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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol XI, by
+George Brodrick and J.K. Fotheringham
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Political History of England - Vol XI
+ From Addington's Administration to the close of William
+ IV.'s Reign (1801-1837)
+
+Author: George Brodrick
+ J.K. Fotheringham
+
+Release Date: September 30, 2008 [EBook #26727]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Paul Murray, Brownfox and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ _THE POLITICAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND_
+
+
+_Seventy-five years have passed since Lingard completed his_ HISTORY OF
+ENGLAND, _which ends with the Revolution of 1688. During that period
+historical study has made a great advance. Year after year the mass of
+materials for a new History of England has increased; new lights have
+been thrown on events and characters, and old errors have been
+corrected. Many notable works have been written on various periods of
+our history; some of them at such length as to appeal almost exclusively
+to professed historical students. It is believed that the time has come
+when the advance which has been made in the knowledge of English history
+as a whole should be laid before the public in a single work of fairly
+adequate size. Such a book should be founded on independent thought and
+research, but should at the same time be written with a full knowledge
+of the works of the best modern historians and with a desire to take
+advantage of their teaching wherever it appears sound._
+
+_The vast number of authorities, printed and in manuscript, on which a
+History of England should be based, if it is to represent the existing
+state of knowledge, renders co-operation almost necessary and certainly
+advisable. The History, of which this volume is an instalment, is an
+attempt to set forth in a readable form the results at present attained
+by research. It will consist of twelve volumes by twelve different
+writers, each of them chosen as being specially capable of dealing with
+the period which he undertakes, and the editors, while leaving to each
+author as free a hand as possible, hope to insure a general similarity
+in method of treatment, so that the twelve volumes may in their
+contents, as well as in their outward appearance, form one History._
+
+_As its title imports, this History will primarily deal with politics,
+with the History of England and, after the date of the union with
+Scotland, Great Britain, as a state or body politic; but as the life of
+a nation is complex, and its condition at any given time cannot be
+understood without taking into account the various forces acting upon
+it, notices of religious matters and of intellectual, social, and
+economic progress will also find place in these volumes. The footnotes
+will, so far as is possible, be confined to references to authorities,
+and references will not be appended to statements which appear to be
+matters of common knowledge and do not call for support. Each volume
+will have an Appendix giving some account of the chief authorities,
+original and secondary, which the author has used. This account will be
+compiled with a view of helping students rather than of making long
+lists of books without any notes as to their contents or value. That the
+History will have faults both of its own and such as will always in some
+measure attend co-operative work, must be expected, but no pains have
+been spared to make it, so far as may be, not wholly unworthy of the
+greatness of its subject._
+
+_Each volume, while forming part of a complete History, will also in
+itself be a separate and complete book, will be sold separately, and
+will have its own index, and two or more maps._
+
+The History is divided as follows:--
+
+Vol. I. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST (to 1066). By
+ Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D., Fellow of University College,
+ London; Fellow of the British Academy. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. II. FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO THE DEATH OF JOHN (1066-1216). By
+ George Burton Adams, D.D., Litt.D., Professor of History in Yale
+ University. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. III. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY III. TO THE DEATH OF EDWARD III.
+ (1216-1377). By T. F. Tout, M.A., Bishop Fraser Professor of
+ Mediæval and Ecclesiastical History in the University of Manchester;
+ formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF RICHARD II. TO THE DEATH OF RICHARD III.
+ (1377-1485). By C. W. C. Oman, M.A., LL.D., M.P., Chichele Professor
+ of Modern History in the University of Oxford; Fellow of the British
+ Academy. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. V. FROM THE ACCESSION OF HENRY VII. TO THE DEATH OF HENRY VIII.
+ (1485-1547). By the Right Hon. H. A. L. Fisher, M.A., M.P.,
+ President of the Board of Education; Fellow of the British Academy.
+ With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VI. FROM THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD VI. TO THE DEATH OF ELIZABETH
+ (1547-1603). By A. F. Pollard, M.A., Litt.D., Fellow of All Souls'
+ College, Oxford, and Professor of English History in the University
+ of London. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. VII. FROM THE ACCESSION OF JAMES I. TO THE RESTORATION (1603-1660).
+ By F. C. Montague, M.A., Astor Professor of History in University
+ College, London; formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. With 3
+ Maps.
+
+Vol. VIII. FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE DEATH OF WILLIAM III.
+ (1660-1702). By Sir Richard Lodge, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Professor
+ of History in the University of Edinburgh; formerly Fellow of
+ Brasenose College, Oxford. With 2 Maps.
+
+Vol. IX. FROM THE ACCESSION OF ANNE TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE II.
+ (1702-1760). By I. S. Leadam, M.A., formerly Fellow of Brasenose
+ College, Oxford. With 8 Maps.
+
+Vol. X. FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. TO THE CLOSE OF PITT'S FIRST
+ ADMINISTRATION (1760-1801). By the Rev. William Hunt, M.A., D.Litt.,
+ Trinity College, Oxford. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XI. FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S
+ REIGN (1801-1837). By the Hon. George C. Brodrick, D.C.L., late
+ Warden of Merton College, Oxford, and J. K. Fotheringham, M.A.,
+ D.Litt., Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford; Lecturer in Ancient
+ History at King's College, London. With 3 Maps.
+
+Vol. XII. THE REIGN OF QUEEN VICTORIA (1837-1901). By Sir Sidney Low,
+ M.A., Fellow of King's College, London; formerly Scholar of Balliol
+ College, Oxford, and Lloyd C. Sanders, B.A. With 3 Maps.
+
+
+
+
+ The Political History of England
+
+ IN TWELVE VOLUMES
+
+ EDITED BY WILLIAM HUNT, D.LITT., AND
+ REGINALD L. POOLE, M.A.
+
+
+
+
+ XI.
+
+ THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND
+
+ FROM ADDINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION TO
+
+ THE CLOSE OF WILLIAM IV.'S REIGN
+
+ 1801-1837
+
+
+
+
+ BY THE
+
+ HON. GEORGE C. BRODRICK, D.C.L.
+
+ LATE WARDEN OF MERTON COLLEGE, OXFORD
+
+ COMPLETED AND REVISED BY
+
+ J. K. FOTHERINGHAM, M.A., D.LITT.
+
+ FELLOW OF MAGDALEN COLLEGE, OXFORD; LECTURER IN
+ ANCIENT HISTORY AT KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON
+
+
+ _NEW IMPRESSION_
+
+
+ LONGMANS, GREEN AND CO.
+
+ 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
+
+ FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK
+
+ BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MADRAS
+
+ 1919
+
+
+
+
+_NOTE._
+
+
+_When the late Warden of Merton undertook the preparation of this volume
+he invited the assistance of Dr. Fotheringham in the portions dealing
+with foreign affairs. At the time of the late Warden's death in 1903
+three chapters (x., xii. and xviii.) were unwritten, and one (xx.) was
+left incomplete. It was also found that the volume had to be recast in
+order to meet the plan of the series. The necessary alterations and
+additions have been made by Dr. Fotheringham, who has been scrupulous in
+retaining the expression of the late Warden's views, and, where
+possible, his words._
+
+
+
+
+ CONTENTS.
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+
+ ADDINGTON.
+ PAGE
+
+ Mar., 1801. The new ministry 1
+ Condition of Ireland 2
+ Expedition to Copenhagen 3
+ Sept. Egypt evacuated by the French 6
+ French diplomatic successes 6
+ Bonaparte's concordat with the pope 7
+ Peace negotiations with France 8
+ Cornwallis at Amiens 10
+25 Mar., 1802. The treaty of Amiens 12
+ Parliamentary criticism of the treaty 14
+ July. General election 15
+ Nov. Colonel Despard's conspiracy 16
+ Further aggressions of Napoleon 17
+ His colonial policy 18
+ Negotiations between Whitworth and the French government 19
+ 18 May, 1803. Renewal of the war with France 22
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+23 July, 1803. Emmet's rebellion 23
+ Pitt's discontent with the ministry 24
+ Ministerial changes 27
+ Jan., 1804. The king's illness 29
+ April. Addington's resignation 31
+ The exclusion of Fox 32
+ 18 May. Napoleon declared emperor 33
+ Pitt's ministry 34
+ The impeachment of Melville 36
+ July. The third coalition 37
+ Nelson's pursuit of Villeneuve 39
+21 Oct., 1805. The battle of Trafalgar 40
+ Napoleon marches into Germany 41
+ Dec. Austerlitz: the peace of Pressburg 42
+ Collapse of the coalition 43
+23 Jan., 1806. Death of Pitt 43
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+ Feb., 1806. Formation of the Grenville ministry 45
+ 13 Sept. Death of Fox 46
+ 14 Oct. Jena and Auerstädt 47
+ General election 48
+25 Mar., 1807. Abolition of the slave trade 48
+ Fall of the whig government 49
+ The Portland administration 50
+ General election 50
+ 7 July. The treaty of Tilsit 52
+ Seizure of the Danish fleet 54
+ The "continental system" and orders in council 55
+ Fruitless expeditions 56
+ 12 Oct. Conference of Erfurt 59
+ Army scandals 60
+ The Wagram campaign 63
+ July, 1809. The Walcheren expedition 64
+ 21 Sept. Duel between Canning and Castlereagh 67
+ Oct. Perceval's administration 68
+ Capture of the Ionian Isles and Bourbon 69
+ 25. Jubilee of George III. 69
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+ Jan., 1810. Debates on the Walcheren expedition 71
+ April. The arrest of Burdett 72
+ Appointment of the "Bullion committee" 73
+ The king's insanity: regency bill 74
+ 11 May, 1812. Assassination of Perceval 76
+ 1809-11. Social reforms in his ministry 77
+ July, 1810. Deposition of Louis Bonaparte 78
+ Opposition in Europe to the continental system 78
+ Alliances formed by Russia and France 81
+ Conquest of Java and Sumatra 81
+ June, 1812. The formation of Liverpool's cabinet 81
+ 1811-12. Distress in town and country 83
+ Oct., 1812. General election 85
+ 1813. Confirmation of the East India Company's charter 86
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+ 1807, 1808. The origin of the war 87
+ Charles IV. and Ferdinand VII. seek the
+ protection of Napoleon 87
+ 1808. Napoleon's plans for the conquest of Spain 88
+ 24 July. Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King of Spain 89
+ 13 Aug. Landing of Wellesley 90
+ 21. Battle of Vimeiro 91
+Oct., 1808.- Expedition of Sir John Moore 92
+ Jan., 1809.
+ 16 Jan. Battle of Coruña 95
+ Wellesley returns to Portugal 97
+ 27 July. Battle of Talavera 98
+ Sept., 1810. Bussaco: the lines of Torres Vedras 101
+ Struggle for the frontier fortresses 103
+ 16 May, 1811. Battle of Albuera 103
+Jan.-April, Sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz 105
+ 1812.
+ 22 July. Battle of Salamanca 107
+ 1812, 1813. Wellington reorganises the Spanish and Portuguese armies 109
+21 June, 1813. Battle of Vitoria 110
+ Battle of the Pyrenees 113
+ Siege of St. Sebastian 113
+ 8 Oct. Wellington crosses the Bidassoa 115
+ Battles round Bayonne 115
+ Feb., 1814. The investment of Bayonne 117
+ 10 April. Battle of Toulouse 119
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+ 1812. French treaties with Prussia and Austria 122
+ Alliances made by Russia 123
+ June. Napoleon's advance into Russia 124
+ His retreat 125
+ War between England and the United States 126
+ Attacks on Canada 129
+ American successes at sea 131
+ Feb., 1813. Treaty of Kalisch 134
+ Austrian diplomacy 135
+ 2, 21 May. Lützen and Bautzen 135
+ Aug., Oct. Dresden and Leipzig 137
+ France loses Saxony, Holland, and Switzerland 138
+ American war continued 138
+ 1 June. Duel of the _Shannon_ and _Chesapeake_ 142
+Jan.-Mar., Campaign in France 143
+ 1814.
+ April. Napoleon deposed: Louis XVIII. recalled 145
+ 24 Dec. Treaty of Ghent 147
+ July. Visit of Alexander and Frederick William to England 148
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+30 May, 1814. The first treaty of Paris 149
+ English blockade of Norwegian ports 150
+ Union of Sweden and Norway 150
+ Restoration of Ferdinand VII. and Pius VII. 150
+ Attempts to abolish the slave trade 151
+Sept., 1814- Congress of Vienna 152
+ June, 1815.
+ 3 Jan., 1815. Secret treaty between England, France, and Austria 153
+ 1 March. Napoleon's return from Elba 153
+ Flight of Louis XVIII.: the _Acte Additionnel_ 155
+ Plans of the allies 156
+ Defeat and death of Murat 157
+ June. Wellington at Brussels: his army 158
+ 16. Ligny and Quatre Bras 159
+ 18. Waterloo 160
+ July. Paris occupied by the allies 163
+ 22 June. Second abdication of Napoleon 165
+ His surrender to England 165
+ Restoration of Louis XVIII.: treaty of Vienna 166
+ Resettlement of Europe 166
+ 20 Nov. Second treaty of Paris: English gains 167
+ 26 Sept. The Holy Alliance 168
+ Napoleon at St. Helena 169
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+ 1816. Depression and discontent 171
+ Vansittart's financial policy 173
+ Union of British and Irish exchequers 174
+ 2 Dec., 1816. Spa Fields riot 175
+ Prosecution of Hone 177
+ 1818. General election 178
+16 Aug., 1819. The "Manchester massacre" 178
+ Dec. The six acts 180
+ 1817, 1819. Institution of savings banks: currency reform 182
+ 6 Nov., 1817. Death of Princess Charlotte 184
+ 1818. Royal marriages 184
+29 Jan., 1820. Death of George III. 185
+ Royalist reaction in Europe 187
+ 1816. Expedition against the Barbary states 187
+ 1819. Murder of Kotzebue 189
+30 Sept., Conference of Aix-la-Chapelle 189
+ 1818.
+ Spain asks for assistance from the allies 190
+ The European alliance 190
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX.
+
+ THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+ 1820. The Cato Street conspiracy 192
+ Dissolution of parliament 193
+ The "queen's trial" 194
+ 7 Aug., 1821. Her death 196
+ 1822. Changes in the cabinet 199
+ 12 Aug. Death of Castlereagh 199
+ Sept. Canning foreign secretary 200
+ Jan. Peel home secretary 201
+ 1823. Reform of the navigation laws 202
+ Agricultural discontent 203
+ 1825. Speculative frenzy and financial panic 205
+ 1823-26. Robinson's finance 206
+ General election of 1826 207
+ Close of Liverpool's ministry 208
+
+
+ CHAPTER X.
+
+ PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+ 1820. Revolution in Spain: policy of non-intervention 210
+ July, Aug. Revolutions in the Two Sicilies and Portugal 211
+ 20 Oct. Congress of Troppau 211
+ Jan., 1821. Congress of Laibach 212
+ Mar., April. Revolution in Piedmont: Austrian intervention 213
+ Insurrections in the Morea and Central Greece 214
+ Aug. "Sanitary cordon" 215
+ Ultra-royalist parties in France and Spain 215
+ Loss of Spanish colonies in America 215
+ 1822. Conference at Vienna 216
+ 20 Oct. Congress of Verona 217
+ Offer of mediation declined 218
+7 April, 1823. War between France and Spain 220
+12 Oct., 1822. Independence of Brazil 221
+ July, 1825. Conference at London 222
+ 2 Dec., 1823. The Monroe doctrine 223
+ 1824-25. Conference at St. Petersburg 224
+ 1 Dec., 1825. Death of the Tsar Alexander I. 225
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI.
+
+ TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+ April, 1827. Formation of Canning's ministry 227
+ Additions to the ministry 228
+ 8 Aug. Death of Canning 228
+ Sept. Goderich's cabinet 229
+ Dissensions: resignation of Goderich 230
+ 9 Jan., 1828. Wellington accepts office 230
+ The Eastern question 232
+20 Oct., 1827. Navarino 233
+ 1828. Repeal of the test and corporation acts 235
+ May, June. Changes in the ministry 236
+ June, July. The Clare election 237
+ 1821. Measures for catholic relief 239
+ 1825. Further measures 241
+ George IV.'s opposition to catholic relief 244
+ 1829. Wellington and Peel adopt catholic relief 245
+ Mar., April. Debates on the bill 246
+ 13 April. The royal assent 249
+ 21 Mar. Duel between Wellington and Winchilsea 250
+ Exclusion of O'Connell from Parliament 251
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII.
+
+ PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+10 Mar., 1826. Death of John VI. of Portugal 253
+ 2 May. Peter abdicates in favour of his daughter Maria 254
+ 31 July. Miguel proclaimed king by the absolutists 254
+ Dec. England sends troops to help the Portuguese government 255
+ 3 Mar., 1828. Peter appoints Miguel regent for Maria 258
+ Dec., 1827. The sultan defies Russia 260
+26 April, Russia makes war on the Turks 263
+ 1828.
+ Negotiations for settlement of Greek question 264
+ Oct., Nov. French troops expel the Turks from the Morea 265
+ Terms of settlement agreed on at Poros and London 266
+14 Sept., Peace of Adrianople 267
+ 1829.
+ 3 Feb., 1830. Greece independent: throne offered to Prince Leopold 268
+ France conquers Algiers 269
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+ 1830. Amalgamation of English and Welsh benches 271
+ Motions for reform 271
+ 26 June. Death of George IV. 272
+ General election 274
+ 15 Sept. Death of Huskisson 275
+ Wellington's opposition to reform 277
+ Fall of his ministry 278
+ Nov. Grey accepts office 278
+ His cabinet 279
+ The regency bill 281
+ Feb., 1831. Althorp's first budget 283
+ Public demand for reform 285
+ Draft of the first reform bill 287
+ System of representation in the unreformed house 288
+ Popular excitement: second reading of the bill 291
+ Dissolution of parliament 292
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ THE REFORM.
+
+ 1831. General election 293
+ 24 June. Second reform bill introduced 294
+ 8 Oct. Rejection by the lords 296
+ Reform bill riots 296
+ Attempts at compromise in the lords 299
+ 12 Dec. Final reform bill introduced 300
+ Gradual loss of the king's confidence in the ministry 302
+ 9 May, 1832. Grey resigns 302
+ Wellington unable to form a ministry 303
+ The king recalls Grey 304
+ 4 June. Third reading of the bill 304
+ Scotch and Irish reform bills carried 306
+ 26 Oct. The cholera epidemic 309
+ 1831. The census 311
+ State of Ireland 312
+ O'Connell's agitation 312
+ The "tithe-war" in Ireland 314
+ Legislation for Ireland 316
+ The Kildare Place Society 317
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV.
+
+ FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+ 1832. General election 318
+ 1833. Irish coercion bill 320
+ Irish Church temporalities bill 322
+ Ministerial changes 325
+ Abolition of colonial slavery 326
+ Factory acts 327
+ The East India Company act 328
+ Bank charter act 330
+ Formation of judicial committee of the privy council 332
+ Act for the abolition of fines and recoveries 333
+1831, 1832, Althorp's budgets 334
+ 1833.
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+ 1833. The Tractarian movement 336
+ 1832. First meeting of the British Association 338
+ Foundation of the Catholic Apostolic Church 339
+ 1834. The "new poor law" 340
+ Creation of a central poor law board 343
+ Ministerial discord 344
+ 9 July. Grey's resignation 346
+ Formation of Melbourne's ministry 347
+ 16 Oct. Destruction of the houses of parliament 349
+ 14 Nov. Melbourne's resignation 350
+ Wellington's provisional government 351
+ Dec. Peel's cabinet 352
+ The Tamworth manifesto 353
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII.
+
+ PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+ Jan., 1835. General election 354
+ Feb. Abercromby elected speaker 354
+ The "Lichfield House compact" 356
+ April. Peel's resignation 356
+ Melbourne's second ministry 357
+ Exclusion of Brougham 357
+ Municipal corporations act 360
+ Jan., 1836. Cottenham lord chancellor 363
+ Conflict with the lords on Irish bills 365
+ Tithe commutation act (English) 365
+ Reformed marriage law 366
+ Registration system 366
+ 1835, 1836. Crusade against Orange lodges 367
+ 1836. The paper duties lowered 369
+ Committee on agricultural distress 370
+ 1836, 1837. Agitation in Ireland 371
+ 1837. Irish municipal bill 372
+ Church rates 373
+ Burdett secedes from the whig party 374
+ 20 June. Death of William IV. 375
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+ FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+ July, 1830. The revolution of July 376
+ Recognition of Louis Philippe by the Powers 377
+ Sept. Belgian provinces in revolt 379
+ 20 Dec. Protocol of London 381
+ June, 1831. Election of Leopold as King of the Belgians 383
+ Aug. War between Belgium and Holland 384
+ French troops enter Belgium 384
+ Nov. British and French fleets blockade the Scheldt 386
+ Nov., 1833. Convention between Holland and Belgium 387
+ 1830. Insurrections in Switzerland, Poland, Italy, etc. 387
+ 1831, 1832. Capture of Warsaw; Polish constitution abolished 388
+7 April, 1831. Peter leaves Brazil for Portugal 388
+ Carlist rebellion in Spain 389
+22 April, The quadruple alliance 389
+ 1834.
+ 26 May. Miguel renounces his claims 390
+ 9 Oct., 1831. Capodistrias (Greek president) assassinated 392
+ 1832. Otto of Bavaria becomes King of Greece 392
+ 1831. War between Ibrahim and the Sultan 393
+ 1833. Treaties of Kiutayeh and Unkiar Skelessi 394
+ 8 Sept. Secret convention at Münchengrätz 395
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIX.
+
+ BRITISH INDIA.
+
+ 1801. Annexation of the Karnátik 397
+ 1803. Assaye and Argáum 399
+ 1805. Resignation of Lord Wellesley 399
+10 July, 1806. Mutiny at Vellore 400
+ Lord Minto's pacific policy 401
+ 1801-10. Treaties with Persia 402
+ Elphinstone in Afghánistán 403
+ 1813. Lord Moira appointed governor-general 404
+ The Pindárí war 405
+ 1818. Subjugation of the Pindárís 407
+ First Burmese war 408
+ Abolition of satí 410
+ Extirpation of thagí 411
+ Defence of Herat 412
+ Communication with India 413
+ Burnes's mission to Kábul 413
+
+
+ CHAPTER XX.
+
+ LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+ The "Lake school" 416
+ Scott's novels 418
+ Minor poets: philosophical works 420
+ Newspapers and reviews 422
+ Essayists and historians 425
+ The arts: painting, sculpture 427
+ Scientific discoveries 428
+ University reform 429
+ Formation of London University 431
+ Improvements in agriculture 433
+ Steam navigation 434
+ The first railways 435
+ Geographical discovery 436
+ Philanthropy 436
+ Canada 437
+ South Africa 438
+ Convict settlements in Australia 438
+ Development of Australia 439
+
+
+APPENDIX I. On Authorities 443
+ II. Administrations, 1801-37 451
+
+
+ MAPS.
+
+ (AT THE END OF THE VOLUME.)
+
+1. Great Britain, showing the parliamentary representation after the
+ reform.
+2. Spain and Portugal, illustrating the Peninsular war.
+3. India.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER I.
+
+ ADDINGTON.
+
+
+When, early in March, 1801, Pitt resigned office, he was succeeded by
+Henry Addington, who had been speaker of the house of commons for over
+eleven years, and who now received the seals of office as first lord of
+the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer on March 14, 1801. He was
+able to retain the services of the Duke of Portland as home secretary,
+of Lord Chatham as president of the council, and of Lord Westmorland as
+lord privy seal. For the rest, his colleagues were, like himself, new to
+cabinet rank. Lord Hawkesbury (afterwards the second Earl of Liverpool)
+became foreign secretary, and Lord Hobart, son of the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire, secretary for war. Loughborough reaped the due reward
+of his treachery by being excluded from the ministry altogether; with a
+curious obstinacy he persisted in attending cabinet councils, until a
+letter from Addington informed him that his presence was not desired. He
+received some small consolation, however, in his elevation to the
+Earldom of Rosslyn. Lord Eldon was the new chancellor and was destined
+to hold the office uninterruptedly, except for the brief ministry of Fox
+and Grenville, till 1827. Lord St. Vincent became first lord of the
+admiralty, and Lord Lewisham president of the board of control.
+Cornwallis had resigned with Pitt, but it was not till June 16 that a
+successor was found for him as master general of the ordnance. It was
+then arranged that Chatham should take this office. Portland succeeded
+Chatham as lord president, and Lord Pelham, whose father had just been
+created Earl of Chichester, became home secretary instead of Portland.
+An important change was introduced into the distribution of work between
+the different secretaries of state, the administration of colonial
+affairs being transferred from the home to the war office, so that
+Hobart and his successors down to 1854 were known as secretaries of
+state for war and the colonies. Soon afterwards Lewisham succeeded his
+father as Earl of Dartmouth.
+
+Though the Addington ministry has, not without justice, been derided for
+its weakness as compared with its immediate predecessor, it is
+interesting to observe that in it one of the greatest of English judges
+as well as a future premier, destined to display an unique power of
+holding his party together, first attained to cabinet rank; and in the
+following year it was reinforced by Castlereagh, who disputes with
+Canning the honour of being regarded as the ablest statesman of what was
+then the younger generation. The weakness of the ministry must therefore
+be attributed to a lack of experience rather than a lack of talent. It
+was unfortunate in succeeding a particularly strong administration, but
+is well able to bear comparison with most of the later ministries of
+George III. Addington himself was in more thorough sympathy with the
+king than any premier before or after. Conversation with Addington was,
+according to the king, like "thinking aloud"; and with a king who, like
+George III., still regarded himself as responsible for the national
+policy, hearty co-operation between king and premier was a matter of no
+slight importance.
+
+In the early days of the new administration Pitt loyally kept his
+promise of friendly support, and it is to be deplored that Grenville and
+Canning did not adopt the same course. While the issue of peace and war
+was pending, domestic legislation inevitably remained in abeyance. In
+Ireland serious disappointment had been caused by the abandonment of
+catholic emancipation; but the disappointment was borne quietly, and the
+Irish Roman catholics doubtless did not foresee to what a distance of
+time the removal of their disabilities had been postponed. The just and
+mild rule of the new lord lieutenant, Lord Hardwicke, contributed to the
+pacification of the country. But in reality the conduct of the movement
+for emancipation was only passing into new hands; when it reappeared it
+was no longer led by catholic lords and bishops, but was a peasant
+movement, headed by the unscrupulous demagogue O'Connell. In these
+circumstances it is to be regretted that the new administration
+neglected to carry that one of the half-promised concessions to the
+catholics which could not offend the king's conscience, namely, the
+commutation of tithe. Nothing in the protestant ascendency was so
+irritating to the catholic peasantry as the necessity of paying tithe to
+a protestant clergy, and its commutation, while benefiting the clergy
+themselves, would have removed the occasion of subsequent agitation. The
+spirit of disloyalty, however, was believed to be by no means extinct
+either in Ireland or in Great Britain, and two stringent acts were
+passed to repress it. The first, for the continuance of martial law in
+Ireland, was supported by almost all the Irish speakers in the house of
+commons, where it was carried without a division, and was adopted in the
+house of lords by an overwhelming majority, after an impressive speech
+from Lord Clare. The second, for the suspension of the _habeas corpus_
+act in the whole United Kingdom was framed to remain in force "during
+the continuance of the war, and for one month after the signing of a
+definitive treaty of peace".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE HORNE TOOKE ACT._]
+
+The only other measure of permanent interest which became law in this
+session was the so-called "Horne Tooke act," occasioned by the return of
+Horne Tooke, who was in holy orders, for Old Sarum. Such a return was
+contrary to custom, but the precedents collected by a committee of the
+house of commons were inconclusive. It was accordingly enacted that in
+future clergymen of the established churches should be ineligible for
+seats in parliament, while Horne Tooke was deemed to have been validly
+elected, and retained his seat. The house of commons found time,
+however, for an important and well-sustained debate on India, in which
+among others Dundas, now no longer in office, showed a thorough
+knowledge of questions affecting Indian finance and trade.
+
+The naval expedition which had been prepared in the last days of Pitt's
+administration sailed for Copenhagen on March 12, 1801, under Sir Hyde
+Parker, with Nelson as second in command. The admiral in chief was of a
+cautious temper, but was wise enough to allow himself to be guided by
+Nelson's judgment when planning an engagement, though not as to the
+general course of the expedition. The fleet consisted of sixteen ships
+of the line and thirty-four smaller vessels; all these with the
+exception of one ship of the line reached the Skaw on the 18th. A
+frigate was sent in advance with instructions to Vansittart, the
+British envoy at Copenhagen, to present an ultimatum to the Danish
+government,[1] demanding a favourable answer to the British demands
+within forty-eight hours. For three days Parker waited at anchor
+eighteen miles from Elsinore, and it was only when Vansittart brought an
+unfavourable reply on the 23rd that he took Nelson into his counsels. He
+readily adopted Nelson's plan of ignoring the Danish batteries at
+Kronborg and making a circuit so as to attack Copenhagen at the weak
+southern end of its defences, but set aside his project of masking
+Copenhagen and making straight for a Russian squadron of twelve ships of
+the line which was lying icebound at Revel. The fair weather of the 26th
+was wasted in irresolution, and it was not till the 30th that the fleet
+was able to weigh anchor. It passed Kronborg in safety and anchored five
+miles north of Copenhagen.
+
+Parker placed under Nelson's immediate command twelve ships of the line
+and twenty-one smaller vessels, by far the greater part of the British
+fleet. With these he was to pass to the east of a shoal called the
+Middle Ground and attack the defences of Copenhagen from the south,
+while Parker with the remainder of the fleet was to make a demonstration
+against the more formidable northern defences. The wind could not of
+course favour both attacks simultaneously, and it was agreed that the
+attack should be made when the wind favoured Nelson. The nights of the
+30th and 31st were spent in reconnoitring and laying buoys. On April 1 a
+north wind brought Nelson's squadron past the Middle Ground, and on the
+next day a south wind enabled him to attack the Danish fleet, if fleet
+it may be called. At the north end of the Danish position stood the only
+permanent battery, the Trekroner, with two hulks or blockships; the rest
+consisted of seven blockships and eleven floating batteries, drawn up
+along the shore. An attack on the south end of the line was also exposed
+to batteries on the island of Amager. Nelson's intention was to close
+with the whole Danish fleet, but three of his ships of the line were
+stranded and he was obliged to leave the assault on the northern end
+entirely to lighter vessels.
+
+[Pageheading: _BATTLE OF THE BALTIC._]
+
+The Danish batteries proved more powerful than had been anticipated, and
+as time went on and the Danish resistance did not appear to lose in
+strength, Parker grew doubtful of the result of the battle and gave the
+order to cease action. The order was apparently not intended to be
+imperative, but it had the effect of inducing Riou, who commanded the
+frigate squadron, to sail away to the north. For the rest of the fleet
+obedience was out of the question. Nelson acknowledged, but refused to
+repeat the order, and, jocularly placing his glass to his blind eye,
+declared that he could not see the signal. At length the British
+cannonade told. Fischer, the Danish commander, had had to shift his flag
+twice, at the second time to the Trekroner, and all the ships south of
+that battery had either ceased fire or were practically helpless. The
+Trekroner, however, was still unsubdued and rendered it impossible for
+Nelson's squadron to retire, in the only direction which the wind would
+allow, without severe loss. He accordingly sent a message to the Danish
+Prince Regent, declaring that he would be compelled to burn the
+batteries he had taken, without saving their crews, unless firing
+ceased. If a truce were arranged until he could take his prisoners out
+of the prizes, he was prepared to land the wounded Danes, and burn or
+remove the prizes. A truce for twenty-four hours was accordingly
+arranged, which Nelson employed to remove his own fleet unmolested.
+
+The destruction of the southern batteries left Copenhagen exposed to
+bombardment, and the Danes, unable to resist, yet afraid to offend the
+tsar by submission, prolonged the time from day to day till news arrived
+which removed all occasion for hostility. Unknown to either of the
+combatants, the Tsar Paul, the life and soul of the northern
+confederacy, had been murdered on the night of March 23, ten days before
+the battle, and with his death the league was practically dissolved.
+When Nelson advanced further into the Baltic, he found no hostile fleet
+awaiting him, and the new tsar, Alexander, adopting an opposite policy,
+entered into a compromise on the subject of maritime rights. The battle
+of the Baltic is considered by some to have been Nelson's masterpiece.
+It won for him the title of viscount and for his second in command,
+Rear-Admiral Graves, the gift of the ribbon of the Bath, but the
+admiralty, for official reasons, declined to confer any public reward
+or honour on the officers concerned in it.
+
+At the same time, the French occupation of Egypt was drawing towards its
+inevitable close. Kléber, who was left in command by Bonaparte, perished
+by the hand of an assassin, and Menou, who succeeded to the command, was
+not only a weak general, but was prevented from receiving any
+reinforcements by the naval supremacy of Great Britain in the
+Mediterranean. On March 21, 1801, the French army was defeated at the
+battle of Alexandria by the British force sent out under Sir Ralph
+Abercromby, who was himself mortally wounded on the field. His
+successor, General Hutchinson, completed his work by taking Cairo,
+before the arrival of General Baird, who had led a mixed body of British
+soldiers and sepoys from the Red Sea across the desert to the Nile. The
+capitulation of Alexandria soon followed. In September the French
+evacuated Egypt, the remains of their army were conveyed to France in
+English ships, and Bonaparte's long-cherished dreams of eastern conquest
+faded away for ever--not from his own imagination, but from the
+calculations of practical statesmanship.
+
+French arms, and French diplomacy supported by armed force, were more
+successful elsewhere. The treaty of Lunéville was only the first of a
+series of treaties, by which France secured to herself a political
+position commensurate with her military glory. By the treaty of Aranjuez
+between France and Spain, signed on March 21, Spain ceded Louisiana to
+France, reserving the right of pre-emption, and undertook to wage war on
+Portugal in order to detach it from the British alliance. Spain and
+Portugal were both lukewarm in this war, and on June 6 signed the treaty
+of Badajoz, by which Portugal agreed to close her ports to England, to
+pay an indemnity to Spain, and to cede the small district of Olivenza,
+south of Badajoz. Bonaparte was intensely irritated by this treaty,
+which deprived him of the hope of exchanging conquests in Portugal for
+British colonial conquests in any future negotiations; he declared that
+Spain would have to pay by the sacrifice of her colonies for the
+conquered French colonies which he still hoped to recover. A French army
+was despatched to Portugal and enabled Bonaparte to dictate the treaty
+of Madrid, signed on September 29, whereby Portugal ceded half Guiana to
+France and undertook, as at Badajoz, to close her ports against
+England.
+
+[Pageheading: _INFLUENCES MAKING FOR PEACE._]
+
+This last condition was equally imposed on the King of the Two Sicilies
+by the treaty of Florence, concluded on March 28, and before the end of
+the year France had established friendly relations with the Sultan of
+Turkey and the new Tsar of Russia. More important still, as
+consolidating Bonaparte's power at home, was the concordat signed by him
+and the pope on July 15 recognising Roman Catholicism as the religion of
+the majority of Frenchmen, and of the consuls, guaranteeing stipends,
+though on an abjectly mean scale, to the clergy, and placing the entire
+patronage of the French Church in the hands of the first consul. Never
+since the French revolution had the Church been thus acknowledged as the
+auxiliary, or rather as the handmaid, of the state, and probably no one
+but the first consul could have brought about the reconciliation. After
+such exertions, even he may have sincerely desired an honourable peace,
+as the crown of his victories, or at least as a breathing time, to
+enable him to mature his vast designs for reorganising France. Perhaps
+he did not yet fully recognise that war was a necessity of his political
+ascendency, no less than of his own personal character. The French
+people still clung to republican institutions; and the consulate was a
+nominal republic, with all effective power vested in the first consul.
+Time was to show how largely this unique position depended on his unique
+capacity of conducting wars glorious to French arms; for the present,
+France was satisfied, and longed for peace.
+
+The English ministry, too, was impelled by strong motives to enter upon
+the negotiations which resulted in the peace of Amiens. Not only was
+Great Britain crippled by the loss of nearly all her allies, but the
+high price of bread had roused grave disaffection,[2] and intensified
+among British merchants a desire for an unmolested extension of
+commerce; above all, English statesmen now recognised the consulate,
+under Bonaparte, as the first stable and non-revolutionary government
+since the fall of the French monarchy. Both countries, therefore, were
+predisposed to entertain pacific overtures, but the very fact that these
+were in contemplation stirred both sides to further endeavours in order
+to secure better terms of peace. A French squadron, commanded by Admiral
+Linois and containing three ships of the line besides smaller boats, was
+making a movement for the Straits of Gibraltar in order to strengthen
+the force at Cadiz. Sir James Saumarez with five ships of the line and
+two smaller vessels engaged Linois off Algeciras on July 5, but the
+French ships were supported by the land batteries, and one of the
+British ships, the _Hannibal_ (74), ran aground, and Saumarez was
+eventually compelled to leave her in the hands of the enemy. This
+victory was hailed with delight throughout France, but it was fully
+retrieved a week later. The French squadron had in the meantime been
+reinforced by one French and five Spanish ships of the line, and on the
+12th it made a fresh attempt to reach Cadiz; it was, however, engaged in
+the Straits by Saumarez with five ships of the line. In the ensuing
+battle two Spanish ships blew up, and the French _Saint Antoine_ was
+captured. The remainder succeeded in reaching Cadiz, but Saumarez was
+able to resume the blockade a few weeks later.
+
+Meanwhile there was no relaxation of French preparations for an invasion
+of England, or of naval activity on the part of Great Britain. No sooner
+had Nelson returned from the Baltic than he was, on July 24, placed in
+command of a "squadron on a particular service," charged with the
+defence of the coast from Beachy Head to Orfordness. With this he not
+only blockaded the northern French ports, but assumed the aggressive,
+and bombarded the vessels therein collected. A more daring attempt to
+cut out the flotilla moored at Boulogne by a boat attack was repelled
+with some loss on the night of August 15. But couriers under flags of
+truce were already passing between London and Paris, and hostilities
+ceased in the autumn of the year 1801.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE QUESTION OF MALTA._]
+
+The history of the negotiations which ended in the peace of Amiens
+derives a special interest from the events which followed it. The
+earliest overtures for peace were made by Hawkesbury on March 21, 1801.
+At first Bonaparte refused to listen to them, but the destruction of the
+northern confederacy inclined him to more pacific counsels. On April 14
+the British government stated its demands. They mark a distinct advance
+on those which had been made in vain at Lille in 1797. France was to
+evacuate Egypt, and Great Britain Minorca, but Great Britain claimed to
+retain Malta, Tobago, Martinique, Trinidad, Essequibo, Demerara,
+Berbice, and Ceylon. She was willing to surrender the Cape of Good Hope
+on condition that it became a free port, and stipulated that an
+indemnity should be provided for the Prince of Orange. At the outset,
+Bonaparte opposed all cessions by France and her allies, but the steady
+improvement in the fortunes of England in the north and in Egypt at last
+determined him to grant some of the British demands, and as the
+evacuation of Egypt became inevitable, he was resolved to gain something
+in exchange for it before it was too late. The preliminary treaty was
+accordingly signed by Bonaparte's agent Otto on behalf of France and
+Hawkesbury on behalf of Great Britain on October 1, the day before the
+news of the French capitulation in Egypt reached England. Great Britain
+had already consented to relinquish Malta, provided that it became
+independent. She now consented to relinquish all her conquests from
+France, and with the exception of Ceylon and Trinidad all her conquests
+from the French allies, requiring, however, that the Cape should be
+recognised as a free port. The French were to evacuate not only Egypt,
+but the Neapolitan and Roman States. Malta was to be restored to the
+knights of St. John under the guarantee of a third power. Prisoners of
+war were to be released on payment of their debts, and the question of
+the charge for their maintenance was to be settled by the definitive
+treaty in accordance with the law of nations and established usage.
+
+No mention was made of the Prince of Orange, but Otto gave a verbal
+assurance that provision would be made to satisfy his claims. He also
+gave the British government to understand that France would be willing
+to cede Tobago in consideration of the expenses incurred in the
+maintenance of French and Dutch prisoners. The omission of all reference
+to the continental relations of France is conspicuous. In France it was
+interpreted as indicating that Great Britain renounced her interest in
+continental politics. The Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian
+republics, the kingdom of Etruria, and the whole east bank of the Rhine
+were, however, supposed to be already protected against French
+encroachment by the treaty of Lunéville, and Great Britain had no wish
+to impose terms involving a recognition of these new creations. Again,
+no mention was made of commercial relations apart from the Newfoundland
+and St. Lawrence fisheries, for Great Britain was too ready to believe
+that a separate commercial treaty would be practicable, and was
+naturally loth to delay the conclusion of peace by a difficult
+negotiation.
+
+Cornwallis was appointed to negotiate the definitive treaty, and had
+some hope that he might arrive at an informal understanding with
+Bonaparte at Paris before he proceeded to Amiens. But he was offended by
+Bonaparte's manner, and, dreading to be pitted against so subtle a
+diplomatist as Talleyrand, he left Paris before anything was
+accomplished, and arrived at Amiens on November 30. There France was
+represented by Joseph Bonaparte, the first consul's elder brother, and
+the negotiator of Lunéville. At Amiens, the position of the British
+government was compromised from the first by its renewed insistence on a
+point which had been omitted from the preliminary treaty, namely, the
+compensation of the Prince of Orange. This demand was accompanied by an
+endeavour to obtain compensation for the King of Sardinia. Joseph
+Bonaparte, on the other hand, entrenched himself behind the letter of
+the treaty, and acknowledged no further obligation. Any additional
+concession to Great Britain could only be purchased by British
+concessions to France. Other difficulties arose over the question of
+Malta, the payment for the maintenance of prisoners, and the inclusion
+of allies as parties to the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORNWALLIS AT AMIENS._]
+
+On the first of these questions the French would appear to have aimed
+throughout at reducing the knights to as impotent a position as
+possible. The British, on the other hand, ostensibly desiring to see the
+strength of the order maintained, were chiefly interested in securing
+its neutrality. At the time of the signature of the preliminary treaty,
+Russia was the power that seemed to Great Britain the fittest guarantor
+of the independence of the knights. On the refusal of Russia to accept
+this position, Naples appeared to be the next best alternative, but it
+was eventually agreed to substitute for the guarantee of a third power
+the obviously futile guarantee of all the powers. Neither party foresaw
+that the impossibility of obtaining such a guarantee was destined to
+leave the whole clause about Malta inoperative. After much dispute over
+the future constitution of the order, France proposed to obviate the
+chief source of difficulty by the demolition of the forts. This plan
+commended itself to Cornwallis, but was rejected by the British
+government. By the end of December it was agreed that a Neapolitan
+garrison was to occupy the islands provisionally, until the new
+organisation should be established. Great Britain proposed that this
+garrison should be maintained at the joint expense of Great Britain and
+France. It did not occur to the British government to propose any
+guarantee for the preservation of the property of the order, and this
+omission ultimately proved material. The question of including allies in
+the treaty was less complicated. France preferred a number of separate
+treaties so as to keep the British interest in Europe at a minimum.
+Great Britain, on the other hand, wished to make France a party to the
+cessions made by her allies, and successfully insisted on the
+negotiation of a single comprehensive treaty. Joseph Bonaparte granted
+this point on December 11, but, as he had not full powers to negotiate
+with any power except Great Britain, he continued to interpose delays
+till the end of the year.
+
+In the meantime France had failed in her attempts to meet the British
+claims on behalf of the Prince of Orange by demands for further
+privileges and territory in the oceans and colonies. On the whole, the
+first month's negotiations had contributed much to a settlement, without
+giving a decided advantage to either side. The lapse of time, however,
+turned the balance in favour of the negotiator who was the more
+independent of his country's desire for peace. On January 1, 1802,
+Hawkesbury wrote to Cornwallis, treating the acquisition of Tobago as
+unimportant; on the 2nd Addington expressed his readiness to accept a
+separate arrangement with the Batavian republic for the Prince of
+Orange. By the 16th Hawkesbury had yielded the claim of Portugal to be a
+party to the treaty. The refusal of the French to cede Tobago in lieu of
+payment for the French prisoners, and the difficulty of assessing the
+payment, opened a way to the evasion of compensation altogether.
+Cornwallis, preferring to sacrifice this claim rather than re-open the
+war, suggested to Joseph Bonaparte on the 22nd that the treaty should
+provide for commissioners to assess the payment, while it should be
+secretly provided that they should not be appointed. On the same day,
+Joseph Bonaparte communicated his brother's consent to a clause engaging
+France to find a suitable territorial possession in Germany for the
+Prince of Orange.
+
+If Hawkesbury and Cornwallis imagined that they had made sure of an
+early peace by these extensive concessions, they were greatly mistaken.
+Napoleon, flushed with this unexpected success, was encouraged to make
+further trial of the pliability of the British diplomatists. Two events
+occurred at this stage of the negotiations which tried the temper of
+both sides to the uttermost. On January 26, Bonaparte was elected
+president of the Cisalpine republic, to be styled henceforth the Italian
+republic. This event seems to have taken the British government by
+surprise; they thought it a distinct indication that he still
+contemplated further aggressions in spite of the series of treaties by
+which he appeared to be securing peace, and were therefore much less
+inclined than formerly to make concessions. About the same time
+Bonaparte was not unreasonably enraged at the outrageous attacks made on
+him in the press conducted in London by French exiles, especially by
+Jean Peltier, the editor of a paper called _L'Ambigu_, and he blamed the
+British government for permitting their publication. He therefore
+instructed his brother Joseph to raise further difficulties over the
+garrison and permanent organisation of Malta, as well as over the
+proposed accession of the sultan to the treaty. Vain attempts were also
+made by Joseph to retain Otranto for France till the British should have
+evacuated Malta, and to secure the inclusion of the Ligurian republic in
+the treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+At last on March 8 Napoleon agreed that no important difference
+remained, and urged his brother to conclude the treaty. A little more
+time was wasted in providing for a temporary occupation of Malta by
+Neapolitan troops, and a more marked division of opinion arose as to the
+compensation for the Prince of Orange. In spite of instructions to the
+contrary from Hawkesbury, Cornwallis accepted an engagement on the part
+of France to find a compensation, not defined, for the house of Nassau,
+instead of charging it on the Dutch government; and the treaty was
+finally concluded on March 25. It was signed by Great Britain, France,
+Spain, and the Batavian republic, while the Porte was admitted as an
+accessory power. It differed from the preliminary convention in no
+important respect, except in the illusory safeguards for the claims of
+the Prince of Orange, the secret arrangement for evading the cost of the
+French prisoners, and the provisions concerning Malta, pregnant with the
+seeds of future enmity. These provisions were as follows: Malta was to
+be restored to the knights of St. John, from whose order both French and
+British were hereafter to be excluded. The evacuation was to take place
+within three months of the ratification of the treaty, or sooner if
+possible. At that date Malta was to be given up, provided the grand
+master or commissaries of the order were present, and provided the
+Neapolitan garrison had arrived. Its independence was to be under the
+guarantee of France, Great Britain, Austria, Spain, Russia, and Prussia.
+Two thousand Neapolitan troops were to occupy it for one year, and until
+the order should have raised a force sufficient, in the judgment of the
+guaranteeing powers, for the defence of the islands.[3]
+
+On October 29, 1801, parliament was opened with a speech from the throne
+briefly announcing the conclusion of a convention with the northern
+powers, and of preliminaries of peace with the French republic. General
+Lauriston, bearing the ratification of the preliminaries by the first
+consul, had reached London on the 10th, when he was received by the
+populace with tumultuous demonstrations of joy. Soon afterwards the
+"feast of the peace" was celebrated in Paris with equal enthusiasm.
+Short-lived as they proved to be, these pacific sentiments were
+doubtless genuine on both sides of the channel. The industrial, though
+not the military, resources of France were exhausted by her prodigious
+efforts during the last eight years; while England, suffering grievously
+from distress among the working-classes and financial difficulties,
+welcomed the prospect of cheaper provisions and easier times, as well as
+of emerging from the political difficulties originating in the French
+revolution.
+
+The preliminary treaty, however, did not escape hostile criticism in
+either house of parliament. It was the subject of discussion in the
+lords on November 3, and in the commons on the 3rd and 4th. Its most
+strenuous assailants were Lord Grenville, who had been foreign secretary
+under Pitt, and the whigs who had joined Pitt's ministry in 1794, among
+whom Lords Spencer and Fitzwilliam and above all Windham call for
+special notice. Windham's powerful and comprehensive speech contained
+more than one shrewd forecast of the future. For once, Pitt and Fox
+supported the same measure, and Pitt, dwelling on _security_ as our
+grand object in the war, specially deprecated any attempt on the part of
+Great Britain "to settle the affairs of the continent". Fox, in
+advocating peace, fiercely denounced the war against the French
+republic, and gloated over the discomfiture of the Bourbons.[4] It was
+admitted on all sides that France was stronger than ever in a military
+and political sense. She had already made treaties with Austria, Naples,
+Spain, and Portugal; other treaties with Russia and Turkey were on the
+point of being signed; while the still more important concordat with the
+pope was already ratified. On the other hand, Great Britain had largely
+increased her colonial possessions, and the chief question now discussed
+was whether she would be the weaker for abandoning some of these recent
+conquests. The general feeling of the nation was fitly expressed by
+Sheridan in the phrase: "This is a peace which all men are glad of, but
+no man can be proud of". Malmesbury, the negotiator of Lille, was absent
+from the debates; but he has recorded in his diary his disapproval both
+of the peace and of the violent opposition to it The king told
+Malmesbury on November 26 that he considered it an experimental peace,
+but unavoidable.[5]
+
+[Pageheading: _DEBATES ON TREATY OF AMIENS._]
+
+The debates on the definitive treaty of Amiens took place on May 13 and
+14, 1802, and though vigorously sustained, were to some extent a
+repetition of those on the preliminaries of peace. The opposition to it
+was headed by Grenville in the lords and in the commons by Windham, who
+compared it unfavourably with the preliminaries; and the stipulations
+with respect to Malta were justly criticised as one of its weakest
+points. Strange to say, Pitt took no effective part in the discussion,
+which ended in overwhelming majorities for the government. As in the
+previous session, domestic affairs, except in their bearing on foreign
+policy, received comparatively little attention from parliament. The
+income tax was repealed, almost in silence, as the first fruits of
+peace, and Addington, as chancellor of the exchequer, delivered an
+emphatic eulogy on the sinking fund by means of which he calculated that
+in forty-five years the national debt, then amounting to £500,000,000,
+might be entirely paid off. The house of commons showed no want of
+economical zeal in scrutinising the claims of the king on the civil
+list, and those of the Prince of Wales on the revenues of the duchy of
+Cornwall. Nor did it neglect such abuses as the non-residence of the
+parochial clergy, and the cruel practice of bull-baiting, though it
+rejected a bill for the suppression of this practice, after a
+characteristic apology for it from Windham, in which he dwelt upon its
+superiority to horse-racing. In this session, too, a grant of £10,000
+was voted to Jenner for his recent invention of vaccination. In
+supporting it, Wilberforce stated that the victims of small-pox, in
+London alone, numbered 4,000 annually.
+
+The parliament, which had now lasted six years, was dissolved by the
+king in person on June 28, and a general election was held during the
+month of July. The new house of commons did not differ materially from
+the old, and even in Ireland the recent national opposition to the union
+did not lead to the unseating of a single member who had voted for
+it.[6] Meanwhile the ministry was strengthened by the admission to
+office of Lord Castlereagh, already distinguished for his share in the
+negotiations precedent to the union with Ireland. On July 6 he was
+appointed president of the board of control in succession to Dartmouth,
+and was admitted to a seat in the cabinet in October. The new parliament
+did not meet till November 16. During the interval members of both
+houses, with vast numbers of their countrymen, flocked to Paris, which
+had been almost closed to English travellers since the early days of the
+revolution. Fox was presented to Napoleon, as Bonaparte, since the
+decree which made him consul for life, preferred to be styled. Napoleon
+conceived a great admiration for him, and afterwards persuaded himself
+that, had Fox survived, the friendly relations of England and France
+would not have been permanently interrupted. On the very day on which
+parliament assembled, a conspiracy was discovered, which, however insane
+it may now appear, attracted much attention at the time. A certain
+Colonel Despard with thirty-six followers, mainly labourers, had plotted
+to kill the king and seize all the government-buildings, with a view to
+the establishment of what he called the "constitutional independence of
+Ireland and Great Britain" and the "equalisation of all civic rights".
+The conspiracy had no wide ramifications, and the arrest of its leader
+and his companions brought it to an immediate end. Despard was found
+guilty of high treason and was executed on February 21, 1803.
+
+When parliament met, the king's speech referred ominously to fresh
+disturbances in the balance of power on the continent; and votes were
+passed for large additions to the army and navy, in spite of Fox's
+declaration that he saw no reason why Napoleon, satisfied with military
+glory, should not henceforth devote himself to internal improvements in
+France. Nelson, on the contrary, speaking in the house of lords, while
+he professed himself a man of peace, insisted on the danger arising from
+"a restless and unjust ambition on the part of our neighbours," and
+Sheridan delivered a vigorous speech in a like spirit. On the whole, in
+January, 1803, the prospects of assured peace and prosperity were much
+gloomier than they had been in January, 1802, before the treaty of
+Amiens. The funds were going down, the bank restriction act was renewed,
+and Despard's conspiracy still agitated the public mind. In the month of
+February a strong anti-Gallican sentiment was roused by Mackintosh's
+powerful defence of the royalist Jean Peltier, accused and ultimately
+convicted of a gross libel on the first consul. On March 8 came the
+royal message calling out the militia, which heralded the rupture of the
+peace.
+
+The renewal of the war, fraught with so much glory and misery to both
+nations, can have taken neither by surprise. The ink was scarcely dry on
+the treaty of Amiens when fresh causes of discord sprung up between
+France and Great Britain. More than one of these, indeed, had arisen
+between the signature of the preliminary convention and the actual
+conclusion of peace. During the negotiations, the first consul had, as
+we have seen, never ceased to protest against the violent attacks upon
+himself in the English press, while Cornwallis persistently warned his
+own government against the menacing attitude of France in Italy and
+elsewhere. The proclamation of the concordat in April, 1802, and the
+recognition of Napoleon as first consul for life in August, however they
+may have strengthened his position in France, were no legitimate
+subjects for resentment in England; but his acceptance of the presidency
+of the "Italian" republic in January, followed by his annexation of
+Piedmont in September, revived in all its intensity the British mistrust
+of his aggressive policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRENCH AGGRESSIONS._]
+
+The month of October witnessed a renewed aggression on Switzerland. A
+French army, commanded by Ney, advanced into the interior of the
+country, and forced the Swiss, who were in the midst of a civil war, to
+accept the mediation of Napoleon. The new constitution which he framed
+attempted, by weakening the federal government, to place the direction
+of Helvetian external relations in the hands of the French first consul.
+Our government vainly endeavoured to resist this interference by sending
+agents with money and promises. In Germany the redistribution of
+territory necessitated by the peace of Lunéville was carried out
+professedly under the joint mediation of France and Russia, but really
+at the dictation of Napoleon. The final project, which destroyed all
+except three of the spiritual principalities and all except six of the
+free cities, was proposed by France on February 23, 1803, and accepted
+by the Emperor Francis on April 27.
+
+Against these rearrangements, Great Britain could have nothing to say;
+their importance is that while the negotiations were pending, Austria,
+Prussia, and Russia all had a strong motive for standing well with
+France. Bonaparte's attitude towards Switzerland was, in so far as it
+was backed by force, an infringement of the treaty of Lunéville, to
+which, however, Great Britain was not a party. The neutrality of
+Piedmont had not been safeguarded either at Lunéville or at Amiens; it
+had already been occupied by France before the treaty was signed, and
+Napoleon claimed to have as much right to annex territory in Europe
+without the consent of Great Britain as Great Britain had to annex
+territory in India without the consent of France.
+
+Napoleon's schemes of colonial expansion, though equally within the
+letter of the treaty, were not less disconcerting. The reconquest of San
+Domingo appeared necessary in order to obtain a base for the effective
+occupation of the new French possession, Louisiana. The despatch of an
+expedition for this purpose in December, 1801, had excited grave
+suspicion, and when two-thirds of the army had died of yellow fever and
+the remainder had returned home, fresh troops were sent out to take
+their place. A new naval expedition was prepared in the Dutch port of
+Helvoetsluis, but it was impossible to persuade British public opinion
+that its real destination was San Domingo. Finally, on the eve of
+hostilities, in the spring of 1803 Napoleon, despairing of advance in
+this direction and disregarding the Spanish right of pre-emption, sold
+Louisiana to the United States for 80,000,000 francs. Still more
+embarrassing was Bonaparte's eastern policy. In September, 1802, Colonel
+Sébastiani was sent as "commercial agent" to the Levant. He was
+instructed to inspect the condition of ports and arsenals, to assure the
+sheykhs of French favour, and to report on the military resources of
+Syria, Egypt, and the north African coast. His report, which was
+published in the _Moniteur_ of January 30, 1803, set forth the
+opportunities that France would possess in the event of an immediate
+return to hostilities, and was naturally interpreted as disclosing an
+intention to renew the war on the first opportunity. Six thousand French
+would, he said, be enough to reconquer Egypt; the country was in favour
+of France. In March, 1803, Decaen left France with open instructions to
+receive the surrender of the five towns in India restored to France, but
+with secret orders to invite the alliance of Indian sovereigns opposed
+to Great Britain. On his appearance at Pondicherri, the British
+commander prepared to seize him, but he escaped to the Mauritius, which
+he put in a state of defence, and made a basis for attacks on British
+commerce which lasted from 1803 to 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAUSES OF MISTRUST AFTER AMIENS._]
+
+Ireland also was visited by political spies, passing as commercial
+agents. It may not be easy to say how far Emmet's rebellion, to be
+recorded hereafter, was the result of these visits. At all events a
+letter fell into the hands of the British government, addressed by
+Talleyrand to a French agent at Dublin, called Fauvelet, directing him
+to obtain answers to a series of questions about the military and naval
+circumstances of the district, and "to procure a plan of the ports, with
+the soundings and moorings, and to state the draught of water, and the
+wind best suited for ingress and egress". The British government
+naturally complained of these instructions, but Talleyrand persistently
+maintained that they were of a purely commercial character.[7] It is, of
+course, true that these preparations in view of a possible recurrence of
+hostilities, however obvious their intention, were not in themselves
+hostile acts. Still, they were just grounds for suspicion, and, with our
+retrospective knowledge of Napoleon's later career, we may seek in vain
+for the grounds of confidence which had made the conclusion of a treaty
+possible. Great Britain was guilty of more direct breaches of the peace
+of Amiens. Russia refused her guarantee for the independence of Malta,
+and the British government was therefore technically justified in
+retaining it. No similar justification could, however, be alleged for
+the retention of Alexandria and the French towns in India. These
+measures were, as will be seen, defended on broader grounds of public
+policy. Not the least of the causes of discontent with the new situation
+was the refusal of Napoleon to follow up the treaty of peace with a
+commercial treaty. He had even retained French troops in Holland, and
+thus shown that he meant to close its ports against British commerce.
