civil authorities showed a strange weakness and
+vacillation in presence of an emergency only to be compared with the
+Lord George Gordon riots of a by-gone generation. After making one
+charge and dispersing the populace for the moment, the cavalry were sent
+back to their barracks, and when one troop was recalled on the following
+(Sunday) morning, the rioters were all but masters of the city. Many of
+them, having plundered the cellars of the mansion house, were infuriated
+by drink; they broke into the Bridewell, the new city jail, and the
+county jail, set free the prisoners, and fired the buildings. They next
+proceeded to burn down the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the
+custom-house, and the excise-office. The cathedral is said to have been
+saved by the resolute stand of a few volunteers hastily rallied by one
+of the officials. In the midst of all this havoc, the cavalry were
+almost passive, Colonel Brereton, the commanding officer, waiting for
+orders from the magistrates, and actually withdrawing a part of his
+small force when it was most needed, because it had incurred the special
+hatred of the criminals.
+
+On the morning of Monday, the guardians of law and order seemed to have
+recovered their courage; at all events, the cavalry, no longer forbidden
+to charge, and headed by Major Mackworth, soon cleared the streets,
+fresh troops poured in, and the police made a number of arrests. The
+reign of anarchy was at an end, having lasted three days. When a return
+of casualties was made up, it showed that only twelve were known to have
+lost their lives, besides ninety-four disabled, most of whom were the
+victims of excessive drunkenness or of the flames kindled by themselves.
+But, though the riot was quelled, it was some proof of its deliberate
+promotion, and of the aims which its ringleaders had in view, that
+parties of them issuing out from Bristol attempted to propagate sedition
+in Somersetshire. A special commission sent down to Bristol condemned to
+death several of the worst malefactors; four were hanged and
+eighty-eight sentenced either to transportation or to lighter
+punishments; and Colonel Brereton destroyed himself rather than face the
+verdict of a court-martial.
+
+On the same Monday, the 31st, Burdett took the chair at a meeting in
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, called for the purpose of forming a "National
+Political Union" in London. Soon afterwards, however, he retired from
+the organisation, on the nominal ground that half of the seats on its
+council were allotted to the working classes, but more probably because
+he was beginning to be alarmed by the violence of his associates. His
+fears were justified by a manifesto summoning a mass meeting of the
+working-classes to assemble at White Conduit House on November 7, for
+the purpose of ratifying a new and revolutionary bill of rights. This
+time the government was on its guard, and Melbourne plainly informed a
+working-class deputation that such a meeting would certainly be
+seditious, and perhaps treasonable, in law. The plan was therefore
+abandoned, and soon afterwards a royal proclamation was issued,
+declaring organised political associations, assuming powers independent
+of the civil magistrates, to be "unconstitutional and illegal". The
+political unions proposed to consider themselves outside the scope of
+the proclamation, which had little visible effect, though it was not
+without its value as proving that the government was a champion of order
+as well as of liberty.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS WITH WAVERERS._]
+
+During the short recess of less than six weeks political discontent,
+constantly growing, was aggravated by industrial distress and gloomy
+forebodings of a mysterious pestilence, already known as cholera. A
+voluminous correspondence was carried on between the king and Grey on
+the means of silencing the political unions and smoothing the passage of
+a new reform bill. It was not in the king's nature to conceal his own
+conservative leanings, especially on the imaginary danger of increasing
+the metropolitan constituencies, and Grey complained more than once of
+these sentiments being confided, or at least becoming known, to
+opponents of the government. At the same time attempts were being made
+not only by the king himself, but also by peers of moderate views to
+arrange a compromise which might save the honour of the government, and
+yet mitigate the hostility of the tory majority in the upper house. In
+these negotiations behind the scenes, Howley, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+and Carr, Bishop of Worcester, took part, as representing the episcopal
+bench, while Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, in temporary concert with
+Chandos, professed to speak for the "waverers" among peers. As little of
+importance resulted from their well-meant efforts, and as nearly all the
+supposed "waverers," including the bishops, drifted into open
+opposition, it is the less necessary to dwell at length on a very
+tedious chapter in the history of parliamentary reform. Suffice it to
+say that when parliament reassembled on December 6, 1831, the prospects
+of the forthcoming bill were no brighter than in October, except so far
+as the danger of rejecting it had become more apparent.
+
+The final reform bill introduced by Lord John Russell on the 12th was
+identical in its principle and its essential features with the former
+ones. The chief alteration was the maintenance of the house of commons
+at its full strength of 658 members. This enabled its framers not only
+to reduce the number of wholly disfranchised boroughs (schedule A) from
+sixty to fifty-six, and that of semi-disfranchised boroughs (schedule B)
+from forty-six to thirty, but to assign a larger number of members to
+the prosperous towns enfranchised. The bill was at once read a first
+time and passed its second reading after two nights' debate on the 16th
+by a majority of 324 to 162, or exactly two to one. But, after a short
+adjournment for the Christmas holidays, a debate of twenty-two nights
+took place in committee, and the opposition made skilful use of the many
+vulnerable points in the new scheme. Every variation from the original
+bill, even by way of concession, was subjected to minute criticism, and
+especially the fact that the schedules were now framed, not on a scale
+of population only, but on a mixed basis, partly resting on population,
+partly on the number of inhabited houses, and partly on the local
+contribution to assessed taxes.
+
+It was easy to pick such a compound scale to pieces, to uphold the
+claims of one venal borough against another equally venal, and even to
+reproach the government with inconsistency in relying on the census of
+1831, instead of on that of 1821--a course which the opposition had
+specially urged upon them. But it was not so easy to combat the
+irresistible arguments in favour of the bill on its general merits, to
+ignore the reasonable concessions on points of detail which it embodied,
+or to explain away the patent fact that no measure less stringent would
+satisfy the people. There was therefore an air of unreality about this
+debate, spirited as it was, nor is it easy to understand what practical
+object enlightened men like Peel could have sought in prolonging it. He
+well knew, and admitted in private correspondence, that reform was
+inevitable; he must have known that a sham reform would be a stimulus to
+revolutionary agitation; yet he strove to mutilate the bill so that it
+might pass its second reading in the house of lords, and there undergo
+such further mutilation as would destroy its efficacy as a settlement of
+the question. For the present he yielded. No attempt was made to
+obstruct the bill on its third reading, when the division showed 355
+votes to 239, and it passed the commons on March 23 without any
+division.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE THIRD REFORM BILL._]
+
+Such a result would have been conclusive in any parliament during the
+second half of the nineteenth century. A house of commons elected by the
+old constituencies, and under the old franchises, had declared in favour
+of a well-considered reform bill. The same constituencies voting under
+the same franchises had returned an increased majority in support of the
+same, or very nearly the same measure; this measure, with slight
+variations, had been adopted by an immense preponderance of votes in the
+new house of commons: yet its fate in the house of lords was very
+doubtful. Ever since the autumn of 1831, the expedient of swamping the
+house of lords had been seriously contemplated. It was supremely
+distasteful to the king, and Grey himself, in common with a majority of
+the cabinet, was strongly averse from it. Then came the intervention of
+Harrowby and Wharncliffe, the failure of which strengthened the hands of
+the more determined reformers in the cabinet, and induced the king to
+give way. Having already created a few peers on the coronation, he
+consented to a limited addition in the last resort, but with the
+reservation that eldest sons of existing peers should be called up in
+the first instance, and upon the assurance that, reform once carried,
+all further encroachments of the democracy should be resisted by the
+government. He even authorised Grey to inform Harrowby that he had given
+the prime minister this power, in the hope that it would never be
+needed, and that at least the second reading of the bill would be
+carried in the house of lords without it. His objection to a permanent
+augmentation of the peerage remained unshaken, and Grey promised to
+propose no augmentation at all before the second reading.
+
+This compact, if it can be so called, was fulfilled in the letter, for
+the bill was read a first time without a division, and it passed the
+second reading on April 14 by a majority of 184 to 175. To all
+appearance a notable process of conversion had been wrought among the
+peers, seventeen of whom actually changed sides, while ten opponents of
+the former bill absented themselves, and twelve new adherents were
+gained. However encouraging these figures might be, the ministers were
+under no illusion. They had the best reason for expecting the worst
+from the struggle in committee, and they were conscious of gradually
+losing the king's confidence. The very demonstrations of popular
+enthusiasm for reform which impressed others with a sense of its
+necessity impressed him with a sense of its danger; the political unions
+and the Bristol riots alarmed him extremely; and the foreign policy of
+the government elicited from him so outspoken a protest that Grey
+tendered his resignation. The difficulty was overcome for the moment,
+but recurred in a more serious form when parliament reassembled on May
+7. Lyndhurst at once proposed in committee to postpone the consideration
+of schedule A; in other words, to shelve the most vital provisions of
+the bill until the rest should have been dissected in a hostile spirit.
+This proposal is supposed to have been concerted with Harrowby and
+Wharncliffe, if not to have received the sanction of the Duke of
+Wellington. It was adopted by 151 votes to 116, and the cabinet, on May
+8, courageously determined to make a decisive stand. They firmly advised
+the king to confer peerages on "such a number of persons as might ensure
+the success of the bill". The principle thus expressed had, as has been
+seen, been reluctantly approved by the king himself, but he recoiled
+from the application of it when he learned that it would involve at
+least fifty new creations. After a day's thought, he closed with the
+only alternative, and accepted the resignation of his ministry. He then
+sent for Lyndhurst, who of course at once communicated with the duke.
+
+The king, as we have seen, had never been able to understand the real
+force of the reform movement, and his leading idea was that the demand
+for reform might be satisfied by a moderate reform bill, which the house
+of lords would not reject or reduce to nullity. Wellington shared this
+impression, and, though an implacable opponent of reform, was willing to
+undertake office for the purpose of carrying, not merely a mild
+substitute for the whig reform bill, but the whig reform bill itself
+with little modification. Such an act might appear immoral in a
+statesman whose integrity was more open to question, but the duke's
+political _moral_ appears to have been of a less delicate type than that
+which is commonly expected in party politicians. As a general, he
+considered, first of all and above all, what manoeuvres would best
+advance his plan of campaign. As a political leader, he regarded
+himself not as the chief of a party, still less as the exponent of a
+creed, but rather as a public servant to whom his followers owed
+allegiance, whether in office or in opposition. As a public servant he
+felt bound to obey the king's summons, and conduct the administration,
+honestly and efficiently, but without much concern for personal
+convictions. He was also anxious to preserve the house of lords from
+being swamped and so rendered ridiculous by an extensive creation of
+peers.[105]
+
+[Pageheading: _ATTEMPTS TO FORM A TORY MINISTRY._]
+
+But Wellington knew that he was powerless to manage the house of commons
+without the aid of Peel, and Peel, though pliable in the case of
+catholic emancipation, was inflexible in the case of reform. He drew a
+distinction between these cases, and absolutely rejected the advice of
+Croker that he should grasp the helm of state to avert the worse evil of
+the whigs being recalled. "I look," he wrote, "beyond the exigency and
+the peril of the present moment, and I do believe that one of the
+greatest calamities that could befall the country would be the utter
+want of confidence in the declarations of public men which must follow
+the adoption of the bill of reform by me as a minister of the
+crown."[106] This language, repeated under reserve in the house of
+commons, after a direct appeal from the king, strongly contrasts with
+that of the duke who roundly asserted that he should have been ashamed
+to show his face in the streets if he had refused to serve his sovereign
+in an emergency. The marked divergence of views and conduct between the
+two leaders of the conservative party led to a temporary estrangement
+which materially weakened their counsels, and was not finally removed
+until a fresh crisis arose two years later.
+
+While Lyndhurst and the duke were vainly endeavouring to patch up a
+government without Peel or his personal adherents, Goulburn and Croker,
+the house of commons and the country gave decisive proofs of their
+resolution. A vote of confidence in Grey's ministry, proposed by
+Ebrington, was carried on May 10 by a majority of eighty. Petitions came
+in from the city of London and Manchester, calling upon the commons to
+stop the supplies, and the reckless populace clamoured for a run upon
+the Bank of England. A mass meeting convened by the Birmingham
+political union had already hoisted the standard of revolt against the
+legislature, unless it would comply with the will of the people; the
+example was spreading rapidly, and events seemed to be hurrying on
+towards a fulfilment of Russell's prediction that, in the event of a
+political deadlock, the British constitution would perish in the
+conflict. The duke was credited, of course unjustly, with the intention
+of establishing military rule, and doubts were freely expressed whether
+he could rely either on the army or on the police to put down insurgent
+mobs. The excitement in the house of commons itself was scarcely less
+formidable, and it soon became evident that high tories were almost as
+much incensed by the prospect of a tory reform bill as radicals and
+whigs by the vote on Lyndhurst's amendment.
+
+On the 14th Manners Sutton and Alexander Baring, Lyndhurst's trusted
+confidants, plainly informed the duke that his self-imposed task was
+hopeless, and on the next day the duke advised the king to recall Grey.
+The king, who had apparently grasped the position earlier, acquiesced in
+this solution of the question. He agreed to recall Grey and his
+colleagues, and to use his own personal influence in persuading tory
+peers to abstain from voting. He attempted to impose upon his old
+ministers the condition of modifying the bill considerably, but they
+continued to insist on maintaining its integrity, and on swamping the
+upper house, unless its opposition should be withdrawn. It was, happily,
+unnecessary to resort to such extreme measures. A letter from the king,
+dated the 17th, informed Wellington that all difficulties would be
+removed by "a declaration in the house of lords from a sufficient number
+of peers that they have come to the resolution of dropping their further
+opposition to the reform bill". On that night, after stating what had
+passed, the duke retired from the house, followed by about 100 peers,
+and absented himself from the discussion of the bill in committee. A
+stalwart minority remained, and took issue on a few clauses, but their
+numbers constantly dwindled, and when the report was received on June 1
+only eighteen peers recorded their dissent in a protest. Grey himself,
+though suffering from illness, moved the third reading on the 4th, when
+it was carried by 106 to 22. His last words did not lack the dignity
+which had marked his bearing throughout, and expressed the earnest hope
+that, in spite of sinister forebodings, "the measure would be found to
+be, in the best sense, conservative of the constitution".
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+The amendments made in the house of lords were slight, and the house of
+commons adopted them without any argument on their merits. Peel, who had
+made a convincing defence of his recent conduct, and who afterwards took
+a statesmanlike course in the reformed parliament, declared, with some
+petulance, that he would have nothing to do with the consideration of
+provisions or amendments passed under compulsion, and that he was
+prepared to accept them, _en bloc_, whatever their nature or
+consequences. The bill, therefore, received the royal assent on the 7th,
+but the king could not be induced to perform this ceremony in person.
+Though his scruples had been respected in framing the scheme of reform,
+though he was consulted at every turn and clearly recognised the
+necessity to which he bowed, and though he was spared the resort to a
+_coup d'etat_ which he abhorred, he could not but feel humiliated by the
+ill-disguised subjection of the crown and the nobility to a single
+chamber of the people. It is greatly to his honour that, with limited
+intelligence, and strong prejudices, he should have played a
+straightforward and strictly constitutional part in so perilous a
+crisis.
+
+By the great reform bill, as it was still called even after it became an
+act, the whole representative system of England and Wales was
+reconstructed. Fifty-six nomination boroughs, as we have seen, lost
+their members altogether; thirty more were reduced to one member, and
+Weymouth which, coupled with Melcombe Regis, had returned four members,
+now lost two. Twenty-two large towns, including metropolitan districts,
+were allotted two members each; twenty smaller but considerable towns
+received one member each; the number of English and Welsh county members
+was increased from ninety-four to one hundred and fifty-nine, and the
+larger counties were parcelled out into divisions. All the fanciful and
+antiquated franchises which had prevailed in the older boroughs were
+swept away to make room for a levelling L10 household suffrage, the
+privileges of freemen being alone preserved. The rights of 40s.
+freeholders were retained in counties, but they found themselves
+associated with a large body of copyholders, leaseholders, and
+tenants-at-will paying L50 in rent. The general result was to place the
+borough representation mainly in the hands of shopkeepers, and the
+county representation mainly in those of landlords and farmers. The
+former change had a far greater effect on the balance of parties than
+the latter. The shopkeepers, of whom many were nonconformists, long
+continued to cherish advanced radical traditions, partly derived from
+the reform agitation, and constantly rebelled against dictation from
+their rich customers. The farmers, dependent on their landlords and
+closely allied with them in defending the corn laws, proved more
+submissive to influence, and constituted the backbone of the great
+agricultural interest.
+
+The enactment of the English reform bill carried with it as its
+necessary sequel the success of similar bills for Scotland and Ireland.
+In Scotland electoral abuses were so gross that reform was comparatively
+simple, and that proposed, as Jeffrey, the lord advocate, frankly said,
+"left not a shred of the former system". The nation, as a whole, gained
+eight members, since its total representation was raised from forty-five
+to fifty-three seats, thirty for counties and twenty-three for cities
+and burghs. Two members were allotted to Edinburgh and Glasgow
+respectively; one each to Paisley, Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, and
+Greenock, as well as to certain groups of boroughs. Both the county and
+burgh electorates were entirely transformed. The "old parchment
+freeholders" in counties, many of whom owned not a foot of land, were
+superseded by a mixed body of freeholders and leaseholders with real
+though various qualifications. The electoral monopoly of town councils
+was replaced by the enfranchisement of householders with a uniform
+qualification of L10. A claim to representation on behalf of the
+Scottish universities was negatived in the house of lords. The number of
+representatives for Ireland was raised from 100 to 105. The
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders was maintained against the
+strenuous attacks of O'Connell and Sheil, but the introduction of the
+L10 borough franchise amply balanced the loss of democratic influence in
+counties. On the whole the transfer of power from class to class was
+greater in Scotland and Ireland than in England itself, and in Ireland
+this signified a corresponding transfer of power from protestants to
+catholics. The rule of the priests was almost as absolute as ever until
+it was checked for a while by a purely democratic movement, and the
+Irish vote in the house of commons was generally cast on the radical
+side.
+
+[Pageheading: _RETROSPECT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT._]
+
+A calm retrospect of the reform movement, culminating in the acts of
+1832, compels us to see how little the course of politics is guided by
+reason, and how much by circumstances. Every argument employed in that
+and the preceding year possessed equal force at the end of the
+eighteenth century, and the benefits of reform might have been obtained
+at a much smaller cost of domestic strife; nor can we doubt that, but
+for the French revolution, these arguments would have prevailed. Whether
+or not the sanguinary disruption of French society furthered the cause
+of progress on the continent, it assuredly threw back that cause in
+Great Britain for more than a generation. Not only did its horrors and
+enormities produce a reaction which paralysed the efforts of liberals in
+this country, but the wars arising out of it engrossed for twenty years
+the whole energy of the nation. Had it been possible for Pitt to pass a
+reform bill after carrying the Irish union, the current of English
+history would have been strangely diverted. The sublime tenacity of that
+proud aristocracy which defied the French empire in arms, and nerved all
+the rest of Europe by its example and its subsidies, would never have
+been exhibited by a democratic or middle class parliament, and it is
+more than probable that Great Britain would have stood neutral while the
+continent was enslaved or worked out its own salvation. On the other
+hand, in such a case, Great Britain might have been spared a great part
+of the misery and discontent which, following the peace, but indirectly
+caused by the war, actually paved the way for the reform movement. It
+remained for a second French revolution, combined with the infatuation
+of English tories, to supply the motive power which converted a party
+cry into a national demand for justice. The reform act was, in truth, a
+completion of the earlier English revolution provoked by the Stuarts.
+Considering the condition of the people before its introduction, and the
+obstinacy of the resistance to be overborne, we may well marvel that it
+was carried, after all, so peacefully, and must ever remember it as a
+signal triumph of whig statesmanship.
+
+It was the crowning merit of the reform act, from a whig point of view,
+that it stayed the rising tide of democracy, and raised a barrier
+against household suffrage and the ballot which was not broken down for
+a generation more. It put an end to an oligarchy of borough-owners and
+borough-mongers; it was a charter of political rights for the
+manufacturing interest and the great middle class. But it did nothing
+for the working classes in town or country; indeed, by the abolition of
+potwallopers and scot-and-lot voters in a few boroughs, they forfeited
+such fragmentary representation as they had possessed. Hence the seeds
+of chartism, already sown, were quickened in 1832; but socialism was not
+yet a force in politics, and it was still hoped that, under the new
+electoral system, the sufferings of the poor might be mostly remedied by
+act of parliament. The effect of the reform act on the balance of the
+constitution was not, at first, fully appreciated. The grievance of
+nomination-boroughs had been all but completely redressed, and that of
+political corruption greatly diminished, but the hereditary peerage
+remained, and the right of the lords to override the will of the commons
+had ostensibly survived the conflict of 1831-32. But far-sighted men
+could not fail to perceive that, in fact, the upper house was no longer
+a co-ordinate estate of the realm. The peers retained an indefinite
+power of delaying a measure, but it soon came to be a received maxim
+that on a measure of primary importance such a power could only be
+exercised in order to give the commons an opportunity of reconsideration
+or to force an appeal to the country at a general election, and that a
+new house of commons, armed with a mandate to carry that measure, though
+once rejected by the peers, could not be resisted except at the risk of
+revolution.
+
+The best safeguard against collision, however, was to be found in the
+latent conservatism of the house of commons itself. Reformed as it was,
+it had not ceased to be mainly a house of country gentlemen, and the
+non-payment of members was a security for its being composed, almost
+exclusively, of men with independent means and a stake in the country. A
+very large proportion of these had been educated at the great public
+schools, or the old English universities. They might accept on the
+hustings the doctrine, against which Burke so eloquently protested, that
+a representative is above all a delegate, and must go to parliament as
+the pledged mouthpiece of his constituency. But in the house itself they
+could not divest themselves of the sentiments derived from their birth,
+their education, and their own personal interests; nor was it found
+impossible, without a direct violation of pledges, to act upon their own
+opinions in many a critical division. Still, it has been well pointed
+out that, with the flowing tide of reform there arose a new and
+one-sided conception of statesmanship as consisting in progressive
+amendment of the laws rather than in efficient administration, so that
+it is now popularly regarded as a mark of weakness on the part of any
+government to allow a session to pass without effecting some important
+legislative change.[107]
+
+[Pageheading: _CORONATION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+The supreme interest of the reform bill and its incidents naturally
+dwarfed all other political questions, and the legislative annals of
+1831-32 are otherwise singularly devoid of historical importance. The
+coronation of William IV., which, as has been seen, took place on
+September 8, 1831, was hardly more than an interlude in the great
+struggle, yet it served for the moment to assuage the animosities of
+party warfare. The king himself, who disliked solemn ceremonials, and
+the ministers, deeply pledged to economy, were inclined to dispense with
+the pageant altogether. It was found, however, that not only peers and
+court officials but the public would be grievously disappointed by the
+omission of what, after all, is a solemn public celebration of the
+compact between the sovereign and the nation. The coronation was,
+therefore, carried out with due pomp and all the time-honoured
+formalities, but without the profuse extravagance which attended the
+enthronement of George IV. There was no public banquet, and the public
+celebration ceased with the ceremony in Westminster Abbey. The Duke of
+Wellington and other leading members of the opposition had been duly
+consulted by the government; there was a welcome respite from
+parliamentary warfare; the king's returning popularity was confirmed;
+and all classes of the people were satisfied.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CHOLERA EPIDEMIC._]
+
+Two months later, the appearance of the cholera at Sunderland added
+another grave cause of anxiety to all the difficulties created by the
+defeat of the reform bill in the house of lords, and the ominous riots
+at Bristol. A similar but distinct and infinitely milder disease had
+long been known under the name of _cholera morbus_, or more correctly
+_cholera nostras_. Asiatic cholera, as the new disease was called, had
+no affinity with any other known disease, and excited all the greater
+terror by its novelty, as well as by the suddenness of its fatal effect.
+It was first observed by English physicians in 1817, when 10,000 persons
+fell victims to it in the district of Jessor in Bengal. About the same
+time it attacked and decimated the central division of the army of Lord
+Hastings, advancing against Gwalior. Before long it spread over the
+whole province of Bengal, and eastward along the coasts of Asia as far
+as China and Timur in the East Indies, crossed the great wall, and
+penetrated into Mongolia. In 1818 it broke out at Bombay, and during the
+next twelve years continued to haunt, at intervals, the cities of Persia
+and Asiatic Turkey, with the coasts of the Caspian Sea. It was not until
+1829 that it reached the Russian province of Orenburg, by way of the
+river Volga, visiting St. Petersburg and Archangel in June, 1830. Thence
+it travelled slowly but steadily westward through Northern Europe, as
+well as southward into the valleys of the Danube and its tributaries,
+until it made its appearance at Berlin and Hamburg in the summer of
+1831. Long before this, and while the reform crisis was in its acutest
+stage, the probability of its advent was fully realised in England, and
+orders in council were issued in June, 1831, placing in quarantine all
+ships coming from the Baltic. Notwithstanding the outcry against
+meddling with trade, men of war were appointed to enforce these orders,
+and when the news came that Marshal Diebitsch had died of the disease in
+Poland, the alarm increased and all regulations against plague were made
+applicable to cholera. Whether or not these precautions were
+ineffective, it swooped upon Sunderland on October 26, and prevailed
+there for two months, though its true character was very unwillingly
+recognised.[108]
+
+The conflict between the newly created board of health and the merchants
+importing goods caused the government no little perplexity. The protests
+of the latter were strengthened by the somewhat remarkable fact that,
+once established at Sunderland, the cholera seemed to be arrested in its
+course and for a while spread no further. There seemed to be some ground
+for the belief that it was partly due to extreme overcrowding and
+neglect of all sanitary rules in that town, but this belief was soon
+dissipated by its appearance at Newcastle and progress over the
+north-eastern counties even during the winter months. Seven cases of it
+occurred on the banks of the Thames just below London early in February,
+1832, and though its virulence in England was alleged to be less than on
+the continent, further experience hardly justified that opinion. The
+appalling violence of its first onslaught on some vulnerable districts
+may be illustrated by the example of Manchester, where a whole family
+just arrived from an infected locality was swept away within twenty-four
+hours. The government did its duty by disseminating instructions for its
+prevention and treatment among the local authorities, but the prejudices
+of the lower orders were against all interference for their benefit, and
+scenes of brutality were sometimes enacted such as may still be
+witnessed in oriental cities scourged by the plague. After a temporary
+decline, the visitation recurred in all its severity, and in July the
+deaths of a few persons in the highest circles occasioned a panic in the
+west end of London. Still the declared number of deaths in the
+metropolitan area was only 5,275, showing a far lower rate of mortality
+in London than in Paris at the same time, and much lower than in London
+itself during the epidemic of 1849, when statistics were more
+trustworthy. None of the cholera epidemics, however, approached in
+deadliness the plagues of 1625 and 1665. In the latter year the number
+of deaths in London from plague alone represented about one-fifth of the
+entire resident population--a proportion equivalent to a mortality of
+above 200,000 in the London of 1831-32. This comparative immunity was
+partly due to improved sanitation, the vigorous development of which may
+be said to date from the first visitation of cholera.
+
+The census taken in 1831 revealed an increase of population, which,
+though not equal to that of the preceding decade, indicated a most
+satisfactory growth of wealth and employment. It was found that Great
+Britain contained about 16,500,000 inhabitants, but of these, as might
+be expected, a smaller percentage was employed in agriculture and a
+larger percentage in manufacturing industry than in 1821. It has been
+calculated that since the end of the great war the accumulation of
+capital had been twice as rapid as the multiplication of the people,
+but, in spite of this, pauperism, as measured by poor law expenditure,
+had increased almost continuously since 1823, and emigration received a
+startling impulse in 1831-32. Rick burning and frame breaking were the
+joint result of childish ignorance, miserable wages, mistaken taxes on
+the staple of food, and poor laws administered as if for the very
+purpose of encouraging improvidence and vice. All these causes were
+capable of being removed or mitigated by legislation, for even the rate
+of wages was kept down by the ruinous system of out-door relief. But it
+was only a few thoughtful persons who then appreciated either the extent
+or the real sources of the mischief, and the disputes which soon arose
+about the proper remedies to be applied have been handed on to a later
+age.
+
+Next to parliamentary reform the state of Ireland was by far the most
+important subject which engaged the attention of the legislature in
+1831-32. The population had increased from 6,801,827 in 1821 to
+7,767,401 in 1831, and the increase, unlike that in England, had been
+almost exclusively in the agricultural districts. While the political
+motive for multiplying small freeholds had ceased, the motives for
+multiplying small tenancies were as strong as ever, and were felt by
+landlords no less than by cottiers. This class, often inhabiting huts
+like those of savage tribes and living in a squalor hardly to be seen
+elsewhere in western Europe, chiefly depended for their subsistence on
+potatoes--the most uncertain and the least nutritious of the crops used
+for human food. Many hundred thousands of them had no employment in
+their own country and no means of livelihood except the produce of the
+scanty patches around their own turf cabins. Tens of thousands flocked
+to England annually seeking harvest work, and a small number emigrated
+to Canada or the United States, the passage money for an emigrant being
+then almost prohibitive. Those who could not pay rent were liable to
+eviction, and eviction was a more cruel fate then than now, since there
+was no poor law in Ireland. Fever was rife in their miserable abodes,
+following in the steps of hunger, and for relief of any kind they could
+rely only on the mercy of their landlords or the charity of their
+neighbours. Under such conditions of life crime and disaffection could
+not but flourish, and the Irish peasant could hardly be blamed if he
+listened eagerly to the counsels of O'Connell. For him catholic
+emancipation had no meaning except so far as it gave him a hope that
+parliament, swayed by the great Irish demagogue, would abolish tithes,
+if not rent, and find some means of making Irishmen happy in their own
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _ANGLESEY LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND._]
+
+Had O'Connell been a true patriot, or even an honest politician, he
+would have devoted his vast powers and influence to practical schemes
+for the good of Ireland, and specially to a solution of the agrarian
+question. Unhappily, smarting under a not unfounded sense of injustice,
+when he was disabled from taking his seat for Clare, he threw his whole
+energy into a new campaign for the repeal of the union, which occupied
+the rest of his life. So far from acknowledging any gratitude to the
+whigs, through whose support emancipation had been carried, he exhausted
+all the resources of his scurrilous rhetoric upon them, lavishing the
+epithets "base, brutal, and bloody," with something like Homeric
+iteration. In December, 1830, Anglesey had returned to succeed the Duke
+of Northumberland, and Stanley occupied the post of chief secretary, in
+place of Hardinge. The ministers were privately advised to buy O'Connell
+at any price, and it was intimated that he would not object to become a
+law officer of the crown, or at least would not refuse a judicial
+appointment. It may well be doubted whether the offer of such a bargain
+to such a man could have been justified by success; it is more than
+probable that it would have failed, and it is quite certain that failure
+would have brought infinite discredit upon the government. At all events
+the attempt was not made, and other catholic aspirants to legal
+promotion were passed over with less excuse.
+
+Lord Anglesey proved a resolute viceroy, and proclaimed the various
+associations, meetings, and processions organised by O'Connell, with
+little regard for his own popularity. O'Connell's policy, carried out
+with the cunning of a skilful lawyer, was to obey the law in the letter,
+but to break it almost defiantly in the spirit. At last, however, he
+went a step too far by advising the people who had come for a prohibited
+meeting to reassemble and hold it elsewhere. He was arrested on January
+18, 1831, and pleaded "Not guilty," but on February 17, when his trial
+came on, he allowed judgment to go by default against him on those
+counts of the indictment which charged him with a statutable offence,
+provided that other counts, which charged him with a conspiracy at
+common law, should be withdrawn. The attorney-general assented, and the
+case was adjourned until the first day in Easter term. Before that day
+arrived, however, the reform bill had been introduced, and O'Connell had
+made a powerful speech in support of it. In the desperate struggle which
+ensued, the ministers shrunk from estranging so formidable an ally, a
+further adjournment of the case was allowed, a sudden dissolution of
+parliament took place, the act under which O'Connell was to be sentenced
+expired with the parliament, and no further action was taken.
+
+[Pageheading: _"TITHE-WAR" IN IRELAND._]
+
+During the year 1831, the agitation for repeal which O'Connell had set
+on foot, as soon as the emancipation act had been passed, was for a
+while thrust into the shade by the fiercer agitation against tithes.
+This agitation was connected, in theory, with the demand for the
+abolition or reduction of the Irish Church establishment, but was, in
+fact, entirely independent of that or any other constitutional movement.
+It may seem inexplicable to political students of a later age that Irish
+questions of secondary importance, and eminently capable of equitable
+treatment, should have convulsed the whole island and disturbed the
+whole course of imperial politics, during the reign of William IV. The
+rebellion against tithes or "tithe-war," as it was called, had not the
+semblance of justification in law or reason. Every tenant who took part
+in it had inherited or acquired his farm, subject to payment of tithes,
+and might have been charged a higher rent if he could have obtained it
+tithe-free. The tithe was the property of the parson as much as the land
+was the property of the landlord, and the wilful refusal of it was from
+a legal point of view sheer robbery. On the other hand, the mode of
+collection was extremely vexatious, perhaps involving the seizure of a
+pig, a bag of meal, or a sack of potatoes; and a starving cottier,
+paying fees to his own priest, was easily persuaded by demagogues that
+it was an arbitrary tribute extorted by clerical tyrants of an alien
+faith.
+
+Thus it came to pass that the history of the Irish "tithe-war" exhibits
+the Irish peasantry in their very worst moods, and it is stained with
+atrocities never surpassed in later records of Irish agrarian
+conspiracy. It is among the strange and sad anomalies of national
+character that a people so kindly in their domestic relations, so little
+prone to ordinary crime, and so amenable to better influences, should
+have shown, in all ages, down to the very latest, a capacity for
+dastardly inhumanity, under vindictive and gregarious impulses, only to
+be matched by Spanish and Italian brigands among the races of modern
+Europe. Yet so it is, and no "coercion" (so-called) ultimately enforced
+by legal authority was comparable in severity with the coercion which
+bloodthirsty miscreants ruthlessly applied to honest and peaceable
+neighbours, only guilty of paying their lawful debts. It is not too much
+to say that anarchy prevailed over a great part of Ireland, especially
+of Leinster, during the years 1831 and 1832. The collection of tithes
+became almost impossible. The tithe-proctors were tortured or murdered;
+the few willing tithe-payers were cruelly maltreated or intimidated; the
+police, unless mustered in large bodies, were held at bay; cattle were
+driven, or, if seized and offered for sale, could find no purchasers;
+and the protestant clergy, who had acted on the whole with great
+forbearance, were reduced to extremities of privations. Five of the
+police were shot dead on one occasion; on another, twelve who were
+escorting a tithe-proctor were massacred in cold blood. A large number
+of rioters were killed in encounters with the police, which sometimes
+assumed the form of pitched battles and closely resembled civil war.
+Special commissions were sent down into certain districts, and a few
+executions took place, but in most cases Irish juries proved as
+regardless of their oaths as they ever have on trials of prisoners for
+popular crimes. O'Connell, and even Sheil, tacitly countenanced these
+lawless proceedings, and openly palliated them in the house of commons.
+
+The whig government, engaged in a life-and-death contest with the
+English borough-mongers, hesitated to crush the Irish insurgents by
+military force, or to initiate a sweeping reform of the Irish Church.
+Early in 1832, however, committees of both houses reported in favour of
+giving the clergy temporary relief out of public funds, and of
+ultimately commuting tithes into a charge upon the land. A preliminary
+bill for the former purpose was promptly carried by Stanley, and made
+the government responsible for recovering the arrears. The committee,
+pursuing their inquiries, produced fuller reports, and again recommended
+a complete extinction of tithes in Ireland. But the method proposed and
+embodied in three bills introduced by Stanley in the same year, was too
+complicated to serve as a permanent settlement, and was denounced as
+illusory by the Irish members. The first bill was, in fact, a compulsory
+extension of acts already passed in 1822 and 1823, the former of which
+had permitted the tithe-owner to lease the tithe to the landlord, while
+the latter permitted the tithe-owner and tithe-payers of each parish to
+arrange a composition. Unfortunately, the act of 1823 had provided that
+the payment in commutation of tithe should be distributed over
+grass-lands hitherto tithe-free in Ireland as well as over land hitherto
+liable to tithe. The act was in consequence unpopular with a section of
+farmers, while at the same time the bishops resented the commutation, as
+likely to diminish the value of beneficies. But in spite of this
+opposition the act of 1823 had been widely adopted. Stanley's bill to
+render such commutations compulsory passed, but his other two bills,
+providing a new ecclesiastical machinery for buying up tithes, were
+abandoned at the end of the session. Of course the substitution of the
+government for the clergyman as creditor in respect of arrears had no
+soothing effect on the debtors. The reign of terror continued unabated,
+and O'Connell contented himself with pointing out that without repeal
+there could be no peace in Ireland. We may so far anticipate the
+legislation of 1833 as to notice the inevitable failure of the
+experiment which converted the government into a tithe-proctor. It was
+then replaced by a new plan, under which the government abandoned all
+processes under the existing law, advanced L1,000,000 to clear off all
+arrears of tithe, and sought reimbursement by a land tax payable for a
+period of five years.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDUCATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+It reflects credit on the unreformed house of commons that in its very
+last session, harassed by the irreconcilable attitude of the catholic
+population in Ireland, it should have found time and patience not only
+for the pressing question of Irish tithes, but for the consideration of
+a resolution introductory to an Irish poor law, of a bill (which became
+law) for checking the abuses of Irish party processions, and of a grant
+for a board to superintend the mixed education of Irish catholic and
+protestant children. The discussion of Sadler's motion in favour of an
+Irish poor law was somewhat academic, and produced a division among the
+Irish members, O'Connell, with gross inconsistency, declaring himself
+vehemently opposed to any such measure. The ministers professed
+sympathy with its principle, but would not pledge themselves to deal
+immediately with so difficult and complicated a subject, perhaps
+foreseeing the necessity of radical change in the English poor law
+system. The processions bill was vigorously resisted on behalf of the
+Orangemen, as specially aimed at their annual demonstrations on July 12,
+but it was so manifestly wise to remove every wanton aggravation of
+party spirit in Ireland, that it was passed just before the prorogation.
+
+The experiment of mixed education in Ireland had already been made with
+partial success, first by individuals, and afterwards by an association
+known as the Kildare Place Society. On the appointment of Dr. Whately to
+the archbishopric of Dublin, it received a fresh impulse, and Stanley,
+as chief secretary, definitely adopted the principle, recommended by two
+commissions and two committees, of "a combined moral and literary and
+separate religious instruction". A board of national education was
+established in Dublin, composed of eminent Roman catholics as well as
+protestants, to superintend all state-aided schools in which selections
+from the Bible, approved by the board, were to be read on two days in
+the week. Though provision was made for unrestricted biblical teaching,
+out of school hours, on the other four days, protestant bigotry was
+roused against the very idea of compromise. A shrewd observer remarked,
+"While the whole system is crumbling to dust under their feet, while the
+Church is prostrate, property of all kind threatened, and robbery,
+murder, starvation, and agitation rioting over the land, these wise
+legislators are debating whether the brats at school shall read the
+whole Bible or only parts of it".[109] The opponents of the national
+board failed to defeat the scheme in parliament, and it was justly
+mentioned with satisfaction by the king in his prorogation speech of
+August 16. But its benefits, though lasting, were seriously curtailed by
+sectarian jealousy. Most of the protestant clergy frowned upon the
+national schools, as the Roman catholic priesthood had frowned upon the
+schools of the Kildare Place Society, and a noble opportunity of
+mitigating religious strife in Ireland was to a great extent wasted.
+Thus ended the eventful session of 1832.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] See Professor Dicey's observations on this clause, _Law and
+Opinion in England_, p. 54, _n._
+
+[105] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, viii., 206; Parker, _Sir Robert
+Peel_, ii., 207.
+
+[106] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 206.
+
+[107] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 354; Dicey, _Law and Opinion
+in England_, p. 85.
+
+[108] C. Creighton, _History of Epidemics in Britain_, ii., 768, 793-97,
+860-62.
+
+[109] Greville, _Memoirs_ (March 9, 1832), ii., 267.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XV.
+
+                         FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+
+It was assumed in 1832, and has been held ever since, that a
+redistribution act must be speedily followed by a dissolution, so as to
+give the new constituencies the power of returning new members.
+Accordingly, parliament, having been prorogued until October 16, was
+further prorogued until December 3, and then finally dissolved. The
+general election which followed, though awaited with much anxiety, was
+orderly on the whole, and produced less change than had been expected in
+the _personnel_ of the house of commons. The counties, for the most
+part, elected men from the landed aristocracy, the great towns elected
+men of recognised distinction, and few political leaders were excluded,
+though Croker abjured political life and refused to solicit a seat in
+the reformed house of commons. The good sense of the country asserted
+itself; while Cobbett was returned for Oldham, "Orator" Hunt was
+defeated at Preston, and no general preference was shown for violent
+demagogues by the more democratic boroughs. The age of members in the
+new house was higher, on the average, than in the old; its social
+character was somewhat lower, and the high authority of William Ewart
+Gladstone, who now entered parliament for the first time, may be quoted
+for the opinion that it was inferior, in the main, as a deliberative
+assembly. But it was certainly superior as a representative assembly, it
+contained more capable men of business, and its legislative productions,
+as we shall hereafter see, claim the gratitude of posterity. A certain
+want of modesty in the new class of members was observed by hostile
+critics, and was to be expected in men who had won their seats by
+popular oratory and not through patronage. The house of commons had
+already ceased to be "the best club in London," and later reforms have
+still further weakened its title to be so regarded, but they have also
+shown the wonderful power of assimilation inherent in the atmosphere of
+the house itself, and the spirit of freemasonry which springs up among
+those who enter it by very different avenues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST REFORMED PARLIAMENT._]
+
+The change wrought by the reform act in the strength and distribution of
+parties was immediate and conspicuous. The ancient division of whigs and
+tories, which had become well-nigh obsolete in the reign of George IV.,
+had been revived by the great struggle of 1831-32. It was now superseded
+to a great extent by the combination of the radicals with O'Connell's
+followers into an independent section, and by the growth of a party
+under Peel, distinct from the inveterate tories and known by the name of
+"conservative," which first came into use in 1831.[110] The
+preponderance of liberalism, in its moderate and extreme forms, was
+overwhelming. It was roughly computed that nearly half the house were
+ministerialists and about 190 members radicals, Irish repealers, or free
+lances, while only 150 were classed as "conservatives," apparently
+including tories.[111] In such circumstances the attitude to be adopted
+by Peel was of the highest constitutional importance. It is some proof
+of the respect for statesmanship instinctively felt by the new house of
+commons that Peel, as inexorable an opponent of reform as Canning
+himself, should at once have assumed a foremost position and soon
+obtained an ascendency in an assembly so largely composed of his
+opponents.
+
+But Peel himself was no longer a mere party leader. Unlike Wellington
+and Eldon, he saw the necessity of accepting loyally the accomplished
+fact and shaping his future course in accordance with the nation's will.
+He, therefore, took an early opportunity of declaring that he regarded
+the reform act as irrevocable, and that he was prepared to participate
+in the dispassionate amendment of any institution that really needed it.
+In a private letter to Goulburn he stated that, in his judgment, "the
+best position the government could assume would be that of moderation
+between opposite extremes of ultra-toryism and radicalism," intimating
+further that "we should appear to the greatest advantage in defending
+the government" against their own extreme left wing.[112] In this
+policy he persevered; his influence did much to quell the confusion and
+disorder of the first debate, and his followers swelled the government
+majorities in several of the early divisions. When he came to review the
+first session of the reformed parliament he remarked in a private letter
+that what had been foreseen took place, that "the popular assembly
+exercised tacitly supreme power," and, without abolishing the crown or
+the house of lords, overawed the convictions of both.[113]
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH COERCION BILL._]
+
+The passion for reform, far from spending itself in remodelling the
+house of commons, filled the statute-book with monuments of remedial
+legislation. No session was more fruitful in legislative activity than
+that of 1833. But the way of legislation was at first blocked against
+all projects of improvement by the urgent necessity of passing an Irish
+coercion bill. This had been indicated in the king's speech, and on
+February 15, 1833 Grey introduced the strongest measure of repression
+ever devised for curbing anarchy in Ireland. It combined, as he
+explained, the provisions of "the proclamation act, the insurrection
+act, the partial application of martial law, and the partial suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act". But the barbarities and terrorism which it
+was designed to put down were beyond precedent and almost beyond belief.
+The attempt to collect the arrears of tithe, even with the aid of
+military force, had usually failed, and less than an eighth of the sum
+due was actually levied. The organised defiance of law was not, however,
+confined to refusal of tithes; it embraced the refusal of rent and
+extended over the whole field of agrarian relations. The Whiteboys of
+the eighteenth century reappeared as "Whitefeet," and other secret
+associations, under grotesque names, enforced their decrees by wholesale
+murder, burglary, arson, savage assaults, destruction of property, and
+mutilation of cattle. In two counties, Kilkenny and Queen's County,
+nearly a hundred murders or attempted murders were reported within
+twelve months, and the murderous intimidation of witnesses and jurors
+secured impunity to perpetrators of crimes. No civilised government
+could have tolerated an orgy of lawlessness on so vast a scale, and
+nothing but the exigencies of the reform bill can excuse Grey and his
+colleagues for not having grappled with it earlier. Nor does it appear
+that any remedy less stern would have been effectual. Where unarmed
+citizens have not the courage either to protect themselves or to aid the
+constabulary employed for their protection, soldiers, accustomed to face
+death and inflict it upon others under lawful command, must be called in
+to maintain order. Where civil tribunals have become a mockery, summary
+justice must be dealt out by military tribunals. Force may be no remedy
+for grievances, but it is the one sovereign remedy for organised crime,
+and this was soon to be proved in Ireland.
+
+The viceroy, Anglesey, true to his liberal instincts, would have
+postponed coercion to measures of relief, such as a settlement of the
+church question. Stanley, on the other hand, insisted on the prompt
+introduction of a stringent peace preservation bill, and his energetic
+will prevailed. The bill contained provisions enabling the
+lord-lieutenant to suppress any meeting, establishing a curfew law in
+disturbed districts, and placing offenders in such districts under the
+jurisdiction of courts martial with legal assessors. It passed the house
+of lords with little discussion on the 22nd, and was laid before the
+house of commons a few days later by Althorp, who had already brought in
+an Irish Church temporalities bill. The debate on the address had
+already given warning of the reception which the Irish members would
+accord to any coercion bill, and of their malignant hostility to
+Stanley. Efforts were made to delay its introduction, and full advantage
+was taken of Althorp's statement that one special commission had been
+completely successful. His opening speech, tame and inconclusive,
+discouraged his own followers. The fate of the bill appeared doubtful,
+but Stanley, who had twice staked the existence of the ministry on its
+adoption, reversed the whole tendency of the debate by a speech of
+marvellous force and brilliancy, which Russell afterwards described as
+"one of the greatest triumphs ever won in a popular assembly by the
+powers of oratory".[114] It was in this speech that he proved himself at
+least a match for O'Connell, whom he scathed with fierce indignation as
+having lately called the house of commons a body of scoundrels. It cost
+many nights of debate to carry the bill, with slight amendments, but
+Stanley's appeal had a lasting effect, and it became law in April, to
+the great benefit of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH CHURCH TEMPORALITIES BILL._]
+
+Meanwhile, the Irish Church temporalities bill was pressed forward as a
+counterpoise to coercion. It imposed a graduated tax upon all episcopal,
+capitular, and clerical incomes above L200 a year, and placed the
+proceeds, estimated at L60,000 or L70,000 a year, in the hands of
+commissioners, to be expended in the repairs of churches, the erection
+of glebe-houses, and other parochial charges. In this way Irish
+ratepayers might be relieved of the obnoxious "vestry cess," a species
+of Church rate, at the expense of the clergy. A further saving of
+L60,000 a year or upwards was to be effected by a reduction of the Irish
+episcopate, aided by a new and less wasteful method of leasing Church
+lands attached to episcopal sees. Two out of four Irish archbishoprics
+and eight out of eighteen bishoprics were doomed to extinction, as
+vacancies should occur. Dioceses and benefices were to be freely
+consolidated, clerical sinecures were to cease, and the more scandalous
+abuses of the Irish Church were to be redressed.
+
+As a scheme for ecclesiastical rearrangement within the Church itself,
+the bill was sound and liberal, but it was utterly futile to imagine
+that it would be welcomed, except as a mere instalment of conciliation,
+by Roman catholics who looked upon the protestant Church itself as a
+standing national grievance. The only boon secured to them was exemption
+from their share of vestry cess, for, though Althorp intimated that the
+ultimate surplus to be realised by the union of sees and livings would
+be at the disposal of parliament, they well knew how many influences
+would operate to prevent its reaching them. Not even O'Connell, still
+less the ministry, ventured to propose "concurrent endowment" as it was
+afterwards called, and the very idea of diverting revenues from the
+protestant establishment to Roman catholic uses was disclaimed with
+horror. More than a century earlier, a partition of these revenues
+between the great protestant communions had been seriously entertained,
+and Pitt had notoriously contemplated a provision for the Roman catholic
+priests out of state funds. But no such demand was now made, and the one
+feature of the bill which commanded the vigorous support of O'Connell
+and his adherents was the 147th section, or "appropriation clause,"
+which enabled parliament to apply the expected surplus of some L60,000
+in income, or some L3,000,000 in capital, to whatever purposes, secular
+or otherwise, it might think fit to approve. The far-reaching importance
+of this principle was fully understood on both sides. To radicals and
+Roman catholics it was the sole virtue of the bill; to friends of the
+Irish Church and tories it was a blot to be erased at any cost.
+
+The progress of the measure was not rapid. Its nature had been explained
+by Althorp on February 12, but it was not in print on March 11 when,
+notwithstanding the reasonable protest of Peel, he induced the house to
+fix the second reading for the 14th. It was then found that, owing to
+its form, it must be preceded by resolutions, in order to satisfy the
+rules of the house. These resolutions, containing the essence of the
+bill, were proposed on April 1, but were not adopted without a long
+debate, and the debate on the second reading did not begin until May 6.
+It ended in a majority of 317 to 78 for the government, chiefly due to a
+moderate speech from Sir Robert Peel, who, however, denounced the policy
+of "appropriation". The discussion in committee was far more vehement,
+and radicals like Hume did not shrink from avowing their desire to pull
+down the Irish establishment, root and branch. The attack on the
+conservative side was mainly concentrated on the appropriation clause.
+In vain was it argued that a great part of the expected surplus was not
+Church property, inasmuch as it would result from improvements in the
+system of episcopal leases to be carried out by the agency of the state.
+Every one saw that, however disguised, and whether legitimate or not,
+appropriation of the surplus for secular purposes would be an act of
+confiscation, and must needs be interpreted as a precedent.
+
+The cabinet itself was divided on the subject, and despaired of saving
+the bill in the house of lords, without sacrificing the disputed clause.
+On June 21, therefore, Stanley announced in the house of commons that
+the appropriation clause would be withdrawn, and that any profits
+arising out of financial reforms within the Church would be allowed to
+fall into the hands of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The fury of
+O'Connell was unbounded, and not so devoid of excuse as many of his
+passionate outbreaks. He treated the Church bill as the stipulated
+price to be paid for the coercion bill, and the appropriation clause as
+the only part of it, except relief from vestry cess, which could possess
+the smallest value for Irish Roman catholics. There was no valid answer
+to his argument, except that another collision with the house of lords
+must be avoided at any tolerable cost, for, as Russell bluntly said,
+"the country could not stand a revolution once a year". Thus lightened,
+and slightly modified in the interest of Irish incumbents, the bill
+passed through committee and was read a third time by very large
+majorities, the minority being mainly composed of its old radical
+partisans. Peel's letters show how anxious he was to "make the reform
+bill work," by protecting the government against this extreme
+faction,[115] and the parliamentary reports show how much he did to
+frustrate the attempt to intimidate the lords by a resolution of the
+commons.
+
+The debate in the upper house lasted three nights in July, but is almost
+devoid of permanent interest. The appropriation question being dropped,
+there was little to discuss except the historical origin of Irish
+dioceses, the precedents for their consolidation, and the economical
+details of the scheme for equalising, in some degree, the incomes of
+Irish clergymen. Two or three peers, headed by the Duke of Cumberland,
+took their stand once more on the coronation oath, and Bishop Phillpotts
+of Exeter availed himself of this objection in one of the most powerful
+speeches delivered against the bill. On the other hand, Bishop Blomfield
+of London, and the Duke of Wellington, now acting in concert with Peel,
+gave it a grudging support, as the less of two evils. After passing the
+second reading by a majority of 157 to 98, it was subjected to minute
+criticism in committee, and one amendment was carried against the
+government, but Grey wisely declined to relinquish it except on some
+vital issue. The majority on the third reading was 135 to 81, and on
+August 2 the commons agreed to the lords' amendments, O'Connell
+remarking that, after all, the peers had not made the bill much worse
+than they found it. More than a generation was to elapse before this
+"act to alter and amend the laws relating to the temporalities of the
+Church in Ireland" was completed by an act severing that Church from
+the state. But the ulterior aims of those who first challenged the
+sanctity of Church endowments were not concealed, and the more than
+Erastian tendency of the liberal movement was henceforth clearly
+perceived by high Churchmen. We know, on the authority of Dr. Newman,
+that he and his early associates regarded the Anglican revival of which
+they were the pioneers as essentially a reaction against liberalism, and
+liberalism as the most formidable enemy of sacerdotal power.
+
+[Pageheading: _STANLEY COLONIAL SECRETARY._]
+
+Long before the Irish church bill had passed the house of commons
+Stanley exchanged the chief secretaryship of Ireland for the higher
+office of colonial secretary, to which he was gazetted on March 28. His
+uncompromising advocacy of the coercion bill, and his known hostility to
+direct spoliation of the Church, alike provoked the hatred of Irish
+Roman catholics, and Brougham had already advised his retirement from
+Ireland. His promotion was facilitated by the resignation of Durham,
+nominally on grounds of health, but also because he was in constant
+antagonism to his own father-in-law, Grey, and his moderate colleagues
+in the cabinet. He received an earldom, and was succeeded as lord privy
+seal by Goderich, who became Earl of Ripon. This opened the colonial
+office to Stanley, who instantly found himself face to face with a
+question almost as intractable as the pacification of Ireland. Sir John
+Hobhouse became chief secretary for Ireland, but without a seat in the
+cabinet. He resigned in May, and was succeeded by Edward John Littleton,
+who was married to a natural daughter of the Marquis Wellesley.