+The hope of a renewal of trade with France had been a main cause of the
+popular desire for peace, and had reconciled the British public to the
+sacrifices with which the treaty of Amiens had been purchased. It soon
+became clear that further concessions would be made the price of a
+commercial treaty, and it was felt in consequence that the sacrifices
+already made were made in vain.
+
+In September, 1802, Lord Whitworth was sent as ambassador extraordinary
+to the French Republic. The instructions which he carried with him from
+Hawkesbury fully reflect the prevailing spirit of mistrust. He was to
+watch for any new leagues which might prejudice England or disturb
+Europe; he was to discover any secret designs that might be formed
+against the East or West Indies; he was to maintain the closest
+surveillance over the internal politics of France, but especially over
+the dispositions of influential personages in the confidence of the
+first consul, as well as over the financial resources and armaments of
+the republic.[8] Two months later, he was expressly warned in a secret
+despatch not in any way to commit His Majesty to a restoration of Malta,
+even if the provisions made at Amiens for this purpose could be
+completely executed; and the principle was laid down, from which the
+British government never swerved, that Great Britain was entitled to
+compensation for any acquisitions made by France since the treaty was
+signed. Accordingly, the retention of Malta was justified as a
+counterpoise to French extensions of territory in Italy, the invasion of
+Switzerland, and the continued occupation of the Batavian republic.[9]
+This resolution was naturally confirmed by the publication of
+Sébastiani's report.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AND WHITWORTH._]
+
+The long negotiations between Whitworth and the French government,
+during the winter of 1802 and the spring of 1803, only bring into
+stronger relief the importance of the issues thus raised, and the
+hopelessness of a pacific solution. Napoleon firmly took his stand
+throughout on the simple letter of the treaty, which pledged Great
+Britain, upon certain conditions, to place the knights of St. John in
+possession of Malta, but did not contemplate the case of further
+accessions of French territory on the continent. Although the conditions
+specified were never fully satisfied, it is abundantly clear that the
+British ministers, having at last grasped the value of Malta, created
+all the difficulties in their power, and determined to cancel this
+article of the treaty. They alleged, in self-defence, that the spirit of
+the treaty had been constantly violated by Napoleon, in repeated acts of
+hostility to British subjects, in the refusal of all redress for such
+grievances, and, above all, in that series of aggressions on the
+continent which he declared to be outside the treaty and beyond the
+province of Great Britain.[10] None of the compromises laboriously
+discussed in the winter of 1802 betoken any desire on the part of
+either government to retreat from its main position, though it does not
+follow that either sought to bring about a renewal of the war. Whitworth
+constantly reported that no formidable armaments were being prepared,
+and clung for months to a belief that Napoleon, knowing the instability
+of his own power and the ruinous state of his finances, would ultimately
+give way. On the other hand, Talleyrand and Joseph Bonaparte never
+ceased to hope that Great Britain would make concessions which might be
+accepted.
+
+Such hopes were rudely dispelled by the king's message to parliament on
+March 8, 1803, complaining of aggressive preparations in the ports of
+France and Holland, and recommending immediate measures for the security
+of his dominions. This message, with the consequent embodiment of the
+militia, startled the whole continent, and was followed five days later
+by the famous scene in which the first consul addressed Whitworth in
+phrases little short of insult. During a public audience at the
+Tuileries on the 13th, Napoleon, after inquiring whether the British
+ambassador had received any news from home, broke out with the words:
+"And so you are determined to go to war". The altercation which ensued
+is best told in Whitworth's own words[11]:--
+
+"'No, first consul,' I replied, 'we are too sensible of the advantages
+of peace.' 'We have,' said he, 'been fighting these fifteen years.' As
+he seemed to wait for an answer, I observed only, 'That is already too
+long'. 'But,' said he, 'you desire to fight for fifteen years more, and
+you are forcing me to it,' I told him that was very far from his
+majesty's intentions. He then proceeded to Count Marcoff and the
+Chevalier Azzara, who were standing together at a little distance from
+me, and said to them, 'The English are bent on war, but if they are the
+first to draw the sword, I shall be the last to put it back into the
+scabbard. They do not respect treaties. They must be covered with black
+crape.' I suppose he meant the treaties. He then went his round, and was
+thought by all those to whom he addressed himself to betray great signs
+of irritation. In a few minutes he came back to me, to my great
+annoyance, and resumed the conversation, if such it can be called, by
+something personally civil to me. He then began again, 'Why these
+armaments? Against whom these measures of precaution? I have not a
+single ship of the line in the French ports; but if you wish to arm, I
+will arm also; if you wish to fight, I will fight also. You may perhaps
+kill France, but will never intimidate her.' 'We wish,' said I, 'neither
+the one nor the other. We wish to live on good terms with her.' 'You
+must respect treaties then,' replied he; 'woe to those who do not
+respect treaties; they shall answer for it to all Europe.'"
+
+Too much stress has been laid upon this incident, so characteristic of
+Napoleon's studied impetuosity. Little more than a fortnight later he
+received the British ambassador with courtesy. Overtures now succeeded
+overtures, and much was expected on both sides from the influence of the
+Tsar Alexander, to whom France suggested that Malta might be ceded.[12]
+At the last moment, a somewhat more conciliatory disposition was shown
+by the French diplomatists; and the British government was blamed by its
+opponents, alike for having failed to break off the negotiations earlier
+on the broadest grounds, and for breaking them off too abruptly on
+grounds of doubtful validity. But we now see that national enmity,
+fostered by the press on both sides, rendered friendly relations
+impossible, and that, even had Napoleon been willing to refrain from
+aggressions, peace was impossible. On May 12, two months after the
+king's message, Whitworth, having presented an ultimatum, finally
+quitted Paris. A few days later an order was issued for the detention of
+all British subjects then resident in France, and justified on the
+ground that French seamen (but not passengers) were liable to capture at
+sea. On June 10 Talleyrand announced the occupation of Hanover and the
+treatment as enemies of Hanoverian soldiers serving under the King of
+Great Britain. Meanwhile, on May 16, the rupture of peaceful relations
+was announced to both houses of parliament; on May 18 war was declared,
+and in June volunteers were already mustering to resist invasion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] So Vansittart himself, in Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, i., 371.
+Southey and Captain Mahan have erroneously supposed that Vansittart
+accompanied the naval expedition and was sent by Parker in the frigate
+from the Skaw.
+
+[2] _Annual Register_, xliii. (1801), chapter i. The average price of
+wheat in 1800 was 112s. 8d. the quarter, whereas the highest annual
+average in the half century before the war had been 64s. 6d. On March 5,
+1801, the price of the quartern loaf stood as high as 1s. 10½d. On
+July 23 it was still 1s. 8d. The harvest of this year was, however, an
+excellent one. The price fell rapidly during August, and by November 12
+was as low as 10½d.
+
+[3] Cornwallis, _Correspondence_, iii., 382-487.
+
+[4] In a letter to Charles Carey, dated October 22, Fox went the length
+of expressing extreme pleasure in the triumph of the French government
+over the English (_Memorials of C. J. Fox_, iii., 349).
+
+[5] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 60, 62.
+
+[6] Lecky, _History Of Ireland_, v., 465.
+
+[7] Lanfrey, _Napoleon I._ (English edition), ii., 202; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 164.
+
+[8] Browning, _England and Napoleon in 1803_, pp. 1-6.
+
+[9] Browning, _ibid._, pp. 6-10.
+
+[10] See especially Hawkesbury's despatch in Browning, _ibid._, pp.
+65-68, and Whitworth's despatches, _ibid._, pp. 73-75, 78-85.
+
+[11] Whitworth's despatch of March 14, in Browning, _England and
+Napoleon_, p. 116.
+
+[12] Browning, _England and Napoleon_, p. 218.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER II.
+
+ THE RETURN OF PITT.
+
+
+The period following the rupture of the peace of Amiens, though crowded
+with military events of the highest importance, was inevitably barren in
+social and political interest. Disappointed in its hopes of returning
+prosperity, the nation girded itself up with rare unanimity for a
+renewed contest. In July the income-tax was reinstituted and a bill was
+actually carried authorising a levy _en masse_ in case of invasion.
+Pending its enforcement, the navy was vigorously recruited by means of
+the press-gang; the yeomanry were called out, and a force of infantry
+volunteers was enrolled, which reached a total of 300,000 in August, and
+of nearly 400,000 at the beginning of the next session. Pitt himself, as
+warden of the Cinque Ports, took command of 3,000 volunteers in Kent,
+and contrasted in parliament the warlike enthusiasm of the country with
+the alleged apathy of the ministry. On July 23 a rebellion broke out in
+Ireland, instigated by French agents and headed by a young man named
+Robert Emmet. The conspiracy was ill planned and in itself
+insignificant, but the recklessness of the conspirators was equalled by
+the weakness of the civil and military authorities, who neglected to
+take any precautions in spite of the plainest warnings. The rebels had
+intended to attack Dublin Castle and seize the person of the lord
+lieutenant, who was to be held as a hostage; but they dared not make the
+attempt, and after parading the streets for a few hours were dispersed
+by the spontaneous action of a few determined officers with a handful of
+troops, but not before Lord Kilwarden, the chief justice, and several
+other persons, had been cruelly murdered by Emmet's followers. Futile as
+the rising was, it sufficed to show that union was not a sovereign
+remedy for Irish disaffection.
+
+Meanwhile the relations between the prime minister and his predecessor
+had been growing less and less cordial. Throughout the year 1801 Pitt
+was still the friend and informal adviser of the ministry, and it is
+difficult to overrate the value of his support as a ground of confidence
+in an administration, personally popular, but known to be deficient in
+intellectual brilliance. In 1802 he generally stood aloof, and though in
+June of that year he corrected the draft of the king's speech, he
+absented himself from parliament, for he was dissatisfied with the
+measures adopted by government. His dissatisfaction was known to his
+friends, and in November a movement was set on foot by Canning to induce
+Addington to withdraw in Pitt's favour; but Pitt, though willing to
+resume office, refused to allow the ministry to be approached on the
+subject. He preferred to wait till a general wish for his return to
+power should be manifested. In December he visited Grenville at
+Dropmore, and expressed a certain discontent with the government.[13] It
+was his intention still to treat the ministers with tenderness, but to
+return to parliament and criticise their policy. It is easy to see that
+his object at this date was not to drive the government from office, but
+to give rise to a desire to re-enlist his own talents in the service of
+the country, and thus prepare the way for a peaceable resumption of the
+position he had abandoned in the preceding year.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS FOR PITT'S RETURN._]
+
+No sooner had rumours of Pitt's willingness to resume office reached
+Addington in the last days of December, than he opened negotiations with
+Pitt with a view to effecting this object. Pitt did not receive his
+overtures very warmly. He doubtless wished to be brought back because he
+was felt to be indispensable, without any appearance of intrigue. Time
+was in his favour, and he allowed the negotiations to proceed slowly. As
+the proposals took shape, it became clear that Addington did not wish to
+be openly superseded by Pitt, but preferred that they should serve
+together as secretaries of state under a third person; and Addington
+even suggested Pitt's brother, the Earl of Chatham, then master-general
+of the ordnance, as a suitable prime minister. Pitt's reply,
+communicated to Addington by Dundas, now Viscount Melville, in a letter
+dated March 22, 1803, was to the effect that Pitt would not accept any
+position in the government except that of prime minister, with which was
+to be coupled the office of chancellor of the exchequer. Addington
+readily acceded to Pitt's claim to this position, but Grenville refused
+to serve in a ministry where Addington and Hawkesbury held "any
+efficient offices of real business," and Addington declined to abandon
+ministerial office for a speakership of the house of lords, which Pitt
+proposed to create for him. Finally, on April 10, Pitt at a private
+conference with Addington proposed as an indispensable condition of his
+own return to office that Melville, Spencer, Grenville, and Windham
+should become members of his cabinet. This meant a reconstruction of the
+whole ministry, and Pitt stipulated that the changes should be made by
+the king's desire and on the recommendation of the existing ministry.
+
+The situation had become an impossible one. Nothing was more reasonable
+than that Pitt, the friend and protector of the existing ministry,
+should assume the direction of affairs now that the nation appeared to
+be on the brink of war. But Pitt could not honourably desert those
+former colleagues, who had resigned with him on the catholic question.
+Two of these, however, Grenville and Windham, though doubtless men of
+the highest capacity, had bitterly attacked the existing ministry; and
+it was not to be expected that that ministry, supported as it still was
+by overwhelming majorities in both houses of parliament, supported as it
+had hitherto been by Pitt himself, should consent to admit its opponents
+to a share of office. It is highly improbable that Grenville and Windham
+would then have co-operated with Addington and Hawkesbury, and their
+admission to office would have ruined the cohesion of the cabinet,
+unless it had been accompanied by the retirement of the leading members
+of the existing ministry which Pitt's previous attitude, together with
+the actual balance of parties in parliament, rendered it impossible to
+demand. How difficult it was to induce Grenville and Windham to enter
+into any combination future years were to prove. For the present the
+ministry took not merely the wisest, but the only course open to it.
+Addington, after vainly endeavouring to induce Pitt to modify his terms,
+laid them before a cabinet council on April 13; they were immediately
+rejected, though the cabinet declared itself ready to admit to office
+Pitt himself and those of his colleagues who had hitherto acted with the
+Addington ministry. Pitt could hardly have expected any other reply. No
+ministry could have granted such terms except on the supposition that
+Pitt was indispensable, and Pitt for the present hardly claimed such a
+position.[14]
+
+But if Pitt did not consider himself indispensable, his friends did, and
+both he and others came gradually to adopt their view. The rejection of
+his terms left him free to adopt the line of policy that he had sketched
+to Grenville in the previous December. He had not to wait long for an
+opportunity, but in the opinion of Pitt's friends at least the first
+provocation came from Addington. Unable to strengthen his ministry by
+any accession from Pitt and his followers, he had turned to the "old
+opposition," the whigs who, under the leadership of Fox, had
+consistently advocated a pacific policy. These had recently supported
+the ministry against the "new opposition," as the followers of Grenville
+and Windham were called. But since 1797 Fox and the majority of the "old
+opposition" had generally absented themselves from parliament, and
+George Tierney, member for Southwark, had led what was left of their
+party.[15] He now received and accepted the offer of the treasurership
+of the navy, one of the most important of the offices below cabinet
+rank. As a speaker Tierney was a valuable addition to the government
+which was sadly deficient in debating power; he had, however, been
+particularly bitter in his attacks on Pitt, with whom he had fought a
+duel in 1798, and had provoked the sarcastic wit of Canning, in whose
+well-known parody, "The Friend of Humanity and the Knife-grinder"
+(1798), the original illustration by Gillray depicted the friend of
+humanity with the features of Tierney and laid the scene in the borough
+of Southwark.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHANGES IN ADDINGTON'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The appointment, which Pitt himself does not appear to have resented,
+was announced on June 1, and Tierney took his place on the treasury
+bench on the 3rd. On the same evening Colonel Patten moved a series of
+resolutions condemning, in extravagant terms, the conduct of the
+ministry in the negotiation with France. Pitt seized the opportunity to
+move the orders of the day. In other words, he proposed that the
+question should be left undecided. He expressed the opinion that the
+ministry was not free from blame, but declared himself unable to concur
+in all the charges against it. He considered further that to drive the
+existing ministers out of office would only throw the country into
+confusion, and that it was therefore inadvisable to pursue the question.
+To this the ministerial speakers replied by demanding a direct censure
+or a total acquittal, and the consequent division served only to display
+the weakness of the opposition. The Addington, Fox, and Grenville
+parties combined to oppose Pitt's motion, which was rejected by 333
+votes against 56. Pitt and Fox, and their respective followers then left
+the house, leaving the ministerial party and the Grenville party to
+decide the fate of Patten's resolutions, which were negatived by 275
+votes against 34. A comparison of the figures of the two divisions,
+allowing for tellers, gives as the voting strength of Pitt's party 58,
+of Grenville's 36, of Fox's 22, and of Addington's 277. Of these the
+Grenville party alone desired to eject the ministers from office, while
+Fox's party openly professed a preference for Addington over Pitt.
+
+During the remainder of the session Pitt seldom took any part in
+parliamentary business, and never opposed the ministry on any question
+of importance. On August 12 parliament was prorogued after a session
+lasting nearly nine months, and the prime minister embraced the
+opportunity of making some slight reconstructions in the ministry.
+Pelham, who was removed from the home office, resigned his place in the
+cabinet, and was shortly afterwards consoled with the chancellorship of
+the duchy of Lancaster, an office which was not yet definitely
+recognised as political. Charles Philip Yorke, son of the chancellor who
+died in 1770 and half-brother of the third Earl of Hardwicke, resigned
+the office of secretary at war and succeeded to the home office on the
+17th. It was also considered advisable to strengthen the ministry in the
+upper house, where Grenville's oratory gave the opposition a decided
+advantage in debating power, and Hawkesbury was accordingly summoned to
+the lords on November 16 in his father's barony of Hawkesbury. After
+this rearrangement the cabinet contained eight peers and three
+commoners, no illiberal allowance of commoners according to the ideas of
+the age. The recess was further marked by a violent war of pamphlets
+between the followers of Addington and Pitt, which began early in
+September, and which, although no politician of the first order took any
+direct part in it, did much to embitter the relations of their
+respective parties.[16] Not less irritating were the _jeux d'esprit_
+with which Canning continued to assail the ministry in the newspaper
+press.[17] The most famous of these is the couplet:--
+
+ Pitt is to Addington
+ As London is to Paddington.
+
+A more openly abusive poem, entitled "Good Intentions," described the
+prime minister as "Happy Britain's guardian gander". The following
+verses refer to the appointment of Addington's brother, John Hiley
+Addington, to be paymaster-general of the forces, and of his
+brother-in-law, Charles Bragge, afterwards succeeded by Tierney, to be
+treasurer of the navy:--
+
+ How blest, how firm the statesman stands
+ (Him no low intrigue can move)
+ Circled by faithful kindred bands
+ And propped by fond fraternal love.
+
+ When his speeches hobble vilely,
+ What "Hear him's" burst from Brother Hiley;
+ When his faltering periods lag,
+ Hark to the cheers of Brother Bragge.
+
+ Each a gentleman at large,
+ Lodged and fed at public charge,
+ Paying (with a grace to charm ye)
+ This the Fleet, and that the Army.[18]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE KING'S ILLNESS._]
+
+When parliament reassembled on November 22 the opposition was still
+disunited, and, though Windham severely condemned the inadequacy of the
+provision made for national defence, he did not venture to divide
+against the government. But during the Christmas recess a distinct step
+was made towards the consolidation of the opposition by the reunion of
+the two sections of the whig party. Grenville had conceived a chimerical
+project of replacing the existing administration by one which should
+include all statesmen possessed of real political talent, whatever their
+differences in the past might have been. True to this policy, he
+persuaded Fox in January, 1804, to join him in attempting to expel the
+Addington administration from office as an essential preliminary to any
+further action. Sheridan, however, with some of the Prince of Wales's
+friends, still refused to enter into any combination which might result
+in the return of Pitt to power. The parliamentary session was resumed on
+February 1, but the course of events was complicated by a recurrence of
+the king's malady. Symptoms of this were observed towards the end of
+January; the disease took a turn for the worse about February 12, and on
+the 14th it was made known to the public. For a short time the king's
+life appeared to be in danger; his reason was affected during a longer
+interval, but the attack was in every way milder than in 1789, and on
+March 7 Dr. Simmons reported to Addington that "the king was competent
+to perform any act of government".[19] It is true that for many months
+the king's health did not allow him to give his full attention to public
+business, but there was nothing to prevent him from attending to such
+routine work as was absolutely necessary. There could, however, be no
+question of a change of ministers till there should be a marked
+improvement in the king's health.
+
+The king's illness was made the occasion on February 27 of a motion by
+Sir Robert Lawley for the adjournment of the house of commons. This was
+parried by Addington with the statement that there was no necessary
+suspension of such royal functions as it might be necessary for His
+Majesty to discharge at the present moment.[20] The emphasis here
+obviously lay on the word "necessary". A still bolder course was adopted
+shortly afterwards by the lord chancellor. When on March 9 the king's
+assent to several bills was given by commission, Fitzwilliam raised not
+unreasonable doubts as to whether the king was capable of resuming the
+functions of government. Eldon, however, declared that, as the result of
+a private interview with the king, he had come to the conclusion that
+the royal commissioners were warranted in assenting to the bills in
+question. Whether the chancellor was justified in assuming this
+responsibility must remain doubtful; at all events Pitt seems to have
+determined that the time was now ripe for a ministerial crisis. He had
+on February 27 criticised both the military and naval defences of the
+country, but he would not directly attack the government till the king's
+health was in a better condition. At last, on March 15, the first attack
+was made. Pitt selected the weak point in the administration. St.
+Vincent's obstinacy in refusing to believe in the possibility of a
+renewal of hostility and his excessive economy had brought about a
+marked deterioration in the strength and quality of the fleet. Pitt
+accordingly moved for an inquiry into the administration of the navy.
+Fox dissociated himself from Pitt's attacks on the first lord of the
+admiralty, but supported the motion on the ground that an inquiry would
+clear St. Vincent's character. On a division the government had a
+majority of 201 against 130. On the 19th, however, Pitt refused to join
+the Grenvilles in supporting Fox's motion for the re-committal of the
+volunteer consolidation bill. On the following day Eldon made overtures
+to Pitt, and on the 23rd Pitt dined _tête-à-tête_ with the chancellor,
+but no record has been preserved of the nature of their negotiations.
+
+On the 29th Pitt, in a letter to Melville, explained his position at
+length. He intended, as soon after the Easter recess as the king's
+health should permit, to write to the king explaining the dangers which,
+in his opinion, threatened the crown and people from the continuance of
+the existing government, and representing the urgent necessity of a
+speedy change; he would prefer an administration from which no political
+party should be excluded, but was unwilling, especially in view of the
+king's state of health, to force any minister upon him; if, therefore,
+he should be invited by the king to form a ministry from which the
+partisans of Fox and Grenville were to be excluded, he was prepared to
+form one from his own followers united with the more capable members of
+the existing government, excluding Addington himself and St. Vincent;
+should this measure fail of success, he would "have no hesitation in
+taking such ground in Parliament as would be most likely to attain the
+object".[21] As it happened, the parliamentary assault preceded the
+correspondence with the king. Immediately after the recess the ministry
+laid before parliament military proposals which Pitt felt bound to
+resist. On April 16 Pitt, supported by Windham, opposed the third
+reading of a bill for augmenting the Irish militia, and expressed a
+preference for the army of reserve. He was defeated by the narrow
+majority of 128 against 107. On the 23rd Fox proposed to refer the
+question of national defence to a committee of the whole house. He was
+supported by Pitt and Windham, and defeated by 256 votes only against
+204. The division which sealed the fate of the ministry was taken two
+days later on a motion that the house should go into committee on a bill
+for the suspension of the army of reserve. This was opposed by Pitt, who
+expounded a rival plan for the diminution of the militia and increase of
+the army of reserve. Fox and Windham demanded for Pitt's scheme a right
+to consideration, and on a division the motion was carried by no more
+than 240 against 203. The division of April 16 had convinced Addington
+that a reconciliation with Pitt was necessary. On Pitt's refusing to
+confer with him, he agreed to recommend the king to charge Eldon with
+the task of discovering Pitt's views as to the formation of a new
+ministry, in case the king wished to learn them.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADDINGTON'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+The king, however, expressed no such wish, and on April 22 Pitt sent an
+unsealed letter to Eldon to be laid before the king; announcing his
+dissatisfaction with the ministry and his intention of declaring this
+dissatisfaction in parliament.[22] It was not till the 27th that Eldon
+found a suitable opportunity of communicating Pitt's letter to the king.
+Before that date Addington, who considered that he could no longer
+remain in office with dignity after the divisions of the 23rd and 25th,
+had on the 26th informed the king of his intention to resign. The king
+reluctantly consented to his resignation, which was announced to the
+cabinet on the 29th. On the following day Eldon called on Pitt with a
+request from the king for a plan of a new administration. Pitt replied
+in a letter, setting forth at great length the arguments in favour of a
+combined administration, and requesting permission to confer with Fox
+and Grenville about the construction of the ministry.[23] The letter
+irritated the king, who demanded a renewed pledge against catholic
+emancipation, with which Grenville was specially associated in his mind,
+and refused to admit Pitt to office if he persevered in his purpose of
+consulting Fox and Grenville. Pitt then declared his adherence to the
+pledge given in 1801[24] and requested an interview with the king. The
+interview, which took place on May 7, lasted three hours, and ended in a
+compromise. The king agreed to admit Grenville and his friends to
+office, but, while ready to accept the friends of Fox, he refused, as
+much on personal as on political grounds, to give Fox a place in the
+cabinet. At the same time he declared himself ready to grant him a
+diplomatic appointment. At a later date the king went the length of
+declaring that, rather than accept Fox, he would have incurred the risk
+of civil war.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RETURN TO OFFICE._]
+
+Fox readily agreed to his own exclusion, which he had fully expected,
+and urged his followers to join Pitt, but Grenville and his friends
+refused to serve without Fox, while the friends of Fox and the more
+immediate followers of Addington refused to serve without their
+respective leaders. Addington always considered that Pitt had treated
+him ungenerously in driving him from office, when it was open to him to
+return to the head of affairs with the full consent of the existing
+ministers. More recently it has been the fashion to blame Pitt for
+bringing too little pressure to bear upon the king and thus losing the
+support of Fox and Grenville. Neither charge appears to be justified.
+Through the whole length of the Addington administration Pitt showed
+himself fully sensitive of what was due to the king, with whom he had
+worked cordially for eighteen years, to Grenville who had resigned in
+his cause, and to Addington who had assumed office under his protection.
+There was no trace of faction in Pitt's attitude towards the ministry.
+He merely opposed what he believed to be dangerous to the country, and
+when he was convinced of the necessity of removing Addington from a
+share in public business, he endeavoured to effect his purpose in such a
+way as to give the minimum of offence.
+
+On the other hand, Pitt's intended combination in a supreme crisis of
+his country's destiny with his life-long antagonist, Fox, was a heroic
+experiment, perhaps, but still only an experiment. The failure of the
+ministry of "All the Talents" renders it exceedingly doubtful whether
+such an alliance would have proved successful, and Fox's lukewarm
+patriotism would have been dearly purchased at the expense of the
+alienation of the king, perhaps even of his relapse into insanity. Nor
+is it certain that the strongest pressure would have induced George III.
+to accept Fox at this date. Addington was still undefeated and might
+have remained in office if Pitt had refused to assume the reins of
+government without Fox. Grenville is undoubtedly more responsible than
+any one else for the weakness of Pitt's second administration. It was
+from a sense of loyalty to Grenville that Pitt had suffered the
+negotiations for his return to office in 1803 to fall through, and now
+when the two statesmen could return together, and when, if ever, a
+strong government was needed, either a quixotic sense of honour or a
+wounded pride induced Grenville not only to stand aloof from the new
+administration himself, but to do his utmost to prevent others from
+giving it their support.[25] The new cabinet was quickly formed. Pitt
+received the seals of office on May 10, and took his seat in parliament
+after re-election on the 18th, the very day on which Napoleon was
+declared emperor by the French senate.
+
+This event, long foreseen, was doubtless hastened by the disclosure of
+the plot formed by Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges Cadoudal against the
+first consul. There was no proof of Moreau's complicity in designs on
+Napoleon's life, and the mysterious death of Pichegru in prison left the
+extent of his complicity among the insoluble problems of history, but
+there can be no doubt that Cadoudal was justly executed for plotting
+assassination. Unfortunately some of the under-secretaries in the
+Addington administration had not only shared the plans of the
+conspirators so far as they aimed at a rising in France, but had
+procured for them material assistance. They appear, however, to have
+been innocent of any attempt on Napoleon's life. Drake, the British
+envoy at Munich, was, however, deeper in the plot. The evidence of
+British complicity naturally received the very worst construction in
+Paris.[26] Napoleon himself certainly believed in an Anglo-Bourbon
+conspiracy, organised by the Count of Artois and other French royalists,
+when he caused the Duke of Enghien to be kidnapped in Baden territory
+and hurried off to the castle of Vincennes. He was, however, already
+aware of his prisoner's innocence when on March 21 he had him shot there
+by torch-light after a mock trial before a military commission. All
+Europe was shocked by this atrocious assassination, and though Napoleon
+sometimes attempted to shift the guilt of it upon Talleyrand, he
+justified it at other times as a measure of self-defence, and left on
+record his deliberate approval of it, for the consideration of
+posterity. Two months later he became Emperor of the French.
+
+When Pitt resumed office on May 10, 1804, he was no longer the
+heaven-born and buoyant young minister of 1783, strong in the confidence
+of the king and the anticipated confidence of the nation, with a
+minority of followers in the house of commons, but with the brightest
+prospects of political success before him. Nor was he the leader of a
+devoted majority, as when he resigned in 1801 rather than abandon his
+convictions on the catholic question. He had been compelled to waive
+these convictions, without fully regaining the confidence of the king,
+and, while the adherents of Fox retained their deep-seated hatred of a
+war-policy, the adherents of Addington and Grenville were in no mood to
+give him a loyal support. Windham and Spencer were no longer at his
+side, and his ministry was essentially the same as that of Addington,
+with the substitution of Dudley Ryder, now Lord Harrowby, for Hawkesbury
+as foreign secretary, Melville for St. Vincent as first lord of the
+admiralty, Earl Camden for Hobart as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and the Duke of Montrose for Auckland as president of the board of
+trade. Hawkesbury was transferred to the home office, vacated by Yorke,
+and the new chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, Lord Mulgrave, was
+given a seat in the cabinet. Of Pitt's eleven colleagues in the cabinet
+Castlereagh alone, who remained president of the board of control--a
+wretched speaker though an able administrator--had a seat in the lower
+house.
+
+[Pageheading: _PITT'S RECONCILIATION WITH ADDINGTON._]
+
+Military exigencies now engrossed all thoughts, and the king's speech,
+in proroguing parliament on July 31, foreshadowed a new coalition, for
+which the murder of the Duke of Enghien had paved the way. The
+preparations for an invasion of England had been resumed, and Napoleon
+celebrated his birthday in great state at Boulogne, still postponing his
+final stroke until he should be crowned, on December 2, at Paris by the
+helpless pope, brought from Italy for the purpose.[27] A month later he
+personally addressed another pacific letter to the King of England, who
+replied in his speech from the throne on January 15, 1805, that he could
+not entertain overtures except in concert with Russia and the other
+powers. Meanwhile, Pitt, conscious as he was of failing powers, retained
+his undaunted courage, and while he was organising a third coalition,
+did not shrink from a bold measure which could hardly be justified by
+international law. This was the seizure on October 5, 1804, of three
+Spanish treasure-ships on the high seas, without a previous declaration
+of war against Spain, though not without a previous notice that
+hostilities might be opened at any moment unless Spain ceased to give
+underhand assistance to France. The excuse was that Spain had long been
+the obsequious ally of France, and, as the alliance now became open,
+Pitt's act was sanctioned by a large majority in both houses of
+parliament in January, 1805. The parliamentary session which opened in
+this month found Pitt's ministry apparently stronger than it had been at
+the beginning of the recess. Despairing of any help from Grenville,
+except in a vigorous prosecution of the war, he had sought a
+reconciliation with Addington, who became Viscount Sidmouth on January
+12 and president of the council on the 14th. Along with Sidmouth his
+former colleague Hobart, now Earl of Buckinghamshire, returned to office
+as chancellor of the duchy. To make room for these new allies, Portland
+had consented to resign the presidency of the council, though he
+remained a member of the cabinet, while Mulgrave was appointed to the
+foreign office, in place of Harrowby, who was compelled by ill-health to
+retire.
+
+But this new accession of strength was soon followed by a terrible
+mortification which probably contributed to shorten Pitt's life.
+Melville, his tried supporter and intimate friend, was charged on the
+report of a commission with having misapplied public money as treasurer
+of the navy in Pitt's former ministry. It appeared that he had been
+culpably careless, and had not prevented the paymaster, Trotter, from
+engaging in private speculations with the naval balances. Although
+Trotter's speculations involved no loss to the state they were,
+nevertheless, a contravention of an act of 1785. Melville had also
+supplied other departments of government with naval money, but was
+personally innocent of fraud. There was a divergence of feeling in the
+cabinet as to the attitude to be adopted towards Melville. Sidmouth,
+himself a man of the highest integrity, was a friend of St. Vincent, the
+late first lord of the admiralty, and had not forgiven Melville for his
+part in the expulsion of himself and St. Vincent from office. He had
+therefore both public and private grounds to incline him against
+Melville. On April 8, Samuel Whitbread moved a formal censure on
+Melville in the house of commons. Pitt, with the approval of Sidmouth
+and his friends, moved the previous question on Whitbread's motion, and
+declared his intention of introducing a motion of his own for a select
+committee to investigate the charges. In spite of the support which Pitt
+derived from the followers of Sidmouth the votes were equally divided on
+Whitbread's motion, 216 a side. Abbot, the speaker, gave his casting
+vote in favour of Whitbread, and the announcement was received by the
+whig members with unseemly exultation.[28]
+
+[Pageheading: _MINISTERIAL CHANGES._]
+
+The censure was followed by an impeachment before the house of lords,
+where Melville was acquitted in the following year. Meanwhile, he had
+resigned office on April 9, the day after the vote of censure, and his
+place at the admiralty was taken by Sir Charles Middleton, who was
+raised to the peerage as Lord Barham. The appointment gave umbrage to
+Sidmouth, to whom Pitt had made promises of promotion for his own
+followers, and he was with difficulty induced to remain in the cabinet.
+Pitt was, however, irritated by the hostile votes of Sidmouth's
+followers, Hiley Addington and Bond, on the question of the impeachment,
+and regarded this as a reason for delaying their preferment. Sidmouth
+now complained of a breach of faith, as Pitt had promised to treat the
+question as an open one, and he resigned office on July 4.
+Buckinghamshire resigned next day. Camden was appointed to succeed
+Sidmouth as lord president, Castlereagh followed Camden as secretary for
+war and the colonies, retaining his previous position as president of
+the board of control, and Harrowby, whose health had improved since his
+resignation in January, took Buckinghamshire's place as chancellor of
+the duchy. Thus weakened at home, Pitt could derive little consolation
+from the aspect of continental affairs. On May 26, Napoleon was crowned
+King of Italy in the cathedral of Milan, and the Ligurian Republic
+became part of the French empire in the following month. The ascendency
+of France in Europe might well have appeared impregnable, and it might
+have been supposed that nothing remained for England but to guard her
+own coasts and recapture some of the French colonies given up by the
+treaty of Amiens.
+
+But Pitt's spirit was still unbroken, and by the middle of July he
+succeeded in rallying three powers, Russia, Austria, and Sweden, into a
+league to withstand the further encroachments of France. Such a league
+had been proposed by Gustavus IV. of Sweden, early in 1804, but nothing
+definite was done till Pitt's ministry entered upon office. Meanwhile,
+the assassination of the Duke of Enghien had led to a rupture of
+diplomatic relations between France and Russia, though war was not
+declared. Negotiations were presently set on foot for a league, which,
+it was hoped, would be joined by Austria and Prussia in addition to
+Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden. An interesting feature in the
+negotiations was the tsar's scheme of a European polity, where the
+states should be independent and enjoy institutions "founded on the
+sacred rights of humanity," a foreshadowing, as it would seem, of the
+Holy Alliance. The discussion of details between Great Britain and
+Russia began towards the end of 1804. Difficulties, however, arose about
+the British retention of Malta and the British claim to search neutral
+ships for deserters. A treaty between the two powers was signed on April
+11, 1805; but the tsar long refused his ratification, and it was only
+given in July, after a formal protest against the retention of Malta.
+
+The object of this alliance was defined to be the expulsion of French
+troops from North Germany, the assured independence of the republics of
+Holland and Switzerland, and the restoration of the King of Sardinia in
+Piedmont; 500,000 men were to be provided for the war by Russia and such
+other continental powers as might join the coalition. Great Britain,
+instead of furnishing troops, was to supply £1,250,000 a year for every
+100,000 men engaged in the war. After the close of the war an European
+congress was to define more closely the law of nations and establish an
+European federation. At the same time the allies disclaimed the
+intention of forcing any system of government on France against her
+will. It will be observed that the number of troops specified was far in
+excess of what Russia alone could place in the field; such numbers could
+only be obtained by the adhesion of Austria and of either Prussia or
+some of the smaller German states to the coalition. So far as Austria
+was concerned, Napoleon's Italian policy rendered war inevitable.
+Already in November, 1804, the Austrian court had entered into a secret
+agreement with Russia to make war on France in the event of further
+French aggressions in Italy. The coronation of Napoleon as King of Italy
+and the annexation of Liguria were, however, more than aggressions; they
+were open violations of the treaty of Lunéville which had guaranteed the
+independence of the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics. Austria hereupon
+determined on war, and secretly joined the coalition on August 9, 1805.
+Sweden, which was not a member of it, concluded separate treaties of
+alliance both with Great Britain and with Russia. Greater difficulties
+had to be surmounted in the case of Prussia. Frederick William III.
+cherished no enthusiasm for European liberty, and vacillated under the
+influence of Napoleon's offer of Hanover on the one hand and his
+numerous petty insults on the other. Prussia in consequence remained
+neutral throughout the most decisive period of the ensuing war.
+
+[Pageheading: _NELSON AND VILLENEUVE._]
+
+Long before the coalition was ready Napoleon's mind had recurred to his
+venturesome project for the invasion of England. An army, the finest
+that he ever led to victory, which, even after it had been transferred
+to another scene of action, he still saw fit to call the "army of
+England," was encamped near Boulogne. It was constantly exercised in the
+process of embarking on board flat-bottomed boats or rafts, which were
+to be convoyed by Villeneuve, admiral of the Toulon fleet, and
+Gantheaume, admiral of the Brest fleet, for whose appearance the French
+signalmen vainly scanned the horizon. In the meantime, Nelson had been
+engaged for two years, without setting foot on shore, in that patient
+and sleepless watch, ranging over the whole Mediterranean, which must
+ever rank with the greatest of his matchless exploits. At last, he
+learned in the spring of 1805, that Villeneuve, following a plan
+concerted by Napoleon himself, had eluded him by sailing from Toulon
+towards Cadiz, had there been joined by the Spanish fleet, and was
+steering for the West Indies. Nelson followed with a much smaller number
+of ships, and might have forced an action in those waters, but he was
+misled by false intelligence and missed the enemy, though his dreaded
+presence was effectual in saving the British islands from any serious
+attack.
+
+The combined fleets of France and Spain recrossed the Atlantic and in
+accordance with Napoleon's plans made for Ferrol on the coast of
+Galicia. After being repulsed with some loss off Cape Finisterre by Sir
+Robert Calder, who was court-martialled and severely reprimanded for
+neglecting to follow up his victory, they put in first at Vigo, and then
+with fifteen allied ships at Coruña. But, instead of venturing to carry
+out Napoleon's orders by challenging Admiral Cornwallis's fleet off
+Brest, and making a desperate effort to command the channel, Villeneuve
+now took advantage of his emperors recommendation to return to Cadiz in
+event of defeat, and set sail for that port in the middle of August.
+Nelson, ignorant of his movements, had vainly sought him off the Straits
+of Gibraltar, and came home to report himself at the admiralty. Arriving
+at Spithead on August 18, he was in England barely four weeks, most of
+which he spent in privacy at Merton. During this brief respite he
+received a general tribute of admiration and affection from his
+countrymen, which anticipated the verdict of posterity. On September 15
+he sailed from Portsmouth, with a presentiment of his own fate, after
+having described to Sidmouth the general design of his crowning sea
+fight: he would, he said, break the enemy's line in two places; and he
+did so. He joined Admiral Collingwood off Cadiz on the 29th, and on
+October 19 he received news that Villeneuve, smarting under the
+prospect of being superseded, had put to sea with the combined fleet.
+Complicated naval manoeuvres followed, but on the 21st the enemy was
+forced to give battle, a few leagues from Cape Trafalgar, and Nelson
+caused his immortal signal to be hoisted--"England expects that every
+man will do his duty".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TRAFALGAR._]
+
+The French and Spanish fleet comprised thirty-three ships of the line,
+of which eighteen were French and fifteen Spanish; the British had only
+twenty-seven, but among these were seven three-deckers as against four
+on the side of the allies. It had the additional advantage of superior
+discipline and equipment, to say nothing of the genius of its commander.
+The British fleet advanced in two divisions, Nelson leading the weather
+division of twelve, and Collingwood the lee division of fifteen ships.
+According to Nelson's plan Collingwood was to attack the rear of the
+enemy's line, while he himself cut off and paralysed the centre and van.
+Both divisions advanced without regular formation, the ships bearing
+down with all the speed they could command and without waiting for
+laggards. Collingwood in the _Royal Sovereign_, steering E. by N., broke
+through the allies' line twelve ships from the rear, raking the _Santa
+Ana_, Alava's flagship, as he passed her stern, with a broadside which
+struck down 400 of her men. For some fifteen minutes the _Royal
+Sovereign_ was alone in action; then others of the division came up and
+successively penetrated the line of the allies, and engaging ship to
+ship completely disposed of the enemy's rear, their twelve rear ships
+being all taken or destroyed.
+
+Meanwhile, Nelson in the _Victory_, who had reserved to himself the more
+difficult task of containing twenty-one ships with twelve, held on his
+course, advancing so as to keep the allied van stationary and yet to
+prevent the centre from venturing to help the rear. He designed to pass
+through the end of the line in order to cut the enemy's van off from
+Cadiz, but, finding an opportunity, changed his course, passed down the
+line and attacked the centre. He passed through the line of the allied
+fleet, closely followed by four other ships of his division, and the
+five British ships concentrated their attacks on the _Bucentaure_,
+Villeneuve's flagship, the gigantic Spanish four-decker, the _Santísima
+Trinidad_, which was next ahead of her, and the _Redoutable_, which
+supported her. The centre of the allies was crushed and the van cut off
+from coming to the help of the rear, which was being destroyed by
+Collingwood.
+
+Before the battle ended, the naval force of France, and with it
+Napoleon's projects of invasion, were utterly and hopelessly ruined.
+Eighteen prizes were taken, and, though many of these were lost in a
+gale, four ships which escaped were afterwards captured, and the
+remainder lay for the most part shattered hulks at Cadiz. By this battle
+the supremacy of Great Britain at sea was finally established. Nelson,
+who, during the ship-to-ship engagement which followed his penetration
+of the enemy's line, was mortally wounded by a sharp-shooter from the
+mizzen-top of the _Redoutable_, died before the battle was over, though
+he was spared to hear that a complete victory was secure. His death is
+among the heroic incidents of history, and his last achievement, both in
+its conception and its results, was the fitting climax of his fame. The
+plan for the battle which he drew up beforehand for the instruction of
+his captains, and the changes which he made in it to meet the conditions
+of the moment are alike worthy of his supreme genius as a naval
+tactician. His arrangements were carried out by men who had learned to
+love and trust him, and who were inspired by the fire of his spirit, and
+hence it was that the allied fleet of France and Spain perished at the
+"Nelson touch".[29]
+
+Very different were the fortunes of war in central Europe, where
+Napoleon himself commanded the "army of England". It was not until the
+end of August that Napoleon knew that Villeneuve would be unable to
+appear in the Channel, but no sooner did he abandon his project of
+invasion in despair than he resolved on a campaign scarcely less
+arduous, and gave orders for a grand march into Germany. Pitt, as we
+have seen, had successfully negotiated an alliance with Russia and
+Austria, whose armies were converging upon the plains of Bavaria and
+were to have been reinforced by a large Prussian contingent. Unhappily,
+they had not effected a junction when Napoleon crossed the Rhine near
+Strassburg and the Danube near Donauwörth, while he detached large
+forces to check the advance of the Russians and the approach of
+reinforcements expected from Italy. One of these movements involved an
+open violation of Prussian territory, but he could rely on the
+well-tried servility of Frederick William. The first decisive result of
+his strategy was the surrender of Mack at Ulm, with 30,000 men and 60
+pieces of ordnance. This event took place on October 20, the very day
+before the battle of Trafalgar, and opened the road to Vienna, which the
+French troops entered on November 13, occupying the great bridge by a
+ruse more skilful than honourable, during the negotiation of an
+armistice. Vienna was spared, while Napoleon pressed on to meet the
+remainder of the Austrian army, which had now been joined by a larger
+body of Russians near Brünn. The allies numbered about 100,000 men;
+Napoleon's army was numerically somewhat less, but possessed the same
+kind of superiority as the British navy at Trafalgar. The result was the
+crushing victory of Austerlitz on December 2, followed by the peace of
+Pressburg, between France and Austria, signed on the 26th. The principal
+articles of this treaty provided for the cession of Venetia, Istria, and
+Dalmatia to the kingdom of Italy, and the aggrandisement of Bavaria and
+Würtemberg, whose electors received the royal title as the price of
+their sympathetic alliance with France. Russia withdrew sullenly, having
+learned the hollowness of her league with Prussia, which had basely
+temporised while the fate of Germany was at stake, and whose minister,
+Haugwitz, suppressing the _ultimatum_ which he was charged to deliver,
+had openly congratulated the conqueror of Austerlitz.
+
+Great Britain had had no direct share in the conflict in Southern
+Germany and Moravia; she had, however, joined in two expeditions, the
+one in Southern, the other in Northern Europe. In spite of a treaty of
+neutrality between France and the Two Sicilies, ratified on October 8,
+an Anglo-Russian squadron was permitted to land a force of 10,000
+British troops under Sir James Craig, and 14,000 Russians on the shore
+of the Bay of Naples. These troops effected nothing, and the violation
+of neutrality was, as we shall see, destined to involve the Neapolitan
+monarchy in ruin. The expedition to North Germany was planned on a
+larger scale. Hanover had been occupied by France since June, 1803. Its
+recovery was attempted by an Anglo-Hanoverian force under Cathcart,
+which was to have been supported by a Russian and Swedish force acting
+from Stralsund. The co-operation of Prussia was also expected. In order
+to secure this alliance the British government offered Prussia an
+extension of territory so as to include Antwerp, Liège, Luxemburg, and
+Cologne, in the event of victory. In November the expedition landed. In
+December Prussia had definitely given her protection to the Russian
+troops in Hanover and offered it to the Hanoverians. Pitt computed that
+at the beginning of the next campaign nearly 300,000 men would be
+available in North Germany. But the vacillation of Prussia ruined all.
+On December 15 Haugwitz signed the treaty of Schönbrunn, by which
+Prussia was to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with
+France and was to receive Hanover in return for Ansbach, Cleves, and
+Neuchâtel. Frederick William could not yet stoop to such a degree of
+infamy, and therefore, instead of ratifying the treaty, resolved on
+January 3, 1806, to propose a compromise, which involved among other
+provisions the temporary occupation of Hanover by Prussia. In
+consequence of this determination he sent, on January 7, a request for
+the withdrawal of the British forces, which were accordingly
+recalled.[30]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF PITT._]
+
+The collapse of his last coalition was the death-blow of Pitt, cheered
+though he was for the moment by the news of Trafalgar. The fatal
+consequences of Austerlitz were reported to him at Bath, whence he
+returned by easy stages to his villa at Putney in January, 1806. His
+noble spirit was broken at last by the defection of Prussia, and after
+lingering a while, he died on the 23rd of that month, leaving a name
+second to none among the greatest statesmen of his country. His
+sagacious mind grasped the advantage to be gained by freeing trade from
+unnecessary restrictions, and anticipated catholic emancipation,
+parliamentary reform, and the abolition of slavery. He gave the nation,
+in the union with Ireland, the one constructive measure of the first
+order achieved in his time, and only marred by the weakness of more
+pliable successors in a lesser age. His dauntless soul, which bore him
+up against the bitterest disappointments, the desertion of friends, and
+the depression of mortal disease, inspired the governing classes of
+England to endure ten more years of exhausting war, to save Europe (as
+he foretold) by their example, and to crown his own work at Waterloo.
+His lofty eloquence, which has been described as a gift independent of
+statesmanship, was indeed a product of statesmanship, for it consisted
+in no mere witchery of words, but in a luminous and convincing
+presentation of essential facts. He may have been inferior to his own
+father in fiery rhetoric, to Peel in comprehensive grasp of domestic
+policy, and to Gladstone in the political experience gained by sixty
+years of political life, but in capacity for command he was inferior to
+none. If he was not an ideal war minister, he was not a war minister by
+his own choice; his lot was cast in times which suppressed the exercise
+of his best powers; and he was matched in the organisation of war,
+though not in the field, against the greatest organising genius known to
+history. He must be judged by what he actually did and meditated as a
+peace minister; his conduct of the war must be compared with that of
+those able but not gifted men who strove to bend the bow which he left
+behind him; and we must assuredly conclude that none of his colleagues
+or rivals was his peer either in powers or in public spirit.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[13] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 242; Lewis,
+_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 225.
+
+[14] Buckingham, _Court and Cabinets_, iii., 282-90; Pellew, _Life of
+Sidmouth_, ii., 113-31; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 20-39.
+
+[15] See vol. x., p. 399.
+
+[16] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 145-47; Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_,
+iv., 88-93.
+
+[17] For a list of Canning's squibs, belonging to this period, see
+Lewis, _Administrations_, p. 249, note.
+
+[18] It was not fair to hold Addington entirely responsible for the
+promotion of his brother, who had been a junior lord of the treasury
+under Pitt. The taunt came with a particularly bad grace from Canning,
+who had himself been paymaster-general in the last administration.
+
+[19] Pellew, _Life of Sidmouth_, ii., 250.
+
+[20] _Annual Register_, xlvi. (1804), p. 34.
+
+[21] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 135-44.
+
+[22] See the letter in Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp.
+i.-iii.
+
+[23] There is preserved a sketch in Pitt's handwriting of a combined
+administration with Melville, Fox, and Fitzwilliam as secretaries of
+state, and Grenville as lord president.
+
+[24] Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., appendix, pp. xi., xii.
+
+[25] The best account of Pitt's return to power is to be found in
+Stanhope, _Life of Pitt_, iv., 113-95; appendix, pp. i.-xiii. The story
+is told in a very spirited manner by Lord Rosebery, _Pitt_, pp. 238-44.
+
+[26] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, i., 450-53.
+
+[27] Napoleon actually crowned himself, although he had originally
+intended to be crowned by the pope.
+
+[28] Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 338.
+
+[29] Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar are explained in a series of
+remarkable articles in _The Times_ of September 16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30,
+and October 19, 1905. For incidents of the battle see Mahan, _Life of
+Nelson_, ii., 363 _sqq._
+
+[30] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 53-57, 63-65.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER III.
+
+ GRENVILLE AND PORTLAND.
+
+
+The immediate effect of Pitt's death was the dissolution of his
+government. The king turned at first to Hawkesbury, afterwards destined
+as Earl of Liverpool to hold the office of premier for nearly fifteen
+years; but he then felt himself unequal to such a burden. He next sent
+for Grenville, who insisted on the co-operation of Fox, to which the
+king assented without demur, and the short-lived ministry of "All the
+Talents" was formed within a few days. It was essentially a whig
+cabinet, but it included two tories, Sidmouth as lord privy seal, and
+Lord Ellenborough, the lord chief justice. Grenville himself was first
+lord of the treasury, Fox foreign secretary, and Erskine lord
+chancellor. Charles Grey, the future Earl Grey, was first lord of the
+admiralty. Spencer home secretary, Windham secretary for war and the
+colonies, and Lord Henry Petty, the future Marquis of Lansdowne,
+chancellor of the exchequer. Fitzwilliam was lord president, and the
+Earl of Moira master-general of the ordnance. Ellenborough owed his
+place in the cabinet to the influence of Sidmouth. The appointment was a
+departure from the established constitutional practice. Since Lord
+Mansfield, who had ceased to be an efficient member in 1765, no chief
+justice had been a member of the cabinet, and it was argued in
+parliament by the opposition that a seat in the cabinet was inconsistent
+with the independence which a common law judge ought to maintain. It is
+also important to observe that Sidmouth when accepting office gave
+express notice to Grenville and Fox that under all circumstances "he
+would ever resist the catholic question".[31]
+
+The friendly relations of the king with Fox were creditable to both of
+them, and in the last few months of his life Fox showed himself a
+statesman. Besides the abolition of the slave trade, his grand object
+was the restoration of peace on a durable basis. There were some grounds
+for believing that this was possible. France, under an emperor, seemed
+no longer to represent a new principle in European politics, and was not
+necessarily a menace to her neighbours; the coalition was fairly beaten
+on land, while British supremacy had been reasserted on sea, and
+Napoleon might well wish for peace to enable him to consolidate his
+position on land and regain the power of using the sea, just as he had
+done in 1801. Fox lost no time in renewing a pacific correspondence with
+Talleyrand, afterwards carried on through the agency of Lord Yarmouth,
+an English traveller detained in France, and Lord Lauderdale, who was
+sent over as plenipotentiary. The principle of the negotiation was that
+of _uti possidetis_, but it failed, as Whitworth's efforts had failed,
+because the pretensions of France were constantly shifting, and
+especially because France, anxious to isolate Great Britain, insisted on
+negotiating separately with Great Britain and Russia, while Fox very
+properly refused to make peace without our ally. Grey himself, now Lord
+Howick, afterwards declared that France showed no disposition to grant
+any terms which could be accepted by Great Britain. On September 13, Fox
+died, and was buried in Westminster Abbey almost side by side with his
+great rival.
+
+While he was earnestly striving for peace, there was no cessation of
+warlike movements or political changes either in Central Europe or in
+Italy. In June, 1806, Napoleon converted the Batavian Republic into the
+kingdom of Holland, over which he set his brother Louis. In July the
+discord of Germany, which had long ceased to be a nation, was
+consummated by the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which
+separated all the western states from the Holy Roman empire, and united
+them under the protection and control of France. On August 6, Francis
+II., who had assumed the title of Emperor of Austria in 1804, formally
+renounced the title of Roman Emperor, and the Holy Roman Empire became
+extinct. The King of Prussia, with singular disregard of good faith and
+national interest, finally accepted on February 15 the bribe of Hanover
+for adhesion to France, but without the offensive and defensive alliance
+offered him in the previous December, and with the additional
+humiliation of being compelled to close his ports to English ships. He
+vainly strove to conceal this shameful bargain, and was, as will be
+seen, punished by the destruction of Prussian commerce. After all, he
+found himself overreached by Napoleon in duplicity, and was at last
+provoked into risking a single-handed contest with his imperious ally.
+He declared war on October 1, and within a fortnight the army of
+Prussia, inheriting the system and traditions of the great Frederick,
+was all but annihilated in the twin battles of Jena and Auerstädt fought
+on October 14.
+
+[Pageheading: _SMALL EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+The British government, though not unwilling to forgive the perfidy of
+its former confederate, was powerless to strike a blow on his behalf
+until it was too late. Indeed, the only warlike operation undertaken by
+Great Britain in Europe during the year was in the extreme south of
+Italy. Ferdinand, King of the Two Sicilies, had been driven out of his
+capital to make way for Joseph Bonaparte, who entered Naples on February
+15, and the exiled monarch took refuge in the island of Sicily. In
+accordance with the shortsighted policy of small expeditions, a British
+force under Sir John Stuart was landed in Calabria to raise the
+peasantry, and on July 4, defeated the French at the point of the
+bayonet in the battle of Maida. This action shook the confidence of
+Europe in the superiority of the French infantry, and saved Sicily from
+France, but the French troops remained in possession of the Italian
+mainland. The prestige of Great Britain was raised by the conquest of
+the Dutch colony of the Cape of Good Hope in January by a naval and
+military force sent out by Pitt under the command of Sir Home Popham and
+General, now Sir David, Baird, but was damaged by a futile expedition to
+South America, undertaken by Popham without orders from the home
+government. The city of Buenos Ayres was taken, indeed, in June by
+General Beresford, but it was retaken by the Spaniards in August, and
+soldiers who could ill be spared from the European conflict now
+impending were lavished on a chimerical project on the other side of the
+Atlantic.
+
+The short administration of Grenville, so inactive in its foreign
+policy, is memorable only for one redeeming measure of home-policy--the
+abolition of the slave trade. Before Fox's death, the attention of
+parliament had been divided mainly between Windham's abortive scheme
+for a vast standing army, to be raised on the basis of limited service,
+and the secret inquiry into the conduct of the Princess of Wales. This
+resulted in her being acquitted of the more scandalous charges against
+her, but on the advice of the cabinet, she was censured by the king for
+unseemly levity of behaviour. On October 24 parliament was dissolved. It
+was a foolish dissolution, for ministerial convenience only, and aimed
+not merely at strengthening the ministry, but at weakening the tory
+section within the ministry. The election was not well managed, and the
+king withheld the subscription of £12,000 with which he was accustomed
+to assist his ministers for the time being at a general election. Still
+the ministry obtained a considerable majority.[32] The new parliament
+met on December 15, and on March 25, 1807, the abolition bill, having
+passed the house of lords in spite of strong opposition, was carried in
+the commons by 283 to 16. Thus ended a philanthropic struggle, which
+began in 1783, when the quakers petitioned against the trade. Three
+years later Clarkson began his crusade. Two bills in favour of abolition
+were carried by the house of commons before the close of the eighteenth
+century, but were thrown out in the house of lords. The same fate befell
+a bill for a temporary suspension of the slave trade, which passed the
+commons in 1804 under the spell of Wilberforce's persuasive eloquence;
+but Pitt's government caused a royal proclamation to be issued, which at
+least checked the spread of the nefarious traffic in the newly conquered
+colonies. A larger measure failed to pass the house of commons in 1805,
+but in 1806 Fox and Grenville succeeded in committing both houses to an
+open condemnation of the trade. This was followed on March 25, 1807, by
+an enactment entirely prohibiting the slave trade from and after January
+1, 1808, though it was not made felony to engage in it until a further
+act was carried by Brougham in 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _FALL OF GRENVILLE'S MINISTRY._]
+
+In default of important legislative tasks, the parliament which expired
+in 1806 devoted much attention to various features of the military
+system, as well as to proposed reforms in the public accounts. It
+sanctioned the principle of raising a great part of the war-expenses by
+special taxes rather than by loan. A property-tax of 10 per cent. was
+freely voted, and this was then represented to be its permanent limit.
+The assessed taxes were increased at the same time by 10 per cent., but
+with an allowance in favour of poorer taxpayers for every child above
+the number of two. It is worthy of notice that, while Grenville's
+ministry was in office, Whitbread brought forward an elaborate plan not
+only for reforming the poor laws but also for establishing a system of
+national education. Some changes in the cabinet were necessitated by the
+death of Fox. Howick became foreign secretary and was succeeded at the
+admiralty by Thomas Grenville, brother of the prime minister, most
+famous as a book-collector. Fitzwilliam retired at the same time on the
+ground of ill-health. He retained his seat in the cabinet, but was
+succeeded as lord president by Sidmouth, while Fox's nephew, Lord
+Holland, succeeded Sidmouth as lord privy seal.
+
+The fall of the whig government in March, 1807, was due to a cause
+similar to that which had brought about the retirement of Pitt in 1801.
+The Duke of Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, had urged the
+importance of making some concessions to Roman catholics. An Irish act
+of 1793 had opened commissions in the army as high as the rank of
+colonel to Roman catholics, and the ministry obtained the reluctant
+consent of the king to the extension of this concession to Roman
+catholics throughout his dominions. Without having fully ascertained the
+king's mind, Howick, on behalf of his colleagues, moved for leave to
+bring in a bill opening all commissions in the army and navy to Roman
+catholics. The king at once refused his sanction, and the government,
+finding that they could not carry their bill, agreed to withdraw it.
+This decision was announced to the king in a cabinet minute, drawn up at
+a meeting from which Ellenborough, Erskine, and Sidmouth, who
+sympathised with the king, were excluded, and from which Fitzwilliam and
+Spencer were absent owing to ill-health. The minute went on to record
+their adhesion to the policy embodied in the bill, reserving the right
+to advise the king on any future occasion in accordance with that
+policy. Thereupon, Sidmouth, who had already sent in his resignation,
+Eldon, Portland, and Malmesbury, with the concurrence of the Duke of
+York and Spencer Perceval, urged the king to make a stand upon his
+prerogative. He did so, by requiring the ministers who had signed the
+minute, to give him a written pledge that they would never press upon
+him further concessions, direct or indirect, to the Roman catholics.
+This pledge they properly declined, and accepted the consequence by
+resignation. Spencer was present at the meeting which arrived at this
+conclusion and concurred in the decision of his colleagues.[33]
+
+A new administration was formed by Portland, as nominal head, but with
+Perceval as its real leader and chancellor of the exchequer, Canning as
+foreign secretary, Hawkesbury as home secretary, and Castlereagh as
+minister for war and the colonies. Camden, Eldon, Westmorland, and
+Chatham resumed the offices they had held before the death of Pitt,
+Mulgrave became first lord of the admiralty, and Earl Bathurst president
+of the board of trade. In this government, too, Sir Arthur Wellesley,
+the future Duke of Wellington, who had returned in 1805 from a brilliant
+military career in India, held office outside the cabinet as chief
+secretary for Ireland. Spencer Perceval was a half-brother of the Earl
+of Egmont and brother of Lord Arden. He enjoyed a large practice at the
+bar and had made his mark as a parliamentary debater when filling the
+offices, first of solicitor-general, and then of attorney-general under
+Addington. He had held the latter office again under Pitt. Not the least
+source of his influence was his steady and determined opposition to the
+Roman catholic claims.
+
+[Pageheading: _NON-INTERVENTION._]
+
+After a short but animated debate on the important constitutional
+question raised by the circumstances of the change of ministers,
+parliament was again dissolved on April 27. The king's speech in closing
+the session was virtually a personal appeal to his people, and a
+majority was returned in favour of the new ministry. This result may be
+said to mark the last triumph of George III. in maintaining the
+principle of personal government. "A just and enlightened toleration"
+was announced as the substitute for catholic relief. Still, a certain
+revival of independent popular opinion may be traced in the return of
+Sir Francis Burdett and Lord Cochrane for Westminster. It was not until
+June 22 that parliament assembled, and the engrossing interest of
+foreign events left but little room for discussions on home-policy. A
+motion by Whitbread, however, bore fruit in a bill for establishing
+parochial schools, which Eldon successfully opposed in the house of
+lords, mainly on the ground that it would take popular education out of
+the hands of the clergy. The same not unnatural apathy about home
+affairs prevailed throughout the session of 1808, which began on January
+31, and though a large number of acts were placed on the statute book in
+this and succeeding years, the mass of them, including many relating to
+Ireland, were essentially of a local or occasional character. An
+exception must be recognised in the partial success of a motion for the
+reform of the criminal law, which was proposed by Sir Samuel Romilly,
+famous for his efforts in the cause of humanity, and which resulted in
+the abolition of capital punishment for the offence of pocket-picking.
+
+During this critical period, when Great Britain was gradually drifting
+into a position of isolation, the course of parliamentary history
+becomes inseparable from the progress of those mighty events on the
+continent, which Grenville's government would fain have treated as
+outside the sphere of British interests. For, notwithstanding Windham's
+schemes for a reconstruction of the army, that government had allowed
+the naval and military establishments of Great Britain to fall below
+their former standard. The leading idea of their policy was
+non-intervention, and at the opening of 1807, there was no longer any
+thought of sending a force to cope with Napoleon's veterans on the
+continent When in 1805 a British force was operating in North Germany,
+it was possible that if Prussia had been faithful to her engagements,
+the disaster of Austerlitz might at least have been partially retrieved.
+It was otherwise when, after the collapse of Prussia, France and Russia
+stood face to face with each other. The drawn battle of Eylau in East
+Prussia, marked by fearful carnage, was fought on February 8, 1807. This
+check, breaking the spell of Napoleon's victorious career, had a
+remarkable effect in raising the spirits of the allies, Russia, Sweden,
+and Prussia, some remains of whose army were still in the field. These
+powers now drew closer together, but they received a lukewarm support
+from Great Britain, which might have done much to save Europe by timely
+reinforcements and liberal subsidies. In reply to an urgent appeal from
+the tsar for a loan of £6,000,000, the Grenville ministry doled out
+£500,000 to Russia, and a still more pitiful gift to Prussia. No troops
+were sent to aid Sweden on the Baltic coast, although, when, at
+Napoleon's instigation, Turkey declared war against Russia, expeditions
+were despatched to Alexandria and the Dardanelles. The notion of making
+war on a large scale, in concert with allies, on the continent of
+Europe, as in the days of Marlborough, and even of Lord Granby, seems to
+have vanished from the minds of English statesmen, except Castlereagh,
+who always advocated concentrated action.
+
+The succession of Portland and Canning to Grenville and Howick brought
+no immediate change in our insular policy and the new government had
+been in office for above three months before a British force at last
+appeared in the Swedish island of Rügen. It arrived too late, Danzig
+surrendered in May, and on June 14 Napoleon obtained a decisive victory
+over the Russian army and its Prussian contingent at Friedland. Russia
+now gave a supreme example of that national selfishness, and contempt
+for the rights of independent states which had dominated the counsels of
+sovereigns ever since the first partition of Poland. Doubtless the tsar
+might plead that Great Britain, too, had been wasting her strength in
+selfish attempts to secure her mastery of the seas, and to open new
+markets for her trade. He also deeply resented her recent failure to aid
+him in the hour of his utmost need, while he still cherished the policy
+of the "armed neutrality," and was eager to prosecute his designs
+against Turkey. Dazzled and flattered by Napoleon, he welcomed overtures
+for peace at the expense of Great Britain, and there is no doubt that
+his imaginative nature indulged in the vision of a regenerated Europe,
+divided between himself as emperor of the east and Napoleon as emperor
+of the west. It is therefore far from surprising that he should have
+held a private interview with Napoleon, on a raft in the Niemen, which
+led to the treaty of Tilsit on July 7.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF TILSIT._]
+
+This treaty, in which the King of Prussia shared as a helpless partner,
+contained both public and secret articles, but the distinction was not
+very material, for the secret articles almost immediately became known
+to Canning. The general effect of the whole agreement was the utter
+humiliation of Prussia, the recognition by that country and Russia of
+all Napoleon's acquisitions, and their combination with France against
+the maritime claims and conquests of Great Britain. The western
+provinces of Prussia were to be incorporated with other German
+annexations to form the new kingdom of Westphalia; Prussian Poland was
+to be converted into the duchy of Warsaw under the crown of Saxony, to
+which a right of passage through Silesia was reserved; and Berlin with
+other great Prussian fortresses were to remain in the hands of the
+French until an exorbitant war indemnity should have been paid.[34] At
+one stroke Prussia was thus reduced to a second-rate power, with a
+territory little greater than it possessed before the first partition of
+Poland. The rule of Joseph Bonaparte at Naples, that of Louis in
+Holland, and the confederation of the Rhine, were solemnly confirmed.
+Above all, Russia pledged herself to join France in coercing Sweden,
+Denmark, and Portugal into an adoption of the organised commercial
+exclusion, known as the "continental system," and hostility to Great
+Britain in the event of her resistance. If Sweden refused to join this
+league, Denmark was to be compelled to declare war on her.
+
+No sooner did it receive information of this alliance than the British
+government despatched a naval armament to Denmark and landed troops,
+which were soon reinforced by those withdrawn from Rügen. There had been
+no open rupture with Denmark, though much irritation existed between
+Denmark and Great Britain with reference to neutral commerce. But there
+were the best reasons for believing that the Danish fleet, as well as
+that of Portugal, would be demanded by France and Russia, to be employed
+against Great Britain, and it was certain that Denmark could not
+withstand such pressure. The British envoy, Jackson, was accordingly
+instructed to offer Denmark a treaty of alliance, of which one condition
+was to be the deposit of her fleet on hire with the British government.
+The proposal was accompanied by a threat of force, and the crown prince,
+with a spirit worthy of admiration, refused the terms. In consequence a
+peremptory summons to deliver up her ships of war and naval stores was
+addressed to the governor of Copenhagen by the British commanders,
+Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, under whom Sir Arthur Wellesley was
+entrusted with the reserve. The surrender, if made peaceably, was to be
+in the nature of a deposit, and the fleet was to be restored at the end
+of the war. The governor returned a temporising reply, and a bombardment
+of Copenhagen followed (September 2); the fleet was brought to England
+as prize of war; and Denmark naturally became the enemy of Great
+Britain.[35] Sweden declined the proffered alliance of France and
+Russia, and actually invaded Norway, then a part of the Danish kingdom.
+The result was the loss of Finland and Swedish Pomerania. The king,
+Gustavus IV., resembled Charles XII. in quixotic temperament, but not in
+ability; and Sir John Moore, sent to his support with an army of 10,000
+men, found it hopeless to co-operate with him. Shortly afterwards, his
+subjects formed the same opinion, and he was compelled to make way for
+his uncle, who succeeded as Charles XIII. with Marshal Bernadotte as
+crown prince. In consequence of this change Sweden became reconciled to
+Russia, and estranged from Great Britain.
+
+The seizure of the Danish fleet, in time of so-called peace, roused
+great indignation throughout most of Europe, and, in some degree,
+strained the conscience of the British parliament itself. The justice
+and wisdom of it were strenuously challenged in both houses, especially
+by Grenville, Sidmouth, and Lord Darnley, who moved an address to the
+crown embodying an impressive protest against it. It was defended,
+however, by the high authority of the Marquis Wellesley, as well as by
+Canning and other ministers, on the simple ground of military necessity.
+Napoleon himself never ceased to denounce it as an international outrage
+of the highest enormity. This did not prevent his doing his best to
+justify it and to imitate it by sending Junot's expedition to Portugal,
+with instructions to seize the Portuguese fleet at Lisbon. It is strange
+that in the debates on this subject, peace with France was still treated
+on both sides as a possibility; but Canning declared that neither
+Russian nor Austrian mediation could have been accepted as impartial,
+or as affording the least hope of pacification. However, on September
+25, the king addressed a declaration to Europe, in which, after
+justifying himself in regard to Copenhagen, he professed his readiness
+to accept conditions of peace "consistent with the maritime rights and
+political existence of Great Britain".
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMERCIAL EXCLUSION._]
+
+Still more reasonable attacks, supported by strong petitions, were made
+by the opposition upon the "orders in council," whereby the British
+government retaliated against Napoleon's "continental system". This
+system was founded on a firm belief, shared by the French people, that
+Great Britain, as mistress of the seas, was the one great obstacle to
+his imperial ambition, and the most formidable enemy of French
+aggrandisement, only to be crushed by the ruin of her trade. Prussia
+had, in conformity with her treaty of February 15, 1806, issued a
+proclamation on March 28 of that year, closing her ports, which would
+now include those of Hanover, against British trade. The British
+government replied by first laying an embargo on Prussian vessels in the
+harbours of Great Britain and Ireland, and by proclaiming a blockade of
+the coast of Europe from Brest to the Elbe. This was followed on May 14
+by an order in council for seizing all vessels found navigating under
+Prussian colours. As yet the policy of commercial exclusion had not been
+carried to any great length, but the Berlin decree issued by Napoleon on
+November 21 after the battle of Jena proclaimed the whole of the British
+Isles to be in a state of blockade, prohibited all commerce with them
+from the ports of France and her dependent states, confiscated all
+British merchandise in such ports, and declared all British subjects in
+countries occupied by French troops to be prisoners of war. Howick
+replied by further orders in council in January, 1807, forbidding
+neutrals to trade between the ports of France and her allies, or between
+the ports of nations which should observe the Berlin decree, on pain of
+the confiscation of the ship and cargo. On the 27th another decree,
+issued at Warsaw, ordered the seizure in the Hanse Towns of all British
+goods and colonial produce. The reply of Great Britain was a stricter
+blockade of the North German coast.
+
+The accession of Russia to Napoleon's commercial policy at Tilsit seemed
+to have brought the combination against British trade to its furthest
+development, and it was answered by new orders in council, treating any
+port from which the British flag was excluded as if actually blockaded,
+and further limiting the carriage by neutral vessels of produce from
+hostile colonies. The Milan decree issued on December 17, and further
+orders in council published during the same winter, carried to greater
+extremes, if possible, this intolerable form of commercial warfare,
+under which neutral commerce was gradually crushed out of existence.
+Great Britain, owing to her command of the sea, was more independent of
+this kind of commerce than her rival, and both the decrees and the
+orders in council inflicted far more damage on France and her allies
+than on Great Britain. But neither party was able to enforce completely
+its policy of commercial exclusion. Europe could not dispense with
+British goods or colonial produce carried in British vessels. The law
+was deliberately set aside by a regular licensing system, and evaded by
+wholesale smuggling; neutral ships continued to ply between continental
+ports, and Napoleon did not disdain to clothe his troops with 50,000
+British overcoats during the Eylau campaign. Still, Great Britain was
+enabled to cripple, if not to destroy, the merchant shipping of all
+other countries, and the interests of consumers all over Europe were
+enlisted against the author of the continental system. On the other
+hand, a heavy blow was dealt to friendly relations between Great Britain
+and the United States, the chief victim of these belligerent
+pretensions.[36]
+
+[Pageheading: _FRUITLESS EXPEDITIONS._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of Great Britain had been injured by three
+petty and abortive expeditions projected by the Grenville ministry. The
+first of these was sent out to complete the conquest of Buenos Ayres,
+the recapture of which was unknown in England. Sir Samuel Auchmuty, who
+commanded it, finding himself too late to occupy that city, attacked and
+took Monte Video by storm with much skill and spirit, on February 3,
+1807. Shortly afterwards, he was superseded by General Whitelocke,
+bringing reinforcements, with orders to recover Buenos Ayres. In this he
+signally failed, owing to gross tactical errors. The British troops were
+almost passively slaughtered in the streets, and Whitelocke agreed to
+withdraw the remains of his force, and give up Monte Video, on condition
+of all prisoners being surrendered. On his return home, he was tried by
+a court-martial and cashiered, being also declared "totally unfit to
+serve his majesty in any military capacity whatever".
+
+Equally ill-managed was the naval expedition, directed to support
+Russia, then in close alliance with Great Britain, by coercing the
+sultan into a rupture with France. Collingwood, who was not consulted,
+was required to entrust the command of this expedition, which started in
+February, 1807, to Sir John Duckworth. Everything depended on
+promptitude, and the admiral found little difficulty in forcing the
+passage of the Dardanelles, as it was then almost unfortified. Having
+reached Constantinople, he allowed himself to waste time in fruitless
+negotiations, contrary to Collingwood's earnest advice, and not only
+effected nothing but gravely imperilled his return. Instructed by the
+French minister Sébastiani, the Turks had armed their coasts, and
+erected batteries along the Dardanelles, through which the British fleet
+made its way with considerable loss. Instead of being detached from the
+French alliance, the Porte was thrown into its arms and became more
+embittered than ever against Russia. It was soon involved in a serious
+conflict with that country--for the possession of Wallachia and
+Moldavia--only to be deserted again by France under the compact made at
+Tilsit. The expedition to Egypt, planned in combination with the
+expedition to the Dardanelles, ended in a still worse disaster. Though
+General Fraser, its commander, was able to surprise Alexandria on March
+30, he awaited in vain the expected news of Duckworth's success; he
+proceeded to attack Rosetta with as little generalship as Whitelocke had
+shown at Buenos Ayres, and encountered a similar repulse. An attempt to
+besiege the town met with no better fortune: the British troops
+submitted to a capitulation, evacuated Egypt, and sailed for Sicily in
+September, 1807. In an imperial manifesto addressed to the French nation
+at the end of this year, the British failures at Buenos Ayres,
+Constantinople, and Alexandria were paraded, together with our alleged
+crime against the rights of nations at Copenhagen.
+
+In the early months of 1808 the continental system was extended by the
+establishment of French administration at Rome, and the annexation of
+the eastern ports of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy. On
+February 18 of the same year Austria under French pressure adopted the
+system. Sweden and Turkey were now the only continental countries left
+outside it, but the retention of Sicily by the Bourbon king rendered it
+easy for British commerce to enter Italy through that island. The
+irritation of neutrals increased as the area of commercial exclusion
+widened, but the United States were now the only neutral power of any
+consequence. After April 17 Napoleon took the high-handed step of
+confiscating all American shipping in his ports. In spite of this
+aggression, the president and congress of the United States continued to
+favour France against Great Britain. The story of the commercial warfare
+between Great Britain and the United States will be related more fully
+hereafter. For the present, it is sufficient to mention that an act,
+placing an embargo on foreign vessels in American ports, was passed by
+congress on December 22, 1807, and another on March 1, 1809, forbidding
+commercial intercourse with Great Britain and France and the colonies
+occupied by them.
+
+Meanwhile Great Britain continued to enforce her maritime rights,
+including that of searching American merchantmen for British-born
+sailors, and impressing them at the will of British naval officers.
+These grievances ultimately led to a war between Great Britain and
+America in 1812. The continental system, however, did not long remain so
+complete as in the beginning of 1808. Junot's expedition to Portugal had
+led to a French occupation of that country before the end of 1807. The
+conquest of Portugal was followed, as we shall see later, by a partial
+conquest of Spain. This threw the Spaniards back upon the British
+alliance and afforded an opportunity for the liberation of Portugal, so
+that from May, 1808, Great Britain once more had a large seaboard open
+to her commerce. The early success of the Spanish resistance to France,
+and other events in the peninsula hereafter to be recorded, encouraged
+Austria to arm again; and on the news of the capitulation of the French
+army at Baylen in July, she pushed forward her preparations with
+redoubled energy. A national movement arose simultaneously in North
+Germany, but the Prussian government dared not head it so long as
+Russia remained faithful to the French alliance.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ERFURT._]
+
+Notwithstanding a peremptory declaration from the tsar after the seizure
+of the Danish fleet, Russia had nothing to gain by war with Great
+Britain. She was bound to France by the prospect held forth to her at
+Tilsit of the conquest of Finland and the partition of Turkey, but she
+was inwardly desirous of peace with Great Britain. Napoleon, on the
+other hand, saw in the partition of Turkey an opportunity of striking at
+India, and had actually given orders for naval preparations to be made
+in Spain, when all thought of eastern conquest had to be postponed owing
+to the success of the Spanish patriots. After a conference between
+Napoleon and the tsar at Erfurt a secret convention was signed on
+October 12, by which France sanctioned Russian conquests in Finland and
+the Danubian provinces, and Russia recognised the Bonaparte dynasty in
+Spain and promised to assist France in a defensive war against Austria.
+The two powers despatched a joint note to Great Britain inviting her to
+make peace, on the principle of _uti possidetis_. Canning replied that
+he was prepared to negotiate if his allies, especially Sweden and the
+Spanish patriots, who were at that time in actual possession of almost
+the entire country, were included in the peace. On November 19 Napoleon
+expressed his willingness to treat with the British allies, but not with
+the Spanish "rebels," as he styled them. Alexander took up a similar
+position, speaking of the Spanish "insurgents," and expressly
+recognising Joseph as King of Spain. Thus ended these pacific overtures,
+and on November 3 the official _exposé_, annually issued in Paris,
+described Great Britain as "the enemy of the world".
+
+The year 1808 is memorable in English history for the active
+intervention of Great Britain in the affairs of Spain which developed
+into the "Peninsular war".[37] This intervention was rendered possible
+and effective by the organisation of our army system in 1807, which was
+due to Castlereagh, though he received little credit for it. Under this
+system, the old constitutional force of the militia was made the basis
+of the whole military establishment. By the militia balloting bill and
+the militia transfer bill, that force, largely composed of substitutes,
+and bound only to home-service, was practically converted into a
+recruiting-ground for the regular army, and proved sufficient to make
+good all the losses incurred during the long campaigns in Portugal and
+Spain. The army thus raised contained, no doubt, many soldiers of bad
+character, whose misdeeds, after the furious excitement of an escalade,
+or under the heart-breaking stress of a retreat, sometimes brought
+disgrace upon the British name. But these men, side by side with
+steadier comrades, bore themselves like heroes on many a bloodstained
+field; they quailed not before the conquering legions of Austerlitz and
+Wagram; they could "go anywhere or do anything" under trusted leaders;
+and they restored the military reputation of their country before the
+eyes of Europe. To have forged such an instrument of war was no mean
+administrative exploit. To have maintained its efficiency steadily on
+the whole, though sometimes with a faint-hearted parsimony, and to have
+loyally supported its commander against the cavils of a factious
+opposition superior in parliamentary ability, for a period of seven
+years, must be held to redeem the tory government from the charge of
+political weakness.
+
+[Pageheading: _PARLIAMENTARY ZEAL._]
+
+At the beginning of 1809, however, the interest of parliament was less
+concentrated on Sir Arthur Wellesley's first campaign in Portugal, or
+even on the convention of Cintra, than on the scandals attaching to the
+office of commander-in-chief, held by the Duke of York. Though an
+incapable general, the duke had shown himself, on the whole, an
+excellent administrator, and in the opinion of the best officers had
+done much for the discipline and efficiency of the British army.
+Unfortunately, Mrs. Clarke, his former mistress, had received bribes for
+using her influence with the duke to procure military appointments.
+Colonel Wardle, an obscure member of parliament, to whom Mrs. Clarke had
+temporarily transferred herself after being discarded by the duke,
+animated by a desire to damage the ministry, came forward with charges
+directly implicating him in her corrupt practices, and incidentally
+brought similar accusations against Portland and Eldon. The government
+foolishly agreed to an inquiry on the Duke of York's behalf, and it was
+conducted before a committee of the whole house, which sat from January
+26 to March 20. In the course of this inquiry, Sir Arthur Wellesley
+bore strong testimony in his favour, and the duke addressed a letter to
+the speaker, declaring his innocence of corruption. Though Wardle and
+his associates pressed for his dismissal, Perceval ultimately carried a
+motion acquitting him not only of corruption but of connivance with
+corruption. The majority, however, was small, and the duke thought it
+necessary to resign on March 20, whereupon the house of commons decided
+to proceed no further. A curious sequel of this case was an action
+against Wardle by an upholsterer, who had furnished a house for Mrs.
+Clarke by Wardle's orders, in consideration of her services in giving
+hostile evidence against her former protector. The plaintiff obtained
+£2,000 damages, and the law-suit was the means of producing a reaction
+in popular feeling in favour of the duke.
+
+This scandal in high places quickened the zeal of parliament for general
+purity of administration, and led to a disclosure of some grave abuses.
+One of these, connected with the disposal of captured Dutch property,
+dated as far back as 1795. Others were found to exist in the navy
+department and the distribution of Indian patronage; others related to
+parliamentary elections. Perceval brought in a bill to check the sale
+and brokerage of offices, nor did Castlereagh himself escape the charge
+of having procured the election of Lord Clancarty to parliament by the
+offer of an Indian writership to a borough-monger. A frank explanation
+saved him from censure, especially as it appeared that the offer had
+never taken effect. The charge was renewed, in a different form, against
+both him and Perceval, and their accusers moved for a trial at bar. But
+as it turned out that undue influence rather than corruption was their
+alleged offence, and as the avowed object of the resolution was to force
+on parliamentary reform, it was negatived by an immense majority.
+Nevertheless, the object was not wholly defeated.
+
+The removal of the Duke of York from the command of the army was
+singularly inopportune, for Sir David Dundas had scarcely been appointed
+as his successor when a juncture arose specially demanding a combination
+of energy and experience. The British government, already engaged in the
+Peninsular war, had at last resolved to take a vigorous part in the new
+and desperate struggle between France and Austria in Southern Germany.
+The latent spirit of German nationality, aroused by Napoleon's ruthless
+treatment of Prussia, and quickened into a flame by sympathy with the
+uprising in Spain, was embodied in the secret association of the
+_Tugendbund_; and Austria, smarting under a sense of her own
+humiliation, mustered up courage to assume the leadership of a national
+movement. South Germany, governed by old dynasties, which profited by
+the French alliance, displayed as yet no symptoms of disaffection to
+France; but in North Germany the old dynasties had been either humbled
+or deposed, and the general ferment among the people, needed, as the
+Austrians believed, only the presence of a regular army to break out
+into a national revolt against the foreigner. Prussia, it is true, was
+still unwilling to move, because Russia was hostile; but the Austrian
+court knew well the lukewarmness of Russia's attachment to France, and
+hoped that a national upheaval would carry the Prussian government along
+with it. No one, in fact, had played a more active part in rousing
+Northern Germany than the Prussian minister, Stein, whom Frederick
+William, by Napoleon's advice, had called to his councils after Tilsit,
+and who was now compelled to resign his office and take refuge in
+Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON IN AUSTRIA._]
+
+The British government was aware of the situation in Germany when it
+received a request in January, 1809, for the despatch of a British force
+to the mouth of the Elbe. Austria was, however, still nominally at war
+with Great Britain, and George III., perhaps not unreasonably, refused
+to give her active military assistance till peace was concluded.
+Meanwhile a subsidy of £250,000 in bullion was despatched to Trieste,
+and inquiries were set on foot as to the means of supplying such a
+military expedition as Austria desired.[38] On March 22, Dundas, who had
+only been a few days in office as commander-in-chief, reported that
+15,000 men could not be spared from home service, and, in consequence,
+no extensive preparations were made until the muster rolls in June
+showed that 40,000 troops might safely be employed abroad. This
+convinced the government that a large force could be sent without
+interfering with home defence, as Castlereagh had long contended; and
+throughout June and July the naval and military departments were busy in
+preparing for what has since left a sinister memory as the Walcheren
+expedition. Meanwhile, as if the passion of frittering away resources
+were irresistible, a smaller force was despatched, as a kind of feint,
+against the kingdom of Naples. It consisted of 15,000 British troops and
+a body of Sicilians. Bailing from Palermo early in June it captured the
+islands of Ischia and Procida and the castle of Scylla, and threw Naples
+into consternation. But the attack was not pushed, and it was too late
+to be of any assistance to the Austrians who had already been expelled
+from the Italian peninsula. At last, in July, the treaty of peace with
+Austria was signed and the great armament was ready to sail.
+
+But Napoleon had not awaited the deliberations of British statesmen.
+Hurrying back from Spain, he remained in Paris only long enough to
+organise a campaign in South Germany, and left the capital to join his
+armies on April 13. A week earlier, the Archduke Charles, having
+remodelled the Austrian army, issued a proclamation affirming Austria to
+be the champion of European liberty. On the 9th Austria declared war
+against Bavaria, the ally of France, and her troops crossed the Inn. On
+the 17th, when Napoleon arrived at Donauwörth, he found the archduke in
+occupation of Ratisbon. His presence turned the tide, and, after three
+victories, he was once more on the road to Vienna. The most important of
+these victories was that of Eckmühl, and he regarded the manoeuvre by
+which it was won as the finest in his military career. On May 13 the
+French entered Vienna, but the Archduke Charles with an army of nearly
+200,000 men was facing him on the left bank of the Danube. Napoleon's
+army crossed and encountered the Austrians on the great plain between
+Aspern and Essling. He was repulsed and fell back upon Lobau, between
+which and the Vienna side of the Danube the bridge of boats had been
+swept away by a rise of the river and by balks of timber floated down by
+the Austrians. In this dangerous position he remained shut up for
+several weeks. He finally succeeded in throwing across a light bridge by
+which his army regained the left bank on the night of July 4. Finding
+their position turned the Austrians took up their stand on the tableland
+of Wagram. On July 6 another pitched battle was fought, which, in the
+number of combatants engaged and in the losses inflicted on both sides,
+must rank with the later conflicts of Borodino and Leipzig. A hard won
+victory rested with the French, but it was not such a victory as that of
+Austerlitz or Jena, though it secured the neutrality, at least, of
+Austria for the next four years. Her army retreated into Bohemia, and on
+July 12 an armistice was signed at Znaim in Moravia, which formed the
+basis of a peace concluded at Vienna on October 14.
+
+Nothing remained for Great Britain but to abandon the auxiliary
+enterprise so long planned, but so often delayed, or to carry it through
+independently, with little hope of a decisive issue. The latter
+alternative was adopted. The very day on which the news of the armistice
+arrived witnessed the departure of the greatest single armament ever
+sent out fully equipped from the shores of Great Britain. The deplorable
+failure of the Walcheren expedition has obscured both its magnitude and
+its probable importance had it only proved successful. The command of
+the fleet was given to Sir Richard Strachan, a competent admiral; that
+of the army to Chatham, who sat in the cabinet as master-general of the
+ordnance, an incompetent general, who owed his nomination to royal
+favour. This was the first blunder; the second was the utter neglect of
+medical and sanitary precautions against the notoriously unhealthy
+climate of Walcheren in the autumn months. The armament sailed from the
+Downs on July 28, in the finest weather and with a display of intense
+national enthusiasm. It consisted of thirty-five ships of the line, with
+a swarm of smaller war-vessels and transports, carrying nearly 40,000
+troops, two battering-trains, and a complete apparatus of military
+stores. Its destination, though more than suspected by the enemy, had
+been officially kept secret at home. Castlereagh must be held largely
+responsible for the delays and for the unwise choice of a general which
+marred its success, but he showed true military sagacity in designating
+the point of attack. Inspired by him, the British government,
+distrusting the national movement in North Germany, had decided to
+strike at Antwerp, which Napoleon had supplied with new docks, and
+which, now that the mouth of the Scheldt had been reopened, threatened
+to become the commercial rival of London. The town was entirely
+unprepared, and a blow dealt here seemed the best way of doing as much
+harm as possible to France and at the same time gaining a national
+advantage for Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE WALCHEREN EXPEDITION._]
+
+Chatham had received very precise instructions from Castlereagh, the
+objects prescribed to him being, (1) the capture or destruction of the
+enemy's ships, either building or afloat at Antwerp or Flushing, or
+afloat in the Scheldt; (2) the destruction of the arsenals and dockyards
+at Antwerp, Terneuze, and Flushing; (3) the reduction of the island of
+Walcheren; (4) the rendering of the Scheldt no longer navigable to ships
+of war. These objects were named, as far as possible, in the order of
+their importance, and Chatham was specially directed to land troops at
+Sandvliet and push on straight to Antwerp, with the view of taking it by
+a _coup de main_. Napoleon, who clearly foretold the catastrophe
+awaiting the British troops in the malarious swamps of Walcheren,
+afterwards admitted that Antwerp could have been captured by a sudden
+assault. Chatham obeyed his general orders, but, instead of taking them
+in the order of importance, gave precedence to the objects which could
+most easily be accomplished. By prompt action the French fleet, which
+was moored off Flushing, might have been captured, but it was allowed to
+escape to Antwerp. By August 2 the British were in complete possession
+of the mouth of the Scheldt, and had taken Bath opposite Sandvliet,
+while Antwerp was still almost unprotected. But Chatham concentrated his
+attention on the siege of Flushing, which surrendered, after three days'
+bombardment, on August 16, contrary to Napoleon's expectation. Antwerp
+had meanwhile been put in a state of defence, and was now protected by
+the enemy's fleet, while French and Dutch troops were pouring down to
+the Scheldt. After ten days of inactivity, Chatham advanced his
+headquarters to Bath, found that further advance was impossible, and
+recommended the government to recall the expedition, leaving 15,000 men
+to defend the island of Walcheren. This advice was adopted, but the
+garrison left in Walcheren suffered most severely from fever in that
+swampy island. Eventually, on December 24, Walcheren was abandoned, the
+works and naval basins of Flushing having been previously destroyed. The
+destruction of Flushing was the sole result of this expedition.
+
+The failure of the British to make any serious impression on the French
+either in the Low Countries or in Spain induced Austria to consent to
+peace with France. By the peace of Vienna, signed on October 14, she
+ceded Salzburg and a part of Upper Austria to Bavaria, West Galicia to
+the duchy of Warsaw, and a part of Carinthia with Trieste and the
+Illyrian provinces to France. A small strip of Galicia was ceded to the
+Russian tsar, who had rendered France some very half-hearted assistance
+and was further alienated by the extension of the duchy of Warsaw.
+Austria was enslaved to the will of Napoleon. She had abandoned the
+Tyrolese peasants whose loyal insurrection against the Bavarians was the
+most heroic incident in the war, and she now joined the other nations of
+the continent in excluding the commerce of Great Britain, which had made
+a powerful diversion in Spain and an imposing though futile diversion on
+the Scheldt to save her from national annihilation.
+
+While the Walcheren expedition was preparing, two additions were made to
+the cabinet. Lord Granville Leveson-Gower, brother of the Marquis of
+Stafford, was admitted in June as secretary at war, and in July
+Harrowby, who was created an earl, became president of the board of
+control with a seat in the cabinet. After the fate of the expedition
+became known, though before its final withdrawal, a serious quarrel took
+place between Canning and Castlereagh. Personal jealousies had long
+existed between these two statesmen, both half-Irish, half-English, and
+of approximately the same age, yet widely different in character.
+Canning was the most brilliant orator of his day, and no less persuasive
+in private conversation than in public orations, gifted with an agile
+brain that leaped readily from one idea or one project to another, but
+cursed with a bitter wit which lightly aroused enduring enmities, and
+which, coupled with an excessive vanity, rendered him unpopular with his
+colleagues, and made it difficult for any one to take him seriously;
+while his rival, not less able, and much more steady and trustworthy, a
+skilful manager of men, was scarcely able to pronounce a coherent
+sentence. Early in April Canning pressed upon the Duke of Portland the
+transfer of Castlereagh to another office. Private communications
+followed between various members of the cabinet, and it was understood
+that Camden, as Castlereagh's friend, should apprise him of the
+prevailing view, which the king himself had approved under a threat of
+Canning's resignation. The duke, however, begged Camden to postpone the
+disclosure, and others of Castlereagh's friends urged Canning not to
+insist upon the change pending the completion of the Walcheren
+expedition.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUEL BETWEEN CANNING AND CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+As the scheme took shape in July Camden was to resign, and thus make
+possible a shifting of offices, which was to result in the Marquis
+Wellesley succeeding Castlereagh as secretary for war. At last, on
+September 6, the duke informed Canning of his own intention to retire on
+the ground of ill-health, and at the same time disclosed the fact that
+no steps had been taken to prepare Castlereagh for the proposed change
+in his position. Thereupon Canning promptly sent in his own resignation,
+the duke resigned the same day, and Castlereagh, learning what had
+passed, followed his example two days later.[39] Believing that Canning
+had been intriguing against him behind his back, under the guise of
+friendship, he demanded satisfaction on the 19th, and on the 21st[40]
+the duel was fought, in which Canning received a slight wound. Such
+events provoked little censure in those days, and it is pleasant to
+know that Canning and Castlereagh afterwards acted cordially together as
+colleagues. Their enmity broke up the government. The Duke of Portland
+did not long survive his withdrawal from office, and died on October 29;
+Leveson-Gower insisted on following Canning into retirement.
+
+Perceval was entrusted with the task of forming an administration, but
+the new ministry was not formed without considerable negotiation.
+Canning vainly endeavoured to impress first on his colleagues and then
+on the king his own pretensions to the highest office, while attempts,
+to which the king gave a reluctant assent, had been made to enlist the
+co-operation of Grenville and Howick, who succeeded his father as Earl
+Grey, in 1807, but they failed as all later attempts were destined to
+fail. The most influential motive governing their conduct was,
+doubtless, their feeling that they would not as ministers possess the
+king's confidence. Sidmouth's following had also been approached.
+Sidmouth himself was considered too obnoxious to some of Pitt's
+followers to be a safe member of the new cabinet, but Vansittart was
+offered the chancellorship of the exchequer and Bragge, who had taken
+the additional surname of Bathurst, the office of secretary at war. They
+refused, however, to enter the ministry, unless accompanied by Sidmouth
+himself.
+
+Perceval eventually became prime minister, retaining his former offices;
+Lord Bathurst, while remaining at the board of trade, presided
+temporarily at the foreign office, which was offered to the Marquis
+Wellesley, then serving as British ambassador to the Spanish junta at
+Seville, and taken over by him in December. Hawkesbury, now Earl of
+Liverpool, succeeded Castlereagh as secretary for war and the colonies,
+and was followed at the home office by Richard Ryder, a brother of
+Harrowby. Harrowby himself gave up the board of control in November to
+Melville's son, Robert Dundas, who, however, was not made a member of
+the cabinet. Lord Palmerston, who had been a junior lord of the
+admiralty under Portland, declined the chancellorship of the exchequer,
+and though he accepted Leveson-Gower's post as secretary at war, he was
+by his own desire excluded from the cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW BRITISH CONQUESTS._]
+
+While the close of the year 1809 was darkened by national
+disappointment and political anxieties, the honour of British arms had
+been amply vindicated in the Spanish peninsula, and the brilliant
+exploit of Lord Cochrane in Basque Roads had recalled the glories of the
+Nile. Cochrane had already achieved marvels under Collingwood in the
+Mediterranean, and notably off the Spanish coast, when he was selected
+to conduct an attack by fireships on the French squadron blockaded under
+the shelter of the islands of Aix and Oléron. This he carried out on the
+night of April 11, with a dash and skill worthy of Nelson, and unless
+checked by Gambier, the admiral in command, who had been raised to the
+peerage after the seizure of the Danish fleet in 1807, he must have
+succeeded in destroying the whole of the enemy's ships. Gambier was
+afterwards acquitted by a court martial of negligence, but the verdict
+of the public was against him. In the autumn Collingwood reduced the
+seven Ionian islands, and gained an important advantage by cutting out a
+considerable detachment of the Toulon fleet in the Bay of Genoa. In the
+course of the year, too, all the remaining French territory in the West
+Indies, as well as the Isle of Bourbon in the Indian Ocean, was captured
+by the British navy. But this unchallenged supremacy on the high seas
+did not prevent the depredations of French gunboats on British
+merchantmen in the channel. Indeed after the battle of Trafalgar, the
+French "sea-wasps" infesting the Channel were more active and
+destructive than ever.
+
+On October 25, being the forty-ninth anniversary of his accession, the
+jubilee of George III. was celebrated with hearty and sincere
+rejoicings. His popularity was not unmerited. He was politically
+shortsighted, but within his range of vision few saw facts so clearly;
+he was obstinate and prejudiced, but his obstinacy was redeemed by a
+moral intrepidity of the highest order, and his prejudices were shared
+by the mass of his people. Having lived through the seven years' war,
+the war of the American revolution, and the successive wars of Great
+Britain against the French monarchy and the French republic, he was now
+supporting, with indomitable firmness, a war against the all-conquering
+French empire--the most perilous in which this country was ever engaged.
+The colonial and Indian dominions of Great Britain, reduced by the loss
+of the North American colonies, had been greatly extended during his
+reign in other quarters of the globe. His subjects regarded him as an
+Englishman to the core; they knew him to be honest, religious, virtuous,
+and homely in his life; they justly believed him, in spite of his
+failings, to be a power for good in the land; and they rewarded him with
+a respect and affection granted to no other British sovereign of modern
+times before Queen Victoria. They had good cause to desire the
+continuance of his life and reason, knowing the character of his
+heir-apparent, and contrasting the domestic habits of Windsor with the
+licence of Carlton House.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[31] Colchester, _Diary_ (Feb. 4, 1806), ii., 35, 36.
+
+[32] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party_, ii., 91-94.
+
+[33] Holland, _Memoirs of the Whig Party,_ ii., 173-205, 270-320;
+Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 92-115; Malmesbury, _Diaries_, iv., 357-72;
+Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, i., 223-33; Buckingham, _Courts and
+Cabinets_, iv., 117-50. Holland accuses the king of treachery and
+duplicity, and Lewis (_Administrations of Great Britain_, p. 294)
+repeats this charge in milder terms. But the documents quoted do not
+prove any want of straightforwardness, and the king's conduct was the
+logical consequence of his action in 1801.
+
+[34] In the following year Napoleon consented to evacuate all the
+Prussian fortresses except three, on condition that the Prussian army
+should not exceed a total of 40,000 men.
+
+[35] _Annual Register_, xlix. (1807), 249-70, 731-38; Rose, in _English
+Historical Review_, xi. (1896), 82-92.
+
+[36] Captain Mahan, _The Influence of Sea Power upon the French
+Revolution and Empire_, ii., 272-357, shows that the policy of the
+orders in council was essential to British safety.
+
+[37] The course of this war is related continuously in chap. v.
+
+[38] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 190, note.
+
+[39] The best account of the quarrel, especially in its relation to the
+composition of the cabinet, is to be found in Walpole's _Life of
+Perceval_, vol. i., chap. ix., and vol. ii., chap. i. Lewis,
+_Administrations_, pp. 314-15, finds a double ground for Canning's
+resignation in his failure to obtain the removal of Castlereagh from the
+war office and in the refusal of the king and cabinet to allow him to
+succeed Portland as prime minister. It is quite clear, however, that at
+the time of Canning's resignation no decision had been come to about a
+successor to Portland. Some correspondence had passed between Canning
+and Perceval, in which each had refused to serve under the other, but
+that this correspondence was unknown to the cabinet as a whole is proved
+by Mulgrave's letters to Lord Lonsdale of September 11 and 15 (Phipps,
+_Memoir of Ward_, pp. 210-17); in the former of these he discusses
+Canning's probable conduct without referring to this correspondence,
+while in the latter he only knows of such negotiations as subsequent to
+the resignations of September 6 and 8. So, too, Eldon's letter to his
+wife of September 11 (Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 88-90), places the
+whole correspondence between Canning and Perceval after Portland's
+resignation on September 6. The king was not informed of Canning's views
+as to a successor to Portland till September 13, and the cabinet minute
+of September 18, advising co-operation with Grenville and Grey, mentions
+the selection of Canning as prime minister as a course open to the king.
+
+[40] This is the date commonly given. The _Annual Register_, li. (1809),
+239, gives the 22nd, while Perceval refers to the result of the duel in
+a letter dated the 20th (Colchester, _Diary_, ii., 209). It is clear,
+however, that Canning did not receive Castlereagh's challenge till the
+morning of the 20th (see his letter in _Annual Register_, _loc. cit._,
+505, also his detailed statement to Camden, _ibid._, 525), and therefore
+the duel cannot have taken place till the 21st. Lord Folkestone in a
+letter dated the 21st refers to the duel as having been fought at "7
+o'clock this morning" (_Creevey Papers_, i., 96).
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IV.
+
+ PERCEVAL AND LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The administration of Perceval, covering the period from October, 1809,
+to May, 1812, coincided with a lull in the continental war save in the
+Peninsula, though it saw no pause in the progress of French annexation.
+Nor was it marked by many events of historical interest in domestic
+affairs. When parliament was opened on January 23, 1810, it was natural
+that attention should chiefly be devoted to the Walcheren expedition,
+which the opposition illogically and unscrupulously contrived to use to
+disparage the operations of Sir Arthur Wellesley, now Viscount
+Wellington, in Spain. Grenville, who argued with some reason that 40,000
+British troops could have been employed to far better purpose in North
+Germany, would have been on stronger ground if he had complained that
+for want of them the British army had been unable to occupy Madrid.
+Castlereagh, indeed, had confessed to Wellesley that he could not spare
+the necessary reinforcements, after the reserves had been exhausted in
+Walcheren; but it is by no means certain that Wellesley could have
+collected provisions enough to feed a much larger force, or specie
+enough to pay for them. Liverpool was driven in reply to Grenville to
+magnify the value of the capture of Flushing, as the necessary basis of
+the naval armaments which Napoleon had intended to launch against
+England from the Scheldt. The government was also defended by the young
+Robert Peel, lately elected to parliament. As the calamity was
+irreparable, a committee of the whole house spent most of its time on a
+constitutional question, regarding a private memorandum placed before
+the king by Chatham in his own defence. So irregular a proceeding was
+properly condemned, and Chatham resigned the mastership of the ordnance,
+but the policy of the Walcheren expedition was approved by a vote of the
+house of commons. Mulgrave received the office Chatham had vacated, and
+was himself succeeded by Yorke at the admiralty.
+
+Parliament was next occupied by a question of privilege, in which Sir
+Francis Burdett, member for Westminster, then a favourite of the
+democracy, played a part resembling that of John Wilkes a generation
+earlier. Burdett had been for fourteen years a member of parliament, and
+had been conspicuous from the first for the vehemence of his opposition
+to the government, and more especially to its supposed infringements of
+the liberty of the subject. He had more recently taken an active part on
+behalf of Wardle's attack on the Duke of York and had supported the
+charges of ministerial corruption in the previous session. On the
+present occasion one John Gale Jones, president of a debating club, had
+published in a notice of debate the terms of a resolution which his club
+had passed, condemning in extravagant language the exclusion of
+strangers from the house of commons. This was treated as a breach of
+privilege, and Jones was sent to Newgate by order of the house itself.
+Burdett, in a violent letter to Cobbett's _Register_, challenged the
+right of the house to imprison Jones by its own authority, and, after a
+fierce debate lasting two nights, was adjudged by the house, on April 5,
+to have been guilty of a still more scandalous libel. Accordingly, the
+speaker issued a warrant for his committal to the Tower. Burdett
+declared his resolution to resist arrest, the populace mustered in his
+defence, the riot act was read, and he was conveyed to prison by a
+strong military escort, on whose return more serious riots broke out,
+and were not quelled without bloodshed. On his release at the end of the
+session a repetition of these scenes was prevented by the simple
+expedient of bringing him home by water. During his imprisonment he
+wrote an offensive letter to the speaker, and his colleague, Lord
+Cochrane, presented a violently worded petition from his Westminster
+constituents. In the following year he sued the speaker and the
+sergeant-at-arms in the court of king's bench, which decided against him
+on the ground that a power of commitment was necessary for the
+maintenance of the dignity of the house of commons, and its decision
+was confirmed, on appeal, by the court of exchequer chamber and the
+house of lords.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+The most important subject of internal policy discussed in the session
+of 1810 was the state of the currency. Since 1797 cash payments had been
+suspended, the issue of banknotes had been nearly doubled, and the price
+of commodities had risen enormously. Whether these results had in their
+turn promoted the expansion of foreign commerce and internal industry
+was vigorously disputed by two rival schools of economists. The one
+thing certain was the increasing scarcity of specie, and the serious
+loss incurred in its provision for the service of the army in the
+Peninsula. Francis Horner, then rising to eminence, obtained the
+appointment of what became known as the "bullion committee" to inquire
+into the anomalous conditions thus created, and took a leading part in
+the preparation of its celebrated report, published on September 20. The
+committee arrived at the conclusion that the high price of gold was
+mainly due to excess in the paper-currency, and not, as alleged, to a
+drain of gold for the continental war. They attributed that excess to
+"the want of a sufficient check and control in the issues of paper from
+the Bank of England, and originally to the suspension of cash-payments,
+which removed the natural and true control". While allowing that paper
+could not be rendered suddenly convertible into specie without
+dislocating the entire business of the country, they recommended that an
+early provision should be made by parliament for terminating the
+suspension of cash-payments at the end of two years. These conclusions
+were combated by Castlereagh and Vansittart, who afterwards, in 1811,
+succeeded in carrying several counter-resolutions, of which the general
+effect was to explain the admitted rise in the price of gold, for the
+most part by the exclusion of British trade from the continent, and the
+consequent export of the precious metals in lieu of British
+manufactures. The last resolution, while it recognised the wisdom of
+restoring cash-payments as soon as it could safely be done, affirmed it
+to be "highly inexpedient and dangerous to fix a definite period for the
+removal of the restriction on cash-payments prior to the conclusion of a
+definitive treaty of peace". These counsels prevailed, and the
+restriction was not actually removed until Peel's act was passed in
+July, 1819.
+
+The last domestic event in the inglorious annals of 1810 was the final
+lapse of the king into mental derangement in the month of November. For
+more than six years his sight had been failing, but he had suffered no
+return of insanity since 1804. Now he lost both his sight and his
+reason. This event, impending for some time, was precipitated by the
+illness and death of the Princess Amelia, his favourite daughter, and
+was perhaps aggravated by the Walcheren expedition and the disgrace of
+the Duke of York. Parliament met on November 1, and was adjourned more
+than once before a committee was appointed to examine the royal
+physicians. Acting on their report, the ministers proposed and carried
+resolutions declaring the king's incapacity, and the right and duty of
+the two houses to provide for the emergency. It was also determined to
+define by act of parliament the powers to be exercised in the king's
+name and behalf. This implied a limitation of the regent's authority,
+and was resented by the Prince of Wales and his friends. Perceval,
+however, was able to rely on the precedent of 1788, to which Grenville,
+for one, had been a party, and, after considerable opposition, the
+prince was made regent under several temporary restrictions. With
+certain exceptions, he was precluded from granting any peerage or office
+tenable for life; the royal property was vested in trustees for the
+king's benefit, and the personal care of the king was entrusted to the
+queen, with the advice of a council. In this form, the regency bill was
+passed on February 4, 1811, after a protest from the other sons of
+George III. and violent attacks upon Eldon by Grenville and Grey. On the
+5th, the regent took the oaths before the privy council, but, in
+accepting the restrictions, he delicately expressed regret that he
+should not have been trusted to impose upon himself proper limitations
+for the exercise of royal patronage. The interregnum thus established
+was to be provisional only, and was to cease on February 1, 1812, but
+the queen and her private council, with the concurrence of the privy
+council, were empowered to annul it at any time, by announcing the
+king's recovery, when he could resume his powers by proclamation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE REGENCY BILL._]
+
+The hopes of the opposition had been greatly excited by the prospect of
+a regency, and it was generally expected that a change of ministry would
+be its immediate consequence. Private communications had, in fact,
+passed between the prince and the whig lords, Grenville and Grey, but
+they were rendered nugatory by the dictatorial tone assumed by those
+lords and by the unwillingness of the prince to dispense with the advice
+of Moira and Sheridan. The two whig lords had by the prince's desire
+prepared a reply to the address from the houses of parliament,
+preparatory to the regency bill. Grenville had voted in favour of the
+restriction on the creation of peers, and it is therefore not surprising
+that the reply which he and Grey drafted appeared to the prince too weak
+in its protest against the limitations. He therefore adopted in its
+stead another reply which Sheridan had composed for him. The two lords
+thereupon addressed to the prince a remonstrance, which practically
+claimed for themselves the right of responsible ministers to be the sole
+advisers of their prince. This remonstrance provoked the ridicule of
+Sheridan, and certainly did not please the prince, who since the fall of
+the Grenville ministry had refused to be regarded as a "party man". The
+regent, accordingly, gave Perceval to understand that he intended to
+retain his present ministers, but solely on the ground that he was
+unwilling to do anything which might retard his father's recovery, or
+distress him when he should come to himself. This reason was probably
+genuine. The king appeared to be recovering; he had had several
+interviews with Perceval and Eldon, and had made inquiries as to the
+prince's intentions. Soon, however, the malady took a turn for the
+worse, and the physicians came to the conclusion that it was
+permanent.[41]
+
+Before February, 1812, when the restrictions expired, and a permanent
+regency bill was passed, the prince drifted further away from his former
+advisers, and had been pacified by the loyal attitude of Perceval and
+Eldon. Further overtures were conveyed to the whig lords through a
+letter from the prince regent to the Duke of York, in which he declared
+that he had "no predilections to indulge or resentments to gratify," but
+only a concern for the public good, towards which he desired the
+co-operation of some of his old whig friends, indicating Grenville and
+Grey. They declined in a letter to the Duke of York, alleging
+differences on grounds of policy too deep to admit of a coalition.
+Eldon, on his part, expressed a similar conviction, but the regent never
+fully forgave what he regarded as their desertion. Wellesley, who was
+strongly opposed to Perceval's policy of maintaining the catholic
+disabilities, resigned the secretaryship of foreign affairs, protesting
+against the feeble support given to his brother in the Peninsula, and
+was succeeded by Castlereagh. In April Sidmouth became president of the
+council in place of Camden, who remained in the cabinet without office;
+and in the next month, on May 11, Perceval was assassinated in the lobby
+of the house of commons by a man named Bellingham, who had an imaginary
+grievance against the government.
+
+A very general and sincere tribute of respect was paid by the house to
+Perceval's memory, for, though his statesmanship was of the second
+order, he was far more than a tory partisan; he was an excellent
+debater, and a thoroughly honest politician, and his private character
+was above all reproach or suspicion. The cabinet was bewildered by his
+death, and a fresh attempt was made to strengthen it by the simple
+inclusion of Canning as well as Wellesley. Wellesley stipulated that the
+catholic question should be left open, and that the war should be
+prosecuted with the entire resources of the country, while Canning
+declined co-operation on the ground of the catholic question alone. No
+agreement being found possible, the house of commons stepped in and
+addressed the regent, begging him to form a strong and efficient
+administration, commanding the confidence of all classes. He replied by
+sending for Wellesley, offering him the premiership and entrusting him
+with the formation of a comprehensive ministry; but Wellesley soon found
+that Liverpool and his adherents would not serve under him at all, while
+Grenville and Grey, who secretly condemned the Peninsular war, would
+only serve on conditions which he could not grant. Once more, the regent
+treated directly with these haughty whigs, now including Moira, to whom
+he committed the task of forming an administration. Grenville and Grey
+raised difficulties about the appointments in the royal household, which
+they wished to include in the political changes, and the negotiation was
+broken off. The regent at last fell back on Liverpool, a capable and
+conciliatory minister, who adopted Perceval's colleagues, and a spell of
+tory administration set in which remained unbroken for no less than
+fifteen years. Had more tact been shown on all sides, had the whigs been
+less peremptory in their demands, and had the trivial household question
+never arisen, the course of the war, if not of European history, might,
+whether for good or evil, have been profoundly modified.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL REFORMS._]
+
+During the later period of Perceval's administration, from 1811 to 1812,
+the strife of politics had been mainly concentrated on the regency
+question, the chance of ministerial changes, and the fortunes of the war
+in Spain. But it must not be supposed that social questions were
+neglected, even in the darkest days of the war, however meagre the
+legislative fruits may appear. Session after session, Romilly pressed
+forward reforms of the criminal law, the institution of penitential
+houses in the nature of reformatories, and the abolition of state
+lotteries. Others laboured, and with greater success, to remedy the
+delays and reduce the arrears in the court of chancery. Constant efforts
+were made to expose defalcations in the revenue, to curtail exorbitant
+salaries, and to put down electioneering corruption. In 1809 Erskine
+introduced a bill for the prevention of cruelty to animals. In 1810
+there were earnest, if somewhat futile, debates on spiritual
+destitution, the non-residence and poverty of the clergy, and the
+scarcity of places of worship. Moreover, early in 1811, a premonitory
+symptom of the repeal movement caused some anxiety in Ireland. It took
+the form of a scheme for a representative assembly to sit in Dublin, and
+manage the affairs of the Roman catholic population, under colour of
+framing petitions to parliament, and seeking redress of grievances. It
+was, of course, to consist of Roman catholics only, and to include Roman
+catholic bishops. The Irish government wisely suppressed the scheme, and
+Perceval justified their action, on the ground that a representative
+assembly in Dublin, with such aims in view, bordered upon an illicit
+legislature.