+
+Among the statutes passed in 1833, there are several, besides those
+relating to Ireland, of sufficient importance to confer distinction upon
+any parliamentary session. One of these is entitled "an act for the
+better administration of justice in His Majesty's privy council"; a
+second, "an act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
+colonies, for promoting the industry of the manumitted slaves, and for
+compensating the persons hitherto entitled to the services of such
+slaves"; a third, "an act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, and
+for the substitution of more simple methods of assurance"; a fourth, "an
+act to regulate the trade to China and India"; a fifth, "an act for
+giving to the corporation of the governor and company of the Bank of
+England certain privileges, for a limited period, under certain
+conditions"; a sixth, "an act to regulate the labour of children and
+young persons in the mills and factories of the United Kingdom". Not one
+of these salutary measures was forced upon the legislature by popular
+clamour, every one of them represents a sincere zeal for what has been
+ridiculed as "world-bettering," and the parliament that passed them must
+have been thoroughly imbued with the spirit of reform.
+
+Foremost of these measures, as a monument of philanthropic legislation,
+will ever stand the act for the abolition of colonial slavery. No class
+in the country was concerned in its promotion; the powerful interests of
+the planters were arrayed against it; and humanity, operating through
+public opinion, was the only motive which could induce a government to
+espouse the anti-slavery cause. Stanley had not occupied his new office
+many weeks when on May 14 it became his lot to explain the ministerial
+scheme in the house of commons. Its essence consisted in the immediate
+extinction of absolute property in slaves, but with somewhat complicated
+provisions for an intermediate state of apprenticeship, to last twelve
+years. During this period negroes were to be maintained by their former
+masters, under an obligation to serve without wages for three-fourths of
+their working hours, and were to earn wages during the remaining fourth.
+All children under six years of age were to become free at once, and all
+born after the passing of the act were to be free at birth. The
+proprietors were to receive compensation by way of loan, to the extent
+of L15,000,000, and additional grants were promised for the institution
+of a stipendiary magistracy and a system of education.
+
+Several resolutions embodying the scheme were carried, with little
+opposition, though some abolitionists, headed by Mr. Fowell Buxton, a
+wealthy brewer and eminent philanthropist, who sat for Weymouth, took
+strong exception to compulsory apprenticeship, as perpetuating the
+principle of slavery, however mitigated by the recognition of personal
+liberty and the suppression of corporal punishment. It was found
+expedient, however, in deference to a very strong remonstrance from West
+Indian proprietors, to convert the proposed loan of L15,000,000 into an
+absolute payment of L20,000,000, and this noble donation, for
+conscience' sake, was actually ratified by parliament and the country.
+The bill founded on the resolutions met with no serious opposition, but
+an amendment by Buxton for adopting free labour at once was lost by so
+narrow a majority that Stanley consented to reduce the period of
+apprenticeship to an average of six years. In this instance the lords
+followed the guidance of the commons, and a measure of almost quixotic
+liberalism was endorsed by them without hesitation. It must be confessed
+that experience has not verified the confident prediction that free
+labour would prove more profitable than slave labour, but Great Britain
+has never repented of the abolition act, and its example was followed,
+thirty years later, by the United States.
+
+[Pageheading: _FACTORY ACTS._]
+
+The first of the general factory acts was marked by the same
+philanthropic character, but here the manufacturing capitalists,
+introduced by the reform act, were induced by self-interest to oppose
+it. Ever since the beginning of the century the sufferings and
+degradation of children in factories had occasionally engaged the
+attention of parliament, but the full enormity of the factory system was
+known to few except those who profited by it. It seems incredible, but
+it was shown afterwards by irresistible evidence, that children of seven
+years old and upwards were often compelled to work twelve or fourteen
+hours a day, with two short intervals for meals, in a most unwholesome
+atmosphere, exposed not only to ill-treatment but to every form of moral
+corruption. A very partial remedy was applied by a law passed in 1802
+which restricted the hours of labour to twelve for mills in which
+apprentices were employed. The same limit of hours was extended to
+cotton mills generally in 1816, and, but for the resistance of the house
+of lords, it would have been reduced to ten, as a select committee had
+recommended on the initiative of the first Sir Robert Peel. A few years
+later the question was revived by Sir John Hobhouse, but left unsettled.
+In 1831 Sadler introduced a ten hours bill for children, and obtained a
+select committee, before which disclosures were made well calculated to
+shock the country. At the general election of 1832, Sadler was defeated
+by Macaulay for the new borough of Leeds, but his mantle fell on Lord
+Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the noblest
+philanthropists of modern times.
+
+Early in the session of 1833 Ashley introduced a ten hours bill,
+applicable, like that of Sadler, to all young persons under eighteen
+years of age working in factories. It also prohibited the employment of
+children under nine, and provided for the appointment of inspectors. It
+was strongly opposed by the Lancashire members as interfering with
+freedom of labour even for adults, since mills could not be kept running
+without the labour of boys under eighteen. They also objected to the
+evidence already reported as one-sided, and succeeded in procuring the
+appointment of a royal commission. This commission prosecuted its
+inquiries with unusual despatch, but its report was not in the hands of
+members on July 5, when the bill came on for its second reading. Though
+Althorp, unwilling to offend the manufacturing interest, pleaded for
+deliberation and urged that a select committee should frame the
+regulations to be adopted, the majority of the house was impatient of
+delay, and he encountered a defeat. The question now resolved itself
+into a choice between a greater or less limitation of hours. On this
+question, a compromise proposed by Althorp prevailed, and Ashley
+resigned the conduct of the bill into his hands. It was further modified
+in committee, but ultimately became law in a form which secured the main
+objects of its promoters. No child under nine years of age could be
+employed at all in a factory, after two years none under thirteen could
+be worked more than eight hours, and no young person under eighteen
+could be required to work more than sixty-nine hours a week, while the
+provisions for inspection were retained along with others which
+contained the germ of education on the half-time system.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EAST INDIA COMPANY._]
+
+The trading monopoly of the East India Company, though confined to China
+by the act of 1813, had been regarded ever since with great jealousy by
+the mercantile community. As the revised charter was now on the point of
+expiring, it was for the government to frame terms of renewal which
+might satisfy the growing demand for free trade. Their scheme, which few
+were competent to criticise, met with general approval, and the only
+determined opposition to it was offered in the house of lords by
+Ellenborough, who lived to come into sharp collision with the court of
+directors as governor-general. It was embodied in three simple
+resolutions, the first of which recommended the legislature to open the
+China trade without reserve, the second provided for the assumption by
+the crown of all the company's assets and liabilities but with the
+obligation of paying the company a fixed subsidy, while the last
+affirmed the expediency of entrusting the company with the political
+government of India. Grant, who moved these resolutions, as president of
+the board of control, had no occasion to defend the policy of setting
+free the China trade which no one disputed; but he undertook to show
+that it had declined in the hands of the company, and that private
+competition had already crept in on a large scale. He also dwelt on the
+advantage of bringing the political relations arising out of commercial
+intercourse more directly under the control of the government. His
+reasoning was sound, and the China trade rapidly developed, nor could he
+be expected to foresee the course of events whereby the government
+afterwards became embroiled with the Chinese empire, on the importation
+of opium, and other economical questions. As compensation for the loss
+of its exclusive privileges, the company was to receive an annuity of
+L630,000, charged on the territorial revenues of India.
+
+The policy of continuing the company's rule in India for twenty years
+longer would have excited more earnest discussion in a session less
+crowded with legislative projects. The way had been paved for the
+concession of complete free trade in the eastern seas by the reports of
+select committees and parliamentary debates under former governments.
+The consumers of tea, numbered by millions, promised themselves a better
+quality at a lower price, and a keen spirit of enterprise was kindled by
+the idea of breaking into the unknown resources of China. But public
+interest in the administration of India was languid. It might well have
+appeared that a board sitting in Leadenhall Street was fitter to conduct
+shipping and mercantile operations than to govern an imperial dependency
+like British India. But the contrary alternative was almost tacitly
+accepted. The directors were "to remain princes, but no longer merchant
+princes," and Ellenborough complained that whereas "hitherto the court
+had appeared in India as beneficent conquerors, henceforth they would be
+mortgagees in possession". Perhaps the ministry shrunk from provoking
+the storm of obloquy which must have resulted from placing the vast
+patronage of the company in the hands of the crown. At all events, it
+was agreed, with little dissent, that under the new charter the company
+should nominally retain the reins of power, checked, however, by Pitt's
+"board of control," the president of which, in reality, shared a
+despotic authority with the governor-general of Bengal, who was
+hereafter to be in name what he had long been in fact, governor-general
+of India. The bill strengthened his council, and enabled him to
+legislate for all India.
+
+At the same time Europeans were permitted to settle and hold land in
+India without the necessity of applying for a licence. Lastly, the
+principle was laid down, pregnant with future consequences, that all
+persons in India, without distinction of race or creed, should be
+subject to the same law and eligible for all offices under the
+government. Such was the last charter of the great company. It is
+interesting to observe that Grant, in admitting that the government of
+India under its sway had not been prone "to make any great or rapid
+strides in improvement," paid a just tribute to its eminently pacific
+character. "It excited vigilance," he said, "against any encroachment of
+violence or rapacity; it ensured to the people that which they most
+required--repose, security, and tranquillity." The immense annexations
+of territory and far-reaching reforms which have created the British
+India of the twentieth century were either most reluctantly sanctioned
+by the court of directors or have been carried out since its dominion
+was transferred to the crown. Irrevocable as they are, and beneficent as
+they may be on the whole, they have certainly imposed difficulties of
+portentous magnitude upon the rulers of India, nor would it be
+surprising if some native survivors of the olden days in far-off
+recesses of the country should remember with sad regret the paternal,
+though unprogressive, despotism of the sovereign company.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BANK CHARTER ACT._]
+
+The bank charter act of 1833, having been superseded by that of 1844,
+fills a less important place than it otherwise would in the history of
+legislation on currency. The bill was founded, however, on the report of
+a secret committee which embraced Peel as well as Althorp and several
+other members of high financial repute or great experience in the city.
+Since the subject of it was familiar to a large section of members
+engaged in business, and touched the pockets of bankers all over the
+country, it was discussed in the house of commons far more earnestly
+than the bill renewing the charter of the East India Company. In the end
+two provisions were dropped, which directly encouraged the increase of
+joint stock banks. The rest were passed, and contained important
+modifications of the banking system as it then existed. The main
+privileges of the Bank of England were continued, in spite of a strong
+opposition and of protests against the one-sided inquiry said to have
+been conducted by the secret committee. These privileges embraced the
+exclusive possession of the government balances, the monopoly of limited
+liability, then refused to other banks, and the right, shared by no
+other joint stock bank, of issuing its own notes. Though private London
+banks might have legally exercised this power they did not actually do
+so, and nearly all of them deposited their reserves with the Bank of
+England.
+
+Another part of the scheme, which even Peel condemned, was thus briefly
+stated in a preliminary resolution: "That, provided the Bank of England
+continued liable, as at present, to defray in the current coin of the
+realm all its existing engagements, it was expedient that its promissory
+notes should be constituted a legal tender for sums of L5 and upwards".
+In other words, country bankers would no longer be compelled to cash
+their own notes, or pay off their deposits in gold, but might use Bank
+of England notes instead, above the value of L5. The Bank of England,
+however, and all its branches, remained liable to cash payments, as
+before, so that, as Baring argued, only one intermediate stage was
+interposed between the presentation of a country note and the exchange
+of it for specie. Peel's objection, which did not prevail, chiefly
+rested on the danger of the Bank of England closing its branches in its
+own interests, in order to check the demand for cash. Though his fears
+were not literally realised, experience disclosed the danger of country
+banks multiplying unduly, and, by their over-issue of notes, causing a
+severe drain upon the Bank of England for gold. For the present,
+however, the critics of the measure were less concerned in forecasting
+such remote consequences than in protesting against the charge to be
+made by the bank for managing the public debt. This charge was, in fact,
+to be reduced by L120,000 a year, but one-fourth part of the advances
+made by the bank to the public (or L3,671,700) was to be paid off, and
+the proposed remuneration was denounced as exorbitant. Althorp hardly
+denied that it was a good bargain for the bank, though he persuaded the
+house of commons to endorse the arrangement, rather than incur the
+dislocation of national finance and commercial business certain to ensue
+if the bank should withdraw from its connexion with the government and
+use its vast influence for its own interest alone.
+
+[Pageheading: _LEGAL REFORMS._]
+
+Two great law reforms close the series of important remedial measures
+passed in the first session of the reformed parliament--a session, be it
+remembered, which embraced all the furious and protracted debates on the
+Irish coercion act and the Irish Church temporalities act. The first of
+these was Brougham's valuable bill constituting a permanent "judicial
+committee of the privy council," and transferring to it the judicial
+functions theoretically belonging to "the king in council," but
+practically exercised by committees selected _ad hoc_ on each occasion.
+Charles Greville, to whose memoirs all historians of this period are
+greatly indebted, and who in 1833 was clerk of the council, was inclined
+to disparage the proposed change as one of Brougham's fanciful projects,
+designed to gratify his own self-importance.[116] Even Greville,
+however, saw reason to modify his view, and the new court has ever since
+commanded general respect, except from those high Churchmen who resented
+its assumption of the appellate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes,
+formerly vested, along with a similar jurisdiction in admiralty causes,
+in the king in chancery, and exercised by a "court of delegates,"
+usually consisting of three common law judges and three or four
+civilians selected _ad hoc_.
+
+The essential defects of such a court were fully stated in the report of
+a very strong commission, including six bishops, appointed in 1830.
+Probably the expediency of reforming the jurisdiction of the privy
+council for the purpose of hearing these ecclesiastical appeals may have
+suggested to Brougham the idea of constructing a standing appellate
+tribunal within the privy council, for the purpose of hearing all
+appeals that might come before that body. Accordingly, after carrying a
+bill in 1832 whereby the privy council, as such, took over the powers of
+the "court of delegates," he introduced the general bill whereby the
+judicial committee was created, and under which it still acts. It was to
+consist of the lord chancellor, with the present and past holders of
+certain high judicial offices, and two privy councillors to be
+appointed by the sovereign; to whom prelates, being privy councillors,
+were to be added for ecclesiastical appeals. The system thus founded,
+and since developed, is capable of indefinite expansion, in case still
+closer relations should be established between Great Britain and the
+colonies.
+
+The act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, though scarcely
+intelligible except to lawyers, was a masterpiece not only of
+draughtsmanship, but of honest law amendment. It swept away grotesque
+and antiquated forms of conveyance, which had lost their meaning for
+centuries, and which nothing but professional self-interest kept alive.
+Had it been followed up by legislation in a like spirit on other
+departments of law, the profits of lawyers and the needless expenses of
+clients might have been reduced to an extent of which the unlearned
+public has no conception. As it was, it simplified the process of
+selling land in a remarkable degree, though it left untouched the
+complications of title and transfer affecting real property, which no
+lord chancellor since Brougham has been courageous enough to attack in
+earnest, and which remain the distinctive reproach of English law. It is
+not without shame that we read in the king's prorogation speech,
+delivered on August 29, 1833, the assurance that he will heartily
+co-operate with parliament in making justice easily accessible to all
+his subjects. He adds that, with this view, a commission has been issued
+"for digesting into one body the enactments of the criminal law, and for
+inquiring how far, and by what means, a similar process may be extended
+to the other branches of jurisprudence". Seventy years have since
+elapsed, yet this royal promise of codification is not even in course of
+fulfilment. On the other hand, Brougham's scheme for establishing local
+courts in certain parts of the kingdom was destined to bear ample fruit
+in the next reign. It was described by Eldon as "a most abominable
+bill," and, being generally opposed by the law lords, was rejected by a
+small majority, but it was the germ of the county courts, which have
+since done so much to bring justice within the reach and the means of
+poor suitors.
+
+Notwithstanding its legislative exploits, the whig government was
+declining in popularity at the end of 1833, and was beginning to
+discover how vain it is to rely on political gratitude. Other reforming
+governments have since undergone the same bitter experience, the causes
+of which are by no means obscure. No reform can be effected without
+"harassing interests," and the sense of resentment in the sections of
+the community thus harassed is far stronger and more efficacious than
+any appreciation of the benefits reaped by the general public at home,
+or by mankind at large. Again, the expectations excited by the agitation
+of such a question as parliamentary reform are far beyond the power of
+any legislature to satisfy. Grey and his colleagues were too well aware
+of this, and Stanley, for one, manfully championed the government
+measures on their own merits, disdaining to flatter the radicals, but
+his discretion was not equal to his valour, and every debate brought
+into stronger relief the more statesmanlike capacity and moderation of
+Peel. There was no tory reaction, but a growing distrust of heroic
+remedies for national disorders, and a growing faith in the possible
+development of a liberal policy in a conservative spirit. Even the Duke
+of Wellington found himself restored insensibly to popular favour, and
+was again received in the streets with marks of public respect.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S THIRD BUDGET._]
+
+Of all the ministers, no one enjoyed a greater share of confidence both
+in and out of parliament than Althorp. He was not a great financier, but
+he was an honest and prudent chancellor of the exchequer, a free-trader
+by conviction, and incapable of those artifices by which a plausible
+balance-sheet may be made out at the cost of future liabilities. Yet his
+budgets of 1831, 1832, and 1833 undoubtedly helped to shake the credit
+of the government. The first had been far too ambitious, and became
+almost futile, when the proposed tax on transfers was abandoned, and the
+timber duties left undisturbed. The second was modest enough, and was
+saved from damaging criticism by the absorbing interest of the reform
+bill. Considerable reductions were made in the estimates, the revenue
+yielded somewhat more than had been expected, and Althorp was enabled to
+present a favourable account in 1833. He anticipated a surplus of about
+a million and a half, out of which he was prepared to abolish certain
+vexatious duties and to decrease others. But the country gentlemen,
+headed by Ingilby, member for Lincolnshire, insisted on a reduction of
+the malt duty by one-half, while the borough members, headed by Sir John
+Key, clamoured for a repeal of the house tax and window tax. The former
+motion was actually carried against the government by a small majority,
+but its effect was annulled, and the latter motion was defeated, by a
+skilful manoeuvre. This consisted in the proposal by Althorp of a
+counter-resolution, declaring that, if half of the malt tax and the
+whole tax on windows and houses were to be taken off, it would be
+necessary to meet the deficiency by a general income tax. Such a
+prospect was equally alarming to the landed interest and the
+householders, whose rival demands were mutually destructive, the result
+being that Althorp's amendment was carried by a large majority, and the
+government escaped humiliation, though not without some loss of
+prestige.
+
+It was perhaps to be expected that private members in the first session
+of the reformed parliament should be eager to gain a hearing for their
+special projects of improvement. So it was, but two only of these
+projects deserved historical mention. One of these was the abortive
+attempt of Attwood, the radical member for Birmingham, to reverse the
+policy of 1819 by inducing parliament to initiate the return to a paper
+currency. Cobbett actually followed up this failure by moving for an
+address praying the king to dismiss Sir Robert Peel from his councils, a
+motion defeated by a majority of 295 to 4.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] _The Croker Papers_, ii., 198.
+
+[111] Mahon to Peel (Jan, 8, 1833), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 209.
+
+[112] Jan. 3, 1833, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 213.
+
+[113] Peel to Croker (Sept. 28, 1833), _ibid._, p. 224.
+
+[114] Russell, _Recollections and Suggestions_, p. 113.
+
+[115] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 212-16.
+
+[116] Greville, _Memoirs_, ii., 364, 365.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVI.
+
+                RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+
+The year 1833, so fruitful in legislation, may be said to have witnessed
+the birth of a religious movement which has profoundly affected the
+character of the national Church. The neo-catholic revival, which
+afterwards took its popular name from Pusey but drew its chief
+inspiration from Newman, was in a great degree the outcome of the reform
+act and a reaction against the more than Erastian tendencies of the
+reformed parliament. In the early part of the century, as we have seen,
+personal and practical religion was mainly represented by the
+evangelical or low Church party, which did admirable service in the
+cause of philanthropy, as well as in reclaiming the masses from
+heathenism. The high Church party was comparatively inactive, but
+co-operated with its rival in opposition to catholic emancipation. The
+clergy, as a body, were hostile to reform, and the bishops incurred the
+fiercest obloquy by voting against the first reform bill, which had
+unfortunately been rejected by a majority exactly corresponding with the
+number of their votes.[117] The democratic outcry against the Church
+became louder and louder, as the evils of nepotism, pluralism, and
+sinecurism were exposed to public criticism, and a growing disposition
+was shown to deal with Church endowments both in England and in Ireland,
+if not as the property of the state, yet as under its paramount control.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT._]
+
+The recent infusion of Irish Roman catholics into the house of commons,
+following that of Scotch presbyterians a century earlier, rendered it
+less and less fit, in the opinion of high Churchmen, to legislate for
+the Church of England, and every concession to religious liberty shocked
+them as a step towards "National Apostasy". This was, in fact, the
+impressive title of a sermon preached by John Keble, in July, 1833,
+before the university of Oxford. From this sermon Newman himself dated
+the origin of the Oxford or "Tractarian" movement, but its inward source
+lay deeper. Having lost all confidence in the state and even in the
+Anglican hierarchy as a creature of the state, a section of the clergy
+had already been looking about for another basis of authority, and had
+found it in theories of apostolical succession and Church organisation.
+The university of Oxford was a natural centre for such a reaction, and
+it was set on foot with the deliberate purpose of defending the Church
+and the Christianity of England against the anti-catholic aggressions of
+the dominant liberalism. It was not puritanism but liberal secularism
+which Newman always denounced as the arch-enemy of the catholic faith.
+For, as Wesley's sympathies were originally with high Church doctrines,
+so Newman's sympathies were originally with evangelical doctrines, nor
+were they ever entirely stifled by his ultimate secession to the Roman
+Church.
+
+The later development of this movement, which had its cradle in the
+common room of Oriel College, belongs rather to ecclesiastical history,
+and to the reign of Queen Victoria. But from the first it rallied a
+considerable body of support. Many who were not influenced by the
+movement, shared its earlier aspirations. Shortly after the formation of
+an association, under Newman and Keble's auspices, seven or eight
+thousand of the clergy signed an address to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, insisting upon the necessity of restoring Church discipline,
+maintaining Church principles, and checking the progress of
+latitudinarianism. A large section of the laity ranged themselves on the
+side of the revival, and meetings were held throughout England. The king
+himself volunteered a declaration of his strong affection for the
+national Church now militant, and prepared to assert itself, not merely
+as a true branch of the catholic Church, but as a co-ordinate power with
+the state. In the autumn of 1833, Newman and one of his colleagues
+launched the first of that series of tracts from which his followers
+derived the familiar name of Tractarians. From that day he was their
+recognised leader, yet he claimed no allegiance and issued no commands.
+He felt himself, not the creator of a new party, but a loyal son of the
+old Church, at last awakened from her lethargy. The spell which he
+exercised over so many young minds was due to a personal influence of
+which he was almost unconscious, but which spread from the pulpit of St.
+Mary's Church and his college rooms at Oriel over a great part of the
+university and the Church. It was broken some years later, when he gave
+up the _via media_ which he had so long been advocating, accepted the
+logical consequences of his own teaching, and reproached others for not
+discovering that Anglicanism was but a pale and deformed counterfeit of
+the primitive Christianity represented, in its purity, by the Church of
+Rome.
+
+Looking back at this movement across an interval of seventy years, we
+may well feel astonished that it satisfied the aspirations of
+inquisitive minds in contact with the ideas of their own times. For this
+was the age of Benthamism in social philosophy and "German neology" in
+biblical criticism. Though national education was in its infancy, a new
+desire for knowledge, and even a free-thinking spirit, was permeating
+the middle classes, and had gained a hold among the more intelligent of
+the artisans. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
+established by Brougham, circulated a mass of instructive and
+stimulating literature at a cheap rate; popular magazines and
+cyclopaedias were multiplying yearly; and the British Association, which
+held its first meeting at Oxford in 1832, brought the results of natural
+science within the reach of thousands and tens of thousands incapable of
+scientific research. The _Bridgwater Treatises_, which belong to the
+reign of William IV., are evidence of a widespread anxiety to reconcile
+the claims and conclusions of science with those of the received
+theology. Thoughtful and religious laymen in the higher ranks of society
+were earnestly seeking a reason for the faith that was in them, and
+pondering over fundamental problems like the personality of God, the
+divinity of Christ, the reality of supernatural agency, and the awful
+mystery of the future life. Yet the tractarians passed lightly over all
+these problems, to exercise themselves and others with disputations on
+points which to most laymen of their time appeared comparatively
+trivial.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH._]
+
+To them Church authority was supreme, and every catholic dogma a
+self-evident truth. What engrossed their reason and consciences was the
+discussion of questions affecting Church authority, for example, whether
+the Anglican Church possessed the true note of catholicity or was in a
+state of schism, whether its position in Christendom was not on a par
+with that of the monophysite heretics, whether its articles could be
+brought into conformity with the Roman catholic doctrines expressly
+condemned by them, or whether its alliance with Lutheranism in the
+appointment of a bishop for Jerusalem did not amount to ecclesiastical
+suicide. Their message, unlike that of the early Christian or methodist
+preachers, was for the priestly order, and not for the masses of the
+people; their appeals were addressed _ad clerum_ not _ad populum_; still
+less were they suited to influence scientific intellects. But their
+propaganda was carried on by men of intense earnestness and holy lives,
+few in number but strong in well-organised combination, and they carried
+with them for a time many to whom any "movement" seemed better than
+lifeless "high and dry" conformity. Herein consisted the secret of their
+early success. Their subsequent failure was inevitable when they were
+fairly confronted with protestant sentiment and with the independent
+spirit of the age. How their aims were taken up and partially realised
+in a new form by new leaders and through new methods, is an inquiry
+which must be reserved for a later chapter in the history of the English
+Church.
+
+The strange religious movement which resulted in the foundation of the
+so-called Catholic Apostolic Church was of somewhat earlier date, and
+its author had already been disavowed as a minister by the presbyterian
+Church before the _Tracts for the Times_ began to startle the religious
+world. The most brilliant part of Edward Irving's career falls within
+the reign of George IV., when his chapel in London was crowded by the
+fashionable world, and even attended occasionally by statesmen like
+Canning. According to all contemporary testimony he was among the most
+remarkable of modern preachers, and his visionary speculations in the
+field of biblical prophecy failed to repel hearers attracted by his
+wonderful religious enthusiasm. Compared with the adherents of the
+methodist or of the neo-catholic revival, his followers were a mere
+handful, and his name would scarcely merit a place in history but for
+the impression which he made upon men of high ability and position. What
+brought him into discredit with his own communion and with the public
+was his introduction into his services of fanatics professing the gift
+of speaking with "unknown tongues". These extravagances led to his
+deposition in 1832, and probably hastened his early death in 1834. But
+his creed did not die with him, and a small body of earnest believers
+has carried on into the twentieth century a definite tradition of the
+gospel which he taught.
+
+Far deeper and more lasting in its effects was the change wrought in
+current ideas by the almost unseen but steady advance of science in all
+its branches. During this epoch perhaps the most formidable enemy of
+orthodoxy was the rising study of geology, challenging, as it did, the
+traditional theories of creation. The discoveries of astronomy--the law
+of gravitation, the rotation of the earth, its place in the solar
+system, and, above all, the infinite compass of the universe--were in
+themselves of a nature to revolutionise theological beliefs more
+radically than any conclusions respecting the antiquity of the earth.
+But it may be doubted whether it was so in fact; at all events,
+theologians had slowly learned to harmonise their doctrines with the
+conception of immeasurable space, when they were suddenly required to
+admit the conception of immeasurable time, and staggered under the blow.
+The pioneers of English geology were careful to avoid shocking religious
+opinion, and Buckland devotes a chapter of his famous _Treatise on
+Geology_ to showing "the consistency of geological discoveries with
+sacred history". His explanation is that an undefined interval may have
+elapsed after the creation of the heaven and the earth "in the
+beginning" as recorded in the first verse of Genesis; and he rejects as
+opposed to geological evidence "the derivation of existing systems of
+organic life, by an eternal succession, from preceding individuals of
+the same species, or by gradual transmutation of one species into
+another". But speculations of this order were utterly ignored by such
+religious leaders as Newman and Irving, whose spiritual fervour, however
+apostolical in its influence on the hearts of their disciples, was
+confined within the narrowest circle of intellectual interests.
+
+[Pageheading: _POOR LAW._]
+
+The great event of parliamentary history in 1834, and the crowning
+achievement of the first reformed parliament, was the enactment of the
+"new poor law," as it was long called. No measure of modern times so
+well represents the triumph of reason over prejudice; none has been so
+carefully based on thorough inquiry and the deliberate acceptance of
+sound principles; none has so fully stood the conclusive test of
+experience. It is not too much to say that it was essentially a product
+of the reform period, and could scarcely have been carried either many
+years earlier or many years later. In the dark age which followed the
+great war, contempt for political economy, coupled with a weak sentiment
+of humanity, would have made it impossible for a far-sighted treatment
+of national pauperism and distress to obtain a fair hearing. After the
+introduction of household suffrage, and the growth of socialism, any
+resolute attempt to diminish the charge upon ratepayers for the
+immediate relief but ultimate degradation of the struggling masses would
+have met with the most desperate resistance from the new democracy. The
+philosophical whigs and radicals, trained in the school of Bentham, and
+untainted as yet by a false philanthropy, found themselves in possession
+of an opportunity which might never have recurred. They deserved the
+gratitude of posterity by using it wisely and courageously.
+
+The irregular development of the poor laws, from the act of Elizabeth
+down to that of 1834, belongs to economic rather than to general
+history. It is enough to say here that in later years, and especially
+since the system of allowances adopted by the Berkshire magistrates at
+Speenhamland in 1795 had become general, the original policy of
+relieving only the destitute and helpless, and compelling able-bodied
+men to earn their own living, had been entirely obscured by the
+intrusion of other ideas. The result was admirably described in the
+report of a commission, appointed in 1832, with the most comprehensive
+powers of investigation and recommendation. The commissioners were the
+Bishops of London (Blomfield) and Chester (Sumner), Sturges Bourne,
+Edwin Chadwick, and four others less known, but well versed in the
+questions to be considered. A summary of the information collected by
+them, ranging over the whole field of poor-law management, was published
+in February, 1834. It astounded the benighted public of that day, and it
+still remains on record as a wonderful revelation of ruinous official
+infatuation on the largest possible scale. The evil system was found to
+be almost universal, but the worst examples of it were furnished by the
+southern counties of England. There, an actual premium was set upon
+improvidence, if not on vice, by the wholesale practice of giving
+out-door relief in aid of wages, and in proportion to the number of
+children in the family, legitimate or illegitimate. The excuse was that
+it was better to eke out scanty earnings by doles than to break up
+households, and bring all their inmates into the workhouse. The
+inevitable effect of such action was that wages fell as doles increased,
+that paupers so pensioned were preferred by the farmers to independent
+labourers because their labour was cheaper, and that independent
+labourers, failing to get work except at wages forced down to a minimum,
+were constantly falling into the ranks of pauperism.
+
+Had some theorists of a later generation witnessed the social order then
+prevailing in country districts, they would have found several of their
+favourite objects practically attained. There was no competition between
+the working people; old and young, skilled and unskilled hands, the
+industrious and the idle, were held worthy of equal reward, the actual
+allowance to each being measured by his need and not by the value of his
+work; while the parochial authorities, figuring as an earthly
+providence, exercised a benevolent superintendence over the welfare and
+liberty of every day-labourer in the village community. The fruits of
+that superintendence were the decline of a race of freemen into a race
+of slaves, unconscious of their slavery, and the gradual ruin of the
+landlords and farmers upon whom the maintenance of these slaves
+depended.[118]
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW POOR LAW._]
+
+The evidence laid before the commissioners not only showed how
+intolerable the evil had become in many counties, but also how purely
+artificial it was. While the aggregate amount of the poor rate had risen
+to more than eight millions and a half, while some parishes were going
+out of cultivation and in others the rates exceeded the rental, there
+were certain oases in the desert of agricultural distress where
+comparative prosperity still reigned. These were villages in which an
+enlightened squire or parson had set himself to strike at the root of
+pauperism, and to initiate local reforms in the poor-law system. It was
+clearly found that, where out-door relief was abolished or rigorously
+limited, where no allowances were made in aid of wages, and where a
+manly self-reliance was encouraged instead of a servile mendicity, wages
+rose, honest industry revived, and the whole character of the village
+population was improved. Fortified by these successful experiments, the
+commissioners took a firm stand on the vital distinction, previously
+ignored, between poverty and pauperism. They did not shrink from
+recommending that, after a certain date, "the workhouse test" should be
+enforced against all able-bodied applicants for relief, except in the
+form of medical attendance, and even that women should be compelled to
+support their illegitimate children. They also advised a liberal change
+in the complicated and oppressive system of "parish settlement," whereby
+the free circulation of labour was constricted. They further proposed a
+very large reform in the administrative machinery of the poor laws, by
+the formation of parishes into unions, the concentration of workhouses,
+the separation of the sexes in workhouses, and, above all, the creation
+of a central poor-law board, to consist of three commissioners, and to
+control the whole system about to be transformed.
+
+A bill framed upon these lines, and remedying some minor abuses, was
+introduced by Althorp on April 17, having been foreshadowed in the
+speech from the throne, and carefully matured by the cabinet. So wide
+and deep was the conviction of the necessity for some radical treatment
+of an intolerable evil that party spirit was quelled for a while, and
+the bill met with a very favourable reception, especially as its
+operation was limited to five years. It passed the second reading by a
+majority of 299 to 20 on May 9, notwithstanding a violent protest from
+De Lacy Evans, an ultra-radical, who had displaced Hobhouse at
+Westminster. The keynote of the radical agitation which followed was
+given by his declaration that "the cessation of out-door relief would
+lead to a revolution in the country," and by Cobbett's denunciation of
+the "poor man robbery bill". The _Times_ newspaper, already a great
+political force, took up the same cry, and had not Peel, with admirable
+public spirit, thrown his weight into the scale of sound economy, a
+formidable coalition between extremists on both sides might have been
+organised. He stood firm, however; radicals like Grote declined to
+barter principle for popularity, and the bill emerged almost unscathed
+from committee in the house of commons. It passed its third reading on
+July 2 by a majority of 157 to 50. Peel's example was followed by
+Wellington in the house of lords, and Brougham delivered one of his most
+powerful speeches in support of the measure. With some modification of
+the bastardy clauses and other slighter amendments it was carried by a
+large majority, and received the royal assent on August 4.
+
+No other piece of legislation, except the repeal of the corn laws, has
+done so much to rescue the working classes of Great Britain from the
+misery entailed by twenty years of war. Its effect in reducing the rates
+was immediate; its effect in raising the character of the agricultural
+poor was not very long deferred. Happily for them, though not for the
+farmers, bread was cheap for two years after it came into force. Still,
+the sudden cessation of doles and pensions in aid of wages could not but
+work great hardship to individuals in thousands of rural parishes, and
+there was perhaps too little disposition on the part of the
+commissioners to allow any temporary relaxation of the system. The
+rigorous enforcement of the workhouse test, and the harsh management of
+workhouses, continued for years to shock the charitable sensibilities of
+the public, and actually produced some local riots. When the price of
+bread rose the clamour naturally increased, and petitions multiplied
+until a committee was appointed in 1837 to review the operation of the
+act. In the end the committee found, as might have been expected, that,
+however painful the state of transition, the change had permanently
+improved the condition of the poor in England.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUESTION OF APPROPRIATION._]
+
+While the bill was still in the house of commons the ministry which
+framed it was torn by dissensions; before it came on for its second
+reading in the lords Grey had ceased to be premier. The disruption of
+his government had been foreseen for months, but it was directly caused
+by hopeless discord on Irish policy. Anglesey had been forced by
+ill-health to resign the vice-royalty, and the Marquis Wellesley, who
+succeeded him, was more acceptable to Irish nationalists. But the king's
+speech at the opening of the session contained a stern condemnation of
+the repeal movement. O'Connell at once declared war, and the angry
+feelings of his followers were inflamed by a personal and public quarrel
+between Althorp and Sheil. Another incident, in itself trivial,
+disclosed the discord prevailing in the cabinet on Irish affairs, and,
+though O'Connell was defeated on a motion against the union by a
+crushing majority of 523 to 38, the disturbed state of Ireland continued
+to distract the ministerial councils. The ingenious devices of Stanley
+and Littleton for solving the insoluble Irish tithe question had proved
+almost abortive; the government officials employed to collect tithe were
+almost as powerless to do so as the old tithe-proctors, and a new
+proposal to convert tithe into a land tax was naturally ridiculed by
+O'Connell as delusive. He made a speech so conciliatory in its tone as
+to startle the house, but no words, however smooth, could now conjure
+away the irreconcilable difference of purpose between those who regarded
+Church property as sacred and those who regarded it not only as at the
+disposal of the state, but as hitherto unjustly monopolised by a single
+religious communion. It was reserved for Lord John Russell to "upset the
+coach" by openly declaring his adhesion to "appropriation," in the sense
+of diverting to other objects, secular or otherwise, such revenues of
+the established Church as were not strictly required for the benefit of
+its own members. After this act of mutiny against the collective
+authority of the cabinet Grey's ministry was doomed.
+
+Its ruin was consummated by a motion of Henry Ward, member for St.
+Albans, which expressly affirmed the right of the state to regulate the
+distribution of Church property and the expediency of reducing the Irish
+establishment. This motion was supposed to have been instigated by
+Durham, who had never been loyal to his colleagues. The government was
+notoriously divided upon it; Brougham suggested a commission of inquiry,
+by way of compromise; other ministerialists were in favour of meeting
+the difficulty by moving the previous question. Peel was prepared to
+support the conservative section of the government, and deprecated in
+strong terms "all manoeuvring, all coquetting with radicals" in order
+to snatch a temporary party triumph.[119]
+
+Ward's resolution was introduced on May 27, 1834, and seconded by Grote,
+but Althorp, instead of replying, announced the receipt of sudden news
+so important that he induced the house to adjourn the debate. This news
+was the resignation of Stanley, Graham, Richmond, and Ripon, whose views
+on appropriation, as afterwards appeared, were shared by Lansdowne and
+Spring Rice. The ministry was reconstructed by the accession of Lord
+Conyngham as postmaster-general, without a seat in the cabinet, and of
+Lord Auckland, son of Sidmouth's colleague, as first lord of the
+admiralty, by the appointment of Carlisle (already in the cabinet) to be
+lord privy seal, and the substitution of Spring Rice for Stanley at the
+colonial office. Edward Ellice, the secretary at war, was included in
+the cabinet, and James Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, a son of
+the famous general, Sir Ralph Abercromby, became master of the mint with
+a seat in the cabinet. Poulett Thomson became president of the board of
+trade, and minor offices were assigned to Francis Baring, and other whig
+recruits. Grey himself, sick of nominal power, was dissuaded with
+difficulty from retiring; Althorp, conscious of failing authority, was
+retained in his post only by a high sense of duty. Unfortunately, he was
+very soon entangled by his colleague Littleton in something like an
+intrigue with O'Connell, which precipitated the final resignation of
+Grey together with his own temporary secession.
+
+The details of this affair may be passed over in a few words. What is
+clear is that Brougham and Littleton, without the knowledge of Grey, had
+persuaded Lord Wellesley, as viceroy of Ireland, not to insist on a
+renewal of the coercion act in its full severity, and especially to
+sanction an abandonment of clauses suppressing public meetings. Having
+obtained Wellesley's consent behind the backs of Grey and the rest of
+the cabinet, Littleton with the cognisance of Althorp, proceeded to
+bargain with O'Connell for an abatement, at least, of his opposition to
+all coercion. The cabinet as a body declined to ratify any such
+agreement, O'Connell denounced Littleton as having played a trick upon
+him, and Althorp, disdaining to advocate provisions which he was almost
+pledged in honour to drop, resigned his office and the leadership of the
+commons. Grey, who could not have remained in office without the support
+of Althorp's great popularity in the commons, at once resolved to follow
+his example, and on July 9 took leave of political life in a dignified
+and pathetic speech. As for Ward's motion, the original cause of Grey's
+desertion by Stanley and his subsequent fall, it had been rejected by an
+enormous majority in favour of "the previous question" before Althorp's
+disappearance from his old position. Meanwhile Stanley availed himself
+of his liberty to make one of his most dashing but least prudent
+speeches, and permanently compromised his reputation for
+statesmanship.[120]
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+No other whig possessed the prestige derived by Grey from nearly fifty
+years of consistent public service. Althorp commanded an extraordinary
+degree of confidence in the house of commons and the country, but his
+intellectual capacity was not of the highest order, and many expected
+that Peel might receive a summons from the king, whose sympathy with the
+whigs, never very deep, had given place to mistrust. His choice,
+however, fell upon Melbourne, whom he desired, if possible, to form a
+coalition with Peel, Wellington, and Stanley against the radicals. But
+neither Melbourne nor Peel would accept such a coalition, and they both
+showed their wisdom in declining it. The king then empowered Melbourne
+to patch up the whig ministry. In deference to a requisition signed by
+liberals of all sections, Althorp was induced to withdraw his
+resignation, and resumed his leadership in the commons with no apparent
+diminution of popularity. Duncannon, who was created a peer, succeeded
+Melbourne at the home office; Lord Mulgrave, son of the first earl,
+became lord privy seal in place of Carlisle; and Hobhouse entered the
+cabinet as first commissioner of woods and forests. The rest of the
+session was mainly spent in discussing the budget and the two Irish
+questions which for so many years were the curse of English politics. A
+surplus of two millions enabled Althorp to propitiate an importunate
+class of taxpayers by repealing the house tax.
+
+It would have been more statesmanlike to repeal the window tax or reduce
+indirect taxation, but relief was given, as usual, to those who raised
+the loudest clamour, and the vindication of sound finance was reserved
+for a conservative administration. A second and milder Irish coercion
+bill was carried by a large majority, with the fatal proviso, which has
+marred the effect of so many later measures, that it should continue in
+operation for a year only. A far more serious conflict arose on the new
+Irish tithe bill. A complicated plan had been proposed whereby
+four-fifths of the tithe would have been ostensibly secured to the
+church by conversion into a rent-charge, the remaining fifth being
+sacrificed for the sake of peace and security. O'Connell succeeded in
+inducing the house of commons to adopt a counter-plan, of a very
+sweeping nature, whereby two-fifths of the existing tithe would have
+been abandoned, and the tithe owner partly compensated out of the
+revenues of suppressed bishoprics, aided by a state grant. The bill thus
+amended was rejected by a majority of 189 to 122 in the house of lords.
+Peel still cherished the idea of settling the question by a system of
+voluntary commutation, but, after the peremptory action of the lords, no
+compromise was likely to be acceptable, and there is some ground for the
+opinion that in that division the Irish Church establishment received
+its death-blow.
+
+On August 15 parliament was prorogued, and the belief of Peel in the
+stability of the government may be inferred from the fact that he left
+England for Italy on October 14. During the vacation, however, two
+incidents occurred, trivial in themselves, but pregnant with important
+consequences. One of these was Brougham's triumphant progress through
+Scotland, where he was enthusiastically received as the saviour of his
+country, and assumed the air of one who not only kept the king's
+conscience but controlled the royal will. The story of this famous tour
+exhibits alike the greatness of his powers and the littleness of his
+character.[121] The homage paid to him was not undeserved, for he was
+assuredly the foremost gladiator of the whig party, and had given proofs
+of more varied ability than any living politician or lawyer. But the
+dignified eloquence of which he was capable on rare occasions was here
+submerged in a flood of egotistical rhetoric, which carried him away so
+far that he assumed a political independence which his colleagues deeply
+resented, and even spoke of the king in a tone of patronage. Having
+lowered himself in public opinion by these speeches, especially at
+Inverness and Aberdeen, he attended a banquet in honour of Grey at
+Edinburgh, where he provoked a passage at arms with Durham. The press,
+and especially the _Times_ newspaper, which had formerly loaded him with
+extravagant praises, now turned against him, and ridiculed him as a
+political mountebank. But his worst enemy was the king. William IV.'s
+ill-concealed impatience of whig dictation had at last been quickened
+into disgust by this and other sources of irritation, when the sudden
+death of Althorp's father, Earl Spencer, on November 10, gave him an
+opportunity which he eagerly seized.
+
+[Pageheading: _DESTRUCTION OF HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT._]
+
+By a strange fatality, this event almost coincided with the destruction
+by fire of the houses of parliament on October 16. This calamity was the
+result of a carelessness, which it is easy to condemn after the event on
+the part of some subordinate officials and the workmen employed by them.
+Down to 1826, accounts had been kept at the exchequer by means of wooden
+tallies, which were stored in what was called the tally-room of the
+exchequer. This room was required in order to provide temporary
+accommodation for the court of bankruptcy, and an order was given to
+destroy the tallies. The officials charged with the task decided to burn
+them in the stoves of the house of lords, and the work of burning began
+at half-past six in the morning of October 16. The work, hazardous in
+any case, was conducted by the workmen with a rapidity that their orders
+did not justify; the flues used for warming the house were overheated,
+and though the burning of the tallies was completed between four and
+five, the woodwork near the flues must have smouldered till it burst
+into flame about half-past six in the evening. In less than half an hour
+the house of lords was a mass of fire. About eight a change in the wind
+threw the flames upon the house of commons. That house was almost
+completely destroyed. The walls of the house of lords and of the painted
+chamber remained standing, while the house of lords library, the
+parliament offices, and Westminster Hall escaped. The king offered the
+parliament the use of Buckingham Palace, but it was found possible to
+fit up the house of lords for the commons and the painted chamber for
+the lords. When the legislature reassembled on February 9, 1835, a
+conservative ministry was in office, though not, indeed, in power.
+
+It is difficult for a later age to understand why the accession of
+Althorp to a peerage should have afforded even a plausible reason for a
+change of ministry. The position which Althorp held in the house of
+commons is puzzling to a later generation.[122] It is well known that
+Gladstone recorded the very highest estimate of his public services. Yet
+he was not only no orator but scarcely in the second order of speakers,
+he made no pretence of far-sighted statesmanship, he was not a
+successful financier, and he made several blunders which must have
+damaged the authority of any other man. The influence which he obtained
+in leading the unreformed as well as the reformed house of commons was
+entirely due to his character for straightforward honesty, perhaps
+enhanced by his social rank, and his reputation for possessing all the
+virtues of a country gentleman. The national preference for amateurs
+over professionals in politics, no less than in other fields of energy,
+found an admirable representative in him, and he was all the more
+popular as a political leader because it was believed that he had no
+desire to be a political leader at all. At all events, he inspired
+confidence in all, and it was no mere whim of the king which treated his
+removal from the commons to the lords as an irreparable loss to
+Melbourne's administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+It is often stated that "without a word of preparation" the king got rid
+of his whig ministers on November 14, 1834, and it must be admitted that
+he afterwards took credit to himself for their dismissal as his own
+personal act. But this view is not altogether borne out by contemporary
+evidence. A published letter, of the 12th, from Melbourne to the king
+shows that, as premier, he took the initiative in representing that,
+whereas "the government in its present form was mainly founded upon the
+personal weight and influence possessed by Earl Spencer in the house of
+commons," it was for the king to consider whether, as "that foundation
+is now withdrawn," a change of ministry was expedient.[123] It also
+appears from a letter placed by the king in Melbourne's hands that a
+"very confidential conversation" took place between them at Brighton, in
+consequence of which the king resolved to send for Wellington.[124] In
+the course of this conversation Melbourne informed the king that, in the
+opinion of the cabinet, Lord John Russell should be selected for the
+leadership of the house of commons. The king, incensed by Lord John's
+action on the Irish Church question, would not hear of this arrangement,
+especially as he thought Lord John "otherwise unequal to the task," and
+disparaged the claims of other possible candidates.[125] He also
+strongly resented the recent conduct of Brougham. In the end, he parted
+kindly and courteously from Melbourne, who actually undertook to convey
+the king's summons to Wellington. Another memorandum by the king, of the
+same date, proves that a fear of further encroachments on the church was
+really uppermost in his mind, and that he anticipated, not without
+reason, "a schism in the cabinet" on this very subject.[126]
+
+Wellington acted with his customary promptitude, and with his customary
+obedience to what he regarded as a call of public duty. A certain degree
+of mistrust had existed between him and Peel, arising, in part, out of
+circumstances preceding the duke's election to the chancellorship of
+Oxford University. This suspension of cordiality had now passed away,
+and Wellington strongly urged the king to entrust Peel, then at Rome,
+with the formation of a new government. Hudson, afterwards known as Sir
+James Hudson, delivered the despatch recalling him on the night of the
+25th. Peel started from Rome on the 26th and, travelling with a speed
+then considered marvellous, reached Dover within twelve days on the
+night of December 8. He was in London on the 9th, and, without
+consulting any one else, immediately placed his services at the king's
+disposal. In the meantime, Wellington had stepped into the gap, and
+actually held all the secretaryships of state in his own hands, pending
+the arrival of Peel.
+
+The king had been encouraged to hustle his ministers unceremoniously out
+of office by a paragraph which appeared in the _Times_ of November 15.
+On the previous evening Brougham had been informed by Melbourne in
+confidence that the king had accepted his suggestion of resignation, and
+he carried the news to the _Times_, which, without giving Brougham's
+name, published his message in his own words. It stated that the king
+had turned out the ministry, and ended with the words: "The queen has
+done it all". After this the king was determined to be done with his
+ministers as quickly as possible. It is certain that neither Wellington
+nor Peel wished to be thought responsible for their dismissal, the
+propriety of which they both secretly doubted. The king, however, had
+acted within his strict rights, and the outgoing ministers, as a whole,
+were not ill pleased to be relieved from the burdens of office.
+
+Peel, though by no means hopeful of ultimate success, endeavoured to
+construct a cabinet on a comprehensive basis. He first obtained the
+king's "ready assent" to his inviting the co-operation of Stanley, who
+had succeeded to the courtesy title of Lord Stanley, and Sir James
+Graham. These overtures were declined in friendly terms, and both
+promised independent support. But Stanley explicitly declared that, in
+his judgment, "the sudden conversion of long political opposition into
+the most intimate alliance would shock public opinion, would be ruinous
+to his own character," and would rather injure than strengthen the new
+government.[127] After this failure, Peel felt his task well-nigh
+hopeless, and though he spared no effort to procure an infusion of fresh
+blood, he complained that after all "it would be only the duke's old
+cabinet".[128] There was, in fact, no man of known ability in it, except
+himself, the Duke of Wellington (as secretary for foreign affairs), and
+Lyndhurst, the chancellor; for the capacity of Aberdeen, who had been
+foreign secretary under Wellington, and who now became secretary for war
+and the colonies, and Ellenborough, who returned to the board of
+control, had not yet been generally recognised. Peel himself became
+first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer; Goulburn was
+home secretary, Rosslyn lord president, and Wharncliffe lord privy seal.
+Earl de Grey, elder brother of the Earl of Ripon, was made first lord of
+the admiralty, Murray became master-general of the ordnance, Alexander
+Baring president of the board of trade and master of the mint, Herries
+secretary at war, and Sir Edward Knatchbull paymaster of the forces. It
+was fully understood that a conservative government, even purged of
+ultra-tory elements, could not face the first reformed house of commons,
+and the dissolution which took place at the end of the year had been
+regarded by all as inevitable.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TAMWORTH MANIFESTO._]
+
+In anticipation of this event, Peel issued an address to his
+constituents which became celebrated as the "Tamworth manifesto". It is
+somewhat cumbrous in style, but it embodies with sufficient clearness
+the new conservative policy of which Peel was the real author and
+henceforth the leading exponent. It opens with an appeal to his own
+previous conduct in parliament, as showing that, while he was no
+apostate from old constitutional principles, neither was he "a defender
+of abuses," nor the enemy of "judicious reforms". In proof of this, he
+cites his action in regard to the currency and various amendments of the
+law; to which he might have added his adoption of catholic emancipation.
+He then declares, absolutely and without reserve, that he accepts the
+reform act as "a final and irrevocable settlement of a great
+constitutional question," which no friend to peace and the welfare of
+the country would seek, either directly or indirectly, to disturb. He
+approves of making "a careful review of institutions, civil and
+ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper," with a view to "the
+correction of proved abuses, and the redress of real grievances," and
+that "without mere superstitious reverence for ancient usages". He lays
+stress on his recorded assent to the principle of corporation reform,
+the substitution of a treasury grant for Church rates, the relief of
+dissenters from various civil disabilities (but not from university
+tests), the restriction of pensions (saving vested interests), the
+redistribution of Church revenues and the commutation of tithes, but so
+that no ecclesiastical property be diverted to secular uses. After these
+specific pledges, the Tamworth manifesto concludes with more general
+professions of a progressive conservatism equally removed from what are
+now called "advanced radicalism" and "tory democracy".[129] It was, of
+course, too liberal for the followers of Eldon, and was ridiculed as
+colourless by extreme reformers, but its effect on the country was
+great, and it did much to win popular confidence for the new ministry.
+If such a policy must be called opportunism, it was opportunism in its
+best form; and opportunism in its best form, under the conditions of
+party government, is not far removed from political wisdom.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] If all the bishops present had not merely abstained, but actually
+voted in favour of the measure, it would have been carried by one vote.
+
+[118] Sir George Nicholls, _History of the English Poor Law_, vol. ii.,
+see especially pp. 242, 243.
+
+[119] Peel to Goulburn (May 25, 1834), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+244.
+
+[120] Hatherton, _Memoir_; Creevey, _Memoirs_, ii., 285-88.
+
+[121] See Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 446-57.
+
+[122] Compare Walpole, _History of England_, iii., 478.
+
+[123] _Lord Melbourne's Papers_, p. 220.
+
+[124] _Ibid._, pp. 222, 223.
+
+[125] Stockmar, _Memoirs_ (English translation), i., 330.
+
+[126] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 235.
+
+[127] Stanley to Peel (Dec. 11, 1834), Peel's _Memoirs_, ii., 39, 40.
+
+[128] Croker to Mrs. Croker, _Croker Papers_, ii., 219.
+
+[129] Peel, _Memoirs_, ii., 58-67.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVII.
+
+                           PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+
+The general election which took place in January, 1835, was hotly
+contested, and in the second reformed parliament the conservatives
+mustered far stronger than in the first. The party now consisted of some
+270 members, chiefly returned by the counties. But they were still
+outnumbered by the whigs, radicals, and Irish repealers combined, and it
+was certain that an occasion for such a combination would soon arise. It
+was found at once in the election of a speaker, when the house of
+commons met on February 9, 1835. Sutton, now Sir Charles Manners Sutton,
+was proposed for re-election by the government; the opposition candidate
+was Abercromby. The number of members who took part in the division was
+the largest ever assembled, being 622, and Abercromby was elected by a
+majority of ten. It would have been larger, had not the government been
+supported by some waverers, but its significance was appreciated by the
+ministers, and still more by the king. He expressed his displeasure in a
+very outspoken letter to Peel, declaring that, if the leaders "of the
+present factious opposition" should be forced upon him by a refusal of
+the supplies, he might, indeed, tolerate them, but could never give them
+his confidence or friendship. Two days later, the 24th, the king's
+speech was delivered, reflecting the spirit of the Tamworth
+manifesto.[130]
+
+[Pageheading: _PEEL'S POLICY._]
+
+The government was again defeated by seven on an amendment to the
+address, notwithstanding the loyal aid of Graham and Stanley, whose
+attitude during the general election had excited Peel's mistrust. In the
+course of this debate, the prime minister, abandoning his usual reserve,
+definitely pledged himself not only "to advance, soberly and cautiously,
+in the path of progressive improvement," but to bring forward specific
+measures. "I offer you," he said, "reduced estimates, improvements in
+civil jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical law, the settlement of the
+tithe question in Ireland, the commutation of tithe in England, the
+removal of any real abuse in the Church, the redress of those grievances
+of which the dissenters have any just ground to complain." Nor were
+these offers illusory or barren. On March 17, he brought in a bill to
+relieve dissenters from disabilities in respect of marriage, which met
+with general approval. It was founded on the simple principle, since
+adopted, of giving legal validity to civil marriages duly solemnised
+before a registrar, and leaving each communion to superadd a religious
+sanction in its own way. The marriages of Churchmen in a church were to
+be left on their old footing, but Churchmen were of course to be granted
+the same liberty as other citizens of contracting a purely civil
+marriage.
+
+Still more important, as examples of conservative reform, were Peel's
+efforts to purge the established Church of abuses, and to introduce a
+voluntary commutation of tithes. His correspondence amply shows how
+large a space these remedial measures occupied in his mind, and one of
+his first acts was to appoint an ecclesiastical commission, with
+instructions to institute a most comprehensive inquiry into every
+subject affecting the distribution of church revenues. Compared with the
+petty squabbles over the appropriation of an imaginary surplus to be
+derived from Irish tithes which it was impossible to collect, the
+schemes of Peel for purifying and strengthening the Church of England
+assume heroic proportions. The report of the ecclesiastical commission
+originated by him, with its startling disclosures of pluralism and
+non-residence, became the basis of legislation which has wrought a
+veritable revolution in the financial and disciplinary administration of
+the church. His tithe bill, abortive as it was in 1835, was reproduced,
+with little alteration, in the tithe commutation act of 1836.
+
+But the whig-radical allies of 1835 had not the smallest intention of
+giving Peel a fair trial; nor indeed had they any other object beyond
+the recovery of power. His appeals to his opponents, though by no means
+without effect in the country, fell upon deaf ears in the house of
+commons, and further humiliations followed rapidly. One of these was the
+successful outcry against the appointment of Londonderry, who had
+excited much hostility as an uncompromising enemy to reform, to the
+embassy at St. Petersburg, in consequence of which he, very honourably,
+relieved the government from obloquy by declining the post. A motion to
+repeal the malt tax was decisively defeated, and soon afterwards a
+motion in favour of granting a charter to the University of London was
+carried against the government by a large majority. Then came a defeat
+on a motion for adjournment, and the arts of obstruction were
+obstinately practised in debates on the estimates. At last the
+inevitable crisis arrived, and, as might be expected, the final issue
+was taken upon an Irish question.
+
+The influence of O'Connell and his "tail," as his followers were called,
+had been neutralised, since the reform act, by the overwhelming strength
+of the whigs, and the public-spirited action of Peel, who, as leader of
+the conservative opposition, actually supported the whig government in
+sixteen out of twenty most important contests on domestic policy. A very
+different spirit was now shown by the whig opposition, and an evil
+precedent, pregnant with disastrous consequences, was set by the famous
+"Lichfield House compact". This was a close alliance between O'Connell
+and those whom he had so fiercely denounced as "the base, brutal, and
+bloody whigs". It bore immediate fruit in a motion of Russell for a
+committee of the whole house to consider the temporalities of the Irish
+Church. After a debate of four nights, the resolution was carried, on
+March 30, by a majority of thirty-three. On April 5, a further
+resolution was carried by a majority of twenty-five for applying any
+surplus-funds "to the general education of all classes of the people
+without religious distinction," and was more emphatically affirmed two
+days later by a majority of twenty-seven.
+
+Peel had long been conscious of the hopelessness of his position and
+impatient of maintaining the struggle. He felt the constitutional danger
+of allowing the executive government to become a helpless instrument in
+the hands of a hostile majority in the house of commons. Nothing but the
+earnest remonstrances of the king and his tory friends, including
+Wellington, had induced him to retain office so long, and, after the
+division of the 7th, he firmly resolved to resign. On doing so, he
+received from the whole conservative party, of which he was the
+creator, a most cordial address of thanks and confidence. Though his
+short administration had consolidated the whig forces for the moment,
+and given them a new lease of power, it showed him to be the foremost
+statesman in the country, and paved the way for his triumphant return to
+office. As Guizot said, he had proved himself "the most liberal of
+conservatives, the most conservative of liberals, and the most capable
+man of all in both parties".
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S SECOND MINISTRY._]
+
+The king now discovered the fatal mistake which he had made in
+"dismissing" his whig cabinet, as he boasted, instead of waiting for it
+to break down under the stress of internal dissensions. His first idea
+was to fall back on Grey, who had already betrayed his growing mistrust
+of radicalism, but Grey declined to enter the lists again. There was no
+resource but to recall Melbourne, whom the king personally liked, and to
+put up with the elevation of Russell to a position which all admitted
+him to have fairly earned. He became home secretary, as well as leader
+of the house of commons, and the new whig cabinet differed little from
+the old. Palmerston, Lansdowne, Auckland, Thompson, and Holland returned
+to their former offices. Grant was made secretary for war and the
+colonies, Duncannon became lord privy seal, Spring Rice chancellor of
+the exchequer, Hobhouse president of the board of control, and Viscount
+Howick, son of Earl Grey, was appointed secretary at war. Outside the
+cabinet, Viscount Morpeth, son of the Earl of Carlisle, became Irish
+secretary. The most significant difference between the two cabinets lay
+in the omission of Brougham, which was effected by the expedient of
+placing the great seal in commission. This negative act was, in reality,
+the boldest and most perilous in Melbourne's political life. A
+correspondence between Brougham and Melbourne in February must have made
+clear to the ex-chancellor that he would be excluded from office, and he
+reluctantly acquiesced in Melbourne's decision, hoping that it would be
+merely temporary, and that he would soon resume his place on the
+woolsack as the dominant member of the cabinet, but his exclusion was
+destined to be final, and the close of a career to which English history
+in the nineteenth century presents no parallel.[131]
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM._]
+
+Brougham was called to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-one, having
+already given proof of brilliant ability and rare versatility at the
+University of Edinburgh. He was the youngest and most prolific of the
+original writers in the _Edinburgh Review_, then a very powerful organ
+of whig opinion, and his contributions to it ranged over some thirty
+years after its first appearance in 1802. He was already twenty-nine
+when he joined the English bar in 1808, and though he never rivalled
+Eldon as a lawyer or Scarlett as a persuasive advocate, he soon became
+an acknowledged master of the highest forensic eloquence. His fame was
+already established by his argument before parliament against the orders
+in council when he entered the house of commons in 1810. There his
+passionate oratory and power of invective made him the most formidable
+of party speakers, and it was said that Canning alone could face him on
+equal terms in debate. Except during four years, 1812-16, when he was
+out of parliament, his prodigious energy and versatility were the
+greatest intellectual force on the liberal side throughout all the
+political conflicts under the regency and the reign of George IV. His
+speeches embraced every question of foreign, colonial, or domestic
+policy, and it may truly be said that no salutary reform was carried
+during that period of which he was not either the author or the active
+promoter. The suppression of the slave-trade which had revived after the
+great war, the liberty of the press, the cause of popular
+education--these were among the almost innumerable objects, outside the
+common run of politics, and largely philanthropic, to which he devoted
+his restless mind, before it was engrossed for a while by parliamentary
+reform. There, as we have seen, he showed a moderation which had not
+been expected of him, nor is it too much to say that, both as a leader
+of the bar and as chancellor, he made good his claim to be the greatest
+of law reformers.
+
+His famous speech of February 7, 1828, had quickened the germs of many
+legal improvements carried out in a later age, and the four years of his
+chancellorship actually produced great constructive amendments of the
+law, such as the institution of the central criminal court and the
+judicial committee of the privy council. Other reforms, in bankruptcy,
+criminal law, and equity, were mainly due to his initiative, and it was
+he who originated the county courts, though his bill was recklessly
+thrown out by the house of lords on party grounds. His public life, up
+to the year 1835, was perhaps the most brilliant and the most useful of
+the century, yet it was hopelessly marred in the end by a certain
+eccentric vanity, and want of loyalty to colleagues, not inconsistent
+with the higher ambition of leaving the world better than he found it.
+For some years after his fall he retained his astounding energy, and
+even his ascendency in the house of lords, where Lyndhurst, his only
+possible rival, was astute enough to court his co-operation. Never was
+his fertility in debate more conspicuously shown than in the session of
+1835, while he was still nominally a supporter of the whig government.
+The last stage of his life, extending over more than thirty years,
+belongs to another chapter of English history; it is enough here to
+notice that, whatever his political aberrations, he continued in his
+isolation and old age to work zealously for those social reforms which
+he sincerely had at heart. The popularity which had been to him as the
+breath of life never, indeed, returned to him, and his figure no longer
+occupies a foremost place in the gallery of our statesmen, but the
+results of his noble services to humanity remain, and the memory of them
+ought not to be obscured by the sad record of his failings.
+
+The new Melbourne administration came in with unfavourable omens.
+Russell failed to secure his re-election in South Devon, but a seat was
+found for him at Stroud, and though the premier emphatically denied that
+he had made any bargain with O'Connell, the Irish people believed it.
+Accordingly, they received the whig lord-lieutenant, Mulgrave, with a
+tumultuous procession, as if his advent portended the repeal of the
+union and extinction of tithes. An attempt to solve the insoluble tithe
+question was, in fact, among the earliest efforts of the government, and
+Morpeth, as chief secretary, introduced a very reasonable measure,
+differing little, except in details, from that of his predecessor. Like
+other proposals for agrarian settlements in Ireland, it involved a
+certain sacrifice on the part of the tithe-owner for the sake of
+security, and a subsidy from the state to relieve of arrears the
+defaulting and rebellious tithe-payers. Peel stated his intention of
+supporting these provisions for commutation, if they could be separated
+from other provisions for "appropriation," coupled with them under the
+influence of political necessity rather than of sound policy. The
+proposals for appropriation were so moderate that little would have been
+lost by dropping or gained by carrying them, but, moderate as they were,
+they embodied a principle on which either party was resolved to stand or
+fall. The consequence might have been foreseen. The bill, as a whole,
+was passed in the house of commons, and even read a second time in the
+house of lords, after which the appropriation clauses were rejected in
+that assembly by a large majority. Thereupon Melbourne withdrew the
+scheme altogether. Thus a question of third-rate importance, having been
+the chronic difficulty of four Irish secretaries, was left to stand over
+for three years longer, and ultimately to be settled on the very basis
+which Stanley and Peel had accepted from the first. A greater waste of
+parliamentary time has perhaps never been recorded.
+
+[Pageheading: _MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS BILL._]
+
+The session of 1835, however, was rendered memorable by the enactment of
+one beneficent measure of the first magnitude. This measure--the
+municipal corporations act--was preceded, like the new poor law, by a
+thorough and exhaustive inquiry. A committee of the house of commons,
+followed by a commission, had been appointed in 1833. The commission
+prosecuted careful researches into the local conditions of each
+municipality, and did not conclude its labours until 1835. Its report
+laid bare not merely grotesque anomalies, but the grossest abuses of
+election and administration in boroughs ruled by small, corrupt, and
+irresponsible oligarchies which then abounded in England, and, still
+more, in Scotland.[132] The reform act had paved the way for the
+purification of such urban communities, by disfranchising the smallest
+and most venal of them, by extending the boundaries of many others, by
+enfranchising great towns which had remained outside the pale of
+representation, and by conferring the suffrage, theretofore monopolised
+by freemen and other privileged classes, on the unprivileged mass of
+ten-pound householders.
+
+The municipal corporations bill, in its ultimate form, rested on the
+same broad lines of policy. It imposed upon all boroughs, with the
+exception of the city of London and a few of minor importance, one
+constitutional form of government, identical in all its essential
+features with those which a few model boroughs already possessed. The
+governing body was to consist of a mayor, aldermen, and councillors,
+together forming a town council. The councillors were to be elected
+directly by ratepaying occupiers, with a saving for the prescriptive
+rights of existing freemen. They were to hold office for three years;
+the aldermen were to be elected by the councillors for six years, with a
+provision for retirement by rotation. The mayor was to be elected
+annually by the town council. The elementary powers of local government,
+such as the control of lighting and the constabulary force, were to be
+transferred (subject to certain exceptions) from the hands of committees
+into those of the one recognised and supreme municipal authority. Other
+clauses provided for a division of the larger boroughs into wards, for
+the abolition of exclusive trading privileges, for the public management
+of charity estates, and for the appointment, at the option of each
+borough, of a recorder, for the purposes of jurisdiction.
+
+Such were the main outlines of the great measure introduced by Russell,
+to which Peel heartily gave his adhesion. It was a natural, and almost
+necessary, sequel of the reform act, which had already broken up many
+nests of jobbery, curtailed the lucrative exercise of the elective
+franchise by freemen, and undermined the influence of those self-elected
+rulers who, in the worst boroughs, had become gangs of public thieves.
+Supported by Peel, the bill was read a second time in the house of
+commons, on June 15, without a division. Several conservative amendments
+were defeated in committee by small majorities, and the bill was sent up
+to the lords on July 21. There its fate was far different. Though
+Wellington himself was not disposed to obstruct it, he entirely failed
+to check the obstructive tactics of Lyndhurst who, on this occasion,
+outdid himself in the deliberate mutilation of a bill approved by the
+late conservative premier. Lord Campbell, no partial judge of Brougham,
+has left on record his belief that, but for his faithful and vigorous
+support, the scheme of municipal reform must have been utterly
+wrecked.[133] It was allowed to be read a second time, but with the
+full concurrence of Eldon and all the ultra-tory peers, Lyndhurst
+succeeded in pulling it to pieces in committee. For instance, one of the
+amendments imported into it perpetuated proprietary rights which it was
+a chief object of the bill to abolish; another gave aldermen a
+life-tenure of their offices; a third retained a part of the old town
+councillors on the new town councils. Proud as he was of his destructive
+exploits, as a triumph of toryism over conservatism, Lyndhurst soon
+found that he could not so lightly override the wiser counsels of Peel.
+When the lords' amendments came to be considered in the commons, Russell
+prudently advised the acceptance of the less important, and the
+disallowance of those inconsistent with the principle of the bill. He
+was followed by Peel who, professing to uphold the independence of the
+upper house, declared against the more obnoxious amendments, and
+stickled only for points which the ministry was not unwilling to
+concede. His action proved decisive. The commons stood firm on the main
+issues, and the hostile party in the lords, who had vowed to mar this
+reform, flinched at the last moment. Many of them abstained from
+attendance. Wellington and even Lyndhurst recommended concession;
+conferences took place between the houses, at which Russell played the
+part of moderator, and on September 9 the corporation bill became law,
+not in its entirety, but in all its essential features.
+
+In spite of this pacific compromise, popular feeling ran higher than
+ever against the house of lords which, under the evil influence of
+Lyndhurst, seemed bent on thwarting every liberal measure. John Roebuck,
+member for Bath, a prominent radical, who acted independently of party
+connexions, took a lead in denouncing their conduct, and went so far as
+to propose giving them a merely suspensory, instead of an absolute, veto
+on legislation. A sweeping reform in their constitution was loudly
+advocated in the press. O'Connell, exasperated by their wanton rejection
+of a Dublin police bill, spent a part of the parliamentary recess in a
+tour over the north of England and Scotland, exhausting the stores of
+his scurrilous invective in pouring contempt on the 170 tyrants who
+could dare to withstand the will of the people. But O'Connell's
+eloquence, marvellous as it was, never stirred British audiences as it
+stirred the Irish masses, and it happened that at this moment he was
+somewhat discredited by accusations of corruption afterwards proved to
+be false. The house of lords not only survived his attacks, but was
+instigated by Lyndhurst to further acts of obstruction in the following
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _COTTENHAM, LORD CHANCELLOR._]
+
+His most powerful opponent was about to disappear from the political
+scenes for the present, and in the future to be converted into an ally.
+When the great seal was entrusted to commissioners, Brougham had
+affected to regard the arrangement as a temporary makeshift to
+propitiate William IV., and hoped that he would inherit the reversion of
+the chancellorship. With this expectation he not only patronised but
+warmly supported the whig ministry in 1835. But his wayward and petulant
+egotism had set all his old colleagues against him, and Melbourne had
+made up his mind that "it was impossible to act with him". The
+interruption of legal business caused by the constant withdrawal of
+three judges from their proper duties, to act as commissioners, was
+severely criticised by the press, and Sir Edward Sugden, who had been
+lord chancellor of Ireland under Peel, published an effective pamphlet
+entitled, "What has become of the great seal?" It was thought necessary
+to appoint a new chancellor, and in January, 1836, Sir Charles Pepys,
+then master of the rolls, was raised to that dignity as Lord Cottenham.
+Foreseeing the implacable indignation of Brougham, the ministry decided
+to confer a peerage on Henry Bickersteth, the new master of the rolls,
+who became Lord Langdale, and who was supposed capable of confronting
+the ex-chancellor in debate. No expectation could have been more
+unfounded or delusive, but the sense of disappointment and desertion so
+preyed on the health and nerves of Brougham that he forsook the house of
+lords for a whole session. Campbell does not shrink from saying that he
+was "atrociously ill-used" on this occasion,[134] and assuredly he
+should not have been left to learn from a newspaper that he was thrust
+aside in favour of a man of vastly inferior gifts and services.
+
+One other change was made in the cabinet during the recess. The Earl of
+Minto became first lord of the admiralty in succession to Auckland who
+had been appointed governor-general of India. When parliament met on
+February 4, 1836, the prospects of the whig government were more
+favourable than on their first accession to office. The factious
+conduct of the house of lords in the last session had disgusted the
+country, while the statesmanlike moderation of Peel secured them
+fair-play in the house of commons, though it was gradually building up a
+strong conservative party. Ireland again blocked the way for a while
+against useful legislation for Great Britain, and the first encounter of
+parties was on an amendment to the address condemning the anticipated
+reform of Irish corporations on the principles already adopted for
+England. This amendment, unwillingly moved by Peel, was defeated by a
+majority of forty-one, and the Irish municipal bill was introduced on
+the 16th. Like its English prototype, it was founded on the report of a
+commission which had disclosed the grossest possible abuses in Irish
+municipalities, chiefly dominated by protestant oligarchies. A similar
+measure substituting elective councils for these corrupt bodies had
+actually passed its third reading in the commons before the end of the
+last session, but the attempt to carry it further was then abandoned.
+The debates on the bill of 1836 for the same purpose inevitably turned
+on broad issues which continued to disturb Irish politics and to perplex
+English statesmen for the rest of the century. On the one hand, no one
+could justify "government by ascendency" in Ireland, or the shameful
+malpractices incident to an exercise of power under no sense of
+responsibility. On the other hand, no one acquainted with Irish history
+and Irish character could honestly regard the people as yet qualified
+for local self-government. In the social and some of the moral virtues
+they might be favourably compared with Englishmen and Scotchmen; in the
+political virtues, upon which civil institutions must rest, they were
+several generations behind their fellow-subjects in Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH BILLS._]
+
+All were agreed on the necessity of sweeping away or expurgating the
+existing Irish corporations, but the whole strength of the conservative
+party in both houses was enlisted against the experiment of elective
+town councils, especially after the evidence lately taken before the
+so-called "intimidation committee" in the house of commons. Peel's
+scheme was to vest the executive powers and property of Irish
+corporations, at least for the present, in officers appointed by the
+crown. An amendment framed in this sense was defeated by a large
+majority, and the bill passed the commons with little further
+opposition. When it reached the lords it was stoutly contested by
+Lyndhurst, now fortified by Peel's concurrence, on the not unreasonable
+ground that it would make the radicals and repealers predominant in
+every Irish municipality, and create "seats of agitation" for
+revolutionary purposes in the new town councils. Being converted into a
+bill "for the abolition of municipal corporations" in Ireland, it was
+returned in that form to the house of commons. Russell vainly attempted
+to meet the lords half-way by another compromise, and the measure was
+abandoned only to be adopted, in a very modified shape, after the lapse
+of four years. A like course was pursued by the upper house when a new
+Irish tithe bill, with an appropriation clause, was sent up to them. Had
+the whig government been well advised they would scarcely have
+challenged a needless collision between the two houses by reviving this
+burning question so early. It would have been possible to settle the
+Irish tithe system on equitable lines, without prejudicing the future
+application of superfluous Church revenues, and it was a somewhat
+perverse obstinacy which persisted in coupling the two objects year
+after year. The ingenuity of Lyndhurst in wrecking sound reforms should
+have been left without excuse; whereas, in this case, the peers could
+not have accepted what they regarded as a confiscation bill without a
+sacrifice of conviction and self-respect.
+
+Happily the commutation of tithes in England presented no political
+difficulties of the same nature. The payment of tithes in kind, though
+founded on immemorial usage, had, indeed, produced constant discord
+between the parish clergyman and his flock, while landlords and farmers
+justly complained that it impeded the improvement of agriculture. In
+many localities the pressure of these evils had led to voluntary
+compositions between tithe-owners and tithe-payers, which, being
+temporary, lacked the force of law. The permissive tithe bills of
+Althorp and Peel were designed to render general a practice which
+already prevailed in a thousand parishes, and that now introduced by
+Russell was little more than an extension of the same principle. Its
+mainspring was the appointment of commissioners with compulsory powers
+in the last resort, and the provision of a self-acting machinery for
+assessing the reduced annual rent charge payable in lieu of tithes, so
+as to vary with the average price of wheat, barley, and oats in the
+seven preceding years. This practical solution of the question was
+adopted cheerfully by the wearied legislature, and the commissioners
+succeeded before long in effecting universal commutation. Amendments in
+detail have of course been found necessary, but the system established
+by 6 and 7 William IV., cap. 61, has stood the test of long experience,
+and although tithe-owners have been impoverished by the fall of prices,
+the payment of tithes in England has ceased to be a grievance, except
+with those who absolutely condemn the endowment of a Church.
+
+[Pageheading: _REGISTRATION ACTS._]
+
+An equally valuable and permanent legacy of this session is contained in
+two cognate acts regulating marriages and registration in England. By
+the first of these acts two new modes of celebrating marriage were
+provided, without interfering with the old privileges of the established
+Church in regard to marriage by licence or banns. While the essential
+conditions of notice and publicity were carefully secured, the
+superintendent registrar of each district was empowered either to
+authorise the celebration of marriage in a duly registered place of
+worship, but in presence of a district registrar, or to solemnise the
+ceremony himself, without any religious service, in his own office.
+Clergymen of the Church of England were constituted registrars for
+marriages celebrated by themselves, and were bound to furnish the
+superintendent registrars with certified entries of such marriages. The
+act was complicated by a variety of safeguards, enforced by heavy
+penalties, against fraud and evasion, but its leading features were
+simple and have proved effectual for their purpose. It marked an advance
+on the earlier marriage bill of Russell, since it not only allowed
+dissenters to marry in their own chapels, but to marry without having
+their banns published in the parish church. It went beyond the marriage
+bill of Peel, since it not only recognised marriage as a civil contract,
+but utilised the new poor law organisation, and posted in each district
+a civil official before whom that contract could legally be solemnised.
+
+The rules laid down by the first act for the registration of marriages
+were an integral part of a general registration system established by
+the second act, and embracing births and deaths as well as marriages.
+This system, rendered possible by the division of the country into
+unions, brought under effective control the old parochial registers
+which had been loosely kept for three centuries. The statistical value
+of the returns thus checked and digested in a central department is now
+fully recognised, but can only be appreciated by students of social
+history, which, indeed, is now largely founded on reports of the
+registrar-general. The special provisions for the registration of deaths
+are also of the utmost service in the prevention of disease and crime.
+Not until after this act of 1836 was it realised by the mass of the
+people, not only that a sudden death would properly be followed by a
+coroner's inquest, but that every death, with its circumstances, must be
+treated as a matter of public concern and duly notified. Still more
+important in its results has been the requirement of a medical statement
+on the cause of death--a requirement which has brought about the
+discovery of numerous murders and greatly checked the commission of
+others. If the marriage act relieved a large class of the community from
+vexatious disabilities, the whole community assuredly owes the second
+reformed parliament a debt of gratitude for the registration act which,
+like so many of the best acts in the statute book, provoked but little
+discussion.
+
+A far keener party interest was excited by the crusade against the
+Orange lodges in Great Britain and Ireland which Hume and Finn, an Irish
+member, carried on with great energy in the sessions of 1835 and 1836.
+These societies then had an importance which they no longer possess, and
+were the more open to radical attacks because the Duke of Cumberland was
+grand master of the order. It was said, with some justice, that while
+the catholic association was nominally put down, the Orange lodges in
+Ireland were openly spreading, with the connivance at least of the Irish
+authorities. Their officials included noblemen of high position;
+Goulburn, when chief secretary, was an Orangeman, and special efforts
+had been made to enrol members in the army. Their principles were
+strictly loyal, but their demonstrations were naturally resented by the
+Roman catholics, and were not far removed from preparations for civil
+war. They hailed the accession of Peel's short ministry with tumultuous
+enthusiasm, but when the legality of their organisation and proceedings
+was challenged in the house of commons, during the session of 1835,
+their advocates felt compelled to support a committee of inquiry. The
+evidence taken before this committee, and the debate raised by Hume on
+the formation of Orange lodges in the army, damaged their cause in the
+eyes of the public, and seriously compromised the Duke of Cumberland. It
+was shown that his brother, the Duke of York, had resigned the grand
+mastership, and on being convinced of their illegality had forbidden
+Orange lodges in the army, whereas the Duke of Cumberland had accepted
+the grand mastership and directly promoted military lodges.
+
+An address condemning them was carried; the king undertook to discourage
+them, and the commander-in-chief issued a stringent order for their
+suppression. The struggle, however, was continued by the pertinacity of
+the radicals in demanding a more extended inquiry, and the obstinacy of
+the Orangemen in defying both the house of commons and the horse guards.
+Early in the session of 1836 Finn and Hume renewed their assaults, and
+the latter moved for an address, to be framed in the most sweeping
+terms, and calling upon the crown to dismiss all persons in public
+employment, from the highest to the lowest, who should belong to Orange
+societies. Russell, who had been gradually rising in public estimation,
+showed the qualities of a true statesman on this occasion by a firm yet
+conciliatory speech which commanded assent on both sides. He exposed the
+extravagant and impracticable nature of Hume's demand, but condemned the
+Orange societies, and proposed an address urging the crown to use its
+influence for "the effectual discouragement of Orange lodges, and
+generally all political societies, excluding persons of different faith,
+using signs and symbols, and acting by associated branches". This
+resolution was adopted without opposition, the king heartily endorsed
+it, even the Duke of Cumberland acquiesced in it, and the Orange
+societies quietly dissolved themselves, for a while, throughout the
+United Kingdom.
+
+If the session of 1836 had produced no other legislative fruits it could
+not be regarded as wasted. But several minor reforms of great social
+benefit also date from this year, and prove that, however checked by
+political blunders, the energy kindled by the reform act had not yet
+exhausted itself. After repeated efforts of legal philanthropists, a
+bill was now passed for the first time allowing prisoners on trial for
+felony to be defended by counsel. It was brought in by William Ewart, a
+private member, who sat for Liverpool, but was supported by the highest
+legal authorities in the house of lords, including Lyndhurst himself,
+who openly recanted his former opinions, and declared the old law to be
+a barbarous survival, inconsistent with the practice of other civilised
+nations. In the same house an interesting debate took place on the
+management of jails, which had been placed under a system of inspection
+by an act of the previous year. The reports of the inspectors disclosed
+gross abuses, not only in the smaller county jails but in Newgate
+itself. Lansdowne, in pledging the government to deal with the larger
+question, intimated that Russell, as home secretary, was considering the
+means of separating juvenile offenders from hardened criminals by
+establishing places of detention in the nature of what have since been
+known as reformatories.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUTY ON NEWSPAPERS LOWERED._]
+
+A still more notable contribution to social improvement was made by
+Spring Rice, the chancellor of the exchequer, in consolidating the paper
+duties on a reduced scale, and lowering the stamp duty on newspapers
+from fourpence to one penny. These were the only controversial elements
+in a budget otherwise modest and acceptable. The battle over paper
+duties and "taxes upon knowledge" raised in the debates of 1836 was
+destined to rage many years longer, but the relief granted by Spring
+Rice gave a powerful impulse to journalism and periodical literature. It
+was opposed by all the familiar arguments against a cheap press, but
+that which most endangered its success was a rival proposal to apply any
+surplus revenue to cheapening soap. Soap, it was plausibly contended,
+was a necessary, reading newspapers or periodicals was only a luxury,
+and a luxury, too, far move capable of being abused than expenditure on
+soap. When the penny stamp on newspapers was at last preferred to
+reduced soap duties it was said that, "so far as financial arrangements
+were concerned, everything went to supply the essential elements of low
+political clubs, _viz._, cheap gin, cheap newspapers, filthy hands, and
+unwashed faces".[135]
+
+The legislative record of 1836 was creditable to the government, nor was
+the action of the upper house in amending certain of their bills so
+purely mischievous as it has been described. For instance, a strange
+clause had found its way into the newspaper stamp bill, requiring all
+the proprietors of newspapers, however numerous, to be registered at the
+stamp office. This clause was struck out in the house of lords, at the
+instance of Lyndhurst, though Melbourne declared it to be a vital part
+of the measure, which, however, passed without it, and was the better
+for the loss of it. But the same cannot be said of Lyndhurst's conduct
+at the "open conference" between the two houses on a supplementary bill
+for remedying defects in the operation of the municipal corporations
+act. There no question of principle was involved, and the only motive
+for resisting every attempt to improve the new machinery already
+established by law was one unworthy of a statesman. At the close of the
+session, Lyndhurst delivered a masterly vindication of his own
+proceedings, but he was answered by Melbourne in a speech of great
+ability, and the position now occupied by the whigs appeared stronger
+than when they came into office in 1835.
+
+In this year complaints of agricultural distress once more became
+urgent, and a committee was appointed by the house of commons, as in
+1833, to inquire into its cause. Strange to say, the immediate occasion
+for the second inquiry was the occurrence of three magnificent harvests
+in succession, which brought down the average price of wheat from 58s.
+8d. in 1832 to 53s. in 1833, 46s. 2d. in 1834, and 39s. 4d. in 1835,
+whence it rose to 48s. 6d. after the harvest of 1836. The average
+gazette price of 1835 was the lowest touched in the nineteenth century
+until 1884, and was simply due to excess of production. It was stated
+before the committee of 1836, by the comptroller of corn returns, that
+in the period between 1814 and 1834 the quantity of home-grown wheat
+only fell short of the consumption, on the average, by about 1,000,000
+quarters a year, of which at least half was contributed by Ireland. The
+committee published its evidence without making a report, but this fact
+is highly significant as marking the later revolution in British
+agriculture. If the area then devoted to wheat crops almost sufficed to
+feed an estimated population of 14,500,000, when the yield per acre was
+relatively small, we may safely infer, in the absence of trustworthy
+statistics, that it must have been very much greater than at present.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGITATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+At the opening of 1837 there was a marked stagnation in home politics,
+mainly due to an equipoise of parties and serious divisions in the ranks
+of the ministerialists as well as of the opposition. Not only was there
+a very strong conservative majority in the house of lords, with a
+sufficient though dwindling liberal majority in the house of commons,
+but neither majority was amenable to party discipline. The aggressive
+policy and vexatious tactics of Lyndhurst were distasteful to his
+nominal leader, the Duke of Wellington, and still more so to Peel, the
+only possible conservative premier, who eschewed the very name of tory.
+There was greater unity of counsels between Melbourne and Russell, but
+Russell, who had learned moderation, was dependent on the support of his
+extreme left, composed of violent radicals and Irish repealers. The
+king, though he did not carry his repugnance to his ministers so far as
+he once threatened, yet almost excluded them from social invitations,
+and made no secret of his preference for the opposite party. During the
+winter of 1836-37 O'Connell and his satellites were busy in organising
+monster meetings to demand the abolition of tithes and municipal reform.
+A national association was formed on this basis, and a certain number of
+protestants were induced to join it. The government dared not show
+vigour in checking it lest they should estrange their Irish allies, and
+Mulgrave, the lord-lieutenant, was openly accused of favouring sedition
+and discouraging loyalty by his exercise of patronage and the royal
+prerogative of pardon. At last, a very large and influential meeting was
+held in Dublin, at which the discontent of loyalists and patriots was
+expressed with truly Irish vehemence. Still, Ireland was less disturbed
+than in several previous years. About the same time, Peel, having been
+elected lord rector of Glasgow University, was entertained there at
+dinner by a company including many old reformers, and made one of his
+greatest speeches. Its spirit was that of his Tamworth manifesto, but he
+was far more outspoken in his declaration of unswerving adhesion to the
+protestant cause and to the independence of the upper house.
+
+Such were the political conditions when parliament met on January 31.
+The king's speech, delivered by commission, though singularly
+colourless, indicated the importance of legislating on Irish tithes,
+Irish corporations, and Irish poor relief. The debate on the address was
+enlivened by a furious attack of Roebuck on the whigs, but was
+otherwise devoid of importance. On February 7, however, Russell
+introduced a new Irish corporations bill, invoking the authority of Fox
+for the doctrine that "Irish government should be regulated by Irish
+notions and Irish prejudices," and avowing a faith in the efficacy of
+unlimited concession which has not been justified by later experience.
+He further intimated the resolution of the government to stand or fall
+by this measure. No serious resistance was offered by the opposition to
+its first or second reading, but Peel took occasion to protest against a
+transparent inconsistency which seems to beset the advocacy of Irish
+claims. It is generally assumed, and with too much justice, that Ireland
+is so backward and helpless a country as to require exceptional
+treatment; in short, that it must be governed by Irish ideas, with
+little regard to English principles of sound policy or economy. Such
+was, in effect, Fox's contention, adopted by Russell; and yet, like
+future supporters of "Ireland for the Irish," he argued in the same
+breath that every liberal institution suitable to Englishmen, with their
+long training in self-government and instinctive reverence for law, must
+needs be extended to Irishmen, with their long training in anarchy and
+instinctive propensity to lawlessness. He prevailed, however, in the
+house of commons, where a hostile amendment was decisively rejected, and
+the bill, having passed rapidly through committee, was read a third time
+by a large though reduced majority.
+
+Had it been possible to isolate the Irish municipal bill, and to compel
+the house of lords to deal with it singly, the peers might possibly have
+shrunk from another collision with the commons. But it had been coupled
+in the king's speech with two other projects of Irish legislation, a new
+tithe bill, and an Irish poor law. Both of these were, in fact,
+introduced, the former by Russell in February, the latter by Morpeth
+early in May. The course to be taken by the conservative party was the
+subject of anxious consultation between Peel and Wellington, and that
+ultimately adopted had the full sanction of both. They regarded the
+separate presentation of the municipal bill as a "manoeuvre," and,
+while they overruled the wish of Lyndhurst to defeat it by an adverse
+vote on the second reading, they resolved to meet it by a
+counter-manoeuvre. Accordingly Wellington induced the house of lords
+to postpone the committee on the municipal bill until they should have
+the other two bills before them, and Peel not only approved of his
+action but stated reasons for regarding them as essentially connected
+with each other. June 9 was originally fixed as the date for going into
+committee, but this stage was afterwards deferred until July 3, before
+which unforeseen events arrested all further progress.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHURCH RATES._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of the government had been weakened by the
+failure of their scheme for abolishing Church rates. The dissenters, no
+longer content with religious liberty, were beginning to demand
+religious equality. In the forefront of their grievances was that of
+paying rates for the repair of parish churches which they did not
+attend, except as members of the annual "vestry," where they could
+object to a rate but might be out-voted by a majority of their
+fellow-parishioners. Althorp had proposed a scheme for the removal of
+this grievance in 1834, involving a parliamentary grant of L250,000.
+Setting aside this alternative, as well as that of a special
+contribution, voluntary or otherwise, from members of the Church, Spring
+Rice now proposed a solution of his own. It consisted in vesting the
+property of bishops and chapters in a commission which, by improved
+management, might raise the necessary sum for church repairs, without
+impairing the incomes of these ecclesiastical dignitaries. Before the
+government plan was discussed in the house of commons, Howley,
+archbishop of Canterbury, entered a strong protest against it in the
+house of lords on the ground that it would reduce the bishops and
+chapters from the position of landowners to that of "mere annuitants".
+Melbourne complained of his protest somewhat angrily as premature, and
+provoked a vehement reply from Blomfield, bishop of London, who, though
+a member of the ecclesiastical commission, denounced any such diversion
+of revenues as "a sacrilegious act of spoliation". In the elaborate
+debates on the resolutions moved by Spring Rice in the house of commons
+Peel took his stand partly on financial objections and partly on the
+injustice of taking away from the Church a fund belonging to it by
+immemorial usage, and in the main willingly contributed. Amendment after
+amendment was proposed by members of the opposition, and, though each
+was defeated, the government resolutions were ultimately carried by so
+narrow a majority in May that no further action was taken.
+
+The conservative reaction, now in visible progress, was typified by the
+open secession of Burdett from the ranks of the reformers. This sincere
+but indiscreet radical, who had once enjoyed a popularity similar to
+that of Wilkes as a political martyr, became estranged from his party
+when it accepted O'Connell as an auxiliary, if not as an ally. Having
+failed in procuring the exclusion of the great Irish demagogue from
+Brooks's club, in 1835, he withdrew his own name. Soon afterwards he
+became irregular in his parliamentary attendance, and more than lukewarm
+in his allegiance. Early in 1837 he was, like Stanley and Graham, so
+much suspected of gravitating towards conservatism, that some of his
+Westminster constituents publicly called upon him to resign. He took up
+the challenge, and was re-elected against a radical opponent by a
+substantial majority. It was his last re-election for a borough which he
+had represented for thirty years. In the Church-rate debate he rose from
+the opposition side of the house, and lamenting his separation from his
+old associates, did not spare them either reproaches or hostile
+criticism.
+
+Another desertion from the whig camp took place during this session, but
+in an opposite direction. Roebuck, originally one of the philosophical
+radicals, had become more and more violent in his attacks on his own
+leaders, whom he accused of having deceived the people. According to
+him, they were "aristocratic in principle, democratic in pretence," and
+all the resources of his incisive rhetoric were exhausted in exposing
+their incapacity, in a motion for a committee to consider the state of
+the nation. This motion, so advocated, met with no support, and gave
+Russell the opportunity of once more vindicating the wisdom of
+moderation in statesmanship. But there were many besides Roebuck who
+were eager to complete the work of the reform act by further organic
+changes, and the notice book of the house of commons in 1837 embodied
+several proposals of this kind. One was Grote's annual motion for the
+ballot, on which an interesting debate took place. Among the others were
+two motions of Sir William Molesworth for a reform of the upper house
+and for the abolition of a property qualification for the lower house, a
+motion of Tennyson, who had taken the additional name of D'Eyncourt, for
+the repeal of the septennial act, and another of Hume for household
+suffrage, overshadowing that of Duncombe for repealing the rate-paying
+clauses of the reform act itself. Nearly all of these contained the
+germs of future legislation, but they formed no part of the whig
+programme, nor could any whig government have carried them against so
+powerful an opposition, with an invincible reserve in the house of
+lords, during the last session of William IV. Only seventeen public acts
+were actually passed in this session.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+There were, indeed, other reasons for declining to provoke a grave
+contest at this juncture. The king's health was known to be failing, his
+death under the law then in force would involve a general election, and
+no one could desire his successor, a girl of eighteen, to begin her
+reign in the midst of a political crisis. In May his illness assumed an
+alarming aspect, early in June the medical reports satisfied the country
+that his case was hopeless, on June 19 he received the last sacrament,
+and on the 20th he died at Windsor Castle. Something more than justice
+was done to his character by the leaders of both parties in parliament,
+but something less than justice has been done to it by later historians.
+He was inferior in strength of will to his father, in ability to his
+eldest brother, and in the higher virtues of a constitutional sovereign
+to his niece, who succeeded him. But he was not only a kindly and
+well-meaning man, a good husband to Queen Adelaide and a good father to
+his natural children, faithful to his old friends, and bountiful in his
+charities; he was also a loyal servant of the state, with a genuine
+sense of public duty, a natural love of justice, an independent
+judgment, and a noble indifference to personal or selfish objects. His
+lot was cast in almost revolutionary times, and he was called upon to
+reign at an age when few men are capable of shaking off old prejudices,
+yet he deserved well of his people in supporting the ministry of Grey
+through all the stages of the reform movement, in spite of his own
+declared sympathies, but in deference to his own conviction of paramount
+obligation under the laws of the land. He was quite as liberal in
+opinions as Peel, whose hearty interest in the poorer classes he fully
+shared, and far more liberal than the tory majority in the house of
+lords. Great he certainly was not, and he never affected the royal
+dignity which partially concealed the littleness of his predecessor. But
+in honesty and simplicity he was no unworthy son of George III., and the
+greater pliability of his nature contributed, at least, to make the
+seven years of his reign more fruitful in reforms than all the sixty
+years during which the old king occupied the throne of England.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[130] The king to Peel (Feb. 22, 1835), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+287-89.
+
+[131] See Melbourne's letters to Brougham, _Melbourne Papers_, pp.
+257-64.
+
+[132] The abuses in the Scottish municipalities had, however, been
+already removed by an act conferring the municipal franchise on L10
+householders. Not the least important result of this act was the
+increased strength which it gave to the "evangelical" party in the
+general assembly of the Church of Scotland, which was partly elected by
+the municipalities.
+
+[133] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 470.
+
+[134] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 476.
+
+[135] _Annual Register_, lxxviii. (1836), p. 244
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+                    FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+
+In 1830 the closing months of Wellington's administration were disturbed
+by the French and Belgian revolutions. The former of these was
+occasioned by the publication on July 25 of three ordinances,
+restricting the liberty of the press, dissolving the chambers, and
+amending the law of elections. The Parisian populace rose against this
+infringement of the constitution. In the course of a three days'
+street-fight (the 27th to the 29th) the troops were driven out of Paris.
+On the 30th a few members of the chambers, who had continued in session,
+invited Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, to assume the office of
+lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and he was proclaimed on the
+following day. On August 7 the chamber of deputies offered him the
+crown, which he accepted, and on the 9th he was proclaimed "King of the
+French". On the 2nd Charles X. and the dauphin had renounced their
+rights in favour of the young Duke of Bordeaux, and on the 16th they
+sailed from Cherbourg to England. The change of dynasty was accompanied
+by a transference to the _bourgeoisie_ of such political influence as
+had hitherto belonged to the clergy and _noblesse_. It remained to be
+seen whether it would also be accompanied by a change of foreign policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RECOGNITION OF LOUIS PHILIPPE._]
+
+The new French revolution occasioned no slight perturbation in the
+European courts. To say nothing of the fear of the precedent being
+followed in other lands, there was no longer any guarantee that France
+would respect the arrangements effected by the treaties of Vienna and
+Paris. Austria, Prussia, and Russia agreed not to recognise Louis
+Philippe, and entered into a convention for mutual aid in the event of
+French aggression. Aberdeen, the British foreign secretary, declared
+that the time had come for applying the treaty of Chaumont, which, as
+extended at Paris, pledged Great Britain and the three eastern powers to
+act together in case fresh revolution and usurpation in France should
+endanger the repose of other states. Wellington, however, saw that the
+cause of the elder Bourbon line was hopeless, and held now, as in 1815,
+that if France was not to menace the peace of Europe, her political
+position must be one with which she could be contented. He considered
+that the arguments which justified the admission of France to the
+councils of the powers at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 applied with no less
+cogency to the government of Louis Philippe than to that of Louis XVIII.
+He therefore determined to acknowledge the new French government at an
+early date after the notification of its assumption of power. Nor were
+the other powers slow in taking the same course. It is true that
+Metternich suggested a closer bond between Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
+partly to restore amicable relations between Austria and Russia, partly
+to oppose any possible designs of France on Italy. Prussia, fearing war,
+resisted the proposal, and preferred to draw France into a guarantee of
+the _status quo_ by recognising Louis Philippe. Russia was last of the
+great powers to acknowledge the new _regime_ in France, and she only did
+so on condition that the powers should hold the French king responsible
+for the execution of the international engagements of the fallen
+dynasty. Louis Philippe was certainly not the man wilfully to embroil
+France in a war with her neighbours, and, had he been independent of
+French public opinion, there would have been no reason to fear French
+aggression.
+
+The state which had most to fear from an aggressive France was the new
+kingdom of the Netherlands. Trusting for protection to the great powers
+rather than to its own forces, the Netherlands government had adopted a
+system which left it almost entirely without troops except during the
+military exercises of September and October. Wellington, who knew the
+pacific character of the new French government, advised the garrisoning
+of certain isolated points on the frontier, but thought no further
+preparation necessary. A few weeks were however to prove that the new
+French revolution had aroused a more implacable enemy, against whom the
+house of Orange would have needed all the troops it could summon to its
+aid. The union of Holland and Belgium had been resolved on by the
+powers at Paris in 1814, mainly for military reasons. Austria had been
+unwilling to resume the heavy burden of guarding the Belgian Netherlands
+and southern Germany against French aggression, and the powers had
+consequently resolved on strengthening those smaller states on whom the
+duty of resistance would fall. In these days, accustomed as we are to
+the distinction between the Teutonic and Latin races, it might seem
+reasonable that two countries in which the prevailing languages are low
+German should be subject to the same government. But it was not yet
+customary to turn the principles of comparative philology into arguments
+for the rearrangement of political boundaries. The French language and
+culture had moreover made considerable progress among the upper and
+middle classes of Belgium, while religious differences alienated the
+clergy from the house of Orange. In the states-general of the
+Netherlands the Dutch had half the votes, and, as the Orange party was
+strong in Antwerp and Ghent, commanded a majority. The fiscal system
+adopted by the government favoured the Dutch rather than the Belgian
+population. Dutchmen were generally preferred for state offices, and an
+attempt to control the education of the clergy was deeply resented as an
+attack on the Roman catholic religion. Belgium in consequence presented
+the curious spectacle of the liberal and clerical parties working on the
+same side, united against the Dutch government.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIAN REVOLUTION._]
+
+The example afforded by France turned a discontent which might have led
+to local riots into a national conflagration. On August 25 there was a
+rising of the populace at Brussels, which the troops proved unable to
+quell. On the 27th it was suppressed by a body of burgher guards, a
+volunteer force drawn from the _bourgeoisie_ of the town. The
+_bourgeoisie_ finding themselves in possession of the Belgian capital,
+at first presented a series of minor demands to the king, but on
+September 3 they went the length of demanding a separate administration
+for Belgium. The king undertook to lay this proposal before the states,
+which assembled on the 13th. But before the states could come to any
+conclusion the question had assumed a new aspect. All the leading towns
+of Belgium had followed the example of Brussels by forming burgher
+guards and had thus joined in the revolution; and on the 20th a fresh
+rising of the populace of Brussels had overthrown the burgher guard and
+instituted a provisional government. This was followed by an attempt on
+the part of Prince Frederick of Orange, a younger son of the King of the
+Netherlands, to occupy Brussels with a military force. After five days'
+fighting he was compelled to retire, and when on the 30th the
+states-general gave their consent to the proposal for a separate
+administration, their decision fell upon deaf ears. All the Belgian
+provinces were in revolt.
+
+It was now clear to everybody that the national party in Belgium would
+not consent even to a personal union with Holland. As the union of the
+two countries formed a part of the treaty of Vienna, every European
+power had a legal right to employ force to prevent its disruption, and
+Russia and Prussia both desired active intervention. In France, on the
+other hand, there was a loud popular demand for the reannexation of
+Belgium to France, of which it had formed a part from 1794 to 1814.
+Louis Philippe saw that he could not resist this demand if the Belgian
+insurgents were coerced on the side of Prussia, and therefore announced
+that Prussian aggression would be met by a French expedition to Belgium
+to keep the balance even, until the question should be settled by a
+congress of the powers. On September 25 Talleyrand had arrived in
+England. He quickly obtained the adhesion of Wellington to the principle
+of non-intervention. The duke had been among the first to grasp the fact
+that reconciliation of Dutch and Belgians was impossible, and that the
+intervention of the powers would necessitate a European war, to avoid
+which the union of the two countries had originally been designed. He
+agreed therefore to a separation of the countries on condition that
+France should bind herself to observe the arrangements of the congress
+of Vienna in 1815 and should take no separate action in Belgium.
+
+On Talleyrand's suggestion it was decided to refer the question to the
+conference already sitting in London for the purpose of settling the
+Greek question, which would of course have to be reinforced by
+representatives of Austria and Prussia for the present purpose. Mole,
+the French foreign minister, would have preferred Paris as the seat of
+the congress, but the King of the Netherlands absolutely refused to
+entrust his cause to a conference meeting in a city where opinion ran so
+strongly against him. On October 5 he made a formal appeal to the
+powers for the aid guaranteed him by treaty, but the demand came too
+late to induce Wellington to swerve from the policy of non-intervention,
+and on November 4 the conference of London began its labours by
+proposing an armistice in Belgium, which was accepted by both parties.
+This left Maastricht and the citadel of Antwerp in the hands of Dutch
+garrisons, and Luxemburg in the hands of a garrison supplied by the
+German confederation. Every other place in Belgium was in the hands of
+the insurgents. But the further solution of the question was reserved
+for other hands. On the 3rd Louis Philippe was compelled to accept a
+revolutionary ministry, and on the 22nd Wellington and Aberdeen had to
+make way for a whig ministry with Grey as premier, and Palmerston as
+foreign secretary.
+
+The new foreign secretary had served a long political apprenticeship as
+secretary at war in the successive administrations of Perceval,
+Liverpool, Canning, Goderich, and Wellington, and under the three
+last-mentioned premiers he had enjoyed a seat in the cabinet. It will be
+remembered that he had been a warm champion of Greece, and had resigned
+office along with Huskisson, Dudley, and Grant. He now returned in
+company with Grant as a member of a whig cabinet. Although this change
+of party involved the adoption of a domestic policy far removed from
+Canning's, Palmerston's foreign policy remained rather Canningite than
+whig. The interest and the honour of England ranked with Palmerston as
+with Canning before all questions which concerned the maintenance of
+European peace. But instead of Canning's versatile diplomacy he
+displayed too often a reckless disregard of the susceptibilities of
+foreign governments, and, if, like Canning, he lent the moral support of
+Great Britain to the liberal party in every continental country, it was
+not, as it had professedly been with Canning, because their success
+would promote the interests of Great Britain, but because he had a
+genuine sympathy with their cause. It is impossible to deny that in his
+earlier years at least Palmerston's policy met with a success such as
+Castlereagh and Wellington had not attempted to gain; real or imaginary
+dangers at home left the foreign governments too weak to oppose the will
+of the one strong man of the moment. Yet it is doubtful whether any
+resultant benefits were not more than counterbalanced by the distrust
+and ill-will with which the greater nations of Europe have learned to
+regard the British government and people.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROPOSED DIVISION OF THE NETHERLANDS._]
+
+During the first few weeks of the new administration, the Belgian
+question advanced far towards a settlement. On November 10 a Belgian
+national congress assembled at Brussels; on the 18th it voted the
+independence of Belgium; on the 22nd it resolved that the new state
+should be a constitutional monarchy, and on the 24th it proclaimed the
+total exclusion of the house of Nassau. Finally the outbreak of a Polish
+insurrection at Warsaw made it clear that Prussia and Russia would be
+too busily occupied in the east to be able to interfere effectively in
+the Belgian question. On December 20 a protocol was signed at London by
+the representatives of the five powers, providing for the separation of
+Belgium from Holland. When however the protocol was sent to the tsar for
+ratification, he would only ratify it subject to the condition that its
+execution should depend on the consent of the King of the Netherlands.
+Meanwhile the London conference was engaged in settling the boundary of
+the new kingdom. For the most part it went on the principle of leaving
+to Holland the districts that had belonged to the United Provinces
+before the wars of the French revolution. The remainder of the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, consisting chiefly of the former Austrian
+Netherlands, but including also territories which had belonged to
+France, Prussia, the Palatinate, the bishopric of Liege, and some minor
+ecclesiastical states, was assigned to Belgium. An exception was,
+however, made in the case of the grand duchy of Luxemburg. Luxemburg was
+reputed to be, next to Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in Europe. It
+was regarded as the key to the lower Rhine; it formed a part of the
+German confederation, and was garrisoned by German troops. Although
+Holland had no historical claim to its possession, the treaty of Vienna
+granted it to the Dutch branch of the house of Nassau, as compensation
+for its former possessions, merged in the duchy of Nassau; and it was
+now felt that a place so important to the safety of Germany could not
+safely be handed over to a state which seemed likely to fall under
+French influence. The powers therefore determined that this duchy should
+continue to belong to the king of the Netherlands.