+
+Except for the war in the Spanish peninsula, and the war between Russia
+and the Porte on the Danube, the year 1810 was marked by undisturbed
+peace throughout the continent of Europe. France continued to make
+annexations, but they were at the expense of her allies, not of her
+enemies. Her supremacy was signalised in a striking way by the marriage
+of her _parvenu_ emperor, whose divorce the pope still refused to
+recognise, with Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. Though
+thirteen out of twenty-six cardinals present in Paris declined to attend
+it, this marriage was a masterstroke of Talleyrand's diplomacy; it
+secured the benevolent neutrality of Austria for the next three years,
+and weakened the counsels of the allies during the negotiations of
+1814-15. But it went far to estrange the Tsar of Russia, who, though he
+had courteously declined Napoleon's overtures for the hand of his own
+sister, was greatly offended on discovering that another matrimonial
+alliance had been contracted by his would-be brother-in-law before his
+reply could be received.
+
+It was only within the limits of the French empire that Napoleon's
+authority had been sufficient to enforce the rigorous exclusion of
+British goods. His allies, including Sweden, which closed her ports to
+British products in January, 1810, and declared war on Great Britain in
+the following November, had adopted the continental system; but
+administrative weakness, and the obvious interest that every people had
+in its infraction, rendered its operation partial. Napoleon, determined
+to enforce the system in spite of every obstacle, met this difficulty by
+placing in immediate subjection to the French crown the territories
+where British goods were imported. The first ally to suffer was his own
+brother, Louis, King of Holland. His refusal to enforce Napoleon's
+orders against the admission of British goods was followed at once by a
+forced cession of part of Holland to France and the establishment of
+French control at the custom houses, and shortly afterwards by the
+despatch of French troops into Holland and its annexation to France on
+July 9, 1810. In December the French dominion over the North Sea coast
+was extended by the annexation of a corner of Germany, including the
+coast as far as the Danish frontier, and the town of Lübeck on the
+Baltic. As a result of this annexation, the duchy of Oldenburg, held by
+a branch of the Russian imperial family, ceased to exist. The act was a
+conspicuous breach of the treaty of Tilsit, which Napoleon considered
+himself at liberty to disregard, as Russia had shown by her conduct
+during the campaign of 1809 that she was no longer more than a nominal
+ally of France. At last, on January 12, 1811, Russia asserted her
+independence in fiscal matters by an order which declared her ports open
+to all vessels sailing under a neutral flag, and imposed a duty on many
+French products. Still the course of French annexation crept onwards,
+and quietly absorbed the republic of Vallais in Switzerland, which had
+been a great centre of smuggling.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM._]
+
+Meanwhile, the restrictions and prohibitions which formed the
+continental system were made more and more severe. By the Trianon tariff
+of August, 1810, heavy duties were levied on colonial products, and by
+the Fontainebleau decree of October 18 all goods of British origin were
+to be seized and publicly burned. In November a special tribunal was
+created to try offenders against the continental system. Nevertheless,
+the fiscal and foreign policy of France at this date alike show how far
+the continental system had failed in its object, and to what extreme
+lengths it had become necessary to push it in order to give it a chance
+of success. The strain of the system on English commerce was immense,
+but the burden fell far more heavily on the continental nations.
+Colonial produce rose to enormous prices in France, Germany, and Italy,
+especially after the introduction of the Trianon tariff, and a subject
+or ally of the French emperor had to pay ten times as much for his
+morning cup of coffee as his enemy in London. The German opposition to
+Napoleon had failed in 1809 mainly through the political apathy of the
+German nation. Napoleon's fiscal measures were the surest way of
+bringing that apathy to an end, and converting it into hostility.
+
+The events of December, 1810, and January, 1811, constituted a distinct
+breach between France and Russia, which could only end in war, unless
+one party or the other should withdraw from its position. A few months
+sufficed to show that no such withdrawal would take place; but neither
+power was prepared for war, and seventeen months elapsed after the
+breach before hostilities began. The intervening period was spent in
+negotiation and preparation. Much depended on the alliances that the
+rival powers might be able to contract. Although Napoleon had bound
+himself not to restore Poland, he had by the creation and subsequent
+enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw given it a semblance of national
+unity, and had inspired the Poles with the hope of a more complete
+independence. The Polish troops were among the most devoted in the
+French army, and the position of their country rendered the support of
+the Poles a matter of great importance in any war with Russia. It
+occurred to the Tsar Alexander that he might win their support for
+himself by a restoration of Poland, under the suzerainty of Russia. He
+promised Czartoryski the restoration of the eight provinces under a
+guarantee of autonomy, and undertook to obtain the cession of Galicia.
+On February 13, 1811, he made a secret offer to Austria of a part of
+Moldavia in exchange for Galicia. Nothing came of this, but the massing
+of Russian troops on the Polish frontier in March was met by the hurried
+advance of French troops through Germany, and war seemed imminent until
+Russia postponed the struggle by withdrawing her troops.
+
+Meanwhile, other European powers looked forward to selling their
+alliance on the best possible terms. Sweden and Prussia both approached
+the stronger power first. Bernadotte, on behalf of Sweden, was prepared
+for a French alliance if France would favour the Swedish acquisition of
+Norway. Napoleon, on February 25, not only refused these terms, but
+ordered Sweden to enforce the continental system under pain of a French
+occupation of Swedish Pomerania. This threat Sweden ventured to ignore.
+Prussia, lying directly between the two future belligerents, was in a
+more dangerous position. Neutrality was impossible, because her
+neutrality would not be respected. She first offered her alliance to
+Napoleon in return for a reduction of the payments due to France and a
+removal of the limit imposed on her army. Napoleon did not reply to this
+offer at once. Meanwhile the movement of French troops already mentioned
+and the increase of the French garrisons on the Oder, though primarily
+intended for the defence of Poland, caused great alarm in Prussia and
+resulted in preparations to resist a French attack. In July Napoleon
+finally refused to discuss the Prussian terms. Ever since his marriage
+he had been inclined more and more to an Austrian alliance. On March 26
+of this year Otto, his ambassador at Vienna, had received information
+that France would support Austria if she would protest against the
+occupation of Belgrade by the Serbs. Napoleon even assured Otto that he
+was prepared to undertake any engagement that Austria desired. Rest
+was, however, essential to Austria. The military disasters of 1809 had
+been followed by national bankruptcy, and with the government paper at a
+discount of 90 per cent. she dared not incur further liabilities.
+
+Russia had an advantage over France in that she was able to free herself
+from her entanglement in Turkey, while Napoleon could not make peace
+either with Great Britain or with the Bourbon party in Spain. An
+armistice with the Porte was concluded on October 15. By that time all
+pretence of friendly intentions had been abandoned by France and Russia.
+Prussia, hoping still to save herself from an unconditional alliance
+with France, now turned to Russia, and Scharnhorst was despatched to
+seek a Russian alliance. Meanwhile Napoleon sent word to the Prussian
+court that, if her military preparations were not suspended, he would
+order Davoût to march on Berlin, and at the same time disclosed his
+offer of an unconditional alliance against Russia. Prussia, hoping for
+Russian aid still, put aside the French demands, but the Tsar Alexander
+expressed a decided preference for a defensive campaign against France,
+and refused any assistance unless the French should commit an unprovoked
+aggression on Königsberg. Scharnhorst seems to have seen the wisdom of
+this policy. He now turned to Austria, but there again a definite
+alliance was refused. Russia was equally unable to move Austria to join
+her, so that Russia and Prussia were each isolated in their opposition
+to Napoleon.
+
+In the months of August and September of this year a British force,
+commanded by Auchmuty, effected the conquest of Java, the wealthiest of
+the East Indian islands. The island had been a Dutch colony, and like
+other Dutch colonies had passed into the hands of France. Sumatra fell
+into English hands along with Java, so that the supremacy of Great
+Britain in the East Indies was fully established.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+The new ministry which entered on office in June, 1812, differed largely
+in composition from that which had preceded it. Ryder and Yorke retired
+at the death of Perceval, Harrowby returned to office, and places in the
+cabinet were found for Sidmouth's adherents, Buckinghamshire,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst. Sidmouth himself succeeded Ryder as
+home secretary, while Harrowby succeeded Sidmouth as president of the
+council. Earl Bathurst took Liverpool's place as secretary for war and
+the colonies. Vansittart succeeded Perceval at the exchequer and
+Bragge-Bathurst in the duchy of Lancaster. Robert Dundas, now Viscount
+Melville, followed Yorke at the admiralty, and Buckinghamshire took
+Melville's place at the board of control, which became once more a
+cabinet office. Eldon, Castlereagh, Westmorland, and Mulgrave retained
+their former offices, while Camden remained in the cabinet without
+office. In September Mulgrave was created an earl, and Camden a marquis.
+The internal history of England during the first two years of
+Liverpool's premiership has been entirely dwarfed by the interest of
+external events. For this period comprised not only the Russian
+expedition--the greatest military tragedy in modern history--the
+marvellous resurrection of Germany, with the campaigns which culminated
+in the stupendous battle of Leipzig, and the invasion of France which
+ended in the abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, but also the
+brilliant conclusion of the Peninsular war, and the earlier stages of
+the war between Great Britain and the United States.
+
+The nation was contented to leave the guidance of home and foreign
+policy at that critical time to the existing ministers, all honest,
+experienced, and high-minded statesmen, but none gifted with any signal
+ability, and inferior both in cleverness and in eloquence to the leaders
+of the opposition. Napoleon was not far wrong in regarding the British
+aristocracy, which they represented, as his most inveterate and powerful
+enemy; but he was grievously deceived in imagining that this
+aristocracy, in withstanding his colossal ambition, had not the British
+nation at its back. The electoral body, indeed, to which they owed their
+parliamentary majority, was but a fraction of the population, and the
+public opinion which supported them may seem but the voice of a
+privileged class in these days of household suffrage. But there is
+little reason to doubt that, if household suffrage had then prevailed,
+their foreign policy would have received a democratic sanction; nor is
+it at all certain that some features of their home policy, now generally
+condemned, were not justified, in the main, by the exigencies of their
+time.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL DISTRESS._]
+
+The "condition of England," as it was then loosely termed, was the
+first subject which claimed the attention of Liverpool's government.
+While Perceval was congratulating parliament on the elasticity of the
+revenue, a widespread depression of industry was producing formidable
+disturbances in the midland counties. This depression was the
+consequence partly of the continental system, crippling the export of
+British goods to European countries; partly of the revival, in February,
+1811, of the American non-intercourse act, closing the vast market of
+the United States; and partly of the improvements in machinery,
+especially those in spinning and weaving machines introduced by the
+inventions of Cartwright and Arkwright. Unhappily, this last cause,
+being the only one visible to artisans, was regarded by them as the sole
+cause of their distress. During the autumn and winter of 1811 "Luddite"
+riots broke out among the stocking-weavers of Nottingham. Their name was
+derived from a half-witted man who had destroyed two stocking frames
+many years before. Frame-breaking on a grand scale became the object of
+an organised conspiracy, which extended its operations from
+Nottinghamshire into Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, and
+Yorkshire. At first frame-breaking was carried on by large bodies of
+operatives in broad daylight, and when these open proceedings were put
+down by military force, they were succeeded by nightly outrages,
+sometimes attended by murder. Early in 1812 a bill was passed making
+frame-breaking a capital offence.
+
+In spite of this riots grew into local insurrections, and a message from
+the prince regent on June 27 recommended further action to parliament.
+It was natural, in that generation to connect all disorderly movements
+with revolutionary designs, and this belief underlies an alarmist report
+from a secret committee of the house of lords on the prevailing tumults.
+Accordingly, Sidmouth obtained new powers for magistrates to search for
+arms, to disperse tumultuous assemblies, and to exercise jurisdiction
+beyond their own districts. In November many Luddites were convicted,
+and sixteen were executed by sentence of a special commission sitting at
+York. These stern measures were effectual for a time, and popular
+discontent in the manufacturing districts ceased to assume so acute a
+form until after the war was ended.
+
+The sufferings of the poor in the rural districts, though generally
+endured in silence, were at least equally severe with those of the
+artisan class, and it is difficult to say whether a good or bad harvest
+pressed more heavily on agricultural labourers. When the price of wheat
+rose to 130s. per quarter or upwards, as it did in 1812 and other years
+of scarcity, the farmers were able to pay comparatively high wages. When
+the price fell to 75s., as it did in years of plenty like 1813, wages
+were reduced to starvation-point, but supplemented out of the
+poor-rates, under the miserable system of indiscriminate out-door relief
+graduated according to the size of families. In either case, the entire
+income of a labourer was far below the modern standard, and the
+prosperity of trade meant to him an increase in the cost of all
+necessaries except bread. As for their employers, the golden age of
+farming, which is often identified with the age of the great war, had
+really ceased long before. Not only did the high price of a farmer's
+purchases go far to neutralise the high price of his sales, but the
+excessive fluctuations in all prices, due to the opening and closing of
+markets according to the fortunes of war, made prudent speculation
+almost impossible. The frequently recurring depressions were rendered
+all the more disastrous, because in times of high prices "the margin of
+cultivation" was unduly extended.
+
+[Pageheading: _CORN LAWS._]
+
+With a view to diminish the violence of these fluctuations, a select
+committee on the corn-trade was appointed by the house of commons in
+1813, and reported in favour of a sliding-scale. When the price of wheat
+should fall below 90s. per quarter, its exportation was to be permitted;
+but its importation was to be forbidden, until the price should reach
+103s., when it might, indeed, be imported, but under "a very
+considerable duty". It was assumed, in fact, that the normal price of
+wheat was above 100s. per quarter, and the price above which importation
+should be permitted was nearly twice as high as that fixed in 1801,
+when, moreover, it was to be admitted above 50s. at a duty of 2s. 6d.,
+and above 54s. at a duty of sixpence. It is remarkable that in the
+debates of 1814 upon the report of this committee, William Huskisson, as
+well as Sir Henry Parnell, supported its main conclusions, upon the
+ground that agriculture must be upheld at all costs, and the home-market
+preferred to foreign markets. Canning and others ably advocated the
+cause of the consumers, alleging that duties on corn injured them far
+more than they could benefit landowners or farmers. Finally, a bill
+embodying a modified sliding-scale was introduced by the government,
+and, though lost by a narrow majority in 1814, became law in 1815. Under
+this act the importation of foreign corn was prohibited, so long as the
+price of wheat did not rise above 80s. Above that price it might be
+imported free. Corn from British North America might, however, be
+imported free so long as the price of wheat exceeded 67s.
+
+The parliamentary debates of 1812 chiefly turned on Spanish affairs, the
+revocation of the orders in council, the subsequent rupture with the
+United States which had anticipated this great concession, and the
+wearisome cabinet intrigues which preceded the accession of Liverpool as
+prime minister. It is noteworthy that so conservative a house of commons
+should actually have pledged itself to consider the question of catholic
+emancipation in the next session, and should have passed an act
+relieving nonconformists from various disabilities. The next session of
+this parliament, however, never came, for an unexpected dissolution took
+place on September 29. This dissolution was attributed, with some
+reason, to a wish on the part of the government to profit by an abundant
+harvest, and to the restoration of comparative quiet both in England and
+in Ireland. A new parliament assembled at the end of November. The
+prince regent's speech in opening it, though it noticed the suppression
+of the Luddite disturbances, was inevitably devoted to the great events
+in Spain and Russia, the conclusion of a treaty with Russia, and the
+American declaration of war. After the Christmas recess, Castlereagh
+presented an argumentative message from the prince fully discussing the
+points at issue between Great Britain and the United States, upon which
+Canning, though out of office, delivered a vigorous speech in defence of
+the British position. Eldon, in the house of lords, went further, boldly
+justifying the right of search, and denying the American contention that
+original allegiance could be cancelled by naturalisation without the
+consent of the mother-country. The Princess of Wales, who had long been
+separated from the prince, was the cause of more parliamentary time
+being wasted by a complaint which she addressed to the speaker against
+the proceedings of the privy council. That body had approved
+restrictions which her husband had thought fit to place on her
+intercourse with her daughter, the Princess Charlotte. Parliament,
+however, took no action in the matter.
+
+Perhaps the most important measure enacted in the session of 1813 was
+the so-called East India company's act. By this act the charter of the
+company was renewed with a confirmation of its administrative privileges
+and its monopoly of the China trade, but subject to material
+reservations: the India trade was thrown open from April 10, 1814, and
+the charter itself, thus restricted, was made terminable by three years'
+notice after April 10, 1831. In this year the naval and military
+armaments of Great Britain, considered as a whole, perhaps reached their
+maximum strength, and the national expenditure rose to its highest
+level, including, as it did, subsidies to foreign powers amounting to
+about £10,500,000. Of the aggregate expenditure, about two-thirds,
+£74,000,000, were provided by taxation, an enormous sum relatively to
+the population and wealth of the country at that period. Patiently as
+this burden was borne on the whole by the people of Great Britain, we
+cannot wonder that Vansittart, the chancellor of the exchequer, should
+have sought to lighten it in some degree by encroaching upon the sinking
+fund, as founded and regulated by Pitt. The debates on this complicated
+question, in which Huskisson and Tierney stoutly combated Vansittart's
+proposal, belong rather to financial history. What strikes a modern
+student of politics as strange is that Vansittart, tory as he was,
+should have advocated the relief of living and suffering taxpayers, upon
+the principle, then undefined, of leaving money "to fructify in the
+pockets of the people"; while the whig economists of the day stickled
+for the policy of piling up new debts, if need be, rather than break in
+upon an empirical scheme for the gradual extinction of old debts.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[41] For the whole crisis see Walpole, _Life of Perceval_, ii., 157-96,
+and for Sheridan's share in the transactions, Moore, _Life of Sheridan_,
+ii., 382-409.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER V.
+
+ THE PENINSULAR WAR.
+
+
+Reference has already been made to the conflict maintained for six years
+by Great Britain against France for the liberation of Spain and
+Portugal, which has since been known in history as the Peninsular war.
+It had its origin in two events which occurred during the autumn of 1807
+and the spring of 1808. The first was the secret treaty of Fontainebleau
+concluded between France and Spain at the end of October, 1807; the
+second was the outbreak of revolutionary movements at Madrid, followed
+by the intervention of Napoleon in March, April, and May, 1808. The
+treaty of Fontainebleau was a sequel of the vast combination against
+Great Britain completed by the peace of Tilsit, under which the
+continental system was to be enforced over all Europe. Portugal, the
+ally of this country and an emporium of British commerce, was to be
+partitioned into principalities allotted by Napoleon, the house of
+Braganza was to be exiled, and its transmarine possessions were to be
+divided between France and Spain, then ruled by the worthless Godoy in
+the name of King Charles IV. Whether or not the subjugation of the whole
+peninsula was already designed by Napoleon, his troops, ostensibly
+despatched for the conquest of Portugal under the provisions of the
+treaty, had treacherously occupied commanding positions in Spain, when
+the populace of Madrid rose in revolt, and, thronging the little town of
+Aranjuez, where the court resided, frightened the king into abdication.
+His unprincipled son, Ferdinand, was proclaimed in March, 1808, but
+Murat, who now entered Madrid as commander-in-chief of the French troops
+in that city, secretly favoured the ex-King Charles. In the end, both he
+and Ferdinand were enticed into seeking the protection of Napoleon at
+Bayonne. Instead of mediating or deciding between them, Napoleon soon
+found means to get rid of both. They were induced or rather compelled to
+resign their rights, and retire into private life on large pensions; and
+Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on his brother Joseph, whose
+former kingdom of Naples was bestowed on Murat.
+
+In the meantime, sanguinary riots broke out afresh at Madrid, hundreds
+of French were massacred, and the insurrection, as it was called, though
+sternly put down by Murat, spread like wildfire into all parts of Spain.
+A violent explosion of patriotism, resulting in anarchy, followed
+throughout the whole country. Napoleon was taken by surprise, but the
+combinations which he matured at Bayonne for the conquest of Spain were
+as masterly as those by which he had well-nigh subdued the whole
+continent, except Russia. He established a base of operations in the
+centre of the country, and organised four campaigns in the north-west,
+north-east, south-east, and south. Savary, who had succeeded Murat at
+Madrid, was supposed to act as commander-in-chief, but was really little
+more than a medium for transmitting orders received from Napoleon at
+Bayonne. The campaign of Duhesme in Catalonia was facilitated by the
+treacherous seizure of the citadel of Barcelona in the previous
+February. It was not long, however, before effective aid was rendered on
+the coast by the British fleet under Collingwood, and especially by Lord
+Cochrane in the _Impérieuse_ frigate; the undisciplined bands of
+Catalonian volunteers were reinforced by regular troops from Majorca and
+Minorca; the fortress of Gerona made an obstinate resistance; the siege
+of it was twice raised, and Barcelona, almost isolated, was now held
+with difficulty.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE OCCUPIES THE PENINSULA._]
+
+Marshal Moncey vainly besieged Valencia, while Generals
+Lefebvre-Desnoëttes and Verdier were equally unsuccessful before
+Zaragoza. In the plains of Leon, Marshal Bessières gained a decisive
+victory over a superior force of Spaniards under Cuesta and Blake, at
+Medina de Rio Seco, on July 14. Having thus secured the province of
+Leon, and the great route from Bayonne to Madrid, he was advancing on
+Galicia when his progress was arrested by disaster in another quarter.
+General Dupont, commanding the southern army, found himself nearly
+surrounded at Baylen, and solicited an armistice, followed by a
+convention, under which, "above eighteen thousand French soldiers laid
+down their arms before a raw army incapable of resisting half that
+number, if the latter had been led by an able man".[42] The convention,
+signed on July 20, stipulated for the transport of the French troops to
+France, but its stipulations were shamefully violated; some were
+massacred, others were sent to sicken in the hulks at Cadiz, and
+comparatively few lived to rejoin their colours. Meanwhile a so-called
+"assembly of notables," summoned to Bayonne, consisting of ninety-one
+persons, all nominees of Napoleon, assumed to act for the whole nation,
+had accepted the nomination of Joseph Bonaparte as king, and proceeded
+to adopt a constitution. On July 20, the very day of the capitulation of
+Baylen, Joseph entered Madrid, and on the 24th was proclaimed King of
+Spain and the Indies. But the military prestige of the grand army
+received a fatal blow in the catastrophe, of which the immediate effect
+was the retirement of Joseph behind the Ebro, and the ultimate effects
+were felt in the later history of the war.
+
+At this moment almost the whole of Portugal was in possession of the
+French. In November, 1807, under peremptory orders from Napoleon, Junot
+with a French army and an auxiliary force of Spaniards, but without
+money or transport, had marched with extraordinary rapidity across the
+mountains to Alcantara in the valley of the Tagus. He thence pressed
+forward to Lisbon, hoping to anticipate the embarkation of the royal
+family for Brazil, which, however, took place just before his arrival
+and almost under his eyes. With his army terribly reduced by the
+hardships and privations of his forced march, he overawed Lisbon and
+issued a proclamation that "the house of Braganza had ceased to reign".
+A fortnight later a Spanish division occupied Oporto, and meanwhile
+another Spanish division established itself in the south-east of
+Portugal, but, as the French stragglers came in and reinforcements
+approached, Junot felt himself strong enough to cast off all disguise;
+he suppressed the council of regency, took the government into his own
+hands, and levied a heavy war contribution. During the early months of
+1808 he was employed in reorganising his own forces, and the resources
+of Lisbon, where an auxiliary Russian fleet of nine ships was lying
+practically blockaded. In a military sense, he was successful, but the
+rapacity of the French, the contagion of the Spanish uprising, the
+memory of the old alliance with England, and the proximity of English
+fleets, stirred the blood of the Portuguese nation into ill-concealed
+hostility. The Spanish commander at Oporto withdrew his troops to
+Galicia, and the inhabitants declared for independence. Their example
+was followed in other parts of Portugal. Junot acted with vigour,
+disarmed the Spanish contingent at Lisbon, and sent columns to quell
+disturbances on the Spanish frontiers, but he soon realised the
+necessity of concentration. He therefore resolved to abandon most of the
+Portuguese fortresses, limiting his efforts to holding Lisbon, and
+keeping open his line of communication with Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _VIMEIRO AND CINTRA._]
+
+Such was the state of affairs in the Peninsula when Sir Arthur Wellesley
+landed his army of some 12,000 men on August 13, 1808. He had been
+specially designated for the command of a British army in Portugal by
+Castlereagh, then secretary for war and the colonies, who fully
+appreciated his singular capacity for so difficult a service. Sir John
+Moore, who had just returned from the Baltic, having found it hopeless
+to co-operate with Gustavus IV. of Sweden, was sent out soon afterwards
+to Portugal with a corps of some 10,000 men. Both these eminent soldiers
+were directed to place themselves under the orders not only of Sir Hew
+Dalrymple, the governor of Gibraltar, as commander-in-chief, but of Sir
+Harry Burrard, when he should arrive, as second in command. Wellesley
+had received general instructions to afford "the Spanish and Portuguese
+nations every possible aid in throwing off the yoke of France," and was
+empowered to disembark at the mouth of the Tagus. Having obtained
+trustworthy information at Coruña and Oporto, he decided rather to begin
+his campaign from a difficult landing-place south of Oporto at the mouth
+of the Mondego, and to march thence upon Lisbon. He was opportunely
+joined by General Spencer from the south of Spain, and chose the
+coast-road by Torres Vedras. At Roliça he encountered a smaller force
+under Delaborde, sent in advance by Junot to delay his progress, and
+routed it after a severe combat. Delaborde, however, retreated with
+admirable tenacity, and Wellesley, expecting reinforcements from the
+coast, pushed forward to Vimeiro, without attempting to check the
+concentration of Junot's army. There was fought, on August 21, the first
+important battle of the Peninsular war. The British troops, estimated at
+16,778 men (besides about 2,000 Portuguese), outnumbered the French
+considerably, but the French were much stronger in cavalry, and boldly
+assumed the offensive, confident in the prestige derived from so many
+victories in Italy and Germany. Wellesley's position was strong, but the
+attack on it was skilfully designed and pressed home with resolute
+courage. It was repelled at every point of the field, and the French,
+retiring in confusion, might have been cut off from Lisbon. But Burrard,
+who had just landed and witnessed the battle without interfering, now
+absolutely refused to sanction a vigorous pursuit.
+
+On the following day he was superseded in turn by Dalrymple. The new
+commander determined to await the arrival of Moore, whose approach was
+reported, but who did not disembark his whole force until the 30th. In
+the meantime, overtures for an armistice were received from Junot, and
+ultimately resulted in the so-called "convention of Cintra," though it
+was first drafted at Torres Vedras and was ratified at Lisbon. Under
+this agreement the French army was to surrender Lisbon intact with other
+Portuguese fortresses, but was allowed to return to France with its arms
+and baggage at the expense of the British government. Having dissented
+from the military decision which had enabled Junot to negotiate, instead
+of capitulating, Wellesley also dissented from certain terms of the
+convention. He was, however, party to it as a whole, and afterwards
+justified its main conditions as securing the evacuation of Portugal at
+the price of reasonable concessions. This was not the feeling of the
+British public, which loudly resented the escape of the French army and
+insisted upon a court of inquiry. The verdict of this court saved the
+military honour of all three generals, but its members were so divided
+in opinion on the policy of the convention that no authoritative
+judgment was pronounced. Napoleon felt no such difficulty in condemning
+Junot for yielding too much, and the inhabitants of Lisbon were
+infuriated not only by the loss of their expected vengeance, but also by
+the shameless plunder of their public and private property by the
+departing French. Under a separate convention, the Russian fleet, long
+blockaded in the Tagus, was surrendered to the British admiral, but
+without its officers or crews.
+
+The capitulation of Baylen paralysed for a time the aggressive movements
+of France in Spain. Catalonia remained unconquered, even Bessières
+retreated, and Joseph, as we have seen, abandoned Madrid. Happily for
+the French, the Spaniards proved quite incapable of following up their
+advantages, and though a "supreme junta" was assembled at Aranjuez, it
+wasted its time in vain wrangling, and did little or nothing for the
+organisation of national defence. Meanwhile, Napoleon was pouring
+veteran troops from Germany into the north of Spain, where they repulsed
+the Spanish levies in several minor engagements. On October 14 he left
+Erfurt, where he had renewed his alliance with the tsar, and reached
+Bayonne on November 3. His simple but masterly plan of campaign was
+already prepared, and was carried out with the utmost promptitude. On
+November 10-11, one of three Spanish armies was crushed at Espinosa; on
+the former day another was routed at Gamonal; on the 23rd the third was
+utterly dispersed at Tudela. Napoleon himself remained for some days at
+Burgos, awaiting the result of these operations; on December 4, after a
+feeble resistance, he entered Madrid in triumph, and stayed there
+seventeen days, which he employed with marvellous activity in maturing
+fresh designs, both civil and military, for securing his power in Spain.
+
+[Pageheading: _ADVANCE OF SIR JOHN MOORE._]
+
+Already, on October 7, Sir John Moore had taken over the command of the
+British forces. He probably owed his appointment to George III., who
+seems on this occasion to have overruled his foreign and war ministers,
+Canning and Castlereagh. In spite of his unwillingness to offer the
+appointment to Moore, Castlereagh gave him the most loyal and efficient
+support during the whole campaign; and this loyalty to Moore was one of
+the reasons for Canning's desire to remove Castlereagh from the war
+office, which, as we have seen, led to the famous duel between those two
+statesmen. It was at first intended that Moore should co-operate with
+the Spanish armies which were then facing the French on the line of the
+Ebro. For this purpose he was to have the command of 21,000 troops
+already in Portugal and of about 12,000 who were being sent by sea to
+Coruña under Sir David Baird. Burrard was to remain in Portugal with
+another 10,000. Nothing had been done before Moore was appointed to the
+command to provide the troops with their necessary equipment or their
+commander with the necessary local information. The departure of the
+troops was therefore slow. By October 18 the greater part of the British
+troops in Portugal were in motion, but the whole army had not left
+Lisbon till the 29th. The main body travelled by fairly direct routes to
+Salamanca, where Moore arrived on November 13, but he was induced by
+information, which proved to be incorrect, to send his cavalry and guns
+with a column under Hope, by the more circuitous high road through Elvas
+and Talavera. When this route was adopted it was anticipated that the
+different divisions of the British army would be able to unite at, or
+near, Valladolid. But the advance of the French rendered this
+impossible, and Hope ultimately joined Moore at Salamanca on December 4.
+
+Baird suffered from even more vexatious delays. Though the greater part
+of his convoy had arrived at Coruña on October 13, the local junta would
+not permit them to land without express orders from the central junta at
+Aranjuez. Consequently the disembarkation did not begin till the 26th
+and was only finished on November 4. Transport and equipment were
+difficult to obtain, and on November 22 Baird was still only at Astorga.
+There exaggerated reports of the French advance induced him to halt, but
+by Moore's orders he continued his march. On the 28th the news of the
+defeat of Castaños at Tudela reached Moore at Salamanca. Co-operation
+with a Spanish army now appeared impossible, and even a junction with
+Baird seemed too hazardous to attempt. Moore therefore, ordered Baird to
+retire on Coruña and to proceed to Lisbon by sea, and, while waiting
+himself at Salamanca for Hope, made preparations for a retreat to
+Portugal. On December 5, the day after his junction with Hope, Moore
+determined to continue his advance. He had received news of the
+enthusiastic preparations for the defence of Madrid but did not know of
+its fall, and he considered that the Spanish enthusiasm justified some
+risk on the part of the British troops. He accordingly recalled Baird,
+whose infantry had retired to Villafranca, though his cavalry were still
+at Astorga. On the 9th came the news of the fall of Madrid, but Moore
+believed that an attack on the French lines of communication might still
+prove useful, and on the 11th the advance was renewed. Moore himself
+left Salamanca on the 13th. On the 12th he learned for the first time
+from some prisoners the true strength of the French army, 250,000 of all
+arms, and also discovered that the enemy were in complete ignorance of
+the position of his own army. Next day an intercepted despatch showed
+him that he might possibly be able to cut off Soult in an isolated
+position at Saldaña. Having at last effected a junction with Baird's
+corps on the 19th he reached Sahagun on the 21st, and was on the point
+of delivering his attack under favourable conditions, though his triumph
+must have been short-lived.
+
+His real success was of another order. He had anticipated that Napoleon
+would postpone everything to the opportunity of crushing a British army,
+and the ultimate object of his march to Sahagun was to draw the French
+away from Lisbon and Andalusia. He was not disappointed. Napoleon at
+last divined that Moore was not flying in a south-westerly direction,
+but carrying out a bold manoeuvre in a north-easterly direction. He
+instantly pushed division after division from various quarters by forced
+marches upon Moore's reported track, while he himself followed with
+desperate efforts across the snow-clad mountains between Madrid and the
+Douro. Apprised of his swift advance, and conscious of his own vast
+inferiority in numbers, Moore had no choice but to retreat without a
+moment's delay upon Benevente and Astorga. He was now sufficiently far
+north to prefer to retire upon Galicia rather than upon Portugal. The
+retreat began on the 24th and was executed with such rapidity that on
+January 1, 1809, Napoleon gave up the pursuit at Astorga, leaving it to
+be continued by Soult. Whether he was influenced by intelligence of
+fresh armaments on the Danube, or of dangerous plots in Paris, must
+remain uncertain, but it is highly probable that he saw little honour to
+be won in a laborious chase of a foe who might prove formidable if
+brought to bay.
+
+Moore's army, disheartened as it was by the loss of a brilliant chance,
+and demoralised as it became under the fatigues and hardships of a most
+harassing retreat, never failed to repel attacks on its rear, where
+Paget handled the cavalry of the rear-guard with signal ability,
+especially in a spirited action near Benevente. In spite of some
+excesses, tolerable order was maintained until the British force, still
+25,000 strong, reached Astorga, and was joined by some 10,000 Spaniards
+under Romaña. Thenceforward, all sense of discipline was abandoned by so
+many regiments that Moore described the conduct of his whole army as
+"infamous beyond belief," though it is certain that some regiments, and
+notably those of the reserve, should be excepted from this sweeping
+condemnation. Drunkenness, marauding, and other military crimes grew
+more and more general as the main body marched "in a drove" through
+Villafranca to Lugo, where Moore vainly offered battle, and onwards to
+Betanzos on the sea-coast. There a marvellous rally was effected,
+stragglers rejoined the ranks in unexpected numbers, the _moral_ of the
+soldiery was restored as the fearful strain of physical misery was
+relaxed, and by January 12, 1809, all the divisions of Moore's army were
+safely posted in or around Coruña. Bad weather had delayed the fleet of
+transports ordered round from Vigo, but it ran into the harbour on the
+14th, and the sick and invalids were sent on board.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF CORUÑA._]
+
+Moore was advised to make terms for the embarkation of his entire
+command, but he was too good a soldier to comply. Those who took part in
+the battle of Coruña on the 16th, some 15,000 men in all, were no
+unworthy representatives of the army which started from Lisbon three
+months earlier. Soult, with a larger force, assumed the offensive, and
+made a determined attack on the British position in front of the harbour
+and town of Coruña. He was repulsed at all points, but Moore was
+mortally, and Baird severely, wounded on the field. Hope, who took
+command, knowing that Soult would soon be reinforced, wisely persisted
+in carrying out Moore's intention, evacuated Coruña, and embarked his
+army for England during the night and the following day. His losses were
+estimated by Hope at above 700, killed and wounded; those of the enemy
+were twice as great. Thus victory crowned a campaign which otherwise
+would have done little to satisfy the popular appetite for tangible
+success. The original object of supporting the Spanish resistance in the
+north had been rendered impossible of fulfilment by Napoleon's victories
+when Moore had barely crossed the Spanish frontier, and in this sense
+the expedition must be regarded as a failure, though its commander was
+in no sense responsible for its ill-success. On the other hand,
+considered as a skilful diversion, the expedition was highly successful.
+It drew all the best French troops and generals into the north-west
+corner of Spain, leaving all the other, and far richer, provinces to
+recover their power of resistance.[43]
+
+The spirit in which Napoleon had entered upon this contest is well
+illustrated in two sentences of his address to the citizens of Madrid.
+"The Bourbons," he said, "can no longer reign in Europe," and "No power
+under the influence of England can exist on the continent". The
+counter-proclamations of Spanish juntas were more prolix and equally
+arrogant, but one of them reveals the secret of national strength when
+it asserts that "a whole people is more powerful than disciplined
+armies". The British estimate of Napoleon's Spanish policy was tersely
+expressed by the Marquis Wellesley in the house of lords, "To him force
+and fraud were alike; force, that would stoop to all the base artifices
+of fraud; and fraud, that would come armed with all the fierce violence
+of force".
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY TAKES COMMAND._]
+
+For three months after the battle of Coruña, the Peninsular war, as
+regards the action of Great Britain, was all but suspended. Two days
+before that battle, a formal treaty of peace and alliance between Great
+Britain and the Spanish junta, which had withdrawn to Seville, was
+signed at London. Sir John Cradock was in command of the British troops
+at Lisbon, and took up a defensive position there, with reinforcements
+from Cadiz, awaiting the approach of Soult, who had captured Oporto by
+storm, and of Victor, who was in the valley of the Tagus. At the request
+of the Portuguese, Beresford had been sent out to organise and command
+their army. Early in 1809 the Spaniards were defeated with great
+slaughter at Ucles, Ciudad Real, and Medellin; Zaragoza was taken after
+another siege, and still more obstinate defence; and the national cause
+seemed more desperate than ever. On April 2, however, Sir Arthur
+Wellesley, who had returned home after the convention of Cintra, was
+appointed to the command-in-chief of our forces in the Peninsula.
+Before leaving England, he left with the ministers a memorandum on the
+conduct of the war which, viewed by the light of later events, must be
+accounted a masterpiece of foresight and sagacity. When it was laid
+before George III., his natural shrewdness at once discerned its true
+value, and he desired its author to be informed of the strong impression
+which it had produced on his mind.
+
+Wellesley, indeed, could not estimate beforehand the vast numerical
+superiority of the French while the rest of Europe was at peace, or the
+impotent vacillations of Spanish juntas, or the "mulish obstinacy" of
+Spanish generals, which so often wrecked his plans and spoiled his
+victories. Nor could he foresee the advantages which he would derive
+from the resources of guerilla warfare, the mutual jealousies of the
+French marshals, and the sudden recall of the best French troops for
+service in Germany and Russia. But his prescient and practical mind
+firmly grasped the dominant facts of the position--that Portugal,
+guarded by the ocean on the west and by mountain ranges on the east, was
+far more accessible to the British navy than to the French army; that,
+under British officers, its troops might be trained into an effective
+force; and that, with it as a basis, Great Britain might ultimately
+liberate the whole Peninsula. "I have always been of opinion," Wellesley
+said in this memorandum, "that Portugal might be defended, whatever
+might be the result of the contest in Spain; and that in the meantime
+the measures adopted for the defence of Portugal would be highly useful
+to the Spaniards in their contest with the French." On this simple
+principle all his detailed recommendations were founded, and he
+expressed a deliberate belief that, if 30,000 British troops were
+supported by an equal number of Portuguese regulars, and a reserve of
+militia was provided, "the French would not be able to overrun Portugal
+with less than 100,000 men". This forecast was verified, and upon its
+essential wisdom the fate of the Peninsular war, with all its
+consequences, may be said to have depended.[44]
+
+Wellesley landed at Lisbon on April 22, and was received with the utmost
+demonstrations of joy and confidence. He found not only the capital but
+the whole country in a state of tumult, if not of anarchy, due to a
+growing despair of the national cause. His arrival rekindled the embers
+of patriotism, and on May 5 he reviewed at Coimbra a body of troops
+consisting of 17,000 British and Germans, with about 8,000 Portuguese.
+The next day he marched towards the Douro, and on the 14th he effected
+the passage of that river in the face of the French army occupying
+Oporto, which the British forthwith recaptured. Soult beat a hasty and
+disorderly retreat into Galicia. Having driven Soult out of Portugal,
+the British general was encouraged to undertake a further advance into
+Spain, where Joseph with Victor and Sébastiani had collected a much
+larger army to bar the approaches to Madrid than Wellesley, relying on
+Spanish intelligence, had been led to expect. During June and the first
+days of July, he moved by Abrantes and the Tagus valley as far as
+Plasencia, little knowing that Soult was about to sweep round his rear,
+with 50,000 men, and intercept his communications with Lisbon. On July
+10 he held a conference with the Spanish general Cuesta, who insisted on
+making an aggressive movement with his own troops only, and met with a
+repulse.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TALAVERA CAMPAIGN._]
+
+On the 27th, the combined armies of Wellesley and Cuesta, numbering
+respectively about 20,000 British and 35,000 Spanish, confronted 46,000
+French troops, under Victor, in a strong position behind Talavera.[45]
+The Spanish forces occupied the right and the British the left of this
+position. Joseph was present, and disregarding the counsels of Jourdan,
+his proper military adviser, authorised Victor to assume the offensive.
+He failed in two preliminary attacks on the 27th, but renewed them on
+the 28th, when a general engagement ensued. The whole brunt of the
+battle fell upon the British troops, who gallantly withstood a desperate
+onset, first on their left and then on their centre and right, until the
+French quitted the field in confusion. The Spaniards, posted in
+entrenchments nearer Talavera itself, did and suffered comparatively
+little. Some of their regiments fled disgracefully, but the rest held
+their ground, and Wellesley in his despatch spoke favourably of their
+behaviour.[46] Perhaps the part which they played may be roughly
+estimated by their losses, amounting to 1,200, as compared with 6,268
+British and nearly 9,000 French. Wellesley, after further experience of
+Spanish co-operation, made up his mind to dispense with it altogether in
+future.
+
+The victory of Talavera won for Wellesley the rank of viscount, to which
+he was raised on September 4, with the title of Wellington. Although the
+victory revived the respect of foreign nations for the prowess of
+British arms, it was otherwise fruitless, and its sequel was fairly open
+to criticism. Wellesley found that Soult, with Ney and Mortier, had
+circumvented him, and that he must retreat through Esdremadura, on the
+south of the Tagus, upon Badajoz. Cuesta, who had advocated bolder
+counsels, undertook to guard the rear, and to protect the British
+wounded at Talavera. But he soon found it necessary to abandon that
+position. Fifteen hundred of the wounded were left behind, and were
+humanely treated by the French generals. Wellesley's retreat over the
+mountains was attended with great hardship and loss, for want of
+supplies either from Spain or from the coast, and his long encampment in
+the malarious valley of the Guadiana about Badajoz swelled the number of
+his sick to a frightful extent. It was not until December, when it got
+into better cantonments on Portuguese soil, that the British army,
+triumphant at Talavera, recovered either its health or its _moral_.
+Napoleon boasted, in a memorandum to be inserted in the Paris journals,
+that Wellington had really been beaten in Spain, and that "if affairs
+there had been properly conducted not an Englishman would have escaped".
+Without going quite so far as this, the parliamentary opposition in
+England made the least of the victory and the most of the retreat, which
+unfortunately coincided in time with the wreck of the Walcheren
+expedition. Even Wellington's best friends in England began to lose
+heart, as did many of his own officers. He remained undaunted, and
+having established his headquarters on the high ground between the Tagus
+and the Douro, meditated designs which, slowly matured, bore good fruit
+in later years.
+
+It is difficult to understand the inaction of Wellington for so many
+months after the Talavera campaign, without taking into account not only
+the difficulty of obtaining sufficient recruits and stores from England
+after the waste of both at the mouth of the Scheldt, but the greatly
+increased strength of the French in Spain during the long interval
+between the Wagram campaign and the Russian expedition. At the close of
+1809 all the fortresses of Spain had fallen into the enemy's hands, and
+all her principal armies had been defeated and dispersed in successive
+battles of which the greatest was that of Ocaña in the month of
+November. Suchet was master of Aragon and the east of Spain, nor was he
+dislodged from it until the end of the war; Andalusia was nearly
+conquered; Cadiz was only saved by the self-reliant courage of the Duc
+d'Albuquerque, baffling the intrigues and treachery of the supreme junta
+there assembled; and Napoleon was preparing a fresh army to overrun
+Portugal, under the command of Masséna. The Perceval ministry, in which
+Liverpool had taken Castlereagh's post of secretary for war and the
+colonies, adopting an optimistic tone at home, practically told
+Wellington that he must shift for himself; and he braced himself up to
+do so with extraordinary fortitude.
+
+He remained watching the gathering storm from the heights of Guarda,
+south-west of Almeida, and commanding two great roads from Spain into
+Portugal, but his thoughts were equally fixed upon the vast and famous
+lines of Torres Vedras, which he was constructing for the defence of
+Lisbon. His force, including the Portuguese regulars, did not exceed
+50,000 men; that of the French under Ney, Reynier, and Junot consisted
+of about 70,000, but they were not equally capable of being concentrated
+on a single point. The Portuguese militia, too, were being gradually
+disciplined, and the Portuguese civil authorities were being gradually
+schooled into the new lesson of sweeping their own country bare of all
+supplies before the coming French invasion. Wellington did not even
+strike a blow to save Ciudad Rodrigo, which Masséna took on July 10,
+1810. But it was no part of his plan that Almeida should capitulate, as
+it did shortly afterwards, partly owing to the accidental explosion of a
+magazine, and partly as was suspected, to an act of treachery. Still,
+Masséna delayed until urged by Napoleon, and deceived by false
+intelligence, he launched forth, at the beginning of September, on an
+enterprise which proved fatal to his reputation. Both he and Wellington
+issued appeals to the Portuguese nation, the contrast between which is
+significant. The French marshal, echoing the prevailing note of his
+master's proclamation, denounced Great Britain as the enemy of all
+Europe; Wellington called upon the Portuguese to remember their actual
+experience of French rapacity and outrage.
+
+[Pageheading: _BUSSACO AND TORRES VEDRAS._]
+
+The object of Masséna was to reach Coimbra before Wellington. His
+manoeuvres to outflank Wellington's left were skilfully devised, but
+the British army marched steadily down the valley of the Mondego,
+carrying with it the population of the district, and took its stand on
+the ridge of Bussaco, north of Coimbra, barring Masséna's progress.
+There was fought, on September 27, 1810, a battle as deadly as that of
+Talavera, and more decisive in its consequences. The French, as usual,
+were the assailants; the English and the Portuguese stood at bay. Never,
+in any of their brilliant victories, did French troops show more heroic
+daring than in this assault under Reynier on the British right, and
+under Ney on the British left. Both columns forced their way up bare
+heath-clad slopes, and reached the summit, whence they were only driven
+back after repeated charges. Their loss in killed and wounded exceeded
+4,500, that of the allies was about 1,300. The French generals threw the
+blame of defeat upon each other, but, in fact, the skill of Masséna
+converted a defeat into an episode in his victorious advance. On the
+following day, he again found a way of turning Wellington's left, and,
+in an intercepted despatch, he naturally treated this as a compensation
+for the repulse at Bussaco, which he did not disguise. Compelled to
+retire once more with a vast drove of encumbered, panic-stricken, and
+famishing Portuguese fugitives, and conscious that no reserves awaited
+him, Wellington knew, nevertheless, that he was drawing Masséna further
+and further away from his base, to encounter a terrible surprise. For,
+so useless had been the French scouts, and so worthless the information
+received from Portuguese sources, that no adequate conception of the
+obstacle presented by the lines of Torres Vedras had entered the mind of
+that experienced strategist.
+
+These elaborate works had been constructed in the course of a year by
+thousands of Portuguese labourers, directed by Colonel Fletcher of the
+royal engineers, upon a plan carefully thought out and laid down by
+Wellington himself. The first and principal chain of fortifications
+stretched for nearly thirty miles across the whole promontory between
+the river Tagus and the sea, about twenty-five miles north of Lisbon.
+The summits of hills were crowned with forts, their sides were escarped
+and protected with earthworks, their gorges were blocked with redoubts,
+a small river at the foot of them was made impassable by dams; in short,
+the utmost advantage was taken of the defences provided by nature, and
+these were supplemented by artificial entrenchments. Portuguese
+garrisons manned the greater part of the batteries, armed with guns from
+the arsenals of Lisbon; British troops were to occupy the most
+vulnerable points of attack. There was a second and third range of
+fortifications behind the first, in case these should be forced, but no
+such emergency arose. When Masséna had carefully inspected the
+stupendous barrier reared in front of him, his well-trained eye
+recognised it as impregnable: he paused for some weeks under semblance
+of blockading the British forces, while he was really scouring the
+country for the means of feeding his own; but in November he began to
+retreat upon Santarem, Almeida, and Ciudad Rodrigo, with a half-starved
+and dispirited army, greatly reduced in numbers during the campaign.[47]
+
+The year 1811 was perhaps the least interesting, yet the most critical
+in the history of the Peninsular war. Wellington had not escaped
+criticism at home for allowing Masséna to remain so long unmolested near
+Santarem. He described himself in a private letter, written in December,
+1810, as "safe for the winter at all events". More he could not have
+said, knowing, as he did, that Soult was in force before Cadiz, and
+might at any moment join Masséna. This, in fact, he did; leaving his
+fields of plunder in Andalusia under the positive orders of Napoleon, he
+defeated the Spaniards at the Gebora on February 19, and captured
+Badajoz, as well as Olivenza. In his absence, Sir Thomas Graham, who
+commanded the British troops at Cadiz, sailed thence with La Peña, the
+Spanish commander, and a combined force of about 12,000 men, to make a
+flank march, and attack the French besiegers, under Victor, in the rear.
+A brisk action followed at Barrosa, in which Graham obtained a complete
+victory, but the Spanish troops, as usual, remained almost passive; the
+beaten army was not pursued, and the siege of Cadiz was not raised.
+This city was still the seat of the Spanish national government, but the
+feeble junta had been superseded by a national cortes, fairly
+representative of the nation, which passed some liberal measures, and
+dissolved the so-called regency which assumed to represent Ferdinand.
+
+[Pageheading: _FUENTES D'ONORO AND ALBUERA._]
+
+The two great frontier fortresses of Spain, Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz,
+were now in the hands of the French. Masséna had regained the Spanish
+frontier in March, after frequent combats with the pursuing enemy, and
+with heavy losses in men and horses, though he saved every gun except
+one. This retreat involved the evacuation of every place in Portugal
+except the fortress of Almeida. Wellington's pursuit would have been
+still more vigorous, but that his Portuguese troops were half-starved,
+and had lost discipline under intolerable privations. His next design
+seems to have been the recapture of the fortresses, but he was not
+without ulterior hopes--all too premature--of afterwards pushing on to
+Madrid and operating in the eastern provinces of Spain. He first
+invested Almeida, and, leaving General Spencer to continue the blockade,
+proceeded to Elvas in order to concert measures with Beresford for the
+siege of Badajoz. Thence he was suddenly recalled northward to repel a
+fresh advance of Masséna, strongly reinforced, for the relief of
+Almeida. The battle which followed at Fuentes d'Oñoro, south-east of
+Almeida, was among the most hardly contested struggles in the whole
+Peninsular war. It began on May 3, and, with a day's interval, concluded
+on the 5th. The British remained masters of the field, and claimed a
+somewhat doubtful victory, which at least secured the evacuation of
+Almeida. The garrison of that fortress blew it up by night, and
+succeeded, by masterly tactics, in joining the main French army with
+little sacrifice of life.
+
+Wellington returned to Badajoz, only to meet with disappointment.
+General Cole, acting under Beresford, had retaken Olivenza; but Soult,
+with a force of 23,000 men, was marching to succour Badajoz, when he was
+encountered by Beresford at Albuera. Beresford's force was numerically
+stronger than Soult's, but only 7,000 men were English, the rest being
+mostly Spanish. Measured by the proportion of losses to men engaged on
+both sides, this fight on May 16, 1811, must rank among the bloodiest on
+record. In four hours nearly 7,000 of the allies and 8,000 French were
+struck down. The decisive charge of the reserve was inspired and led by
+Hardinge, afterwards Governor-General of India; the French were routed,
+and Soult was checked, but little was gained by the victors.[48] The
+siege of Badajoz, indeed, was renewed, but its progress was slow for
+want of proper engines and artillery, and it was abandoned, after two
+futile attempts, on June 11. By this time, Marmont had succeeded
+Masséna, and was carrying out Napoleon's grand plan for a junction with
+Soult's army and a fresh irruption into Portugal. With marvellous
+audacity, Wellington offered battle to both marshals, who, happily
+ignorant of his weakness, declined it more than once. In truth, he was
+never more nearly at the end of his resources than when he went into
+winter quarters at the close of 1811, having failed to prevent Marmont
+from provisioning Ciudad Rodrigo, and having narrowly escaped being
+overwhelmed by a much superior force. His army was greatly reduced by
+sickness, he was very ill-supplied from England, and he received no
+loyal support from the Portuguese government. Moreover, the French had
+apparently extended their hold on Spain, both in the eastern and
+northern provinces, while it was reported that Napoleon himself, not
+content with dictating orders from afar, would return to complete the
+conquest of the Peninsula.
+
+At this juncture, he must have been cheered by the arrival of so able a
+lieutenant as Graham from Cadiz, and by the brilliant success of Hill
+against a detached body of Marmont's army south of the Tagus. There were
+other tendencies also secretly working in favour of the British and
+their allies. Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain, openly protested
+against the extortions which he was enjoined to practise on his
+subjects, and went so far as to resign his crown at Paris, though he was
+induced to resume it. Again the broken armies of the Spanish had
+reappeared in the form of guerilla bands under leaders such as Mina;
+they could not be dispersed, since they had no cohesion, and were more
+formidable through their extreme mobility than organised battalions.
+Above all, the domination of France over Europe was already undermined
+and tottering invisibly to its fall. The Tsar Alexander had, as we have
+seen, been deeply offended by the preference of an Austrian to a Russian
+princess, as the consort of Napoleon, and still more by his imperious
+annexation of Oldenburg. Sweden, following the example of Russia, had
+begun to rebel against the continental system. A series of internal
+reforms had aroused a national spirit, and stealthily created the basis
+of a national army in Prussia, and the intense hostility of all North
+Germany to France was thinly disguised by the unwilling servility of the
+Prussian court. Napoleon, who seldom laboured under the illusions
+propagated by his own manifestoes and bulletins, well knew what he was
+doing when, in August, 1811, he allowed himself to burst into a storm of
+indignation against the Russian ambassador at the Tuileries. From that
+moment he clearly premeditated a rupture with Russia, and soon he
+withdrew 60,000 of his best troops from Spain, to be employed in that
+fatal enterprise of 1812 which proved to be his doom.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAPTURE OF CIUDAD RODRIGO AND BADAJOZ._]
+
+The winter of 1811-12 was spent by Wellington in preparing, with the
+utmost secrecy, for the sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, as the
+first steps in an offensive campaign. In January, 1812, he struck a
+sudden blow against the former, and captured it by an assault, attended
+with great carnage, on the 19th of that month. In this furious conflict,
+lasting but half an hour, Craufurd, the renowned leader of the light
+division, fell mortally wounded. Shameful excesses sullied the glory of
+a splendid exploit. Marmont immediately drew in his troops towards
+Salamanca, leaving Soult in the valley of the Tagus; and Hill, with his
+southern army, moved northward. Wellington, who was created an earl in
+February, transferred the greater part of his troops to Badajoz, and
+began a regular siege, but with very imperfect materials, no organised
+corps of sappers and miners, and very few officers skilled in the art of
+taking fortified towns. He was greatly delayed on the route by the lack
+of transport, and the vexatious obstinacy of the Portuguese authorities,
+while time was of the utmost consequence lest any or all of three French
+armies should come to raise the siege. Hence the extreme rapidity of his
+final operations.
+
+After the capture of an outlying fort, three breaches were made in the
+walls, and on the night of April 6, under the cover of thick darkness,
+two divisions of British troops descended into the ditch, many carrying
+ladders or sacks of hay, and advanced to the foot of the _glacis_. Here
+they were almost overwhelmed with a hurricane of fiery missiles, and in
+mounting the breaches they had to face not only hand-grenades, trains of
+powder, and bursting shells, but a _chevaux-de-frise_ of sabre-blades
+crowning the summit. None of these attacks was successful; but another
+division under Picton scaled the castle, and a brigade under Walker
+effected an entrance elsewhere. After this, the French abandoned the
+breaches; the resistance waxed fainter, and at six in the morning,
+Philippon, the governor, with his brave garrison, surrendered
+unconditionally. The loss of the British and Portuguese in killed and
+wounded was stated at the enormous figure of 4,885, and it was avenged
+by atrocities prolonged for two days and nights, worse than had followed
+the storming of Ciudad Rodrigo. Wellington ordered the provost marshal
+to execute any soldiers found in the act of plunder, but officers vainly
+attempted to check their men at the peril of their own lives.