+
+There was also some difficulty over the apportionment of the debt.
+Belgium was the more populous and the richer of the two countries, but
+the greater part of the debt had been contracted by Holland before the
+union. Belgium was, however, already responsible for its share of the
+whole debt, and the powers can hardly be accused of injustice when they
+determined to divide the debt in the proportion in which the
+debt-charges had been borne in the three previous years, assigning
+sixteen thirty-firsts to Belgium, and fifteen thirty-firsts to Holland.
+Belgium was moreover to possess the right of trading with the Dutch
+colonies and to contribute towards their defence. These provisions were
+embodied in two protocols which were issued at London on January 20 and
+27, 1831. As compared with the _status quo_ the Dutch were slightly the
+gainers. The protocol permitted them to keep Maastricht and Luxemburg,
+but required them to abandon the citadel of Antwerp; while the Belgians
+were required to surrender those less important places which they had
+occupied in Dutch Limburg and in the grand duchy of Luxemburg.
+Talleyrand considered the present a favourable opportunity for claiming
+for France the cession of Mariembourg and Philippeville which she had
+been compelled to surrender to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815.
+Palmerston, however, absolutely refused to hear of any extension of
+French territory, for fear of imperilling the security of Europe. The
+two protocols were accepted by Holland on February 13 but rejected by
+Belgium. Though Talleyrand had signed the protocol of January 20, it was
+repudiated by Sebastiani, the French foreign minister, on the ground
+that the object of the conference was to effect a mediation, not to
+dictate a settlement.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIUM CHOOSES A KING._]
+
+Meanwhile the national congress at Brussels had attempted to elect a
+king. At first the most favoured candidate was Auguste Beauharnais, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, the grandson of Napoleon's first consort. Louis
+Philippe naturally objected to the establishment on his frontier of a
+prince so closely connected with the house of Bonaparte. The pliant
+Belgians accordingly transferred their preference to the Duke of
+Nemours, the second son of Louis Philippe. It was in vain that
+Sebastiani declared that France could not allow such a selection, as it
+would be interpreted by the powers as evidence of a French design to
+reincorporate Belgium in France. On February 3, 1831, the Duke of
+Nemours was actually elected king by the Belgian national congress. But
+the conference of London had, two days earlier, adopted a resolution,
+excluding from the Belgian throne all members of the reigning dynasties
+of the five powers. Still there was a strong party in France, including
+Laffitte, the revolutionary premier, who advocated the claims of
+Nemours. Louis Philippe, however, stood firm on the side of European
+peace, and on the 17th definitively declined the crown offered to his
+son. The French now recommended the Prince of Naples, but the Belgians
+declined to accept him, and on the 25th the national congress appointed
+a regent to hold office till a king should be elected. On March 13 the
+accession to office of an anti-revolutionary ministry in France rendered
+the complete co-operation of the powers easier.
+
+On April 17 France declared her adhesion to the protocol of January 20,
+and by a new protocol the other four powers consented to the demolition
+of some of the Belgian fortresses on the French frontier. Another
+protocol of the same date ordered the Belgians to evacuate the grand
+duchy of Luxemburg. On May 10 a further protocol even threatened Belgium
+with the rupture of diplomatic relations in case she did not by June I
+accept the protocol of January 20. But the powers soon adopted a more
+conciliatory attitude. France and Great Britain desired that Prince
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who in the previous year had resigned the crown
+of Greece, should now be offered that of Belgium. Prince Leopold would
+not accept the crown so long as Belgium continued to defy the powers,
+and on the other hand there was no chance of securing his election by
+the Belgian congress unless he undertook to maintain the Belgian claim
+to the possession of Luxemburg. Lord Ponsonby, the British minister at
+Brussels, succeeded in inducing the London conference to sign a new
+protocol, undertaking to negotiate with Holland for the cession of
+Luxemburg to Belgium, in return for an indemnity elsewhere, provided
+that Belgium should first accept the protocol of January 20. The Belgian
+congress gathered that the acceptance of Prince Leopold was regarded by
+the powers as more important than the maintenance of the terms of that
+protocol, and they accordingly elected him as their king on June 4
+without accepting the protocol. In answer to Dutch complaints Ponsonby
+and General Belliard, the French minister, were recalled from Brussels
+as the protocol of May 10 required. Leopold refused to accept the crown
+until the conference should have offered better terms, and on the 26th
+the conference signed another protocol, which differed from that of
+January 20 in that it left the Luxemburg question open for future
+negotiation, and rendered Holland liable for the whole of the debt that
+it had incurred before the union of the two countries. On the same day
+Leopold accepted the Belgian crown. The Belgian congress accepted this
+last protocol on July 7, and on the 21st Leopold was proclaimed king,
+and immediately recognised by Great Britain and France. The other great
+powers were not long in following their example.
+
+It was now Holland's turn to feel aggrieved. She refused to recognise
+the changes proposed by the powers in the terms which she had already
+accepted. On May 21 she had declared that if the protocol of January 20
+were not accepted by June 1 she would consider herself free to act on
+her own account, and on July 12 that the acceptance in Belgium of a king
+who had not agreed to that protocol would be an act of hostility.
+Feeling herself betrayed by the conference she gave notice on August 1
+that the armistice which had existed since the previous November would
+terminate on the 4th. It was soon seen how much Holland had lost in the
+preceding year by being found in a state of military unpreparedness.
+When hostilities began the Dutch carried everything before them. On the
+8th the Belgians were routed at Hasselt, and on the 13th Leopold in
+person was compelled to surrender Louvain. But Holland was now arrested
+in the full tide of her success. The opportunity that French patriots
+had long desired had presented itself, and Louis Philippe would only
+have endangered his own throne if he had failed to come to the
+assistance of Belgium against Holland. On the 4th he received Leopold's
+appeal for assistance; on the 12th the first French division reached
+Brussels, and on the following day the Prince of Orange, who led the
+main Dutch army, received orders from the Hague to retire within the
+Dutch frontier.
+
+[Pageheading: _COERCION OF HOLLAND._]
+
+The conference had in fact found it necessary to join in measures of
+coercion. On the first news of the outbreak of hostilities it severely
+reproached Holland for the breach of the armistice, and ordered the
+Dutch forces to retire. By a protocol of the 6th it accepted and
+justified the French expedition, which, it knew, could not safely be
+recalled, and tried to minimise the danger by forbidding the French to
+cross the Dutch frontier and requiring them to return to France as soon
+as the Dutch should return to Holland. At the same time a semblance of
+joint action was created by the despatch of a British fleet to the
+Downs. If the Dutch invasion of Belgium created excitement in France,
+the French expedition had a similar effect in England, and Palmerston
+found it necessary to insist sternly on the immediate evacuation of
+Belgium upon the withdrawal of the Dutch troops. The French government
+naturally desired to point to some tangible triumph of French arms, and
+requested that the troops should be allowed to remain till the frontier
+fortresses should have been demolished in accordance with the protocol
+of April 17. In a somewhat insulting message Palmerston threatened a
+general war sooner than allow the French troops to remain. The most that
+France could obtain was that 12,000 men might remain a fortnight longer
+than the rest and that a number of French officers might enlist in the
+Belgian service.
+
+The conference now returned to the task of effecting a settlement in
+accordance with the terms of the protocol of June 26. On October 15 it
+provided for the partition of the grand duchy of Luxemburg between
+Holland and Belgium and for the indemnification of Holland with a larger
+portion of Limburg than had belonged to her in 1790. At the same time
+provision was made for the freedom of the Scheldt, and the debt was
+reassessed, 8,400,000 florins of _rentes_[136] being assigned to Belgium
+and 19,300,000 to Holland. Along with this protocol a letter was sent to
+the Belgian plenipotentiary, promising that if Belgium accepted it, the
+powers would undertake to obtain the consent of Holland. The protocol
+was converted into a treaty by the adhesion of Belgium on November 15.
+Meanwhile the King of the Netherlands had appealed to the tsar against
+the action of the western powers and of the Russian plenipotentiaries at
+London, and the tsar had in consequence refused to ratify the treaty
+till the King of the Netherlands should have given his consent. That
+consent was slow in coming. It was only on June 30, 1832, that Holland
+agreed to the exchange of territories and the reduction of Belgium's
+share of the debt, and even then questions remained as to the dues on
+the Scheldt and the transit of goods through Dutch Limburg. The Belgians
+refused to negotiate further until the citadel of Antwerp should be
+surrendered; the Dutch on the other hand refused to surrender it till a
+definite treaty should be signed and ratified. On October 1 France, with
+the approval of the British government, proposed to suspend the payment
+of the Belgian share of the interest on the debt until the citadel of
+Antwerp should be surrendered, and to deduct from the share of the
+principal payable by Belgium, 500,000 florins of _rentes_ for each week
+that should elapse before the surrender. The three eastern powers
+refused to agree to any coercion of Holland, and, in consequence, Great
+Britain and France determined to act alone.
+
+On the 22nd they signed a convention providing for the coercion of
+Holland by an embargo and by the despatch of a squadron to the Dutch
+coast. If any Dutch troops should be still in Belgium on November 15, a
+French force was empowered, subject to the consent of the Belgian
+government, to advance into Belgium and expel the Dutch troops from the
+country. The French were, however, to retire as soon as the Dutch
+evacuation was complete. The first result of this convention was the
+suspension of the conference. On the 29th the two powers made their
+demand. As the Dutch refused compliance, a joint French and British
+fleet sailed on November 4 to blockade the Scheldt, and the embargo was
+proclaimed on the 6th. On the 15th a French army of 56,000 men,
+commanded by Gerard, entered Belgium. On December 4 it opened fire on
+the citadel of Antwerp, which surrendered after a nineteen days'
+bombardment on the 23rd. The French army returned to its own country
+before the end of the year, leaving the Dutch in possession of two small
+forts on the Belgian side of the frontier, which were more than
+compensated by the positions held by the Belgians in Dutch Limburg. Even
+the fall of the citadel of Antwerp did not induce Holland to accept the
+settlement proposed by the powers, and Great Britain and France now
+attempted to effect a working agreement pending negotiations on the
+details of the treaty. It was in vain that Holland asked that Belgium
+should evacuate the Dutch provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg and pay
+her share of the interest on the Dutch debt. Palmerston and Talleyrand
+refused to include these provisions in a preliminary convention. Finally
+on March 21, 1833, a convention was signed between Great Britain,
+France, and Holland, which terminated the embargo and provided for the
+free navigation of the Scheldt and Maas. A similar convention was signed
+between Holland and Belgium on November 18. Six years, however, were to
+elapse before the Dutch government would consent to the conditions drawn
+up by the powers in 1831. Meanwhile the Belgians were free from their
+share of debt, held the greater part of Limburg and Luxemburg, and
+enjoyed the free navigation of the Maas and the Scheldt, over and above
+the terms granted them in 1831.
+
+[Pageheading: _POLISH REBELLION._]
+
+It is inconceivable that the Belgian question should have been left so
+entirely in the hands of the two western powers, and that the settlement
+should have taken the form of a foreign coercion of a legitimate king
+for his unreadiness to make concessions to his revolted subjects, had
+not the attention of the three absolutist powers of eastern and central
+Europe been directed to another quarter. Just as the revolution of 1820
+had spread through southern Europe in spite of Castlereagh's attempt to
+maintain that it was not of a contagious order, so that of 1830 awakened
+similar outbursts not only at Brussels but in various German states, in
+Switzerland, in Poland, and in Italy. The Polish insurrection was, like
+the Belgian, a national revolt, and the consequent military operations
+were of the nature of a war between Poland and Russia. The revolt broke
+out at Warsaw on November 29, 1830, and on January 25, 1831, the Polish
+diet proclaimed the independence of Poland. On February 5 a Russian army
+crossed the Polish frontier. In France there was a loud popular demand
+for intervention. But even the Laffitte ministry would not move without
+the co-operation of Great Britain, though the French ambassador at
+Constantinople tried to stir up the Porte to hostilities. The ministry
+of Casimir-Perier, which came into office in March, proposed a joint
+mediation of France and Great Britain, but to this Palmerston would not
+assent. He remonstrated with Russia on her violations of the Polish
+constitution, which Great Britain, along with the other powers, had
+guaranteed at the congress of Vienna, but he could not support the
+Polish claim to independence, since Great Britain had made herself a
+party to the union of the two countries. As it happened, the
+remonstrance was simply a cause of annoyance, which subsequent events
+were destined to intensify. It was only on September 8, 1831, that the
+Russians under Paskievitch captured Warsaw, an event which was followed
+on February 26, 1832, by the abolition of the Polish constitution.
+Palmerston protested again but with no more success than in the previous
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _DOM MIGUEL AND DON CARLOS._]
+
+In the Portuguese, as in the Belgian question, Palmerston drifted from
+the position of a neutral into that of a partisan. Ever since the year
+1828, British subjects accused of political offences had been brutally
+ill-treated in Portugal, and as time went on the excesses increased. By
+despatching six British warships to the Tagus Palmerston succeeded in
+obtaining a pecuniary indemnity and a public apology on May 2, 1831.
+Similar insults to France were not so readily redressed. A threat of
+force on the part of the French government was followed by an appeal
+from Dom Miguel for British assistance. This Palmerston refused to
+grant, and in July a French squadron under Admiral Roussin forced the
+passage of the Tagus, and carried off the best ships of the Portuguese
+navy. Meanwhile much irritation had been caused in Brazil by Peter's
+advocacy of his daughter's claim to Portugal, which was considered
+inconsistent with his professed adherence to the separation of the two
+countries. On April 6, Peter abdicated the crown of Brazil in favour of
+his infant son, Peter II., and on the following day sailed for Europe in
+order to assert his daughter's right to the Portuguese throne. He
+arrived in Europe towards the end of May, and visited both England and
+France.
+
+Though neither government assisted him directly, he was permitted to
+raise troops and even to secure the services of naval officers, and in
+December a force of 300 men sailed from Liverpool to Belleisle, which he
+had appointed as the rendezvous. Palmerston had thus, unlike Wellington,
+adopted the same attitude towards the Portuguese liberals that Ferdinand
+VII. had adopted towards the absolutists. Peter's expedition gathered
+further strength at the Azores and sailed for Portugal on June 27, 1832.
+On July 8, the fleet, commanded by Admiral Sartorius, a British officer,
+appeared off Oporto, which submitted on the following day. The town was,
+however, blockaded by Miguel's forces and Peter's cause made no headway
+until in June, 1833, the command of the fleet was transferred to Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Charles) Napier. On the night of June 24, he
+landed at Villa Real a force of 2,500 men who conquered the province of
+Algarve in a week, and on July 5 he annihilated Miguel's navy in an
+engagement off Cape St. Vincent. After a further battle near Lisbon,
+Peter's forces entered the capital on the 24th, and subsequently
+repulsed a Miguelite attack upon the city. Miguel still held out in
+northern Portugal, when another train of events caused the western
+powers to substitute direct for indirect interference.
+
+Ferdinand VII. of Spain had fallen so entirely under the influence of
+his fourth and last queen, Maria Christina of Naples, as to repeal by a
+pragmatic sanction the Salic law which the treaty of Utrecht had
+established as the rule of succession in Spain. The result of this edict
+was to leave the succession to his infant daughter Isabella instead of
+his brother Don Carlos, the leader of the Spanish absolutists. When
+Ferdinand died on September 29, 1833, Don Carlos was absent from the
+kingdom, supporting the cause of his fellow-pretender Dom Miguel.
+Isabella received the hearty support of the constitutional party and was
+almost universally acknowledged as queen. It was only in Biscay, where
+the centralising tendency of the Spanish constitution, published on
+April 10, 1834, seemed to entrench upon local liberty, that Don Carlos
+met with much active support. His cause, like that of Miguel in
+Portugal, was the more popular, but his adherents were as yet almost
+entirely devoid of organisation. Peter's partisans had already made
+substantial progress towards a complete victory, and Santha Martha, the
+Miguelite commander-in-chief, had surrendered in the beginning of April,
+when on April 22 a triple alliance, already signed between Great
+Britain, Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, and Peter, as regent of
+Portugal, was converted into a quadruple alliance by the adhesion of
+France. This treaty provided for the co-operation of Spain and Portugal
+to expel Dom Miguel and Don Carlos from the Portuguese dominions. Great
+Britain was to assist by the employment of a naval force, and France was
+to render assistance, if required, in such manner as should be settled
+afterwards by common consent of the four contracting powers. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, immediately crossed the frontier. He met with no
+resistance, and on May 26 Miguel signed a convention at Evora, by which
+he accepted a pension, renounced his rights to the Portuguese throne,
+and agreed to quit the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CARLIST WAR._]
+
+Don Carlos, however, refused to renounce his rights to the Spanish
+throne, and all that the British navy could do was to convey the two
+pretenders, Carlos to England and Miguel to Genoa. Although Miguel, on
+June 20, repudiated his abdication, the Portuguese question was really
+at an end. The Spanish question was, however, merely entering on its
+critical stage. Don Carlos secretly left London on July 1, and nine days
+later appeared at the Carlist headquarters in Spain. Here he had the
+assistance of the ablest general of this war, Zumalacarregui.
+Melbourne's succession to the premiership in July left Palmerston at the
+foreign office, and was followed by no change in foreign policy. On
+August 18 an additional article to the quadruple alliance provided that
+France was to prevent reinforcements or warlike stores from reaching Don
+Carlos from the French side of the frontier, while Great Britain was to
+supply arms and stores to the Spanish royalists and, if necessary,
+intervene with a naval force. The short interlude of conservative
+government, with Peel as premier and Wellington as foreign secretary,
+was not marked by any change of policy nor yet by any new aggressions.
+Wellington's only interference with the course of hostilities was the
+mission of Lord Eliot to Navarre, which induced the combatants to
+abandon for the time being those cruelties to prisoners which had been
+the disgrace of the Spanish civil wars.
+
+Shortly after the return of Melbourne and Palmerston to power,
+Zumalacarregui won a victory in the valley of Amascoas on April 21 and
+22, 1835, which opened to him the road to Madrid. The Madrid government
+now appealed to France to send 12,000 men to occupy the Basque
+provinces. By the terms of the quadruple alliance the assent of Great
+Britain and Portugal was necessary in order to determine the manner in
+which France was to render assistance. Thiers, on behalf of Louis
+Philippe, suggested a separate French expedition on the lines of that of
+1823. Palmerston, like Canning before him, refused to sanction such an
+expedition, though he was prepared to allow France to make the
+expedition on her own responsibility. He suggested in return that Great
+Britain should intervene. But Louis Philippe was equally opposed to the
+separate action of his own country and of Great Britain, and the result
+was that neither government sent any troops. The Spanish government was,
+however, permitted to enlist volunteers, and actually received the
+assistance of an English legion, a French legion, and 6,000 Portuguese.
+The immediate danger was averted by the obstinacy of Don Carlos, who
+refused to permit Zumalacarregui to march on Madrid till the conquest of
+Biscay was complete. The Carlist general turned aside in consequence to
+the siege of Bilbao, in which a few weeks later he met his death.
+
+In February, 1836, some changes in the French ministry increased the
+power of Thiers, who had so recently advocated the policy of
+intervention. Palmerston now proposed a French expedition to the Basque
+provinces, while the British were to occupy St. Sebastian and Pasages.
+Thiers did not, however, feel strong enough to accept this offer, and
+Palmerston determined to act alone. A British squadron under Lord John
+Hay was despatched to the Spanish coast with instructions to assist the
+royalist forces. This squadron is probably entitled to the principal
+share in the credit for the successful resistance of Bilbao to the
+Carlist armies. In May, however, a conservative government entered upon
+office in Spain, and France became more ready to grant assistance.
+Isturiz, the new Spanish premier, persuaded Louis Philippe to send some
+troops to Spain; but by leaning on foreign support Isturiz had
+overreached himself. Spanish indignation found vent in a revolutionary
+movement, accompanied by bloodshed; one town after another declared for
+the constitution of 1812, which the queen-regent was forced to sign on
+August 13, and on the following day a progressist ministry was installed
+in office. Austria, Prussia, and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from
+Madrid after the riots of the 13th, and Louis Philippe recalled the
+forces he had sent to the assistance of the Spanish government. Had Don
+Carlos listened to the advice of the eastern powers and given such
+assurances as might have won over the more moderate of Isabella's
+supporters, he would probably have proved successful. As it was the war
+dragged on, but De Lacy Evans, who was in command of the British legion,
+left Spain on June 10, 1837, and most of his men followed soon after.
+The question of intervention had, however, put an end to that cordial
+co-operation of Great Britain and France which had existed ever since
+the July revolution, and left Great Britain as isolated in the counsels
+of Europe as she had been when Canning and Wellington dissociated
+themselves from the other powers at Verona.
+
+The settlement of the Greek question proceeded very slowly. While the
+powers were seeking a possible king, Capodistrias exercised an
+autocratic sway as president. However, in the spring of 1831, the
+Mainots of southern Laconia and the Hydriots revolted against him, and
+got possession of the Greek fleet. Capodistrias appealed to Russia for
+assistance, and a Russian squadron was sent to blockade the Greek fleet
+at Poros. But Miaoulis, the Greek admiral, sank his ships in order to
+save them from the Russians. The situation was simplified by the
+assassination of Capodistrias on October 9, which left two rival
+national assemblies struggling for the mastery. The French troops failed
+to maintain order, and the way was clear for a king who would have the
+prestige of an international treaty and an independent revenue to
+support his position. This was the situation when on February 13, 1832,
+a protocol was signed at London, offering the Greek crown to Otto, the
+second son of King Lewis of Bavaria, a boy of seventeen. The boundary
+was to be fixed where Palmerston, while still a member of the Wellington
+administration, had wished to fix it, along a line running from the Gulf
+of Arta to that of Volo. King Lewis would not, however, agree to accept
+the crown for his son unless he should be granted the title of king,
+instead of prince, and should be guaranteed a loan to enable him to meet
+the expenses of his position. On May 7, 1832, the London protocol was
+embodied in a treaty of London; the crown was definitely conferred on
+Otto, who was given the title of king, guaranteed a loan, not exceeding
+L2,400,000, and allowed to take out 3,500 Bavarian troops with him. The
+Turkish consent to the proposed boundary was given on July 21; Greece
+accepted the treaty in August, and the new king left for his kingdom in
+December.[137]
+
+[Pageheading: _VICTORIES OF IBRAHIM._]
+
+Greece now disappears from the eastern question. But Ibrahim Pasha,
+whose successes in Greece had induced Canning to interfere, had already
+disclosed a new phase of that question by successes gained in another
+quarter. Mehemet Ali had quickly repaired the losses which his fleet and
+army had sustained in the Peloponnese. Meanwhile he demanded from
+Sultan Mahmud that Ibrahim should be compensated with a part of Syria
+for the loss of the Morea, which had been promised him as a reward for
+his services in Greece. The sultan refused to grant this insolent
+demand, and Mehemet Ali determined to conquer the province for himself.
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, had taken under his protection some fugitive
+peasants, and Mehemet Ali, in spite of the sultan's prohibition, sent
+Ibrahim with an army of 30,000 men against him. He laid siege to Acre on
+December 9, 1831, and took it on May 27, 1832. On July 8 he routed a
+Turkish army at Homs; on the 29th he routed a larger army at the pass of
+Beilan, and on the 31st he entered Antioch. In November he was at
+Konieh. The Tsar Nicholas had, with Palmerston's approval, already sent
+Lieutenant-General Muraviov on a mission to Constantinople, offering
+military and naval support; but the sultan preferred to seek British
+assistance first.
+
+Unfortunately the message came at a time when the British fleet was
+preparing to blockade the coasts of the Netherlands, and could not be
+spared for service In the Mediterranean. An appeal to France was equally
+unsuccessful. She had by this time formed the siege of the citadel of
+Antwerp, and was moreover naturally averse from a struggle with Ibrahim,
+whose army had been organised and trained by French officers. The sultan
+therefore decided to avail himself of the offers made by Russia. Indeed
+he had no choice, for the news now came that on December 21 Ibrahim had
+completely defeated the Turkish general, Reshid, at Konieh and that
+there was no army between him and Constantinople. Muraviov was sent on a
+vain mission to Alexandria with authority to cede Acre to Mehemet Ali if
+he would surrender his fleet to the sultan. Ibrahim advanced to Kiutayeh
+and his advance-guard came as far as Broussa. The sultan on February 2,
+1833, requested the assistance of the Russian navy, and on the 20th a
+Russian squadron appeared at Constantinople.
+
+The powers that had refused to move to save Turkey from Ibrahim were
+quick enough to interfere when the danger was from Russia and not from
+an oriental. Ibrahim might have been expected to make a stronger ruler
+than the sultan, whose fall seemed imminent. A Russian protectorate was
+a different matter. Roussin, the French ambassador at Constantinople,
+protested against the Russian alliance and threatened to leave
+Constantinople. A French envoy was, at his suggestion, permitted to
+offer Mehemet the governorship of the Syrian pashaliks of Tripoli and
+Acre. On March 8 Mehemet rejected these terms, and declared that if his
+own terms were not accepted within six weeks his troops would march upon
+Constantinople. The sultan then turned to Russia again and asked for
+troops. Fifteen thousand Russians were in consequence landed on the
+shores of the Bosphorus, and in the beginning of April an army of
+24,000, which had remained in Moldavia ever since the war of 1828-29,
+prepared to march southwards. Constantinople at least was thus rendered
+safe from Ibrahim, and there was therefore more hope that Mehemet would
+come to terms. The British, French, and Austrian ambassadors spared no
+effort to induce the Porte to offer terms that might be accepted, and
+their representations were probably rendered the more persuasive by the
+appearance of British and French fleets in the AEgean. Roussin especially
+urged that it was better to surrender Syria than to reconquer it by
+Russian troops. At last the sultan yielded, and on April 10 a peace was
+signed at Kiutayeh, though not ratified by the sultan till May 15. This
+treaty granted to Mehemet Ali Syria and Cilicia, but restored the bulk
+of Asia Minor to the Porte.
+
+[Pageheading: _CONFERENCE OF MUeNCHENGRAeTZ._]
+
+Turkey had been saved by the western powers, but only because they
+dreaded the possibility of her being saved by Russia. A few weeks later
+their worst fears seemed on the point of realisation. The Russian troops
+on the Bosphorus were a sure guarantee of the predominance of Russian
+influence at Constantinople, and this was illustrated in a marked degree
+by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, signed on July 8, which provided for a
+defensive alliance for eight years between Russia and the Porte. Russia
+was, when required, to provide the sultan with both military and naval
+forces, to be provisioned by him, but otherwise maintained by Russia. A
+secret article, soon made known, provided that Russia would not ask for
+material aid if at war, but that in that event the Porte would close the
+Dardanelles to the warships of other nations. Great Britain had already
+obtained the rights of the most favoured nation, so far as the passage
+of the Dardanelles was concerned, and therefore maintained that the
+treaty did not affect her right to pass those straits; and France
+joined her in presenting identical notes declaring their intention of
+ignoring the treaty in event of war. British public opinion, already
+wounded by the conquest of Poland, was even more vehemently affected
+than British policy. The treaty was regarded as the establishment in
+Turkey of a Russian protectorate, which it was necessary for Great
+Britain to destroy, and the antagonism thus produced has lasted to our
+own day. Matters were not improved when the tsar asked for the cession
+of the Danubian principalities, which were still occupied by Russia, in
+return for a remission of the war indemnity owing since 1829. Austria,
+France, and Great Britain protested against this proposal, and in
+consequence nothing came of it.
+
+Austria then assumed the _role_ of mediator. A friendly request for
+explanation elicited a declaration from Russia, disclaiming all
+intention of self-aggrandisement, and promising to accept the mediation
+of Austria in any case where the treaty could be invoked. Austria in
+consequence endeavoured to persuade the western powers that there was no
+immediate danger, and that she would use her mediation to remove any
+danger that might arise. Meanwhile she endeavoured to allay distrust of
+Russia by inducing that power to evacuate the Danubian principalities.
+But before this result could be accomplished the negotiations between
+Austria and Russia had taken a turn which gave Austria, in English eyes,
+the appearance of an accomplice rather than of a mediator. The
+revolutionary movements of 1830 and following years had produced grave
+apprehensions in the minds of the rulers of the three eastern powers,
+Austria, Prussia, and Russia; and the coercion of Holland and Portugal
+caused them to feel a deep distrust of the policy of Great Britain and
+France, and to grasp the necessity of united action against the
+revolutionary forces at work in Europe. For this purpose it was
+considered necessary to revive Metternich's policy of 1820 as defined at
+Troppau. The three powers had for some time been drawing together, and
+in September, 1833, the Emperors Francis and Nicholas and the Crown
+Prince of Prussia met at Muenchengraetz in Bohemia, where a secret
+convention was signed on the 18th. They refused to recognise Isabella as
+Queen of Spain in the event of Ferdinand's death; they arranged for
+mutual assistance against the Poles; and agreed to combine to resist
+any change of dynasty in Turkey and any extension of Arab rule into
+Europe. In the event of a collapse of the Ottoman empire, Austria and
+Russia were to act together in settling the reversion. On October 15 the
+three powers signed a further convention at Berlin, containing one
+public and two secret articles. The latter recognised the right, already
+asserted at Troppau, of intervention in the internal affairs of a
+country whose sovereign expressed a desire for foreign assistance. There
+can be little doubt that Austria and Russia were in earnest in their
+professed desire to maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions, but
+an opinion gained ground in England that they had already agreed to
+partition them between themselves.
+
+On January 29, 1834, Austrian mediation bore fruit in a definite treaty
+for the evacuation of the Danubian principalities. Russia merely
+reserved to herself the appointment of the first hospodar of each
+principality. The first act, however, of Alexander Ghika, the new
+hospodar of Wallachia, was to forbid any change of statute without the
+consent of Russia. Silistria alone remained in Russian hands till a
+third part of the indemnity should be paid. The remaining two-thirds
+Russia consented to abandon. A revolt among the Syrian mountaineers gave
+Russia an opportunity of demonstrating her pacific intentions. The
+sultan supported the revolt and also sent troops to conquer Urfa which
+Ibrahim had neglected to surrender. Russia, however, refused to support
+the sultan in an aggressive war, and the powers negotiated a peace. The
+Syrian revolt was quelled, and Urfa surrendered to the sultan. In 1835
+the Tsar Nicholas and the new Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, met at
+Teplitz where they renewed the agreements concluded at Muenchengraetz.
+Metternich proposed a conference at Vienna to settle the eastern
+question, but the tsar, who really possessed the decisive voice so long
+as the question remained open, refused to hear of this. Finally in
+September, 1836, the Russian evacuation of Silistria was obtained by a
+payment of 30,000,000 piastres, borrowed, for the most part, in England.
+The Eastern question now seemed to have entered upon a quieter phase,
+and the military reforms which European officers, including Moltke,
+afterwards famous in a different region, were carrying out in Turkey,
+gave promise that she might be able to hold her own in future against
+domestic foes.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[136] The debt was, according to the French practice, expressed in terms
+of the interest payable annually (_rentes_), not in terms of a nominal
+principal as in this country.
+
+[137] Finlay, _History of Greece_, vol. vii., chapters ii., iii.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XIX.
+
+                             BRITISH INDIA.
+
+
+When Pitt resigned office in 1801, the Marquis Wellesley had already
+reached the climax, though by no means the close, of his brilliant
+proconsulate. This remarkable man, whose fame has been unduly eclipsed
+by that of his younger brother, may justly be considered the second
+founder of our Indian Empire. This empire, recognised at last, in the
+vote of thanks passed by the house of commons on the fall of
+Seringapatam, was soon to be aggrandised by three important accessions
+of dominion. The first of these was the annexation of the Karnatik on
+the well-founded plea that its nabob was too weak even for the semblance
+of independence, that he was incapable of governing tolerably, and that
+he had been in correspondence with Tipu. The effect of this and two
+minor annexations was to place the entire south-western and
+south-eastern coasts of the Indian peninsula under the British rule. The
+next step was the system of subsidiary treaties, whereby the British
+government assumed a protectorate over native states, providing a fixed
+number of troops for their defence and receiving an equivalent in
+subsidies. The Nizam of Haidarabad was already in a condition little
+removed from vassalage, and now surrendered considerable districts in
+lieu of a pecuniary tribute.
+
+A similar course was taken with the Nawab Wazir of Oudh whose territory
+was threatened on one side by the Afghan king, Zeman Shah, and on
+another by the Maratha lord, Daulat Rao Sindhia, who had gained
+possession of Delhi. By forcible negotiations Wellesley obtained from
+him the cession of all his frontier provinces, including Rohilkhand, and
+consolidated the power of the Indian government along the whole line of
+the Jumna and Ganges. The last and greatest object of the
+governor-general's ambition was the conquest of the confederate Maratha
+states, and for this a pretext was not long wanting. His forward policy,
+it is true, had already excited alarm and criticism at home, while the
+peace of Amiens had ostensibly removed the chief justification of
+it--the necessity of combating the aggressive designs of France. But, in
+the case of India, far more than of the American colonies, "months
+passed and seas rolled between the order and the execution"; for in
+those days ships conveying despatches occupied at least four or five
+months on their voyage, and decisions taken in Leadenhall Street might
+be utterly stultified by accomplished facts before they could be read in
+Calcutta.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY AND LAKE._]
+
+The Peshwa, at Poona, still maintained a show of independent authority
+over the other great Maratha chieftains, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Raja
+of Nagpur or Berar. But the real military power of the Marathas rested
+with these leaders, and their predatory troops of horsemen terrorised
+all Central India. Happily for Wellesley's purpose, they were often at
+feud with each other, and the Peshwa, though aided by Sindhia, was
+utterly defeated by Jaswant Rao Holkar. He fled to Bassein near Bombay,
+where, on December 31, 1802, a treaty was signed by which not only the
+Peshwa but the Nizam of Haidarabad was placed under British protection.
+The Peshwa was conducted back to Poona by a British force under Arthur
+Wellesley in May, 1803, but the other Maratha chiefs naturally resented
+this fresh encroachment on their independence, and a league was shortly
+formed between the Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, which it was hoped that
+Holkar would ultimately join. By this time, a rupture of the peace with
+France was known to be impending, and Lord Wellesley eagerly seized the
+opportunity to crush Sindhia, while he urged the home government to
+seize the Cape of Good Hope and the Mauritius. Two expeditions were
+directed against Sindhia's territory, the one under Arthur Wellesley,
+moving from Poona in the west towards the Nizam's frontier; the other,
+under General Lake, operating on the north-west against the highly
+trained forces, under French officers, assembled before Delhi. Both
+campaigns were eminently successful. Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar on
+August 11, encountered the combined armies of Sindhia and the Raja of
+Nagpur at Assaye on September 23, and, after a desperate conflict,
+obtained a decisive victory. Twelve hundred of the Marathas were left
+dead on the field and 102 guns were captured. He then advanced into
+Berar and completely defeated the army of the Nagpur Raja at Argaum.
+Lake marched from Cawnpur, took Delhi and Agra, assuming custody of the
+Mughal emperor, and inflicted a final defeat on a powerful Maratha army,
+no longer under French officers, at Laswari. Large cessions of territory
+followed. The treaty of Bassein was recognised by Sindhia and the Raja
+of Nagpur. Gujrat, Cuttack, and the districts along the Jumna passed
+into British possession, and the East India Company became the visible
+successor, though nominally the guardian, of the Mughal emperor.
+
+Meanwhile, Holkar remained a passive spectator of the contest. Jealous
+as he was of Sindhia, he was by no means prepared to acquiesce in the
+subjection of the great Maratha power. Having taken up a threatening
+position in Rajputana, and defied Lake's summons to retire, he was
+treated as an enemy, and proved a very formidable enemy. Instead of
+relying, like Sindhia, on disciplined battalions, he fell back on the
+old Maratha tactics, and swept the country with hordes of irregular
+cavalry who lived by pillage. In 1804 a British force of 1,200 troops
+under Colonel Monson was lured away from its base of supplies by a
+feigned retreat and incurred a very serious reverse; scarcely a tenth of
+them, utterly broken, "straggled, a mere rabble, into Agra". This
+disaster was soon afterwards retrieved by other divisions of Lake's
+army, but three attempts to storm the strong fortress of Bhartpur were
+repulsed by the raja, Ranjit Singh, an ally of Holkar. Though Holkar's
+bands were at last dispersed, a new dispute arose with Sindhia about the
+ownership of Gwalior and Gohad, which remained unsettled when Lord
+Wellesley resigned early in 1805, not so much because his policy was
+disapproved by the court of directors, for whom he always professed a
+sovereign contempt, as because he was no longer cordially supported by
+the home government.
+
+In his despatch to the secret committee of the East India Company after
+the conclusion of the war with Sindhia, Wellesley describes the
+consolidation of the British empire and the pacification of all India,
+as the supreme result of his beneficent rule.[138] That rule was
+followed by ten years of comparative repose, if not of reaction, but two
+events, occurring within this period, threw a significant light on the
+inherent danger of relying too much on a native army under British
+officers. Sepoy regiments had been raised and had served loyally on both
+sides in the struggles between the French and English during the
+eighteenth century. The Bengal sepoys were mostly Rajputs and showed the
+highest military qualities in many a wearisome march and hard fought
+field, from the days of Clive to those of Lake and Arthur Wellesley. But
+outbreaks bordering upon mutiny had occasionally taken place in the
+native armies of all the presidencies, and on July 10, 1806, a most
+formidable mutiny, ending in a massacre at Vellore, west of Madras,
+produced a sense of insecurity throughout all India. It was instigated
+by the family of Tipu who had been quartered in that fortress, and its
+immediate origin was the issue of certain vexatious regulations about
+uniform which offended native prejudices of caste. The European force,
+numbering some 370, was surprised and surrounded by a much larger body
+of sepoys, half of them were killed or wounded, and Tipu's standard was
+hoisted. Within a few hours, however, cavalry and artillery arrived from
+Arcot, the mutineers were slaughtered by hundreds, and the disaffected
+regiments were broken up. Three years later, a serious mutiny broke out
+among the company's own officers at Madras, caused by a petty grievance
+affecting their profits on tent-contracts. It was appeased rather than
+suppressed, and, notwithstanding these discouraging symptoms of
+insecurity, the Company's army retained its separate organisation for
+half a century longer.
+
+[Pageheading: _MINTO'S PACIFIC POLICY._]
+
+Lord Cornwallis, the successor of Lord Wellesley, was opposed by
+conviction to a progressive expansion of British territory, and
+represented not only the cautious views of the home government, but the
+financial anxieties of the East India Company, which always valued a
+steady revenue more highly than imperial supremacy. Wellesley had
+virtually reconstructed the map of India on lines destined to endure
+until a fresh period of annexation set in some forty years later. These
+lines were not disturbed by Cornwallis, who died on October 5, 1805,
+three months after his arrival, but he clearly indicated his desire to
+let the system of protectorates and subsidiary treaties fall gradually
+into abeyance. His correspondence with Lake, whose victories had won him
+the rank of baron, contains a somewhat peremptory warning against fresh
+engagements contemplated by that enterprising officer, whose vigorous
+remonstrance he did not live to receive.[139] Sir George Barlow, who
+became acting governor-general for two years, adopted the same passive
+attitude, and forebore to carry out a projected alliance with Sindhia,
+though he would not allow any interference with our paramount influence
+at Poona and Haidarabad. Lord Minto, father of the Earl of Minto who
+presided at the admiralty under Melbourne, arrived as governor-general
+in 1807. He was imbued with similar ideas, and was fortunate in finding
+the Marathas too much weakened to be dangerous neighbours. His rule was,
+therefore, essentially pacific, but he did good service in maintaining
+internal order, and especially in putting down the organised brigandage,
+known as "dakaiti," which had been the curse of rural districts. The
+distinctive feature of his career, however, was a permanent enlargement
+of the horizon of Indian statesmanship to a sphere beyond the confines
+of India and even of Asia, a change due to new movements in the vast
+international conflict then engrossing the energies of Europe.
+
+However chimerical the designs of Napoleon against British India may now
+appear, there is no doubt that such designs were seriously entertained
+by him, nor is it self-evident that what Alexander the Great found
+possible would have proved impossible to one who combined with
+Alexander's superhuman audacity the command of resources beyond anything
+known in the ancient world. At all events, after the battle of Friedland
+and the peace of Tilsit, an expedition to be launched from Russian
+territory upon the north-west frontier of India, with the support of
+Persia on the flank, became a contingency which an Indian
+governor-general could not afford to neglect. It is, indeed, strange
+that a march across Europe and half of Asia should have appeared to
+Napoleon more practicable than a voyage across the English Channel, and
+it is highly improbable that he would have cherished the idea of it, if
+he could have foreseen the perils of the Russian expedition. But his
+conversations at St. Helena prove that it was not a mere vision but a
+half-formed design, and, even after it had been discouraged by Russia,
+he sent a preliminary mission to Persia. Minto lost no time in sending
+counter-missions, not only to Tihran, but to Lahore, Afghanistan, and
+Sind.
+
+The Persian court was already in diplomatic relations with the Indian
+government. Colonel Malcolm, afterwards Sir John Malcolm, had been sent
+by Wellesley as envoy to the shah at the end of 1800, and in January,
+1801, a treaty had been signed, establishing free trade between India
+and Persia, and binding the shah to exclude the French from his
+dominions, while the company undertook to provide ships, troops, and
+stores, in case of French invasion. This treaty, however, neither was
+nor could have been actively carried out on either side. Early in 1806
+the shah, who had become embroiled with Russia, appealed to Calcutta for
+aid, regardless of the fact that hostilities with Russia were not a
+_casus foederis_. Failing to obtain it, he appealed to France.
+Napoleon despatched General Gardane, who arrived in December, 1807. He
+obtained a treaty under which the shah engaged to banish all Englishmen
+on demand of the French emperor. Thereupon Malcolm was entrusted by
+Minto with a fresh mission, but never reached the Persian capital, where
+French influence was still paramount, and the peremptory tone of
+Malcolm's letters was resented. Meanwhile, Sir Harford Jones had been
+sent out by the British foreign office, and was received at Tihran in
+February, 1809, the peace of Tilsit having destroyed the Persian hope of
+French support against Russia. For a while, the right of negotiating
+with the shah was in dispute between the Indian government and the
+foreign office, and Sir John Malcolm reappeared at Tihran in the spring
+of 1810, as the representative of the former. In the end, however, he
+co-operated loyally with Jones, and a fresh treaty was signed, though
+both these rival emissaries were soon afterwards superseded by Sir Gore
+Ouseley as permanent ambassador.
+
+[Pageheading: _ELPHINSTONE IN AFGHANISTAN._]
+
+Two other envoys selected by Minto left names which are famous in
+Anglo-Indian history, and one achieved an important success. Charles
+Metcalfe, Minto's envoy to Lahore, succeeded with the advantage of an
+armed force within easy reach of the Sikh frontier, in converting into
+an ally the redoubtable Ranjit Singh (not to be confounded with Ranjit
+Singh of Bhartpur), who had gathered into his own hands the Sikh
+confederacy and acquired sovereignty over the whole Punjab. He was now
+induced not only to accept the Sutlej river as the boundary line of his
+dominion, but to conclude a treaty of perpetual amity with the British
+government. This treaty remained unbroken until his death, and stood us
+in good stead during the perilous crisis of the first Afghan war. The
+embassy of Mountstuart Elphinstone to Afghanistan was comparatively
+fruitless, chiefly owing to the unsettled state of that mysterious
+country. Shah Shuja, its titular amir, so far from being in a condition
+to resist French invasion, had lost possession of Kabul and Kandahar,
+and was only anxious to obtain British aid against his elder brother
+Mahmud. Elphinstone, of course, had no authority to entangle the Company
+in a civil war far beyond the Indian frontier and was obliged to content
+himself with a worthless treaty empowering Great Britain to defend
+Afghanistan against France. This treaty had scarcely been ratified when
+Shah Shuja himself was driven into exile, to play an ignoble part thirty
+years later in the great tragedy of the first Afghan war.
+
+However pacific Minto's policy was, he did not shut his eyes to the
+necessity of guarding the coasts and commerce of India against the enemy
+who still dominated Europe, and had not wholly abandoned his visions of
+eastern conquest. We have seen already that the "half way" naval station
+at the Cape of Good Hope had been retaken from the Dutch in 1806, the
+year in which the Berlin decree was issued. In 1810 the French were
+expelled from Java by an expedition despatched under Minto's orders,
+though it was soon to be restored to Holland. In the same year the
+islands of Mauritius and Bourbon were captured from the French and the
+sea route to India was finally secured. Lord Minto, who was recalled in
+1813 and raised to the dignity of an earl, left India after six years of
+peaceful government in a state of tranquillity such as it had never
+before enjoyed, and the settlement of the country under British
+suzerainty appeared to have been assured. Yet the seeds of fresh trouble
+were already working, and his successor was to prove himself a second
+Wellesley, and add new territories of great extent to British India.
+
+Lord Moira, better known by his later title as Marquis of Hastings,
+displayed qualities as governor-general of which his previous career had
+given no indication. He had already proved himself a good soldier, but
+he was a court favourite as well as a somewhat impracticable politician,
+and owed his appointment to other influences than his own merit. His
+arrival in India nearly coincided with the charter of 1813, which threw
+open the India trade, and virtually ushered in a new social era. He was
+at once confronted with an empty treasury, on the one hand, and, on the
+other, with alarming reports both from the northern frontier and from
+the central provinces, still under independent princes of doubtful
+fidelity. The earlier part of his nine years' residence in India was
+engrossed by most harassing operations against the Nepalis and the
+Pindaris, but these operations resulted in perfect success, and Hastings
+was able to show before he left India that he was eminent alike in civil
+and in military administration.
+
+The mountainous region of Nepal, lying on the slopes of the Himalayas
+north of Bengal and Oudh, had been occupied by the warlike nation, still
+known as the Gurkhas, whose capital was at Khatmandu. Like the Marathas,
+they had been in the habit of pillaging British territory as well as
+Oudh, and when part of Oudh was annexed by Wellesley, frontier disputes
+were added to former grounds of hostility. Minto remonstrated with them
+sharply but in vain, and Moira lost no time in declaring war against
+them. The first campaign of 1814, which followed, though skilfully
+conceived by Moira, who held the office of commander-in-chief, was
+carried out with little generalship, and was marked by disasters highly
+damaging to British prestige. Three out of four armies launched against
+the hill-tribes met with serious reverses, chiefly due to a contempt for
+the enemy, and a persistence in making frontal assaults on strong
+positions without practicable breaches, which have proved so fatal in
+many a later conflict between British troops and undisciplined foes.
+During the cold season, however, on the extreme north-west, the cautious
+but irresistible advance of General Ochterlony penetrated the hill
+ranges which had baffled all the other commanders, and retrieved the
+fortunes of the war. The Gurkhas were far, indeed, from being subdued,
+but Ochterlony's success among their strongest fastnesses, aided by
+that of Colonels Gardner and Nicholls in the district of Kumaun,
+induced them to sue for peace, and offer territorial cessions. The loss
+of the Tarai, or belt of forest interspersed with pastures at the foot
+of the Himalayas, was the most onerous of the conditions imposed upon
+them by the treaty of Almora, signed in 1815. Rather than submit to it,
+the Gurkha chiefs refused to ratify the treaty, and resumed their arms.
+After two defeats, however, in February, 1816, they abandoned further
+resistance, and Moira afterwards wisely consented to a modification of
+the frontier-line. Retaining but a remnant of their dominions in the
+lowlands, the Gurkhas have ever since preserved their independence with
+their military training in the highlands, and have contributed some of
+the best fighting material to the British army in India.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE PINDARIS._]
+
+While the war in Nepal was still undecided, fresh troubles broke out in
+Central India, where Wellesley's settlement had left no permanent
+security for peace. The very submission of the great Maratha powers had
+set free large bands of irregular troops, with no livelihood but
+pillage, and ever ready, like the Italian _condottieri_ of the later
+middle ages, to enlist in the service of any aggressive state. These
+mounted freebooters, now called the Pindaris, were secretly encouraged
+by the Maratha chiefs, who looked upon them as useful auxiliaries in the
+future, either against the government of India or against other native
+princes. Several of these still remained in a more or less dependent but
+restless condition, and the great leaders of the Maratha confederacy,
+Sindhia, Malhar Rao Holkar, son and successor of Jaswant Rao, the
+Peshwa, and the Raja of Nagpur, retained a large share of their former
+sovereignty. Of these subject-allies, the one most directly under
+British guidance and protection was the Peshwa, but even he took
+advantage of hostile movements among his neighbours to join in a
+combination against British rule, supported by the predatory raids of
+the Pindaris. He had long been discontented with the subordinate
+position which he had occupied since the treaty of Bassein. The
+assassination in 1815 of an envoy of the Gaekwar of Baroda, who had been
+sent to Poona on a special mission under British guarantees, nearly
+provoked hostilities. But in June, 1817, a treaty was concluded, by
+which the Peshwa accepted an increased subsidiary force, ceded part of
+his territory, renounced his suzerainty over the Gaekwar and undertook
+to submit all further disputes to the decision of the British
+government. In November, however, chafing under the restrictions imposed
+by this treaty, he broke out into hostility, burnt the British
+residency, and after vainly attacking the British troops, fled from
+Poona. Almost simultaneously Holkar and the Raja of Nagpur rose. Holkar
+was defeated in a pitched battle at Mehidpur in Malwa, while the sepoys
+successfully held their own against the Raja's troops at Nagpur. The
+fugitive Peshwa was energetically pursued, and captured, and was
+stripped of his dominions. The greater part of these was annexed by the
+East India Company, but a portion was reserved for the heir of the old
+Maratha kings who was established at Satara. The Raja of Nagpur was also
+compelled to cede a large portion of his dominions, and at the same time
+the Company acquired the overlordship of Rajputana. Henceforth, the
+British government claimed a control over all the foreign relations of
+native Indian states, whose internal government was to be carefully
+watched by a British resident, and whose military forces were to be
+practically under the supreme command of the paramount power.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE END OF THE PINDARIS._]
+
+Lord Moira, created Marquis of Hastings in 1816, was at last free to
+hunt down the Pindaris, with the sullen acquiescence of the Maratha
+governments, and he executed his task with extraordinary vigour. He
+would have undertaken it, at the instigation of Metcalfe, then resident
+at Delhi, a year earlier, but for the peremptory orders of Canning, at
+that time president of the board of control, who positively forbade him
+to embark on a new war. These orders were greatly relaxed after the
+bloodthirsty raid of Chitu, the famous Pindari leader, who in 1816
+desolated vast tracts of Central India. Still no effective action
+against the Pindaris was possible until the Maratha lords who harboured
+and encouraged them had been crippled and overawed. With their
+connivance, a second Pindari raid, accompanied by shocking cruelties,
+was made in the same year, but in 1817, when Holkar's followers were
+severely defeated at Mehidpur, the secret coalition between these
+bandits and our nominal allies was thoroughly broken up. Even then it
+proved a most difficult enterprise to root out the Pindaris, who were
+not a race, or a tribe, or a sect, but bands of lawless men of all
+faiths; for they met and vanished like birds of the air, outstripping
+regular cavalry by the length and rapidity of their marches, and
+carrying off their booty almost under the eyes of their pursuers. But
+the resolute tactics of Hastings prevailed in the end. Amir Khan, their
+most powerful leader, disbanded his troops; and hemmed in on all sides,
+cut off from every place of shelter, and chased by successive
+detachments of horsemen almost as fleet as his own, Chitu became a
+hopeless fugitive, with a handful of faithful adherents, who shared his
+desperate efforts to escape, but advised him to surrender. He could not
+bring himself to do so, possessed, it is said, with an unspeakable
+horror of being transported across "the black sea," and he actually
+remained at large or in hiding for a year after his lair was discovered.
+Nor was he ever captured, for, by a strange fate, this ruthless scourge
+of the Deccan, after baffling human vengeance, found his last refuge in
+a jungle and died, a tiger's prey. By this time, all the wild bands
+which sprung into existence out of the Maratha war had been extirpated
+or dispersed, and after the year 1818 the dreaded name of Pindari was
+heard no more in history.
+
+The suppression of civil war and anarchy in Central India, which
+completed the work of Wellesley, was the greatest achievement of
+Hastings. One remarkable incident of it was a portentous outbreak of
+cholera in 1817, during a campaign in Gwalior conducted by Hastings in
+person. There had been several minor visitations of this disease in
+India. But it now first established itself as an endemic disease, and it
+has ever since infested the valley of the Ganges. So virulent was its
+onslaught, and so fearful the mortality in Hastings' army, that it was
+only saved by shifting its quarters, and the governor-general himself
+made preparations for his own secret burial, in case he should be among
+the victims. As we have seen already,[140] it was propagated from this
+centre through other regions of Asia, until it spread to Western Europe,
+and the "Asiatic cholera" of 1831-32 may be lineally traced back to the
+last Maratha war.
+
+The position of Hastings in Indian history closely resembles that of
+Wellesley. Disregarding the instructions of the board of control, as
+well as of the board of directors, he forced upon them, like Wellesley,
+a large extension of their empire. But it cannot be doubted that his
+policy, dictated by exigencies beyond the ken of authorities sitting in
+London, was eminently successful and beneficent in its results. It went
+far to establish a "Pax Britannica" in the Indian Peninsula, and, if it
+took little account of dynastic rights, it broke the rod of oppression,
+and relieved millions upon millions from tyranny and intimidation which
+overshadowed their whole lives. He retired in 1823, after seven years'
+tenure of office, and died in 1826 as governor of Malta. Canning had
+been designated as his successor, and, having accepted the post, was on
+the eve of starting for Calcutta, when the tragical death of Castlereagh
+recalled him to the foreign office, and opened to him the most brilliant
+stage in his career. Thereupon Lord Amherst was appointed
+governor-general, with every prospect of a pacific vice-royalty, whereas
+it is now chiefly remembered for the annexation of new provinces on the
+south-east of Bengal, and the capture of Bhartpur.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST BURMESE WAR._]
+
+The first Burmese war arose out of persistent aggressions by the new
+kingdom of Ava or Burma on what is now the British province of Assam,
+but was then an independent, though feeble, state. There had been
+earlier frontier disputes between the Indian government and Burma about
+the districts lying eastward of Chittagong along the Bay of Bengal, but
+it was not until Burma conquered Arakan, invaded Assam, and occupied
+passes on the north-east overlooking the plains of Bengal, that serious
+action was felt to be necessary. Indeed, while Hastings was engaged with
+the war in Nepal and the suppression of the Pindaris, even he was in no
+mood to embark on a fresh campaign beyond the borders of India. The
+incursions of the Burmese, however, became more and more threatening
+both on the coast line and on the mountains above the Brahmaputra river,
+and in February, 1824, Amherst resolved to check the extension of their
+dominion. Notwithstanding the experience recently gained in Nepal, the
+first operations of the Anglo-Indian troops were conducted with little
+knowledge of the country, and met with very doubtful success. Rangoon
+was easily captured, but the expedition was disabled from advancing up
+the river Irawadi by the want of adequate supplies and the deadliness of
+the climate. Part of the Tenasserim coast was subdued, but a British
+force was defeated in Arakan. These reverses were retrieved in the
+following year, 1825, when one army under Sir Archibald Campbell made
+its way up the river to Prome, while another army conquered Arakan, and
+a third, moving along the valley of the Brahmaputra, established itself
+in Assam. The Burmese now abandoned further resistance. Assam, Arakan,
+and the Tenasserim provinces were ceded to the company, whose
+protectorate was also recognised over other territories upon the course
+of the Brahmaputra. It was not until February, 1826, that the King of
+Ava could be induced to sign the treaty embodying these cessions, and
+many years were to elapse before the port of Rangoon was opened to
+British commerce.
+
+The strong fortress of Bhartpur, in the east of Rajputana, and near to
+Agra, had acquired an unique importance, in the eyes of all India by its
+successful resistance to Lake's assaults during the Maratha war of 1805.
+It was still held until 1825 by its own petty raja, the son of Ranjit
+Singh, who remained on terms of respectful amity with the Indian
+government, though his little principality was a notorious focus of
+native disaffection. In that year he died, and his child, after being
+acknowledged by the Indian government as his successor, was forcibly
+ousted by a usurper. Sir David Ochterlony, the hero of the Nepalese war,
+then resident in Malwa and Rajputana, undertook to support the
+legitimate heir, but was overruled by orders from Amherst. On his
+resignation he was succeeded by Metcalfe, who had become Sir Charles
+Metcalfe by his brother's death in 1822, and who now obtained authority
+to carry out Ochterlony's policy, if necessary, by armed intervention.
+As negotiation failed, Lord Combermere, as commander-in-chief, proceeded
+to reduce the virgin fortress, not by the slow process of siege, but by
+a well-organised assault. Having cut off the water supply, and mined the
+mud walls, he poured in a storming party and overpowered the garrison.
+The feat was probably not so great, from a military point of view, as
+many that have left no record, but its effect on the superstitious
+native mind was prodigious, especially as it nearly coincided with the
+victorious issue of the Burmese war. Nevertheless, Amherst was shortly
+afterwards recalled, and left India in 1828. His annexation of Burmese
+territory and the increase of expenditure under his rule displeased both
+the Company and the home government, so often foiled in the attempt to
+enforce a pacific and economical policy. His successor was Lord William
+Bentinck, who had been compelled to retire from the governorship of
+Madras after the mutiny of Vellore.
+
+Like Hastings, Bentinck showed a firmness and wisdom in his Indian
+administration strongly contrasting with the restless self-assertion of
+his earlier career. His lot was cast in an interval of tranquillity
+after a long period of warfare, and his name is associated with internal
+reforms and social progress in India, not unconnected with a like
+movement in England. The measure upon which his fame chiefly rests was
+the abolition of "sati," that is, the practice of Hindoo widows
+sacrificing themselves by being burned alive on the funeral pile of
+their husbands. This practice, which specially prevailed in Bengal, has
+been explained by a false interpretation of certain texts in sacred
+books of the Hindus, by the selfish eagerness of the husband's family to
+monopolise all his property, and by the utterly desolate condition of a
+childless widow in native communities. At all events, it was deeply
+rooted in Hindu traditions, and no previous governor had dared to go
+beyond issuing regulations to secure that the widow should be a willing
+victim. Bentinck had the courage to act on the conviction that
+inhumanity, however consecrated by superstition and priestcraft, has no
+permanent basis in popular sentiment. With the consent of his council,
+he prohibited "sati" absolutely, declaring that all who took any part in
+it should be held guilty of culpable homicide; and the native population
+acquiesced in its suppression.
+
+But this was only one of Bentinck's reforms. Armed with peremptory
+instructions from the home government, he effected large retrenchments
+in the growing expenditure of the Indian services, both civil and
+military, and a considerable increase in the Indian revenue. It may be
+doubted whether one of these retrenchments, involving a strict revision
+of officers' allowances known as "batta," was considerable enough to be
+worth the almost mutinous discontent which it provoked. Another,
+affecting the salaries of civilians, was aggravated, in their eyes, by
+the admission of natives to "primary jurisdiction," in other words, by
+enabling native judges to sit in courts of first instance. This
+important change had been gradually introduced before the arrival of
+Bentinck, but it was he who most boldly adopted the idea of governing
+India in the interest and by the agency of the natives. On the other
+hand, it was he who, supported by Macaulay's famous minute, but contrary
+to official opinion in Leadenhall Street, issued the ordinance
+constituting English the official language of India. In a like spirit,
+he promoted the work of native education, partly for the purpose of
+developing the political and judicial capacity of the higher orders
+among the Hindus, but partly also for the purpose of making the English
+language and literature the instrument of their elevation. He earnestly
+desired to raise the standard of Indian civilisation, but he equally
+desired to fashion it in an English mould.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EXTIRPATION OF "THAGI"._]
+
+Under the rule of Bentinck, the revenue was largely augmented by a
+reassessment of land in the north-western provinces, where an increasing
+number of zamindars had fraudulently evaded the payment of rent, and by
+the imposition of licence-duties on the growers of opium in Malwa, who
+had carried on a profitable but illicit trade through foreign ports. But
+the social benefit of the people was ever his first concern, and not the
+least of his claims to their gratitude was the final extirpation of
+"thagi". This institution was a secret association of highway robbers
+and murderers who had plagued Central India almost as widely as the
+roving troops of Pindaris. Their victims were travellers whom they
+decoyed into their haunts, plundered, strangled, and buried on the spot.
+For years they carried on their infamous trade with impunity, and no
+member of the conspiracy had turned informer. At last, however, a clue
+was found by a skilful and resolute agent of the government, and the
+spell of mutual dread which held together the murderous confederacy was
+effectually broken in India. Meanwhile, the same period of peaceful
+development witnessed the execution of important public works, the
+relaxation of restrictions on the liberty of the press, and a general
+advance towards a more paternal despotism, coincident with the progress
+of liberal ideas at home. These benign influences were favoured by the
+continuance of peace and the maintenance of non-intervention, disturbed
+only by the minor annexations of Cachar and Coorg, to which may be added
+the assumption of direct control over Mysore.
+
+When the charter of 1833 transformed the "company of British merchants
+trading to the east" into the "East India Company," with administrative
+powers only, Bentinck was in failing health, and he soon afterwards
+returned home. On his resignation in 1835, Metcalfe became provisional
+governor-general, but his liberal policy displeased the court of
+directors, and Lord Heytesbury was selected by the short-lived
+government of Peel as Bentinck's successor. Palmerston, however, on
+resuming the foreign office, was believed to have used his influence to
+set aside this nomination, and to procure the appointment of Lord
+Auckland, then first lord of the admiralty. The supposed objection to
+Heytesbury was his known sympathy with Russia, at a moment when distrust
+of Russia's designs on the north-west frontier was about to become the
+keynote of Anglo-Indian statesmanship. During the interregnum between
+Bentinck's retirement and Auckland's accession, three more remedial
+measures were carried into effect, the wisdom of which is not even yet
+beyond dispute. These were the complete liberation of the Indian press,
+the abolition of the exclusive privilege whereby British residents could
+appeal in civil suits to the supreme court at Calcutta, and the definite
+introduction of English text-books into schools for the people. For all
+these reforms Macaulay was largely responsible, but the impulse had been
+given by Bentinck, and was accelerated by Metcalfe.
+
+During the years 1835-37 domestic affairs occupied much less space in
+the counsels of Indian statesmen than schemes for counteracting the
+growth of Russian influence at Tihran, and securing the predominance of
+British influence in Afghanistan. For a time their anxiety was
+concentrated on Herat, which the Shah of Persia was besieging, with the
+intention of penetrating into the heart of Afghan territory, while the
+Afghan rulers themselves were suspected of secretly conspiring with
+Persia against our ally, Ranjit Singh. Since Persia, having again lost
+faith in British support, was drifting more and more into reliance on
+Russia, this forward movement was regarded as the first step of the
+Russian advance-guard towards India. The fate of India was felt to
+depend on the defence of Herat under Pottinger, a young British officer,
+who volunteered his services without instructions from home. The siege,
+conducted under Russian officers, lasted ten months, and its ultimate
+failure was hailed as a triumph of British policy, for Herat was
+recognised, since the days of Alexander the Great, as the western gate
+of India.
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA._]
+
+About the same time the question of a shorter route to India attracted
+much attention both in Russia and in England. The first project was
+that, ultimately adopted, of a sea passage by Malta to Alexandria, a
+land transit across Egypt to Suez, and a second voyage by the Red Sea to
+Indian ports. The alternative line was more properly described as an
+"overland route," since it was proposed to make the journey from some
+port in the eastern Levant across Syria and by the Euphrates to the
+Persian Gulf. Colonel Chesney was sent out in 1835 as the pioneer of an
+expedition by this route, and parliament twice voted money for its
+development, but it was vigorously opposed by Russia, and abandoned as
+impracticable owing to physical difficulties in navigating the
+Euphrates, then considered as a necessary channel of communication with
+the sea. The scheme has since been revived on a much grander scale in
+the form of a projected railway traversing Asia Minor to Baghdad, and
+running down the valley of the Tigris. In the meantime, the Red Sea
+route, at first discredited, has far more than justified the hopes of
+its promoters. With the aid of steam-vessels, since 1845, and of the
+Suez Canal, since 1869, it has reduced the journey to India from a
+period of four months to one of three weeks, and profoundly affected its
+relations with Great Britain.
+
+It would be well if the premature, but not unfounded, fear of Russian
+invasion had produced no further effects on Anglo-Indian policy.
+Unhappily, those who justly perceived the importance of Afghanistan, as
+lying between Persia and the Punjab, were possessed with the delusion
+that it would prove a more solid buffer as a British dependency than as
+an independent state. In their ignorance of its internal condition and
+the sentiments of its unruly tribes, the Indian government despatched
+Sir Alexander Burnes to Kabul, nominally as a commercial emissary, but
+not without ulterior objects. They could not have chosen a more capable
+agent, for he added to a knowledge of several languages a minute
+geographical acquaintance with Central Asia and an insight into the
+character of its inhabitants which probably no other Englishman
+possessed. He was to proceed by way of Sind to Peshawar, and in passing
+through Sind he received news of the siege of Herat, the significance
+of which he was not slow to appreciate. Thenceforward his mission
+inevitably assumed a political complexion, since the future of
+Afghanistan became a practical question. His rash negotiations with Dost
+Muhammad, the Amir of Kabul, and his brother at Kandahar, his return to
+India, his second mission to Afghanistan in support of a policy which he
+had deprecated, and his tragical death in the Kabul insurrection,--these
+are events which belong to a later chapter of history. But, though
+Burnes cannot be held responsible for the first Afghan war, there can be
+no doubt that his travels in disguise through Central Asia, and
+confidential reports on the border countries between the Russian and
+British spheres of influence, were the immediate prelude to a campaign
+the most ill-advised and the most disastrous ever organised by the
+Indian government and sanctioned by that of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[138] Despatch of July 13, 1804, _Selection from Wellesley's
+Despatches_, ed. Owen, pp. 436-41. See Sir A. Lyall, _British Dominion
+in India_, p. 260.
+
+[139] Cornwallis to Lake, Sept. 19, 1805, _Cornwallis Correspondence_,
+iii., 547-55.
+
+[140] See p. 310 above.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER XX.
+
+                    LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+
+The period which elapsed between the resignation of Pitt and the battle
+of Waterloo was hardly less eventful in the history of British
+civilisation than in the history of British empire. To some, the
+boundary line between the society of the eighteenth and that of the
+nineteenth century appears to be marked by the outbreak of the French
+revolution, and the far-reaching effects of that catastrophe upon ideas,
+manners, and politics in Great Britain, as well as upon the continent,
+are too evident to be denied. But it is equally certain that, before the
+French revolution, an intellectual and industrial movement was in
+progress which must have given a most powerful impulse to civilisation,
+even if the French revolution had never taken place. In this country,
+especially, the great writers, philanthropists, scientific leaders,
+inventors, engineers, and reformers of various types, who adorned the
+latter part of George III.'s reign, largely drew their inspiration from
+an age, just preceding the French revolution, which is sometimes
+regarded as barren in originality.
+
+When the nineteenth century opened, the classical authors of that
+pre-revolutionary age had mostly passed away. Hume died in 1776, Johnson
+in 1784, Adam Smith in 1790, Gibbon in 1794, Burns in 1796, Burke in
+1797, Cowper in 1800. John Howard, the great pioneer of prison reform,
+became a martyr to philanthropy in 1790. The most remarkable of those
+manufacturing improvements and mechanical inventions upon which the
+commercial supremacy of England is founded date from the same period,
+and have been described in a previous volume. Steam navigation was still
+untried, but preliminary experiments had already been made on both sides
+of the Atlantic before 1789. The application of steam to locomotion by
+land had scarcely been conceived, but the facilities of traffic and
+travelling had been vastly developed in the first forty years of George
+III.'s reign.
+
+It may truly be said, however, that English literature in the early
+party of the nineteenth century bears clear traces of the influence
+exercised on receptive minds by the French revolution. Three of the
+leading poets, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, were deeply infected
+by its spirit, and indulged in their youth fantastic dreams of a social
+millennium; Wordsworth, especially, who in his maturer years could be
+justly described as the priest of nature-worship and the poet of rural
+life, had imbibed violent republican ideas during a residence of more
+than a year in France. These were passing off in 1798, when he
+published, jointly with Coleridge, the volume of _Lyrical Ballads_
+containing the latter's immortal tale of the _Ancient Mariner_. In the
+following year he settled in the English lake-country, where Coleridge
+established himself for a while, and Southey for life. Hence the popular
+but very inaccurate title of the "Lake School," applied to a trio of
+poets who, except as friends, had little in common with each other.
+Indeed, after Wordsworth had developed his theory of poetical realism in
+the preface to a volume published in 1800, Coleridge rejected and
+criticised it as wholly untenable. All three, however, may be considered
+as comrades in a revolt against the conventional diction of eighteenth
+century poetry, from which Coleridge's "dreamy tenderness" and mystical
+flights of fancy were as remote as Wordsworth's rusticity and almost
+prosaic studies of humble life.
+
+[Pageheading: _COLERIDGE AND SCOTT._]
+
+Although Coleridge survived to 1834 and Wordsworth to 1850, both seem to
+have lost at an early date that power of imagination, whether displayed
+in sympathy or in creation, in which their greatness consisted.
+Wordsworth wrote assiduously during the whole of this period; in 1807 he
+published a volume of poems, including the famous _Ode on the
+Intimations of Immortality_ and several of his finest sonnets; but of
+his later work only an occasional lyric deserves to be ranked beside the
+poems published in 1800 and 1807. Coleridge, indeed, published two of
+his finest poems, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, in 1816, but they were
+written long before, _Christabel_, partly in 1797 and partly in 1801,
+and _Kubla Khan_ in 1798. Even the new metre of _Christabel_, which is
+not the least of Coleridge's contributions to English poetry, had, as
+early as 1805, been borrowed in the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ by Scott,
+to whom Coleridge had recited the poem. Nevertheless, Coleridge
+continued to exercise a great influence, partly through the charm of his
+conversation and partly through his prose works, in which he introduced
+to a British public, as yet unused to German literature, a vision of
+that mystical German thought which finds its father in Kant, and was
+represented at that day by Hegel in philosophy and Goethe in poetry. It
+is uncertain how far the general ignorance of German literature in
+England was responsible for the influence exercised in their own day by
+the few English or Scottish thinkers, such as Coleridge, Hamilton, and
+Carlyle, who had either fallen under the spell or learned the secret of
+the German mystics. The most important of Coleridge's prose works was
+_Aids to Reflection_, which appeared in 1828, and whatever be its
+literary value, it deserves the notice of the historian, as the least
+unsystematic treatise of an author who gave the principal philosophical
+impetus to the Oxford movement.
+
+Two other poets, eminently the product of their age, though not the
+offspring of the French revolution, Scott and Byron, were equally in
+revolt against conventional diction. Scott elevated ballad-poetry to a
+level which it had never before attained, and composed some of the most
+beautiful songs in the English language. If it be remembered that he was
+cramped by the drudgery of legal offices during the best years of his
+life, that he was nearly thirty when he made his first literary venture,
+that he was crippled by financial ruin and broken health during his
+later years, that his anonymous contributions to periodicals would fill
+volumes, and that he died at the age of sixty-one, his fertility of
+production must ever be ranked as unique in the history of English
+literature. Already known as the author of various lyrical pieces, and
+the _Border Minstrelsy_, he published the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ in
+1805, _Marmion_ (with its fine stanzas on Pitt and Fox) in 1808, the
+_Lady of the Lake_ in 1809, _Don Roderick_ in 1811, and _Rokeby_ in
+1813, as well as minor poems of high merit. He is said to have abandoned
+poetry in deference to Byron's rising star, and it is certain that he
+now fills a higher place in the roll of English classics as a prose
+writer than as a poet. His first novel, _Waverley_, appeared in 1814,
+and was followed In the next four years by six of the greatest "Waverley
+Novels," as the series came to be called--_Guy Mannering_, the
+_Antiquary_, the _Black Dwarf_, _Old Mortality_, _Rob Roy_, and the
+_Heart of Midlothian_. It is not too much to say that by these works,
+both in poetry and in prose, he created the historical romance in Great
+Britain. The legends of chivalry and the folk-lore of his native land
+had deeply stirred his soul, and fired his imagination from childhood,
+and though later "research" has far outstripped the range of his
+antiquarian knowledge, no modern writer has ever done so much to awaken
+a reverence for olden times in the hearts of his countrymen. The easy
+flow of his style, the vivid energy of his thought, the graphic power of
+his descriptions, his shrewd and robust sympathy with human nature, and
+the evident simplicity of his own character, not unmingled with flashes
+of true poetical insight, justly rendered him the most popular writer of
+his time.
+
+Byron was born in 1788, and first sprang into notice as the author of
+_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, a fierce and bitter reply to
+critics who had disparaged his first essay in poetry. This satire
+appeared in 1809, when he was just of age, after which he travelled with
+Hobhouse, and it was not until 1812 that he "woke to find himself
+famous," on publishing the first two cantos of _Childe Harold_. During
+the next three years, he poured forth a succession of characteristic
+poems, including the _Giaour_, the _Bride of Abydos_, the _Corsair_,
+_Lara_, and the _Siege of Corinth_. His later work was of a more
+finished order, including the remaining cantos of _Childe Harold_,
+_Manfred_, _Cain_, and _Mazeppa_, and when he died at Mesolongi in 1824,
+he left unfinished what is, in some ways, the most remarkable of his
+works, _Don Juan_. Long before his death he had become the prophet and
+hero of a pseudo-romantic school, composed of young Englishmen dazzled
+by his intellectual brilliancy, and attracted rather than repelled by a
+certain Satanic taint in his moral sentiments. But he also won the
+admiration of Goethe, and the reaction against his fame in a later
+generation is as exaggerated as the idolatry of which he was the object
+under the regency. His morbid egotism, his stormy rhetoric, and his
+meretricious exaltation of passion, have lost their magical effect, but
+his poetical gifts would have commanded homage in any age. The message
+which he professed to deliver was a false message, but few poets have
+surpassed him in daring vigour of imagination, in descriptive force, in
+wit, or in pathos. His style was eminently such as to invite imitation,
+yet no one has successfully imitated him. Had he been a better man, and
+had his life been prolonged, he might perhaps have towered above his
+literary contemporaries as Napoleon did among the generals and rulers of
+Europe.
+
+[Pageheading: _KEATS, SHELLEY, TENNYSON._]
+
+Yet among these contemporaries were Keats and Shelley, whom some critics
+of a younger generation would place above him in poetical originality.
+Their chief merit lay neither in thought nor in strength, but in an
+exquisite sweetness of expression, which in the case of Shelley at least
+was quite independent of the subject-matter. Keats, though junior to
+Shelley, has been described as his poetical father, but his chief poem,
+_Endymion_, did not appear until several years after Shelley had formed
+his own distinctive style. He died in 1821 at the age of twenty-six,
+leaving a poetical inheritance of the highest quality, which, though
+limited in quantity and unequal in workmanship, has gained an enduring
+reputation. Nevertheless his work lent itself readily to imitation, and
+he exercised a marked influence on the style of later poets, not only in
+this period, but in the Victorian age as well. The rebellious spirit of
+Shelley had already shown itself at an early age in his poetry, and
+especially in _Queen Mab_, printed in 1812. His ethereal fancy, his
+dreamy obscurity, and his witchery of language, designated him from the
+first as a master of lyrical poetry; though he wrote longer pieces, his
+fame rests on the numerous short poems which continued to appear till
+his death in 1822.
+
+Perhaps the greatest master of melody was one who was only coming to the
+front at the close of this period, Alfred Tennyson, born in 1809,
+contributed with two of his brothers to a collection of verses,
+misleadingly entitled _Poems by Two Brothers_, which appeared in 1826.
+At Cambridge his _Timbuctoo_ won the chancellor's prize, but the first
+proof of his powers was given by a volume of short poems published in
+1830, followed by a similar volume two years later. By far the greater
+part of his work lies in the next period, but the volume of 1833 already
+included some of his best known poems.
+
+Among minor poets of this period the highest rank must perhaps be
+assigned to Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore as authors of some of the
+most stirring and graceful lyrics in the English language. The former
+had attained celebrity by the _Pleasures of Hope_, published before the
+end of the eighteenth century, but his choicest poems, such as _Ye
+Mariners of England_, the fine verses on Hohenlinden and Copenhagen, and
+_Gertrude of Wyoming_, appeared between 1802 and 1809. The series of
+Moore's Irish melodies, on which his poetical fame largely rests, was
+begun in 1807, though not completed until long afterwards. They were
+followed by other lyrical pieces of great merit, and by a series of
+witty and malicious lampoons, collected in 1813 into a volume called the
+_Twopenny Post Bag_. _Lalla Rookh_, his most ambitious effort, was not
+published until 1817.
+
+Two prose writers of the same epoch, Southey and Bentham, claim special
+notice, though Southey may also be numbered among the poets. Having
+established himself close to Keswick in 1804, he prosecuted a literary
+career with the most untiring industry until his mental faculties at
+last failed him some thirty-six years later. During this period he
+produced above a hundred volumes in poetry and prose, besides numerous
+scattered articles and other papers. Most of these were of merely
+ephemeral interest, but the _Life of Nelson_, published in 1813, may be
+said to have set a standard of simplicity, purity, and dignity in
+English prose which has been of permanent value. Bentham's style, on the
+contrary, was so wanting in beauty and perspicuity that one at least of
+his chief works is best known to English readers in the admirable French
+paraphrase of his friend Dumont. This is his famous _Introduction to the
+Principles of Morals and Legislation_, in which the doctrines of the
+utilitarian philosophy are rigorously applied to jurisprudence and the
+regulation of human conduct. Several of his numerous treatises had been
+planned, and others actually composed, before the end of the eighteenth
+century, but his practical influence, ultimately so great, first made
+itself felt in the early part of the nineteenth century. This influence
+may be compared within the sphere of social reform to that of Adam Smith
+within the sphere of economy. Many amendments of the law, an improved
+system of prison discipline, and even the reform of the poor law, may
+be directly traced to his counsels, and it was he who inspired the
+leading radicals when radicalism was not so much a destructive creed as
+a protest against real and gross abuses.
+
+[Pageheading: _MALTHUS._]
+
+Perhaps, next to Bentham, no writer of this period influenced educated
+opinion so powerfully as Malthus, whose _Essay on Population_, first
+published anonymously in 1798, attracted comparatively little attention
+until 1803, when it was republished in a maturer form. No work has ever
+been more persistently misrepresented. While he shows that population,
+if unchecked, will surely increase in a ratio far outstripping any
+possible increase in the means of subsistence, he also shows, by
+elaborate proofs, that it will inevitably be checked by vice and misery,
+whether or not they are aided by moral restraint. Later experience has
+done little to weaken his reasoning, but it has proved that "moral
+restraint" (in the most general sense) operates more widely than he
+ventured to expect, and that larger tracts of the earth's surface than
+he recognised could be brought under profitable cultivation. With these
+modifications, his theory holds the field, and the people of Great
+Britain only escape starvation by ever-growing importations of grain
+from countries whose production--for the present--exceeds their
+consumption.
+
+Several other writers of eminence, such as Sheridan and Paley, who lived
+in the latter days of George III. are more properly to be regarded as
+survivors of eighteenth century literature. Horne Tooke was returned for
+Old Sarum in 1801, and enjoyed a reputation in society until his death
+in 1812, but his old-fashioned radicalism had long since been superseded
+by a newer creed. Dugald Stewart continued to lecture on moral
+philosophy until 1809, and was fortunate in numbering among his pupils
+Palmerston, Lansdowne, and Russell. A younger student of philosophy was
+Richard Whately, who was born in 1787, and elected to a fellowship at
+Oriel College, Oxford, in 1811. He soon began to play an active part in
+university life, and, after being principal of St. Alban Hall, was
+removed to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831. Though not a great
+philosopher, he was an acute logician, and his _Logic_, published in
+1826, entitled him to a high place among the thinkers of his generation.
+But it was not merely as a teacher and writer that Whately promoted the
+cause of philosophy in Oxford. He was one of the leaders in that
+organisation of studies which made philosophy one of the principal
+studies, if not the principal study, of the abler students in that
+university, and gave elementary logic a place in the ordinary
+"pass-man's" curriculum.
+
+The best work of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen appeared in the early
+part of the nineteenth century. Maria Edgeworth's novel, _Castle
+Rackrent_, was published in 1800, and rapidly followed by other tales
+descriptive of Irish life; four of Jane Austen's novels, _Sense and
+Sensibility_, _Pride and Prejudice_, _Mansfield Park_, and _Emma_, were
+published between 1811 and 1816, while _Northanger Abbey_ and
+_Persuasion_ appeared after her death in 1817. All her work displays a
+power of minute analysis of character shared by few, if any, of our
+other novelists. Both authors deserve gratitude not only for having
+inspired Scott with a new idea of novel-writing, but for having
+exercised a purifying influence on the moral tone of English romance.
+
+The most typical feature of English literature in the earlier years of
+the nineteenth century was the extraordinary development of the
+periodical and newspaper press. The eighteenth century was the golden
+age of pamphlets. When the "governing classes" represented but a
+fraction of the population, mostly concentrated in London, the practical
+effect of such political appeals as those issued by Swift or Burke was
+incredibly great, and not to be measured by their limited circulation.
+The rise of journalism as a power in politics may be roughly dated from
+the notoriety of Wilkes' _North Briton_, and of the letters of "Junius"
+in the _Public Advertiser_. Thenceforward, newspapers, at first mere
+chronicles of passing events, inevitably grew to be organs of political
+opinion, and had now almost superseded pamphlets, as addressed to a far
+larger circle of readers. Notwithstanding the heavy stamp duties, as
+well as duties on paper and advertisements, six daily journals were
+published in London, of which the _Times_ was already the greatest.
+Cobbett's _Weekly Political Register_, commenced in 1802, was diffusing
+new ideas among the middle classes, but it was not yet committed to
+radicalism, and did not win its way into cottages until its price was
+greatly reduced in 1816. After Cobbett's death in 1835, it ceased to
+appear. Still the ice was broken, and, as the educated public recovered
+from the panic caused by the French revolution, the newspaper press
+became a potent and independent rival of parliament and the platform.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDINBURGH AND QUARTERLY REVIEWS._]
+
+But the influence of the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_ was perhaps
+even greater among readers of the highest intelligence. The first of
+these was founded in 1802 by Jeffrey, Brougham, Horner, and Sydney
+Smith, but was supported at first by Scott and other able contributors.
+So remarkable a body of writers must have commanded attention in any
+age, but at a time when the only periodicals were annuals and
+miscellanies, the literary vigour and range of knowledge displayed by
+the new review carried all before it. For several years it had an unique
+success, but, as it identified itself more and more with the whig party,
+Canning, with the aid of Scott, determined to challenge its supremacy by
+establishing a new review to be called the _Quarterly_. Scott was
+finally estranged from the _Edinburgh_ by an article against the war of
+independence in Spain, and the first number of the _Quarterly_ appeared
+in February, 1809, with three articles by him. It was published by John
+Murray, and edited by Gifford, on much the same lines as the
+_Edinburgh_, but with a strong tory bias, and with somewhat less of
+literary brilliancy. _Blackwood's Magazine_ followed a few years later,
+and the almost classical dualism of the _Quarterly_ and _Edinburgh_ has
+long since been invaded by a multitude of younger serials.
+
+After the loss of its early monopoly of talent, the _Edinburgh Review_
+still retained Jeffrey and Sydney Smith, and it was abundantly
+compensated for the loss of Scott by the acquisition in 1825 of the
+fluent pen of Macaulay. Born in 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay, who
+like many other philanthropists was on the tory side, he was early
+converted to the whig party. He was well fitted to be a popular writer.
+His thought, never deep, is always clear and vivid. None knew better how
+to seize a dramatic incident or a picturesque simile, or to strike the
+weak points in his adversary's armour. It has been said of him that he
+always chose to storm a position by a cavalry charge, certainly the most
+imposing if not the most effective method. Many of his contributions to
+the _Edinburgh Review_ were afterwards republished as _Essays_, and
+already in those earlier essays which appeared before 1837, we can see
+him assuming the _role_ of the historical champion of the whigs. Widely
+read and with a marvellous memory, he was generally accurate in his
+facts, but his criticism of Gladstone applies with even greater force to
+himself: "There is no want of light, but a great want of what Bacon
+would have called dry light. Whatever Mr. Gladstone sees is refracted
+and distorted by a false medium of passions and prejudices." The critic
+is sunk in the advocate, and even a good cause is spoiled by a too
+obvious reluctance to admit anything that comes from the other side.
+Perhaps his happiest, though far from his greatest, work is to be found
+in the stirring ballads of _Ivry_ and the _Armada_, the precursors of
+the _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Deservedly popular and full of patriotic
+fire, the class of literature to which they belong renders questions of
+fairness or unfairness beside the point.
+
+Another contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, also famous as a
+historian, was Thomas Carlyle. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in
+Dumfriesshire, and wrote for Brewster's _Encyclopaedia_ and the _London
+Magazine_ as well as the _Edinburgh_. In 1826 he married Jane Welsh, and
+in 1828 he retired from journalism to live humbly on her means. It was
+now that he began to produce his best work. _Sartor Resartus_ appeared
+in 1833-34, and the _History of the French Revolution_ in 1837. Even in
+the latter of these works he is as much a preacher as a historian.
+Perhaps no other writer of the age exercised a greater direct influence,
+and in his own country, which seems specially amenable to the preacher's
+powers, his message has been as effective in favour of broader views as
+the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843 was in favour of the
+old orthodoxy. His teaching has its roots in a German soil, but it bears
+the mark of his own strong personality. His style, with a wilful
+ruggedness, displays the German taste for the humour of an incongruous
+homeliness, where the subject seems to call for a more dignified
+treatment. Perhaps this obvious falseness of expression only relieves
+the weight of his stern earnestness of purpose and makes us the more
+ready to join in his constant denunciation of everything hollow and
+pretentious.
+
+[Pageheading: _LAMB._]
+
+Two new magazines appeared in or about 1817, _Blackwood's_ and the
+_London_. Brilliant as the leading contributors to the former were, none
+of them perhaps can claim a place in the front rank of English
+literature. Of the contributors to the _London_ Lamb is doubtless
+entitled to the first place. Born in 1775, he was employed as a clerk in
+the East India House from 1792 to 1825. He was a schoolfellow of
+Coleridge and contributed to his earlier volume of poems It is, however,
+to the _Essays of Elia_ that he owes his fame. These appeared in the
+_London Magazine_ and were published in a collected form after his death
+in 1834. Few authors that have been so much admired have exercised so
+little influence. The reason for this is not far to seek. His style
+defies imitation, and he would have been the last man to endeavour to
+win disciples to his opinions. Another essayist who belongs to the same
+group of writers as Coleridge and Lamb is Thomas de Quincey. He wrote
+both for _Blackwood's_ and for the _London Magazine_, in the latter of
+which appeared in 1821 his best known work, the _Confessions of an
+English Opium Eater_. He excelled in what was the dominant
+characteristic of English prose of this period, in imagery, a quality
+which is conspicuous in the light fancy of Coleridge's most famous
+poems, and which gives life to an author so uniformly in dead earnest as
+Macaulay. Viewed historically, this taste for imagery is the English
+side of the romantic movement, which in Germany reacted against the
+conventional, not only in works of the imagination, but in the heavier
+form of new philosophical systems. But these systems, in spite of
+Coleridge, never became native in England. The growth of the scientific
+spirit has made such thought and such language seem unreal in serious
+literature, and prevents a later generation from imitating, though not
+from admiring, the brilliance of the early essayists.
+
+Hazlitt's genius was of a heavier type. As an essayist his work breathes
+the spirit of an earlier age; but as a literary critic he is a leader,
+and displays an inwardness in his appreciation that makes him in a sense
+the model of the new age in which criticism has so largely supplanted
+creation. It may be doubted, however, whether the abnormal growth of
+criticism, as a distinct branch of English letters, has been a benefit
+on the whole to our literature. Certainly it has tended to substitute
+the elaborate study of other men's thoughts for original production,
+and, after all, the greatest critics have been those who, being more
+than critics, have shown themselves capable of constructive efforts.
+
+Two statesmen-novelists, Bulwer and Disraeli, are among the most
+interesting literary characters of the end of this period. The former of
+these, like his French contemporary Victor Hugo, had a remarkable gift
+for expressing each successive phase of popular taste. He resembled
+Disraeli in acquiring a pre-eminent position in letters in early youth,
+which was followed by political success at a later age. Though neither
+rose to cabinet rank before a time of life which must with literary men
+rank as "middle age," Bulwer had, in the midst of an active
+parliamentary career, been an active novelist, in fact the most popular
+novelist of his day. Disraeli, on the other hand, only entered
+parliament after the close of the period dealt with in this volume, and
+it is to this period, while he was still unknown to politics, that the
+greater part of his literary work belongs. One other resemblance between
+these writers is perhaps not less interesting to the historian than to
+the critic. Both made use of literature to establish for themselves a
+reputation as "men of the world," an ambition which Bulwer's social
+position might easily justify, and without which it would be impossible
+to understand the career of Disraeli. Born in 1803 and 1804
+respectively, both made their mark with their first novels in 1827,
+Bulwer with _Falkland_, Disraeli with a work in which his own career has
+been supposed to be foreshadowed--_Vivian Grey_. One other great
+novelist had appeared before the close of the reign of William IV. In
+1836 Charles Dickens produced _Sketches by Boz_ and began the _Pickwick
+Papers_, but he belongs properly to the next reign.
+
+Among the historians of this period the first place undoubtedly belongs
+to Henry Hallam. Born in 1788, he produced his _View of the State of
+Europe during the Middle Ages_ in 1818, and his _Constitutional History
+of England_ in 1827, while his _Introduction to the Literature of
+Europe_ began to appear in 1837. Like Macaulay he represents the whig
+attitude towards politics, but does so less consciously and less
+emphatically than his younger contemporary. There is a sense in which no
+constitutional historian has adopted so strictly legal an attitude. It
+is not merely that his interest centres on the legal side of the
+constitution, but, lawyer-like, he judges every constitutional issue of
+the past in the light of the legal system which the law of his own day
+presupposes for the date in question. No one can deny the validity of
+this principle in a court of justice, but no one gifted either with
+historical imagination or with historical sympathy could wish to
+introduce it into a historical work. Yet the very narrowness of his
+outlook made it easier for him to adopt the impartiality of a judge; his
+criterion of justice is too definite to allow him to indulge in special
+pleading or to twist facts to suit his theories; and the student still
+turns to Hallam with a sense of security which he does not feel in
+reading Macaulay or Carlyle.
+
+[Pageheading: _FINE ART._]
+
+The fine arts cannot be said to have flourished in England during the
+period of the great war, and architecture was certainly at a low ebb,
+but several eminent names belong to this period. Sir Thomas Lawrence was
+by far the foremost English portrait painter, and fitly represents the
+elegance of the regency, while Raeburn enjoyed an equal reputation in
+Scotland. Turner, however, was painting in his earlier manner and
+showing originality even in his imitations of old masters. Constable,
+too, was producing some of those quiet English landscapes which, though
+little appreciated at the time, have since made him famous. Two other
+English landscape painters, Callcott and the elder Crome, were also in
+their prime, and Wilkie executed several of his best known masterpieces
+at this time. David Cox and Prout did not earn celebrity till a little
+later. The Water-Colour Society was founded in 1804. Soon afterwards
+Flaxman was in the zenith of his fame, being elected professor of
+sculpture by the Royal Academy in 1810, and Chantrey was beginning to
+desert portrait painting for statuary.
+
+Science, especially in its practical applications, made greater strides
+than art in the early years of the nineteenth century. It was now that
+Jenner's memorable discovery of vaccination, dating from 1796, was
+generally adopted by the medical profession. In 1802 his claim to
+priority was recognised by a parliamentary committee, with the result
+that L10,000 were then voted to him, and a further grant of L20,000 was
+made in 1807, when vaccination was established at the Small-pox
+Hospital. In 1814, George Stephenson, after many preliminary
+experiments, made a successful trial of his first locomotive engine. In
+1812, Bell's steamboat, the _Comet_ made its first voyage on the Clyde,
+and the development of steam navigation proceeded more rapidly than that
+of steam locomotion by land. Sir Humphry Davy began his researches in
+1800, and took part in that year, with Count Rumford and Sir Joseph
+Banks, in founding the Royal Institution. His invention of the safety
+lamp was not matured until 1815.
+
+But if the principal contributions of England to physical science in the
+early years of the century were mainly in the direction of practical
+application, her contributions to pure theory under the regency and in
+the reign of William IV. were no less distinguished. Sir John Herschel,
+following in the footsteps of his father, began in 1824 his observations
+on double stars and his researches upon the parallax of fixed stars,
+while Sir George Airy published in 1826 his mathematical treatises on
+lunar and planetary theory. In Michael Faraday England possessed at once
+an eminent chemist and the greatest electrician of the age. The
+discovery of benzine and the liquefaction of numerous gases were
+followed by an investigation of electric currents, and in 1831 by the
+crowning discovery of induction. Not less valuable perhaps than these
+discoveries of his own were the fertile suggestions which he left to
+others. William Smith, sometimes called the father of modern English
+geology, vigorously followed up the work of James Hutton by publishing
+in 1815 his great map of English _strata_ as identified by fossils.
+Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ marks a great advance in
+geological science. In this book, which appeared in 1833, the author
+advanced the view, now universally accepted, that the great geological
+changes of the past are not to be explained as catastrophes, followed by
+successive creations, but as the product of the continuous play of
+forces still at work. This theory contained all that was vital in the
+doctrine of evolution; but it was only at a later date, when the
+doctrine had become the property of zoologists as well as geologists and
+had been popularised by Darwin, that it came to exercise an influence
+over non-scientific thought.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY REFORM._]
+
+A review of the literary and scientific progress of this period would be
+incomplete without some notice of progress in higher education. The
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge with their numerous colleges had in
+the eighteenth century lapsed into that lethargic condition which seemed
+to be the common fate of all corporations. They had to a certain extent
+ceased to be seats of learning. At Oxford the limitations imposed upon
+colleges by statute or custom in elections to fellowships and
+scholarships ensured the mediocrity of the teachers and gave the
+preference to mediocrities among the students. Where emoluments were not
+so restricted they were generally awarded by interest rather than by
+merit; and it was even the case that a scholarship at Winchester,
+carrying with it the right to a fellowship at New College, was often
+promised to an infant only a few days old. The Oxford examination system
+had not been reformed since the time of Laud, and the degree
+examinations had degenerated into mere formalities until the university
+in 1800 adopted a new examination statute, mainly under the influence of
+Dr. Eveleigh, provost of Oriel. The new statute, which came into
+operation in 1802, granted honours to the better students of each year.
+The number of candidates to whom honours were granted, at first very
+small, rapidly increased till in 1837 about 130 received honours in a
+single year. The attention which the examination system received from
+the hebdomadal board, so often accused of sluggishness, is proved by the
+frequent changes in the regulations, which among other things
+differentiated between honours in "Literae Humaniores" and in mathematics
+in 1807, and separated the honours and pass examinations in 1830. The
+same desire to encourage meritorious students showed itself in the
+institution of competitive examinations for fellowships, in which Oriel
+led the way. It was followed in 1817 by Balliol, which in 1827 threw
+open its scholarships as well. It was not, however, till the reign of
+Queen Victoria that the college statutes as a whole were so modified as
+to make open competition possible in more than a very few instances.
+
+Cambridge suffered less than Oxford from restrictions as to the choice
+of fellows. In fact the majority of the fellowships, more especially of
+those which carried with them a vote in the government of the colleges,
+were, so far as the statutes went, open to all comers. Though the course
+of study was still nominally regulated by statutes dating from the Tudor
+period, which it would often have been ludicrous to enforce, an
+effective stimulus was given to mathematical studies by the mathematical
+tripos, which had existed from the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and to which in 1824 a classical tripos was added. The ground covered by
+these honour examinations was certainly narrower than that which lay
+within the scope of the corresponding examinations at Oxford, but at
+both places the studies of most undergraduates were still directed more
+by the judgment of their tutors than by the regulations of the
+university.
+
+These two universities were, however, subject to two limitations, which
+prevented them from providing a higher education for all aspiring
+students. The expense of living at Oxford and Cambridge, and the close
+connexion of both universities with the Church of England, rendered them
+difficult of access to many. These limitations were emphasised by the
+fact that Scotland possessed five universities which were the opposite
+of the English in both respects, and not a few English students could
+always be found at the Scottish seats of learning. The reform ministry
+made a serious effort to remove or alleviate the grievances of
+dissenters. Among other reforms mooted was the abolition of theological
+tests for matriculation and graduation. In 1834 a bill, which proposed
+to effect this change, but which left intact such tests as existed for
+fellowships and professorships, passed its second reading in the commons
+by a majority of 321 against 174, and its third reading by 164 against
+75. It was, however, thrown out on the second reading in the lords by
+187 votes against 85. Though in this particular case the demands of the
+dissenters were moderate, they were themselves opposed to other measures
+introduced for their benefit, and the question of tests at Oxford and
+Cambridge was not unnaturally allowed to rest for another twenty years.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY OF LONDON._]
+
+It was only in the reign of George IV. that anything was done to provide
+a university education for those who were unable to proceed to the
+ancient seats of learning. But the movement, once started, progressed
+rapidly. The oldest of the university colleges, as they are now called,
+is St. David's College, Lampeter, which was founded in 1822, mainly
+through the exertions of Dr. Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St. David's, who
+was supported by many others among the Welsh clergy. The college was
+opened in 1827, but at first it had no power of conferring degrees, and
+contented itself with the education of candidates for holy orders. A
+more important movement was initiated in 1825. In a public letter
+written by the poet Campbell to Brougham, the project of founding a
+university of London, which should be free from denominational
+restrictions, was advocated. The scheme was warmly embraced by many
+whose names are found associated with other movements of the times.
+Among them were Hume, Grote, Zachary Macaulay, Dudley, and Russell. A
+large proportion of the promoters of the new university had been
+educated at Scottish universities, and had therefore a clear idea of the
+type of university which they might establish, and the movement,
+although started primarily in the interests of dissenters, received the
+support of many who still valued the connexion of the universities with
+the Church. The "London University," as it was called, was opened in
+1828, when classes were formed in arts, law, and medicine, but not in
+divinity. It was technically a joint-stock company, and the attempt of
+the shareholders to obtain a charter of incorporation was successfully
+resisted by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Meanwhile some of the original supporters of the movement, regarding the
+non-religious character of the new university with suspicion, had
+decided to transfer their support to a new college, where the doctrine
+and worship of the Church of England should be recognised. The Duke of
+Wellington took a lively interest in this movement, and King George
+IV.'s patronage gave the new institution the name of "King's College".
+There seemed every reason to expect that the foundation would be on a
+munificent scale, when Wellington's acceptance of catholic emancipation
+offended many of the subscribers so deeply that they immediately
+withdrew from the undertaking, and the college was in consequence left
+almost entirely without endowment. State recognition, however, was given
+it from the first. It was incorporated in 1829, and opened in 1831. In
+1835 the demand of "London University" for a charter received the
+support of the house of commons, and Lord Melbourne's government decided
+to propose a compromise, by which the so-called "London University" was
+to be converted into University College, and an examining body was to be
+created under the title of the University of London, while the work of
+teaching was to be performed by University College, King's College, and
+other colleges, which might from time to time be named by the crown.
+These terms were accepted by the existing "university," and charters
+were given to the new university and to University College, London, in
+1836. It was thus left open to students or their parents to select
+either a denominational or an undenominational college, according to
+their preference.
+
+Meanwhile another university had been founded in the north of England.
+The dean and chapter of Durham had determined to set aside a part of
+their emoluments for the foundation of a university, and the bishop had
+undertaken to assist them by attaching prebendal stalls in the cathedral
+to some of the professorships. An act of parliament was obtained in
+1832, authorising the establishment of the new university, which was
+opened in October, 1833, and was incorporated by a royal charter on June
+1, 1837. As an ecclesiastical foundation, the university of Durham was
+of course in the closest connexion with the established Church.
+
+None of these new foundations could compare in respect of endowments
+with the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, yet it was not
+altogether without reason that the founders of University College,
+London, hoped to give as good an education at a greatly reduced cost. It
+must be remembered that only a small fraction of the endowments of the
+old universities and their colleges was at this time applied to strictly
+educational purposes, and, until they should either be reformed or
+become more sensible of their opportunities, there was a fair field for
+an energetic rival.
+
+The beginning of the nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous expansion
+of manufacturing industry, not so much caused by new discoveries as by
+the energetic application of those made at the end of the last century,
+by the growth of the factory-system, and, above all, by the monopoly of
+English-made goods during the great war. The innovation of
+machine-spinning and weaving by power-looms had an instant effect in
+stimulating and cheapening the production of cottons, but that of
+woollens, cramped by heavy duties on the raw material, languished for
+some time longer under traditional methods of handspinning. When
+stocking-frames and other forms of machinery penetrated at last into its
+strongholds in the West Riding of Yorkshire and in the midland counties,
+the demand for "hands" was inevitably reduced, and "frame-breaking"
+riots ensued, which lasted for several years. From this period dates the
+industrial revolution which gradually abolished domestic industries,
+separated mill-owners and mill-hands into almost hostile classes,
+undermined the system of apprenticeship, and brought about a large
+migration of manufactures from centres with abundant water-power to
+centres in close proximity to coal-fields.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE._]
+
+The progress of British agriculture during the period under review was
+almost as marked as that of British manufactures. Under the impulse of
+war prices, and of the improvements adopted at the end of the eighteenth
+century, the home-production of corn almost kept pace with the growing
+consumption, and between 1801 and 1815 little more than 500,000 quarters
+of imported corn were required annually to feed the population. No
+doubt, when the price of bread might rise to famine-point, the
+consumption of it fell to a minimum per head; still, the rural
+population continued to multiply, though not so rapidly as the urban
+population, and neither could have been maintained without a constant
+increase in the production of the soil. This result was due to a
+progressive extension of enclosure and drainage, as well as to wise
+innovations in the practice of agriculture. Not the least important of
+such innovations was the destruction of useless fences and straggling
+hedge-rows, the multitude and irregular outlines of which had long been
+a picturesque but wasteful feature of old-fashioned English farming.
+This was the age, too, in which many a small farm vanished by
+consolidation, and many an ancient pasture was recklessly broken up,
+some of which, though once more covered with green sward, have never
+recovered their original fertility. Happily, the use of crushed bones
+for manure was introduced in 1800, and the efforts of the national board
+of agriculture, aided by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, brought
+about a far more general application of chemical science to agriculture,
+partly compensating for the exhaustion of the soil under successive
+wheat crops. Not less remarkable was the effect of mechanical science in
+the development of new agricultural implements, which, however, retained
+a comparatively rude form of construction. The Highland Society of
+Scotland took a leading part in encouraging these gradual experiments in
+tillage, as well as in the breeding of sheep and cattle, with a special
+regard to early maturity. Had the farmers of Great Britain during the
+great war possessed no more skill than their grandfathers, it would have
+been impossible for the soil of this island to have so nearly supported
+its inhabitants before the ports were freely thrown open.
+
+The great triumphs of engineering in the fifteen years before the battle
+of Waterloo were mainly achieved in facilitating locomotion, and are
+specially associated with the name of Telford. It was he who, following
+in the footsteps of Brindley and Smeaton, constructed the Ellesmere and
+Caledonian Canals; he far eclipsed the fame of General Wade by opening
+out roads and bridges in the highlands, and first adopted sound
+principles of road-making both in England and Wales, afterwards to be
+applied with marvellous success by Macadam. It is some proof of the
+impulse given to land-travelling by such improvements that 1,355 public
+stage-coaches were assessed in 1812, and that a rate of speed little
+short of ten miles an hour was attained by the lighter vehicles. But
+Telford's labours were not confined to roads or bridges; they extended
+also to harbours and to canals, which continued to be the great arteries
+of heavy traffic until the development of railways. The new power
+destined to supersede both coaches and barges was first recognised
+practically when Bell's little steam vessel the _Comet_ was navigated
+down the Clyde in 1812, to be followed not many years later by a
+steamship capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean. In a few years steam
+packets were numerous, but it was not till well into the reign of
+Victoria that steam navigation was used in the royal navy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RAILWAYS._]
+
+The most conspicuous improvement in the social and economic condition of
+the country between 1815 and 1837 is undoubtedly the invention of the
+steam locomotive engine. A few steam locomotives had been invented
+before the former date, but they had met with little success and were as
+yet more costly than horse traction. It was only in or about the year
+1815 that George Stephenson, enginewright in Killingworth colliery,
+succeeded in inventing a locomotive engine which was cheaper than
+horse-power. The value of railways was by this time better understood.
+Short railways worked by horses were common in the neighbourhood of
+collieries, and a few existed elsewhere. In 1821 Edward Pease obtained
+parliamentary powers to construct a railway between Stockton and
+Darlington. A visit to Killingworth persuaded him to make use of
+steam-power. In 1823 an act authorising the use of steam on the proposed
+railway was carried, and in 1825 the railway was opened. In 1826 an act
+was passed for the construction of a railway between Liverpool and
+Manchester. Stephenson was employed as engineer to make the line, and
+his success as a road-making engineer proved equal to his brilliance as
+a mechanical inventor.
+
+In 1829 the line was completed. The directors were at first strongly
+opposed to the use of steam-locomotion, but were induced by Stephenson,
+before finally rejecting the idea, to offer a reward of L500 for the
+best locomotive that could be made. Of four engines which were entered
+for the competition, Stephenson's _Rocket_ was the only one that would
+move, and it proved able to travel at the rate of thirty-five miles an
+hour. The opening of the railway in 1830, and the fatal accident to Mr.
+Huskisson which attended it, have been noticed already. The accident did
+more to attract attention to the power of the locomotive than to
+discredit it. The opposition to railways was not, however, at an end. A
+proposal for a railway between London and Birmingham was carried through
+parliament, only after a struggle of some years' duration, but the
+construction of the line was at length authorised in 1833. The English
+railway system now developed with great rapidity, and by the end of the
+reign of William IV. lines had been authorised which would when complete
+form a system, joining London with Dover, Southampton, and Bristol, and
+both London and Bristol with Birmingham, whence lines were to run to the
+most important places in Yorkshire and Lancashire, and on to Darlington.
+Numerous small lines served other portions of the country, partly in
+connexion with these, but more often independently.
+
+Among the more conspicuous metropolitan improvements of this age may be
+mentioned the introduction of gas and the incipient construction of new
+bridges over the Thames, in which the engineer Rennie took a leading
+part. Before the end of the eighteenth century the workshops of Boulton
+and Watt had been lit by gas, and Soho was illuminated by it to
+celebrate the peace of Amiens. By 1807 it was used in Golden Lane, and
+by 1809, if not earlier, it had reached Pall Mall, but it scarcely
+became general in London until somewhat later. At the beginning of the
+century the metropolis possessed but three bridges, old London bridge
+and the old bridges at Blackfriars and Westminster. The first stone of
+the Strand Bridge (afterwards to be called Waterloo Bridge) was laid on
+October 11, 1811, and Southwark Bridge was commenced in 1814, but these
+bridges were not completed till 1817 and 1819 respectively. The existing
+London Bridge, designed by Rennie, but built after his death, was
+completed in 1831. In 1812, the architect Nash was employed in laying
+out the Regent's Park, and in 1813 an act was passed for the
+construction of Regent Street, as a grand line of communication between
+it and Carlton House, the residence of the regent.