+
+[Pageheading: _SALAMANCA._]
+
+It had been the intention of Wellington to operate next against Soult,
+and drive him, if possible, from Esdremadura and Andalusia. But, as
+appears from one of his despatches to Lord Liverpool, he was ill
+satisfied with the conduct of his allies guarding Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+returned to resume command in that region. In the same despatch he
+complains bitterly of the niggardly policy of his government in regard
+to money and supplies. The same timidity on the part of ministers at
+home appears in a letter from Liverpool, almost forbidding him to accept
+the command-in-chief of the Spanish armies, which, however, was
+conferred upon him later in this year.[49] At present, he decided to
+march against Marmont in the plains of Leon. This movement was
+facilitated by the success of Hill in surprising a body of French
+troops, and seizing the important bridge of Almaraz over the Tagus on
+May 19, thereby breaking the French lines of communication and isolating
+Marmont's army for a time. Soon afterwards, Salamanca and its forts were
+captured by Wellington, but Marmont proved a very formidable opponent,
+and, having behind him another army under King Joseph, threatened the
+British lines of communication. In the series of manoeuvres which
+ensued, Wellington's forces met with more than one reverse, but the
+French marshal was determined to win a victory on a large scale.
+Wellington had no wish to risk a battle, unless Salamanca or his own
+rear should be seriously threatened, and he stood on the defensive, a
+little south of Salamanca, with Marmont's army encamped in front of him.
+
+Early on July 22, the French seized one of two hills called the Arapiles
+which formed the key of the position and commanded the road to Ciudad
+Rodrigo. Marmont then organised complicated evolutions, of which the
+ultimate object was to envelop the British right and cut off its
+expected retreat. To accomplish this, he extended his own left so far
+that it became separated by a gap from his centre. No sooner did
+Wellington, with a flash of military insight, perceive the advantage
+thus offered than he flung half of his troops upon the French left wing,
+and made a vigorous attack with the rest upon the French centre. It was
+too late for Marmont, himself wounded, to repair the mistake, the centre
+was driven in, and, as was said, 40,000 men were beaten in forty
+minutes. General Clausel, who took Marmont's place, showed great ability
+in the retreat, but the French army could scarcely have escaped
+destruction had not the Spaniards, who were entrusted with a post on the
+river Tormes, left the passage open for the flying enemy. Nevertheless,
+the battle of Salamanca was the greatest and most decisive yet fought by
+the British in the Peninsula; it established the reputation of our army,
+and placed Wellington in the first rank of generals. Three weeks later
+he entered Madrid in triumph, and was received with the wildest popular
+acclamations. Joseph once more abandoned his capital, joined Suchet in
+Valencia, and ordered Soult against his will to withdraw from Andalusia
+and move in the same direction. This concentration relieved Wellington
+from immediate anxieties, but exposed him to a serious danger of being
+confronted before long by forces thrice as great as his own. He also
+needed reinforcements, and was in still greater want of money.
+
+To students of military history it may seem a very doubtful question
+whether, under such circumstances, it was prudent to advance farther
+into Spain from his strongholds on the Portuguese frontier. But
+Wellington, who had been created a marquis on August 18, judged it
+necessary to crush if possible the remainder of Marmont's army which had
+retired northward under Clausel. He therefore left Hill with a
+detachment to cover Madrid, and marching through Valladolid occupied the
+town of Burgos. The castle of that place remained in the hands of a
+French garrison 2,000 strong and had been carefully fortified. Here
+again we may be permitted to doubt whether, after the experience gained
+at Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, Wellington did wisely in resolving to
+invest and storm a fortress so formidable, without an adequate
+siege-train, and with the knowledge that Clausel might rally his forces
+in time to relieve it. Wellington himself afterwards admitted to
+Liverpool that he had erred in not taking with him the best of his own
+troops, and that he did not possess the means of transporting ordnance
+and military stores from Madrid and Santander, where there was abundance
+of them. The siege lasted a month, from September 19 to October 18; the
+garrison offered a most obstinate resistance, inflicting great loss on
+the besiegers by sorties, and in the end the attack failed. Souham, with
+Clausel, was closing in upon Wellington from the north, Soult from the
+south-east; Hill's position at Madrid was untenable, and another retreat
+became inevitable. It was the last and most trying in Wellington's
+military career. The army which had behaved nobly at Salamanca broke
+down under the strain of suffering and depression, like that of Sir John
+Moore before Coruña. The enemy was driven back in various rear-guard
+actions, but on the march the sense of discipline vanished and shameful
+disorders occurred. A scathing reprimand from Wellington, which might
+have been written by a French critic and which ought never to have been
+made public, threw all the blame of this disorganisation on the
+regimental officers, and denied that any scarcity of provisions could be
+pleaded in excuse of it.
+
+[Pageheading: _MILITARY REFORMS._]
+
+By the middle of November the campaign ended, and Wellington's
+headquarters were at Ciudad Rodrigo. For the present, Spain was still
+dominated by the French, but its southern provinces were clear of the
+invaders, and elsewhere the tide was already on the turn. The Russian
+war cast its shadow beforehand on the Spanish peninsula; the French
+army was constantly weakened in numbers and still more in quality, as
+conscripts were substituted for veterans, and inferior generals
+succeeded to high commands; the Portuguese and Spanish contingents of
+the British army were stronger and better disciplined. Wellington
+himself, tenacious of his purpose as ever, received heartier support
+from home, where Liverpool had become prime minister in June, and had
+been succeeded by Bathurst as secretary for war and the colonies; and
+though the Marquis Wellesley, no longer in the government, complained
+that his brother's operations had been crippled by ministerial apathy,
+the Peninsular war, on the eve of its completion, was adopted with pride
+and sympathy by the nation.
+
+The last chapter of the Peninsular war opens with the operations
+culminating in the battle of Vitoria, and closes with the battle of
+Toulouse. Having accepted the office of generalissimo of the Spanish
+armies, Wellington repaired to Cadiz during the winter of 1812-13, and
+formed the lowest estimate of the make-shift government there carried on
+under the dual control of the cortes and the regency. He failed to
+obtain a reform of this system, but succeeded in effecting a
+reorganisation of the Spanish army, to be in future under his own
+command. He next addressed himself, with the aid of Beresford and the
+British minister at Lisbon, to amend the monstrous abuses, civil and
+military, of Portuguese administration. By the beginning of May, 1813, a
+great improvement was visible in the equipment and _moral_ of the
+Spanish and Portuguese troops; a vigorous insurrection against the
+French occupation had broken out in the province of Biscay, endangering
+the great road into Spain; and an Anglo-Sicilian army of 16,000 men,
+under Sir John Murray, had repulsed Suchet, hitherto undefeated, at
+Castalla on the Valencian coast, without, however, completing their
+victory, or capturing any of the French guns in the narrow defile by
+which the enemy fled. The want of unity in the command of the French
+army, and of harmony between its generals, was more felt than ever now
+that Napoleon's master-mind was engrossed in retrieving the awful ruin
+of the Russian expedition.
+
+Yet Napoleon's instructions to Joseph show that he had fully grasped the
+critical nature of the situation. He enjoined Joseph to mass all his
+forces round Valladolid, and imperatively directed that at all hazards
+the communications with France should be maintained. The Spanish
+guerillas had long rendered communications so insecure that couriers
+with despatches had to be escorted by bodies of 250 cavalry or 500
+infantry; they were now so effectually intercepted that Napoleon's own
+despatch reached Joseph more than two months late, by way of Barcelona
+and Valencia. Meanwhile, Joseph was openly accusing Soult, in a letter
+to his brother, of criminal ambition--a charge to which he laid himself
+open before in Portugal--and did not hesitate to add, "the Duke of
+Dalmatia or myself must quit Spain". In England, on the contrary,
+parties were at last united in the desire to bring the war to a
+triumphant end, and parliament grudged neither men nor money to aid
+Wellington's plan of campaign. It was, then, under happier auspices than
+in former years that he broke up from his cantonments then stationed on
+the Coa, a little to the north-west of Ciudad Rodrigo, and set forward
+with 70,000 British and Portuguese troops, besides 20,000 Spaniards, to
+drive the French out of Spain. So confident was he of success that, as
+Napier relates, he waved his hand in crossing the frontier on May 22,
+and exclaimed, "Farewell, Portugal".[50]
+
+[Pageheading: _VITORIA._]
+
+He advanced by the valley of the Douro; then, turning to the north-east,
+he compelled the French to evacuate Burgos, and passed the Ebro on June
+13. Graham in command of his left wing there joined him, after forcing
+his way by immense efforts across the mountains of the Portuguese
+frontier. Hill, commanding the right wing of his composite but united
+army, was already with him. A depot for his commissariat and a military
+hospital were established at Santander, where a British fleet was lying,
+and whence he could draw his supplies direct from home. The French army,
+under Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, fell back before him by a forced night
+march on the 19th and took up its position in front of Vitoria, in the
+province of Biscay. Here, on the plain of the river Zadorra, was fought
+on the 21st the greatest battle of the Peninsular war. Wellington had
+encountered serious physical difficulties in his passage from the valley
+of the Ebro to that of the Zadorra; but for once his plans had been
+executed with admirable precision, and all his troops arrived at the
+appointed time on the field of battle. The French, conscious of their
+impending expulsion from Spain, were encumbered by enormous
+baggage-trains containing the fruits of five years' merciless spoliation
+"not of a province but of a kingdom," including treasures of art from
+Madrid and all the provincial capitals, with no less than 5,500,000
+dollars in hard cash, besides two years' arrears of pay which Napoleon
+had sent to fill the military chest of Joseph's army. A vast number of
+vehicles, loaded with the whole imperial and royal treasure, overspread
+the plain and choked the great road behind the French position, by which
+alone such a mass of waggons could find its way into France.
+
+The French army consisted of about 60,000 men, with 150 pieces of
+cannon, but strong detachments, under Foy and Clausel respectively, had
+been sent away to guard the roads to Bilbao and Pamplona. The British
+army numbered nearly 80,000, inclusive of Portuguese and Spanish, with
+90 guns. The French were posted on strong ground, and held the bridges
+across the river. Graham, with the left column of the British, made a
+circuit in the direction of Bilbao, working round to cut off the French
+rear on the Bayonne road. Hill, with the right column, forced the pass
+of Puebla, in the latter direction, carried the ridge above it after
+much hard fighting, and made good his position on the left flank of the
+French. Wellington himself, in the centre, under the guidance of a
+Spanish peasant, pushed a brigade across one of the bridges in his
+front, weakly guarded, and thus mastered the others; his force then
+expanded itself on the plain and bore down all opposition. Graham had
+met with a more obstinate resistance from the French right, under
+Reille, but at last got possession of the great Bayonne road.
+Thenceforward a retreat of the French army, partly encircled, became
+inevitable, but it was conducted at first in good order and with
+frequent halts at defensible points. The only outlet left open was the
+mountain road to Pamplona, and this was not only impracticable for heavy
+traffic but obstructed by an overturned waggon. The orderly retreat was
+soon converted into a rout; the flying throng made its way across
+country and over mountains towards Pamplona, leaving all the artillery,
+military stores, and accumulated spoils as trophies of the British
+victory.
+
+The value of these was prodigious, but the great mass of booty, except
+munitions of war, fell into the hands of private soldiers and
+camp-followers. Wellington reported to Bathurst that nearly a million
+sterling in money had been appropriated by the rank and file of the
+army, and, still worse, that so dazzling a triumph had "totally
+annihilated all order and discipline".[51] The loss in the battle had
+been about 5,000, but Wellington stated that on July 8 "we had 12,500
+men less under arms than we had on the day before the battle". He
+supposed the missing 7,500, nearly half of whom were British, to be
+mostly concealed in the mountain villages.[52] A large number of
+stragglers afterwards rejoined their colours, but too late to aid in an
+effectual pursuit of the enemy. The immediate consequence of this great
+victory was the evacuation by the French of all Spain south of the Ebro.
+Even Suchet abandoned Valencia and distributed his forces between
+Tarragona and Tortosa. To his great credit, Wellington addressed to the
+cortes an earnest protest against wreaking vengeance on the French party
+in Spain, many of whom might have been driven into acceptance of a
+foreign yoke "by terror, by distress, or by despair". At the same time,
+he vigorously followed up his success by chasing and nearly surrounding
+Clausel's division, while Hill invested Pamplona, and Graham drove Foy
+across the Bidassoa, in his advance upon the fortress of St. Sebastian.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF THE PYRENEES._]
+
+The fortifications of St. Sebastian were in a very imperfect condition,
+but the governor, Emmanuel Rey, was nevertheless able to defend the
+place with success. Wellington, after laying siege to it, sanctioned a
+premature attempt to scale the breaches which cost Graham's force a loss
+of more than 500 men. This check was succeeded by another, still more
+serious, in the historic pass of Roncesvalles. Napoleon, hearing at
+Dresden of the battle of Vitoria, and instantly fathoming its momentous
+import, despatched Soult, as "lieutenant of the emperor," to assume
+command of all the French armies at Bayonne and on the Spanish frontier,
+still amounting nominally to 114,000 men, besides 66,000 under Suchet in
+Catalonia. Soult reached Bayonne on July 13, fortified it strongly, and
+reorganised his troops with amazing energy, inspiriting them with a
+warlike address in the well-known style of Napoleon's proclamations. On
+the 25th he set his forces in motion, with the intention of crushing the
+British right by a sudden irruption, and relieving Pamplona. He all but
+achieved his object, for, by well-concerted and well-concealed
+movements, he actually carried the passes of Roncesvalles and Maya, in
+spite of a gallant resistance and the French troops were on the point of
+pouring down the Pyrenees on the Spanish side, when Wellington arrived
+at full speed from his position before St. Sebastian.
+
+He was opportunely reinforced, and gave battle on the rugged heights in
+front of Pamplona to a force numerically superior, but for the most part
+charging uphill. Never, even at Bussaco, did the French show greater
+ardour and _élan_ in attack, and it was only after a series of bloody
+hand-to-hand combats on the summits and sides of the mountains that they
+were compelled to recoil and rolled backward down the ridge. Baffled in
+his attempt to relieve Pamplona, Soult turned westwards towards St.
+Sebastian, but was anticipated by Wellington, and faced by three
+divisions of Hill on his right. A second engagement followed, in which
+the Portuguese earned the chief honours, and 3,000 prisoners were taken.
+At last Soult gave orders for a retreat, and in the course of it was all
+but entrapped in a narrow valley where he could not have escaped the
+necessity of surrender. It is said that he was warned just in time by
+the sudden intrusion of three British marauders in uniform; at all
+events, he instantly changed his line of march, and ultimately led his
+broken army back to France, but in the utmost confusion, and not without
+fresh disasters. One of these befell Reille's division in the gorge of
+Yanzi, and another the French rear-guard under Clausel, which defended
+itself valiantly, but was driven headlong down the northern side of the
+Pyrenees from which this series of battles derives its name.
+
+The siege of St. Sebastian was immediately renewed with a far more
+powerful battering train, but its defences had also been strengthened by
+the indefatigable governor. The final assault took place on August 31,
+and rivalled the storming of Badajoz in the murderous ferocity of the
+_melée_ at the breaches, as well as in the horrors practised on the
+inhabitants by the victorious assailants, which Wellington and Graham
+vainly endeavoured to check. So desperate was the defence, and so
+insuperable appeared the obstacles to an entrance by the breaches, that
+Graham adopted the heroic expedient of causing his artillery to fire a
+few feet only over the heads of the forlorn hope, until a clear opening
+had been made, and deadly piles of combustibles had been exploded behind
+the main breach, blowing into the air 300 of the garrison. A hideous
+conflagration destroyed the greater part of the town. A few days later
+the castle, to which the governor had retired, yielded to an
+irresistible cannonade, and he surrendered at discretion with about
+1,200 men. Several hundred wounded, including a large number of British
+prisoners, were found there in the hospitals.
+
+On the 30th, the day before St. Sebastian was stormed, Soult attempted a
+diversion for its relief by crossing the Bidassoa, and on the following
+day he engaged a large body of Spaniards at St. Marcial. On this
+occasion Wellington held the British troops in reserve, and the
+Spaniards without their aid defeated the French with great slaughter. So
+ended a well-planned and well-executed effort to reconquer the Spanish
+frontier. Pamplona was still untaken, and Suchet was still in Catalonia,
+but no further offensive movement was undertaken by the French against
+Spain. Both Soult and Wellington had shown remarkable powers of
+generalship, and there was a moment when Soult might have snatched the
+prize of victory by raising the siege of Pamplona. But his ultimate
+success was hopeless, and his failure was complete. Before the fall of
+St. Sebastian and the battle of St. Marcial, Wellington estimated the
+French losses at 15,000 men, who could ill be spared in the interval
+between Napoleon's last gleam of victory at Dresden and on his signal
+defeat at Leipzig.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ENTERS FRANCE._]
+
+But the Peninsular war, in the historical sense, was not yet over.
+During the summer of 1813 a mixed force of British, Germans, Spaniards,
+and Sicilians had been carrying on an intermittent war against the
+French under Suchet in the eastern provinces. Their commander, Sir John
+Murray, who had allowed the beaten enemy to escape at Castalla, proved
+equally irresolute in an attempt to capture Tarragona, countermanded the
+assault, and re-embarked his troops on the approach of Suchet. Soon
+afterwards he was superseded by Lord William Bentinck, and Suchet after
+the battle of Vitoria was compelled to retire behind the Ebro. Bentinck
+renewed the investment of Tarragona, but permitted Suchet without a
+battle to relieve it, demolish its fortifications, and withdraw its
+garrison at the end of August. An ill-judged advance of the British
+general into Catalonia brought about another misfortune, and, upon the
+whole, the series of operations conducted against Suchet were by no
+means glorious to British arms or generalship, however important their
+effect in preventing a large body of French veterans from reinforcing
+Soult's army at a critical time in the Western Pyrenees. Wellington
+himself inclined to complete the deliverance of Spain by clearing the
+province of Catalonia of the invaders, but the British government,
+having in view the prospect of crushing Napoleon in Germany, urged him
+to undertake an immediate invasion of France. Accordingly he moved
+forward on October 7, leaving Pamplona closely blockaded, threw his army
+across the Bidassoa on the 8th by a stroke of masterly tactics, forced
+the strong French lines on the north side of it, and established himself
+on the enemy's soil. Before entering France he issued the most stringent
+proclamations against plundering, which he enforced by the sternest
+measures, and announced that he would not suffer the peaceful
+inhabitants of France to be punished for the ambition of their ruler. On
+the 31st the French garrison of Pamplona, despairing of relief,
+surrendered as prisoners of war.
+
+The prolonged defence of Pamplona gave Soult time to strengthen his
+position on the Nivelle. The lines which he constructed rivalled those
+of Torres Vedras, and the several actions by which they were at last
+forced and turned were among the most desperate of the whole war. The
+first was fought in the early part of November, and resulted in the
+occupation by Wellington's army of the great mountain-barrier south of
+Bayonne, with six miles of entrenchments along the Nivelle, and of the
+port of St. Jean de Luz. A month later Wellington became anxious to
+establish his winter-cantonments between the Nive and the Adour, partly
+for strategical reasons, and partly in order to command a larger and
+more fertile area for his supplies. On December 9, therefore, Hill with
+the right wing forded the Nive and drove back the French left upon their
+camp in front of Bayonne. Then followed three most obstinate combats on
+the 10th, 11th and 13th, in which Soult took the offensive, with Bayonne
+as the centre of his operations, and with the advantage of always moving
+upon interior lines resting upon a strong fortress. In the first of
+these attacks, he surprised and nearly succeeded in overwhelming the
+British left, under Hope, now Sir John, before Wellington could bring
+other divisions to its support. In the second, he fell suddenly on the
+same troops, exhausted by fatigue, and still more or less isolated, but
+they were rallied by Hope and Wellington in person, and remained masters
+of the field. In the third he concentrated his whole strength upon the
+British right under Hill, aided by a thick mist, and by a flood upon the
+Nive, which swept away a bridge of boats, and separated Hill from the
+rest of the army. Nevertheless, that able general, emulating the noble
+example of Hope in the earlier encounters, succeeded in repelling
+assault after assault, until Wellington himself appeared with
+reinforcements of imposing strength, and converted a stubborn defence
+into a victory.
+
+The loss of the allies since crossing the Nive had exceeded 5,000; that
+of the French was 6,000, besides 2,400 Germans who deserted to the
+British during the night of the 9th in obedience to orders from home.
+Ever since he assumed the command Soult had shown military ability of a
+rare order. Bayonne, the base of all his operations, was indefensible
+before he fortified it. A great proportion of his troops were raw
+conscripts, or demoralised by defeat, before he inspired them with his
+own courage and vigour. He was practically dependent for subsistence in
+his own country on the very system of pillage which had roused a
+patriotic frenzy of resentment in Spain and other lands ravaged by
+French armies. He now stood at bay in the south of France, as Wellington
+had so long stood at bay in Portugal, and continued there during the
+early part of 1814 a defensive campaign not unworthy of comparison with
+the prodigious exploits of Napoleon himself against the invaders of his
+eastern provinces.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INVESTMENT OF BAYONNE._]
+
+A respite of two months succeeded the battles on the Nive. During this
+interval Wellington's difficulty in paying his troops was great, owing
+to the enormous drain of specie from England into Central Europe. He was
+further embarrassed by the appearance of the Duke of Angoulême, elder
+son of Charles, Count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., at his
+headquarters. The British government was by no means committed to a
+restoration of the Bourbons, and Wellington deprecated the duke's
+appearance as at least premature. He therefore insisted upon his
+remaining incognito and as a non-combatant at St. Jean de Luz. Soult
+was in great straits, not only because he was compelled to "make war
+support war" by exorbitant requisitions upon the French peasantry, but
+also because the exigencies of Napoleon were such that large drafts of
+the best troops were drawn from the army of the south. When hostilities
+were resumed in the middle of February, 1814, the Anglo-Portuguese and
+Spanish force combined outnumbered the French by nearly five to three,
+but Soult retained the decisive advantage of having a strong _point
+d'appui_ in Bayonne at the confluence of the Nive and Adour. Careful
+preparations were made by Wellington for throwing a large force across
+the Lower Adour below Bayonne, in concert with a British fleet. Contrary
+winds and a violent surf delayed the arrival of the British gunboats,
+but on February 23 Hope sent over a body of his men on a raft of
+pontoons in the face of the enemy's flotilla, with the aid of a brigade
+armed with Congreve rockets, which had been first used at Leipzig, and
+produced the utmost consternation in the French ranks. The gunboats soon
+followed, but with the loss of one wrecked and others stranded in
+crossing the bar. By the joint exertions of soldiers and sailors a
+bridge was then constructed, by which Hope's entire army with artillery
+passed over the river, and, two days afterwards, began the investment of
+Bayonne.
+
+Meanwhile, the centre and right wing, under the command of Wellington,
+had forced a passage across the Upper Adour and threatened Bayonne on
+the other side. Leaving a garrison of 6,000 men in Bayonne, Soult took
+his stand at Orthez, with an army of about 40,000 men, on the summit of
+a formidable ridge. Wellington attacked this ridge on the 27th, with a
+force of nearly equal strength in three columns so disposed as to
+converge from points several miles distant from each other. The veterans
+of the French army, admirably handled, fought with tenacity, and all but
+succeeded in foiling the attack before Wellington could bring up his
+reserves. The conscripts, however, were not equally steady, and when
+Hill, advancing from the extreme right, pressed upon the French left,
+Soult's orderly retreat became a precipitate flight. The French loss
+greatly exceeded the British, and was soon afterwards swelled by
+wholesale desertions; the road to Bordeaux was thrown open, and the
+royalist reaction against Napoleon, stimulated by the depredation of
+the French troops, ripened into a general revolt.
+
+Meanwhile, Napoleon had lost Germany by the battle of Leipzig; early in
+1814 the allied armies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia had entered
+France, and a congress was being held at Châtillon-sur-Seine, to
+formulate, if possible, terms of peace. The city of Bordeaux was the
+first to declare itself openly in favour of the Bourbons. Wellington
+sent a large detachment to preserve order, with strict instructions to
+Beresford, who commanded it, to remain neutral, in the event of Louis
+XVIII. being proclaimed, pending the negotiations with Napoleon at
+Châtillon. But the excitement of the people could not be restrained, and
+the arrival of the Duke of Angoulême evoked a burst of royalist
+enthusiasm which anticipated by a few weeks only the abdication of
+Napoleon at Fontainebleau. The defection of Bordeaux forced Soult to
+fall back rapidly on a very formidable position in front of Toulouse.
+The British army followed in pursuit, encumbered with a great artillery
+and pontoon train. After a lively action at Tarbes, it arrived in front
+of Toulouse on March 27, to find the Garonne in flood, and the French
+army strongly entrenched around the town, with a prospect of being
+joined by 20,000 or 30,000 veterans, under Suchet, from Catalonia.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BATTLE OF TOULOUSE._]
+
+The dispositions of Wellington, ending in the battle of Toulouse, on
+April 10, have not escaped criticism. Hill, with two divisions and a
+Spanish contingent, threw a bridge across the Garonne below Toulouse,
+but discovered that he could make no progress in that direction, owing
+to the impassable state of the roads. Beresford crossed the river with
+18,000 men at another point, but a sudden flood broke up the pontoon
+bridge in his rear, and he remained isolated for no less than four days,
+exposed to an attack from Soult's whole army. Having missed this rare
+opportunity, Soult calmly awaited the attack, with a force numerically
+inferior, but with every advantage of position. On the 10th Wellington's
+troops advanced in two columns, separated from each other by a perilous
+interval of two miles. One of these, including Freyre's Spaniards and
+Picton's division, was fairly driven back after furious attempts to
+storm the ramparts of the fortified ridge held by the French. Beresford,
+however, who in this battle combined generalship with brilliant
+courage, restored the fortunes of the day by a dashing advance against
+the redoubts on the French right. Having carried these he swept along
+the ridge, which became untenable, and Soult withdrew his army within
+his second line of defences. Two days later, seeing that Hill menaced
+Toulouse on the other side, and fearing that if defeated again he would
+lose his only line of retreat along the Carcassonne road, he evacuated
+Toulouse by that route, leaving his magazines and hospitals in the hands
+of the British army. By so doing he left to Wellington the honour and
+prize of victory, but few victories have been so dearly bought, and the
+loss in killed and wounded was actually greater on the side of the
+victors than on that of the vanquished.
+
+Toulouse received Wellington on the 12th with open arms, and as news
+reached him on the same day announcing the proclamation of Louis XVIII.
+at Paris, he no longer hesitated to assume the white cockade. Soult
+loyally declined to accept the intelligence until it was officially
+confirmed, when a military convention was made on the 18th, whereby a
+boundary line was established between the two armies. Suchet had already
+withdrawn from Spain, and at last recalled the garrisons from those
+Spanish fortresses in which Napoleon had so obstinately locked up picked
+troops which he sorely needed in his dire extremity. But on the 14th, a
+week after Napoleon's abdication, the famous "sortie from Bayonne" took
+place, in which each side lost 800 or 900 men, and Hope, wounded in two
+places, was made prisoner. For this waste of life the governor of
+Bayonne must be held responsible, since he was informed of the events at
+Paris by Hope, and instead of awaiting official confirmation, like
+Soult, chose to risk the issue of a night combat, which must needs be
+deadly and could not be decisive.
+
+Thus ended the Peninsular war. This war on the British side has seldom
+been surpassed in the steady adherence to a settled purpose, through
+years of discouragement and failure, maintained by the general whose
+name it has made immortal. Neither his strategy nor his tactical skill
+was always faultless; and afterwards in comparing himself with Soult, he
+is reported to have said, that he often got into scrapes, but was
+extricated by the valour of his army, whereas Soult, when he got into a
+scrape, had no such men to get him out of it. However this might be,
+Wellington's foresight in appreciating the place to be filled by the
+Peninsular war in the overthrow of Napoleon's domination, and his truly
+heroic constancy in striving to realise his own idea will ever
+constitute his best claim to greatness. No other man in England or in
+Europe discerned as he did, that with Portugal independent and guarded
+by the power of Great Britain on its western coast and its eastern
+frontier, the permanent conquest of Spain by the French would become
+impossible. No one else saw beforehand, what Napoleon discovered too
+late, that a war in Portugal and Spain would drain the life-blood of his
+invincible hosts, and at length help towards the invasion of France
+itself. No other general would have shown equal statesmanship in
+managing Spanish juntas and controlling even Spanish guerillas, or equal
+forbearance in sparing the French people the evils which a victorious
+army might have inflicted upon them.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[42] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (3rd edition), i., 123.
+
+[43] For Moore's campaign see Napier, _Peninsular War_, i., pp.
+xxi.-xxv., lvii.-lxxvi., 330-44, 431-542, and Oman, _Peninsular War_,
+i., 486-602; and compare Moore's _Diary_, edited by Maurice, ii.,
+272-398. Sir F. Maurice has not completely answered Professor Oman's
+criticisms.
+
+[44] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 261-63 (March 7, 1809).
+
+[45] For the exact figures see Oman, _Peninsular War_, ii., 645-48.
+
+[46] Wellington, _Dispatches_, iv., 536 (July 29, 1809).
+
+[47] For Masséna's lines of march see T. J. Andrews in _English
+Historical Review_, xvi. (1901), 474-92.
+
+[48] The battle is picturesquely described by Napier, _Peninsular War_,
+iii., 536-66. See also _ibid._, pp. xxxv.-li.
+
+[49] Wellington, _Supplementary Dispatches_, vii., 318-19.
+
+[50] Napier, _Peninsular War_ (first edition), v., 513.
+
+[51] Wellington, _Dispatches_, x., 473 (June 29, 1813).
+
+[52] _Ibid._, x., 519 (July 9, 1813).
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VI.
+
+ THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON.
+
+
+The war between France and Russia, publicly threatened in August,
+1811,[53] was long deferred. On Russia's part the adherence to a
+defensive policy delayed action until France was ready. But there was
+another reason why the preparations for war were only slowly pushed
+forward. Even at the court of St. Petersburg there was a French party
+which retarded such preparations as committing Russia too definitely to
+an open rupture. On the part of France, also, delay was necessary.
+Though deliberately provoked by himself, the war was not altogether
+welcome to Napoleon. It suited him best to have a strong but friendly
+neighbour in Russia, and victory promised him but the half-hearted
+friendship of a power to which he could no longer dare to leave much
+strength. Besides it was necessary to make far more extensive
+preparations than had been required for any of his previous campaigns.
+Russia was too poor and too thinly peopled for it to be possible for war
+to support itself, and immense supplies with correspondingly large
+transport arrangements were needed for a large army which would have to
+fight at so vast a distance from its base. It would have been impossible
+to be ready in time for a summer campaign in 1811; the country was not
+favourable to transport on a large scale during winter, and the war was
+therefore postponed till the summer of 1812. The end of May or beginning
+of June was the date originally selected for the beginning of
+operations, as it was expected that the difficulty of providing fodder
+would be greatly reduced when the grass had grown. But the preparations
+were not sufficiently advanced by that date, and hostilities were only
+opened on June 24.
+
+The interval was spent by both powers in securing allies and pacifying
+enemies. Early in the year 1812 Prussia had made a last attempt to avert
+a French alliance by inviting Russia to join in a peaceful compromise.
+After the failure of this negotiation her position was helpless, and
+resembled that of Poland before its national extinction. Russia could
+not become her active ally without exposing her own army to destruction
+at a second Friedland, and Prussia could not fight France alone.
+Frederick William, therefore, accepted the terms dictated by Napoleon.
+By a treaty concluded on February 24 he agreed to supply the emperor
+with 20,000 men to serve as a part of the French army, and was to raise
+no levies and give no orders without his consent. The king was also to
+afford a free passage and provide food and forage for the French troops,
+payment for which was to be arranged afterwards. In return for this a
+reduction was made in the war indemnity due to France. This was probably
+as much as Napoleon could have obtained without authorising a dangerous
+increase in the Prussian army.
+
+[Pageheading: _RUSSIAN ALLIANCES._]
+
+Austria was more fortunate, because an Austrian war would have been a
+serious diversion, not a step towards the invasion of Russia. She was in
+consequence able to impose her own terms on France. These terms, so far
+as the nature and extent of the Austrian assistance to France were
+concerned, had been sketched by Metternich to the British agent, Nugent,
+as far back as November, 1811, and they were accepted by France in a
+treaty of March 16, 1812.[54] Austria was to provide an army of 30,000
+men to guard Napoleon's flank in Volhynia. In return France guaranteed
+the integrity of Turkey, and secretly promised a restoration of the
+Illyrian provinces to Austria in exchange for Galicia, which was to form
+a part of a reconstituted Poland. Elsewhere Napoleon's negotiations were
+unsuccessful. In January he fulfilled his threat of occupying Swedish
+Pomerania, but it had no effect on Swedish policy, and when in March he
+offered Finland and a part of Norway as the price of an alliance, his
+terms were rejected and Sweden allied herself with Russia. On April 17
+Napoleon made overtures for peace with Great Britain, offering to
+evacuate Spain and to recognise the house of Braganza in Portugal and
+the Bourbons in Sicily, if the British would recognise the "actual
+dynasty" in Spain and Murat in Naples. The offer was certainly illusory.
+"Actual dynasty" was an ambiguous phrase, but would naturally mean the
+Bonapartes. Castlereagh declined to recognise Joseph, but declared his
+readiness to discuss the proposed basis if "actual dynasty" meant a
+recognition of Ferdinand VII. in Spain. Napoleon was enabled to say that
+his offers of peace had been rejected, and made no answer to
+Castlereagh.
+
+Russia in her turn had to conciliate the Porte, Sweden, Persia, and
+Great Britain. The Turkish negotiations were prolonged, and it was only
+in May that the treaty of Bucharest was signed, by which Russia gave up
+all her conquests except Bessarabia. Sweden had offered Russia her
+alliance in February. She was prepared to surrender Finland to Russia on
+condition that Russia should assist her in the conquest of Norway. A
+joint army was to effect this conquest and then make a descent on North
+Germany, threatening the rear of the French army of invasion. The
+adhesion of Great Britain was to be invited. On April 5 an alliance
+between Russia and Sweden was signed on the terms suggested. This was
+followed on August 28 by the treaty of Åbo, which was signed in the
+presence of the British representative, Lord Cathcart. By this treaty
+Russia was to assist Sweden with 30,000 men and a loan, Sweden undertook
+to support Russia's claim, when it should be made, for an extension of
+her frontier to the Vistula. Shortly afterwards it was agreed to
+postpone the attack on Norway till the following year, and thus at
+length the Russian army in Finland was set free. The treaties with the
+Porte and Sweden were too late to liberate troops to oppose Napoleon's
+advance, but the troops thus liberated greatly endangered his retreat.
+With Persia no peace could be made. Great Britain was still nominally at
+war both with Russia and with Sweden. Negotiations with Russia in April
+came to nothing because the British government refused to take over a
+loan of £4,000,000, but on July 18 a treaty of alliance between the
+three powers was signed, in which Great Britain promised pecuniary aid
+to Russia. A further sign of friendship was given when the tsar handed
+over the Cronstadt fleet for safekeeping to the British. The formal
+treaty was, however, only the public recognition of a friendship and
+mutual confidence which had begun with the breach between Russia and
+France. This good understanding was shared by the nominal allies of
+France, Prussia and Austria. Russia was fully informed of the military
+and political plans of Austria, and knew that her forces would not fight
+except under compulsion.
+
+At last, on June 24, Napoleon's grand army began the passage of the
+Niemen, which formed the boundary between the duchy of Warsaw and the
+Russian empire. The main body, at least 300,000 strong, was commanded by
+Napoleon himself. A northern division, including the Prussian
+contingent, was commanded by Macdonald, and, after advancing to Riga,
+which it pretended to besiege, remained idle throughout the campaign.
+The Austrians, under Schwarzenberg, formed a southern division, but they
+merely manoeuvred, and made no serious attempts to impede the
+movements of the southern Russian army on its return journey from the
+war on the Danube. Napoleon himself drove the main Russian armies before
+him in the direction of Moscow. At last Kutuzov, who had taken over the
+command of the Russians in the course of the retreat, made a stand at
+Borodino, where on September 7 one of the bloodiest battles on record
+was fought. The figures are variously given, but the French army
+probably lost over 30,000 in killed and wounded out of a force of
+125,000; and the Russians lost not less than 40,000 out of an army of
+slightly smaller dimensions. This awful carnage ended, after all, in
+little more than a trial of strength. The French gained the ground, but
+the Russians made good their retreat, and six days later Kutuzov retired
+through the streets of Moscow, taking the better part of the population
+and all the military stores with him. The French vanguard entered on the
+14th, and Napoleon himself next day. A fire, kindled either by accident
+or by Russian incendiaries, raged from the 14th to the 20th and
+destroyed three-fourths of the city.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S RETREAT FROM MOSCOW._]
+
+The capture of Moscow was far from being the triumph that the French
+emperor had anticipated. Deceived by his recollections of Tilsit, he had
+fully counted upon receiving pacific overtures from Alexander or at
+least upon his eager acceptance of conciliatory assurances from himself.
+But as the weeks passed and the vision of negotiation with the Russians
+proved illusory, retreat became inevitable. On the night of October 18
+the French army, now about 115,000 strong, evacuated Moscow. Kutuzov,
+who was stronger in cavalry, though perhaps still weaker in infantry,
+hung upon its rear, and, while avoiding a pitched battle, was able to
+prevent Napoleon from retreating by any other route than the now
+devastated line of his advance. It has often been questioned whether
+Kutuzov did not deliberately refrain from destroying the French army. He
+certainly informed Sir Robert Wilson on one occasion that he did not
+wish to drive Napoleon to extremities, lest his supremacy should go to
+the power that ruled the sea. The remark may have been nothing more than
+an outburst of ill-temper, but, whatever the motive, there can be no
+doubt as to the policy adopted. The retreating French army suffered
+terrible hardships from the cold, for which it was ill prepared. Twice
+it seemed on the point of falling into the hands of the Russians; at
+Krasnoe 26,000 prisoners are said to have been captured by Kutuzov's
+army, while at Borisov the southern army under Chichagov and the army
+returning from Finland under Wittgenstein joined hands, and disputed the
+French passage of the Berezina on November 26-29. According to
+Chambray's calculation, the French army numbered 31,000 combatants
+before the passage, of whom but 9,000 remained on December 1. All the
+non-combatants had been left in the hands of the enemy.
+
+This was the last direct attack made by the Russians on the relics of
+the grand army. But the worst ravages of the Russian winter had yet to
+come. On December 3 the cold became intense. As the survivors of the
+expedition dragged themselves homewards through the Polish provinces,
+they were met by large bodies of reinforcements pouring in from the
+west; these recruits, comparatively fresh, were at first appalled by the
+gaunt and famine-stricken aspect of the returning veterans, but soon
+perished themselves in nearly equal numbers. It is estimated that
+altogether only 60,000 men recrossed the frontier out of a total of
+630,000, and in the estimate of 60,000 is included Macdonald's division,
+which was exposed to comparatively little hardship. That division with
+the Prussian contingent began to fall back on December 19. On the 30th,
+however, the Prussians were reduced to neutrality by the convention of
+Tauroggen, signed by the Prussian commander, Yorck, with the Russians,
+without the sanction of his government. Had Russia been in a condition
+to press onwards at once and carry the war into French territory, it is
+possible that Europe might have been spared the misery and bloodshed of
+the next few years. But, for the moment, her strength and resources were
+exhausted, nor was it until months had elapsed that other nations, or
+even France herself, became aware of the magnitude of the catastrophe
+which had overtaken Napoleon's host. That he was able to rally himself
+after it, to carry the French people with him, to enforce a new
+conscription, and to assume the aggressive in the campaign of 1813, must
+ever remain a supreme proof of his capacity for empire.
+
+[Pageheading: _DISPUTES WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+In the year 1812 war broke out between Great Britain and the United
+States. For a time the continental warfare had led to a great increase
+in American commerce, which was free from the attacks of privateers and
+from the restrictions which the opposing parties placed on one another.
+Presently, however, both parties attempted to force the United States
+into a virtual alliance with themselves. Orders in council on the one
+side and imperial decrees on the other had, as we have seen, declared a
+blockade of the ports of the continent of Europe and of Great Britain,
+and the United States saw their commerce threatened with disabilities
+approximating to those suffered by the belligerent powers. President
+Jefferson, who was supported by the republican party, adhered to a
+policy of strict neutrality, and prepared to suffer any commercial loss
+rather than be drawn into an European war. The only action which he took
+was the defence of the river mouths with a view to resisting any
+offensive movement. The federalist party on the other hand were in
+favour of energetic action against France, so as to secure English
+favour and the great commercial privileges which the mistress of the
+seas could bestow. For a time no hostilities resulted, but constant
+irritation was caused by the British claim to a right of search and to
+the impressment of sailors of British nationality found on American
+ships, while American ships accused of infringing the blockade were
+seized by either of the European combatants. To some extent the
+differences between Great Britain and the United States depended on
+rival views of the law of allegiance. The British maintained the
+doctrine _nemo potest exuere patriam_, and regarded all British-born
+persons, unless absolved from their allegiance by the act of the
+mother-country, as British subjects. The law of the United States, on
+the other hand, permitted an alien to become a citizen after fourteen
+years' residence, and previously to 1798 had required a residence of
+five years only. In this way it often happened that sailors who had
+received the American citizenship were impressed for service on British
+ships, and sometimes sailors of actual American birth were impressed.
+But it was impossible to justify the practice to which the Americans
+resorted of receiving deserters of British nationality from British
+ships of war, who were induced by offers of higher pay to transfer
+themselves to the American service.
+
+Jefferson at first preferred to coerce the European powers by
+retaliatory legislation. As early as April, 1806, a law had been passed
+forbidding the importation of certain British wares, but was suspended
+six weeks after it came into operation. In June, 1807, irritation was
+intensified by the incident of the _Leopard_ and the _Chesapeake_. Five
+men, four of whom were British born and one an American by birth, were
+known to have deserted from the British sloop _Halifax_, lying in
+Hampton roads, and to have taken service on an American frigate, the
+_Chesapeake_. After application for their surrender had been made in
+vain to the magistrates of the town of Norfolk, where the _Chesapeake's_
+rendezvous was, and to the officer commanding the rendezvous,
+Vice-admiral Berkeley sent his flagship, the _Leopard_, carrying fifty
+guns, with an order to the British captains on the North American
+station to search the _Chesapeake_ for deserters from six ships named,
+including the _Halifax_, in case she should be encountered on the high
+seas. The _Leopard_ arrived in Chesapeake bay in time to follow the
+_Chesapeake_ beyond American waters, and then made a demand to search
+for deserters. On the captain of the _Chesapeake_ refusing compliance,
+the _Leopard_ opened fire. The _Chesapeake_ was not in a condition to
+make any effectual reply, and, after receiving three broadsides, struck
+her flag. Only one of the deserters from the _Halifax_, an Englishman,
+was found on the _Chesapeake_; but three deserters from the British
+warship _Melampus_, which had not been named in Berkeley's order, all
+Americans by birth, were removed from the _Chesapeake_, which was now
+permitted to return to port.[55] Although the British government offered
+reparation for this action, recalled Berkeley, and disavowed the right
+to search ships of war for deserters, the incident could not fail to
+make a bad impression on American opinion.
+
+But still Jefferson adhered to a policy of pacific coercion. In
+December, 1807, the act of April, 1806, was again put into force, and an
+embargo act, passed by the American congress, now cut off all foreign
+countries from trade with the United States. But the policy of embargo
+was disastrous to its promoters. It ruined the commerce and emptied the
+treasury of the United States. On March 1, 1809, a non-intercourse act,
+applying only to France, Great Britain, and their dependencies, was
+substituted for the embargo act.[56] The new act enabled the president
+to remove the embargo against whichever country should cancel its orders
+or decrees against American trade. Three days later Jefferson was
+succeeded by Madison as President of the United States. The change made
+no difference to the policy of the United States government. But the
+opposition was now much stronger and more violent than formerly; so much
+so that Sir James Craig, the Canadian governor, actually despatched a
+spy, John Henry, to sound the willingness of New England, where the
+federalist party was the stronger, to secede from the union and join
+Great Britain against the United States. This venture becomes the less
+surprising when we observe that in the previous year, 1808, John Quincy
+Adams, the future president, had predicted such a secession. Nothing,
+however, came of the attempt. Madison attempted to obtain concessions
+from the British government, but while the Perceval ministry lasted he
+met with no success. In May, 1810, the non-intercourse act expired, but
+a proviso was enacted that, if before March 3, 1811, either Great
+Britain or France should cancel her decrees against American trade the
+act should, three months after such revocation, revive against the power
+that maintained its decrees. Madison was cajoled into believing that
+Napoleon had recalled his decrees on November 1, 1810, and the
+non-intercourse act was accordingly revived against Great Britain and
+her dependencies in February, 1811.
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR WITH THE UNITED STATES._]
+
+Almost the first act of the Liverpool administration was to cancel the
+restrictions on American trade. But it was too late. Five days earlier
+the United States had declared war against Great Britain on June 18,
+1812. The explanation of this step must be sought in the party politics
+of the United States. While the federalists courted British alliance,
+the younger members of the republican party had conceived a hope of
+conquering Canada as a result of a victorious war against Great Britain.
+This was the reply of the national party in the United States to the
+action of the Canadian governor. Madison knew the impracticability of
+such a step, but, finding that he could only carry the presidential
+election of 1812 with the support of this section of his party, he
+declared war. Great Britain, with her best troops in the Peninsula, was
+in no condition to use her full strength in America, but the United
+States were entirely unprepared for war. Their treasury was still empty,
+and their army and navy were small, while Canada generally was contented
+and loyal to the British crown. Upper Canada was full of loyalists, who
+had been expelled from the revolted colonies, and who with their
+descendants hated the men that had driven them from their homes; lower
+Canada was half-French and had nothing in common with the United States,
+while the Roman catholic clergy threw the whole weight of their
+influence on the British side. General Hull, who commanded the forces
+employed against Canada, succeeded in crossing the river Detroit in July
+and threatened the British post of Malden. But an alliance with the
+Indians enabled the British first to possess themselves of Mackinac, at
+the junction of lakes Huron and Michigan, and afterwards to imperil
+Hull's communications through the Michigan territory.
+
+Hull accordingly fell back on Detroit. The British, with 750 men under
+Major-General Brock, together with 600 Indians, now prepared to attack
+Hull at that place. Hull, who believed his retreat to be cut off by the
+Indians, did not await the British attack, but surrendered on August 16
+with 2,500 men and thirty-three guns. The effect of the capitulation was
+to place the British in effectual possession, not merely of Detroit, but
+of the territory of Michigan, and thus to render any attack on Canada
+from that quarter extremely difficult. The advantages gained by the
+British through this success were unfortunately neutralised by the
+policy pursued by Sir George Prevost, who had succeeded Craig as
+governor of Canada. Prevost was of opinion that, when the news of the
+withdrawal of the orders in council reached Washington, the United
+States government would be ready to abandon hostilities; and he
+accordingly concluded a provisional armistice with General Dearborn, the
+commander-in-chief of the enemy's forces in the northern states. But
+President Madison, having engaged in war, was anxious to try the effect
+of another attack on Canada before negotiating for peace, and therefore
+declined to ratify the armistice. The interval enabled the United States
+to bring up reinforcements, but their new army failed in an attack on a
+British post on the Maumee river.
+
+Meanwhile a second attempt was made to invade Upper Canada, this time
+from the side of Niagara. On October 13, Brigadier-General Wadsworth,
+acting under the orders of General Van Rensselaer, led an attack on the
+British position of Queenstown on the Canadian bank of the Niagara
+river. Brock commanded the defence, but was killed early in the fight.
+The position was momentarily seized by the enemy, but was presently
+recaptured by the British, who had in the meantime been reinforced by
+Major-General Sheaffe, the son of a loyalist, with a force from Fort
+George, and before the day closed Wadsworth found himself compelled to
+surrender with 900 men. The remainder of the enemy's forces, consisting
+of militia, rather than exceed their military obligations by crossing
+the frontier, chose to leave these men to their fate. In spite of the
+ignominious surrenders with which the first two expeditions against
+Canada had terminated, a third attempt was made by Brigadier-General
+Smyth to force the Canadian frontier; but on November 28 he was repulsed
+with loss by the British under Bishopp between Chippewa and Fort Erie,
+above the Niagara Falls, and at the end of the year the Canadian
+frontier still remained unpierced.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES AT SEA._]
+
+The glory of the British military successes was unfortunately obscured
+in large measure by American successes on the sea. The maritime war
+resolved itself into a series of fights between individual frigates.
+This was the necessary result of the nature of the British force kept in
+American waters. Ever since the renewal of hostilities with France in
+1803 a species of blockade had been maintained along the coast of the
+United States by British vessels on the watch for deserters or
+contraband of war. It was also found necessary to employ ships of war
+to guard against pirates in the West Indies and to protect British
+commerce in that quarter against French privateers. For all these
+purposes speed was of more importance than strength, and the British
+force in the west contained a disproportionate number of smaller vessels
+as compared with line of battle ships. The actual numbers of British
+warships in North American waters at the beginning of 1812 were three
+ships of the line, twenty-one cruisers and frigates, and fifty-three
+small craft. The United States navy was still weaker, and amounted
+merely to seven efficient frigates and nine small craft.[57] There was
+no question of a contest between fleets, and though the numbers of the
+British warships enabled them to destroy American trade, they were ship
+for ship inferior to the American frigates, which were thus enabled to
+win an empty glory in single-ship encounters. The American frigates
+were, in fact, superior in every respect to the British ships which
+nominally belonged to the same class. They were larger and more strongly
+built, a frigate being as strong as a British seventy-four. Their crews
+were more numerous, and were recruited entirely from seamen, about
+one-third of whom would appear to have been of British nationality,
+while, as has been seen, many of them had been decoyed from British
+war-vessels by offers of higher pay. The British ships on the other hand
+were manned largely by landsmen, often impressed from the jails. A false
+economy had induced the British admiralty to impose narrow limits on the
+use of ammunition for gunnery practice. The Americans on the other hand
+were very liberal in this respect, with the result that in the early
+years of the war they were greatly superior to their enemies in point of
+marksmanship.
+
+A good example of the disproportion between the British and American
+frigates is furnished by the fight between the British frigate
+_Guerrière_ and the American frigate _Constitution_, on August 19, one
+of the first naval actions in the war. The _Guerrière_ was armed with
+twenty-four broadside guns, discharging projectiles with a total weight
+of 517 pounds; the _Constitution_ with twenty-eight broadside guns,
+discharging a weight of 768 pounds. The crew of the _Guerrière_,
+counting men only, numbered 244, that of the _Constitution_ with a
+similar limitation 460. Finally the _Guerrière's_ tonnage amounted to
+1,092, as against the _Constitution's_ 1,533. The _Guerrière's_ guns
+proved very ineffectual from the start, while the marksmanship, not only
+of the American gunners but of the riflemen in the _Constitution's_
+tops, was the wonder of the British. It is stated that none of her shot
+fell short. After a fight lasting nearly two hours the _Guerrière_
+surrendered. The ship was a complete wreck, and she had lost fifteen men
+killed and six mortally wounded as against seven killed and three
+mortally wounded on board her opponent.
+
+The effect of the engagement both on British and on American public
+opinion was altogether out of proportion to its intrinsic importance.
+The inequality in strength of the opposing frigates was not understood,
+and any defeat of the mistress of the seas seemed an event of
+considerable significance. The Americans soon met with other similar
+successes. On October 18 their sloop _Wasp_, of eighteen guns, reduced
+the British sloop _Frolic_, a weaker vessel, though of similar armament,
+to a helpless hulk after a ten minutes' cannonade. The moral effect of
+this victory was not impaired by the fact that the conqueror and her
+prize were compelled to surrender a few hours later to the British
+seventy-four _Poictiers_. On the 25th the _United States_, of forty-four
+guns, captured the _Macedonian_, of thirty-eight, after three hours'
+fighting, and on December 29 the British thirty-eight-gun frigate
+_Java_, with a very inexperienced crew, was captured by the
+_Constitution_ after a running fight of three hours and a half.[58]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+With the retreat of the French army from Russia the main scene of
+operations on the continent was shifted from Russia to Germany. Great
+Britain took little part in the actual warfare in Germany, and if she
+had a larger share in the political negotiations which ultimately
+determined the distribution of forces, still Austria and not Great
+Britain was the power whose diplomacy had most effect on the course of
+events. The upheaval of Europe against Napoleon, however, would have
+been much less effective if it had not been supported by English
+subsidies, and Austria, in the crippled state of her finances, would
+probably have had to remain inactive if she had not been able to rely on
+English gold and perhaps still more on English credit.
+
+The campaign of 1813 falls naturally into three parts. During the first,
+from the beginning of January to the latter part of April the victorious
+Russians swept over North Germany, and, carrying the Prussian monarchy
+with them, strengthened a reaction which had already begun against the
+rule of Napoleon. The second part began with the arrival of Napoleon on
+the scene of action towards the end of April and lasted to the
+conclusion of an armistice on June 4. In this period of seven or eight
+weeks the allies were forced to retire at all points and the war was
+carried into Prussian territory. The armistice, which terminated on
+August 10, preceded the opening of the third part of the campaign in
+which Russia and Prussia were joined by Austria and Sweden, and, after
+gradually drawing closer round the main French position in Saxony,
+finally inflicted a crushing defeat upon Napoleon at Leipzig in the
+middle of October. The campaign was virtually over when Napoleon secured
+his retreat by the victory of Hanau on October 30; but it is impossible
+to sever it from the events outside Germany which were directly
+occasioned by the downfall of Napoleon's German domination. These are
+the revolt of Holland in November, that of Switzerland in December, and
+the Austrian attack on Northern Italy in October and November.
+
+In the opening months of the campaign the movements were merely a sequel
+to those of the previous year. The French retreat was continued from the
+Niemen to the Vistula, the Elbe, and finally the Saale. The Russians
+entered Prussia proper a few days after Yorck's capitulation, and the
+French retired before them. Stein, the Prussian statesman who had
+received a commission from Russia to administer the Prussian districts
+occupied by her, ordered the provincial governor to convoke an assembly.
+Although some indignation was felt at such a step being taken by Russian
+orders, the assembly met and voted the formation of the Landwehr. In
+this way Prussia actually began to arm against France, while the
+Prussian government still professed to maintain the French alliance. A
+few days later King Frederick William left Berlin, which was still
+occupied by the French, for Breslau. Before the end of February he had
+concluded the treaty of Kalisch with Russia, by which the two powers
+were to conduct the war against France conjointly, and Russia was not to
+lay down her arms till Prussia should be restored to a strength equal to
+that which she had possessed in 1806. On March 2 Cathcart arrived at
+Kalisch as British ambassador to the Russian court. He actively promoted
+Russia's alliance with Prussia, from which Great Britain stood apart for
+the present. He was able to obtain from Prussia a renunciation of her
+claims on Hanover, but Frederick William was still opposed to any
+increase of Hanoverian territory. On the 17th Prussia declared war on
+France. By that time the Russians had entered both Berlin and Breslau,
+and had freed Hamburg from French dominion, thus reopening Germany to
+British commerce. The declaration of war by Prussia was accompanied by a
+convention with Russia providing for the deliverance of Germany and the
+dissolution of the confederation of the Rhine. This convention embodied
+Stein's policy. It relied on popular support and it aimed at an unified
+government, at least in the territories occupied at that date by
+adherents of France.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1813._]
+
+But the popular upheaval in Germany was confined to the kingdom of
+Prussia, and the attempt to spread it elsewhere only provoked distrust
+in Austria and the South German states; it was not until the
+conservative elements in Germany were won over by Metternich's policy
+that the anti-Napoleonic movement became truly national. For the present
+Austria played the part of mediator. Lord Walpole, who had been sent on
+a secret errand to Vienna in December, 1812, tried in vain to win
+Austria to the side of the allies by promising the restoration of the
+Tyrol, Illyria, and Venetia.[59] Her government would probably have
+preferred a reconciliation with France, which would have arrested the
+growth of Russia and left Germany divided, to a unified Germany such as
+Stein desired; but Metternich, who directed her policy, cherished little
+hope of the success of his endeavours, though he knew when to employ
+agents more optimistic than himself. The Austrian treasury was empty,
+and it therefore suited Austria to remain neutral as long as possible,
+while in the event of a doubtful struggle this very neutrality would
+raise the price of her ultimate alliance. It was in this way that she
+came at last to exercise a decisive voice in the resettlement of
+Germany, not to say of Europe. True to this policy, the Austrian court
+concluded a truce of indefinite duration with Russia at the beginning of
+the year, and withdrew its forces within its own borders. This was
+followed by an offer of mediation made to France, which was, however,
+declined. A renewed offer was declined early in April by both France and
+Great Britain. The British still distrusted Austria, while France
+desired to buy her active co-operation and made an offer of Silesia in
+return for an army of 100,000, should Prussia or Russia open
+hostilities. Austria did not, however, abandon her project, but notified
+Prussia and Russia that she would proceed with the task of armed
+mediation, and steadily busied herself with military preparations.