+
+The work of geographical discovery had been well commenced before the
+end of the eighteenth century, and was inevitably checked during the
+great war. The wonderful voyages of Cook had revealed Australia and New
+Zealand; Flinders had carried on the survey of the Australian coast;
+Vancouver had explored the great island which bears his name with the
+adjacent shores; Rennell had produced his great map of India; Bruce had
+published his celebrated travels in Abyssinia; and an association had
+been formed to dispel the darkness that hung over the whole interior of
+Africa. Among its first emissaries was Mungo Park, who afterwards was
+employed by the British government, and died in the course of his second
+expedition in 1805-6. The idea of Arctic discovery was revived early in
+the nineteenth century, and was no longer confined to commercial aims,
+such as the opening of a north-east or north-west passage, but was
+rather directed to scientific objects, not without the hope of reaching
+the North Pole itself. Meanwhile, the ordnance survey of Great Britain
+itself was in full progress, and that of British India was commenced in
+1802, while the hydrographical department of the admiralty, established
+in 1795, was organising the system of marine-surveying which has since
+yielded such valuable fruits.
+
+The progress of philanthropy, based on religious sentiment was very
+marked during the later years of the war. The institution of Sunday
+schools between 1780 and 1790 had awakened a new sense of duty towards
+children in the community, and the growing use of child-labour, keeping
+pace with the constant increase of machinery, forced upon the public
+the necessity of legislative restrictions, which have been noticed in an
+earlier chapter. Banks of savings, the forerunners of savings banks
+under parliamentary regulation, had been suggested by Jeremy Bentham,
+and one at least was instituted in 1802. The idea of penitentiaries, for
+the reformation as well as for the punishment of criminals, had
+originated with the great philanthropist, John Howard. It was adopted
+and popularised by Jeremy Bentham, and might have been further developed
+but for the introduction of transportation, which promised the
+well-conducted convict the prospect of a new life in a new country.
+Meanwhile, prison reform became a favourite study of benevolent
+theorists in an age when the criminal law was still a relic of
+barbarism, when highway robbery was rife in the neighbourhood of London,
+when sanitation was hardly in its infancy, when pauperism was fostered
+by the poor law, and when the working classes in towns were huddled
+together, without legal check or moral scruple, in undrained courts and
+underground cellars. So capricious and shortsighted is the public
+conscience in its treatment of social evils.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANADA._]
+
+At the opening of the nineteenth century the colonial empire of Great
+Britain was in a transitional state. The secession of thirteen American
+colonies had not only robbed the mother country of its proudest
+inheritance, but had also shattered the old colonial system of
+commercial monopoly for the supposed benefit of British interests. Its
+immediate effect was to annul the navigation act as affecting American
+trade, which became free to all the world, and by which Great Britain
+itself profited largely. Canada at once gained a new importance, and a
+new sense of nationality, which Pitt recognised by dividing it into two
+provinces, and giving each a considerable measure of independence, both
+political and commercial. It was troubled by the presence of a conquered
+race of white colonists side by side with new colonists of English
+blood, who were, however, united in their resistance to the revolted
+colonies in the war of 1812-14. After the war a steady stream of
+immigration poured into Canada. In 1816 the population was estimated at
+450,000; between 1819 and 1829 Canada received 126,000 immigrants from
+England, and during the next ten years 320,000. The result was that the
+French element ceased to be preponderant, except in Lower Canada. The
+French Canadians felt that they did not enjoy their share of the
+confidence of government; the home government, ready enough to grant any
+favour that home opinion would permit, was trammelled by a public
+opinion, which suspected all who were of a French origin of a desire to
+restore the supremacy of the Roman Catholic religion and to assert
+political independence. A vacillating policy was the result, which only
+increased suspicions, and led in the first year of the reign of Victoria
+to a civil war.
+
+In the Mauritius and the West Indies the one event of importance in this
+period is the abolition of slavery. It was found impossible to obtain
+from free negroes as much work as had been obtained from slaves, and
+their place had to be supplied by Indian coolies in the Mauritius, and
+by Chinese in Jamaica. At the same time the West Indies had begun to
+suffer from the competition of the United States.
+
+The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was still peopled almost entirely by
+blacks or by the descendants of Dutch settlers, known as _boers_, or
+peasants. Four thousand British colonists went out in 1820 to Algoa Bay,
+but these were a mere handful compared with the Dutch. Unfortunately the
+government adopted a line of policy which produced great irritation in
+the Dutch population. They were granted no self-government, and in 1826
+English judicial forms were introduced, and English was declared the
+sole official language. The reform administration made matters worse by
+defending the blacks against the boers. In 1834 it set free the slaves,
+offering L1,200,000, payable in London, very little of which ever
+reached the boers, as compensation for slaves valued at L3,000,000. A
+Kaffir war in 1834 had led to the conquest of Kaffraria, but in 1835 the
+home government restored the independence of the Kaffirs, and appointed
+a lieutenant-governor to defend their rights. After this the boers
+considered their position intolerable, and in 1835 began their first
+"trek" into the country now known as Natal.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRALIA._]
+
+Meanwhile, the great discoveries of Captain Cook, and the first
+settlement of New South Wales, brought within view a possible extension
+of our colonial dominion, which might go far to compensate for its
+losses on the North American continent. Governor Phillip had been sent
+out by Pitt to Botany Bay in 1787-88, but it was many years before the
+earliest of Australian colonies outgrew the character of a penal refuge
+for English convicts. The first convict establishments were at Sydney
+and Norfolk Island, but another settlement was founded on Van Diemen's
+Land in 1805, and in 1807, after this island had been circumnavigated by
+Flinders and Bass, it became the headquarters of that convict system,
+whose horrors are not yet forgotten. Between 1810 and 1822 the resources
+of New South Wales were vastly developed by the energetic policy of
+Governor Macquarie. While his efforts to utilise convict labour, and to
+educate convicts into free men, may have retarded the influx of genuine
+colonists, he prepared the way for settlement by constructing roads,
+promoting exploration, and raising public buildings, so that when he
+returned home the population of New South Wales had increased fourfold,
+and its settled territory in a much greater proportion. This territory
+comprised all English settlements on the east coast, and included large
+tracts of what is now known as Queensland, which did not become a
+separate colony until 1859.
+
+The early history of Australia, it has been said, is chiefly a tale of
+convict settlements, bush-ranging, and expeditions of discovery. There
+is much truth in this saying, but the real basis of Australian
+prosperity was the introduction of sheep-farming on a large scale, after
+the merino-breed had been imported and acclimatised by Macarthur at the
+beginning of the century. Long before the region stretching northward
+from the later Port Phillip grew into the colony of Victoria,
+sheep-owners were spreading over the vast pastures of the interior,
+though many years elapsed before the explorer Sturt opened out the great
+provinces further westward.
+
+The development of Australia made rapid progress during the generation
+following the great war. Though Australia itself and Van Diemen's Land,
+now called Tasmania, were still in the main convict settlements, free
+settlers had been arriving at Sydney for some time, and in 1817 they
+began to arrive in moderate numbers in Van Diemen's Land. In 1825 that
+island had sufficiently progressed to be recognised as a separate
+colony. The attempt to found a colony in western Australia in 1829 was,
+on the other hand, an almost complete failure. But in 1824 a new centre
+of colonisation in New South Wales had been established at Port
+Phillip. Meanwhile a sharp cleavage of parties had arisen. The convicts
+and poorer colonists were opposed to the large sheep-owners, who were
+endeavouring to form an aristocracy. Governor Macquarie favoured the
+convicts, and Governor Darling (1825-31) the sheep-owners. In 1823 a
+legislative council, consisting of seven officials, had been instituted;
+in 1828 it was developed into one of fifteen members, chosen entirely
+from among the wealthiest colonists.
+
+Gibbon Wakefield's _Letter from Sydney_, published in 1829, marks an
+epoch in the history of Australian colonisation. In this work he
+proposed that the land should be sold in small lots at a fairly high
+price to settlers, and that the proceeds of the sales should be used to
+pay the passage of emigrants going out as labourers. This idea had
+hardly been published when it was adopted by the home government, and
+five shillings an acre was fixed as the minimum price of land. The
+number of emigrants increased rapidly, but the new system threatened
+ruin to the owners of sheep-runs. Unable to pay the stipulated price,
+they only moved further into the interior and occupied fresh land
+without seeking government permission, an unlicensed occupation which
+has left its mark upon the language in the word "squatter". At last in
+1837 a compromise was arranged, by which the squatters were to pay a
+small rent for their runs, the crown retaining the freehold with the
+right to sell it to others at some future date. In 1834 the British
+government sanctioned the formation of a new colony, that of South
+Australia. It was to be settled from the outset on the Wakefield system,
+and no convicts were ever sent to it. The first lots were sold as high
+as twelve shillings an acre, and in 1836 a company of emigrants went out
+and founded Adelaide.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDICES.
+
+                     I. ON AUTHORITIES.
+
+                    II. ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+
+
+                              APPENDIX I.
+
+                          ON AUTHORITIES.[141]
+
+
+(1) General histories of England for the period 1801-1837: MASSEY,
+_History of England during the Reign of George the Third_ (4 vols., 2nd
+ed., 1865), closes with the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and therefore
+barely touches this period. There is still room for a general history of
+England on an adequate scale between 1802 and 1815. After that date we
+have HARRIET MARTINEAU, _History of England during the Thirty Years'
+Peace_ (1816-1846, 2 vols., 1849, 1850). This was begun by Charles
+Knight, the publisher, who brought it down to 1819. From 1820 onwards it
+is Miss Martineau's own work. It is too nearly contemporary to depend on
+any authorities except such as were published at the time, and it
+represents in the main the popular view of public events and public men
+held by liberals at the time. Sir SPENCER WALPOLE'S _History of England
+from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815_ (6 vols., revised ed.,
+1890), a work of high quality and thoroughly trustworthy, full of
+references to the best published authorities, sympathises with the whigs
+and more liberal tories. Reference is sometimes made in this volume to
+GOLDWIN SMITH, _The United Kingdom, a Political History_ (2 vols.,
+1899), but the work is too slight to be regarded as an authority. Sir T.
+E. MAY'S (Lord Farnborough) _Constitutional History of England from 1760
+to 1860_ (3 vols., 10th ed., 1891) is also useful.
+
+(2) The _Annual Register_ is probably the most useful authority for this
+period. In addition to more general information, it contains a very full
+report of the more important parliamentary debates and the text of the
+principal public treaties and of numerous other state papers. The
+narrative is not often coloured by the political partisanship of the
+writer, but allowance must be made for the strong tory bias of the
+volumes dealing with the reign of William IV. The _Parliamentary
+History_ closes in 1803, at which date Cobbett's _Parliamentary
+Debates_ had begun to appear. After 1812 Cobbett ceased to superintend
+the work and his name was dropped, and in 1813 and afterwards the
+title-page acknowledged that the work was "published under the
+superintendence of T. C. Hansard," who had also been the publisher of
+Cobbett's series and of the _Parliamentary History_.
+
+[Pageheading: _MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE._]
+
+(3) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence. The
+following have been noticed among the authorities for volume x.: PELLEW,
+_Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, Viscount Sidmouth_ (3 vols.,
+1847), very full wherever Sidmouth was directly concerned, written with
+a strong bias in favour of the subject of the biography. Lord STANHOPE,
+_Life of Pitt_ (4 vols., 3rd ed., 1867). The appendix to the last volume
+contains Pitt's correspondence with the king in the years 1804-1806.
+Lord ROSEBERY, _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen Series, 1891), brilliant
+but not always sound. Lord JOHN (Earl) RUSSELL, _Memorials and
+Correspondence of C. J. Fox_ (4 vols., 1853-1854), and _Life and Times
+of C. J. Fox, 1859-1866_. _Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of George
+III._ (4 vols., 1853-1855; 1801 falls in vol. iii.), continued in
+_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Regency_ (2 vols., 1856),
+_Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (2 vols., 1859), and _Memoirs of
+the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols., 1861;
+1837 is reached in vol. i.); these volumes, edited by the Duke of
+Buckingham, contain the correspondence of the Grenville family. The
+first series alone, which contains many important letters of Lord
+Grenville, is of first-rate importance. The editing is often inaccurate.
+_Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury_ (4 vols.,
+1844), edited by the third earl (vol. iv. extends from February, 1801,
+to July, 1809), authoritative and useful, especially for the crisis of
+1807. _Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis_ (3 vols., 1859), edited by
+C. Ross, valuable for the negotiations at Amiens and for Cornwallis's
+brief second governor-generalship of India. The notes are full of useful
+biographical material concerning the persons mentioned in the
+correspondence. _Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose_ (2 vols.,
+1860), edited by L. V. Harcourt. _The Diary and Correspondence of
+Charles Abbot, Lord Colchester_, edited by his son (3 vols., 1861,
+extending from 1795 to 1829), with interesting notices of Perceval, and
+generally useful from 1802-1817, when Abbot was Speaker. Lord HOLLAND,
+_Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (2 vols., 1852), edited by his son, Lord
+Holland. These memoirs do not extend beyond the year 1807. Volume ii.,
+which covers the period during which Holland was a member of the
+Grenville cabinet, is of special importance. His memory is not always
+accurate, and he writes with a whig bias which makes him a harsh judge
+of George III. Holland's _Further Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1807-1821_,
+edited by Lord Stavordale, the present Lord Ilchester (1905),
+interesting, and, like the earlier volumes, full of personal detail, but
+of less value, since Holland was not in office again till 1830.
+
+Similar in character to the above, but only of importance after 1801 are
+the following: _Life of Perceval_ (2 vols., 1874), by his grandson, Sir
+Spencer Walpole, written largely from the Perceval papers, especially
+valuable for the ministerial crisis of 1809. The _Memoirs and
+Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh_ (12 vols., 1850-1853), edited by
+his brother the third Marquis of Londonderry, consisting mainly of
+military and diplomatic correspondence. Sir ARCHIBALD ALISON, _Lives of
+Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, the Second and Third
+Marquesses of Londonderry_ (3 vols., 1861), much more political than
+biographical; valuable and appreciative, but not rich in documents. _The
+Dispatches of the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in
+India, Denmark [etc.], from 1799 to 1818_ (12 vols., 1834-1838),
+compiled by Lieut.-Colonel GURWOOD (really extending to 1815 only);
+_Supplementary Despatches and Memoranda of the Duke of Wellington_ (15
+vols., 1858-1872), edited by his son, the second Duke of Wellington,
+extending from 1797 to 1818; _Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda
+of the Duke of Wellington_ (8 vols., 1867-1880), by the same editor,
+extending from 1819 to 1832. The second and third of these series
+contain not only the duke's despatches, but the vast mass of political
+correspondence which passed through his hands. In spite of the great
+size of the collection, very little that can be considered trivial is
+included. It is our most important authority for all foreign relations
+between 1815 and 1827, and between 1828 and 1830. Sir HERBERT MAXWELL,
+_The Life of Wellington_ (2 vols., 1899). HORACE TWISS, _Life of Eldon_
+(3 vols., 1844). C. PHIPPS, _Memoir of R. Plumer Ward_ (2 vols., 1850),
+containing important political correspondence from 1801 onward, and
+Ward's diary from 1809 to 1820. Ward held numerous minor offices in the
+government and was on terms of intimacy with Perceval and Mulgrave.
+MOORE, _Life of Sheridan_ (2 vols., 1826), valuable for the crisis of
+1811. _The Greville Memoirs; a Journal of the Reigns of King George IV.
+and King William IV._ (3 vols.), edited by Henry Reeve. References are
+to the first edition, 1874. New edition, also including 1837-1860 in 8
+vols. (1888). Greville was clerk to the privy council from 1821 to 1859,
+and as such possessed exceptional opportunities for making himself
+acquainted with secret political transactions and with the personal
+qualities of successive statesmen. _The Creevey Papers_ (2 vols., 1903),
+edited by Sir Herbert Maxwell, not of first-rate historical importance,
+full of gossip and scandal. Creevey was a whig member of parliament,
+1802-1818, 1820-1828 and 1831-1832, and treasurer of the ordnance,
+1830-1834. STAPLETON, _The Political Life of George Canning (from
+September 1822 to August 1827)_ (3 vols., 1831), very full and valuable,
+especially for foreign relations; strikingly deficient in documents and
+dates. _George Canning and His Times_ (1859), by the same author,
+largely written from memory and therefore untrustworthy. YONGE, _Life
+and Administration of Lord Liverpool_ (3 vols., 1868). _Memoirs of Sir
+Robert Peel_ (2 vols., 1856-1857), prepared by Peel himself, and dealing
+with the Roman Catholic question, the administration of 1834-1835, and
+the repeal of the corn laws. The memoirs, which are of the highest
+importance, consist mainly of correspondence and are studiously fair.
+PARKER, _Sir Robert Peel_ (3 vols., 1891-1899), a large collection of
+Peel's correspondence with a brief connecting narrative by the editor,
+of great value even for the periods covered by the _Memoirs_. _The
+Correspondence of King William IV. and Earl Grey, from November 1830 to
+June 1832_ (2 vols., 1867), edited by Henry, Earl Grey, valuable for the
+history of the reform. _The Melbourne Papers_ (1889), edited by Sanders,
+throw light on Melbourne's relations with William IV. and with Brougham.
+TORRENS, _Memoirs of Melbourne_ (2 vols., 1878), polemical, and sadly
+deficient in documents. Lord HATHERTON, _Memoir and Correspondence
+relating to June and July, 1834_ (published 1872), edited by H. Reeve,
+on events connected with the fall of Grey's ministry. _The Croker
+Papers_ (3 vols., 1884), edited by L. J. Jennings. Croker was secretary
+to the admiralty from 1809 to 1830. The papers, which are very full from
+1809 onwards, consist of correspondence and selections from Croker's
+journals and correspondence. L. HORNER, _Memoir of Francis Horner_
+(1843). E. HERRIES, _Public Life of J. C. Herries_ (1880), a defence of
+Herries against the sneers of whig writers. Lord DUDLEY, _Letters to the
+Bishop of Llandaff_ (Copleston), (1840), and _Letters to Ivy_ (1905,
+edited by Romilly), interesting and often vivacious, but not of
+first-rate importance. Sir HENRY BULWER (Lord Dalling), _Life of
+Palmerston_ (2 vols., 1870), extending to 1840. The first chapter of a
+third volume, edited by Evelyn Ashley (1874) makes good a few omissions
+belonging to this period. The work consists mainly of correspondence and
+extracts from Palmerston's journal. _Memoirs of Baron Stockmar_ (2
+vols., 1872-1873), by his son Baron E. von Stockmar, edited by F. Max
+Mueller. Stockmar was a confidential agent of Leopold, King of the
+Belgians. The memoirs contain a narrative by William IV. of the
+political history of his reign to 1835, including the circumstances of
+Melbourne's resignation in 1834. CAMPBELL, _Lives of the Chancellors_ (8
+vols., 1848-1869). The last volume contains excellent sketches of
+Lyndhurst and Brougham, based largely on personal knowledge.
+_Correspondence of Princess Lieven and Earl Grey, 1824-1834_, edited by
+G. le Strange (1890). _Letters of Dorothea, Princess Lieven during Her
+Residence in London, 1812-1834_, edited by L. G. Robinson (1902).
+_Letters of Harriet, Countess Granville, 1810-1845_ (2 vols., 1894).
+
+(4) Miscellaneous books. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _Administrations of Great
+Britain (1783-1830)_, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, has been mentioned
+among the authorities for volume x. It is a valuable history of the
+inner political life of England, but suffers from a strong whig bias.
+LECKY, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 vols., 1892),
+though nominally closing at the union, throws light on Irish history at
+the beginning of the nineteenth century. A. V. DICEY, _Lectures on the
+Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth
+Century_ (1905), is very suggestive. HALEVY, _La formation du
+radicalisme philosophique_ (3 vols., 1901-1904), and Sir L. STEPHEN,
+_The English Utilitarians_, vols. i., ii. (1900), are valuable for the
+history of the radical party. C. CREIGHTON, _History of Epidemics in
+Britain_ (2 vols., 1894), contains an excellent account of the cholera
+epidemic.
+
+[Pageheading: _ON THE GREAT WAR._]
+
+(5) Books dealing with the great war are numerous. The following have
+been already noticed among the authorities for volume x.: Dr. HOLLAND
+ROSE, _Life of Napoleon I._ (2 vols., 1904), our most trustworthy guide
+for the career of the French emperor. The book has gained not a little
+from its author's independent researches at the British Foreign Office.
+Captain MAHAN, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and
+Empire_ (2 vols., 1893), and _Life of Nelson_ (2 vols., 1897), valuable
+for their general view of the naval warfare and commercial policy of the
+period. JAMES, _Naval History of Great Britain, 1793-1820_ (6 vols., ed.
+1826; vols. iii.-vi. extend from 1801-1820), very full and accurate,
+largely used in this volume for the American war. Sir JOHN LAUGHTON,
+_Nelson_ (English Men of Action Series, 1895), and articles in the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_.
+
+To these must be added ALISON'S _History of Europe from the Commencement
+of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in
+1815_ (20 vols., 1847, 1848), an uncritical but still a standard work.
+The reaction against Alison is probably due in large measure to
+political causes. In addition to the European history which gives its
+title to the book, it contains a narrative of the American war of
+1812-1814. The classical though far from trustworthy narrative on the
+French side is THIERS, _Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire_ (21 vols.,
+1845-1869), translated into English by Campbell and Stebbing (12 vols.,
+1893-1894). See also LANFREY'S incomplete _History of Napoleon I._,
+English translation (4 vols., 1871-1879), bitterly anti-Napoleonic. The
+negotiations precedent to the outbreak of war in 1803 are to be found in
+Mr. O. BROWNING'S _England and Napoleon in 1803_, containing despatches
+of Whitworth and others, published in 1887, and in P. COQUELLE,
+_Napoleon and England, 1803-1813_, translated by G. D. KNOX (1904),
+based on the reports of Andreossy, the French ambassador at London. Sir
+H. BUNBURY'S _Narrative of Certain Passages, etc._ (1853) is of the
+highest value for the war in the Mediterranean. The _Times_ of September
+16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, and October 19, 1905, contains an excellent
+series of articles on Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar. For the Moscow
+campaign, the Marquis DE CHAMBRAY'S _Histoire de l'Expedition de Russie_
+(3 vols., 1839) is perhaps the most reliable of contemporary narratives.
+There is a good account of the campaign in the Rev. H. B. GEORGE'S
+_Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_ (1899). For the Peninsular war, W.
+NAPIER'S _History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of
+France_ (6 vols.; vols. i.-iii., ed. 1835-1840; iv.-vi., 1834-1840) is
+of the highest literary as well as historical value. C. OMAN'S _History
+of the Peninsular War_ (in progress, vols. i., ii., 1902-1903, extending
+at present to September, 1809) makes good use of Spanish sources of
+information. The _Wellington Dispatches_ have been noticed already in
+section 3. The _Diary of Sir John Moore_, edited by Sir J. F. Maurice (2
+vols., 1904), is of value for the campaign of 1808-1809. For Waterloo,
+in addition to Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, and Rose's _Life of
+Napoleon I._, Chesney's _Waterloo Lectures_, 1868; W. O'CONNOR MORRIS,
+_The Campaign of 1815_ (1900), and J. C. ROPES, _The Campaign of
+Waterloo_, may be studied with profit. Morris's work must, however, be
+discounted for his extravagant admiration of Napoleon's genius and his
+faith in the Grouchy legend. For the disputes with the United States and
+war of 1812-1814, see chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_ (vol.
+vii., 1903); BOURINOT, _Canada_ (Story of the Nations), (1897); J.
+SCHOULER, _History of the United States of America under the
+Constitution_ (6 vols., 1880-1889); and MAHAN, _Sea Power in Its
+Relations to the War of 1812_ (2 vols., 1905).
+
+[Pageheading: _ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS._]
+
+(6) For European politics and foreign relations generally, in addition
+to some of the books mentioned in the last section, we have C. A.
+FYFFE'S _History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878_ (ed. 1895), a very
+readable book, which includes the results of some original study, and
+SEIGNOBOS, _Political History of Contemporary Europe_, English
+translation (2 vols., 1901), an useful but not always accurate book. The
+great French work, _Histoire generale du IVe Siecle a nos jours_ (vols.
+ix., x., 1897-1898), by numerous authors, edited by MM. Lavisse and
+Rambaud, is naturally of varying merit; the chapters on France and
+Russia are the best, and there is a very full bibliography at the close
+of each chapter. The _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ix., _Napoleon_
+(1906), is a similar compilation by English writers. ALFRED STERN'S
+_Geschichte Europas seit den Vertraegen von 1815_ (3 vols., 1894-1901, to
+be continued to 1871) is perhaps the best general history of the period
+following the great war. _The Memoirs of Prince Metternich_ (5 vols.,
+English translation, 1881-1882, edited by Prince Richard Metternich,
+extending to 1835) contain much that is valuable for diplomatic history.
+For French history see DUVERGIER DE HAURANNE, _Histoire du gouvernement
+parlementaire en France_ (1814-1848, 10 vols., 1857-1872), which, in
+spite of the title, does not extend beyond 1830. For the Greek revolt,
+vols. vi. and vii. of G. FINLAY'S _History of Greece_ (7 vols., ed.
+1877) are important. American policy is treated by J. W. FOSTER, _A
+Century of American Diplomacy_ (1901). Sir EDWARD HERTSLET'S _Map of
+Europe by Treaty_ (4 vols., 1875-1891), while professedly confined to
+the treaties dealing with boundaries, contains the majority of those of
+general historical interest. It covers the period 1815-1891. LE COMTE DE
+GARDEN, _Histoire generale des traites de paix_ (14 vols., 1848-1888,
+vols. vi.-xv., extending to 1814), and F. DE MARTENS, _Recueil des
+traites et conventions, conclus par la Russie_ (tomes xi., xii.
+(Angleterre), 1895-1898), contain the principal treaties belonging to
+the period. The _Castlereagh_ and _Wellington_ _Despatches_ have been
+noticed under section 3.
+
+(7) For Indian history: JAMES MILL and WILSON, _History of British
+India_ (10 vols., 1858), vols. vi.-ix., noticed as an authority for
+volume x., ends in 1835; Sir ALFRED C. LYALL'S _Rise and Expansion of
+the British Dominion in India_ (1894) contains a brief and masterly
+sketch of the subject. See also _A Selection from the Despatches,
+Treaties and Other Papers of the Marquess Wellesley_ (1877), well edited
+by S. J. Owen; the first two series of the _Wellington Dispatches_,
+noticed under section 3; and the vast mass of information collected in
+Sir W. W. HUNTER'S _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (14 vols., 1885-1887).
+
+(8) For social and economic history: Dr. W. CUNNINGHAM'S _The Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times_, vol. iii., _Laissez
+Faire_ (1903), extending from 1776 to 1850, is now the standard work.
+Reference has also been made to G. R. PORTER, _Progress of the Nation_
+(1847), a work abounding more in statistics than in narrative, and to
+Sir GEORGE NICHOLLS, _History of the English Poor Law_ (2 vols., 1854).
+Nicholls took an active interest in social and economic questions from
+1816 till his death in 1857. He probably understood the working of the
+poor-law better than any other man of that date, and the poor-law
+legislation of 1834 and 1838 was largely founded on his suggestions. He
+was one of the poor-law commissioners of 1834, and was permanent
+secretary to the poor-law board from 1847 to 1851. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _The
+Government of Dependencies_ (1891), edited by C. P. Lucas, and LUCAS,
+_Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vols. i.-v. (1888-1901),
+are of value. For literary history, SAINTSBURY'S _History of Nineteenth
+Century Literature, 1780-1895_, (1896), is an excellent guide. For
+educational progress at Oxford University reference may be made to the
+_Report of H.M.'s Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State,
+etc., of the University and Colleges of Oxford_ (1852), which contains a
+good historical summary. The report of the similar commission appointed
+for Cambridge hardly touches the progress of studies, and is therefore
+of less value to the historical student.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[141] The dates given are, as far as possible, those of the editions
+used by the authors of this volume.
+
+
+
+
+                                APPENDIX II.
+
+                         ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+                         1. ADDINGTON, MARCH, 1801.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        H. Addington.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       Duke of Portland.
+                  {              Lord Pelham, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Secretaries of   {              C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803.
+  state_          { _foreign_    Lord Hawkesbury.
+                  { _war and  }  Lord Hobart.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Chatham.
+                                 Duke of Portland, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Earl St. Vincent.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham, _appointed_ June, 1801.
+_Board of trade_                 Lord Auckland.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Lewisham (July, 1801, Earl of
+                                    Dartmouth), _in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+                                    1802, _admitted to cabinet_ Oct., 1802.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               C. P. Yorke, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 C. Bragge, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+
+
+                         2. PITT, MAY, 1804.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        W. Pitt
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       Lord Hawkesbury.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Lord Harrowby.
+  state_          {              Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl Camden.
+                  { colonies_ }  Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+                                    1805.
+_Lord president_                 Duke of Portland (after Jan., 1805,
+                                    _without office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth (_before_ H. Addington),
+                                    _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+                                 Earl Camden, _succeeded_ July, 1805.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Viscount Melville (_before_ H. Dundas).
+                                 Lord Barham, _succeeded_ May, 1805.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_                 Duke of Montrose.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Castlereagh.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Mulgrave, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl of Buckinghamshire (_before_ Lord
+                                    Hobart), _succeeded_ Jan., 1805, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Lord Harrowby, _succeeded_ July, 1805, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl Powis, _succeeded_ Nov., 1805, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               W. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         3. GRENVILLE, FEBRUARY, 1806.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Lord Grenville.
+                  { _home_       Earl Spencer.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    C. J. Fox.
+  state_          {              Viscount Howick, _succeeded_ Sept.
+                  { _war and  }  W. Windham
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Fitzwilliam (after Oct., _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Erskine.
+_Lord privy seal_                Viscount Sidmouth.
+                                 Lord Holland, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Lord H. Petty.
+_Admiralty_                      C. Grey (April, Viscount Howick).
+                                 T. Grenville, _succeeded_ Sept.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Moira.
+_Chief justice, King's bench_    Lord Ellenborough, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Bedford, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               R. Fitzpatrick, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         4. PORTLAND, MARCH, 1807.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Portland.
+                  { _home_       Lord Hawkesbury (1808 Earl of Liverpool).
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    G. Canning.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Viscount Castlereagh.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Camden.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chanc. exchequer and }          S. Perceval.
+  duchy of Lancaster_ }
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Mulgrave.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl Bathurst, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_               R. S. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Earl of (_before_ Lord) Harrowby,
+                                    _succeeded_ July, 1809, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Sir J. Pulteney, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Lord G. Leveson Gower, _succeeded_ June,
+                                    1809, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         5. PERCEVAL, OCTOBER, 1809.
+
+_First lord of treasury,   }
+  chanc. exchequer and     }     S. Perceval.
+  duchy of Lancaster_[142] }
+                  { _home_       R. Ryder.
+                  { _foreign_    Earl Bathurst.
+_Secretaries of   {              Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1809.
+  state_          {              Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ March,
+                  {                 1812.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl of Liverpool.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl Camden (after April, 1812, _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ April,
+                                    1812.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Mulgrave.
+                                 C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Ordnance_                       Earl of Chatham.
+                                 Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         6. LIVERPOOL, JUNE, 1812
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Earl of Liverpool.
+                  { _home_       Viscount Sidmouth (after Jan., 1822,
+                  {                 _without office in cabinet_).
+                  {              R. Peel, _succeeded_ Jan., 1822.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Castlereagh (1821 Marquis of.
+  state_          {                 Londonderry).
+                  {              G. Canning, _succeeded_ Sept., 1822.
+                  { _war and  }  Earl Bathurst.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Eldon (1821 Earl of Eldon).
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        N. Vansittart.
+                                 F. J. Robinson, _succeeded_ Jan., 1823.
+_Admiralty_                      Viscount Melville (_before_ R. S. Dundas).
+_Ordnance_                       Lord Mulgrave (Sept., 1812, Earl of
+                                    Mulgrave), (from 1818-May, 1820,
+                                    _without office in cabinet_).
+                                 Duke of Wellington, _succeeded_ Jan.,
+                                    1819.
+_Board of trade_                 Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 F. J. Robinson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan.,
+                                    1818, _in cabinet_.
+                                 W. Huskisson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan., 1823,
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_               Earl of Buckinghamshire, _in cabinet_.
+                                 G. Canning, _succeeded_ June, 1816, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 C. B. Bathurst, _succeeded_ Jan., 1821,
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+                                 C. W. Wynn, _succeeded_ Feb., 1822, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Master of the mint_             Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 W. W. Pole (1821 Lord Maryborough),
+                                    _succeeded_ Sept., 1814, _in cabinet_.
+                                 T. Wallace, _succeeded_ Oct., 1823, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             C. B. Bathurst (_before_ C. Bragge).
+                                 N. Vansittart (March, 1823, Lord Bexley),
+                                    _succeeded_ Feb., 1823.
+_Without office_                 Earl Camden (Sept., 1812, Marquis Camden),
+                                    _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Whitworth (1815 Earl Whitworth),
+                                    _succeeded_ Aug., 1813, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Earl Talbot, _succeeded_ Oct., 1817, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1821,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         7. CANNING, APRIL, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        G. Canning.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       W. S. Bourne.
+                  {              Marquis of Lansdowne (_before_ Lord H.
+_Secretaries of   {                 Petty), _succeeded_ July.
+  state_          { _foreign_    Viscount Dudley.
+                  { _war and  }  Viscount Goderich (_before_ F. J.
+                  { colonies_ }     Robinson).
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Duke of Portland (_after_ July, _without
+                                    office in cabinet_).
+                                 Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ July.
+_Lord high admiral_              Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           W. Huskisson.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_             T. Wallace, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 G. Tierney, _succeeded_ May, _in cabinet_.
+                       {         C. Arbuthnot, _not in cabinet_.
+_First commissioner of {         Earl of Carlisle _succeeded_ May, _in
+  woods and forests_   {            cabinet_.
+                       {         W. S. Bourne, _succeeded_ July, _in
+                       {            cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Bexley.
+_Without office_                 Marquis of Lansdowne, May-July, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         8. GODERICH, SEPTEMBER, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Goderich.
+                  { _home_       Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Earl (_before_ Viscount) Dudley.
+  state_          { _war and  }  W. Huskisson.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Duke of Portland.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Carlisle.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        J. C. Herries.
+_Lord high admiral_              Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Ordnance_                       Marquis of Anglesey, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. Grant.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_             G. Tierney.
+_First commissioner of }         W. S. Bourne.
+  woods and forests_   }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Bexley.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston.
+
+
+9. WELLINGTON, JANUARY, 1828.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Wellington.
+                  { _home_       R. (May, 1830, Sir R.) Peel.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Earl Dudley.
+  state_          {              Earl of Aberdeen, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+                  { _war and  }  W. Huskisson.
+                  { colonies_ }  Sir G. Murray, _succeeded_ May, 1828.
+_Lord president_                 Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Ellenborough.
+                                 Earl of Rosslyn, _succeeded_ June, 1829.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        H. Goulburn.
+_Admiralty_                      Duke of Clarence (_lord high admiral_),
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Viscount Melville, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1828, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. Grant.
+  treasurer of navy_ }           W. V. Fitzgerald, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+_Board of control_               Viscount Melville.
+                                 Lord Ellenborough, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1828.
+_Master of the mint_             J. C. Herries.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Earl of Aberdeen, _in cabinet_.
+                                 C. Arbuthnot, _succeeded_ June, 1828, _not
+                                    in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis of Anglesey, Feb., 1828, _not in
+                                    cabinet_.
+                                 Duke of Northumberland, _succeeded_ Feb.,
+                                    1829, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir H. Hardinge, _succeeded_ May, 1828,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+                         10. GREY, NOVEMBER, 1830.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Earl Grey (_before_ Viscount Howick).
+                  { _home_       Viscount Melbourne.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+  state_          { _war and  {  Viscount Goderich.
+                  { colonies_ {  E. G. Stanley, _succeeded_ March, 1833.
+                  {           {  T. S. Rice, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Durham.
+                                 Earl of Ripon (_before_ Viscount Goderich)
+                                    _succeeded_ April, 1833.
+                                 Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_                      Sir J. R. Graham.
+                                 Lord Auckland, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of trade_                 Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 C. P. Thomson, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of control_               C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_                 Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 J. Abercromby, _succeeded_ June, 1834, _in
+                                    cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Postmaster-general_             Duke of Richmond, _in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis of Conyngham, _succeeded_ June,
+                                    1834, _not in cabinet_.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Lord J. Russell, _admitted to cabinet_
+                                    June, 1831.
+_Without office_                 Earl of Carlisle (to June, 1834).
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis of Anglesey, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+                                    1833, _not in cabinet_.
+_Chief secretary for Ireland_    E. G. Stanley, _admitted to cabinet_ June,
+                                    1831.
+                                 Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ March,
+                                    1833, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 E. J. Littleton, _succeeded_ May, 1833,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               C. W. Wynn, _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir H. Parnell, _succeeded_ April, 1831,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 Sir J. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ Feb., 1832,
+                                    _not in cabinet_.
+                                 E. Ellice, _succeeded_ April, 1833,
+                                    _admitted to cabinet_ June, 1834.
+
+
+                         11. MELBOURNE, JULY, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Melbourne.
+                  { _home_       Viscount Duncannon.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+  state_          { _war and  }  T. S. Rice.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_                Earl of Mulgrave.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Auckland.
+_Board of trade and  }           C. P. Thompson.
+  treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_               C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_                 J. Abercromby.
+_First commissioner of }         Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _in cabinet_.
+  woods and forests_   }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Lord J. Russell.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               E. Ellice.
+
+
+                    PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATION, NOVEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Duke of Wellington.
+                  { _home_       Duke of Wellington.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Duke of Wellington.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Duke of Wellington.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        Lord Denman.
+
+
+                         12. PEEL, DECEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury }        Sir R. Peel.
+  and chanc. exchequer_ }
+                  { _home_       H. Goulburn.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Duke of Wellington.
+  state_          { _war and  }  Earl of Aberdeen.
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Earl of Rosslyn.
+_Lord chancellor_                Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_                Lord Wharncliffe.
+_Admiralty_                      Earl de Grey.
+_Ordnance_                       Sir G. Murray, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and   }          A. Baring.
+  master of the mint_ }
+_Board of control_               Lord Ellenborough.
+_Paymaster of forces_            Sir E. Knatchbull.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Haddington, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               J. C. Herries.
+
+
+                         13. MELBOURNE, APRIL, 1835.
+
+_First lord of treasury_         Viscount Melbourne.
+                  { _home_       Lord J. Russell.
+_Secretaries of   { _foreign_    Viscount Palmerston.
+     state_       { _war and  }  C. Grant (May, 1835, Lord Glenelg).
+                  { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_                 Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_                Great seal in commission.
+                                 Lord Cottenham, _appointed_ Jan., 1836.
+_Lord privy seal_                Viscount Duncannon.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_        T. S. Rice.
+_Admiralty_                      Lord Auckland.
+                                 Earl of Minto, _succeeded_ Sept., 1835.
+_Board of trade_                 C. P. Thompson.
+_Board of control_               Sir J. C. Hobhouse.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_             Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_        Earl of Mulgrave, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_               Viscount Howick.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[142] On May 23, 1812, after Perceval's death, the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
+
+[143] Also treasurer of the navy.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+Abbot, Charles (afterwards Lord Colchester), speaker, 36, 61, 72, 85, 238.
+
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, 393.
+
+Abercromby, James (afterwards Lord Dunfermline), master of the mint, 346;
+  speaker, 354.
+
+Abercromby, Sir Ralph, general, 6, 346.
+
+Aberdeen, 306, 348.
+
+Aberdeen, Earl of (Gordon), 138;
+  chancellor of the duchy, 231;
+  foreign secretary, 236, 263, 264, 268, 352, 376, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 352.
+
+Abo, treaty of, 123.
+
+Abolition of slavery, acts for the, 46-48, 325-327, 438.
+
+Abolition of slave trade, 48, 143, 151, 152, 167, 188, 274, 279, 358, 438.
+
+Abrantes, 98.
+
+Abyssinia, 436.
+
+Academy, Royal. See London.
+
+Acarnania, 266.
+
+Acre, 393, 394.
+
+_Acte Additionnel_, the, 155.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, 128.
+
+Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), 25, 39, 50, 54, 68, 200,
+      202, 346;
+  first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 1, 2, 11, 15, 16, 27,
+      34;
+  relations with Pitt, 2, 24-29;
+  attacked by Pitt, 30, 31;
+  resignation, 31, 32;
+  his adherents, 34, 36, 68, 81;
+  becomes Viscount Sidmouth and lord president of the council, 35;
+  resignation, 37;
+  lord privy seal, 45;
+  lord president of the council, 49;
+  resignation, 49;
+  lord president of the council, 76, 82;
+  home secretary, 81, 83, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183;
+  in cabinet without office, 199;
+  retirement, 227.
+
+Addington, John Hiley, M.P., 28, 36.
+
+Adelaide, 440.
+
+Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen (afterwards queen of William IV.),
+      184, 273, 277, 351, 375.
+
+Adige, river, 138.
+
+Adour, river, 115, 117.
+
+Adrianople, peace of, 267, 268.
+
+AEgean islands, the, 263;
+  sea, 224, 394.
+
+AEtolia, 266.
+
+Afghanistan, 397, 402, 403, 412-414;
+  treaty with East India Company, 403;
+  first Afghan war, 403, 414.
+
+Africa, interior of, 436.
+
+Agra, 399, 409.
+
+Agriculture, condition of, 84, 433, 434.
+
+Ahmadnagar, 398.
+
+Airy, Sir George, 428.
+
+Aix, island, 69.
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of, 189-191, 377.
+
+Akkerman, treaty of, 260.
+
+Alava, Spanish admiral, 40.
+
+Albuera, battle, 103, 104.
+
+Albuquerque, Duke of, 100.
+
+Alcantara, 99.
+
+Alemtejo, province, 255.
+
+Alessandria, 213.
+
+Alexander the Great, 401, 413.
+
+Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, 5, 7, 23, 37, 52, 59, 66, 78, 80, 81, 92,
+      104, 105, 124, 144-148, 151-153, 168, 189-191, 210-212, 214, 216-218,
+      224, 225, 232.
+
+Alexandria, 261, 264, 265, 393, 413;
+  battle and capitulation of, 6;
+  retention by England, 19;
+  expeditions to, 52, 57, 264;
+  convention of, 264, 265.
+
+Algarve, province, 389.
+
+Algeciras, 8.
+
+Algiers, Dey of, 187, 188;
+  bombardment of, 188;
+  conquest of, 269.
+
+Algoa bay, 438.
+
+Alliance, La Belle, 164.
+
+"All the Talents" ministry. See ministries, Grenville's.
+
+Almaraz, 106.
+
+Almeida, 100, 102, 103.
+
+Almora, treaty of, 405.
+
+Alps, the, 138.
+
+Alsace, 143, 168.
+
+Alten, Count, 162.
+
+Althorp, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Spencer), 230, 234;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 279, 280, 283, 286, 291, 297, 321-323, 328,
+      330, 334, 335, 343-345;
+  resignation, 346;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 347, 349, 350, 373.
+
+Amager, island, 4.
+
+Amascoas, battle, 390.
+
+_Ambigu, L'_, newspaper, 12.
+
+Amelia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 74.
+
+America, British North, 85, 225.
+  See also Canada.
+
+America, South, 205, 226.
+  See also Spain and Portugal.
+
+Amherst, Earl, governor-general of Bengal, 408, 409.
+
+Amherstburg, 141.
+
+Amiens, 10;
+  treaty of, 16, 17, 19, 20, 208, 398;
+  negotiations, 7-12;
+  preliminary treaty, 9, 13, 14;
+  definitive treaty, 12, 13, 435.
+
+Amir Khan, Pindari leader, 407.
+
+Andalusia, 94, 100, 102, 106, 107.
+
+Anglesey, Marquis of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+Angouleme, Duke of. See Louis Antoine, dauphin.
+
+Ansbach, 43.
+
+Anti-Duelling Association, 251.
+
+Antioch, 393.
+
+Antwerp, 43, 64, 65, 200, 378, 380, 382, 386.
+
+Apsley House. See London.
+
+Aragon, 100.
+
+Arakan, 408, 409.
+
+Aranjuez, 87, 92, 93;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Arapiles hills, the, 107.
+
+Archangel, 310.
+
+Archipelago, the, 261.
+
+Arcis-sur-Aube, battle, 145.
+
+Arcot, 400.
+
+Arden, Lord (Perceval), 50.
+
+Argaum, battle, 399.
+
+Argentine, the (La Plata), 190.
+
+_Argus_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Arkwright, Sir Richard, 83.
+
+Arta, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Artois, Count of. See Charles X. of France.
+
+Ascot races, 148.
+
+Ashley, Lord (Ashley-Cooper), afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, 327, 328.
+
+Asia Minor, 394, 413.
+
+Aspern, 63.
+
+Aspropotamo, river, 268.
+
+Assam, 408, 409.
+
+Assaye, battle, 399.
+
+Astorga, 93-95.
+
+Attwood, Thomas, M.P., 335.
+
+Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, 56, 81.
+
+Auckland, first Lord (Eden), president of the board of trade, 34, 346.
+
+Auckland, second Lord (Eden), afterwards Earl of, first lord of the
+      admiralty, 346, 357;
+  governor-general of India, 363, 412.
+
+Auerstaedt, battle, 47.
+
+Augusta, Princess of Hesse, 184.
+
+Augusta, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Austen, Jane, 422.
+
+Austerlitz, battle, 42, 43, 51, 60.
+
+Australia, 436, 438-440;
+  New South Wales, 438, 439;
+  Queensland, 439;
+  South Australia, 440;
+  Victoria, 439;
+  West Australia, 439.
+
+Austria, 17, 54, 58, 59, 62, 78, 80, 124, 214, 215, 220, 264, 267, 391;
+  guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+  treaty with France, 14;
+  third coalition, 37, 38, 41;
+  Ulm and peace of Pressburg, 42;
+  struggle with France, 61-64;
+  treaty with England, 63;
+  war with Bavaria, 63;
+  piece of Vienna, 64, 66;
+  national bankruptcy, 81;
+  treaty with France, 122;
+  attacks North Italy, 133;
+  diplomacy, 132, 134-137, 144, 187-189, 217;
+  truce with Russia, 135;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  war with France, 137, 142;
+  alliance with Murat, 143;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 166, 167, 186, 188-190, 376, 379, 381,
+      388;
+  secret treaty of Vienna, 153;
+  acquires Venetia and Lombardy, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  holy alliance, 168;
+  treaties with the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Modena and Parma, 187;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 223;
+  army in Italy, 212, 213, 216;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at London, 222;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  joins conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+  secret convention at Muenchengraetz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Ava. See Burma.
+
+Azores, islands, 259, 388.
+
+Azzara, Chevalier, 21.
+
+
+Bacon, Lord, 424.
+
+Badajoz, 99, 102-106, 108, 113, 147;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Baden, 34, 189.
+
+Baghdad, 413.
+
+Bailey, Old. See London.
+
+Baird, David (afterwards Sir David), general, 6, 47, 93-95.
+
+Balkans, the, 263, 266, 267.
+
+Baltic, the, 52, 78, 90, 199, 310.
+
+Baltic, battle of the, 4, 5, 420.
+
+Baltimore, 146.
+
+Banda Oriental. See Uruguay.
+
+Bank charter acts, 325, 326, 330, 331.
+
+Bank of England, 183, 205, 206, 303;
+  notes made legal tender, 182.
+
+Bank restriction act, 16.
+
+Bankes, Henry, M.P., 157.
+
+Banks, Sir Joseph, 428.
+
+Barcelona, 88, 110, 220.
+
+Barclay, Commander, 139.
+
+Barham, Lord (Sir Charles Middleton), first lord of the admiralty, 36.
+
+Baring, Alexander (afterwards Lord Ashburton), 304;
+  president of board of trade and master of the mint, 352.
+
+Baring, Francis (afterwards Lord Northbrook), 346.
+
+Barlow, Sir George, governor-general of Bengal, 401.
+
+Barnstaple, 193.
+
+Baroda, Gaekwar of, 405, 406.
+
+Barrosa, 102.
+
+Basque provinces, 390, 391.
+
+Basque roads, 69.
+
+Bass, George, 439.
+
+Bassein, treaty of, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Batavian republic. See Holland.
+
+Bath, 43, 362.
+
+Bath (Holland), 65.
+
+Bathurst, Charles Bragge-. See Bragge, Charles.
+
+Bathurst, Earl, president of the board of trade, 50, 68;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 82, 109, 112;
+  resignation, 227;
+  lord president of the council, 231.
+
+Battersea Fields. See London.
+
+Bautzen, battle, 135.
+
+Bavaria, 41, 42, 66, 136, 152, 153, 166, 189, 392;
+  war with Austria, 63;
+  treaty of Ried, 137.
+
+Baylen, 58, 88, 89, 92.
+
+Bayonne, 88, 89, 92, 112, 115-117, 119;
+  road to, 111.
+
+Beachy Head, 8.
+
+Beauharnais, Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+Beauharnais, Eugene, viceroy of Italy, 138.
+
+Bedford, Duke of (Russell), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 49.
+
+Beilan, pass, 393.
+
+Beira, province, 255, 257.
+
+Belgium, 143, 144, 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 200, 377;
+  Prince of Orange proclaimed, 138;
+  troops, 156;
+  Waterloo campaign, 157-164;
+  united to Holland, 166;
+  revolution, 276, 376-382;
+  elects Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, 383;
+  war with Holland, 384-386, 393;
+  convention with Holland, 387.
+
+Belgrade, 80.
+
+Bell, Henry, 427, 434.
+
+Belleisle, 388.
+
+_Bellerophon_, the, British ship, 165, 168, 169.
+
+Belliard, French general, 383, 384.
+
+Bellingham, John, 76.
+
+Benevente, 94, 95.
+
+Bengal, 310, 330, 400, 404, 408, 410.
+
+Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 341, 420, 421, 437.
+
+Bentinck, Lord William, 114, 143;
+  governor-general of India, 410-412.
+
+Berar, 399.
+  See Nagpur.
+
+Berbice, 9.
+
+Beresford, Lord George, 242.
+
+Beresford, William (afterwards Lord and later Viscount), 47, 96, 103, 109,
+      118, 119, 211, 222.
+
+Berezina, river, 125.
+
+Berkeley, Vice-admiral, 127.
+
+Berkshire, 281, 341.
+
+Berlin, 53, 81, 134, 310;
+  convention at, 396.
+
+Berlin decree, the, 55, 403.
+
+Bernadotte, Marshal (afterwards Charles XIV. of Sweden), 54, 80, 136, 137,
+      143, 150.
+
+Berry, Duke of, 210.
+
+Bessarabia, 123.
+
+Bessborough, Earl of (Ponsonby), 287.
+
+Bessieres, Marshal, 88, 92.
+
+Betanzos, 95.
+
+Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart, Nicholas.
+
+Bhartpur, 399, 403, 408, 409.
+
+Bickersteth, Henry (afterwards Lord Langdale), 363.
+
+Bidassoa, river, 112, 114, 115.
+
+Bilbao, 111, 391.
+
+Birmingham, 178, 236, 272, 285, 295, 297, 304, 335, 435.
+
+Biscay, province, 109, 389, 391.
+
+Bishopp, British officer, 130.
+
+Blackburn, Francis, attorney-general for Ireland, 313, 314.
+
+Blackfriars. See London.
+
+Blackheath. See London.
+
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, 423-425.
+
+Bladensburg, battle, 146.
+
+Blake, Spanish general, 88.
+
+Blandford, Marquis of (Churchill), afterwards Duke of Marlborough, 271,
+      284.
+
+Blanketeers, the, 176.
+
+Blomfield, bishop of London, 324, 341, 373.
+
+Bluecher, Marshal, 138, 143-145, 148;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-161, 163-164.
+
+Bohemia, 64, 137.
+
+Bombay, 310, 398.
+
+Bona, 188.
+
+Bonaparte, Joseph, 10-12, 21;
+  King of Naples, 47, 53;
+  King of Spain, 59, 88, 89, 92, 98, 104, 106, 107, 109-111, 122, 123, 190.
+
+Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon), 382.
+
+Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 46, 53, 78.
+
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, 6, 19, 39, 41, 42, 51, 53-56, 58, 62, 64-66, 78,
+      80-82, 87-89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99-102, 104, 105, 109-112, 114, 115,
+      117, 119, 120-126, 128, 143, 145, 148, 150, 168, 171, 186, 199, 382;
+  concordat with the pope, 7;
+  refuses overtures of peace, 8;
+  meets Cornwallis, 10;
+  elected president of the Italian republic, 12, 17;
+  plans for the invasion of England, 8, 35, 38, 41, 71;
+  attacked by French exiles in London, 12, 17;
+  consul for life, 15, 17;
+  Fox presented to him, 15, 16;
+  annexes Piedmont, 17;
+  mediates in Switzerland and Germany, 17;
+  schemes of colonial expansion, 18;
+  Whitworth, 20-22;
+  declared emperor, 33, 34;
+  plots against his life, 33, 34;
+  coronations, 35, 37, 38;
+  Ulm and Austerlitz, 42, 64;
+  Jena and Auerstaedt, 47, 55, 64;
+  Eylau, 51, 56;
+  Friedland, 52, 122, 401;
+  meets Alexander, 52;
+  "continental system," 53, 55-58, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 171, 403;
+  manifesto, 57;
+  at Erfurt, 59;
+  Eckmuehl and Wagram, 60, 63;
+  Borodino, 63, 124;
+  Leipzig, 63, 114, 118, 133, 137, 138;
+  marriage with Maria Louisa, 78;
+  fiscal policy, 79;
+  first abdication, 82, 118, 145;
+  in Spain, 92, 94;
+  war with Russia, 121-126, 402;
+  campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+  Luetzen and Bautzen, 135;
+  Dresden, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 143-145;
+  La Rothiere, 144;
+  Arcis-sur-Aube, 145;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  Elba, 145, 146, 153, 201;
+  "The Hundred Days," 151, 153-165;
+  Ligny, 158, 159;
+  Quatre Bras, 159;
+  Waterloo, 160-165;
+  second abdication, 165;
+  St. Helena, 166, 167, 169, 170, 402;
+  designs on India, 401-403.
+
+Bond, Nathaniel, M.P., 36.