+
+The vigour of the Prussians in recruiting had surprised Napoleon, but
+his own vigour was the marvel of Europe. In spite of the losses of the
+Russian campaign, he was able to take the field at the end of April with
+an army which at the lowest estimate was 200,000 strong. But his
+soldiers were for the most part mere boys, and he was sadly deficient in
+cavalry. The veterans of Austerlitz, of Jena, of Friedland, and of
+Wagram had been recklessly sacrificed on the plains of Russia. He was
+victorious at Lützen on May 2, was joined by the King of Saxony, entered
+Dresden, and thence pushed across the Elbe. On the 21st the victory of
+Bautzen enabled him to advance to the Oder and occupy Breslau. A renewed
+offer of Austrian mediation drew from him a declaration in favour of an
+armistice and a diplomatic congress. On June 4 an armistice was actually
+concluded at Poischwitz to last until August 1, and a neutral zone was
+provided to separate the combatants. On June 7 the demands of Austria
+were presented to Napoleon. They involved the renunciation by France of
+all territorial possessions, and even of a protectorate in Germany, and
+the restoration to Prussia and Austria of most of their lost provinces.
+Napoleon refused these terms, but accepted the mediation of Austria, and
+arranged for a congress which met at Prague in the middle of July. The
+armistice was prolonged till August 10. Both France and Austria were
+merely striving to gain time while they prepared for war, and there can
+be no doubt that the allies profited most by the delay. During the
+interval the news arrived of Wellington's great victory at Vitoria on
+June 21, and Napoleon, recalled to Mainz, occupied himself in arranging
+plans for the defence of the Pyrenees.
+
+During the armistice Prussia and Russia not only greatly reinforced
+their troops, but received valuable assistance from Great Britain,
+Sweden, and above all Austria. Already, on March 3, Great Britain had by
+the treaty of Stockholm given her sanction to the seizure of the whole
+of Norway by Sweden, after a vain attempt to induce Denmark to consent
+to a peaceable cession of the diocese of Trondhjem. At the same time
+Great Britain promised Guadeloupe as a personal gift to Bernadotte, and
+a subsidy of £1,000,000 for the Swedish troops fighting against
+Napoleon. A new treaty between Russia and Sweden on April 22 guaranteed
+the cession of Norway. On June 14 and 15 Cathcart, having at last
+obtained Prussia's consent to an increase in the territories of Hanover,
+signed treaties at Reichenbach with Prussia and Russia, by which Great
+Britain undertook to pay a subsidy of two-thirds of a million pounds to
+the former and a million and a third to the latter power. It was also
+agreed to issue federative paper notes to an extent not exceeding
+£5,000,000 to pay the expenses of the armies of the two powers during
+the year 1813, and Great Britain undertook the responsibility for
+one-half of these notes. Soon afterwards Austria received a promise of a
+loan of £500,000 as soon as she should join the allies. Half of this
+last sum was actually paid within a few days of the resumption of
+hostilities.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRESDEN AND LEIPZIG._]
+
+When the armistice expired, French forces were threatening Austria from
+three sides--from Bavaria, Illyria, and Saxony; and Napoleon's intention
+seems to have been to amuse the Austrian court with negotiations until
+he could defeat the Prussian and Russian armies, after which he counted
+upon overwhelming the Austrians with his entire force. The task of
+defeating the Prussians was entrusted to his army in Saxony with which
+Davoût was expected to co-operate from Hamburg, retaken by the French on
+May 30. Austria, however, declared war on France the moment the
+armistice had elapsed, August 12, and the main army of the allies,
+principally composed of Austrians with large Prussian and Russian
+contingents, assembled in Bohemia. Napoleon was opposed in Silesia by an
+army of Prussians and Russians, while Bernadotte, in command of a mixed
+army, consisting mainly of Swedes, Prussians and Russians, but including
+3,000 British troops and 25,000 Hanoverians under Walmoden, operated
+against him from the north. These three armies were eventually able to
+join hands, while Davoût's army, the French armies in Italy and Illyria,
+and 170,000 French troops in various German fortresses were unable to
+render effective aid in the struggle. On August 26-27 Napoleon himself
+won the last of his great victories at Dresden over the main army of the
+allies, while his lieutenants were defeated by the northern army at
+Grossbeeren on August 23, and again at Dennewitz on September 6, and by
+the Silesian army at the Katzbach on August 26. The capitulation of
+Vandamme at Kulm, with some 10,000 men, neutralised Napoleon's victory
+at Dresden, and his enemies were increased by Austrian diplomacy. The
+treaty of Teplitz, concluded on September 9, and accepted by Great
+Britain on October 3, committed the allies to the complete independence
+of the several German states. On the 10th Bavaria renounced the French
+alliance, and on October 8, by the treaty of Ried, she engaged to join
+the allies with 36,000 men, in return for a promise that she should
+suffer no diminution of territory. On the 7th the northern and Silesian
+armies had united west of the Elbe; Napoleon, who had quitted Dresden on
+the 6th and vainly attempted to engage the separate northern army,
+arrived at Leipzig on the 14th. But it was now too late.
+
+On the 16th the allied armies, which had concentrated on Leipzig,
+compelled him to stand at bay, and to risk all upon the fortunes of a
+single battle. This battle, lasting three days, was not only one of the
+greatest but one of the most decisive recorded in modern history, for it
+finally crippled the warlike power of Napoleon, and inevitably
+determined the issue of the campaigns yet to be fought in 1814 and 1815.
+It would appear that Napoleon had under his command about 250,000 men,
+and that he lost at least 50,000 in killed and wounded on the field. The
+allied forces were much larger numerically, and their losses fully
+equalled those of the French. But their victory was crushing. One of its
+immediate results was that Napoleon was forced to abandon Saxony, and
+with it the French cause in Germany. The French garrisons were reduced
+one by one. Of the fortresses east of the Rhine, Hamburg, Kehl,
+Magdeburg, and Wesel alone held out until the conclusion of peace in
+1814. The general rising of Central Europe against French domination
+which followed the battle of Leipzig extended itself to Holland. The
+French were expelled in the middle of November, and on December 2 the
+Prince of Orange was proclaimed sovereign prince of the Netherlands. On
+the 29th the Swiss diet voted the restoration of the old constitution.
+The confederation of the Rhine was practically dissolved, but in Italy
+Napoleon's viceroy, Eugène Beauharnais, after falling back before the
+Austrian army, was able to hold the line of the Adige. On November 9 it
+was decided to offer peace to Napoleon on condition of the surrender of
+all French conquests beyond the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees. These
+terms represented the policy of Metternich. The Earl of Aberdeen
+consented to them on behalf of Great Britain and Nesselrode on behalf of
+Russia, but they were not accepted by Napoleon before the date by which
+an answer was required, and the war proceeded. On December 31 the
+Prussians under Blücher crossed the Rhine near Coblenz and opened a new
+campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _AMERICAN SUCCESSES._]
+
+Meanwhile the war on the American continent was carried on with varying
+success, though the balance of fortune was rather on the side of the
+United States. The operations were in the main of a desultory character,
+no permanent conquests being made. The first engagement in the year 1813
+was at Frenchtown on the Raisin River in Michigan, where Colonel
+Proctor, commanding 500 regulars and militia, and 600 Indians, defeated
+an American force of 1,000 under Brigadier-General Winchester, and took
+500 prisoners, while many of the remaining Americans fell into the hands
+of the Indians. The immediate effect of this victory was that General
+Harrison, who was leading an American force of 2,000 men against
+Detroit, determined to retrace his steps. Three months later Proctor
+made a descent upon an American position on the Maumee River in the
+north of the State of Ohio. After besieging the enemy for a few days he
+was compelled to retire, but, before he left, an engagement took place
+on May 5, in which the British forces, with a total loss of less than
+100, inflicted severe losses on their opponents and made about 500
+prisoners. A subsequent attempt to capture Fort Sandusky, near the head
+of Lake Erie, was repulsed on August 2; ninety out of 350 British troops
+were returned as killed, wounded or missing.
+
+The British had hitherto commanded the lakes, but Commodore Perry now
+occupied himself in building a fleet at Presqu'isle in Pennsylvania on
+the coast of Lake Erie. Commander Barclay, in command of such ships as
+the British possessed, was badly supported and encountered the same
+difficulties in obtaining seamen as had been experienced for the
+sea-going ships. The ships in the service of the United States were in
+consequence again the more powerful and the better manned. On September
+10 the two squadrons engaged. The British had six vessels with a
+broadside of 459 lb., while the enemy had nine vessels with a broadside
+of 928 lb. With such odds the result could not be doubtful, and the
+whole British squadron was compelled to surrender. This success enabled
+the enemy to strike with effect at the south-western end of Lower
+Canada. The British immediately evacuated the whole territory of
+Michigan with the exception of Mackinac; and Proctor, now raised to the
+rank of major-general, commenced a retreat in the direction of Lake
+Ontario. On October 5 he was attacked at Moraviantown on the Thames by
+Harrison, and the greater part of his forces were captured in an
+engagement which reflected small credit on British generalship. The
+remainder of his forces reached Burlington Heights, at the west end of
+Lake Ontario, but the whole country to the west of the Grand River had
+to be abandoned to the enemy.
+
+On Lake Ontario the fortune of war was more equally divided. The
+Americans had been gradually collecting a naval squadron at Sackett's
+Harbour and had gained command of the lake as early as November, 1812.
+The command was, however, precarious, since it might be disturbed by the
+arrival or construction of new warships. One such was building at York,
+now known as Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, when, on April 27,
+1813, the American squadron under Commodore Chauncey attacked the town
+and succeeded in landing a detachment of troops under General Dearborn.
+The British general, Sheaffe, withdrew his regular forces from the town
+without awaiting an assault, but not before he had destroyed the ship of
+which the enemy were in quest. The Americans captured some naval stores,
+but did not attempt to hold the town; they set an evil precedent,
+however, by burning the parliament house and other public buildings
+before evacuating the place. On May 27 Chauncey co-operated again with
+Dearborn in an attack on Fort George, the capture of which threw the
+whole line of the Niagara into American hands. On the same day Prevost,
+whose naval strength had been reinforced, availing himself of Chauncey's
+absence, made an attack on Sackett's Harbour. The attack, which was
+renewed on the 29th, was miserably conducted, and ended in failure,
+though the Americans were compelled to burn the naval stores captured at
+York. The reinforcements had, however, transferred to the British the
+command of the lake, which was not challenged again till the end of
+July. Meanwhile their land forces were not idle. On June 6 the Americans
+were surprised by Colonel Vincent at Burlington Heights and over 100
+prisoners, including two brigadier-generals, were taken. This defeat,
+combined with the approach of the British naval squadron under Sir James
+Yeo, induced Dearborn to abandon his other posts on the Canadian side of
+the Niagara and to concentrate at Fort George, but on the 24th another
+surprise ended in the surrender of a detachment of more than 500
+Americans to a force of fifty British troops and 240 Indians. By the end
+of July Chauncey's squadron was once more strong enough to put to sea.
+It raided York on the 31st, but did not venture to join battle with Yeo;
+though a skirmish on August 10 enabled Yeo to capture two schooners.
+
+Meanwhile on the frontier of Lower Canada the British were everywhere
+successful. On June 3 two American sloops attacked the British garrison
+of Isle-aux-noix at the north end of Lake Champlain. Both ships were
+compelled to surrender. On August 1 a British force raided Plattsburg
+and destroyed the barracks and military stores. A combined movement on
+Montreal was now made by the forces of the United States; it was mainly
+owing to the loyalty of the French Canadians that they were repulsed.
+General Hampton advancing from the south with a force 7,000 strong was
+defeated at the river Chateauguay on October 26, by 900 men belonging to
+the Canadian militia, commanded by Colonel McDonnell and Colonel de
+Salaberry. The defeated general withdrew his troops into winter quarters
+at Plattsburg. Not long after, on December 7, the American general
+Wilkinson who had sailed down the St. Lawrence to Prescott and was
+marching towards Cornwall, was defeated with heavy loss by Colonel
+Morrison at Chrystler's Farm, and made no further attempt on Canada. In
+the same month General McClure, who commanded at Fort George, retired to
+the eastern bank of the Niagara before Colonel Murray's advance. His
+retreat was disgraced by the burning of the town of Newark, where women
+and children were turned homeless into the cold of a Canadian winter. At
+the same time the American forces were withdrawn from south-western
+Canada but still retained Amherstburg at the head of Lake Erie, the sole
+conquest of the campaign.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVAL WARFARE._]
+
+The naval warfare of 1813 was less rich in individual encounters than
+that of 1812. The British captains were better acquainted with the
+strength of the American ships and did not rashly engage vessels
+stronger than their own. There was also a marked improvement in British
+gunnery, and an increase in the strength of the British naval force in
+American waters. At first the blockade of the American coast had not
+been strictly maintained further south than New York, but as
+reinforcements arrived it was made more complete, and after June of this
+year it was only occasionally that any warship or privateer contrived to
+elude the blockading vessels. Meanwhile the British constantly raided
+and harassed the American coast, and had no difficulty in availing
+themselves of the Chesapeake and Delaware estuaries as naval bases. A
+new feature of this year's warfare was the appearance of American
+cruisers, especially privateers, in British waters, and even in the St.
+George's Channel. To such ships the French ports were a very serviceable
+naval base. The Americans would appear to have captured more of British
+commerce than the British captured of theirs, but this was no
+compensation for the almost complete cessation of their foreign trade.
+Of single ship actions the destruction of the British _Peacock_ by the
+American _Hornet_, commanded by Captain Lawrence, on February 24, the
+capture of the American _Argus_ by the British _Pelican_ not far from
+the Welsh coast on August 14, and the famous duel between the
+_Chesapeake_ and the _Shannon_ on June 1 were the most important.
+
+The British frigate _Shannon_ (38) was commanded by Captain Broke, who
+was famous not merely for the attention he paid to gun practice, but for
+the care he had bestowed on the laying of his ship's ordnance. Ever
+since the beginning of April the frigates _Shannon_ and _Tenedos_ (38)
+had been lying off Boston, where they hoped to intercept any American
+frigate that dared to leave the harbour. Two succeeded in eluding them.
+The _Chesapeake_ frigate (36) commanded by Lawrence, lay in the harbour;
+and Broke, having detached the _Tenedos_ in order to tempt her out, sent
+a challenge to Lawrence on the morning of June 1, but before it could be
+delivered the _Chesapeake_ had sailed. She steered for the _Shannon_,
+who waited for her. The fight began at 5.50 P.M. about six leagues out
+from Boston; it was brief and bloody. After ten minutes' firing the
+_Chesapeake_ fell on board the _Shannon_, and was immediately boarded.
+In four minutes more every man on board had surrendered. In this short
+fight the _Shannon_ had lost out of a crew of 352 twenty-four killed and
+fifty-nine wounded, two of the latter mortally, while the _Chesapeake_,
+according to American official figures, had lost out of 386 forty-seven
+killed and ninety-nine wounded (fourteen of the latter mortally). No
+fewer than thirty-two British deserters were found on board the
+_Chesapeake_. The victory made the best possible impression. The two
+ships had been of approximately equal strength, the American having a
+slight superiority of force, and the _Chesapeake_ had been captured in
+the way in which most turns on individual courage, by boarding. Both
+captains had distinguished themselves in the fight, and both were
+severely wounded, Lawrence, as the event proved, fatally.
+
+[Pageheading: _CAMPAIGN IN FRANCE._]
+
+The abandonment of Germany by the French at the close of 1813 left the
+outlying provinces and allies of France exposed to invasion. The
+Austrian general, Nugent, aided by British naval and military forces,
+captured Trieste on October 31. Dalmatia had been invaded by the
+Montenegrins as early as September, 1813, and was afterwards attacked by
+Austrians and British marines, but the town of Cattaro held out till it
+was taken by the British in January, 1814. On the 14th of the same
+month Denmark was compelled by the treaty of Kiel to cede Norway to
+Sweden in exchange for Swedish Pomerania and Rügen, Sweden undertaking
+to assist Denmark in procuring a fuller equivalent for Norway at the
+conclusion of a general peace. A treaty signed between Denmark and Great
+Britain at the same time and place provided for the restitution to
+Denmark of all British conquests, with the exception of Heligoland,
+while Denmark undertook to do all in her power for the abolition of the
+slave trade. The people of Norway and their governor, Prince Christian
+of Denmark, refused to submit to the transference of their allegiance,
+and on February 19 the independence of Norway was proclaimed. At first
+the Swedish government attempted to obtain the submission of Norway by
+negotiation only, but so important a diversion of her interest and
+energies was sufficient to prevent Sweden from joining in the new
+campaign against France. In Italy on January 11 Napoleon's
+brother-in-law, Murat, whom he had made King of Naples in 1808, formed
+an alliance with Austria. The treaty was never confirmed by Great
+Britain, but the British government subsequently consented to support
+Murat, if he should loyally exert himself in Italy against Napoleon's
+forces. Although Murat did actually engage in hostilities against the
+French, the British were far from satisfied with his operations and
+considered that his remissness left them a free hand. Accordingly on
+March 9 a British fleet entered the port of Leghorn and landed 8,000
+men, of whom Lord William Bentinck took command. From Leghorn he marched
+upon Genoa which surrendered to him on April 18.
+
+Meanwhile the main forces of the allies were concentrated for a campaign
+against Napoleon in Champagne. Of the three armies which had combined at
+Leipzig the Austro-Russian army under Schwarzenberg made its way through
+Switzerland, Alsace, and Franche-Comté, while Blücher's army of
+Prussians and Russians passed through the region which afterwards became
+the Rhine province and Lorraine. The two armies united in the
+neighbourhood of Brienne in Champagne. Bernadotte's army did not as a
+whole take part in the campaign; but a portion of it, consisting of
+Russians under Wittgenstein and Prussians under Bülow, was engaged in
+the conquest of Belgium and was able to invade France itself later in
+the year. Schwarzenberg's army was accompanied by the Emperors of
+Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and the leading European
+diplomatists, including Castlereagh. From the outset there was a marked
+difference between the Austrian and Russian policies. Metternich was
+content with reducing France to the natural frontiers already offered to
+her, and aimed merely at compelling Napoleon to recognise the _fait
+accompli_ in Germany, and to evacuate Italy and Spain. He was therefore
+in favour of slow advances and of giving Napoleon every opportunity for
+coming to terms. The tsar, on the other hand, wished to reduce France to
+her ancient limits, and was anxious to enter Paris as a conqueror. He
+also excited Austrian jealousy by his scheme of annexing what had been
+Prussian Poland, and compensating Prussia with Saxony. Castlereagh and
+the Prussian minister, Hardenberg, supported the tsar's policy towards
+France, but without sharing his ardour.
+
+On the first arrival of the allies in Champagne the tsar had only
+induced Metternich to advance by threatening to prosecute the war alone.
+After they had gained what appeared to be a decisive victory over
+Napoleon at La Rothière on February 1, negotiations were commenced at
+Châtillon. Napoleon insisted on continuing the war during the
+negotiations and interposed every possible delay. The allies first
+demanded that France should recede within the limits of 1791 and offered
+a partial restoration of French colonies, but refused to specify the
+colonies which they were willing to relinquish until France should
+accept the first condition. To this the French demurred, and on the 9th
+the tsar impetuously withdrew his minister. From the 10th to the 14th
+Napoleon inflicted a series of crushing blows upon Blücher's army.
+Negotiations were now resumed; they lasted till the middle of March, but
+as Napoleon would not surrender his claim to Belgium and the Rhine
+provinces they were fruitless, notwithstanding the pacific efforts of
+Caulaincourt, the French negotiator. On the 21st Napoleon tried in vain
+to detach Austria from the allies by a private letter to the Emperor
+Francis, and on March 1 a permanent basis was given to the alliance by
+the treaty of Chaumont (definitely signed on the 9th), by which the four
+allied powers bound themselves to conclude no separate peace, and not to
+lay down their arms till the object of the war should have been obtained
+by the restriction of France to her ancient frontiers. Each power was
+to maintain 150,000 men regularly in the field, and Great Britain was to
+pay the three other powers a subsidy of £5,000,000 for the current year
+and a like sum for every subsequent year of warfare. The signatory
+powers were to maintain their present concert and armaments for twenty
+years if necessary.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S FIRST ABDICATION._]
+
+After this treaty on March 4 Blücher united with Wittgenstein and Bülow
+near Soissons. On the 20th Napoleon was repulsed by Schwarzenberg's army
+at Arcis-sur-Aube, after which he attempted to cut off its
+communications by a movement to its rear. In consequence of this
+movement the allied armies advanced on Paris, while the Austrian emperor
+fled to Dijon taking Castlereagh and Metternich with him.[60] This left
+the war to be concluded under the influence of the most vigorous of the
+allied sovereigns, the Tsar of Russia. Paris capitulated on the 30th and
+on the next day was occupied by the allies. The tsar now issued "on
+behalf of all the allied powers" a proclamation in which he declared
+that they would not treat with Napoleon or his family, but were willing
+to respect the integrity of France, and to guarantee the constitution
+that the French people should adopt. This prepared the way for a
+reaction against Napoleon in France. A provisional government was formed
+on April 1; on the 3rd the French senate proclaimed the deposition of
+Napoleon, and on the 6th it published a constitution, and recalled the
+Bourbons in the person of Louis XVIII., the younger brother of Louis
+XVI. On the same day Napoleon signed an unconditional abdication at
+Fontainebleau. On the 11th a treaty was signed between Napoleon and the
+sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, by which he renounced all
+claim to the crowns of France and Italy, and was assigned the Isle of
+Elba as an independent principality and a place of residence, together
+with a liberal revenue charged on the French treasury, which, however,
+was never paid. The duchy of Parma was secured to the Empress Maria
+Louisa and was to descend to her son. The treaty was afterwards
+confirmed by Great Britain, with the exception of the clauses providing
+revenues for the fallen emperor and his family. The promise of Elba had
+been made by the tsar in the absence of Castlereagh and Metternich. It
+was vigorously opposed by Castlereagh's half-brother, Sir Charles
+Stewart, but the tsar considered his honour bound to it, and Napoleon
+sailed from Fréjus for Elba on the 28th.
+
+In America the war was conducted with more vigour in 1814 than in
+previous years, but with equally small effect on either side. In March
+the American general, Wilkinson, advancing from Lake Champlain, was
+repulsed by a small British garrison at La Colle Mill. In July an
+American army under Brown invaded Upper Canada across the river Niagara.
+It was attacked by General Riall, near Chippewa, on the 5th, but it
+repelled the attack and occupied that place. Brown was, however, checked
+by British regulars and Canadian militia under Sir Gordon Drummond at
+Lundy's Lane, near Niagara Falls, on the 25th. Both sides claim the
+victory, but on the reinforcement of the British troops Brown abandoned
+the invasion. After the close of the Peninsular war some of the best
+regiments of the Peninsular army, numbering about 14,000 men, were sent
+to America. But they were not commanded by any of the generals who had
+made their names illustrious in that war, and did not effect so much as
+had been expected. On August 19 and 20 General Ross landed with 5,000
+men at the mouth of the Patuxent in Chesapeake Bay. On the 24th he
+defeated a large body of militia under General Winder at Bladensburg,
+and occupied Washington, where he burned all the public buildings.
+However deplorable such an act may seem, it is well to note that it was
+a fair and even merciful reprisal after the action of the Americans at
+York and Newark. Ross did not attempt to retain the city, but evacuated
+it on the next day and re-embarked on the 30th. On September 12 he
+landed near Baltimore, but was immediately killed in an attack on the
+town. The attack had to be abandoned because it proved impossible to
+obtain adequate support from the fleet, and the troops returned to the
+ships on the 15th.
+
+On September 1 Prevost invaded New York State by Lake Champlain. He
+advanced against Plattsburg, which he bombarded on the 11th, but his
+flotilla was defeated by an American flotilla during the bombardment,
+and he felt himself compelled to retreat into Canada. At the end of the
+year Sir Edward Pakenham took command of a force operating against New
+Orleans, but on January 8, 1815, he was defeated and killed by the
+American forces under the future president, Andrew Jackson. No
+expedition was ever worse planned than this; the veterans of the
+Peninsula were mowed down by a withering fire, and, losing confidence in
+their leaders, forfeited their reputation for invincible courage in
+attack. The fighting, however, was desperate while it lasted, and was
+compared by one engaged in it with the storm of Badajoz, and the deadly
+charges at Waterloo. It was but a small compensation for these failures
+that the British were able to annex a strip of territory belonging to
+the State of Maine. On the sea no general engagement took place, nor was
+there any naval duel so famous as that between the _Shannon_ and the
+_Chesapeake_ in the previous year. The Americans lost two of their best
+frigates, but, with crews largely composed of British sailors, captured
+several British ships of war.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TREATY OF GHENT._]
+
+As early as January, 1814, advances had been made towards negotiations
+for peace, but they were not actually begun till August 6. In the course
+of a few days a serious difficulty arose, as the British commissioners
+demanded the delimitation of an Indian territory which should be exempt
+from territorial acquisitions on the part of either power, and also
+claimed the military occupation of the lakes for their own government.
+The Americans thereupon suspended the negotiations, and Castlereagh
+expressed grave discontent with the conduct of the British negotiators
+in pressing these points. Late in the year negotiations were resumed,
+when the British abandoned these claims. The far more comprehensive
+questions about the rights of neutrals, which had occasioned the war,
+had ceased to be of practical importance now that peace was restored in
+Europe. They were therefore, by tacit consent, suffered to drop, and a
+treaty signed at Ghent on December 24, 1814, ended a war of which the
+Canadians alone had reason to be proud.
+
+The most dramatic incident in the domestic annals of England in this
+year was the visit of the allied sovereigns to this country, after their
+triumphal entry into Paris, and the signature of a convention, to be
+described hereafter, for the resettlement of Europe. Louis XVIII. left
+his retreat at Hartwell on April 20, and reached his capital on May 3
+to find it occupied by foreign armies, and to discover that his French
+escort, composed of Napoleon's old guard, was of doubtful loyalty. On
+July 8 the Tsar of Russia and the King of Prussia, having accepted an
+invitation from the prince regent, which the Emperor of Austria
+declined, landed at Dover, and were afterwards received with the utmost
+enthusiasm in London. Their appearance betokened the supposed
+termination of the greatest, and almost the longest, war recorded in
+European history, but it was also accepted as a tribute of gratitude for
+the unique services rendered by Great Britain, the only European power
+which had never bowed the knee to the French Republic or the French
+Empire. They attended Ascot races, were feasted at the Guildhall,
+witnessed a naval review at Portsmouth, and were decorated with honorary
+degrees at Oxford, where Blücher was the hero of the day with the
+younger members of the university. There were men of calmer minds and
+maturer age, who must have remembered the time, but seven years before,
+when Alexander swore eternal friendship with Napoleon, on the basis of
+enmity to Great Britain, and Frederick William of Prussia shrunk from no
+depths of dishonour, first to aggrandise his kingdom and then to save
+the remnants of it from destruction. Others foresaw that a restoration
+of the Bourbons portended reaction, in its worst sense, throughout all
+the continent of Europe. But such memories and forebodings were hushed
+in the sincere and general rejoicing over the return of peace, marred by
+no suspicion of the new trials and privations which peace itself was
+destined to bring with it for the working classes of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[53] See p. 105.
+
+[54] George, _Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_, p. 33.
+
+[55] James, _British Naval History_, iv., 470-84.
+
+[56] See above, p. 58.
+
+[57] See _Cambridge Modern History_, vii., 336, 338.
+
+[58] For details of the naval warfare of this year see James, _British
+Naval History_, vi., 115-202.
+
+[59] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 372.
+
+[60] For the importance of this flight of the Emperor Francis see Rose,
+_Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 418, 425. The flight did not take place till
+after the advance on Paris was begun.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VII.
+
+ VIENNA AND WATERLOO.
+
+
+After the restoration of Louis XVIII. as a constitutional king, the
+treaty of Paris between France and the allied powers was signed on May
+30, 1814. The treaty amounted to a settlement in outline of those
+territorial questions in Europe in which France was concerned, and aimed
+mainly at the construction of a strong barrier to resist further
+encroachments by France on her neighbours. The French boundaries were to
+coincide generally with the limits of French territory on January 1,
+1792, but with certain additions. The principle adopted was that France
+should retain certain detached pieces of foreign states within her own
+frontier (such as Mühlhausen, Montbéliard, and the Venaissin), while the
+line of frontier was extended so as to include certain detached
+fragments belonging to France before 1792, such as Landau, Mariembourg,
+and Philippeville, as well as Western Savoy with Chambéry for its
+capital. She was moreover allowed to regain all her colonies except the
+Mauritius, St. Lucia, and Tobago. The Spanish portion of San Domingo was
+restored to the Spanish government. Holland was placed under the
+sovereignty of the house of Orange, and was to receive an increase of
+territory; so much of Italy as was not to be ceded to Austria was to
+consist of independent sovereign states; and Germany was to be formed
+into a confederation. Finally an European congress was to meet at Vienna
+in two months' time "to regulate the arrangements necessary for
+completing the dispositions of the treaty". At the same time secret
+articles provided that the disposition of territories was to be
+controlled at Vienna by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia;
+that Austria, was to receive Venice and Lombardy as far as the Ticino;
+and that the former territories of Genoa were to be annexed to
+Sardinia, and the late Austrian Netherlands to Holland.
+
+In the midst of the general restoration of legitimate princes
+difficulties were occasioned by the exceptional cases in which
+territories were reserved for the new dynasties that had arisen during
+the Napoleonic wars. France, Spain, and Sicily objected to the retention
+of the kingdom of Naples by Murat, Spain resented the cession of Parma
+to the Bonapartes, and Norway was in revolt against the attempt to
+subjugate it to the king of Sweden and his heir Marshal Bernadotte. The
+Norwegian government under Prince Christian vainly endeavoured to secure
+the British recognition of the independence of Norway. The British
+government, on the contrary, held itself bound to support the claims of
+Sweden, and on April 29 notified a blockade of the Norwegian ports,
+which was promptly carried into effect. Meanwhile a new constitution was
+promulgated in Norway, and Prince Christian was proclaimed king. While
+the British maintained the blockade Sweden attempted to gain its ends by
+negotiation. At last, on July 30, the Swedes invaded Norway. After some
+Swedish successes a convention was signed at Moss on August 14, which
+recognised the new Norwegian constitution, but provided for a personal
+union of the crowns of Sweden and Norway. This constitution was accepted
+by Charles XIII. of Sweden in the following November, and Norway
+retained almost complete independence, though united to Sweden.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SLAVE TRADE._]
+
+Among the last acts of Napoleon's government had been the release and
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. of Spain and of Pope Pius VII. Ferdinand,
+supported by the vast mass of Spanish opinion, declared against the
+rather unpractical constitution established in his absence, and entered
+Madrid as an absolute king on May 14. One of his first acts was the
+revival of the inquisition. There was some apprehension among British
+representatives lest the two restored Bourbon monarchies should renew
+the family compact, and also lest they should attempt to assert the
+Bourbon claims to Naples and Parma. Sir Henry Wellesley, afterwards Lord
+Cowley, was, however, successful in negotiating a treaty of alliance
+between Great Britain and Spain, which made provision against any
+renewal of the family compact, restored the commercial relations of the
+two countries to the footing on which they had been before 1796, and
+promised the future consideration of means to be adopted for the
+suppression of the slave trade. Spain was in fact too dependent on
+British credit to be able to adopt a line of her own in politics. But
+the hold which Great Britain had thus gained over Spain was somewhat
+weakened by the British attitude towards the slave trade.
+
+It is remarkable how large a space the abolition of the slave trade
+occupied in the foreign policy of Great Britain, when the liberties of
+Europe were at stake. During the months preceding the meeting of the
+congress of Vienna, which had been postponed till September by the tsar,
+British diplomacy had been engaged in a strenuous effort to obtain the
+co-operation of such European powers as possessed American colonies in
+securing this philanthropic object. Sweden had already consented to it,
+and now Holland also gave her consent. Portugal agreed to relinquish the
+trade north of the equator, on condition that the other powers consented
+to impose a similar restriction on themselves. Strong pressure was
+brought to bear upon France to consent to the immediate abolition of the
+trade, and Wellington, who had been created a duke in May and who
+arrived at Paris in August in the capacity of British ambassador, was
+authorised by Liverpool to offer the cession of Trinidad or the payment
+of two or three million pounds to obtain this end. By the treaty of
+Paris only French subjects were allowed to trade in slaves with the
+French colonies, and French subjects were excluded from trading
+elsewhere; and the whole trade was to cease within French dominions
+after five years. Talleyrand, negotiating with Wellington, refused to
+consent to a general abolition, but, on being pressed to surrender the
+slave trade north of the equator, consented to abandon it to the north
+of Cape Formoso. In the following year Napoleon on his return from Elba
+ordered its immediate suppression, and this was not the least
+significant act of the Hundred Days. With Spain our diplomatists were
+less successful. The British government refused to renew its subsidy to
+Spain for the last half of 1814 except on condition that Spain
+relinquished the slave trade north of the equator at once, and consented
+to relinquish that south of the equator in five years' time; while it
+would not issue a loan except on condition that Spain abolished the
+whole trade immediately. Even these terms did not prevail with Spain,
+and the most that she would grant at the congress was to relinquish the
+trade at the conclusion of eight years.
+
+Meanwhile Talleyrand was endeavouring to induce Great Britain to combine
+with France in a joint mediation between Austria and Russia at the
+congress, in the event of Russia demanding the duchy of Warsaw.
+Wellington, while expressing himself in favour of an understanding,
+refused to accept anything which might seem equivalent to a declaration
+in favour of mediation by the two powers in every case. At the congress
+itself Great Britain was first represented by Castlereagh, who was
+succeeded in February, 1815, by Wellington. The two principal
+difficulties were the questions of Poland and Saxony. The tsar desired
+to erect the duchy of Warsaw, Prussia's share in the two partitions of
+Poland in 1793 and 1795, into a constitutional monarchy attached to the
+Russian crown, while Prussia, though not unwilling to resign her claims
+to Polish dominion, wished to increase her territory by the
+incorporation of Saxony in her monarchy. Austria was naturally averse
+from any increase of strength in the states on her northern borders, and
+she was also opposed to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy
+in Poland which might serve as a centre for political discontent in her
+own dominions. Even France urged this objection to a constitutional
+Poland. Great Britain alone was willing to see an independent Poland,
+but preferred to join France, Prussia, and Austria in demanding its
+repartition between the two latter powers rather than its annexation to
+Russia. All through October Austria, Great Britain, and Prussia
+endeavoured to induce the tsar to withdraw his demand. Early in November
+he won over the King of Prussia to whom he promised the kingdom of
+Saxony, proposing to indemnify the Saxon king with a new state on that
+lower Rhine which France was not allowed to have, but which no other
+power desired.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE RETURN OF NAPOLEON._]
+
+It was no longer possible to resist Russia's claims on Poland, but
+Austria was determined not to allow Prussia to receive the proffered
+compensation. On December 10 Metternich notified the Prussian minister,
+Hardenberg, that he would not allow Prussia to annex more than a fifth
+part of Saxony. Great Britain, France, Bavaria, and the minor German
+states joined Austria in this action, and thus the attempt to effect a
+settlement of Europe by a concert of the four allied powers broke down.
+On January 3, 1815, a secret treaty was concluded between Austria,
+France, and Great Britain in defence of what their diplomatists called
+"the principles of the peace of Paris". Each of these powers was to be
+prepared, if necessary, to place an army of 50,000 men in the field.
+Bavaria joined them in their preparations for war, and many of the
+troops which occupied Paris in 1815 would have been disbanded or
+dispersed, but for the prospect of a rupture between the allies
+themselves. But a compromise was soon arranged, and on February 8 it was
+agreed that Cracow, the Polish fortress which threatened Austria most,
+should be an independent republic, and that Prussia should retain enough
+of Western Poland to round off her dominions, while the remainder of the
+duchy of Warsaw became a constitutional kingdom under the tsar. Prussia
+was to be allowed to annex part of Saxony, and was to receive a further
+compensation on the left bank of the Rhine and in Westphalia. The most
+thorny questions were now settled, and Castlereagh had left Vienna when
+the congress was electrified by the news that Napoleon had reappeared in
+France.
+
+The episode of "the Hundred Days" interrupted, but did not break up, the
+councils of the congress at Vienna. It cannot be said that Napoleon's
+escape from Elba took the negotiators altogether by surprise. They were
+already aware of his correspondence with the neighbouring shores of
+Italy, and his removal to St Helena or some other distant island had
+been proposed by the French government, though never discussed at the
+congress. Sir Neil Campbell, the British commissioner at Elba, had gone
+so far as to warn his government of Napoleon's suspected "plan," and to
+indicate, though erroneously, the place of his probable descent upon the
+Italian coast. Owing to an almost incredible want of precaution, he
+embarked on February 26 with the least possible disguise, and
+accompanied by 400 of his guards, on board his brig the _Inconstant_,
+eluded the observation of two French ships, and landed near Cannes on
+March 1. Thence he hastened across the mountains to Grenoble, passing
+unmolested, and sometimes welcomed, through districts where his life had
+been threatened but a few months before. The commandant of Grenoble was
+prepared to resist his further progress, but a heart-stirring appeal
+from Napoleon induced a regiment detached to oppose him to join his
+standard, and the rest of the garrison was brought over by Colonel
+Labedoyère, one of the officers who had conspired to bring him back.
+Thence he proceeded to Lyons, issuing decrees, scattering proclamations,
+and gathering followers at every stage. He was lavish of promises, not
+perhaps wholly insincere, that he would adopt constitutional
+government--already established by the charter of Louis XVIII.--and
+cease to wage aggressive wars. He relied unduly on the discontent
+provoked by the blind partisans of the Bourbons, who, it was said, had
+learned nothing and forgotten nothing. This was true, if the spirit of
+the restoration were to be measured by the parade of expiatory masses
+for the execution of royalists under the revolution, the ostentatious
+patronage of priests, the preference of returned _émigrés_ to well-tried
+servants of the republic and the empire, or the anticipated expulsion of
+landowners in possession of "national domains" for the purpose of
+dividing them among their old proprietors. All this naturally
+exasperated those who had imbibed the principles of the revolution, but
+it was more than compensated in the eyes of millions of Frenchmen by the
+cessation of conscription and the infinite blessings of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _"THE HUNDRED DAYS."_]
+
+The king was amongst the least infatuated of the royalists. On hearing
+of Napoleon's proclamation, he had the sense to appreciate the danger of
+such a bid for sovereignty and the magic of such a name, while his
+courtiers regarded Napoleon's enterprise as the last effort of a madman.
+He addressed the chamber of deputies in confident and dignified
+language; the Duke of Angoulême was employed to rouse the royalist party
+at Bordeaux; the Duke of Bourbon was sent into Brittany, the Count of
+Artois, with the Duke of Orléans and Marshal Macdonald, visited Lyons,
+upon the attitude of which everything, for the moment, seemed to depend.
+Most of the marshals remained faithful to the restored monarchy, and Ney
+was selected to bar the progress of Napoleon in Burgundy, and has been
+credited with a vow that he would bring him back in an iron cage. But it
+was all in vain. The Count of Artois was loyally received by the
+officials and upper classes at Lyons, but he soon found that Napoleon
+possessed the hearts of the soldiers and the mass of the people. Ney
+yielded to urgent appeals from his old chief, signed and read to his
+troops a proclamation drawn up by Napoleon himself, and was followed in
+his treason by his whole army. As Napoleon approached Paris, all armed
+opposition to him melted away. On March 19, Louis XVIII., seeing that
+his cause was hopeless, proclaimed a dissolution of the chambers, and
+retired once more into exile, fixing his residence at Ghent.
+
+Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries on the 20th, after a journey which he
+afterwards described as the happiest in his life. But his penetrating
+mind was not deceived by the manifestations of popular joy. He well knew
+that he was distrusted by the middle classes, as well as by the
+aristocracy, and threw himself more and more on the sympathy of the old
+revolutionists. When he came to fill up the higher offices, he met with
+a strange reluctance to accept them, and was driven to enlist the
+services of two regicides, the virtuous republican, Carnot, and the
+double-dyed traitor Fouché. Feeling the necessity of resting his power
+on a democratic basis, he promulgated a constitution modelled on the
+charter of Louis XVIII., and known as the _Acte Additionnel_, which,
+however, satisfied no one. The royalists objected to its anti-feudal
+spirit, the revolutionists and moderates to its express recognition of
+an hereditary peerage, and its tacit recognition of a dictatorial power.
+It was by no means with a light heart that Napoleon took leave of Paris
+on June 7, having appointed a provisional government, to place himself
+at the head of his army.
+
+Attempts had been made in the southern provinces and La Vendée to
+organise armed rebellion against the emperor, and met for a time with
+considerable success. But they were soon quelled by the overwhelming
+imperialism not only of the regular army, but of vast numbers of
+disbanded soldiers and half-pay officers, dispersed throughout France,
+and disgusted with their treatment under the restored monarchy. Even
+among the _bourgeoisie_ Napoleon had an advantage which he never
+possessed before. Disguise it as he might, all his former wars had been
+essentially wars of conquest, and, however patiently they might endure
+it, the peasantry of France, in thousands upon thousands of humble
+cottages, groaned under the exaction of crushing taxes--worst of all,
+the blood-tax of conscription--in order to enable one man, in the name
+of France, to usurp the empire of the world. Now, however, as in the
+early days of the revolution, France was put on its defence, and called
+upon to repel an invasion of its frontiers. For the news of Napoleon's
+escape, announced by Talleyrand on March 11, instantly stilled the
+quarrels and rebuked the jealousies which had so nearly proved fatal to
+any settlement at Vienna. For the moment, the designs of Russia in
+Poland, the selfish demands of Prussia, and the half-formed coalition
+between Great Britain, France, and Austria, were thrust into the
+background. Austria thought it necessary to repudiate decisively the
+audaciously false assertion of Napoleon that he was returning with the
+concurrence of his father-in-law, and would shortly be supported by
+Austrian troops. Metternich, therefore, assumed the lead in drawing up a
+solemn manifesto, dated March 13, in which Napoleon was virtually
+declared an outlaw "abandoned to public justice," and the powers which
+had signed the treaty of Paris in the preceding May bound themselves, in
+the face of Europe, to carry out all its provisions and defend the king
+of France, if need be, against his own rebellious subjects.
+
+By a further convention made at the end of March, they engaged to
+provide forces exceeding 700,000 men in the aggregate, to be
+concentrated on the Upper Rhine, the Lower Rhine, and the Low Countries,
+with an immense reserve of Russians to be rapidly moved across Germany
+from Poland. Wellington having succeeded Castlereagh at Vienna, was
+appointed to command the British, Hanoverian, and Belgian contingents on
+the north-east frontier of France; Blücher's headquarters were to be on
+the Lower Rhine, within easy reach of that frontier; for, whichever side
+might take the offensive, it was there that the first shock of war might
+be expected. The recent conclusion of peace with America at Ghent on
+December 24, 1814, left England free to use her whole military power.
+Enormous sums were voted by Parliament, with a rare approach to
+unanimity, for the equipment of a British army, and a sum of £5,000,000
+for subsidies to the allied powers. A small section of the opposition
+led by Whitbread opposed the renewal of war. On April 7 he moved an
+amendment to the address in reply to the prince regent's message
+announcing that measures for the security of Europe were being concerted
+with the allies, but he was only supported by 32 votes against 220. On
+April 28 his motion for an address to the prince regent, deprecating
+war with Napoleon, was defeated by 273 votes against 72. This was
+Whitbread's last prominent appearance in parliament. On July 6, during a
+fit of insanity, he died by his own hand. The subsidies to the allies
+were opposed by Bankes, but were carried on May 26 by 160 votes against
+17. There can be no doubt that the majorities in the house of commons
+correctly expressed the national sentiment. Nobody wished to dictate to
+France the form of government which she was to adopt, but it was
+generally felt that Napoleon's character rendered peace with him
+impossible.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CAMPAIGN OF 1815._]
+
+In the end, about 80,000 men were assembled in Belgium under
+Wellington's orders, but of these not half were British soldiers,
+including untrained drafts from the militia, who replaced veteran
+Peninsular regiments still detained in Canada and the United States. Yet
+Napoleon admitted the British contingent to be equal, man for man, to
+his own troops, while he estimated these to be worth twice their own
+number of Dutchmen, Prussians, or other Germans. The first blow in the
+war was struck by Murat. Already in February, dissatisfied with his
+ambiguous position, he had levied troops and summoned Louis XVIII. to
+declare whether he was at war with him. As soon as he heard of
+Napoleon's return, he invaded the Papal States, and summoned the
+Italians to rise in the cause of Italian unity and independence. Though
+disowned by Napoleon, he persevered in this plan, but he was attacked
+and twice defeated by an Austrian army. On May 22 the British and
+Austrians took the city of Naples, and Murat fled to France. In October
+he made an attempt to recover his kingdom, but was captured and shot. It
+is noteworthy that, on hearing of his fate at St. Helena, Napoleon
+showed but little sympathy with his brother-in-law.
+
+On the morning of June 12, Napoleon left Paris, saying as he entered his
+carriage that he went to match himself with Wellington. All his troops
+were already marshalled on the Belgian frontier, and numbered 124,588
+men, with 344 guns. The Imperial Guard alone was 20,954 strong, and the
+whole army was largely composed of seasoned veterans. The Prussian army
+consisted of 116,897 men, with 312 guns under Marshal Blücher, whose
+headquarters were at Namur. Though the majority of these were veterans,
+there was a considerable leaven of inferior troops, hastily raised from
+the Westphalian and Rhine militia. Between this town and Quatre Bras lay
+the Prussian line of defence, Sombreffe being the centre, with Ligny and
+St. Amand in front of it, and rather on the south-west. Wellington's
+headquarters were at Brussels, and, having no certain intelligence of
+Napoleon's movements, he kept the various divisions of his army within
+easy distance of that capital until the very eve of the final conflict.
+Of the 93,717 men under his command, 31,253 were British, two-thirds of
+whom had never been under fire; 6,387 were of the king's German legion;
+15,935 Hanoverians; 29,214 (including 4,300 Nassauers in the service of
+the Prince of the Netherlands) Dutch and Belgians; 6,808 Brunswickers;
+2,880 Nassauers; the engineers, numbering 1,240, were not classified by
+nationality. He fully expected that Napoleon would move upon Brussels
+along the route by Mons and Hal, and maintained in later days that such
+would have been the best strategical course. Napoleon thought otherwise,
+and resolved to strike in between the Prussian and British armies,
+crushing the former before the latter could be fully assembled. He very
+nearly succeeded, and, if all had gone as he hoped, he could scarcely
+have failed to win one of his greatest victories.
+
+[Pageheading: _LIGNY AND QUATRE BRAS._]
+
+On the evening of the 15th, Wellington was still at Brussels, with the
+great body of his army, and only a weak force of Dutch and Belgians was
+at Quatre Bras, some sixteen miles to the south. Blücher, with about
+three-fourths of his army, was at Sombreffe, a few miles south-east of
+Quatre Bras. Napoleon himself was at or close by Charleroi, ten or
+twelve miles south of Quatre Bras; the mass of his army was at Fleurus,
+south-west of Sombreffe, with Ligny and St. Amand between it and the
+Prussians; and Marshal Ney, with Reille's corps, was at Frasnes,
+opposite to and due south of Quatre Bras. On the morning of the 16th,
+Napoleon arrived from Charleroi at Fleurus, and carefully inspected his
+enemy's position, but delayed his attack upon Ligny and St Amand until
+half-past two in the afternoon. The Prussians outnumbered the French,
+and a murderous conflict ensued among the streets, gardens, and
+enclosures of these little towns, which lasted until eight or nine
+o'clock. At last Napoleon ordered his guard to advance, and the plateau
+behind Ligny was taken, with a loss to the French of 12,000, and to the
+Prussians of over 20,000. Blücher himself was unhorsed and severely
+bruised in a furious charge of cavalry, but the Prussians retired in
+good order towards Wavre, north of the battlefield.
+
+Had Ney been in a condition to obey an urgent message from Napoleon, and
+to envelop the Prussian right and rear, this defeat would have been
+overwhelming in its effect. But while the battle of Ligny was raging,
+another battle was going on at Quatre Bras, six miles distant, in which
+the French sustained a serious check. Happily for the British, Ney
+failed to bring up his divisions for an attack on Quatre Bras until two
+o'clock in the afternoon, when the Dutch and Belgians under the Prince
+of Orange were still his only opponents. The news for which Wellington
+had been waiting did not reach him until just before the memorable ball,
+given by the Duchess of Richmond at Brussels on the night of the 15th,
+which he nevertheless attended, hurrying off his troops to Quatre Bras.
+They arrived just in time to reinforce the Prince of Orange and save the
+position; but Ney, too, was receiving fresh reinforcements every hour,
+the Duke of Brunswick was killed, and a fearful stress fell on Picton's
+division and the Hanoverians, who alone were a match for Ney's splendid
+infantry and Kellermann's cuirassiers.
+
+These made a charge like that which had borne down the Austrians at
+Marengo, but the British squares were proof against it, and when a
+division of guards came up from Nivelles, the French in turn were put on
+the defensive and retreated to Frasnes. The loss on the British side was
+4,500 men; that on the French somewhat less. It is not difficult to
+imagine what the issue of the battle must have been if D'Erlon's corps
+had been brought into action. This corps was occupied in marching and
+countermarching, under contradictory orders from Napoleon and Ney,
+between the British left and the Prussian right during the whole of this
+eventful day. Its appearance in the distance just when Napoleon was
+about to launch his guard against the Prussians at Ligny, caused him to
+hesitate long, and lose the decisive moment for demolishing his enemy.
+Its failure to appear at Quatre Bras, and to roll up the wavering
+Dutch-Belgians, before Picton took up the fighting, enabled Wellington
+to hold his ground at first, to repulse Ney afterwards, and on hearing
+of Blücher's defeat at Ligny, to fall back in good order on Waterloo.
+Even then, something was due to good fortune. Had Napoleon joined Ney
+and marched direct on Quatre Bras early on the 17th, it is difficult to
+see how his advance to Brussels could have been arrested. But whether he
+was exhausted by his incessant labours since leaving Paris, or whether
+his marvellous intuition was deserting him, certain it is that he
+allowed that critical morning to slip by without an effort--and without
+a reconnaissance. He assumed that Blücher must retire upon Namur as his
+base of operations, and that Wellington, retiring towards Brussels,
+would be cut off from his allies. He therefore despatched Marshal
+Grouchy, with 33,000 men, to follow up the Prussians eastward by the
+Namur road. His assumption was unfounded. Blücher, loyal to his
+engagements, retired upon Wavre; Wellington, relying upon Blücher's
+loyalty, took his stand on the field of Waterloo; and this error on the
+part of Napoleon determined the fortunes of the campaign.[61]
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The British army retreated upon Waterloo almost unmolested. Ney was
+probably awaiting orders, and Napoleon, believing the Prussians to be at
+Namur, probably thought he might safely rest himself and his army before
+crushing Wellington at his leisure. When they realised that Wellington
+was deliberately moving his army to a position nearer Brussels, they
+both followed in pursuit along different roads converging at Quatre
+Bras, and a brisk skirmish took place near Genappe between Ney's cavalry
+and that of the British rear-guard. Heavy rain came on, and the two
+armies spent a miserable night, half a mile from each other, close to
+Mont St. Jean, and south of Waterloo. Napoleon rose before daybreak on
+the 18th, reconnoitred the British position, and convinced himself that
+Wellington intended to give battle. He expressed to his staff his
+satisfaction and confidence of victory, when General Foy, who had
+experience of the Peninsular war, replied in significant words: "Sire,
+when the British infantry stand at bay, they are the very devil
+himself". Why Napoleon did not begin the battle at eight o'clock has
+been the subject of much discussion. It is said that he waited for
+Grouchy to join him before the close of the action. But neither he nor
+Grouchy, though aware that at least a large force of Prussians had gone
+to Wavre and not to Namur, suspected that Blücher had promised
+Wellington to march with his whole army on the morning of the 18th to
+support the British at Waterloo. It is more likely that he waited for
+his men to assemble and for the ground to dry and become more
+practicable for his powerful artillery.[62]
+
+Exception has been taken to the conduct of Wellington in detaching
+17,000 men to guard the approach to Brussels at Hal, and, still more, in
+not recalling them, when he must have ascertained that nothing was to be
+feared on that side, and when such a reinforcement of his right wing
+must have been all-important. But it must be remembered that in this
+force there were only 1,500 English troops, and 2,000 Hanoverian
+militia. The rest were Dutch and Belgians. At all events, Napoleon left
+his right flank undefended, though he was already somewhat anxious about
+the Prussian movements, and Wellington fought the battle of Waterloo
+with a force numerically inferior to that under Napoleon's command,
+though it might have been rendered superior by the accession of the Hal
+contingent. The effective part of this force, numbering in all 67,661
+men, consisted of 24,000 British soldiers, 6,000 soldiers of the king's
+German legion, and about 11,000 Hanoverians. Napoleon's force numbered
+72,000 men, and it was stronger both in cavalry and in guns. It
+represented the flower of the French army; there were few, if any,
+recruits as raw as those who swelled the ranks of the British regiments;
+there were thousands upon thousands who had formed part of that _Grande
+Armée_ which had overawed the continent of Europe. It is fair, however,
+to record that, while the British rank and file suffered much for want
+of sufficient food, the French had fared still worse, and that very many
+of them could have been in no fit condition for the struggle impending
+over them.
+
+Both armies occupied ground extending from west to east, on opposite
+ridges, and crossed at right angles by the great highway running north
+and south from Charleroi to Brussels. In front of the British right were
+the château and enclosures of Hougoumont which were occupied by the
+British; nearly in front of the centre were the large farm-house and
+buildings of La Haye Sainte. Further to the left were the hamlet of
+Smohain and the farms Papelotte and La Haye. Wellington had arranged his
+brigades so as to distribute the older troops as much as possible among
+the less experienced. Sir Thomas Picton's fifth division formed the left
+of the line; to his right was Alten's second division, and beyond him to
+the right was the guards division under Cooke. Further to the right and
+partly in reserve was Clinton's second division, while Chassé's Dutch
+division on the extreme right occupied the village of Braine l'Alleud.
+Somerset's brigade of heavy cavalry and Kruse's Dutch cavalry were
+posted behind Alten's division, and Ponsonby's "union brigade,"
+consisting of the royal dragoons, Scots greys, and Inniskillings, was
+stationed in Picton's rear. The whole line lay on the inner slopes of
+the ridge with the exception of Bylandt's Dutch-Belgian brigade which
+was posted on the outer slope in front of Picton's division. D'Erlon's
+corps was opposite the British left, Reille's opposite the British
+right. Squadrons of cavalry covered the outer flank of either of the two
+French corps. The magnificent squadrons of French cavalry, 15,000
+strong, under Milhaud, Kellermann, and other famous leaders, were in the
+second line; the imperial guard, as usual, was massed in the rear.
+
+[Pageheading: _WATERLOO._]
+
+The battle opened about half-past eleven with a furious attack on
+Hougoumont. It was defended with desperate gallantry, mainly by the
+British guards, who reopened the old loopholes in the garden-walls, and
+closed by sheer muscular force the eastern gate of the yard, which had
+been forced open by the French. In the fruitless siege of Hougoumont, as
+it may be called, the French left wing thus wasted most of its strength,
+and incurred enormous loss. Meanwhile, the French right wing under
+D'Erlon, advanced to attack the British left, which had been assailed
+for an hour and a half by the fire of a battery with seventy-eight guns.
+The Dutch and Belgians, who in their exposed position had suffered
+severely from the French artillery fire, soon gave way; but Picton's
+division, after a single volley, charged with the bayonet and drove
+their assailants reeling backward, though Picton himself fell dead on
+the field. Without orders from Wellington, Lord Uxbridge, in command of
+the British cavalry, seized the opportunity, and launched the union
+brigade with other regiments upon the flying masses. This whirlwind of
+British horsemen swept all before it, slaughtering many of the French
+cavalry in passing, taking 3,000 prisoners, sabring the gunners of Ney's
+battery, and spiking fifteen of the guns. But their ardour carried them
+too far. By Napoleon's orders a large force of French cuirassiers and
+lancers fell upon their flank before they could take breath again, and
+their ranks were frightfully thinned in a disorderly retreat. But their
+charge had saved the day.
+
+At one o'clock, while the fate of D'Erlon's onslaught was still
+undecided, Napoleon observed Prussian troops on his right. An
+intercepted despatch proved these to be Bülow's corps. He instantly sent
+off a despatch to Grouchy, whom he supposed to be within reach, ordering
+him to attack Bülow in the rear. Then followed the memorable succession
+of charges by the whole of the French cavalry upon the squares of the
+British infantry. Not one of these squares was broken; a great part of
+the French cavalry was mown down by volleys or cut to pieces by the
+British cavalry in their precipitate retreat, and the British line
+remained unmoved, though grievously weakened, behind its protecting
+ridge. This was the crisis of the fight. Much of the British artillery
+was dismounted, and Wellington confessed to one of his staff that he
+longed for the advent of night or Blücher. Napoleon next felt himself
+compelled to detach Lobau's corps for the purpose of meeting the
+advancing Prussians. Soon afterwards Ney carried La Haye Sainte by a
+most determined assault, aided by the failure of ammunition within its
+defences, and thus captured the key of the British position. But
+Napoleon saw that his one chance of victory lay in a final _coup_ before
+the Prussians could wrest it from him. He ordered the imperial guard to
+the front, leading it himself across the valley, and then handing over
+the command to Ney. The guard was but the remnant of its original
+strength, for all its cavalry had been wrecked in wild charges against
+the British squares, and several battalions of its infantry were kept in
+reserve to hold back the Prussians and protect the baggage train.
+Nevertheless, the advance of this superb corps, the heroes of a hundred
+fights, who had seldom failed to hurl back the tide of battle at the
+most perilous junctures, was among the most impressive spectacles in the
+annals of war. They swerved a little to the left, thereby exposing
+themselves to the fire of the British footguards and of a battery in
+excellent condition. The former were lying down for shelter, but when
+the imperial guard came within sixty paces of them they started up at
+the word of command from Wellington himself. The footguards poured a
+deadly fire into the front, and the 52nd regiment into the flank of
+their columns; as they wavered under the storm of shot a bayonet charge
+followed, and the imperial guard, hitherto almost invincible, was
+dissolved into a mob of fugitives scattered over the plain.
+
+It was now past eight o'clock; Bülow's Prussians had long been engaged
+on the British left, and Blücher, with indomitable energy, was pressing
+forward with all his other divisions. Wellington first sent Vandeleur's
+and Vivian's cavalry, still comparatively fresh, to sweep away what
+remained of the French reserves, and then ordered a general advance. The
+French retreat speedily became a rout, and a rout to which there is no
+parallel except that which succeeded the battle of Leipzig. Wellington
+and Blücher met at La Belle Alliance on the high road, just south of the
+battlefield, and lately the French headquarters. The British troops were
+utterly tired out, but the Prussian cavalry never drew rein until they
+had driven the last Frenchman over the river Sambre in their relentless
+pursuit. The slaughter had been prodigious, though far short of that at
+Borodino. The British army lost 13,000 men, the Prussian 7,000, and the
+French 37,000[63] (including prisoners), besides the whole of their
+artillery, ammunition, baggage-waggons, and military train. But the
+battle was one of the most decisive recorded in history, and was the
+real beginning of a peace which lasted over the whole of Europe for
+nearly forty years. Grouchy heard the cannonade of Waterloo on his march
+from Ligny to Wavre, and was strongly urged by Gérard to hasten across
+country, with his whole force, in the direction of the firing. But he
+pleaded the letter of Napoleon's instructions, and reached Wavre only to
+find Blücher gone. After an encounter with a Prussian corps, which had
+been left behind, he received news of Napoleon's defeat, and ultimately
+escaped into France.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON'S SECOND ABDICATION._]
+
+The march of the allies into France after the battle of Waterloo was not
+wholly unchecked, but it was far more rapid than in 1814. The French
+could not be rallied, and in the first week of July Paris was occupied
+by Anglo-Prussian troops. The Austrians and Prussians were moving again
+upon the eastern frontiers of France, but were still far behind. The
+Prussian general and soldiers were animated by the bitterest spirit of
+vengeance, and it needed all the firmness of Wellington to prevent the
+bridge of Jena from being blown up, and a ruinous contribution levied on
+the citizens of Paris. Napoleon himself was now at Rochefort, having
+quitted Paris after a second abdication on June 22, but four days after
+the battle. No other course was open to him. When he started for his
+last campaign, he was no longer the champion of an united nation, and
+consciously staked his all on a single throw. When he returned from it,
+discomfited and without an army, he found the chambers actively hostile
+to him. Carnot, who had formerly opposed his assumption of the imperial
+title, was now the only one of his ministers to deprecate his
+abdication, but Napoleon himself saw no hope of retaining his power, or
+transmitting it to his son, without a reckless appeal to revolutionary
+passions. From this he shrank, and he represented himself at St. Helena
+as having sacrificed personal ambition to patriotism.
+
+The chamber of deputies appointed an executive commission of five,
+including the infamous Fouché, and from this body the late emperor
+actually received an order to quit Paris. He retired to Malmaison, where
+he received a fresh order to set out for Rochefort, which he reached on
+July 3. On the next day Paris capitulated to the allies, and the
+necessity for his leaving the shores of France became more urgent. Two
+frigates were assigned for his escape to America, but a British squadron
+was lying ready to intercept them. Some of his bolder companions devised
+a scheme for smuggling him on board a swift merchant ship, but it was
+foiled by the vigilant watch of the British squadron off the islands of
+Oléron and Ré. At last he surrendered himself on board the
+_Bellerophon_, relying, as he said, on the honour of the British nation,
+and claiming the generous protection of the prince regent. He was,
+however, clearly informed that he would be at the disposal of the
+government. Under an agreement with the allied powers, the ministers
+decided, and were supported by the nation in deciding, that he could not
+be detained in England, either as a guest or as a prisoner, with any
+regard to public safety or the verdict of Europe at Vienna. The proposal
+of banishing him to St. Helena, suggested in the previous year, was
+finally adopted, and he sailed thither in the _Northumberland_ on August
+8, vehemently protesting against the bad faith of Great Britain. Louis
+XVIII. was restored, and the treaty of Vienna, signed on the eve of the
+Waterloo campaign, was but slightly modified.
+
+The action of Murat had solved the difficulties which the congress had
+to face in Italy. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies reverted to the
+Bourbon, Ferdinand; and the Bourbons also acquired a right of reversion
+in Parma, where the protest of Spain against the rule of Maria Louisa
+could now be ignored. Genoa was annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia; the
+pope received back the states of the Church; the Grand Duke of Tuscany
+and the Duke of Modena were restored; while Austria had to be content
+with Venetia and Lombardy as far as the Ticino. The organisation of
+Germany occupied the congress until June, and was the least durable part
+of its work. The basis of it was a confederation of thirty-eight states,
+represented and in theory controlled by a diet under the presidency of
+Austria. This diet naturally resolved itself into a mere permanent
+congress of diplomatists for the purpose of settling the mutual
+relations of the constituent states. Each state was ordered to adopt a
+constitutional form of government, but, as no provision was made for
+enforcing this clause, it remained a dead letter. Prussia regained her
+provinces on the left bank of the Rhine, with a population exceeding
+1,000,000, and was allotted the northern part of Saxony, with a
+population of 800,000, besides retaining her original share of Poland,
+with the province of Posen, which had formed part of the duchy of
+Warsaw. Most of this duchy was annexed by Russia, but Cracow was left a
+republic. Prussia also gained Swedish Pomerania. Bavaria, Hanover, and
+Denmark profited more or less by the repartition of Germany. Denmark,
+however, finally lost Norway, and Sweden paid the price of this
+acquisition by resigning Finland to Russia. The neutrality of
+Switzerland was proclaimed and her constitution simplified. The Belgian
+Netherlands were united to Holland, the two forming together the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, to which Austria ceded all her claims in the Low
+Countries.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SECOND TREATY OF PARIS._]
+
+The treaty of Vienna left the boundaries of France itself as they had
+been defined by the first treaty of Paris in 1814. The second treaty of
+Paris, however, signed on November 20, 1815, was less favourable to
+France, which had already ceded Western Savoy to Sardinia, and was now
+required to abandon Landau and other outlying territories beyond the
+frontier of 1792. She was also compelled to restore all the works of art
+accumulated during the war.
+
+Great Britain had failed to obtain from the congress any binding
+regulation on the subject of the slave trade. The most that she could
+obtain was a solemn denunciation of that trade issued on February 8,
+which declared it to be "repugnant to the principles of civilisation and
+of universal morality". The moderation of the British demands, as
+embodied in these treaties, excited not only the amazement but the
+contempt of Napoleon, who discussed the subject at St. Helena with great
+freedom. Well knowing that his paramount object throughout all his wars
+and negotiations had been to crush Great Britain, and that Great Britain
+had been the mainstay of all the combinations against him, he could find
+no explanation of our self-denial except our insular simplicity. Perhaps
+it might be attributed with greater reason to politic magnanimity; nor,
+indeed, could Great Britain, as a member of the European council,
+dictate such terms as Napoleon suggested. Still, the gains of Great
+Britain were substantial. She retained Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope,
+the Isle of France (Mauritius), Trinidad, St. Lucia, Tobago, and, above
+all, Malta. She also obtained possession of Heligoland and the
+protectorate of the Ionian Islands, both of which she has since resigned
+of her own accord. If she afterwards lost the commanding position which
+she had attained among the allied powers, it was chiefly because the
+colossal empire which she had defied was effectually shattered, because
+neither her armies nor her subsidies were any longer needed on the
+continent of Europe, and perhaps because the energies of her statesmen
+were no longer braced up by the stress of a struggle for national life.
+
+Even before the allied armies entered Paris Wellington considered it
+necessary to induce Louis XVIII. to make advances to certain politicians
+of the revolution so as to inspire national confidence in him, and to
+anticipate the risk of a "White Terror," or a continuance of the war.
+Fouché was accordingly summoned to power, and he had sufficient
+influence to prevent any national opposition to the Bourbon restoration.
+Napoleon remained at large for three weeks after his abdication, that
+is, for eight days after the allied troops had entered Paris, and the
+fear of a future Bonapartist revolution inclined the British government
+under Liverpool to entertain favourably the demand of Prussia for the
+cession of Alsace, Lorraine, and the northern fortresses. When, however,
+Napoleon had placed himself on board the _Bellerophon_, the situation
+changed. A contented France seemed preferable to an impotent France, and
+Wellington argued that the Bourbon restoration could not last, if French
+opinion connected it with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The tsar took
+this line from the first, and Wellington won for it the adhesion first
+of his own government and then of Austria. Prussia had finally to be
+contented with a provision for the cession of the outlying districts,
+which the treaty of Paris of 1814 had left to France. The second treaty
+of Paris, which embodied this stipulation, also provided for an
+indemnity of £40,000,000 to be paid by France to the allies, and for the
+temporary occupation of Northern France by the allied armies. On the
+same day Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia signed a treaty
+pledging themselves to act together in case fresh revolution and
+usurpation in France should endanger the repose of other states, and
+providing for frequent meetings of congresses to preserve the peace of
+Europe.
+
+In addition to the formal treaties of alliance signed at Chaumont,
+Vienna, and Paris, an attempt was made by the Tsar Alexander to bind
+together the European sovereigns in an union based on the principles of
+Christian brotherhood. A form of treaty was accordingly drawn up which
+gave expression to these motives, dealt with all Christians as one
+nation, and committed their sovereigns to mutual affection and
+reciprocal service. This treaty of the holy alliance was signed on
+September 26, by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. All European princes
+except the sultan were invited to adhere to it, and all except the pope
+and the sultan ultimately either accepted it or expressed their sympathy
+with its principles. But in England there was hardly a statesman who
+regarded the treaty seriously, Wellington avowed his distrust of it, the
+prince regent declined to join it, and its effective value in promoting
+the subsequent concert of the powers was less than nothing. Still,
+however visionary and extravagantly worded, it remains as an unique
+record embodying the deliberate adoption of the principle of
+international brotherhood, and the sacrifice of separate national
+interests for the sake of European peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA._]
+
+It is remarkable that so little public discussion took place on two
+questions which have since been so hotly debated--the legal _status_ of
+Napoleon after he surrendered himself, and the moral right of Great
+Britain to banish him to St. Helena. One reason for this apparent
+indifference to the fate of one who had overawed all Europe may be found
+in the fact that parliament was not sitting when the decision of the
+government was taken, and that, when it met on February 1, 1816, that
+decision was virtually irrevocable. We know, however, that the first
+question was fully considered by the allied powers and the British
+ministry before his place of exile was fixed, and Great Britain
+undertook the custody of his person. The view which prevailed was that,
+after his escape from Elba, he could neither be treated as an
+independent sovereign nor as a subject of the French king, but must be
+regarded as a public enemy who had fallen into the hands of one among
+several allied powers. Accordingly, it was by their joint mandate that
+he remained the prisoner of Great Britain, and was to be under the joint
+inspection of commissioners appointed by the other powers. Still the
+minds of Liverpool, Ellenborough, and Sir William Scott, judge of the
+court of admiralty, were not altogether easy on the legal aspect of the
+case, which Eldon reviewed in an elaborate and exhaustive memorandum.
+His conclusion was that Napoleon's position was quite exceptional, that
+he could not rightly be made over to France as a French rebel, but was a
+prisoner of war at the disposal of the British government, both on the
+broad principles of international law, and under the express terms of
+his surrender, as reported officially by Captain Maitland of the
+_Bellerophon_.
+
+It was thought expedient, however, to pass an act of parliament in the
+session of 1816 for the purpose of setting at rest any objections which
+might afterwards be raised. This measure was introduced on March 17 by
+Lord Castlereagh, who defended it on grounds of national justice and
+national policy. It met with no opposition in the house of commons, but
+Lords Holland and Lauderdale criticised it in the house of lords, not
+as sanctioning a wrong to Napoleon, but as implicitly admitting the
+right of other powers to join in arrangements for his custody. Little
+attention was then bestowed by parliament or the public on the moral
+aspect of his life-long detention at St. Helena, the restrictions to be
+there imposed upon his liberty, or the provision to be made for his
+comfort. Yet these subjects have ever since exercised the minds of
+myriads both in England and France, and have given birth to a copious
+literature for more than three generations.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[61] For the movements of June 15, 16, see Chesney, _Waterloo Lectures_,
+pp. 70-137; Ropes, _The Campaign of Waterloo_, pp. 44-196.
+
+[62] Rose, _Life of Napoleon I._, ii., 494, 495.
+
+[63] Oman in _English Historical Review_, xix., 693, and xxi., 132.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER VIII.
+
+ THE FIRST YEARS OF PEACE.
+
+
+When Parliament met on February 1, 1816, after a recess of unusual
+length, Castlereagh was received with loud acclamations from all parts
+of the house as the chief actor in the pacification of Europe. There
+was, of course, a full debate upon the treaties, but the opposition
+dwelt less upon the arbitrary partition of Europe than upon their
+alleged tendency to guarantee sovereigns against the assertion of
+popular rights and upon the manifest intention of the government to
+"raise the country into a military power". From this moment dates the
+whig and radical watchword of "Peace, Retrenchment, and Reform". The
+nation was, in fact, entering upon a period of unprecedented depression
+and discontent, which lasted through the last four years of George
+III.'s reign. At the close of 1815, however, the whole horizon was
+apparently bright. Great Britain had saved Europe by her example, and,
+however small her army in comparison with those of continental states,
+she stood foremost among the powers which had crushed the rule of
+Napoleon. Her national debt, it is true, had reached the prodigious
+total of £861,039,049, and the interest on it amounted £32,645,618, but
+the expansion of our national resources had kept pace with it. In spite
+of the continental system, the orders in council, and the American war,
+the imports and exports had enormously increased, chiefly by means of an
+organised contraband traffic; the carrying trade of the world had passed
+into the hands of British shipowners; British manufactures were largely
+fostered by warlike expenditure at home and the suspension of many
+industries abroad; while population, stimulated by a vicious poor law,
+was rapidly on the increase. In this last element, then considered as a
+sure sign of prosperity, really consisted one of the chief national
+dangers.
+
+So long as the war lasted, low as the rate of wages might be, there was
+generally employment enough in the fields or in the factories for nearly
+all the hands willing to labour. When the inflated war prices came to an
+end, and wheat fell below 80s. or even 70s. a quarter, until it reached
+52s. 6d. early in 1816, labourers were turned off and wages cut down
+still further; bread was not proportionately cheapened, and agrarian
+outrages sprang up. The continent, impoverished by the war, no longer
+required British goods for military purposes, and, as its own domestic
+industries revived, ceased to absorb British products, flung in
+profusion on its markets. Hence came a reduction of 16 per cent. in the
+export trade, and of nearly 20 per cent. in the import trade, which
+resulted in bankruptcies and the dismissal of workpeople. If we add to
+these causes of distress, the influence of over-speculation, the
+accession of disbanded soldiers to the ranks of the unemployed, and the
+substitution of the factory system with machinery for domestic
+manufactures with hand labour, we can partly understand why Great
+Britain, never harried by invading armies, should have suffered more
+than France itself from popular misery and disaffection for several
+years after the restoration of peace.
+
+[Pageheading: _VANSITTART'S FINANCE._]
+
+The history of these years is mainly a history of social unrest, and
+attempts to cure social evils by legislation or coercion. Liverpool and
+his colleagues, with the possible exception of Eldon, were not bigoted
+tories, and it is sometimes forgotten that among them, together with
+Sidmouth, Castlereagh, and Vansittart, were Canning, Palmerston, and
+Peel. One of the first parliamentary struggles was on the proposal of
+the government to reduce the income tax from 10 to 5 per cent., and to
+apply this half of it, producing about £7,500,000, towards the expense
+of maintaining an army of 150,000 men. Since the income tax has become a
+favourite of democratic economists, as pressing specially upon the rich,
+we may be surprised to find that its total repeal was successfully
+advocated by Henry Brougham, the leading democrat of that day--a man
+whose noble services to progress and to humanity in the earlier part of
+his career have been obscured by the inordinate vanity and unprincipled
+egotism which he displayed in the later phases of his long public life.
+He had entered parliament in 1810, and rapidly became the most active of
+the opposition speakers. He now employed without scruple all the arts of
+agitation, petition-framing, and parliamentary obstruction to achieve
+his object, and succeeded, by the aid of bankers and country-gentlemen,
+in defeating the government by a majority of thirty-seven. This vote
+might be justified, more or less, on the principle laid down by Pitt,
+that the income tax should be held in reserve as a war tax only, or on
+the ground that it was equally wasteful and mischievous to keep up so
+large a peace-establishment, especially if it might be used to bolster
+up despotism abroad. It was also unfortunate that Castlereagh, ignoring
+the heroic efforts made by the people of England for more than twenty
+years, should have deprecated "an ignorant impatience to be relieved
+from the pressure of taxation". Still, it is remarkable that friends of
+the people and the ultra-liberal corporation of London, as it then was,
+should have concentrated their indignant protests against the financial
+policy of the government, not on the corn laws, or any other indirect
+tax, but on the income tax.
+
+Public confidence in the economic wisdom of the ministers was further
+weakened by the gratuitous abandonment of the malt tax, apparently in a
+fit of petulance, on the ground, explicitly stated, that, if another war
+tax must be raised, two or three millions more or less would make little
+difference. By a temporary suspension of the sinking fund, a deficit
+might be converted into a surplus; Vansittart, however, neglected to
+take advantage of this simple expedient, and raised £11,500,000 by loan.
+His waning reputation was almost shattered by this absurd proceeding.
+Finally, the excessive and irregular expenditure upon the civil list
+provoked a searching inquiry into its abuses, prefaced by a scathing
+attack from Brougham upon the character of the prince regent. His
+character was, in fact, indefensible, and had justly forfeited the
+respect of the nation. He was a debauchee and gambler, a disobedient
+son, a cruel husband, a heartless father, an ungrateful and treacherous
+friend, and a burden to the ministries which had to act in his name and
+palliate his misdoings. That of Liverpool carried a measure for the
+better regulation of the civil list, upon which, swollen as it was by
+the wrongful appropriation of other public funds, many official
+salaries had been charged hitherto. For these parliament now made a
+separate provision. The house of commons, which properly grudged the
+prince regent the means of reckless luxury and self-indulgence, was
+unanimous in voting £60,000 for outfit and £60,000 a year to the
+Princess Charlotte on her marriage, on May 2, to Prince Leopold of
+Saxe-Coburg, looking forward to a reign under which virtue and a sense
+of public duty would again be the attributes of royalty. In this
+session, too, it conferred a boon upon Ireland, which earned little
+gratitude, by the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers.
+Ireland was virtually insolvent before this measure was passed. With the
+union of the exchequers the union of the countries was completed. The
+administration, discredited by its financial policy, was strengthened in
+June by the acquisition of Canning, who succeeded Buckinghamshire as
+president of the board of control. In September, 1814, Wellesley Pole, a
+brother of the Marquis Wellesley and the Duke of Wellington, had been
+admitted to the cabinet as master of the mint, so that with Castlereagh,
+Vansittart, and Bragge-Bathurst, there were now five members of the
+cabinet in the lower house.
+
+[Pageheading: _INDUSTRIAL RIOTS._]
+
+The disturbances which broke out again and again during the years
+1816-19 were partly the outcome of sheer destitution among the working
+classes, and partly of a growing demand for reform, whether
+constitutional or revolutionary. The statesmen of the regency must not
+be too severely judged if they often confounded these causes of
+seditious movements, and failed to distinguish between the moderate and
+violent sections of reformers. Those who remembered the bloodthirsty
+orgies of the French revolution, ushered in by quixotic visions of
+liberty, equality, and fraternity, may perhaps be excused for
+distrusting the moderate professions of demagogues who deliberately
+inflamed the passions of ignorant mobs. Moreover, the whigs and moderate
+reformers, who privately condemned the excesses of their violent
+followers, made light of these in their public utterances, and reserved
+all their censures for the repressive policy of the government. Bread
+riots had begun before the harvest, which proved a total failure. The
+price of wheat, which was as low as 52s. 6d. a quarter in January, 1816,
+rose to 103s. 1d. in January, 1817, and to 111s. 6d. in June, 1817. And
+when rickburning set in as a consequence of agricultural depression,
+tumultuary processions as a consequence of enforced idleness in the coal
+districts, and a revival of Luddism as a consequence of stagnation in
+the various textile industries, itself due to a glut of British goods on
+the continent, the reform party, now raising its head, was held
+responsible by the government for a great part of these disorders.[64]
+The writings of Cobbett, especially his _Weekly Register_, certainly had
+a wide influence in stirring up discontent against existing
+institutions, but it must be admitted that he condemned the use of
+physical force, and pointed to parliamentary reform as the legitimate
+cure for all social evils. Reform, however, in Cobbett's meaning
+included universal suffrage with annual parliaments, and the Hampden
+clubs, all over the country, agitated for the same objects in less
+guarded language. Still, looking back at these democratic agencies by
+the light of later experience, we can hardly adopt the opinion expressed
+by a secret committee of the house of commons that their avowed objects
+were "nothing short of a revolution".
+
+It was on December 2, 1816, that the extreme section of reformers, now
+for the first time known as radicals, in alliance with a body of
+socialists called Spenceans, first came into open collision with the
+forces of the law. A meeting was announced to be held on that day in Spa
+Fields, Bermondsey, and was to be addressed by "Orator" Hunt, Major
+Cartwright, the two Watsons, and other demagogues. Hunt was a gentleman
+of Somerset, and had stood for Bristol in 1812. Though a prominent
+speaker, he in no sense directed the movement. Burdett and Cochrane, the
+orthodox leaders of London reformers, were not concerned in this
+demonstration, which, according to an informer who gave evidence, was to
+be the signal for an attack upon the Tower and other acts of atrocity.
+As it was, before Hunt chose to appear, the mob, headed by the younger
+Watson, broke into gunsmiths' shops, not without bloodshed, and marched
+through the Royal Exchange, but were courageously met by the lord mayor,
+with a few assistants, and very soon dispersed. The alarm produced in
+the whole nation by this riotous fiasco was quite out of proportion to
+its real importance, and was reawakened by an insult offered to the
+prince regent on his return from opening parliament on January 28, 1817.
+Even Canning, a life-long opponent of reform, did not scruple to magnify
+these and similar evidences of popular restlessness into proofs of a
+deep-laid plot against the constitution, and committees of both houses
+urged the necessity of drastic measures to put down a conspiracy against
+public order and private property. These measures took the form of bills
+for the suppression of seditious meetings, and for the suspension until
+July 1 of the _habeas corpus_ act, which had been uninterruptedly in
+force since its suspension by Pitt had expired in 1801. This last bill
+was passed on March 3, and, before the other became law, the so-called
+march of the Blanketeers took place at Manchester. The march was the
+ridiculous sequel of a very large meeting got up for the purpose of
+carrying a petition to London, and presenting it to the prince regent in
+person. The meeting was dispersed by the soldiers and police, after the
+riot act had been read, and a straggling crowd of some three hundred who
+began their pilgrimage, carrying blankets or overcoats, melted away by
+degrees before they had got far southward.
+
+[Pageheading: _SIDMOUTH'S UNPOPULARITY._]
+
+A far more serious outbreak at Manchester seems to have been clumsily
+planned soon afterwards, but it ended in nothing, and the enemies of the
+government freely attributed this and other projects of mob violence to
+the instigation of an _agent-provocateur_, well known as "Oliver the
+Spy". This man was also credited with the authorship of "the Derbyshire
+insurrection," for which three men were executed and many others
+transported. Here there can be no doubt that a formidable gang, armed
+with pikes, terrorised a large district, pressing operatives to join
+them in overt defiance of the law, and killing one who held back. Being
+confronted by a Nottinghamshire magistrate named Rolleston, with a small
+body of soldiers, they fled across the fields, and the bubble of
+rebellion burst at a touch. Whether they were legally guilty of high
+treason, for which they were unwisely tried, may perhaps be doubted, but
+it would certainly be no palliation of their crime if it could be shown,
+as it never was shown, that Oliver had led them to rely on a jacobin
+revolution in London. What does appear very clearly is that Sidmouth
+was greatly alarmed by the reports of his agents on the disturbed state
+of the country, but that he was highly conscientious in his instructions
+and in the use of his own powers. The great majority of those imprisoned
+for political offences at this time were liberated or acquitted, but the
+suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act was renewed at the beginning of
+July.
+
+Moreover, a circular was addressed by Sidmouth to the lords-lieutenant
+of counties, for the information of the magistrates, intimating that, in
+the opinion of the law officers, persons charged on oath with seditious
+libel might be apprehended and held to bail. No act of Sidmouth called
+forth such an outburst of reprobation as this; yet it is not
+self-evident that instigations to outrage, being criminal offences,
+should be treated by magistrates differently from other offences for
+which bail may be required, with the alternative of imprisonment. On the
+other hand, it is hardly becoming for a home secretary to interpret the
+law, and, since the forensic triumphs of Erskine, it had been declared
+by an act of parliament that in cases of libel, as distinct from all
+other criminal trials, both the law and the fact were within the
+province of the jury. At all events, William Cobbett, feeling himself to
+be at the mercy of informers and the crown, took refuge in America in
+December, 1817. Hone, an antiquarian bookseller, was thrice prosecuted
+for blasphemous libels, in which the ministers had been held up to
+contempt. All these ill-judged, if not vindictive, prosecutions ended in
+signal failure. Ellenborough, the chief justice, before whom the two
+last trials were held, strained his judicial authority to procure a
+conviction of Hone, but the prisoner, with a spirit worthy of a martyr,
+defied the intimidation of the court, and thrice carried the sympathies
+of the jury with him. His triple acquittal led to Ellenborough's
+resignation, and perceptibly shook the prestige of the government.
+
+In the year 1818 there was a temporary improvement in the economic
+condition of the country. The depression of the preceding year was
+followed in this year by a rapid increase of revenue. The importance the
+ministry attached to finance was emphasised by the admission to the
+cabinet in January of Frederick John Robinson, afterwards prime minister
+as Lord Goderich, who had been appointed president of the board of
+trade and treasurer of the navy. The chancellor of the exchequer and the
+master of the mint were already members of the cabinet. The suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act having expired, the reform agitation revived,
+but assumed a less dangerous character, and no serious outbreak
+occurred. A bill of indemnity was passed to cover any excesses of
+jurisdiction in arresting suspected persons or in suppressing tumultuous
+assemblies. A parliamentary inquiry showed both that the disorders of
+the previous year had been exaggerated, and that, after all, the
+extraordinary powers of the home office had been used with moderation.
+Nevertheless, the early part of the session was largely occupied by
+party debates on these questions, the employment of spies, and
+apprehensions for libel. Parliament was dissolved in June, and the
+general election which followed resulted in a gain of several seats to
+the opposition.[65] The ministry was strengthened in January, 1819, by
+the appointment of Wellington to be master-general of the ordnance, in
+succession to Mulgrave, who remained in the cabinet without office.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE "MANCHESTER MASSACRE"._]
+
+Before the end of the year 1818, a strike of Manchester cotton-spinners
+was attended by the usual incidents of brutal violence towards workmen
+who refused to join in it, but a few shots from the soldiers, one of
+which killed a rioter, proved effectual in quelling lawlessness.
+Manchester, however, remained the centre of agitation, and during the
+summer of 1819 a series of reform meetings held in other great towns
+culminated in a monster meeting originally convened for August 9, but
+postponed until the 16th. The history of this meeting ending in the
+so-called "Manchester" or "Peterloo massacre," has been strongly
+coloured by party spirit and sympathy with the victims of reckless
+demagogy no less than of blundering officialism. It is certain that
+drilling had been going on for some time among the multitudes invited to
+attend the meeting of the 9th; that its avowed object was to choose a
+"legislatorial representative," as Birmingham had already done, and
+that, on its being declared illegal by the municipal authorities, who
+declined to summon it on their own initiative, its organisers
+deliberately resolved to hold it a week later, whether it were legal or
+not.
+
+The contingents, which poured in by thousands from neighbouring towns,
+seem to have carried no arms but sticks, and to have conducted
+themselves peaceably when they arrived at St. Peter's Fields, where
+Orator Hunt, puffed up with silly vanity, was voted into the chair on a
+hustings. Unfortunately, instead of attempting to prevent the meeting,
+the county magistrates decided to let the great masses of people
+assemble, and then to arrest the leaders in the midst of them. They had
+at their disposal several companies of infantry, six troops of the 15th
+hussars, and a body of yeomanry, besides special constables. The chief
+constable, being ordered to arrest Hunt and his colleagues, declared
+that he could not do so without military aid, whereupon a small force of
+yeomanry advanced but soon became wedged up and enclosed by the densely
+packed crowd. One of the magistrates, fancying the yeomanry to be in
+imminent danger, of which there is no proof, called upon Colonel
+L'Estrange, who was in command of the soldiers, to rescue them and
+disperse the mob. Four troops of the hussars then made a dashing charge,
+supported by a few of the yeomanry; the people fled in wild confusion
+before them; some were cut down, more were trampled down, and an
+eye-witness describes "several mounds of human beings" as lying where
+they had fallen. Happily, the actual loss of life did not exceed five or
+six, but a much larger number was more or less wounded, the real havoc
+and bloodshed were inevitably exaggerated by rumour, and a bitter sense
+of resentment was implanted in the breasts of myriads, innocent of the
+slightest complicity with sedition, but impatient of oligarchical rule,
+and disgusted with so ruthless an interference with the right of public
+meeting.
+
+It would have been wise if Sidmouth and his colleagues had recognised
+this widespread feeling, had seen that famine and despair were at the
+bottom of popular discontent, and had admitted error of judgment, at
+least, on the part of the Lancashire magistrates. On the contrary, they
+felt it so necessary to support civil and military authority, at all
+hazards, that they induced the prince regent to express unqualified
+approbation of the course taken, and afterwards defended it without
+reserve in parliament. Even Eldon expressed his opinion privately that
+it would be hard to justify it, unless the assembly amounted to an act
+of treason, as he regarded it; whereas Hunt and his associates were
+prosecuted (and convicted in the next year) not for treason, but only
+for a misdemeanour. At all events, the storm of indignation excited by
+this sad event, and not confined to the working classes, powerfully
+fomented the reform movement. Large meetings were held over all the
+manufacturing districts, and a requisition to summon a great Yorkshire
+meeting was signed by Fitzwilliam, the lord-lieutenant, who attended it
+in person. For these acts he was properly dismissed, but, in spite of
+inflammatory speeches, nearly all the meetings passed off quietly and
+without interference. Nevertheless, the government thought it necessary
+to hold an autumn session, and strengthen the hands of the executive by
+fresh measures of repression. These having been passed in December after
+strenuous opposition, were afterwards known as the six acts, and
+regarded as the climax of Sidmouth's despotic _régime_.
+
+Two of the six acts, directed against the possession of arms and
+military training for unlawful purposes, cannot be considered oppressive
+under the circumstances then prevailing. Nor can exception be taken on
+the ground of principle to another for "preventing delay in the
+administration of justice in cases of misdemeanour," which, indeed, was
+amended, by Holland, with Eldon's consent, so as to benefit defendants
+in state prosecutions. Two were designed to curb still further the
+liberty of the press. One of these made the publication of seditious
+libels an offence punishable with banishment, and authorised the seizure
+of all unsold copies. When we consider the extreme virulence of
+seditious libels in those days, this act does not wear so monstrous an
+aspect as its radical opponents alleged, but happily it soon became a
+dead letter, and was repealed in 1830. The other, imposing a stamp-duty
+on small pamphlets, only placed them on the same footing with
+newspapers. The last of the new measures--"to prevent more effectually
+seditious meetings and assemblies"--was practically aimed against all
+large meetings, unless called by the highest authorities in counties and
+corporate towns, or, at least, five justices of the peace. It was,
+therefore, a grave encroachment on the right of public meeting, and the
+only excuse for it was that it was passed under the fear of a
+revolutionary movement, and limited in duration to a period of five
+years.
+
+[Pageheading: _SOCIAL LEGISLATION._]
+
+Nor can it be denied that, as a whole, this restrictive code was
+successful. From a modern point of view it may appear less arbitrary
+than the suspension of the _habeas corpus_ act for a whole year
+(1817-18), but it was assuredly tainted with a reactionary spirit, and
+was capable of being worked in a way inconsistent with civil liberty.
+That it was not so worked, on the whole, and caused less hardship than
+had been anticipated, was not so much the result of changes in the
+government itself, as of economic progress in the nation, aided by a
+healthier growth of public opinion. The violence which marked the early
+stages of the reform movement has been described as a safety-valve
+against anarchy; it was, in reality, the chief obstacle to a sound and
+comprehensive reform bill. While it lasted, the middle classes and
+liberals of moderate views were estranged from the cause; when it
+ceased, the demand for a new representative system became irresistible.
+
+Whatever allowance may be made for the coercive policy of the government
+during the dark period of storm and stress which succeeded the great
+war, it is hard to find any excuse for its neglect of social
+legislation. Then, if ever, was a time when the work of Pitt's best days
+should have been resumed, when real popular grievances should have been
+redressed, and when the long arrears of progressive reform should have
+been gradually redeemed. Yet very little was done to better the lot of
+men, women, and children in Great Britain, and that little was chiefly
+initiated by individuals. In 1816, on the motion of a private member, an
+inquiry was commenced into the state of the metropolitan police, which
+disclosed most scandalous abuses, such as the habitual association of
+thieves and thief-takers, encouraged by the grants of blood-money which
+had been continued since the days of Jonathan Wild. In 1817 a committee
+sanctioned by the ministers recommended a measure for the gradual
+abolition of sinecures, which then figured prominently in the domestic
+charter of reform. Their recommendations were adopted, and a large
+number of sinecure offices were swept away. But inasmuch as sinecures
+had been largely given to persons who had held public offices of
+business, it was thought necessary to institute pensions to an amount
+not exceeding one-half of the reduction. In 1816 a private member, named
+Curwen, brought forward a fanciful scheme of his own for the amendment
+of the poor laws, which in effect anticipated modern projects of old
+age pensions. He obtained the appointment of a select committee, which
+reported in 1817, but their proposals were thoroughly inadequate, and no
+sensible improvement came of them.
+
+It was also in 1816 that the cause of national education, the importance
+of which had been vainly urged by Whitbread, was taken up in earnest by
+Brougham. His motion for the appointment of a select committee was
+confined to the schools of the metropolis. It sat at intervals until
+1818, when its powers were enlarged, and its labours somewhat diverted
+into a searching exposure of mismanagement in endowed charities. The one
+direct fruit of the committee was the creation of the charity
+commission, but in the opinion of Brougham himself it was of the highest
+value in opening the whole education question. The almost universal
+prevalence of distress in 1817, and the excessive burden thrown upon
+poor rates, induced parliament to authorise an expenditure of £750,000
+in Great Britain and Ireland for the employment of the labouring poor on
+public works. A far sounder and more fruitful measure of relief owes its
+origin to the same year. It was now that the institution of savings
+banks, hitherto promoted only by single philanthropists, emerged from
+the experimental stage and claimed the attention of parliament. A bill
+for their regulation, introduced by Pitt's friend, George Rose, did not
+pass into an act; but the establishment of savings banks was now
+directly encouraged by the legislature, and there were thoughtful men
+who already dimly foresaw the manifold benefits of their future
+development.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CURRENCY QUESTION._]
+
+In the year 1819 was initiated a very important reform in the currency,
+which had long been delayed. When the bullion committee reported in
+1810, Bank of England notes were at a discount of about 13½ per cent.
+There were several reasons why this should be the case. Continental
+trade was then compelled to pass through British ports, and a large
+supply of gold was needed to serve as the medium of this trade. There
+was also a steady drain of gold to the Spanish peninsula to meet war
+expenses, while troubles in South America diminished the annual output
+of the precious metals. In 1811 Bank of England notes were made legal
+tender, but no further action was then taken, and the depreciation
+continued until 1814. The magnificent harvest of 1813, together with
+other causes, brought about a sudden fall of prices, in consequence of
+which no less than 240 country banks stopped payment in the years
+1814-16. The decrease and popular distrust of private banknotes produced
+an increased demand for Bank of England notes, which in 1817 had nearly
+risen in value to a par with gold. In 1819, when they were at a discount
+of only 4½ per cent., a committee was appointed by the house of
+commons to reconsider the policy of resuming cash payments, and Peel,
+young as he was, became its chairman. In this character he abandoned his
+preconceived views and induced the house to adopt those which had been
+advocated by Horner. It was not thought prudent to fix an earlier date
+than 1823 for the actual resumption of cash payments, but the directors
+of the Bank of England anticipated this date, and began to exchange
+notes for specie on May 1, 1821. The new standard was definitely one of
+gold. A considerable fall of prices ensued, and it is still a disputed
+question whether the return to a single standard was entirely
+beneficial.
+
+But for what is called the public, the readers of newspapers and the
+frequenters of clubs or taverns, the rivalry of party leaders or the
+incidents of court life excite a much keener interest than painful
+efforts for the good of the humbler classes. During the closing years of
+George III.'s reign there were no party conflicts of special intensity.
+The whigs acquiesced in their self-imposed exclusion from office, and
+contented themselves with damaging criticism; the radicals had not yet
+acquired the confidence or respect of the electors. Liverpool remained
+prime minister; Castlereagh, foreign secretary; Sidmouth, home
+secretary; Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer. Meanwhile there were
+startling vicissitudes in the fortunes of the royal family. The king,
+indeed, remained under the cloud of mental derangement which darkened
+the last ten years of his life, and the Princess of Wales, who had been
+the object of so much scandal, was now out of sight and residing abroad.
+The Princess Charlotte, however, the only daughter of the regent, had
+centred in herself the loyalty and hopes of the nation in a remarkable
+degree, and was credited, not unjustly, with private virtues and public
+sympathies contrasting strongly with the disposition of her father. Her
+marriage with Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who bore a high character,
+had been hailed with national enthusiasm, for it was known that, like
+Queen Victoria, she had been carefully trained and had disciplined
+herself, physically and morally, for the duties of a throne. It has been
+truly said that her death in childbirth, on November 6, was the great
+historical event of 1817. The prince regent, with his constitution
+weakened by dissipation, was not expected to survive her long, and so
+long as his wife lived there was no prospect of other legitimate issue,
+unless he could procure a divorce. There was no grandchild of George
+III. who could lawfully inherit the crown, and the apprehension of a
+collateral succession became more and more generally felt.[66]
+
+In the following year four royal marriages were announced. The Princess
+Elizabeth espoused the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg; the Duke of Clarence,
+the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen; the Duke of Cambridge, the
+Princess Augusta of Hesse; the Duke of Kent, the Princess Victoria Mary
+of Saxe-Coburg. The Duke of Sussex was already married, but not with the
+necessary consent of the crown, and the Duke of Cumberland was
+childless, having married three years earlier a divorced widow whom the
+queen, for private reasons, declined to receive. It is a striking proof
+of the discredit into which the royal family had fallen, since the old
+king virtually ceased to reign, that parliament, in spite of its
+anxiety about the succession, displayed an almost niggardly parsimony
+when it was moved to increase the allowances of the princes about to
+marry. No application was made on behalf of the Princess Elizabeth or
+the Duke of Sussex, who was already married morganatically. The
+additional grant of £6,000 a year asked on behalf of the Duke of
+Cumberland was refused by a small majority, partly, no doubt, because
+his anti-liberal opinions and untrustworthy character were no secret to
+public men. £10,000 a year was asked for the Duke of Clarence, and
+justified by Canning as less than he might fairly have claimed, but it
+was reduced to £6,000 and declined by the duke as inadequate; he
+afterwards married without a parliamentary grant. The provision of
+£6,000 a year for the Dukes of Cambridge and Kent respectively was
+stoutly opposed but ultimately carried. Of all George III.'s sons, the
+Duke of Kent was perhaps the most respected. It has been truly said that
+if the nation could have expressed its dearest wish, in the spirit of
+prophecy, after the death of the Princess Charlotte, it would have been
+that the issue of the Duke of Kent's marriage with Prince Leopold's
+sister might succeed, as Queen Victoria, to the crown of her
+grandfather.[67]
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF GEORGE III._]
+
+On November 17, 1818, Queen Charlotte died, having filled her great and
+most difficult position for nearly sixty years with sound judgment,
+exemplary moral integrity, and a certain homely dignity. The Duke of
+York succeeded her as guardian of the king's person. Little more than a
+year later she was followed to the grave by the Duke of Kent, who died
+on January 23, 1820, and by the king himself, who died on January 29, in
+the eighty-second year of his age. He was not a great sovereign, but, as
+a man, he was far superior to his two predecessors, and must ever stand
+high, if not highest, in the gallery of our kings. His venerable figure,
+though shrouded from view, was a chief mainstay of the monarchy. Narrow
+as his views were, and obstinately as he adhered to them, he was not
+incapable of changing them, and could show generosity towards enemies,
+as he ever showed fidelity to friends. His reception of Franklin after
+the American war, and of Fox after the death of Pitt, was that of a
+king who understood his kingly office; and his strict devotion to
+business, regardless of his own pleasure, could not have been exceeded
+by a merchant engrossed in lucrative trade. The many pithy and racy
+sayings recorded of him show an insight into men's characters and the
+realities of life not unworthy of Dr. Johnson. His simplicity,
+kindliness, and charity endeared him to his subjects. His undaunted
+courage and readiness to undertake sole responsibility, not only during
+the panics of the Gordon riots and of the impending French invasion, but
+in many a political crisis, compelled the respect of all his ministers,
+and his disappearance from the scenes, to make way for the regency of
+his eldest son, was almost as disastrous for English society as the
+exchange, in France, of Louis XIV.'s decorous rule for that of the
+Regent Orléans.
+
+The European concert which had been called into existence by the war
+against Napoleon, and had effected a continental settlement at Vienna,
+continued to act for the maintenance of peace. The treaty of alliance of
+1815 only bound the four powers to common action in the event of a fresh
+revolution in France which might endanger the tranquillity of other
+states. The holy alliance was more comprehensive and wider in its aims,
+but was too vague to form the practical basis of a federation. The
+settlement of Europe by the treaty of Vienna was, however, the work of
+all the powers, and they had therefore an interest in everything that
+might be likely to affect that settlement. The habit of concerted
+action, once formed, was not lightly abandoned, and the succeeding age
+was an age of congresses. But though there was a general sentiment in
+favour of concerted action it manifested itself in different ways. The
+causes of the recent struggle with France had been political in their
+origin, and it was agreed that a recurrence of disorder from France
+could be best prevented by the establishment of a government in that
+country which should be at once constitutional and legitimist. England
+favoured, and Russia, the most autocratic of states, favoured still more
+vehemently, the development of constitutions wherever it might be
+practicable, while Austria, being composed of territories with no
+national cohesion, endeavoured rather to thwart the growth of
+constitutions. But Russia was also the most active advocate of joint
+interference where a constitutional reform was effected by
+unconstitutional means. Great Britain and Austria, on the other hand,
+with a juster instinct, considered armed interference an extreme remedy
+which might often be worse than the disease of a revolution.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYALIST REACTION IN EUROPE._]
+
+The numerous restorations of 1814 and 1815 were followed by a royalist
+and aristocratic reaction in many countries of Europe. In France Louis
+XVIII. found himself confronted by an ultra-royalist chamber of deputies
+which clamoured for vengeance on the partisans of the republican and
+imperial _régimes_ and for the restoration of the privileges and estates
+of the Church. Ferdinand VII. of Spain swept away the unwieldy
+constitution of 1812 amid the rejoicings of his people, who little
+foresaw his future tyranny; and Great Britain did not venture to resist
+the action of Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies in abolishing a constitution
+which British influence had induced him to grant his island kingdom in
+1813. In Prussia the government dealt sternly with the liberal press,
+and the provincial estates opposed the institution of a national diet;
+while in Würtemberg a parliament assembled under a liberal constitution
+demanded the restoration of the ancient privileges of the nobility and
+clergy. In the Two Sicilies British influence, supported by that of
+Austria, was used to prevent outrages on the defeated party; in Spain
+the moderate counsels of Great Britain were less successful. Austria
+endeavoured to prevent future disturbance in the Italian peninsula by a
+secret treaty, which obtained the sanction of the British government,
+requiring the Two Sicilies to adopt no constitutional changes
+inconsistent with the principles adopted by Austria in the
+Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Similar treaties were concluded by Austria
+with Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and she thus gained an ascendency in
+Italy, from which only Sardinia and the papal states were exempt.
+Russian agents meanwhile began to conduct a liberal propaganda in Spain
+and Italy, and Russia was even credited with a desire to make a
+liberalised Spain a counterpoise to England on the sea.
+
+For a time, however, there were no European complications of a
+formidable nature. In 1816 a British squadron was sent out under Lord
+Exmouth lo execute the decree of the congress of Vienna against the
+Barbary states. The Dey of Algiers and the Beys of Tunis and Tripoli
+were called upon to recognise the Ionian Islands as British, to accept
+British mediation between them and the courts of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia, to restore their Christian captives, and not to authorise
+further piracy. These terms were accepted by the Beys of Tunis and
+Tripoli, and the two first demands were granted by the Dey of Algiers.
+He was allowed a delay of three months in order to obtain the sultan's
+permission for granting the remainder, but in the interval a massacre of
+Italian fishermen took place at Bona. Lord Exmouth now sailed from
+Gibraltar to attack Algiers. On his demands being again ignored, he
+bombarded that city on August 27 for more than six hours. The arsenal
+and storehouses and all the ships in the port were burned, and on the
+next day the dey accepted Exmouth's terms; peace was signed on the 30th,
+the principal terms being the abolition of Christian slavery, and the
+delivery of all slaves to Exmouth on the following day.
+
+The treaty of Vienna in placing the Ionian Islands under British
+protection had made no mention of the towns of Parga and Butrinto on the
+mainland of Epirus which had passed under British rule along with the
+islands. These places were now surrendered to Turkey in accordance with
+a former treaty, in return for the Turkish recognition of the British
+protectorate over the islands. The inhabitants of Parga were, however,
+vehemently opposed to such a transference of their allegiance, and they
+were conveyed to the Ionian Islands and compensated for the loss of
+their property. The Turks entered into occupation of Parga in 1819. In
+1817 and 1818 wild rumours of Russian aggression in the direction of the
+Mediterranean began to circulate in England. It was reported that Spain
+had promised to cede Port Mahon to Russia; and that Russia was preparing
+a great military force, to be employed, if necessary, in alliance with
+the Bourbon states, France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies, to counteract
+British and Austrian influence. This influence, with that of Prussia,
+had really been employed to keep the Dardanelles closed against Russian
+ships. Meanwhile Austria had won over Prussia to her conservative policy
+in Germany.
+
+The violent language of the liberal party, especially at the
+universities, already began to terrify the Prussian government. The
+first danger signal was given at the Wartburg festival of delegates from
+the German universities in 1817, at which the students indulged in some
+boyish manifestations of their sympathies; their proceedings made some
+stir in Germany, and Metternich declared that they were revolutionary.
+The horror of liberalism was destined to be heightened in 1819 by the
+murder of the tsar's agent, the dramatist Kotzebue, by a lunatic member
+of a political society at Giessen. Its immediate result was a conference
+of German ministers at Carlsbad, where several resolutions for the
+suppression of political agitation were passed, and afterwards adopted
+by the diet at Frankfort. This policy was embodied in the "final act" of
+a similar conference held at Vienna in the following year (1820), which
+empowered the greater states of Germany to aid the smaller in checking
+revolutionary movements. At the same time it reaffirmed the general
+principle of non-intervention, and even laid down the pregnant doctrine
+that constitutions could not be legitimately altered except by
+constitutional means. The union of Austria and Prussia on the
+conservative side had rather the effect of throwing the secondary states
+of southern Germany upon the liberal side. In the spring and summer of
+1818 Bavaria and Baden framed constitutions, and in 1819 Würtemberg once
+more essayed parliamentary government, which the reactionary policy of
+her first parliament had compelled her to abandon. The significant fact
+in European politics was that Frederick William III. of Prussia, always
+accustomed to being led, had passed from the influence of Russia to that
+of Austria.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONFERENCE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE._]
+
+Such were the general tendencies of European politics when the
+conference of Aix-la-Chapelle assembled on September 30, 1818. The
+primary object of this conference was to consider the request of France
+for a reduction in the indemnity demanded of her and for the evacuation
+of her territories by the four allied powers. Wellington and
+Castlereagh, who represented Great Britain, earned the gratitude of
+France by readily agreeing to these requests, which were granted without
+any difficulty. This question was obviously one which required such a
+conference to settle it; but the conference, having once assembled, was
+urged to deal with other difficulties that less directly concerned it.
+One of these was a dispute between Denmark and Sweden about the
+apportionment of the Danish debt, which, in consideration of the
+annexation of Norway to Sweden, under the treaty of Kiel, was to be
+partly borne by Sweden. Denmark appealed to the four powers,
+representing that treaty as in fact a part of their own settlement of
+Europe. Sweden would not admit the right of the powers to intervene, but
+finally settled her difficulty with Denmark by a separate negotiation
+conducted by the mediation of Great Britain in 1819.
+
+A still more doubtful question was raised by the request of Spain for
+the assistance of the allied powers against her revolted colonies. The
+Spanish dependencies in America had declined to acknowledge Joseph
+Bonaparte, and had lapsed into a state of chaos; the restoration of
+Ferdinand VII. had induced most of them to return to their allegiance,
+but the three south-eastern colonies, Banda Oriental (Uruguay), La Plata
+(the Argentine), and Paraguay, continued in revolt. In 1817 fortune
+turned still further against Spain; Monte Video, the capital of Banda
+Oriental, was taken by Portugal, or rather by Brazil, and Chile revolted
+against Spain. On February 12, 1818, Chile proclaimed her independence,
+and she began at once to procure warships in England and the United
+States, of which Lord Cochrane took command. The four allied powers and
+France had protested against the seizure of Monte Video, but otherwise
+Spain had been left to herself. Great Britain seemed to have more to
+gain than to lose by the insurrection. The revolted colonies were open
+to her commerce, and by weakening Spain they had strengthened the
+maritime supremacy of Great Britain. Nevertheless Great Britain was
+willing to mediate, on condition that Spain would make reasonable
+concessions. Spain, however, refused to make any concessions at all, and
+called on the allied powers to aid her in crushing the insurrection by
+force. Great Britain did not regard an unconditional subjection of the
+colonies as either expedient or practicable, and opposed this course;
+Austria took the same view, and thus placed intervention out of the
+question.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EUROPEAN ALLIANCE._]
+
+But the principal question before the conference of Aix-la-Chapelle was
+not one relating to any particular difficulty, but the permanent form of
+the European alliance. The tsar desired a general confederacy of
+European powers, such as had signed the treaty of Vienna and the holy
+alliance. This confederacy was to guard against two evils--that of
+revolutionary agitation and that of arbitrary administration and
+sectional alliances. Such a project, though doubtless proposed in good
+faith, practically gave Russia an interest in the domestic movements,
+both reactionary and constitutional, of every country, while it forbade
+any political combination to which Russia was not a party. Castlereagh
+agreed with Metternich in thinking that such an extension of Russian
+Influence was more to be dreaded than local disorder, and Great Britain
+and Austria proposed therefore that the alliance should be based on the
+treaty of Chaumont, as renewed at Vienna and Paris, though they were
+willing to have friendly discussions from time to time without extending
+the scope of the alliance. All parties desired to include France in
+their alliance, but the tsar pertinently objected that France could not
+be admitted to an alliance aimed solely against France. A compromise was
+therefore adopted. The quadruple alliance for war, in case of a
+revolution in France, was secretly renewed, and centres for mobilisation
+were fixed, while France was publicly invited to join the deliberations
+of the allied powers. A secret protocol was then signed providing for
+the meeting of congresses from time to time, and giving the minor
+European powers a place in these congresses when their affairs should be
+under discussion.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[64] For details of the riots see _Annual Register_, lviii. (1816),
+60-73. They were particularly numerous in May, 1816, and in the counties
+of Cambridge, Essex, and Suffolk. At Littleport in Cambridgeshire, on
+May 24, it was found necessary to fire on the rioters. Two men were
+killed and five were afterwards executed.
+
+[65] Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 2; Walpole, _History of England_, i., 392,
+393.
+
+[66] The curious may be interested in the following list of the names
+and ages of the persons who stood next in order of succession to the
+crown after the death of Princess Charlotte. It will be observed that of
+the fourteen who stood nearest the throne, not one was under forty years
+of age, and not one had a legitimate child:--
+
+ Age. Relation to king.
+ 1. George, Prince Regent 55 Son.
+ 2. Frederick, Duke of York 54 Son.
+ 3. William, Duke of Clarence 52 Son.
+ 4. Edward, Duke of Kent 50 Son.
+ 5. Ernest, Duke of Cumberland 46 Son.
+ 6. Augustus, Duke of Sussex 44 Son.
+ 7. Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge 43 Son.
+ 8. Charlotte, Queen-Dowager of Würtemberg 51 Daughter.
+ 9. Princess Augusta 48 Daughter.
+ 10. Princess Elizabeth 47 Daughter.
+ 11. Mary, Duchess of Gloucester 41 Daughter,
+ 12. Princess Sophia 40 Daughter.
+ 13. William, Duke of Gloucester 41 Nephew.
+ 14. Princess Sophia of Gloucester 44 Niece.
+ 15. Charles, Duke of Brunswick 13 Great nephew.
+
+[67] See, however, the _Creevey Papers_, i., 268-71, 284.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER IX.
+
+ THE LAST YEARS OF LORD LIVERPOOL.
+
+
+The only important events of domestic interest in the year 1820, after
+the death of George III., were the Cato Street conspiracy, and the
+so-called trial of Queen Caroline. For the accession of the king, who
+had so long exercised royal functions as regent, produced no visible
+effect either on the personal composition or on the general policy of
+the government. Immediately after his proclamation he was attacked by a
+dangerous illness, but on his recovery he promptly raised two questions
+which nearly involved a change of ministry. One of these was a proposal
+to increase his private revenue, which he was induced to abandon for the
+present. The other was a demand for a divorce, which the ministers
+firmly resisted, though they ultimately agreed to a compromise, under
+which the divorce question was to be deferred, so long as the queen
+remained quietly abroad, but action was to be taken in case she returned
+to assert her rights.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATO STREET CONSPIRACY._]
+
+In the midst of these difficulties the lives of the ministers were
+threatened by a plot somewhat like those of the seventeenth century.
+Later writers have represented it as contemptible in its conception, and
+as directly provoked by the "Manchester massacre". So it may be said
+that Guy Fawkes was an insignificant person, and that his employers were
+exasperated by the severe treatment of popish recusants. The facts are
+that Arthur Thistlewood, the author of the Cato Street conspiracy, was a
+well-known confederate of the Watsons and other members of the extreme
+reform party, and that his plan for murdering the assembled cabinet in a
+private house would probably have been effectual, had it not been
+detected by the aid of an informer. This informer, Edwards, had warned
+the authorities in November, 1819, of the impending stroke, and may or
+may not have instigated Thistlewood's gang to execute it at a moment and
+place well-calculated to secure their arrest. At all events twenty-four
+conspirators armed themselves in Cato Street, near the Edgware Road,
+London, for the purpose of assassinating the ministers at a cabinet
+dinner in Harrowby's house in Grosvenor Square, and some of their
+associates were posted near the door of that house to summon them when
+the guests should have assembled. Harrowby's dinner was of course put
+off, but the watchers were deceived by the arrival of carriages for a
+dinner party next door, and failed to apprise the gang in Cato Street.
+The police rushed in upon the gang, but a body of soldiers ordered to
+support them reached the spot too late, a policeman was stabbed, and
+Thistlewood, with twelve or fourteen others, contrived to escape. He was
+captured the next morning, and executed with four of his accomplices,
+five more were transported for life, and the atrocity of the enterprise
+was naturally treated in the king's speech as a justification for the
+repressive measures in operation. In the following April a petty
+outbreak in Scotland was easily put down by a few troops at a place
+called Bonnymuir. It was, however, preceded by a treasonable
+proclamation, which spread terror among the citizens of Glasgow for
+several hours, and was sufficiently like an attempt at armed rebellion
+to confirm the alarm excited by the Cato Street conspiracy. In the face
+of such warnings, the energy of the government in stamping out disorder
+could hardly be censured.