+
+Bonnymuir, 193.
+
+Bordeaux, 118, 154;
+  road to, 117.
+
+Bordeaux, Henry, Duke of. See Chambord, Count of.
+
+Borisov, battle, 125.
+
+Borodino, battle, 63, 124, 164.
+
+Bosphorus, the, 267, 394.
+
+Boston (United States), 142.
+
+Botany Bay, 438.
+
+Boulogne, 8, 35, 38.
+
+Boulton, Matthew, 435.
+
+Bourbon, island, 69, 403.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of, 154.
+
+Bourne, W. Sturges, 341;
+  home secretary, 227;
+  first commissioner of woods and forests, 228, 229.
+
+Braga, 258.
+
+Bragge, Charles (afterwards Bragge-Bathurst), 28, 68, 202;
+  chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 81, 82, 174;
+  president of the board of control, 199.
+
+Brahmaputra, the, 408, 409.
+
+Braine l'Alleud, Belgian village, 162.
+
+Brand, M.P., 284.
+
+Brazil, 89, 190, 211, 221, 222, 253, 254, 259, 388;
+  commercial treaty with England, 222.
+
+Brereton, Colonel, 298.
+
+Breslau, 134, 135.
+
+Brest, 39, 55.
+
+Brewster's _Encyclopaedia_, 424.
+
+_Bridgwater Treatises_, the, 338.
+
+Brienne, 143.
+
+Brighton, 350.
+
+Brindley, James, 434.
+
+Bristol, 175, 297, 298, 302, 309, 435.
+
+British Association, the, 338.
+
+Brittany, 154.
+
+Brock, Major-general, 129, 130.
+
+Broke, Captain, 142.
+
+Brooks's club. See London.
+
+Brougham, Henry (afterwards Lord Brougham and Vaux), 48, 172, 173, 182,
+      193-196, 207, 228, 234, 241, 242, 274, 277, 278, 280, 357-359, 363,
+      423, 431;
+  lord chancellor, 281, 282, 287, 295, 325, 338, 343, 345, 346, 348, 351;
+  legal reforms, 332, 333, 358, 359, 361.
+
+Broussa, 393.
+
+Brown, American commander, 146.
+
+Bruce, Michael, 436.
+
+Bruenn, 42.
+
+Brunswick, 196.
+
+Brunswick (Charles), Duke of, 184 n.
+
+Brunswick (Frederick William), Duke of, 159.
+
+Brunswick, troops, 158.
+
+Brunswick clubs, 243.
+
+Brussels, 158-161, 378, 379, 381, 383, 384, 387.
+
+_Bucentaure_, the, French ship, 40.
+
+Bucharest, treaty of, 123.
+
+Buckingham, Marquis of (Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville),
+      afterwards Duke of, 199, 295.
+
+Buckingham palace. See London.
+
+Buckinghamshire, 281.
+
+Buckinghamshire, third Earl of (Hobart), 1.
+
+Buckinghamshire, fourth Earl of. See Hobart, Lord.
+
+Buckland, William, Dean of Westminster, 340.
+
+Buenos Ayres, 47, 56, 57, 205, 216, 223.
+
+Bukowina, 224.
+
+Bulgaria, 263, 267.
+
+Bull-baiting, 15.
+
+"Bullion committee," the, 73.
+
+Buelow, Frederick William von, General, afterwards Count, 143, 145, 163,
+      164.
+
+Bulwer, Edward Lytton (afterwards Lord Lytton), 426.
+
+Burdett, Sir Francis, M.P., 51, 72, 175, 226, 240-242, 284, 285, 298, 374.
+
+Burgess, Thomas, bishop of St. Davids, 430.
+
+Burgos, 92, 108, 110.
+
+Burgundy, 154.
+
+Burke, Edmund, 308, 415, 422.
+
+Burlington Heights, 139, 140.
+
+Burma, first Burmese war, 408, 409;
+  treaty with East India Company, 409.
+
+Burnes, Sir Alexander, 413, 414.
+
+Burns, Robert, 415.
+
+Burrard, Sir Harry, general, 90, 91, 93.
+
+Bussaco, 101, 113.
+
+Butrinto, 188.
+
+Buxton, Thomas Fowell, M.P., 326, 327.
+
+Bylandt, Dutch general, 162.
+
+Byron, Lord, 233, 417-419.
+
+
+Cachar, 411.
+
+Cadiz, 8, 39-41, 89, 96, 100, 102-104, 109, 256.
+
+Cadoudal, Georges, 33.
+
+Cairo, capture of, 6.
+
+Calabria, 47.
+
+Calcott, Sir Augustus, 427.
+
+Calcutta, 398, 402, 408, 412.
+
+Calder, Sir Robert, 39.
+
+Caledonian canal, 434.
+
+Cambridge. See Universities.
+
+Cambridge (Adolphus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Cambridgeshire, 175 n.
+
+Camden, Earl (Pratt), afterwards Marquis Camden, secretary for war and
+      colonies, 34, 37;
+  lord president of the council, 37, 50, 66, 67;
+  in cabinet without office, 76, 82.
+
+Camelford, 193.
+
+Campbell, Lord, 361, 363.
+
+Campbell, Sir Archibald, 409.
+
+Campbell, Sir Neil, 153.
+
+Campbell, Thomas, 420, 431.
+
+Canada, 128, 147, 157, 225, 312, 437, 438;
+  attacked by the United States, 129, 130, 139-141, 146.
+
+Candia. See Crete.
+
+Cannes, 153.
+
+Canning, George, 2, 24, 68, 76, 84, 85, 172, 209, 231, 232, 238, 240, 245,
+      279, 284, 285, 319, 339, 358, 423;
+  _jeux d'esprit_, 26, 28;
+  foreign secretary, 50, 52-54, 59, 66, 92;
+  resignation, 67;
+  president of the board of control, 174, 176, 185, 199, 201, 406;
+  foreign secretary, 197, 199-201, 207, 208, 216, 218-226, 232-235, 241,
+      242, 255-257, 259, 260, 390, 392, 408;
+  first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 227, 228,
+      273, 380;
+  death, 228, 229.
+
+Canning, Sir Stratford (afterwards Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), 225,
+      266.
+
+Canterac, Spanish general, 223.
+
+Canterbury, archbishop of (Howley), 299, 337, 373.
+
+Cape Finisterre, 39.
+
+Cape Formoso, 151.
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 9, 47, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Cape St. Vincent, battle, 389.
+
+Cape Trafalgar, battle, 40, 43, 69.
+
+Capodistrias, Greek president, 267, 268, 392.
+
+Carcassonne, road to, 119.
+
+Carinthia, 66.
+
+Carlile, agitator, 282.
+
+Carlisle, sixth Earl of (Howard), first commissioner of woods and forests,
+      228, 357;
+  lord privy seal, 228;
+  in cabinet without office, 280;
+  lord privy seal, 346, 347.
+
+Carlos, Don. 389-391.
+
+Carlsbad, 189.
+
+Carlton House. See London.
+
+Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 424.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 417, 434, 427.
+
+Carnot, French statesman, 155, 165.
+
+Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales (afterwards queen of George IV.),
+      48, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197, 200.
+
+Carr, R. J., bishop of Worcester, 299.
+
+Cartwright, Edmund, 83.
+
+Cartwright, Major, 175.
+
+Casimir-Perier, French premier, 387.
+
+Caspian Sea, 310.
+
+Castalla, 109, 114.
+
+Castanos, Francisco Xavier de, 93.
+
+Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), afterwards second Marquis of Londonderry,
+      2, 68, 71, 73, 100, 201, 202, 208, 209, 228, 238;
+  president of the board of control, 15, 34;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 37, 50, 52, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65-67, 90,
+      92, 200;
+  resignation, 67;
+  foreign secretary, 76, 82, 85, 123, 144-147, 153, 156, 169, 171-173, 183,
+      189, 191, 195, 199, 210-212, 214, 217, 260, 387;
+  death, 199-201, 216, 408.
+
+Catalonia, 88, 92, 112, 114, 115, 118.
+
+Cathcart, Lord (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of), 43, 54, 123, 134, 136.
+
+Catholic Apostolic Church, 339.
+
+Catholic Association, 240, 241, 244-246.
+
+Catholic emancipation, 49, 76, 200, 207, 226, 230, 236-249, 431;
+  abandoned, 2, 34;
+  opposition to, 32, 34, 45, 50, 208, 227;
+  carried, 249.
+
+Cato Street conspiracy, 192, 193.
+
+Cattaro, 142.
+
+Caulaincourt, French diplomatist, 144.
+
+Cawnpur, 399.
+
+Census, 300, 311, 312.
+
+Ceylon, 9, 167.
+
+Chadwick, Edwin, 341.
+
+Chambery, 149.
+
+Chambord, Count de, 210, 376.
+
+Chambray, Marquis de, 125.
+
+Champagne, 143, 144.
+
+Champlain, lake, 140, 146.
+
+Chandos, Marquis of (Brydges-Chandos-Temple-Grenville), afterwards second
+      Duke of Buckingham, 295, 299;
+  "Chandos clause," 295.
+
+Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 427.
+
+Charity Commission, 182.
+
+Charleroi, 158, 161.
+
+Charles, Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France), 34, 116, 154,
+      224, 376.
+
+Charles IV., King of Spain, 87, 88.
+
+Charles XII., King of Sweden, 54.
+
+Charles XIII., King of Sweden and Norway, 54, 150.
+
+Charles, Archduke, 63.
+
+Charles Albert, Prince, of Carignano (afterwards King of Sardinia), 213.
+
+Charles Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, 10.
+
+Charles Felix, King of Sardinia, 213.
+
+Charlotte, Princess (daughter of the Prince Regent), 86, 174, 183-185, 194,
+      195, 268.
+
+Charlotte, Queen-dowager of Wuertemburg (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Charlotte, queen of George III., 74, 184, 185.
+
+Charlotte, queen of John VI. of Portugal, 253, 254.
+
+Chartism, 308.
+
+Chasse, D. H., Dutch general, 162.
+
+Chateauguay, battle of river, 141.
+
+Chatham, Earl of (John Pitt), lord president of the council, 1;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 1, 24, 50, 64, 65, 71;
+  resignation, 72.
+
+Chatillon-sur-Seine, congress at, 118, 144.
+
+Chaumont, treaty of, 144, 145;
+  extended at Paris, 168, 186, 191, 377.
+
+Chauncey, Commodore, 140.
+
+Cherbourg, 376.
+
+Chesapeake Bay, 146;
+  estuary, 141.
+
+_Chesapeake_, the, American frigate, 127, 142, 147.
+
+Chesney, Francis Rawdon, colonel, 413.
+
+Chester, bishop of (Sumner), 341.
+
+Chichagov, Russian general, 125.
+
+Chichester, first Earl of (Pelham), 1.
+
+Chile, 190, 221.
+
+China, 86, 310, 325, 328, 329;
+  coolies, 438.
+
+Chios, island, 261, 263.
+
+Chippewa, 130, 146.
+
+Chiswick, 228.
+
+Chittagong, 408.
+
+Chitu, Pindari leader, 406, 407.
+
+Cholera, 299, 309, 311, 407.
+
+Christian, Prince (afterwards Christian VIII. of Denmark), 143, 150.
+
+Chrystler's Farm, battle, 141.
+
+Church, Sir Richard, general, 262, 266.
+
+Church, Irish, temporalities act, 321-325.
+
+Church rates, 373, 374.
+
+Church, Scottish, 360 n., 424.
+
+Church, states of the. See Papal states.
+
+Cilicia, 394.
+
+Cinque Ports, 23.
+
+Cintra, convention of, 60, 91.
+
+Cisalpine republic (Italian republic), 9, 12, 17, 38.
+
+Ciudad Real, 96.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 100, 102-108.
+
+Civil list, 15, 173, 174, 192, 278, 282, 283, 290.
+
+Clancarty, Earl of (Le Poer-Trench), 61, 68.
+
+Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313.
+
+Clare, Earl of (Fitzgibbon), 3.
+
+Clarence (William), Duke of. See William IV.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 60, 61.
+
+Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, 48.
+
+Clausel, General, 107, 108, 111-113.
+
+Cleves, 43.
+
+Clinton, Sir Henry, general, 162.
+
+Clive, Lord, 396.
+
+Clyde, the, 428, 434.
+
+Coa, river, 110.
+
+Cobbett, William, 177, 207, 282, 318, 335, 343, 423;
+  _Weekly Register_, 72, 175, 204, 422, 423.
+
+Coblenz, 138.
+
+Cochrane, Lord (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), 51, 69, 72, 88, 175, 190,
+      221, 222, 233.
+
+Codrington, Admiral, 230, 233, 234, 264.
+
+Coercion acts (Irish), 330-322, 324, 325, 346, 347.
+
+Coimbra, 98, 101.
+
+Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, Charles.
+
+Cole, General (afterwards Sir) G. L. 103.
+
+Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 416, 417, 425.
+
+Colle, La, Mill, 146.
+
+Collingwood, Admiral, 39, 40, 41, 57, 69, 88.
+
+_Collingwood, the Lord_, British ship, 216.
+
+Cologne, 43.
+
+Colombia, 216, 223.
+
+Combermere, Lord (Cotton), afterwards Viscount, 409.
+
+Combination laws, 204, 207.
+
+_Comet_, the, steamboat, 427, 434.
+
+Concordat, the, 7.
+
+Congreve rockets, 117.
+
+"Conservative," origin of name, 319.
+
+Constable, John, 427.
+
+Constantinople, 57, 214, 216, 233, 259, 261, 267, 387, 393, 394.
+
+_Constitution_, the, American frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Continental system, the, 33, 55-58, 66, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 126, 128, 171,
+      403.
+
+Convention act (Irish), 240.
+
+Conyngham, Marquis of, 346.
+
+Cook, Captain, 436, 438.
+
+Cooke, General, 162.
+
+Coorg, 411.
+
+Copenhagen, 3-5, 54, 55, 57.
+  See Baltic, battle of the.
+
+Copley, Sir John (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), 226, 242, 281, 295, 302-304,
+      359, 361-363, 365, 369-372;
+  lord chancellor, 227, 231, 243, 246, 249, 352.
+
+Corn, price of, 7 n., 84, 85, 172, 174, 203, 370.
+
+Corn laws, 85, 173, 204, 207, 243, 306.
+
+Cornwall, 288.
+
+Cornwall (Canada), 141.
+
+Cornwall, revenues of duchy of, 15, 278.
+
+Cornwallis, Admiral, 39.
+
+Cornwallis, Marquis, 239;
+  master-general of ordnance, 1;
+  negotiates treaty of Amiens, 10-12;
+  warns England, 17;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 400, 401.
+
+Corporation act, 229, 334, 235, 242.
+
+Corporation act (Irish), 372.
+
+Coruna, 39, 90, 92, 93;
+  battle, 95, 96, 108.
+
+Cottenham, Lord. See Pepys, Sir Charles.
+
+Countries, the Low. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Cowper, William, 415.
+
+Cox, David, 427.
+
+Cracow, 153, 166.
+
+Cradock, Sir John, 96.
+
+Craig, Sir James, 42;
+  governor of Canada, 128, 129.
+
+Craufurd, Robert, general, 105.
+
+Crete, 261, 263, 266, 268.
+
+Criminal law, reform of, 51, 77, 194, 201, 369.
+
+Croker, John Wilson, 274, 303, 318.
+
+Crome, John, the elder, 427.
+
+Cronstadt fleet, 123.
+
+Cuba, 222.
+
+Cuesta, Spanish general, 88, 98, 99.
+
+Cumberland (Ernest), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185, 197, 231, 235,
+      246, 274, 324, 367, 368.
+
+Curtis, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin, 243, 244.
+
+Curwen, John Christian, M.P., 181, 182, 284.
+
+Cuttack, 399.
+
+Czartoryski, Prince Adam, 80.
+
+Czernowitz, 224.
+
+
+Dakaiti, 401.
+
+Dalmatia, 42, 142;
+  Duke of. See Soult, Marshal.
+
+Dalrymple, Sir Hew, general, 90, 91.
+
+Danube, the, 41, 63, 77, 94, 124, 263, 310.
+
+Danubian principalities. See Moldavia and Wallachia.
+
+Danzig, surrender of, 52.
+
+Dardanelles, the, 55, 57, 188, 214, 215, 260, 265, 267, 394, 395.
+
+Darling, Governor, 440.
+
+Darlington, 435.
+
+Darnley, Earl of (Bligh), 54.
+
+Dartmouth, Earl of. See Lewisham, Viscount.
+
+Darwin, Charles, 428.
+
+Daulat Rao Sindhia. See Sindhia.
+
+Davout, Marshal, 81, 136, 137.
+
+Davy, Sir Humphry, 428, 433.
+
+Dawson, George, M.P., 243, 246.
+
+"Days, the Hundred." See Bonaparte, Napoleon.
+
+Dearborn, American general, 130, 140.
+
+Decaen, French general, 18.
+
+Deccan, the, 407.
+
+Delaborde, French officer, 90.
+
+Delaware, estuary, 141.
+
+Delhi, 397-399, 406.
+
+Demerara, 9.
+
+Denman, Thomas (afterwards Lord Denman), 195.
+
+Denmark, 3-5, 53-55, 59, 69, 136, 190;
+  treaties of Kiel, 143, 189;
+  loses Norway, 166.
+
+Dennewitz, battle, 137.
+
+De Quincey, Thomas, 425.
+
+Derby, 296.
+
+Derby, twelfth Earl of (Smith-Stanley), 277.
+
+Derbyshire, 83.
+
+Derry, 243.
+
+Desnoettes, General Lefebvre-, 88.
+
+Despard, Edward Marcus, colonel, 16.
+
+Detroit, 129, 138.
+
+Devonshire, 359.
+
+Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), 228.
+
+D'Eyncourt. See Tennyson, Charles.
+
+Dickens, Charles, 426.
+
+Diebitsch, Russian general, 266, 267, 310.
+
+Dijon, 145.
+
+Disraeli, Benjamin (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield), 426.
+
+Dissenters, 306;
+  disabilities of, 85, 234, 235, 353, 355, 430.
+
+Donauwoerth, 41, 63.
+
+Dost Muhammad, Amir of Kabul, 414.
+
+Douro, the, 94, 98, 99, 110.
+
+Dover, 148, 195, 351, 435.
+
+Downs, the, 64.
+
+Drake, British envoy, 33.
+
+Dresden, 112, 114, 135;
+  battle, 137.
+
+Dropmore, seat of Lord Grenville, 24.
+
+Drummond, Sir Gordon, 146.
+
+Dublin, 19, 77, 197, 240, 317, 371;
+  castle, 23;
+  police bill, 362;
+  archbishop of (Whately), 317, 421, 422;
+  Roman Catholic archbishop of (Curtis), 243, 244.
+
+Duckworth, Sir John, admiral, 57.
+
+Dudley, Viscount and Earl of. See Ward, J. W.
+
+Duhesme, French general, 88.
+
+Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis, 420.
+
+Duncannon, Viscount (Ponsonby), afterwards Earl of Bessborough, 287;
+  home secretary, 347;
+  lord privy seal, 357.
+
+Duncombe, Thomas S., M.P., 374.
+
+Dundas, Sir David, commander-in-chief, 61, 62.
+
+Dundas, Henry (afterwards first Viscount Melville), 3, 24, 25, 30, 32, 68;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 34;
+  impeachment, 36.
+
+Dundas, Robert S. (afterwards second Viscount Melville), president of board
+      of control, 68;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 82;
+  resignation, 227;
+  president of board of control, 231;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 243.
+
+Dundee, 306.
+
+Dupont, General, 88.
+
+Durham. See Universities.
+
+Durham, Lord (Lambton), afterwards Earl of, 345, 348;
+  lord privy seal, 280, 287, 291;
+  resignation, 325.
+
+
+East India Company. See India.
+
+East Retford, 235, 236.
+
+Ebrington, Viscount (Fortescue), afterwards second Earl Fortescue, 206,
+      303.
+
+Ebro, the, 89, 92, 110, 114.
+
+Ecclefechan, 424.
+
+Ecclesiastical commission, 355, 373.
+
+Eckmuehl, battle, 63.
+
+Edgeworth, Maria, 422.
+
+Edgware Road. See London.
+
+Edinburgh, 306, 348.
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, the, 358, 423, 424.
+
+Education, national, 49, 51, 182, 193, 194, 358;
+  Irish, 316, 317.
+
+Edwards, George, informer, 192.
+
+Egmont, Earl of (Perceval), 50.
+
+Egypt, 6, 9, 18, 57, 224, 225, 233, 262, 264, 265, 269, 396, 413;
+  convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+  peace of Kiutayeh, 394.
+
+Elba, island, 145, 146, 151, 153, 169, 201.
+
+Elbe, the, 55, 62, 133, 135, 137.
+
+Eldon, Lord (Scott), afterwards Earl of Eldon, 232, 234, 235, 238, 239,
+      244, 248, 249, 296, 319, 333, 353, 358, 362;
+  lord chancellor, 1, 29, 30, 31, 49, 50, 51, 60, 67 n., 74-76, 82, 85,
+      169, 172, 179, 180, 194-196, 202, 209;
+  resignation, 227.
+
+Elections, general. See Parliament.
+
+Eliot, Lord (afterwards Earl of St. Germans), 390.
+
+Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n., 185.
+
+Ellenborough, first Lord (Law), lord chief justice, 45, 49, 169, 177.
+
+Ellenborough, second Lord, afterwards Earl (Law), 328, 329;
+  lord privy seal, 231;
+  president of the board of control, 243, 271, 352.
+
+Ellesmere canal, 434.
+
+Ellice, Edward, secretary at war, 346.
+
+Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 403.
+
+Elsinore, 4.
+
+Elvas, 93, 103.
+
+Embargo act (United States), 128.
+
+Emmet, Robert, 18, 23, 240.
+
+Empire, Holy Roman, dissolved, 46;
+  treaty of Luneville, 6, 17.
+
+Enghien, Duke of, murder of, 34, 35, 37.
+
+England, negotiates with France, 7-12;
+  conquests, 9, 14, 47, 69, 81, 398, 403;
+  signs treaty of Amiens, 12, 13, 398;
+  industrial and agricultural depression, 13, 83, 171, 172, 174-180,
+      205-207, 270, 299, 312, 370;
+  fresh discord with France, 16, 17;
+  war declared against France, 22;
+  preparations for invasion, 23;
+  third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41, 52;
+  treaty with Russia, 37:
+  treaty with Sweden, 38;
+  expeditions to Naples, 42, 47, 63;
+  Anglo-Hanoverian expedition to North Germany, 42, 43, 51;
+  negotiations with France, 46;
+  state of army in 1806, 51;
+    in 1807, 59, 60;
+    in 1813, 86;
+  troops in Sweden, 52;
+  troops in Denmark, 53, 54;
+  orders in council, 55, 56, 126, 130, 171;
+  commercial warfare, 58;
+  Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 129, 182;
+  treaty with Spanish junta, 96;
+  Walcheren expedition, 62-66, 99:
+  treaty with Austria, 63;
+  Sweden declares war on, 78;
+  treaties with Russia and Sweden, 85, 123, 136;
+  war with United States, 58, 82, 126-132, 138-142, 146, 147, 156, 171;
+  treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+  treaties of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  treaty of Kiel, 143;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+  visit of the allied sovereigns, 147, 148;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  treaty with Spain, 150;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 376, 379,
+      381, 388;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+  expedition against the Barbary States, 187, 188;
+  conferences of Vienna, 189, 216, 217;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-215, 395, 396;
+  the Eastern question, 213, 216, 232-234, 259-269, 392;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  assists Portugal, 220, 221, 255-258;
+  commercial treaty with Brazil, 322;
+  conferences of London, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty with United States, 225;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  treaties with Portugal, 255;
+  convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+  convention with France and Holland, 387;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389-391;
+  treaties with Indian states, 398, 399;
+  treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+Epirus, 188.
+
+Erfurt, 59, 92.
+
+Erie, lake, 139, 141.
+
+Erlon, d', French general, 159, 162, 163.
+
+Erskine, Lord, 77, 177;
+  lord chancellor, 49.
+
+Esdremadura, 99, 106.
+
+Espinosa, battle, 92.
+
+Essequibo, 9.
+
+Essex, 175 n.
+
+Essling, 63.
+
+Etruria, kingdom of, 9.
+
+Euphrates, the, 413.
+
+Evans, De Lacy (afterwards Sir de Lacy), 343, 391.
+
+Eveleigh, Dr., 429.
+
+Evora, convention at, 390.
+
+Ewart, William, M.P., 369.
+
+Exchange, Royal. See London.
+
+Exeter, bishop of (Phillpotts), 324.
+
+Exmouth, Lord (Pellew), afterwards Viscount, 187, 188.
+
+Eylau, battle, 51, 199;
+  campaign, 56.
+
+
+Fabvier, Colonel, 262.
+
+Factory acts, 326-328.
+
+Falmouth, 259.
+
+Faraday, Michael, 428.
+
+Fath Ali, Shah of Persia, 402.
+
+Fauvelet, French agent, 19.
+
+Fawkes, Guy, 192.
+
+Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 396.
+
+Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, 166.
+
+Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, 7, 47, 58, 166, 187, 211, 212,
+      216, 221.
+
+Ferdinand VII., King of Spain, 87, 88, 103, 123, 150, 187, 190, 210, 215,
+      218, 222, 388, 389, 395.
+
+Ferrol, 39.
+
+Ferronays, De la, French foreign minister, 261.
+
+Finance, 15, 48, 49, 86, 172, 173, 198, 201-204, 206, 207, 226, 238, 235,
+      270, 283, 291, 334, 335, 347, 356, 369;
+  income and property tax, 15, 23, 48, 49, 172, 173;
+  currency reform, 74, 182, 183.
+
+Fines, act for abolition of, 325, 333.
+
+Finland, 54, 59, 122, 123, 125, 166.
+
+Finn, W. F., M.P., 367, 368.
+
+Fischer, Danish commander, 5.
+
+Fitzgerald, Vesey, M.P., 236, 237.
+
+Fitzherbert, Mrs., 194.
+
+Fitzwilliam, Earl, 14, 29, 32, 180;
+  lord president of the council, 45;
+  in cabinet without office, 49.
+
+Flaxman, John, 427.
+
+Fletcher, Colonel, 101.
+
+Fleurus, 158.
+
+Flinders, Matthew, 436, 439.
+
+Florence, 212, 216;
+  treaty of, 7.
+
+Florida, 215.
+
+Flushing, 65, 71.
+
+Fontainebleau, 82, 118, 145;
+  decree 79;
+  treaties of, 87, 145, 146.
+
+Fort Erie, 130.
+
+Fortescue, first Earl, 296.
+
+Fort George, 130, 140, 141.
+
+Fort Sandusky, 139.
+
+Fouche, French politician, 155, 165, 168.
+
+Fox, Charles James, 14-16, 26, 27, 29-34, 200, 279, 372, 417;
+  relations with George III., 32, 33, 45, 46, 185;
+  foreign secretary, 45, 46;
+  abolition of slave trade, 46, 48;
+  death, 46, 47, 49, 228.
+
+Foy, French general, 111, 112, 160.
+
+France, 13, 14, 17, 21, 39-41, 47, 54, 58, 64, 65, 69, 79, 88, 105, 119,
+      128, 130, 145, 150-153, 186, 187, 189-191, 205, 210, 212, 221, 223,
+      377, 398;
+  treaties of Luneville and Aranjuez, 6, 17;
+  treaty of Florence, 7;
+  negotiations resulting in treaty of Amiens, 7, 13;
+  proposed invasion of England, 8;
+  war declared against England, 22;
+  alliance with Spain, 35;
+  encroachments in Europe, 37;
+  war with Austria, 38, 41, 42;
+  war with Russia, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+  "army of England," 38, 42;
+  peace of Pressburg, 42;
+  treaty with the Two Sicilies, 42;
+  treaty of Schoenbrunn, 43;
+  treaty with Prussia, 46, 55;
+  war with Prussia, 47, 52;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 78, 87, 401, 402;
+  secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+  Milan decree, 56;
+  Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+  war with Austria, 61-64;
+  peace of Vienna, 64, 66;
+  loss of foreign possessions, 69, 81, 215, 223, 403;
+  annexations, 77-79;
+  breach with Russia, 79-81, 105, 108;
+  treaty with Prussia, 122;
+  war with Russia, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 402;
+  campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+  war with Prussia, 134;
+  war with Austria, 137, 142, 143;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  the allies enter, 118, 143;
+  congress at Chatillon-sur-Seine, 118, 144;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 167, 186, 188, 190, 379, 381,
+      388;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  dispute with Spain, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  the Eastern question, 259-269, 392-395;
+  conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  conquest of Algiers, 269;
+  revolution of July, 274, 276, 285, 376, 378;
+  assists Belgium, 384-386;
+  convention with England and Holland, 387;
+  attacks Portugal, 388;
+  quadruple alliance, 389-391;
+  officers in India, 398;
+  treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+France, Isle of. See Mauritius, the.
+
+Franche-Comte, 143.
+
+Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor (afterwards Francis I., Emperor of
+      Austria), 17, 46, 78, 144, 145, 148, 218, 224, 395.
+
+Francis IV., Duke of Modena, 166.
+
+Frankfort, 189.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 185.
+
+Fraser, General, 57.
+
+Frasnes, 158, 159.
+
+Frederick, Prince Regent of Denmark (afterwards Frederick VI.), 5, 53.
+
+Frederick, Prince, of Orange, 379.
+
+Frederick II., the Great, King of Prussia, 47.
+
+Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony, 135.
+
+Frederick Joseph, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 184.
+
+Frederick William III., King of Prussia, 38, 42, 43, 46, 47, 52, 62, 122,
+      134, 144, 147, 148, 152, 189.
+
+Frederick William, Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Frederick William
+      IV.), 395.
+
+Frejus, 146.
+
+Frenchtown, 138.
+
+Freyre, English officer, 118.
+
+Friedland, battle, 52, 122, 401.
+
+_Frolic_, the, British sloop, 132.
+
+Fuentes d'Onoro, battle, 103.
+
+
+Gaekwar. See Baroda, Gaekwar of.
+
+Galicia, 39, 66, 80, 88, 90, 94, 98, 122.
+
+Gambier, Admiral (afterwards Lord), 54, 69.
+
+Gamonal, battle, 92.
+
+Ganges, the, 398, 407.
+
+Gantheaume, French admiral, 39.
+
+Gardane, French general, 402.
+
+Gardner, Colonel, 405.
+
+Garonne, the, 118.
+
+Gascoyne, General, M.P., 291.
+
+Gatton, 289.
+
+Gebora, river, 102.
+
+Genappe, 160.
+
+Genoa, 143, 149, 166, 390;
+  bay of, 69.
+
+George III., 2, 14, 22, 31, 32, 34, 48-50, 55, 62, 66-68, 71, 92, 96, 171,
+      194, 208, 242, 375;
+  insanity, 29, 74, 83;
+  relations with Fox, 32, 33, 45, 46;
+  jubilee, 69;
+  family, 184;
+  death, 185, 192;
+  character, 185, 186, 249, 273.
+
+George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), his friends, 29;
+  regent for George III., 74-76, 83, 85, 148, 156, 157, 165, 168, 176, 179,
+      186;
+  marriage relations, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197;
+  character, 173, 174, 183, 184, 194, 197, 208, 244, 282, 375;
+  king, 192, 199, 201, 226-231, 242-244, 246, 249, 268, 271;
+  coronation, 196, 197, 309;
+  death, 272, 273.
+
+Gerard, General (afterwards Marshal), 164, 386.
+
+Germany, 38, 41-43, 46, 47, 55, 58, 59, 61-64, 71, 79, 80, 82, 92, 97, 105,
+      115, 118, 123, 132-138, 142, 144, 149, 152, 156, 188, 189, 381, 387,
+      424, 425;
+  redistribution of territory, 17, 53, 78, 153;
+  forces in the Peninsula, 98, 114, 116;
+  organisation of, 166.
+  See also Austria, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, etc.
+
+Gerona, 88.
+
+Ghent, 155, 378;
+  treaty of, 147, 156, 203.
+
+Ghika, Alexander, Hospodar of Wallachia, 396.
+
+Gibbon, Edward, 415.
+
+Gibraltar, 188, 259, 381;
+  governor of, 90;
+  straits of, 8, 39.
+
+Giessen, 189.
+
+Gifford, William, 423.
+
+Gillray, James, 26.
+
+Gladstone, William Ewart, 44, 200, 318, 350, 424.
+
+Glasgow, 193, 295, 306, 371.
+
+Glenelg, Lord. See Grant, Charles.
+
+Gloucester (William), Duke of (nephew of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Goderich, Viscount. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Godoy, Spanish statesman, 87.
+
+Goethe, Wolfgang von, 417, 418.
+
+Gohad, 399.
+
+Golden Lane. See London.
+
+Gordon, Robert, diplomatist, 266.
+
+Goulburn, Henry, 284, 303, 319;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 231, 270, 278, 280;
+  home secretary, 352, 367.
+
+Gower, Lord Francis Leveson (afterwards Earl of Ellesmere), 236.
+
+Gower, Lord Granville Leveson- (afterwards Earl Granville), secretary at
+      war, 66;
+  retirement, 68.
+
+Graham, Sir James, 270, 277, 352, 354, 374;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 279, 287;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Graham, Sir Thomas (afterwards Lord Lynedoch), 102, 104, 110-113.
+
+Grampound, 193, 198, 284, 288.
+
+Granby, Marquis of (Manners), 52.
+
+Grand, river, 139.
+
+Grant, Charles (afterwards Lord Glenelg), 277;
+  board of trade, 230, 231;
+  resignation, 236, 380;
+  president of the board of control, 279, 329, 330, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 357.
+
+Grattan, Henry, M.P., 197, 238.
+
+Graves, Rear-admiral, 5.
+
+Greece, 379, 380, 383;
+  revolts against Turkey, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-226, 232-234, 253,
+      259-267, 393;
+  independent, 268;
+  boundary fixed, 392.
+
+Greenock, 306.
+
+Grenoble, 153.
+
+Grenville, Thomas, first lord of the admiralty, 49.
+
+Grenville, Lord, 2, 14, 24-26, 29, 33, 35, 54, 56, 67 n., 68, 74-76, 109,
+      238, 279;
+  his followers, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34;
+  first lord of the treasury, 45, 47-49, 51, 52;
+  resignation, 49, 50;
+  opposition to Peninsular war, 71, 76.
+
+Greville, Charles, 332.
+
+Grey, Charles (afterwards Viscount Howick and later second Earl Grey), 46,
+      67 n., 68, 74-76, 199, 228, 230, 249, 271, 276, 277, 348, 357;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 45;
+  foreign secretary, 49, 52, 55;
+  opposition to Peninsular war, 76;
+  first lord of the treasury, 278-283, 285-287, 290, 291, 293-296, 299,
+      301-304, 320, 321, 324, 325, 334, 375, 380;
+  resignation, 344-347.
+
+Grey, Earl de, first lord of the admiralty, 352.
+
+Grossbeeren, battle, 137.
+
+Grosvenor Square. See London.
+
+Grote, George, 341, 345, 374, 431.
+
+Grouchy, Marshal, 160, 163, 164.
+
+Guadeloupe, 136.
+
+Guadiana, the, 99.
+
+Guarda, 100.
+
+_Guerriere_, the, British frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Guildhall. See London.
+
+Guilleminot, French diplomatist, 266.
+
+Guizot, French statesman, 357.
+
+Gujrat, 399.
+
+Gurkhas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, 37, 54, 90.
+
+Gwalior, 310, 399, 407.
+  See Sindhia.
+
+
+_Habeas corpus act_, suspension of, 3, 176-178, 181, 240, 320.
+
+Hague, the, 384.
+
+Haidarabad, 40;
+  Nizam of, 397, 398;
+  treaty of Bassein, 398, 399.
+
+Hal, 158, 161.
+
+_Halifax_, the, British sloop, 127.
+
+Hallam, Henry, 426, 427.
+
+Hamburg, 134, 136, 138, 310.
+
+Hamilton, English commodore, 225.
+
+Hamilton, Sir William, philosopher, 417.
+
+Hampden clubs, 175.
+
+Hampshire, 281, 282.
+
+Hampton, General, 140, 141.
+
+Hampton roads, 127.
+
+Hanau, battle, 133.
+
+_Hannibal_, the, British ship, 8.
+
+Hanover, 22, 38, 42, 43, 46, 55, 134, 136, 166, 249.
+
+Hanoverian troops, 137, 158, 159, 161.
+
+Hanse Towns, the, 55.
+
+Hardenberg, Prussian minister, 144, 152.
+
+Hardinge, Henry (afterwards Sir Henry and later Viscount Hardinge), 104;
+  secretary at war, 236, 250, 275, 313.
+
+Hardwicke, Earl of (Yorke), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 2, 23, 27.
+
+Harrison, American general, 138, 139.
+
+Harrowby, Lord (Dudley Ryder), afterwards Earl of Harrowby, 68, 193, 295,
+      299, 301, 302;
+  foreign secretary, 34;
+  retirement, 35;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 37;
+  president of the board of control, 66;
+  lord president of the council, 81, 82, 227, 230.
+
+Hartwell, Bucks, 147.
+
+Harwich, 197.
+
+Hasselt, 384.
+
+Hastings, Marquis of. See Moira, Earl of.
+
+Hastings, Warren, 279.
+
+Haugwitz, Prussian minister, 42, 43.
+
+Hawkesbury, Lord (Jenkinson), afterwards Earl of Liverpool, foreign
+      secretary, 1, 8, 9, 11, 12, 19, 20, 25, 34, 228;
+  called to the house of lords, 27;
+  home secretary, 34;
+  declines office as first lord of the treasury, 45;
+  home secretary, 50;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 68, 71, 82, 100, 106;
+  first lord of the treasury, 77, 82, 83, 85, 108, 109, 151, 168, 169, 172,
+      173, 183, 195-199, 205, 238, 239, 242, 279, 380;
+  resignation, 208, 209, 226.
+
+Hay, Lord John, 391.
+
+Haye, La, farm, 162.
+
+Haye Sainte, La, farm, 162, 163.
+
+Hayti, 215, 223.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 425.
+
+Health, board of, 310.
+
+Hegel, Georg, 417.
+
+Heligoland, 143, 167.
+
+Helvetian republic. See Switzerland.
+
+Helvoetsluis, 18.
+
+Henry IV., King of France, 219.
+
+Henry, John, 128.
+
+Herat, 412-414.
+
+Herries, J. C., chancellor of the exchequer, 229, 230;
+  master of the mint, 231;
+  secretary at war, 352.
+
+Herschel, Sir John, 428.
+
+Hesse, Princess' Augusta of (Duchess of Cambridge), 184.
+
+Heytesbury, Lord, 412.
+
+Hill, Rowland (afterwards Sir Rowland and later Viscount Hill), 104-106,
+      108, 110-113, 115-117, 119.
+
+Himalayas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Hobart, Lord (afterwards fourth Earl of Buckinghamshire), secretary for war
+      and colonies, 1, 2, 34;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 35;
+  resignation, 37;
+  president of the board of control, 81, 82, 174.
+
+Hobhouse, Sir John Cam (afterwards Lord Broughton), 325, 327, 343, 418;
+  first commissioner of woods and forests, 347;
+  president of the board of control, 357.
+
+Hohenlinden, battle, 420.
+
+Holkar, Jaswant Rao Holkar, 398, 399, 405;
+  Malhar Rao Holkar, 405, 406.
+
+Holland (Batavian republic), 9, 11, 18 19, 21, 38, 53, 61, 81, 149-151,
+      156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 199, 377;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  Louis Bonaparte, king of, 46;
+  loss of Cape of Good Hope, 47, 403;
+  Walcheren expedition, 65;
+  annexed by France, 78;
+  revolts, 133, 138;
+  Prince of Orange proclaimed King of the Netherlands, 138;
+  Dutch at Waterloo, 158, 161, 162;
+  united to Belgium, 166;
+  separation from Belgium, 376-386, 393;
+  convention with Great Britain and France, 387;
+  convention with Belgium, 387;
+  settlers in South Africa, 438.
+
+Holland, Lord (Vassall-Fox), 170, 180, 199, 228, 230, 234;
+  lord privy seal, 49;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 280, 357.
+
+Holy Alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 200, 229.
+
+Holyhead, 197.
+
+Homs, 393.
+
+Hone, William, 177.
+
+Hope, John (afterwards Sir John, later Lord Niddry and Earl of Hopetoun),
+      93, 95, 116, 117, 119.
+
+Horner, Francis, M.P., 73, 183, 423.
+
+_Hornet_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Hougoumont, 161, 162.
+
+Howard, John, 415, 437.
+
+Howick, Viscount. See Grey, Charles.
+
+Howick, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Grey), 271;
+  secretary at war, 357.
+
+Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, 299, 337, 373.
+
+Huddersfield, 270.
+
+Hudson, James (afterwards Sir James Hudson), 351.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 426.
+
+Hull, American general, 129.
+
+Hume, David, 415.
+
+Hume, Joseph, 198, 274, 323, 367, 368, 374, 431.
+
+Hunt, "Orator," 175, 179, 207, 281, 318.
+
+Huron, lake, 129.
+
+Huskisson, William, 84, 86;
+  president of the board of trade, 198, 202, 203, 205, 207, 227, 228;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 229-232, 235, 270, 271;
+  resignation, 236, 380;
+  death, 275, 276, 435.
+
+Hutchinson, General, 6.
+
+Hutton, James, 428.
+
+Hydriots, the, 392.
+
+
+Ibrahim, Pasha, 224, 225, 233, 264, 265, 392-394, 396.
+
+Illyrian provinces, 66, 122, 134, 137.
+
+_Imperieuse_, the, British frigate, 88.
+
+_Inconstant_, the, Napoleon's brig, 153.
+
+Indemnity acts, 234.
+
+India, 3, 18, 50, 59, 61, 104, 329, 330, 397-414, 436;
+  French towns in India, 18, 19;
+  East India Company, 201, 271, 399, 400, 406, 409;
+  acts and charters relating to East India Company, 86, 325, 328-330, 404,
+      411, 412;
+  treaties, 398, 399, 402, 403-406, 409, 412;
+  coolies, 438.
+
+Indians (America), 129, 138, 147.
+
+Indies, East, 20, 81, 310.
+
+Indies, West, 20, 39, 69, 131, 219, 326, 438.
+
+Indore. See Holkar.
+
+Ingilby, Sir W. A., M.P., 334.
+
+Inglis, Sir Robert, M.P., 245.
+
+Inn, river, 63.
+
+Insurrection act, 240, 320.
+
+Inverness, 348.
+
+Ionian islands, 69, 167, 187, 188, 267, 268.
+
+Irawadi, the, 408.
+
+Ireland, 16, 51, 55, 85, 197, 208, 242, 246, 247, 281, 289, 290, 312, 316,
+      317, 359, 360, 367, 368, 370-373;
+  condition of, in 1801, 2, 3;
+    in 1821, 199, 239;
+    in 1824, 205;
+    in 1828, 243;
+    in 1829, 270;
+    in 1830, 275;
+    in 1831-32, 312-317;
+    in 1833, 320, 321;
+    in 1834, 345;
+    in 1837, 371;
+  French spies, 18, 19, 23;
+  Emmet's rebellion, 18, 23, 240;
+  scheme for representative assembly, 77;
+  union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+  Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313;
+  disfranchisement of forty shilling freeholders, 241, 249;
+  famine, 243;
+  reform bill, 306, 307;
+  agitation against tithe, 313-316, 320;
+  church, 315-317, 322;
+  processions act, 316, 317;
+  education, 316, 317;
+  coercion act, 320-322, 324, 325, 332;
+  church temporalities act, 321-325, 332;
+  second coercion act, 347;
+  municipal corporations bill, 364, 365.
+
+Irving, Edward, 339, 340.
+
+Isabella II., Queen of Spain, 389, 395.
+
+Isabella Maria, Regent of Portugal, 253.
+
+Ischia, island, 63.
+
+Isle-aux-noix, 140.
+
+Istria, 42.
+
+Isturiz, Spanish premier, 391.
+
+Italy, 42, 58, 63, 79, 133, 137, 138, 143-145, 149, 153, 157, 166, 187,
+      210, 211, 213, 215-217, 348, 377, 387;
+  Napoleon crowned King of Italy, 37, 38.
+
+Italian republic. See Cisalpine republic.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew (afterwards President of the United States), 147.
+
+Jackson, Francis J., British envoy, 53.
+
+Jails, 369, 437.
+
+Jaswant Rao Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Java, 81, 403.
+
+_Java_, the, British frigate, 132.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, President of the United States, 58, 127, 128.
+
+Jeffrey, Francis (afterwards Lord), 423.
+
+Jena, battle, 47, 199.
+
+Jenner, Dr. Edward, 15, 427.
+
+Jessor, 310.
+
+Jesuits, 247.
+
+Jews, disabilities of, 235.
+
+John VI., King of Portugal, 211, 215, 220, 221, 253, 254.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 186, 415.
+
+Jones, Sir Harford (afterwards Brydges), 402.
+
+Jones, John Gale, 72.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 273.
+
+Jourdan, Marshal, 98, 110.
+
+Jumna, river, 398, 399.
+
+Junot, Duke of Abrantes, 54, 58, 89-91, 100.
+
+
+Kabul, 403, 413, 414.
+
+Kaffraria, 438.
+
+Kalisch, treaty of, 134.
+
+Kandahar, 403, 414.
+
+Kant, Immanuel, 417.
+
+Karavasara, 266.
+
+Karnatik, the, 397.
+
+Katzbach, the, battle, 137.
+
+Keats, John, 419.
+
+Keble, John, 337.
+
+Kehl, 138.
+
+Kellermann, French general, 159, 162.
+
+Kent, 23, 281.
+
+Kent (Edward), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Kent (Victoria Mary), Duchess of 184, 185, 281.
+
+Keswick, 420.
+
+Key, Sir John, M.P., 334.
+
+Khatmandu, 404.
+
+Kiel, treaty of, 142, 143, 189.
+
+Kilkenny, murders in, 320.
+
+Killingworth colliery, 434, 435.
+
+Kilwarden, Viscount (Wolfe), 23.
+
+King's College. See London.
+
+Kiutayeh, 393;
+  peace of, 394.
+
+Kleber, French general, 6.
+
+Knatchbull, Sir Edward, paymaster of forces, 352.
+
+Knights of St. John, 9, 10, 13;
+  property of the order, 11.
+
+Konieh, 393.
+
+Koenigsberg, 81.
+
+Kotzebue, murder of, 189.
+
+Krasnoe, battle, 125.
+
+Kronborg, 4.
+
+Kruse, Dutch officer, 162.
+
+Kulm, 137.
+
+Kumaun, district of, 405.
+
+Kutuzov, Russian general, 124.
+
+
+Labedoyere, Colonel, 154.
+
+Laconia, 392.
+
+Laffitte, French premier, 383, 387.
+
+Lahore, 402.
+
+Laibach, treaty of, 212, 213.
+
+Lake, General (afterwards Lord and later Viscount Lake), 398-401, 409.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 425.
+
+Lamb, William (afterwards Viscount Melbourne), 227, 231, 236;
+  home secretary, 279, 296, 299;
+  first lord of the treasury, 347, 350;
+  resignation, 351;
+  first lord of the treasury, 357, 359, 360, 363, 370, 371, 373, 390, 401,
+      431.
+
+Lampeter, St. David's College, 430.
+
+Lancashire, 83, 179, 435.
+
+Lancaster, revenues of duchy of, 278, 282.
+
+Landau, 149, 167.
+
+Langdale, Lord. See Bickersteth, Henry.
+
+Lansdowne, Marquis of. See Petty, Lord Henry.
+
+Laswari, battle, 399.
+
+Laud, William, 429.
+
+Lauderdale, Earl of (Maitland), 46, 170.
+
+Lauriston, General (afterwards Marshal), 13.
+
+Lawley, Sir Robert, M.P., 29.
+
+Lawrence, Captain, 141, 142.
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 427.
+
+Leach, Sir John, 195.
+
+Leadenhall Street. See London.
+
+Leeds, 198, 272, 327.
+
+Leghorn, 143.
+
+Leicestershire, 83.
+
+Leinster, 315.
+
+Leipzig, battle, 63, 82, 114, 117, 118, 133, 137, 138, 143, 164.
+
+Leon, plains of, 88, 106.
+
+_Leopard_, the, British flagship, 127.
+
+Leopold, Prince, of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians), 174,
+      183, 185, 268, 269, 383, 384.
+
+Lepanto, 266.
+
+L'Estrange, Colonel, 179.
+
+Levant, the, 18, 413.
+
+Lewis I., King of Bavaria, 392.
+
+Lewisham, Viscount (Legge), afterwards Earl of Dartmouth, president of the
+      board of control, 1, 15.
+
+"Lichfield House Compact," 356.
+
+Liege, 43, 381.
+
+Ligny, 158, 164;
+  battle, 158-160.
+
+Ligurian republic, 9, 12, 37, 38.
+
+Lille, negotiations at, 9, 14.
+
+Limburg, province, 382, 385-387.
+
+Lincolnshire, 334.
+
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. See London.
+
+Linois, French admiral, 8.
+
+Lisbon, 54, 89-91, 93-98, 100, 102, 109, 201, 211, 215, 220-222, 257-259,
+      389.
+
+Littleport, 175 n.
+
+Littleton, Edward John (afterwards Lord Hatherton), 325, 345, 346.
+
+Liverpool, 201, 232, 275, 276, 291, 369, 388, 435.
+
+Liverpool, Earl of. See Hawkesbury, Lord.
+
+Lloyd, Charles, bishop of Oxford, 249.
+
+Lobau, island, 63.
+
+Lobau, Prince of, 163.
+
+Lombardy, 149, 166, 187.
+  See also Cisalpine republic.
+
+London, 195, 196, 201, 202, 206, 270, 277, 278, 296, 303, 311, 435, 437;
+  bishop of (Blomfield), 324, 341, 373.
+
+London:--
+  Apsley House, 293.
+  Battersea Fields, 251.
+  Blackheath, 194.
+  Bridges: Blackfriars, London, Southwark, Strand (Waterloo), Westminster,
+      436.
+  Brooks's Club, 374.
+  Buckingham Palace, 349.
+  Carlton House, 70, 436.
+  Cato Street, 193.
+  Corporation of, 173.
+  Edgware Road, 193.
+  Golden Lane, 435.
+  Guildhall, 148.
+  Grosvenor Square, 193.
+  King's College, 250, 431.
+  Leadenhall Street, 329, 398, 411.
+  Lincoln's Inn Fields, 298.
+  "London University," 250, 356, 431;
+    university of London, 431, 432.
+  Newgate, 72, 369.
+  Old Bailey, 282.
+  Pall Mall, 435.
+  Regent Street and Park, 436.
+  Royal Academy, 427.
+  Royal Exchange, 175.
+  St. Paul's, 196.
+  Small-pox Hospital, 427.
+  Southwark, 26.
+  Spa Fields, Bermondsey, 175.
+  Spitalfields, 202.
+  Tower, 72, 175.
+  University College, 431, 432.
+  Westminster, 51, 72, 343.
+  Westminster Abbey, 46, 196, 309.
+  Westminster Hall, 349.
+  White Conduit House, 298.
+
+London, conferences of, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  protocols of, 265, 267, 381-385, 392;
+  treaties of, 96, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266-268, 385, 392.
+
+_London Magazine_, the, 424, 425.
+
+Londonderry, second Marquis of. See Castlereagh, Viscount.
+
+Londonderry, third Marquis of. See Stewart, Sir Charles.
+
+Lonsdale, Earl of (Lowther), 67 n.
+
+Lorraine, 143, 168.
+
+Loughborough, Lord (Wedderburn), afterwards first Earl of Rosslyn, 1, 271.
+
+Louis XIV., King of France, 186.
+
+Louis XVI., King of France, 145.
+
+Louis XVIII., King of France, 118, 119, 145, 147, 149, 154-157, 166, 167,
+      169, 187, 215, 218, 219, 377.
+
+Louis Antoine, Duke of Angouleme (afterwards dauphin), 116, 118, 154, 220,
+      376.
+
+Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans (afterwards King of France), 154, 274, 376,
+      377, 379, 380, 382-384, 390, 391.
+
+Louisiana, 6, 18.
+
+Louvain, 384.
+
+Low Countries. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Luebeck, 78.
+
+Luddite riots. See Riots.
+
+Lugo, 95.
+
+Lundy's Lane, battle, 146.
+
+Luneville, treaty of, 6, 10, 13, 17, 38.
+
+Luetzen, battle, 135.
+
+Luxemburg, grand duchy of, 43, 380-387.
+
+Lyell, Charles (afterwards Sir C.), 428.
+
+Lyndhurst, Lord. See Copley, Sir John.
+
+Lyons, 154.
+
+
+Maas, river, 387.
+
+Maastricht, 380, 382.
+
+Macadam, John Loudon, roadmaker, 434.
+
+Macarthur, John, 439.
+
+Macaulay, Thomas Babington (afterwards Lord Macaulay), 296, 327, 411, 412,
+      423-427.
+
+Macaulay, Zachary, 423, 431.
+
+Macdonald, Marshal, 124, 125, 154.
+
+_Macedonian_, the, British ship, 132.
+
+Mack, Austrian general, 42.
+
+Mackinac, 129, 139.
+
+Mackintosh, Sir James, 16, 194, 201.
+
+Mackworth, Major, 298.
+
+Macquarie, Governor, 439, 440.
+
+Madison, James, President of the United States, 128-130.
+
+Madras, 400, 410.
+
+Madrid, 71, 87-89, 92-94, 96, 98, 103, 107, 108, 111, 150, 217-220, 390,
+      391;
+  treaty of, 6.
+
+Magdeburg, 138.
+
+Mahmud, Amir of Afghanistan, 403.
+
+Mahmud II., Sultan of Turkey, 57, 168, 188, 266, 393, 394, 396.
+
+Maida, battle, 47.
+
+Maine, state, 147.
+
+Mainots, the, 392.
+
+Mainz, 136.
+
+Maitland, Captain, 169.
+
+Majorca, 88.
+
+Malcolm, Sir John, colonel, 402.
+
+Malden, 129.
+
+Malhar, Rao Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Malmaison, 165.
+
+Malmesbury, Earl of (Harris), 14, 49.
+
+Malta, possession of, 9-13, 20, 22, 37, 408, 413;
+  independence guaranteed, 13;
+  parliamentary debate on, 14;
+  retention by England, 19, 20, 167.
+
+Malthus, Thomas Robert, 421.
+
+Malwa, 406, 409, 411.
+
+Manchester, 176, 178, 179, 272, 275, 276, 295, 303, 311, 435.
+
+Mansfield, first Earl of (Murray), 45.
+
+Mansfield, third Earl of (Murray), 292.
+
+Maratha wars, 398, 399, 406, 407.
+
+Marcoff, Count, 21.
+
+Marengo, battle, 159.
+
+Maria II., da Gloria, Queen of Portugal, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388.
+
+Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, 389, 391.
+
+Maria Louisa, empress of Napoleon I., 78, 145, 150, 166.
+
+Mariembourg, 149, 382.
+
+Marlborough, Duke of (Churchill), 52.
+
+Marmont, Marshal, 104-108.
+
+Marriage reform bills, 355;
+  act, 366, 367.
+
+Martinique, 9.
+
+Mary, Duchess of Gloucester (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Massena, Marshal, 100-104.
+
+Maumee, river, 130, 138.
+
+Mauritius, the (Isle of France), 18, 149, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Maya, pass, 113.
+
+McClure, General, 141.
+
+McDonnell, Colonel, 141.
+
+Medellin, 96.
+
+Medina de Rio Seco, 88.
+
+Mediterranean, the, 39, 69, 188, 262, 265, 393.
+
+Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 224, 225, 264, 269, 392-394.
+
+Mehidpur, battle, 406.
+
+_Melampus_, the, British warship, 127.
+
+Melbourne, Viscount. See Lamb, William.
+
+Melcombe Regis, 289, 305.
+
+Melville, first Viscount. See Dundas, Henry.
+
+Melville, second Viscount. See Dundas, Robert S.
+
+Menou, 6.
+
+Merton, Surrey, 39.
+
+Mesolongi, 266, 418.
+
+Metcalfe, Charles (afterwards Sir Charles and later Lord Metcalfe), 402,
+      403, 406, 409, 411, 412.
+
+Methodist revival, the, 339.
+
+Metternich, Prince, 122, 134, 138, 144-146, 152, 156, 189, 191, 210, 217,
+      218, 224, 377, 395, 396.
+
+Mexico, 223.
+
+Miaoulis, Greek admiral, 393.
+
+Michigan, lake, 129;
+  state, 138, 139.
+
+Middle Ground shoal, 4.
+
+Middleton, Sir Charles. See Barham, Lord.
+
+Miguel, Dom (afterwards King of Portugal), 220, 221, 253-255, 258, 259,
+      388-390;
+  convention at Evora, 390.
+
+Milan, 37;
+  decree, 56;
+  commission, 195.
+
+Milhaud, French officer, 162.
+
+Militia, the, 16, 21, 31.
+
+Militia balloting bill, 59.
+
+Militia transfer bill, 60.
+
+Mina, guerilla leader, 104.
+
+Minho, province, 258.
+
+Ministries: Addington's, 1-31;
+  Pitt's, 33-44;
+  Grenville's (All the Talents), 45-50;
+  Portland's, 50-67, 87-99;
+  Perceval's, 68-76, 99-106;
+  Liverpool's, 77-86, 107-226, 253-258;
+  Canning's, 227, 228, 258;
+  Goderich's, 229, 230, 259, 260;
+  Wellington's, 230-252, 260-278, 376-380;
+  Grey's, 278-347, 380-390, 392-396;
+  Melbourne's, 347-351;
+  provisional administration, 351;
+  Peel's, 352;
+  Melbourne's, 357-375, 390-392.
+
+Minorca, 9, 88.
+
+Minto, second Earl of (Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound), first lord of the
+      admiralty, 363, 401.
+
+Minto, Lord (Elliot), afterwards first Earl of Minto, governor-general of
+      Bengal, 401-404.
+
+Modena, 213;
+  treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Moira, Earl of (Rawdon-Hastings), afterwards Marquis of Hastings, 75, 76,
+      310;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 45;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 404-408.
+
+Moldavia, 57, 59, 80, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 394-396.
+
+Mole, French foreign minister, 379.
+
+Molesworth, Sir William, M.P., 374.
+
+Moltke, 396.
+
+Moncey, Marshal, 88.
+
+Mondego, river, 90, 101.
+
+Mongolia, 310.
+
+_Moniteur_, newspaper, 18.
+
+Monroe, James, President of the United States, 223;
+  Monroe doctrine, 223.
+
+Mons, 158.
+
+Monson, Colonel, 399.
+
+Montbeliard, 149.
+
+Montenegrins, the, 142.
+
+Monte Video, 56, 57, 190.
+
+Montmorency, French diplomatist, 217, 218.
+
+Montreal, 140.
+
+Montrose, Duke of (Graham), president of the board of trade, 34.
+
+Mont St. Jean, 160.
+
+Moore, Sir John, general, 54, 90-95, 108, 200.
+
+Moore, Thomas, 420.
+
+Moravia, 42, 64.
+
+Moraviantown, 139.
+
+Morea, the, 214, 224, 225, 261, 263-266, 393.
+
+Moreau, General, 33.
+
+Morpeth, Lord (afterwards seventh Earl of Carlisle), 357, 359, 372.
+
+Morrison, Colonel, 141.
+
+Mortier, Marshal, 99.
+
+Moscow, 124.
+
+Moss, convention of, 150.
+
+Mughal emperor, 399.
+
+Muhammad, Shah of Persia, 412.
+
+Muehlhausen, 149.
+
+Mulgrave, Lord (Phipps) (afterwards first Earl of Mulgrave), 347;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 34;
+  foreign secretary, 35;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 50, 67 n.;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 72, 82;
+  in cabinet without office, 178;
+  retirement of, 194.
+
+Mulgrave, second Earl of (Phipps), lord privy seal, 347;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 359, 371.
+
+Muenchengraetz, secret convention at, 395, 396.
+
+Munich, 33.
+
+Municipal corporations act, 360-362, 370;
+  bill (Ireland), 364, 365.
+
+Murat, Joachim, 87;
+  King of Naples, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157, 168;
+  death, 157.
+
+Muraviov, Russian general, 393.
+
+Murray, Colonel, 141.
+
+Murray, Sir George, secretary for war and colonies, 236;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 352.
+
+Murray, John, 423.
+
+Murray, Sir John, general, 109, 114.
+
+Mysore, 411.
+
+
+Nagpur, 406;
+  Raja of, 398, 390, 405, 406.
+
+Namur, 157, 160, 161.
+
+Napier, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Charles Napier), 389.
+
+Napier, General Sir W., 110.
+
+Naples, 47, 63, 157, 213;
+  bay of, 42.
+
+Naples, kingdom of, 47, 53, 63, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157.
+  See also Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Naples, Prince of, 383.
+
+Napoleon, King of Rome, son of Napoleon I., 145, 165.
+
+Nash, John, architect, 436.
+
+Nassau, troops, 158.
+
+National debt, the, 204, 206;
+  in 1802, 15;
+  in 1815, 171.
+
+"National Political Union," 298.
+
+Nauplia, 225.
+
+Navarino, 225;
+  battle, 230, 233, 234, 253, 259, 264.
+
+Navarre, province, 300.
+
+Navigation laws, reform of the, 202, 203, 207, 216, 437.
+
+Neapolitan States. See Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Nelson, Lord (afterwards Viscount), 8, 16, 39, 69, 233, 273;
+  expedition to Copenhagen, 3-5, 8;
+  Trafalgar, 40, 41.
+
+Nemours, Louis, Duke of, 382, 383.
+
+Nepal, 404, 405, 408, 409;
+  treaty of Almora, 405.
+
+Nesselrode, Russian diplomatist, 138, 262.
+
+Netherlands, the. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Neuchatel, 43.
+
+Neuville, De, French ambassador, 222.
+
+Newark (Canada), 141, 146.
+
+Newark (England), 248.
+
+Newcastle, 311.
+
+Newcastle, Duke of (Fiennes-Pelham-Clinton), 228, 248, 296, 297.
+
+New England, 128.
+
+Newfoundland, fishery, 10.
+
+Newgate. See London.
+
+Newman, John Henry, 325, 336-338, 340.
+
+New Orleans, 147.
+
+"New poor law," 340-344.
+
+New South Wales. See Australia.
+
+Newspaper stamp act, 369, 370.
+
+New York, 146;
+  state, 146.
+
+New Zealand, 436.
+
+Ney, Marshal, 17, 99-101, 154, 155, 158-160, 163.
+
+Niagara, river, 130, 140, 141, 146;
+  falls, 130, 146.
+
+Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia, 232, 259, 260, 262, 361, 385, 393, 395, 396.
+
+Nicholls, Colonel, 405.
+
+Niemen, the, 52, 124, 133.
+
+Nile, the, 6;
+  battle of the, 69.
+
+Nive, river, 115-117.
+
+Nivelle, river, 115.
+
+Nivelles, 159.
+
+Nonconformists. See Dissenters.
+
+Non-intercourse act (United States), 83, 128.
+
+Norfolk (United States), 127.
+
+Norfolk Island, 439.
+
+_North Briton_, the, journal, 422.
+
+Northern confederacy, the, 5, 8.
+
+Northumberland, Duke of (Percy), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 244, 313.
+
+_Northumberland_, the, British ship, 166.
+
+Norway, 54, 80, 122, 123, 189;
+  ceded to Sweden, 136, 142, 143, 150, 166;
+  convention at Moss, 150.
+
+Nottingham, 296;
+  castle, 297.
+
+Nottinghamshire, 83, 176.
+
+Novara, battle, 213.
+
+Nugent, John, 122, 142.
+
+Nugent, Lord (Grenville-Nugent-Temple), 241.
+
+
+Ocana, battle, 100.
+
+Ochterlony, General (afterwards Sir David), 404, 405, 409.
+
+O'Connell, Daniel, 2, 237, 241, 242, 244, 246, 249, 251, 252, 272, 275,
+      280, 281, 287, 294, 306, 312-316, 319, 321-324, 344-346, 348, 356,
+      359, 362, 363, 371, 374.
+
+Oder, the, 80, 135.
+
+Ohio, state, 138.
+
+Old Bailey. See London.
+
+Oldenburg, duchy of, 78, 105.
+
+Oldham, 318.
+
+Old Sarum, 3, 285, 289.
+
+Oleron, island, 69, 165.
+
+Olivenza, 6, 102, 123.
+
+Oliver, the spy, 176.
+
+Ontario, lake, 139.
+
+Oporto, 89, 90, 96, 98, 211, 388.
+
+Orange lodges, 367, 368;
+  Orangemen, 241, 270, 317, 367, 368.
+
+Orenburg, 310.
+
+Orfordness, 8.
+
+Orleans, Duke of. See Louis Philippe.
+
+Orleans, Philip, Duke of, 186, 272.
+
+Orthez, battle, 117.
+
+Otranto, 12.
+
+Otto, French diplomatist, 80.
+
+Otto, Prince of Bavaria (afterwards King of Greece), 392.
+
+Oudh, 404;
+  Nawab Wazir of, 397.
+
+Ouseley, Sir Gore, 402.
+
+Oxford, 148, 337, 338;
+  bishop of (Lloyd), 249;
+  movement, 337-340, 417;
+  university. See Universities.
+
+
+Paget, Lord (afterwards Earl of Uxbridge and later Marquis of Anglesey),
+      94, 162, 245, 249;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 230;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 231, 243;
+  recalled, 244;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 281, 313, 321;
+  resignation, 344.
+
+Paisley, 306.
+
+Pakenham, Sir Edward, general, 147.
+
+Palatinate, the, 381.
+
+Palermo, 63, 211.
+
+Paley, William, 421.
+
+Pall Mall. See London.
+
+Palmella, Portuguese statesman, 220, 255.
+
+Palmerston, Viscount (Temple), 277, 286, 421;
+  secretary at war, 68, 172, 227, 229, 231, 263, 392;
+  resignation, 236;
+  foreign secretary, 261, 279, 357, 380, 382, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 412.
+
+Pamplona, 111-113, 115.
+
+Papal States, 9, 58, 157, 166, 187, 213, 258.
+
+Papelotte, farm, 162.
+
+Paraguay, 190.
+
+Parga, 188.
+
+Paris: the Tuileries, 31, 105, 155;
+  first capitulation, 145;
+  first treaty of, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  second capitulation, 165;
+  second treaty of, 167, 168, 376;
+  treaty of Chaumont extended at, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  revolution of July, 274, 285, 376;
+  cholera at, 311.
+
+Park, Mungo, 436.
+
+Parker, Sir Hyde, admiral, 3-5.
+
+Parliament: general election of 1802, 15;
+  of 1806, 48;
+  of 1807, 50;
+  of 1812, 85;
+  of 1818, 178;
+  of 1820, 193;
+  of 1826, 207, 242;
+  of 1830, 274;
+  of 1831, 293, 294;
+  of 1832, 318;
+  of 1835, 354;
+  reform, 61;
+  liberals and conservatives, 319;
+  houses destroyed by fire, 349.
+
+Parma, duchy of, 145, 150, 166;
+  treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Parnell, Sir Henry, M.P., 84, 278.
+
+Pasages, 391.
+
+Paskievitch, Russian general, 388.
+
+Patten, Colonel, M.P., 26, 27.
+
+Patuxent, river, 146.
+
+Paul, Tsar of Russia, 5.
+
+_Peacock_, the, British ship, 141.
+
+Pease, Edward, 434, 435.
+
+Peel, Sir Robert (first baronet), 327.
+
+Peel, Robert (afterwards Sir Robert), 44, 71, 172, 183, 200, 227, 283, 286,
+      287, 290, 292, 294, 300, 303, 305, 319, 323, 324, 330, 331, 334, 335,
+      343, 345, 347, 348, 351, 359-362, 364, 365, 371-373, 375;
+  home secretary, 199, 201, 202, 209, 226, 231, 235, 236, 242-248, 252,
+      270-272, 274-278;
+  first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 352-355, 363,
+      366, 367, 390, 412;
+  resignation, 356, 357.
+
+Pelham, Lord (afterwards second Earl of Chichester), home secretary, 1;
+  resigns office, 27;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 27.
+
+_Pelican_, the, British ship, 142.
+
+Peloponnese, the, 393.
+  See Morea, the.
+
+Peltier, Jean, editor, 12, 16.
+
+Pena, La, Spanish commander, 102.
+
+Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87, 120, 129, 146, 182,
+      200, 423.
+
+Pennsylvania, 139.
+
+Penryn, 193, 235, 236.
+
+Pepys, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord and later Earl Cottenham), lord
+      chancellor, 363.
+
+Perceval, Spencer, 49;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 50, 61, 67 n., 82, 83;
+  first lord of the treasury, etc., 68, 71, 74-76, 77, 236, 238, 380;
+  assassination, 76, 81.
+
+Perry, Commodore, 139.
+
+Persia, 123, 310, 401, 402, 412, 413;
+  treaties with East India Company and Great Britain, 402.
+
+Perth, 306.
+
+Peru, 215, 223.
+
+Peshawar, 413.
+
+Peshwa, the, of Poona, 398, 405, 406;
+  treaty of Bassein, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Peter (afterwards Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, and Peter IV., King of
+      Portugal), 221, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388, 389.
+
+Peter II., Emperor of Brazil, 254, 388.
+
+Peterloo, massacre of. See Riots.
+
+Petty, Lord Henry (afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne), 241, 345, 421;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 45;
+  home secretary, 228;
+  president of the council, 279, 280, 357, 369.
+
+Philippeville, 149, 382.
+
+Philippon, governor of Badajoz, 106.
+
+Phillip, Governor, 438.
+
+Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, 324.
+
+Pichegru, French general, 33.
+
+Picton, Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas), 106, 118, 159, 162.
+
+Piedmont, 17, 38, 213, 217.
+
+Pindaris, the, 404-408, 411.
+
+Pitt, William, the elder (first Earl of Chatham), 44, 284.
+
+Pitt, William, the younger, 2, 14, 15, 23, 47-50, 86, 173, 176, 181, 182,
+      185, 202, 208, 227, 237, 279, 284, 291, 307, 322, 330, 417, 437, 438;
+  his resignation in 1801, 1, 397, 415;
+  alienation from Addington's ministry, 24;
+  negotiations with Addington, 24-26;
+  attacks Addington, 30, 31;
+  overtures from Eldon, 30;
+  interview with the king, 32;
+  first lord of the treasury, 33-37;
+  organises third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41;
+  loss of Melville, 36;
+  collapse of the third coalition, 43, 46;
+  death, 43;
+  his adherents, 68, 200.
+
+Pius VII., Pope, 7, 35, 78, 150, 166, 163.
+
+Plasencia, 98.
+
+Plata, La. See Argentine, the.
+
+Plattsburg (United States), 140, 141, 146.
+
+Plunket, William (afterwards Lord Plunket), 239;
+  attorney-general of Ireland, 199, 241, 249.
+
+Plymouth, 259.
+
+_Poictiers_, the British ship, 132.
+
+Poischwitz, 135.
+
+Poland, 52, 53, 79, 80, 122, 144, 152, 153, 156, 166, 310, 381, 387, 388,
+      395.
+
+Pole & Co., 206.
+
+Pole, W. Wellesley (afterwards Lord Maryborough), master of the mint, 174,
+      178, 202.
+
+Polignac, French statesman, 223.
+
+Pomerania, Swedish, 54, 80, 122, 143, 166.
+
+Pondicherri, 18;
+  French towns in India, 18, 19.
+
+Ponsonby, Sir William, 162.
+
+Ponsonby, Lord (afterwards Viscount Ponsonby), 383.
+
+Poona, 398, 405, 406.
+  See Peshwa.
+
+Poor law, 171, 181, 311, 312, 420, 437;
+  poor rates, 182, 203;
+  "new poor law," 340-344, 366;
+  poor law board, 343;
+  Ireland, 312, 316, 317, 372, 373.
+
+Popham, Sir Home, 47.
+
+Poros, 266, 392.
+
+Porte, the. See Turkey.
+
+Portland, third Duke of (Cavendish-Bentinck), 49, 66;
+  home secretary, 1;
+  lord president of the council, 1;
+  in cabinet without office, 35;
+  first lord of the treasury, 50, 52, 60;
+  minor reforms, 51, 61;
+  changes in his ministry, 66;
+  resignation, 67;
+  death, 68.
+
+Portland, fourth Duke of (Cavendish Scott Bentinck), lord privy seal, 227;
+  in cabinet without office, 228;
+  lord president of the council, 230.
+
+Port Mahon, 188.
+
+Port Phillip, 439, 440.
+
+Portsmouth, 39, 148, 197.
+
+Portugal, 11, 53, 60, 122, 151, 190, 200, 201, 226, 395;
+  treaties of Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+  Junot's expedition to, 54, 58, 89-91;
+  Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+  revolutions, 211, 220, 221, 254, 255-258;
+  cortes, 211, 215, 220, 221, 254, 258;
+  junta, 220, 221;
+  relations with Brazil, 221, 222, 253, 254, 388-390;
+  conference at London, 222;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+  convention of Evora, 390.
+
+Posen, 166.
+
+Pottinger, British officer, 412.
+
+Potwallopers, 281, 289, 308.
+
+Prague, 135.
+
+Prescott, 141.
+
+Presqu'isle (Pennsylvania), 139.
+
+Press, liberty of the, 180, 358;
+  Indian press, 411, 412.
+
+Pressburg, peace of, 42.
+
+Press-gang, 23.
+
+Preston, 281, 318.
+
+Prevost, Sir George, governor of Canada, 129, 130, 140, 146.
+
+Privy Council, acts relating to the, 325, 332.
+
+Processions act (Ireland), 316, 317.
+
+Procida, island, 63.
+
+Proclamation act, 320.
+
+Proctor, English colonel, 138, 139.
+
+Prome, 409.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 427.
+
+Prussia, 17, 51-53, 59, 80, 81, 105, 124, 136, 144, 187-189, 220, 267, 391;
+  guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+  vacillation, 38, 41-43, 51;
+  treaty of Schoenbrunn, 43;
+  treaty with France, 46, 55;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+  treaty with France, 122;
+  convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+  campaign of 1813, 133-138;
+  convention with Russia, 134;
+  treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+  treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 378, 381,
+      388;
+  campaign of 1815, 156-165;
+  gains Swedish Pomerania, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  Holy Alliance, 168;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 313;
+  congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+  conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+  secret convention at Muenchengraetz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Pruth, river, 263.
+
+_Public Advertiser_, the, newspaper, 422.
+
+Puebla, pass, 111.
+
+Punjab, 403, 413.
+
+Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 336.
+
+Putney, 43.
+
+Pyrenees, the, 110, 115, 136, 138;
+  battle, 113.
+
+
+Quadruple alliance, 389, 391.
+
+Quakers, the, 48.
+
+_Quarterly Review_, the, 423.
+
+Quatre Bras, 158-160;
+  battle, 159.
+
+Queen's County, murders in, 320.
+
+Queensland. See Australia.
+
+Queenstown (Canada), 130.
+
+
+Raeburn, Sir Henry, 427.
+
+Railways, 275, 276, 427, 428, 434, 435.
+
+Raisin, river, 138.
+
+Rajputana, 399, 400, 406, 409.
+
+Rangoon, 408, 409.
+
+Ranjit Singh, Raja of Bhartpur, 309, 403, 409.
+
+Ranjit Singh, Sikh ruler, 403, 412;
+  treaty with East India Company, 403.
+
+Ratisbon, 63.
+
+Re, island, 165.
+
+Reciprocity of duties act, 203, 207.
+
+Redesdale, Lord (Mitford), 235.
+
+_Redoutable_, the, French ship, 41.
+
+Red Sea, the, 6, 413.
+
+Reform, movement for, 61, 77, 174, 175, 178, 181, 198, 204, 271, 272, 277,
+      278, 280-308;
+  partial reforms, 198, 235;
+  first bill of 1831, 287-291;
+  second bill, 294-296;
+  third bill, 300-306;
+  Scotch and Irish bills, 306, 307.
+
+Regency act (1811), 74, 75.
+
+Regency act (1830), 281.
+
+Regent Street and Park. See London.
+
+_Register, Weekly_. See Cobbett.
+
+Registration bill, 355;
+  acts, 366, 367.
+
+Reichenbach, treaties of, 136.
+
+Reille, French general, 111, 113, 158, 162.
+
+Religious movements, 336-340, 417.
+
+Rennell, James, 436.
+
+Rennie, John, 435, 436.
+
+Rensselaer, Van, American general, 130.
+
+Reshid, Turkish general, 393.
+
+Revel, 4.
+
+Rey, Emmanuel, governor of St. Sebastian, 112-114.
+
+Reynier, French general, 100, 101.
+
+Rhine, the, 9, 41, 138, 143, 152, 153, 158, 166, 381;
+  confederation of the, 46, 53, 134, 138.
+
+Riall, General, 146.
+
+Rice, Thomas Spring (afterwards Lord Monteagle), 345;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 346;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 357, 369, 373.
+
+Richelieu, Duke of, 212.
+
+Richmond, Charlotte, Duchess of, 159.
+
+Richmond, third Duke of (Lennox), 284.
+
+Richmond, fifth Duke of (Lennox), postmaster-general, 280;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Ried, treaty of, 137.
+
+Rieti, battle, 212.
+
+Riga, 124.
+
+Rio Janeiro, 254, 259.
+
+Riot act, 72, 176, 297.
+
+Riots, 344;
+  Luddite, 83, 85, 175, 432, 433;
+  bread, 174;
+  agricultural, 174, 281, 282;
+  Spa Fields, 175;
+  Derbyshire insurrection, 176;
+  "Peterloo" or "Manchester massacre," 178-180, 192;
+  reform bill, 293, 296-298, 302, 309.
+
+Riou, Edward, 5.
+
+Ripon, Earl of. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Robinson, Frederick John (afterwards Viscount Goderich, later Earl of
+      Ripon), president of the board of trade, etc., 177, 178, 198;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 202, 207;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 227;
+  first lord of the treasury, 229, 230, 233, 242, 260, 380;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 279;
+  lord privy seal, 325;
+  resignation, 345.
+
+Rochefort, 165.
+
+Rodil, Spanish general, 389.
+
+Roebuck, John, M.P., 362, 372, 374.
+
+Rohilkhand, 397.
+
+Rolica, 90.
+
+Rolleston, magistrate, 176.
+
+Romana, Spanish general, 95.
+
+Roman Empire, Holy. See Empire, Holy Roman.
+
+Roman States. See Papal States.
+
+Rome, 58, 351.
+
+Romilly, Sir Samuel, M.P., 51, 77, 194, 199, 201.
+
+Roncesvalles, pass, 112, 113.
+
+Rose, George, M.P., 182.
+
+Rosetta, 57.
+
+Ross, General, 146.
+
+Rosslyn, first Earl of. See Loughborough, Lord.
+
+Rosslyn, second Earl of (St. Clair Erskine), president of the board of
+      control, 271;
+  lord president of the council, 352.
+
+Rothiere, La, battle, 144.
+
+Roussin, French admiral, 388, 393, 394.
+
+Royal Institution, the, 428.
+
+_Royal Sovereign_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Ruegen, island, 52, 53, 143.
+
+Rumelia, 263, 267.
+
+Rumford, Count, 428.
+
+Russell, Lord John (afterwards Earl Russell), 193, 198, 207, 234, 235, 272,
+      284, 356, 421, 431;
+  paymaster of the forces, 280, 287, 290, 294, 297, 300, 304, 321, 324,
+      345, 350, 351;
+  home secretary, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 374.
+
+Russia, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 35, 38, 41-43, 51, 52, 62, 66, 88, 90, 92, 187,
+      188, 210, 220, 225, 232, 391, 392, 402, 412;
+  holy alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 199, 229;
+  war of third coalition, 37, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+  treaty with England, 37;
+  treaty with Sweden, 38;
+  treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+  war with Turkey, 52, 57, 77;
+  secret convention at Erfurt, 59, 92;
+  breach with France, 79-81, 105;
+  armistice with Turkey, 81;
+  war with France, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 132-138;
+  treaty with England, 85;
+  fleet, 90, 92;
+  alliance with Sweden, 54, 122, 123;
+  treaty of Abo, 123;
+  treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+  treaties with England and Sweden, 123, 136;
+  convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+  convention with Prussia, 134;
+  treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+  treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+  treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+  treaty of Ried, 137;
+  campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+  treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+  treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+  first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+  congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 376, 379,
+      381, 388;
+  gains Finland, 166;
+  second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+  conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+  congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+  congress of Laibach, 212, 213;
+  breach with Turkey, 213-215;
+  congress of Verona, 217-219, 222, 223, 392;
+  conference of St. Petersburg, 224;
+  treaty of Akherman, 260;
+  conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+  treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+  war with Turkey, 234, 260-267;
+  peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+  war with Poland, 387, 388;
+  assists Turkey, 393-395;
+  treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+  secret convention at Muenchengraetz, 395, 396;
+  convention at Berlin, 396;
+  treaty with Turkey, 396;
+  influence in the east, 412-414.
+
+Rutlandshire, 288.
+
+Ryder, Dudley. See Harrowby, Earl of.
+
+Ryder, Richard, home secretary, 68;
+  retirement, 81.
+
+
+Saale, river, 133.
+
+Sackett's Harbour, 139, 140.
+
+Sadler, Michael, M.P., 248, 316, 327.
+
+Sahagun, 94.
+
+St. Albans, 345.
+
+St. Amand, 158.
+
+_St. Antoine_, the, French ship, 8.
+
+St. David's, bishop of (Burgess), 430.
+
+St. George's Channel, American privateers in, 141.
+
+St. Helena, 153, 157, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170.
+
+St. Jean de Luz, 115, 117.
+
+St. Lawrence, river, 141;
+  fishery, 10.
+
+St. Lucia, 149, 167.
+
+St. Marcial, battle, 114.
+
+St. Paul's cathedral. See London.
+
+St. Petersburg, 121, 225, 232, 233, 261, 310, 356;
+  conference at, 224.
+
+St. Sebastian, 112-114, 391.
+
+St. Vincent, Earl of (Jervis), first lord of the admiralty, 1, 30, 34, 36.
+
+Salaberry, Colonel de, 141.
+
+Salamanca, 93, 94, 105-108;
+  battle, 107.
+
+Saldana, 94.
+
+Salzburg, 66.
+
+Sambre, river, 164.
+
+Samos, 266, 268.
+
+San Domingo, 18, 49, 215.
+
+Sandvliet, 65.
+
+_Santa Ana_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Santander, 108, 110.
+
+Santarem, 102.
+
+Santha Martha, Miguelite general, 389.
+
+_Santisima Trinidad_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Sardinia, kingdom of, 150, 166, 167, 187.
+
+Sartorius, Admiral, 388.
+
+Sarum, Old, 421.
+
+Satara, 406.
+
+"Sati," 410.
+
+Saumarez, Sir James (afterwards Baron), admiral, 8.
+
+Savary, French minister, 88.
+
+Savings-banks, 182, 437.
+
+Savoy, 149, 167.
+
+Saxony, 53, 133, 136, 138, 144, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Scarlett, James (afterwards Lord Abinger), 358.
+
+Scharnhorst, Prussian statesman, 81.
+
+Scheldt, the, 64-66, 71, 99, 385-387.
+
+Schoenbrunn, treaty of, 43.
+
+Schwarzenberg, Austrian general, 124, 143-145.
+
+Scientific discoveries, 340, 427-436.
+
+Scotland, 193, 197, 271, 285, 289, 290, 293, 348, 360, 362, 433;
+  reform bill, 306;
+  church of, 360 n., 424.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 417, 418, 422, 423.
+
+Scott, Sir William (afterwards Lord Stowell), 169.
+
+Scylla, castle, 63.
+
+Sebastiani, French officer (afterwards foreign minister), 18, 20, 57, 98,
+      382.
+
+Secretaries of state, division of departments of, 1, 2.
+
+Selim III., Sultan of Turkey, 7.
+
+Sepoys, 6, 400, 406.
+
+Septennial act, 374.
+
+Seringapatam, 397.
+
+Servia, 80.
+
+Seville, 68, 96.
+
+Shaftesbury, Earl of. See Ashley, Lord.
+
+Shah Shuja, Amir of Afghanistan, 403.
+
+_Shannon_, the, British frigate, 142, 147.
+
+Shaw, Sir Robert, M.P., 197.
+
+Sheaffe, Major-general, 130, 140.
+
+Sheil, Richard Lalor, M.P., 237, 241, 306, 315, 344.
+
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 419.
+
+Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 14, 16, 29, 75, 200, 421.
+
+Sicilies, the Two, 9-14, 47, 166, 187, 188, 211-213;
+  treaty of Florence, 7;
+  treaty of neutrality with France, 42.
+
+Sicily, island and kingdom of, 47, 57, 58, 150;
+  army in Spain, 109, 114.
+
+Sidmouth, Viscount. See Addington, Henry.
+
+Sikhs, the, 403.
+  See Ranjit Singh, Sikh ruler.
+
+Silesia, 53, 135, 137.
+
+Silistria, 396.
+
+Simmons, Dr. Samuel Foart, 29.
+
+Sind, 402, 413, 414.
+
+Sindhia, Daulat Rao Sindhia, 397-399, 401, 405.
+
+Six acts, the, 180, 229.
+
+Skaw, the, 3.
+
+Small-pox, 15;
+  hospital, see London.
+
+Smeaton, John, 434.
+
+Smohain, hamlet, 162.
+
+Smith, Adam, 415, 420.
+
+Smith, Sydney, 423.
+
+Smith, William, 428.
+
+Smyth, American general, 130.
+
+Socialists, 175.
+
+Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 338.
+
+Society, Highland, 433.
+
+Society, Kildare Place, 317.
+
+Society of friends of the people, 279.
+
+Society, Water-colour, 427.
+
+Soissons, 145.
+
+Sombreffe, French general, 158.
+
+Somerset, Lord Robert, 162.
+
+Somersetshire, 175, 298.
+
+Sophia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Sophia, Princess, of Gloucester (niece of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Souham, French general, 108.
+
+Soult (Duke of Dalmatia), French general, 94-96, 98, 99, 102-108, 110,
+      112-119.
+
+South Australia. See Australia.
+
+Southey, Robert, 416, 420.
+
+Southwark. See London.
+
+Spa Fields, Bermondsey. See London and Riots.
+
+Spain, 13, 35, 39-41, 47, 58, 59, 81, 85, 123, 144, 149-151, 166, 187, 188,
+      190, 200, 205, 231, 254, 259;
+  treaties of Aranjuez, Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  alliance with France, 35;
+  Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 423;
+  juntas, 68, 92, 93, 96, 97, 103, 120;
+  secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+  abdication of Charles IV., 87;
+  Joseph Bonaparte, king of, 59, 88, 89, 104, 122, 123;
+  treaties with England, 96, 150, 151;
+  cortes, 103, 109, 112, 210, 215;
+  insurrection, 210, 215-217;
+  loss of colonies in America, 190, 205, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 223, 253,
+      257;
+  dispute with France, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+  aggressions in Portugal, 254-256, 258;
+  triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+  Carlist war, 389-391.
+
+Speculation, 205, 206.
+
+Speenhamland, 341.
+
+Spenceans, the, 175.
+
+Spencer, second Earl, 14, 25, 34, 230, 349;
+  home secretary, 45, 49;
+  resignation, 50.
+
+Spencer, General, 90, 103.
+
+Spitalfields. See London.
+
+Spithead, 39.
+
+Stafford, Marquis of, afterwards Duke of Sutherland (Gower), 66.
+
+_Standard_, the, newspaper, 250.
+
+Stanley, Edward Geoffrey Smith- (afterwards Lord Stanley, later fourteenth
+      Earl of Derby), 277, 347, 352, 354, 360, 374;
+  chief secretary for Ireland, 280, 281, 294, 313, 315-317, 321;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 322, 323, 325-327, 334;
+  resignation, 345, 346.
+
+Steamboats, 427, 428, 434.
+
+Stephenson, George, 275, 276, 427, 434, 435.
+
+Stewart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stewart, later third Marquis of
+      Londonderry), 146, 212, 228, 296, 356.
+
+Stewart, Dugald, 421.
+
+Stockholm, treaty of, 136.
+
+Stockton on Tees, 435.
+
+Strachan, Sir Richard, admiral, 64.
+
+Stralsund, 43.
+
+Strand Bridge. See London.
+
+Strangford, Viscount (Smythe), 214-216.
+
+Strassburg, 41.
+
+Strikes, 178, 204.
+
+Stroud, 359.
+
+Stuart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stuart de Rothesay), 218.
+
+Stuart, Sir John, 47.
+
+Sturt, Charles, 439.
+
+Subserra, Count of, 222.
+
+Suchet, Marshal, 100, 107, 109, 112, 114, 115, 118, 119.
+
+Suez, 413;
+  canal, 413.
+
+Suffolk, 175 n.
+
+Sugden, Sir Edward (afterwards Lord St. Leonards), 283.
+
+Sumatra, 81.
+
+Sumner, John B., bishop of Chester, 341.
+
+Sunderland, 309, 310.
+
+Surrey, 281.
+
+Sussex, 281.
+
+Sussex (Augustus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Sutlej, river, 403.
+
+Sutton, Charles Manners- (afterwards Sir C. Manners-Sutton, later Viscount
+      Canterbury), speaker, 251, 304, 354.
+
+Sweden, 43, 51-54, 58, 59, 78, 80, 105, 151, 166, 190;
+  third coalition, 37, 38;
+  treaties with Russia and England, 38, 123, 136;
+  declares war on England, 78;
+  ally of Russia, 122, 123, 133, 136;
+  treaty of Abo, 123;
+  treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+  war with France, 136, 137;
+  treaty of Kiel, 142, 143, 189;
+  acquires Norway (convention of Moss), 150.
+
+Swift, Jonathan, 422.
+
+Switzerland (Helvetian republic), 9, 38, 79, 138, 143, 166, 387;
+  civil war, 17;
+  invasion of, 17, 20;
+  revolts, 133.
+
+Sydney, 439.
+
+Syria, 18, 393, 394, 396, 413.
+
+
+Tagus, the, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, 99, 102, 104-106, 221, 388.
+
+Talavera, 93;
+  battle, 98, 99, 101.
+
+Talleyrand, French statesman, 10, 19, 21, 22, 34, 46, 78, 151, 152, 156,
+      379, 382, 387.
+
+"Tamworth manifesto," the, 332, 354, 371.
+
+Tarai, the, 405.
+
+Tarbes, 118.
+
+Tarragona, 112, 114.
+
+Tasmania. See Van Diemen's Land.
+
+Tauroggen, convention of, 125.
+
+Taylor, Sir Herbert, 286.
+
+Telford, Thomas, 275, 434.
+
+Temporalities, Irish Church, act, 321-325.
+
+Tenasserim, 408, 409.
+
+_Tenedos_, the, British frigate, 142.
+
+Tennyson, Alfred (afterwards Lord), 419.
+
+Tennyson, Charles (afterwards Tennyson D'Eyncourt), M.P., 235, 374.
+
+Teplitz, treaty of, 137;
+  conference at, 396.
+
+Terceira, island, 259.
+
+Terneuze, 65.
+
+Test act, 229, 234, 235, 242.
+
+Thagi, 411.
+
+Thames, the, 435.
+
+Thames, river (Canada), 139.
+
+Thermopylae, 268.
+
+Thiers, French statesman, 390, 391.
+
+Thistlewood, Arthur, 192, 193.
+
+Thompson, Charles Poulett (afterwards Lord Sydenham), president of the
+      board of trade, 346, 357.
+
+Ticino, river, 149, 166.
+
+Tierney, George, 26, 28, 86;
+  master of the mint, 228-230.
+
+Tigris, the, 413.
+
+Tihran, 402, 412.
+
+Tilsit, treaty of, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402.
+
+_Times_, the, newspaper, 343, 348, 351, 422.
+
+Timur, 310.
+
+Tipu, 397, 400.
+
+Tithe, agitation against (Ireland), 313-316, 320.
+
+Tithe commutation act, 355, 365, 366.
+
+Tithe commutation bills (Ireland), 347, 348, 365, 372.
+
+Tobago, 9, 11, 149, 167.
+
+Tooke, Horne, 3, 421;
+  act, 3.
+
+Tormes, river, 107.
+
+Toronto, 139.
+
+Torres Vedras, 90, 91, 100-102, 115.
+
+Tortosa, 112.
+
+Toulon, 39.
+
+Toulouse, battle, 109, 118, 119.
+
+Tower of London. See London.
+
+Tractarians. See Oxford movement.
+
+_Tracts for the Times_, 339.
+
+Trades Unions, 204.
+
+Trafalgar, battle, 40, 41.
+
+Traz-os-Montes, province, 255, 257.
+
+Trekroner, the, battery, 4, 5.
+
+Trianon tariff, the, 79.
+
+Trieste, 62, 66, 142.
+
+Trinidad, 9, 151, 167.
+
+Triple alliance, 389.
+
+Tripoli, 394;
+  Bey of, 187, 188.
+
+Tripolitza, 225.
+
+Trondhjem, diocese of, 136.
+
+Troppau, congress of, 211-214, 395, 396.
+
+Trotter, paymaster, 36.
+
+Tudela, battle, 92, 93.
+
+_Tugendbund_, the, 62.
+
+Tuileries, the. See Paris.
+
+Tunis, Dey of, 187, 188.
+
+Turin, 213.
+
+Turkey, 7, 57-59, 122, 188, 269, 387;
+  treaty of Amiens, 13;
+  treaty with France, 14;
+  war with Russia, 52, 57, 77;
+  armistice, 81;
+  treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+  Greek revolt, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-225, 232-234, 259-267, 392;
+  rupture with Russia, 214, 217, 225;
+  war with Russia, 234, 260-267;
+  treaty of Akherman, 260;
+  peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+  treaty and protocol of London, 267;
+  Egyptian revolt, 393, 394;
+  assisted by Russia, 393-396;
+  treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+  treaty of Kiutayeh, 394;
+  Austrian mediation, 395, 396;
+  treaty with Russia, 396;
+  Asiatic Turkey, 310.
+
+Turner, J. M. W., 427.
+
+Tuscany, treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Tyrol, the, 66, 134.
+
+
+Ucles, 96.
+
+Ulm, 42.
+
+Ulster, 270.
+
+Union, act of, 237, 239, 240, 248;
+  movement for repeal, 252, 275, 313, 314, 316, 344.
+
+United States, 56, 58, 83, 131, 157, 190, 216, 223, 257, 312, 337, 438;
+  sale to them of Louisiana, 18;
+  war with England, 82, 85, 126-132, 138, 146, 147;
+  non-intercourse act, 83, 128;
+  treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+  buys Florida, 215;
+  treaty with England, 225.
+
+_United States_, the, American ship, 132.
+
+Universities, 247, 306, 308, 430;--
+  Cambridge, 419, 428-432.
+  Dublin, 274.
+  Durham, 432.
+  Edinburgh, 358.
+  Glasgow, 371.
+  London, 250, 356, 431, 432;
+    King's College, 250, 431;
+    University College, 431, 432.
+  Oxford, 148, 245, 337, 351, 421, 422, 428, 432;
+    Balliol College, 429;
+    New College, 429;
+    Oriel College, 337, 338, 421, 429;
+    St. Alban Hall, 421.
+
+Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 394, 395.
+
+Urfa, 396.
+
+Uruguay (Banda Oriental), 190.
+
+Utrecht, treaty of, 389.
+
+Uxbridge, Earl of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+
+Valencia, 88, 107, 109, 110, 112.
+
+Valladolid, 93, 108, 109.
+
+Vallais, republic of, 79.
+
+Vancouver, Captain, 436.
+
+Vandamme, French general, 137.
+
+Vandeleur, Sir John Ormesby, 164.
+
+Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), 439.
+
+Vansittart, Nicholas (afterwards Lord Bexley), 68, 73;
+  envoy at Copenhagen, 3, 4;
+  chancellor of the exchequer, 81, 82, 86, 173-174, 183, 193, 198;
+  chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 202, 227.
+
+Vellore, 400, 410.
+
+Venaissin, 149.
+
+Vendee, La, 155.
+
+Venetia, 42, 134, 149, 166, 187.
+
+Verdier, General, 88.
+
+Verona, congress of, 199, 216-219, 222, 223, 392.
+
+Victor, Marshal, 96, 98, 102.
+
+Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, 38, 213, 216.
+
+Victoria. See Australia.
+
+Victoria, Princess (afterwards Queen), 70, 185, 274, 281, 375.
+
+_Victory_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Vienna, 42, 63, 80, 134, 189, 191, 254, 259;
+  peace of, 64, 66;
+  congress of, 149, 151-153, 156, 166;
+  secret treaty, 153;
+  treaty of, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 379-381, 388;
+  final act, 189;
+  conference at, 216, 217;
+  proposed conference, 396.
+
+Vigo, 39, 95.
+
+Villafranca, 93, 95.
+
+Villa Real, 389.
+
+Villele, French statesman, 215, 217-219.
+
+Villeneuve, French admiral, 39-41.
+
+Vimeiro, battle, 91.
+
+Vincennes, castle, 34.
+
+Vincent, Colonel, 140.
+
+Vistula, the, 123, 133.
+
+Vitoria, battle, 109-112, 114, 136.
+
+Vivian, Sir Richard H. (afterwards Lord), 164.
+
+Volga, the, 310.
+
+Volhynia, 122.
+
+Volo, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Volunteer consolidation bill, 30.
+
+Vonitza, 266.
+
+
+Wade, General, 434.
+
+Wadsworth, American general, 130.
+
+Wagram, battle, 63, 100.
+
+Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, 440.
+
+Walcheren expedition, the, 62-67, 71, 72, 74, 99, 199.
+
+Wales, 289, 291, 305, 434;
+  amalgamation of English and Welsh benches, 271.
+
+Wales, Caroline, Princess of. See Caroline, queen of George IV.
+
+Wales (George), Prince of. See George IV.
+
+Walker, George T. (afterwards Sir G. T.), 106.
+
+Wallachia, 57, 59, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 395, 396.
+
+Walmoden, Hanoverian general, 137.
+
+Walpole, Sir Robert (afterwards Earl of Orford), 205-208.
+
+Walpole, Lord (afterwards Earl of Orford), 134.
+
+Ward, Henry, M.P., 345, 346.
+
+Ward, John William (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of Dudley), 197, 431;
+  foreign secretary, 227, 231, 260;
+  resignation, 236, 263, 380.
+
+Wardle, Colonel, M.P., 60, 61, 72.
+
+Warsaw, 55, 381, 387, 388;
+  duchy of, 53, 66, 79, 124, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Wartburg festival, 188.
+
+Washington, 130, 146.
+
+_Wasp_, the, American sloop, 132.
+
+Waterford, 237, 242, 250.
+
+Waterloo, battle, 44, 147, 160-166, 230, 415.
+
+Waterloo Bridge. See London.
+
+Watsons, the, father and son, 175, 192.
+
+Watt, James, 435.
+
+Wavre, 159-161, 164.
+
+_Weekly Political Register_, the. See Cobbett.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Arthur (afterwards Duke of Wellington), 61, 151, 152, 156,
+      167, 168, 174, 189, 195, 199, 201, 208, 209, 216-219, 226, 227-229,
+      259, 280, 282, 285, 286, 293, 302-304, 309, 319, 324, 334, 343, 347,
+      350, 361, 362, 371, 372, 392, 397, 431;
+  chief secretary for Ireland, 50;
+  bombardment of Copenhagen, 54;
+  Peninsular war, 60, 71, 76, 90-120, 200;
+  viscount, 71, 99;
+  Vimeiro, 91;
+  commander-in-chief in the Peninsula, 96, 97;
+  Talavera, 98, 99;
+  Bussaco, 101;
+  lines of Torres Vedras, 101, 102;
+  Fuentes d'Onoro, 103;
+  earl, 105;
+  sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, 105, 106;
+  Salamanca, 107;
+  marquis, 108;
+  Vitoria, 110, 111, 136;
+  the Pyrenees, 113;
+  siege of St. Sebastian, 113, 114;
+  Bayonne, 115-117;
+  Toulouse, 118, 119;
+  duke, 151;
+  Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+  Waterloo, 160-165;
+  master-general of the ordnance, 178, 194;
+  first lord of the treasury, 230-232, 234, 236, 243-246, 248-252, 260-263,
+      265-269, 271, 272, 276-278, 376, 377, 379, 380, 388;
+  duel with Winchilsea, 250, 251;
+  provisional administration, 351;
+  foreign secretary, 352, 356, 390;
+  Indian campaign, 398-400;
+  Assaye and Argaum, 399.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Henry (afterwards Lord Cowley), 150.
+
+Wellesley, Richard, marquis, 54, 67, 76, 96, 109, 174, 230, 278, 280, 325;
+  foreign secretary, 68, 76;
+  lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 199, 241, 344, 346;
+  governor-general of Bengal, 397-400, 402-405, 407, 408.
+
+Wellington, Duke of. See Wellesley, Sir Arthur.
+
+Wesel, 138.
+
+Wesley, John, 337.
+
+Westbury, 245.
+
+West Australia. See Australia.
+
+Westminster abbey and hall. See London.
+
+Westmorland, Earl of (Fane), lord privy seal, 1, 50, 82;
+  resignation, 237.
+
+Westphalia, 53, 153;
+  troops, 158.
+
+Wetherell, Sir Charles, 248, 297.
+
+Weymouth, 289, 305, 326.
+
+Wharncliffe, Lord (Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie), 291, 292, 299, 301, 302;
+  lord privy seal, 352.
+
+Whately, Dr., archbishop of Dublin, 317, 421, 422.
+
+Whitbread, Samuel, M.P., 36, 49, 51, 156, 157, 182, 199.
+
+Whiteboys, 320.
+
+White Conduit House. See London.
+
+Whitefeet, 320.
+
+Whitelocke, General, 56, 57.
+
+Whitworth, Lord (afterwards Earl), ambassador extraordinary to France, 19;
+  negotiates with French government, 20-22, 46.
+
+Wilberforce, William, M.P., 15, 48, 195.
+
+Wild, Jonathan, 181.
+
+Wilkes, John, 72, 374, 422.
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 427.
+
+Wilkinson, American general, 141, 146.
+
+William, Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), 208, 249;
+  marriage, 184, 185;
+  lord high admiral, 227;
+  resignation, 243;
+  king, 273, 274, 277, 278, 281-283, 286, 287, 289-294, 296, 297, 299,
+      301-305, 337, 347-352, 354, 356, 357, 363, 368, 371;
+  coronation, 295, 301, 309;
+  death, 375.
+
+William, Prince of Orange, 9-13.
+
+William Frederick, Prince of Orange (afterwards William I., King of the
+      Netherlands), 138, 158, 267, 378, 381, 385.
+
+William, Prince of Orange (afterwards William II., King of the
+      Netherlands), 159, 384.
+
+Wilson, Sir Robert, 125.
+
+Wiltshire, 281.
+
+Winchester, school, 429.
+
+Winchilsea, Earl of (Finch-Hatton), 250, 251.
+
+Winder, American general, 146.
+
+Windham, William, 14, 15, 25, 26, 28, 31, 34, 47, 51;
+  secretary for war and colonies, 45.
+
+Windsor Castle, 70, 375.
+
+_Windsor Castle_, the, British ship, 221.
+
+Wittgenstein, Russian general, 125, 143, 145.
+
+Worcester, bishop of (Carr), 299.
+
+Wordsworth, William, 416.
+
+Wuertemburg, 42, 187, 189.
+
+Wynn, Charles Williams, president of the board of control, 199, 227.
+
+
+Yanzi, gorge, 113.
+
+Yarmouth, Viscount (Ingram-Seymour-Conway), afterwards third Marquis of
+      Hertford, 46.
+
+Yeo, Sir James, captain, 140.
+
+Yorck, Count, 125, 133.
+
+York, 83.
+
+York (Toronto), 139, 140, 146.
+
+York (Frederick), Duke of (son of George III.), 49, 60, 61, 72, 74-76,
+      184 n., 185, 197, 207, 208, 239, 242, 268.
+
+Yorke, Charles Philip, home secretary, 27, 34;
+  first lord of the admiralty, 72, 82;
+  retirement, 81.
+
+Yorkshire, 38, 180, 198, 274, 280, 288, 294, 432, 435.
+
+
+Zadorra, river, 110.
+
+Zaragoza, 88, 96.
+
+Zeman Shah, King of Afghanistan, 397.
+
+Znaim, 64.
+
+Zumalacarregui, Carlist general, 390, 391.
+
+
+                      PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT
+                    THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, ABERDEEN
+
+[Illustration: GREAT BRITAIN
+showing
+PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION
+according to the
+REFORM ACT OF 1832.]
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
+illustrating
+THE PENINSULAR WAR.]
+
+[Illustration: INDIA]
+
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+|                           TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES                           |
+|                                                                         |
+| General: Changes to punctuation have not been individually documented.  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 11: reopen standardised to re-open                                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 13: Shortlived standardised to Short-lived                         |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 42, 187, 189, 466, 486, footnote 66: Spelling of Wuertemberg,      |
+|    Wuertemburg as in original                                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 47, 296: short-sighted standardised to shortsighted               |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 60: heartbreaking standardised to heart-breaking                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 66: Lord Granville Leveson Gower standardised to Leveson-Gower     |
+|    (note that Francis Leveson Gower never has a hyphen in the original  |
+|    version so that is maintained here)                                  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 85: non-conformists standardised to nonconformists                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 94: shortlived standardised to short-lived                         |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 108, 113: rearguard standardised to rear-guard                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 109, 363: Spelling of make-shift, makeshift not standardised as    |
+|    usage differs.                                                       |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 127: flag-ship standardised to flagship                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 176: lifelong standardised to life-long                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 182: it corrected to its after "measure of relief owes"            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 183: bank-notes standardised to banknotes                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 201: But replaced by but at start of page as it is a continuation  |
+|    of the sentence from the previous page.                              |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 252: wofully as in original                                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 260, 481, 484: Spelling of Akkerman, Akherman as in original      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 274: deathblow standardised to death-blow                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 289, 361 and 374: Spelling of rate-paying and ratepaying not      |
+|    standardised as it is used in two different contexts                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 298: ring-leaders standardised to ringleaders                      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 316: tithe proctor standardised to tithe-proctor                   |
+|           beneficies as in original                                     |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 335: house-holders standardised to householders                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 341: outdoor standardised to out-door                              |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 345: tithe proctors standardised to tithe-proctors                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 349: re-assembled standardised to reassembled                      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 362: over-ride standardised to override                            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 393, 403, 475: Spelling of Mahmud and Mahmud not standardised as  |
+|    it is used in two different contexts                                 |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 394: MUNCHENGRATZ standardised to MUeNCHENGRAeTZ                     |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 407, 416, 462: Spelling of Khan and Khan not standardised as it   |
+|    is used in two different contexts                                    |
+|                                                                         |
+| Pages 427, 465: Spelling of Callcott, Calcott as in original            |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 443: Italicisation of "Constitutional History of England from 1760 |
+|    to 1860" corrected                                                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 461: Aetolia standardised to AEtolia                                |
+|           Aegean standardised to AEgean                                  |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 463: In entry Beauharnais, Eugene standardised to Eugene           |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 464: Bridgewater standardised to Bridgwater                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 475: Malhar standardised to Malhar                                 |
+|           In entry Louis Antoine, Angouleme standardised to Angouleme   |
+|           In entry Louis Philippe, Orleans standardised to Orleans      |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 479: Pressgang standardised to Press-gang                          |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 483: ) added to entry for Stewart, Sir Charles, after Londonderry  |
+|           ) added to entry for Switzerland, after republic              |
+|           Thermopylae standardised to Thermopylae                        |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 484: Volgo standardised to Volga                                   |
+|                                                                         |
+| Page 486: Ingram-Seymour Conway corrected to Ingram-Seymour-Conway      |
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #26727 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26727)