+
+The last parliament of George III. was prorogued on February 28, 1820,
+and dissolved on the following day. One of its last debates was on Lord
+John Russell's proposal to suspend the issue of writs to the boroughs of
+Grampound, Penryn, Barnstaple, and Camelford. This was carried in the
+house of commons, but lost in the house of lords. The new parliament was
+opened by George IV. in person on April 21. Widespread excitement
+occasioned by the question of the divorce prevented the business of the
+first session from attracting much attention. A deficit in the revenue,
+coinciding with growing expenditure, compelled Vansittart to fall back
+on a fresh manipulation of the sinking fund. One measure, however, of
+the highest importance was introduced by Brougham. The committee of 1814
+on national education had amassed a great body of valuable evidence,
+and he now founded upon its report a comprehensive bill extending to the
+whole country. It placed the management and teaching of elementary
+schools entirely in the hands of Churchmen, and was dropped after the
+first reading, but the conscience of the nation was roused by it, and it
+bore fruit later. Further slight mitigations of the criminal law were
+carried as a result of attacks made by Sir James Mackintosh, upon whom
+the mantle of Romilly had fallen, and it is worthy of notice that even
+Eldon, the stout opponent of such mitigations, condemned the use of
+spring-guns, as a safeguard against poaching. The only ministerial
+change in this year was the final retirement in May of Lord Mulgrave,
+who had held high office in every ministry except that of Grenville
+since 1804, and had voluntarily surrendered his post at the head of the
+ordnance in 1818 to make room for Wellington.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUEEN CAROLINE._]
+
+The "queen's trial," as it is erroneously called, was the last act but
+one in a domestic tragedy which had lasted twenty-five years. The
+Princess Caroline of Brunswick was a frivolous and ill-disciplined young
+woman when she was selected by George III. as a wife for the
+heir-apparent, already united and really attached to Mrs. Fitzherbert.
+The princess could not have been married to a man less capable of
+drawing out the better side of her character, nor was she one to inspire
+his selfish and heartless nature with a sentiment, if not of conjugal
+love, yet of conjugal friendship. From the first there was no pretence
+of affection between them. A few years after her marriage she was
+relegated, not unwillingly, to live independently at Blackheath, where
+many eminent men accepted her hospitality. During this period, as we
+have seen, a "delicate investigation" into her conduct was instituted in
+1806. Though she emerged from it with less stain on her character than
+had been expected, she never enjoyed the respect of the royal family or
+of the nation, and there was no question of her sharing the home of her
+husband. Instead of being a bond of concord between them, the education
+of her daughter was the subject of constant discord, requiring the
+frequent intervention of the old king until he lost his reason. After
+she went abroad in 1814, she travelled widely, but her English
+attendants soon retired from her service, and she incurred fresh
+suspicion by her flighty and undignified conduct. She had no part in the
+rejoicing for the marriage, or in the mourning for the death, of the
+Princess Charlotte; and in 1818 a secret commission, afterwards known as
+the Milan commission, was sent out by the prince regent to collect
+evidence for a divorce suit. Not only Liverpool, but Eldon, who had
+formerly stood her friend, concurred in the appointment of this
+commission, promoted by Sir John Leach, and its report was the
+foundation of the proceedings now taken against her.
+
+These proceedings were immediately due to her own action in returning to
+England in June, 1820, but this action was not wholly unprovoked. She
+had long and bitterly resented her official exclusion from foreign
+courts, and when, after the king's accession, her name was omitted from
+the prayer-book, she protested against it as an intolerable insult.
+Contrary to the advice of her wisest partisans, including Brougham, she
+persisted in braving the wrath of the king and throwing herself upon the
+people. She was received at Dover with acclamations from immense
+multitudes; and her journey to and through London was a continued
+ovation. Not that her innocence was established even in the popular
+mind, but that, innocent or guilty, she was regarded as a persecuted
+woman, and persecuted by a worthless husband. The ministry fulfilled its
+promise to the king by moving the house of lords to institute an inquiry
+into the queen's conduct. Pending this, conferences took place between
+Wellington and Castlereagh, on the part of the king, and Brougham and
+Denman on that of the queen. It was at once laid down as a preliminary
+basis of the negotiation that neither should the king be understood to
+retract, nor the queen to admit, any allegation against her. The points
+upon which she inflexibly insisted were, the recognition of her royal
+status at foreign courts, through an official introduction by the
+British ambassador, and the insertion of her name in the prayer-book.
+
+The house of commons, on the motion of Wilberforce, offered to protect
+her honour (whatever that might import) on condition of her waiving this
+last point, but she courteously declined its conciliatory proposals on
+June 22. On July 4 a secret committee of the house of lords recommended
+a solemn investigation, to be carried out "in the course of a
+legislative proceeding," and on the 8th Liverpool introduced a bill of
+pains and penalties, to deprive her of her title, and to dissolve her
+marriage. The second reading of this bill was formally set down for
+August 17, and for several weeks afterwards the house of lords was
+occupied in hearing evidence in support of the charges against her. The
+whole country was deluged with the squalid details of this evidence, the
+ministers were insulted, and the sympathy of the populace with her cause
+was obtrusively displayed in every part of the kingdom. On October 3,
+after an adjournment of the lords, Brougham opened the defence in the
+most celebrated of his speeches. On November 2 the lord chancellor,
+Eldon, moved the second reading of the bill, and on the 8th it was
+carried by a majority of twenty-eight. Four days later, on the third
+reading, the majority had dwindled to nine only. Knowing the temper of
+the house of commons, Liverpool treated such a victory as almost
+equivalent to a defeat, and announced that the government would not
+proceed further with the measure.
+
+Had the queen possessed the virtue of self-respect or dignity, she would
+have been satisfied with this legislative, though not morally decisive,
+acquittal. But she was intoxicated with popular applause, largely due to
+her royal consort's vices, and, after London had been illuminated for
+three nights in her honour, she declined overtures from the government,
+and appealed for a maintenance to the house of commons, which granted
+her an annuity of £50,000 in the next session. But she never lived to
+enjoy it After going in procession to St. Paul's, to return thanks for
+her deliverance, on the 29th, and vainly attempting, once more, to
+procure the mention of her name in the prayer-book, she concentrated her
+efforts on a claim of right to be crowned with the king. No government
+could have conceded this claim, and, when it had been refused by the
+privy council, her solemn protests were inevitably vain. Even her least
+prudent counsellors would assuredly have dissuaded her from the attempt
+which she made to force an entrance into Westminster Abbey on the
+coronation day, July 19, 1821. It was a painful scene when she, who had
+so lately been the idol of the fickle populace, was turned away from the
+doors amidst conflicting exclamations of derision and pity. A fortnight
+later, on August 2, she was officially reported to be seriously ill; on
+the 7th she was no more. In accordance with her own direction her body
+was buried at Brunswick. Her ill-founded popularity was shown for the
+last time, when a riotous multitude succeeded in diverting her funeral
+procession, and forcing it to pass through the city on its way to
+Harwich. But it did not survive her long; the people were becoming tired
+of her, and the king, who had forfeited the respect of the middle and
+upper classes, was less hated by the lower classes after her death.
+
+[Pageheading: _GEORGE IV. IN IRELAND._]
+
+The personal character and opinions of George IV. seem to have
+influenced politics less during the early years of his reign than during
+his long regency. His coronation was celebrated with unprecedented
+magnificence, and amidst external demonstrations of loyalty, hard to
+reconcile with the unbounded enthusiasm which the queen had so lately
+inspired. Soon afterwards, he sailed in his yacht from Portsmouth on a
+voyage to Ireland, but put into Holyhead and there awaited news of the
+queen's expected death. This reached him at last, and probably impressed
+him, no less than his ministers, as "the greatest of all possible
+deliverances, both to his majesty and the country".[68] He proceeded to
+Dublin in one of the earliest steam-packets, and secluded himself until
+"the corpse of his wife was supposed to have left England".[69] He then
+plunged into a round of festivities, and pleased all classes of Irishmen
+by his affable and condescending manners. He was, indeed, the first
+sovereign of England who had appeared in Ireland on a mission of peace.
+John William Ward, afterwards fourth Viscount Dudley in his letters,
+describes him as having behaved like a popular candidate on an
+electioneering trip, and surmises that "if the day before he left
+Ireland, he had stood for Dublin, he might have turned out Shaw or
+Grattan ".[70] Certain it is that his visit to Ireland was regarded as
+an important political event. The same kind of success attended his
+visit to Scotland in August of the following year, 1822. Thenceforth, he
+scarcely figures in political life until the resignation of Lord
+Liverpool in 1827, and though he consented with reluctance to Canning's
+tenure of the foreign office, he did not attempt to interfere with the
+change in foreign policy consequent upon it. He was, in fact, sinking
+more and more into an apathetic voluptuary; but he could rouse himself,
+and exhibit some proofs of ability, under the impulse of his brothers,
+the honest Duke of York and the arch-intriguer, the Duke of Cumberland.
+
+The cry for retrenchment, now taken up by the country gentlemen, and not
+unmingled with suggestions for a partial repudiation of the national
+debt, compelled the government to adopt a policy of strict economy.
+Accordingly, in 1822, Vansittart introduced a scheme for the conversion
+of the so-called "Navy 5 per cents.," which resulted in a saving of
+above £1,000,000 annually. He also carried a more questionable scheme
+for the payment of military, naval, and civil pensions, which then
+amounted to £4,900,000 a year, but were falling in rapidly; the money
+required for this purpose was to be borrowed by trustees, and was to be
+repaid in the course of forty-five years at the rate of £2,800,000 a
+year; in this way an immediate saving of about £2,000,000 annually was
+effected at the cost, however, of the next generation. By means of these
+expedients, with a considerable reduction of official salaries, the
+government was enabled to repeal the additional duty on malt, to
+diminish the duties on salt and leather, and, on the whole to remit
+about £3,500,000 of taxes. When the entire credit of financial reform is
+given to Huskisson, Joseph Hume, and other economists of the new school,
+it should not be forgotten that a beginning was made by economists of
+the old school, before Huskisson joined the government in 1823, or
+Robinson took Vansittart's place as chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+From the beginning of this reign a more enlightened spirit may be traced
+in parliamentary debates. This was aided by the growth of a
+constitutional movement in favour of reform in parliament as the first
+step towards a redress of grievances. The movement left its first trace
+on the statute-book in a measure carried by Lord John Russell in the
+session of 1821 for the disfranchisement of Grampound, though the vacant
+seats were transferred to the county of York, instead of to the
+"village" of Leeds or some other of the great unrepresented cities. This
+was the first instance of the actual disfranchisement of a constituency,
+though it was not without precedent that the franchise of a corrupt
+borough should be extended to the freeholders of the surrounding
+district. A notable sign of the progressive change was the
+reconstruction of the cabinet in 1822. Liverpool, who always possessed
+the gift of working harmoniously with colleagues of different views and
+felt the weakness of his present ministry, once more attempted to bring
+about a coalition with the Grenville party in the opposition. Grenville
+had long been drifting away from his alliance with Grey, and had been a
+stout advocate of repressive legislation which the more advanced whigs
+opposed. Though he declined office for himself, several of his relatives
+and adherents were rewarded with minor appointments, his cousin, Charles
+Wynn, became president of the board of control, in succession to
+Bragge-Bathurst, who had himself succeeded Canning in the previous year,
+and his nephew, the Marquis of Buckingham, obtained a dukedom. Such
+recruits added little strength to the Liverpool government, and Holland
+well said that "all articles are now to be had at low prices, except
+Grenvilles".
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CASTLEREAGH._]
+
+But Liverpool gained far more powerful coadjutors in the Marquis
+Wellesley, Peel, and Canning. In December, 1821, Wellesley undertook the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, which had relapsed into so disturbed a
+state that it had been proposed to make Wellington both viceroy and
+commander-in-chief. The significance of this selection was increased by
+the appointment of Plunket as attorney-general. Sidmouth, while
+retaining his seat in the cabinet, retired, by his own wish, from the
+office of home secretary, with a sense of having pacified the country,
+and was succeeded by Peel. Castlereagh, now Marquis of Londonderry,
+remained foreign secretary, but on August 12, 1822, as he was on the
+point of setting out for the congress of Verona, he died, like Whitbread
+and Romilly, by his own hand. His suicidal act was clearly due to a
+morbid fit of depression, under the stress of anxieties protracted over
+more than twenty years; and the disordered state of his mind had been
+observed, not only by Wellington, but also by the king. His successor
+was Canning, who also became leader of the house of commons.
+
+The characters and political aims of these rival statesmen have often
+been contrasted by historians of a later age, who have seldom done
+justice to Castlereagh. It is remembered that he was the author of the
+Walcheren expedition; it is forgotten that he was the advocate of
+sending a powerful force to the Baltic coast at the critical moment
+between Jena and Eylau, that he was not altogether responsible for the
+delays which rendered the Walcheren expedition abortive or for the
+choice of its incompetent commander, that his prime object was to strike
+a crushing blow at Napoleon's naval power, and that, if his
+instructions had been obeyed, this would have been effected by a rapid
+advance upon Antwerp when nearly all the French troops had been
+withdrawn from the Netherlands. It is remembered that he was at the war
+office when the operations of Wellington in the Peninsula were crippled
+for want of supplies; it is forgotten that it was he who selected
+Wellington, and that he loyally strained every nerve to keep him
+supplied with troops, provisions, and specie, when few but himself
+believed in the policy of the Peninsular war, and Sir John Moore had
+assured him that if the French dominated Spain, they could not be
+resisted in Portugal. It is remembered--or rather it is assumed--that he
+was the eager promoter of coercive and reactionary legislation at home;
+it is forgotten, or ignored, that he was among the earliest and
+staunchest advocates of catholic emancipation, and that a despotic
+temper is belied by the whole tone of his speeches. Above all, he is
+unjustly credited, in the face of direct evidence to the contrary, with
+being the champion of absolutism in the councils of Europe, the fact
+being not only that his voice was always on the side of moderation and
+conciliation, but that Canning himself, on succeeding him, dissociated
+Great Britain from the holy alliance by taking his stand upon an
+admirable despatch of Castlereagh and adopting it as his own. When he
+met with his tragical end, the brutal shouts of exultation raised by a
+portion of the crowd at his funeral were the expression of sheer
+ignorance and not of intelligent public opinion. He was a tory, in days
+when most patriots were tories, but he was a tory of the best type; and
+we of a later generation can see that few statesmen of George III.'s
+reign have left a purer reputation or rendered greater services to their
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING AND PEEL._]
+
+George Canning, his successor, has been far more favourably judged by
+posterity, and not without reason, if intellectual brilliancy is a
+supreme test of political merit. A firm adherent of Pitt, and a somewhat
+unscrupulous critic of Addington, he was probably the first
+parliamentary orator of the nineteenth century, with the possible
+exception of Sheridan. Pitt's eloquence was of a loftier and simpler
+type, Fox's was more impetuous and spontaneous; Peel's range of
+political knowledge was far wider; Gladstone excelled all, not only in
+length of experience but in readiness and dialectical resource.
+Canning's rhetoric was of a finer quality and was combined with great
+debating power, but he was a man to inspire admiration rather than
+confidence, and had not held one of the higher political offices since
+his resignation in 1809, after his quarrel with Castlereagh. He accepted
+a mission to Portugal, however, and was in Lisbon when Napoleon returned
+from Elba. In 1816, as has been seen, he became president of the board
+of control, but, having been formerly one of the queen's advisers, he
+declined to have anything to do with her trial and remained abroad
+during its continuance. In December, 1820, he returned, but persisted in
+resigning his place at the board of control on the supposed ground that
+further parliamentary discussion of the queen's case was inevitable. On
+this occasion he received a special vote of thanks from the directors of
+the East India Company for his services on the board. The king objected
+to his readmission after the queen's death, and he was a private member
+of parliament when he was offered and undertook the governor-generalship
+of India in March, 1822. But his departure was delayed until August, and
+he was on his way to bid farewell to his constituents at Liverpool when
+Castlereagh destroyed himself. It was generally felt that no other man
+was so well qualified as Canning to succeed him. But the king declared
+his "final and unalterable decision" to sanction no such change. Though
+he afterwards relented, on the remonstrances of Wellington, he did so
+with a bad grace; but there was no delay on Canning's part in accepting
+the foreign secretaryship thus offered. From his acceptance may be dated
+the most remarkable part of his career.
+
+The accession of Peel to the Liverpool ministry, in the capacity of home
+secretary; was only less important than that of Canning. Hitherto, Peel
+had mostly been known to the British public as chief secretary for
+Ireland, and as chairman of the committee which, in 1819, recommended
+the early resumption of cash payments. In both these posts he displayed
+a certain moderation and independence of mind, combined with a rare
+capacity for business, which marked him out as a great administrator.
+This promise he amply fulfilled as home secretary. He was the first
+minister of the crown who took up the philanthropic work of Romilly and
+Mackintosh, largely reducing the number of offences for which capital
+punishment could be inflicted. He was also the first to reform the
+police system of London, and to substitute for a multitude of decrepit
+watchmen, incapable of dealing with gangs of active criminals, a
+disciplined body of stalwart constables, which has since been copied in
+every county and large town of Great Britain. Above all, while he cannot
+be said to have shown a statesmanlike insight or foresight of the
+highest order, he could read the signs of the times and the temper of
+his countrymen with a sagacity far beyond that of his predecessor,
+Sidmouth, or of such politicians as Eldon and Castlereagh. In him was
+represented the domestic policy of Pitt in his earlier days, as Pitt's
+financial views were represented in Huskisson, who had actually served
+under him.
+
+Though Huskisson was only made president of the board of trade, in
+January, 1823, and not chancellor of the exchequer, it is certain that
+his mind controlled that of Robinson, who succeeded Vansittart in that
+position. Vansittart, who was created Lord Bexley, succeeded
+Bragge-Bathurst as chancellor of the duchy. The cabinet changes were
+completed in October by the removal of Wellesley Pole, now Lord
+Maryborough, from the office of master of the mint. Huskisson, if any
+man, was the leading pioneer of free trade, and there can be little
+doubt that, had he not died prematurely, its adoption would have been
+hastened by ten or fifteen years. In his first year of office he
+welcomed petitions for the repeal of the import duties on foreign wool,
+but failed to convince the wool manufacturers that it must be
+accompanied by the abolition of export duties on British wool. The
+proposed reform was, therefore, dropped, and a like fate befell his
+attempt in the same year to benefit the silk trade by abolishing certain
+vexatious restrictions upon it, including the practice of fixing the
+wages of Spitalfields weavers by an order of the magistrates. For the
+moment the ignorant outcry of the journeymen themselves prevailed over
+their real interests, but in the following year, 1824, Huskisson carried
+a much wider measure, providing that foreign silks, hitherto excluded,
+should be admitted subject to a duty of 30 per cent. in and after 1826,
+and another measure for the joint relief of wool growers and wool
+manufacturers which imposed a small duty of equal amount on the
+importation and the exportation of wool.
+
+His great achievement in 1823 was the reform of the navigation laws.
+These acts, dating from the commonwealth and the restoration, gave
+British shipowners a qualified monopoly of the carrying trade, since
+they prohibited the importation of European goods except in British
+ships or ships of the producing country, while the importation of goods
+from other quarters of the world was confined to British ships only.
+America had protested against this exclusive system, and it was
+abandoned, as regards the United States, by the treaty of Ghent in 1814.
+The mercantile states of Europe soon followed the example of America,
+and the reciprocity of duties bill, introduced by Huskisson on June 6,
+1823, conceded equal rights to all countries reciprocating the
+concession, only retaining the exclusion against such countries as might
+reject equality of trade. The change involved some hardship to
+shipowners who had built their vessels with timber bought at prices
+raised by heavy duties, but they were too shortsighted to accept the
+compromise offered by Huskisson. Before long, however, the act was
+justified, and the shipowners compensated by a rapid increase in British
+shipping.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGRICULTURAL DISCONTENT._]
+
+For nearly five years after the accession of George IV. the state of the
+country was, on the whole, more prosperous, and the industrial classes
+were more contented, than in the five years next preceding. Such
+restlessness as there was prevailed among farmers and agricultural
+labourers rather than among workmen in the manufacturing districts, and
+in 1823 every branch of manufactures was reported to be flourishing. It
+is difficult for a later generation, accustomed to consider 30s. a
+quarter a fair price for wheat, to understand the perennial complaints
+and petitions of the agricultural interest when 60s. a quarter was
+regarded as a low price for wheat, and the cultivation of wheat extended
+over a vastly larger area than it does at present. Nor is the difficulty
+lessened, when we remember the miserably low rate of wages then paid by
+farmers. A partial explanation may be found in the fact that what they
+saved in wages they lost in poor rates, and that most agricultural
+products except corn were sold at a very small profit. The high poor
+rates were the result of the disastrous system of giving allowances to
+labourers.
+
+But there were other evils caused by the vicious policy pursued by the
+government. The encouragement of home production had led to the
+enclosure of land not fit for cultivation, so that a slight fall in
+prices meant ruin to many farmers. Moreover, the corn laws, though
+framed for the purpose of arresting fluctuations in price, actually
+increased fluctuations and thus enhanced the risks attending
+agricultural enterprise. Nor were landlords who had thriven on war
+prices, and raised the scale of their establishments as if these prices
+were to be perpetual, willing to reduce their rents on the return of
+peace. Rent was said to have risen 70 per cent. since 1792; but the
+landlords were often embarrassed, because their lands had too often been
+burdened with jointures, settlements, and mortgages during the war. It
+was in their interest that the act of 1815, which aimed at maintaining
+war prices, had been passed. But the deeper reason for all this clamour
+from the rural districts was the stagnation of ideas, and incapacity of
+improvement, engendered by an artificial monopoly of the national food
+supply. This was not the special lesson impressed upon landlords or
+tenants by Cobbett, whose violent and delusive writings had a large
+circulation in the country. But his teaching was so far beneficial that
+it quickened the demand for parliamentary reform, though the fruits of
+that reform were destined to be very different from the expectations
+which he excited.
+
+[Pageheading: _SPECULATIVE FRENZY._]
+
+The spell of general prosperity which, in spite of some distress in the
+rural districts, prevailed in the years 1820-23 was somewhat broken in
+1824 by strikes and outrages in the manufacturing districts. Strikes for
+higher wages naturally arose out of the increase in mill owners'
+profits, and the ferocious spirit displayed by the strikers against
+masters and fellow-workmen was attributed by reformers to the one-sided
+operation of the combination laws. Accordingly, a committee of the house
+of commons reported in favour of repealing these laws, and also part of
+the common law which treated coercion either by trade unions or by
+masters as conspiracy. A bill founded on this report was hastily passed,
+with the natural result that strikes broke out in every quarter of the
+country; wholesale and cruel oppression was practised by trade
+unionists, and it became necessary for parliament to retrace its steps.
+Under a new act, passed in 1825, which continued in force until very
+recent times, trade unions were recognised as legal, but their worst
+malpractices were once more brought within the control of the criminal
+law.[71] So far the commercial policy of Huskisson was justified, as a
+whole, by its effects on trade, and the session of 1824 was closed on
+June 25 by a cheerful speech from the king, in which the disturbed state
+of Ireland was the only topic suggestive of anxiety. Already, however,
+the revival of commercial hopefulness at home, with the opening of new
+markets in South America, was paving the way for the most ruinous mania
+of speculation known in England since the south sea bubble. It was well
+that sound and sober-minded economists now guided the action of the
+government, and that Liverpool proved himself a worthy successor of Sir
+Robert Walpole during the great financial crisis of 1825.[72]
+
+The speculative frenzy of 1825 differed from the railway mania of the
+next generation in that it had no solid basis of remunerative
+investment. The development of the railway system, after the application
+of locomotive steam engines to iron tramways, offered a legitimate
+promise of large profits, and this promise would have been still more
+amply realised but for the shameful waste of capital on competition and
+law expenses. It was otherwise with the dupes and victims of the rage
+for speculation which possessed all classes of society in 1825, and
+arose out of an immense accumulation of wealth for which no safe
+employment could be found at home except at a modest rate of interest.
+The weakening of the hold of Spain on South America left her colonies
+open to foreign trade, but the enterprises there and elsewhere which
+absorbed the hard-won savings of humble families, by thousands and tens
+of thousands, were nearly all chimerical, and some of them grotesque in
+their absurdity. Whether or not warming-pans and skates were actually
+exported to the tropics, it is certain that Scotch dairy-women emigrated
+to Buenos Ayres for the purpose of milking wild cows and churning butter
+for people who preferred oil. The incredible multiplication of
+bubble-companies was facilitated by a marvellous cheapness of money,
+largely due to an inordinate issue of notes by country bankers, and even
+by the Bank of England, in spite of the fact that gold and silver were
+known to be leaving the country in vast quantities, especially in the
+shape of loans to France. The inevitable reaction came when the Bank of
+England contracted its issue of notes in order to arrest the drain of
+gold; goods recklessly bought up had to be sold at a fearful loss, bills
+upon which advances had been made proved to be of no value, and several
+great London banking houses stopped payment, bringing down in their fall
+a much larger number of country banks dependent on them.
+
+In the month of December, 1825, the crisis was at its height, and it is
+stated that within six or seven weeks after the failure of the banking
+firm of Pole & Company on the 5th, sixty or seventy banks had broken.
+The king's speech in July had congratulated parliament on increasing
+prosperity and had betrayed no misgivings about its stability. When the
+crash came, however, the ministers showed no want of firmness or
+resource. They could not repair the consequences of national folly, but
+they devoted themselves with intelligence to a restoration of credit.
+For this purpose they suppressed at once the further issue of small
+notes from country banks by a high-handed act of authority, for which
+they admitted that an act of indemnity might be needed. At the same time
+they rapidly increased the supply of small notes from the Bank of
+England, and of coin from the mint. Moreover, they induced the Bank of
+England to establish branches in a few provincial towns and to make
+advances upon merchants' goods to the amount of three millions. It cost
+a greater effort to break down the monopoly of the Bank of England by
+legalising joint-stock banks in the provinces, though not within a
+distance of sixty-five miles from London. Such practical expedients as
+these, seconded by the good sense of the mercantile community, proved
+sufficient to avert a catastrophe only less disastrous than national
+bankruptcy. With the subsidence of alarm, the causes of alarm also
+subsided, the recuperative powers of the country reasserted themselves,
+as during the great war, and the heart-breaking anxieties of 1825-26
+were ignored, if not forgotten, in the political excitement of 1827.[73]
+
+[Pageheading: _ECONOMIC REFORM._]
+
+The budgets of 1823-26 indeed mark a memorable advance in financial
+reform, which the commercial panic of 1825 scarcely interrupted. There
+had been a reduction of the national debt by about £25,000,000. "The
+poorer householders had been relieved from the pressure both of house
+tax and window tax. The manufacturing classes had been encouraged by
+the reduction of the duties on silk, wool, and iron. The consuming
+classes had been benefited by the reduction of duties on spirits, wines,
+coffee, and sugar."[74] Owing to Huskisson's enlightened policy the old
+navigation laws had been repealed upon the condition of reciprocity; the
+combination laws had been liberally revised; various bounties had been
+abandoned on free trade principles, and the monstrous evils of smuggling
+had been greatly abated. If the chancellor of the exchequer could show
+no surplus in 1826, he could at least boast that after so desperate a
+crisis there was no deficit, and he had no reason to be ashamed of
+Cobbett's nickname, "Prosperity Robinson," which he owed to his
+optimism, largely founded upon facts. Before the close of the year 1826,
+however, this optimism received a rude shock. The agitation against the
+corn laws assumed an acuter form than ever, and Huskisson prudently
+deprecated it on the simple ground that no effective action could be
+taken in an expiring parliament. Distress had recurred in the
+manufacturing districts; mills and power-looms were again destroyed. The
+free trade policy of Huskisson was vigorously attacked in parliament,
+but it was successfully defended in powerful speeches by Canning as well
+as by himself. Ultimately the government, having obtained limited powers
+from parliament to admit foreign corn during the temporary emergency,
+had the courage to exceed those powers and seek an indemnity from the
+next parliament.
+
+The dissolution of 1826, closing the life of one of the longest
+parliaments in modern times, was the prelude to a very eventful year.
+The general election brought into prominence the two burning questions
+of catholic relief and the corn laws, and unseated for the moment
+Brougham, Cobbett, Hunt, and Lord John Russell, but it produced no
+material change in the balance of parties. Little was done in the short
+autumn session, but when parliament met again early in February, 1827,
+great events had already cast their shadows before. The Duke of York,
+heir-presumptive to the crown, had died on January 5. He was known to be
+a strong tory in politics, but, in spite of this, and of the scandals
+which attached to his name in earlier years, he enjoyed a considerable
+share of popular confidence. Compared with his elder brother, he was
+respected; he was a true Englishman, like his father, whom he resembled
+in character; his administration of the army had survived hostile
+criticism, while a declaration which he had recently made against
+catholic emancipation had produced a profound impression on public
+opinion. Much less was known of the Duke of Clarence, who stood next in
+succession. He had already injured himself in public estimation by
+declining the increased allowance offered him, and then claiming it with
+arrears; nor did he now improve his position in the eyes of his future
+subjects by stickling for a larger addition to it than parliament was
+disposed to grant. But the Duke of York's death was followed by a far
+more important incident. Liverpool was disabled by illness from
+attending his funeral, which, occurring in the depth of winter, proved
+directly fatal to one of those who were present, and seriously weakened
+the constitutions of others, including Canning. On February 8, the first
+day of the session, Liverpool was in his place, though in broken health,
+and on the 17th he took a feeble part in the debate on the grant to the
+Duke of Clarence. On the following morning he was struck down by a
+paralytic seizure, and, though his life was prolonged for two years, he
+never recovered the use of his faculties.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLOSE OF LIVERPOOL'S MINISTRY._]
+
+Liverpool's disappearance from the political scenes may be said to mark
+an epoch in the later history of England. Though only fifty-six years of
+age, he had been continuously in office for twenty years, and prime
+minister for fifteen, a tenure of power which none of his predecessors
+had exceeded except Walpole and Pitt. His lot was cast in the most
+critical period of the great war, and in the long night of adversity and
+anxiety which ushered in the "thirty years' peace". As foreign secretary
+he conducted the negotiations for the peace of Amiens; as home secretary
+he led the house of lords and was responsible for the government of
+Ireland; as secretary for war and the colonies he gave Wellington a
+steady, if not ardent, support in those apparently barren campaigns
+which strained the national patience; as prime minister he guided the
+ship of state in all the difficulties of foreign and domestic affairs
+which arose between 1812 and 1827. Castlereagh may have been the most
+influential minister in the earlier years of his administration, and
+Canning in the later, but he was never the mere tool of either; on the
+contrary, it Is certain that he was treated with respect and deference
+by all his numerous colleagues. In general capacity and debating power
+he was inferior to few of them; in temper, judgment, and experience he
+was superior to all.
+
+He may be said to have lived and died without "a policy," in so far as
+he forebore to identify himself with any of the great questions then
+pressing for solution. His real policy both at home and abroad was one
+of moderation and conciliation; he looked at party divisions almost with
+the eyes of a permanent official who can work loyally with chiefs of
+either party; and he succeeded in keeping together in his cabinet
+ambitious rivals who never would have co-operated under any other
+leader. This is not the road to fame, neither is it the course which men
+of imperious character like Castlereagh, or Canning, or Wellington, in
+his place, would have adopted. But Canning and Wellington actually
+proved themselves incapable of winning the confidence which Liverpool so
+long retained, and the whig government which followed them fell to
+pieces in two years. Moderation in statesmanship does not always imply
+mediocrity of ability; and if Liverpool failed to see how many
+institutions needed radical amendment, he was not so blind as some of
+his more celebrated associates. Not only was he more liberal in his
+views than Eldon and Castlereagh, but he was less opposed to free trade
+than most of his cabinet, to parliamentary reform than Canning, and to
+catholic emancipation than Wellington or Peel. His fault was that he did
+not act upon his own inward convictions with sufficient promptitude, or
+assert his own authority with sufficient energy. Had he done so, the
+beneficial measures of the last years of his administration might have
+been anticipated, and the country might have been spared much of the
+misery which darkened the close of George III.'s reign.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[68] Lord Londonderry in Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 432.
+
+[69] Harriet Martineau, _History of England During the Thirty Years'
+Peace_, i., 274.
+
+[70] _Letters to Copleston_, p. 295.
+
+[71] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_ (edit. 1903), pp. 756-59. Compare Dicey, _Law and Opinion in
+England_, pp. 190-200.
+
+[72] The graphic description of this crisis in Harriet Martineau's
+_History of the Thirty Years' Peace_, i., 355-66, deserves to be studied
+and remembered as a masterpiece of social portraiture by a contemporary.
+
+[73] Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern
+Times_, p. 823.
+
+[74] Walpole's _History of England_, vol. ii., p. 187.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER X.
+
+ PROBLEMS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE.
+
+
+The events of the year 1820 subjected the European concert to a severe
+strain. An insurrection broke out in Spain on January 1, and on March 9
+the king was forced to swear fidelity to the obsolete constitution of
+1812. The result was to plunge the country into disorder, as both the
+clerical party and the extreme revolutionists refused to accept the
+constitution. Meanwhile the assassination by a working man of the Duke
+of Berry, who died on February 14, 1820, had occasioned a new royalist
+reaction in France, and had increased the general fear of the
+revolutionary party. The Bourbon succession had seemed to depend on his
+life, for his son, the Count of Chambord, was posthumous. On receiving
+the news of the Spanish revolution the tsar, already tiring of his
+liberal enthusiasm, fell back on his scheme for exercising paternal
+discipline over Europe. He proposed in April that the ambassadors at
+Paris should issue a joint remonstrance requiring the Spanish cortes to
+disavow the revolution, and to enact severe laws against sedition.
+Failing this, he proposed joint intervention, and offered for his own
+part to send an army of 15,000 men through North Italy and southern
+France to co-operate in the suppression of the revolution. To this
+Castlereagh replied that England would never consent to a joint
+intervention in Spain. Metternich was too much displeased with the
+Russian encouragement of secret societies in Italy to wish to see
+Russian troops in that country, and both Castlereagh and Metternich
+wished to keep Spain free from French influence. In the face of this
+opposition Russia could not, and France would not, do anything, and all
+thought of intervention was postponed. It was the last time that
+Castlereagh was able to assert the principle of non-intervention
+without breaking up the European concert.
+
+[Pageheading: _REVOLUTIONS IN SOUTHERN EUROPE._]
+
+July and August saw three new revolutions. A rebellion at Nola on July 2
+ended in King Ferdinand of the Two Sicilies taking the oath on the 13th
+to the Spanish constitution, then regarded as a model by the liberals of
+Southern Europe. But the grant of a constitution to Naples suggested a
+demand for independence at Palermo. On July 17-18 that city rose in
+revolt and was only subdued by the Neapolitans in the beginning of
+October. Portugal, too, was in a disturbed state. The royal family had
+been absent for nearly thirteen years, and the country had for five
+years been governed by Lord, afterwards Viscount, Beresford as marshal
+and commander of the Portuguese army. In April, 1820, he sailed for
+Brazil, intending to induce the king, John VI., to return. During his
+absence a revolution took place at Oporto on August 24, a provisional
+government was established, and all British officers were dismissed.
+This was followed by a similar revolution at Lisbon on September 15.
+Beresford on his return was forbidden to land, and retired to England.
+On November 11, the Spanish constitution was proclaimed in Portugal, but
+six days later another proclamation left the question of determining the
+constitution to the cortes which were to be elected on a popular
+suffrage.
+
+The Neapolitan revolution raised at once the question of intervention.
+In this case Castlereagh held that Austria had a right to interfere,
+because her position as an Italian power was endangered by the
+revolution, and because the revolution was a breach of the secret treaty
+of 1815 which had received the sanction of the British government. He
+still objected to any joint interference and was opposed to the
+reference of the question to a congress. Austria could not have
+interfered alone without offending the tsar, who clung to the principle
+of joint action. The question of intervention was therefore postponed
+for the present. France, however, being jealous of Austrian influence in
+Italy, demanded the meeting of a congress, and such a meeting was
+accordingly held at Troppau on October 20. To this congress Austria,
+France, Prussia, and Russia sent plenipotentiaries. Great Britain
+carried her opposition to joint interference so far as to refuse to join
+in the deliberations, though Sir Charles, now Lord, Stewart was sent to
+Troppau to watch the proceedings. Metternich, on finding that he could
+not avoid the meeting of a congress, determined to lead its proceedings,
+and, before it met, drew up a memorandum defining his own views about
+intervention. These views were accepted at the congress by Prussia and
+Russia as well as by Austria; and a protocol was issued by the three
+powers declaring that a state in which a revolution should occur was
+dangerous to other states, and ceased to be a member of the European
+alliance, until it could give guarantees for its future stability. If
+such a revolution placed other states in immediate danger, the allied
+powers were bound to intervene by peaceful means, if possible, or if
+need were, by arms. Before parting, the congress invited Ferdinand of
+the Two Sicilies to attend an adjourned meeting, to assemble early in
+the following year at Laibach.[75] Against these decisions Castlereagh
+protested in vigorous terms, and more especially against any possible
+application of the principle of intervention to England; France under
+the Duke of Richelieu joined in neither the protocol nor the protest.
+The liberal tendencies of the tsar had been quenched by recent events,
+so that, instead of a concert of Europe, there was left only a concert
+of absolute monarchs.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRIAN INTERVENTION._]
+
+In January, 1821, the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia met the
+King of the Two Sicilies at Laibach. France had vainly attempted to
+mediate between the King of the Two Sicilies and his people. But the
+Neapolitans were not satisfied with any vague promise of a constitution,
+and before allowing their king to depart for Laibach, held him pledged
+to the observance of an impossible condition, the maintenance of the
+Spanish constitution of 1812. The king's oath to preserve this
+particularly objectionable constitution was regarded by Austria as
+sufficient to preclude negotiation, and it was resolved that she should
+restore him by force as an absolute monarch, and should occupy the
+Neapolitan territory. The duration of this occupation was reserved as a
+question to be discussed at the next European congress, which it was
+intended to hold at Florence in the autumn of the next year. After a
+show of resistance at Rieti the Neapolitans submitted, and the Austrian
+army entered Naples on March 24. The restoration of absolute government
+was accompanied by severities towards the constitutionalists, but
+Austria would not allow any repetition of the bloodshed of 1799.
+
+While the Austrian army was marching southwards, a new revolution broke
+out in Piedmont. The Spanish constitution was proclaimed at Alessandria
+on March 10, and at Turin on the 12th. On the 13th, Victor Emmanuel I.,
+King of Sardinia, abdicated, appointing as regent his distant cousin
+Prince Charles Albert of Carignano, who had been in communication with
+the revolutionary party. The regent immediately accepted the Spanish
+constitution on condition of the maintenance of the line of succession
+and of the Roman catholic religion. The new king, Charles Felix, was at
+Modena when the revolt occurred. He refused to acknowledge the new
+constitution, and ordered Charles Albert to betake himself to Novara,
+where the royalist troops were collecting. On the night of the 21st,
+Charles Albert fled from Turin to Novara, but the constitutional party
+did not submit without a struggle. On April 8 the Austrians crossed the
+frontier and, uniting with the royalists, defeated the constitutionalists
+at Novara. Two days later the royalist army entered Turin. The two
+Italian revolutions had thus ended in an Austrian occupation of the two
+largest Italian states which were not ruled by members of the imperial
+house. The Papal States were now the only Italian principality of any
+size which was not dominated by Austria.
+
+So far Austria had been sufficiently powerful in the congresses of the
+powers to be able to prevent interference with other states where it was
+not to her interest, and to incline the balance in favour of it where
+intervention would strengthen her. The reopening of the Eastern question
+made her ascendency more difficult to maintain. The congress of Laibach
+had been closed, but the sovereigns had not yet departed, when the news
+arrived that a revolt, engineered by Greeks with the pretence of Russian
+support, had broken out against the Turks in Moldavia and Wallachia.
+Russia at once agreed with Austria that the principle laid down at
+Troppau applied to this revolt; the insurrectionary leaders were
+disowned by Russia, and by the end of June Turkish authority was
+restored in the Danubian principalities. So far the action of Russia had
+met with the approval not only of Austria but of Great Britain, and
+Castlereagh had written to Alexander urging him not to join the Greek
+cause, which appeared to him to be part of an universal revolutionary
+movement.
+
+Early in April, however, a more serious insurrection broke out in the
+Morea, and was followed a few weeks later by one in Central Greece. The
+war was disgraced from the first by inhuman massacres on both sides. The
+Greek patriarch at Constantinople together with three archbishops was
+executed by the Turks on Easter Sunday, April 22. A great ferment in
+Russia was the result, where the people were anxious to assist their
+co-religionists and to avenge the death of the patriarch, whom they
+regarded as a martyr. The grievances of the Orthodox religion were
+seconded by the proper grievances of Russia. Greek ships, sailing under
+the Russian flag, had been seized in the Dardanelles; the principalities
+of Moldavia and Wallachia had not been evacuated by the Turkish troops
+as was required by treaty, while an ancient treaty rendered it possible
+to regard the wrongs of the Greek Church as the political wrongs of
+Russia. A Russian ultimatum was despatched on June 28; and, while
+awaiting a reply, Russia consulted the other powers as to the course
+they would pursue in the event of war breaking out between Russia and
+Turkey, and the system with which they would propose to replace the
+Turkish domination if it came to be destroyed. The principle of joint
+intervention, adopted at Troppau, seemed to require the powers to give
+their support to Russia. Great Britain and Austria, however, refused to
+treat war with Turkey as a possibility. The Greek revolt seemed to them
+to express the principle of revolution, and the tsar himself became
+inclined to take this view of the situation when the Greeks established
+an advanced republican form of government. They accordingly
+distinguished between the treaty rights of Russia, which the four powers
+would urge Turkey to respect, and the provision of a more secure state
+of order in Turkey, which would be discussed at a European congress. The
+Russian ambassador had been withdrawn from Constantinople on August 8,
+and the negotiation was conducted mainly by Lord Strangford, the British
+ambassador at Constantinople, who was supported by Austria, France, and
+Prussia. He succeeded in inducing Turkey to evacuate the principalities
+and to open the Dardanelles to ships of all nations, but Turkish
+obstinacy deferred the conclusion of a treaty.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+Meanwhile the Spanish question became more critical. As time went on
+Spain grew less instead of more settled, while the ultra-royalist party
+gained strength in France. To them the position to which the Bourbon
+King of Spain had been reduced seemed at once an insult and a menace to
+France. The establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy made them long
+for French supremacy in Spain. In August, 1821, the presence of yellow
+fever in Spain was made the occasion for establishing a body of troops,
+professing to act as a sanitary cordon, upon the frontier. They were
+retained there when the fever had disappeared, and their numbers were
+gradually raised to 100,000. In December, 1821, an ultra-royalist
+ministry entered on office in France under the leadership of Villèle.
+Villèle, like King Louis XVIII., was opposed to war, but he might easily
+be forced to adopt the war policy which was popular with his party.
+Fresh evidence was given of the contagious nature of the Spanish
+revolution by the adoption, on the 27th of the preceding June, by the
+Portuguese cortes, of a constitution modelled on that of Spain. Six days
+later the Portuguese king arrived at Lisbon and was induced to sign the
+new constitution. This event was the more significant in the eyes of the
+powers, because the proclamation of the constitution had been
+accompanied by an insult to the Austrian embassy.
+
+If Spanish liberalism placed Spain in danger of a war with France, Spain
+was in equal danger of a war with Great Britain because she was not
+liberal enough. The revolution of 1820, instead of reconciling the
+revolted colonies, had served as an example to the loyal colonies to
+seek their liberty. By the summer of 1822 Upper Peru was the only part
+of the American mainland where Spain held more than isolated posts; she
+had been compelled to sell Florida to the United States, and San Domingo
+had joined the revolted French colony of Hayti. The Spanish cortes,
+however, were even more resolute than the king had been to maintain the
+authority of the mother country, and protested against the right which
+the British had claimed and exercised of trading with the revolted
+colonies. The disorderly state of these colonies encouraged the growth
+of piracy, which flourished even in the ports which still acknowledged
+the supremacy of Spain. Special irritation was caused in 1822 by the
+condemnation of the _Lord Collingwood_ for trading with Buenos Ayres, a
+place over which Spain had exercised no authority for twelve years. In
+the same year the new navigation acts greatly increased the facilities
+for trading with Great Britain enjoyed by such places in America as
+admitted British ships. In April, 1822, the United States recognised the
+independence of Colombia, but Great Britain refrained as yet from
+recognising any of the Spanish-American states, partly because of their
+unsettled condition and partly because the threat of recognition was a
+valuable diplomatic counter in negotiations with Spain.
+
+Instead of a congress being held at Florence it was finally determined
+that the Italian questions should be referred to a congress which was to
+meet at Verona in September, 1822, and was to be preceded by a
+conference at Vienna on the Eastern question; there could, however, be
+little doubt that the Spanish question would also be raised.
+Castlereagh, or as we should now call him Lord Londonderry, would have
+preferred that Great Britain should stand aloof from the Spanish and
+Italian questions, but he desired that she should participate in the
+discussion of the Eastern question; it was accordingly arranged that he
+should represent Great Britain at the conference of Vienna, and he had
+actually drawn up instructions in favour of non-intervention in Spain
+and of accrediting agents to some of the South American republics, when
+his departure was prevented by his death on August 12. He was succeeded
+by Wellington as plenipotentiary, and by Canning as foreign secretary.
+The change was, however, one of persons rather than of policies. Canning
+was less conciliatory in manner, and had less sympathy with the
+principle of European congresses, but was prepared to carry on
+Castlereagh's policy on the questions which for the time being agitated
+the world.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CONGRESS OF VERONA._]
+
+The Spanish question was, as a fact, the one question which occupied the
+attention of the powers at Vienna and Verona. In consequence of the
+efforts of Strangford at Constantinople and his own growing
+dissatisfaction with the Greeks, the tsar was willing to allow the Greek
+question to drop; at the same time the kings of the Two Sicilies and
+Sardinia themselves desired the continuance of Austrian occupation, and
+thus postponed the Italian question. As in 1820, Austria held the
+balance between two rival policies. She had then thrown her weight on
+the side of non-intervention, and, had the Spanish question stood by
+itself, she would probably have done so again. But in Metternich's
+opinion the Spanish question was of less importance than the Eastern,
+and it was important that the tsar should not doubt her loyalty to the
+principle on which she had persuaded him to refrain from an attack upon
+the Porte.
+
+On passing through Paris on his way to Vienna, Wellington found Villèle
+desirous of avoiding war, but counting on it as a probability. He
+arrived at Vienna too late for the actual conference, but in time to
+have some conversation with Metternich and the tsar before leaving for
+Verona. So far it appeared that Montmorency, the more active of the
+French representatives, though professing to desire a peaceful
+termination to the dispute between France and Spain, advocated French
+intervention, if intervention should be necessary, but was opposed to
+the passage of foreign troops through France. Metternich and the tsar
+distrusted French troops when brought face to face with revolutionists,
+and Metternich was therefore opposed to intervention, while the tsar
+still desired to be allowed to march a Russian army on behalf of the
+combined powers through Piedmont and southern France into Spain.
+Metternich of course did not wish to see any Russian troops to dispute
+Austria's supremacy in Italy. But all three desired the suppression of
+the Spanish constitution, if they could find a trustworthy instrument.
+Wellington adhered to Castlereagh's policy of non-intervention.[76]
+
+When the congress opened at Verona on October 20, Montmorency proposed
+three skilfully drawn questions. Avoiding the direct discussion of
+hostilities, he asked whether, if France were compelled to withdraw her
+ambassador from Madrid, the other powers would do the same. Then,
+assuming their sympathy, he asked what form of moral support they would
+give her in event of war. Lastly, he propitiated Russian views of joint
+action by asking what form of material support the powers would give
+France, if she should require it. Wellington refused to consider
+hypothetical cases, but the sovereigns of Austria, Prussia, and Russia
+answered the first question in the affirmative, and assured France of
+their moral, and, if necessary, of their material support. So far no
+power had abandoned its original attitude, but the promises had been
+given in a form which lent itself best to the sole interference of
+France, as the representative of the congress. Metternich now advocated
+British mediation, but this was refused by Montmorency on the ground of
+the differences between the policy adopted by Great Britain and that
+adopted by the other powers. It was then agreed that Austria, France,
+Prussia, and Russia should address notes of the same tenor to their
+ambassadors at Madrid, who should make corresponding representations to
+the Spanish government, and a _procès verbal_ was concluded between
+these four powers defining the causes which would justify the recall of
+their ambassadors.
+
+As the French king was not present at Verona, the sending of the French
+note was made conditional on the approval of the French government. The
+occupation of Spain by foreign troops was to be discussed when the King
+of Spain should have been restored to liberty. The tenor of the notes
+agreed on seemed to Wellington more likely to inflame the Spanish
+government than to win concessions, and he lost no time in informing
+Villèle through Sir Charles Stuart, the British ambassador at Paris, of
+the course of negotiations.[77] Although Wellington had been assured at
+Verona that Villèle's decision would not affect the transmission of
+notes from the other courts, he hoped and Canning believed that it was
+still in the power of Villèle to arrest the machinery that Montmorency,
+his representative at Verona, had set in motion. On November 30
+Wellington left Verona, but the emperors remained. On December 5 Villèle
+sent a message to Verona proposing to postpone sending the despatches
+till an occasion for breaking off diplomatic relations as defined in the
+_procès verbal_ should arise, and suggesting that the ambassadors at
+Paris should determine when such an occasion had occurred. This proposal
+was rejected. It was inconsistent with Russia's desire for war, while
+Austria was anxious to please Russia in the west, so long as she
+remained pacific in the east. The three eastern powers therefore
+resolved that they would only delay sending their notes till the French
+note was ready.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE SPANISH QUESTION._]
+
+While this negotiation was pending, Wellington arrived at Paris, where,
+under strong pressure from Canning,[78] he renewed his offer of
+mediation with Spain. It was declined. On the arrival of the reply from
+Verona, Wellington was informed that even if the other powers sent their
+despatches to Madrid, France would withhold hers. In the end, Villèle
+dismissed Montmorency for the independent line he had taken, and sent a
+milder note than the three eastern powers, but withdrew his ambassador
+from Madrid soon after the other ambassadors had departed. Great Britain
+was in consequence the only great power which still continued diplomatic
+relations with Spain at the end of January, 1823. In the course of the
+negotiations two curious suspicions had occurred to Canning and Villèle
+respectively. Canning imagined that France would employ the threats of
+her allies as a show of force to compel Spain to join her in an attack
+on British commerce in the West Indies, while Villèle suspected that the
+British defence of the political independence of Spain was to be
+recompensed by the cession of some Spanish colonies in America.
+
+Meanwhile, the war party before which Villèle had had to bow, was having
+its own way in France. On January 28 Louis XVIII. in opening the
+chambers announced the withdrawal of his ambassador, and declared that
+100,000 Frenchmen were ready to march to preserve the throne of Spain to
+a descendant of Henry IV., and to reconcile that country with Europe.
+The sole object of any war that might arise would be to render Ferdinand
+VII. free to give his people institutions which they could not hold
+except from him, and which, by securing their tranquillity, would
+dissipate the unrest in France. Canning protested against the apparent
+implication that no valid constitution could rest on any other basis
+than that of France did, as also against the apparent claim to interfere
+in virtue of the family relation of the dynasties of France and Spain;
+but he vainly endeavoured to persuade the Spanish government to come to
+some agreement with its king. On March 31, when war seemed imminent,
+Canning despatched a note to Paris defining the limits of British
+neutrality. The independence of Spain and integrity of its dominions
+were to be recognised; it was not to be permanently occupied by a
+military force, and France was not to attempt to gain either by conquest
+or by cession any of the revolted colonies of Spain in America. At the
+same time he disclaimed any intention of acquiring any of those colonies
+for Great Britain.[79]
+
+[Pageheading: _PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL._]
+
+War between France and Spain began with the passage of the frontier by
+the Duke of Angoulême on April 7. On May 23 he entered Madrid. On
+October 1 the Spanish constitutionalists were compelled to set their
+king at liberty to join the French, and on November 1 the war was
+terminated by the surrender of Barcelona to the royalists. The
+restoration of Ferdinand VII. to absolute power was followed by a
+furious and vindictive reaction, which Angoulême strove in vain to
+moderate. For the next five years French troops occupied the country,
+but Angoulême showed his disapproval of the method of government by
+refusing the decorations offered him by Ferdinand. The restoration of
+absolutism in Spain led to events in Portugal which forced Great Britain
+to intervene and strengthened the difference between her policy and that
+of the continental powers. The new Portuguese constitution was
+unpopular, especially in the army, and as early as February, 1823, there
+was a revolt against the constitution, but order was restored in April.
+On May 26 another absolutist revolt broke out, and the rebels were
+joined next day by the king's second son, Dom Miguel, then twenty years
+of age; on the 29th the revolt spread to Lisbon; on the 31st the king
+promised a revised constitution, and on June 2 the cortes ceased to sit.
+The government resolved itself into an absolute monarchy, which
+continued till the following year, in spite of the appointment of a
+junta under the presidency of Palmella to draw up a new constitution.
+The ambassadors of Austria, Prussia, and Russia opposed the granting of
+a new constitution, and Dom Miguel still maintained a threatening
+attitude. Palmella accordingly applied to Great Britain for troops to
+support his government. This request created no little difficulty. It
+was impossible for Great Britain to allow the government of Portugal to
+fall into the hands of a party resting for support on the absolutists
+in Spain and the French army, and it was equally impossible to employ
+British troops to maintain the cause of the King of Portugal against his
+ultra-royalist subjects when Great Britain had protested so vigorously
+against the kings of Spain and the Two Sicilies receiving foreign
+assistance against their liberal subjects; there were moreover no troops
+that could well be spared.
+
+Canning accordingly contented himself with despatching a naval squadron
+to the Tagus to act as a moral support to the king. As the event proved,
+this squadron was sufficient to determine the course of events. At the
+same time Canning refused to guarantee any constitution, though when
+France joined the eastern powers in threatening the proposed
+constitution, he intimated his readiness to resist by force of arms any
+foreign intervention in Portugal. On April 30, 1824, Dom Miguel
+attempted another _coup d'état_, and was for nine days in possession of
+Lisbon, where he made wholesale arrests of his political opponents. John
+VI. was, however, supported by all the foreign ambassadors, and on March
+9, by their advice, he went on board the British ship of war, _Windsor
+Castle_, where he summoned his son to appear before him. Dom Miguel
+thought it wisest to obey; the king sent him abroad, and the attempt at
+a revolution was over for the present. The junta appointed in the
+previous year to frame a constitution now reported in favour of a
+revival of the ancient cortes, and this proposal was accepted by the
+king. The cortes were not, however, actually assembled; still, the mere
+fact of Dom Miguel's absence left the government a little stronger.
+
+Meanwhile, the relations between Portugal and Brazil occasioned
+difficulties between the former country and Great Britain. On leaving
+Brazil, King John VI. had entrusted the government to his elder son,
+Peter, to whom he had given secret instructions to proclaim himself
+Emperor of Brazil in case he found it impossible to maintain the union
+between Brazil and the mother country. Acting on these instructions,
+Peter had proclaimed the independence of Brazil on October 12, 1822,
+adopting for himself the style of constitutional emperor. Next month
+Lord Cochrane, who had been in the service of Chile, quitted it for that
+of Brazil. Neither party in Portugal was prepared for the separation of
+Brazil, and it was therefore opposed, but without much effect, by the
+home government. By the end of 1823 Cochrane had captured all the
+Portuguese posts in Brazil, and in August, 1824, he suppressed a
+republican movement in the north of that country. On July 23 of the same
+year Great Britain signed a commercial treaty with the new empire. This
+irritated the Portuguese government. Meanwhile, Beresford, who had
+returned to Portugal in a private capacity, had been requested to resume
+the command of the Portuguese army. This he refused to do so long as the
+Count of Subsérra, a French partisan, held office at home. There was a
+difficulty in forming a ministry without him, and eventually Subsérra
+became virtual prime minister, and Beresford was excluded from office.
+In order to obtain an excuse for the introduction of French troops into
+Portugal, Subsérra sent a request to Great Britain for a force of four
+or five thousand, knowing it would be refused. Great Britain's refusal
+had not, however, the expected consequence, because the influence of the
+other powers at Lisbon was weakened by their anti-constitutional policy.
+In July, 1825, the representatives of Austria, Brazil, Great Britain,
+and Portugal assembled at London to consider the relations of Portugal
+and Brazil. While the conference was sitting it was discovered that
+Subsérra was carrying on separate negotiations with Brazil. Canning was
+now able to obtain his dismissal, which was followed by the recall of
+the French ambassador, De Neuville, who had been the principal opponent
+of British influence at Lisbon. As a result of this conference the
+Portuguese government on August 29 recognised the independence of
+Brazil.[80]
+
+The restoration of absolute government in Spain revived the question of
+Spanish America. Ferdinand VII., on recovering his authority, proposed a
+congress at Paris for the consideration of South American affairs.
+Canning, however, declined his invitation, and it was thought useless to
+hold a congress without the participation of Great Britain. The position
+in which Great Britain had been placed by the negotiations of Verona, as
+diplomatic champion of Spain, had caused her to suspend her complaints
+about the treatment of her merchant vessels trading with the revolted
+colonies; but disorder continued, and on one occasion the British
+admiral was authorised to land in Cuba to extirpate the pirates using
+the Spanish flag. Canning was determined that French force should not be
+employed to reduce the revolted colonies, and in October, 1823, he
+informed the French ambassador, Polignac, that he would acknowledge the
+independence of those colonies if France assisted Spain in her attempts
+to reduce them[81]--a somewhat empty threat, as the commercial interests
+of Great Britain would have compelled him to acknowledge them in any
+case as soon as there should be settled governments in existence with
+which he could treat. Diplomatic agents were in fact appointed in most
+of the revolted colonies before the end of this year.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE MONROE DOCTRINE._]
+
+What, however, rendered French interference hopeless was the attitude of
+the United States, as expressed in President Monroe's historic message
+to congress on December 2, 1823. In this message occur the words, since
+known as the Monroe doctrine: "With the governments who have declared
+their independence, and maintained it, and whose independence we have,
+on great consideration, and on just principles, acknowledged, we could
+not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or
+controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European power, in
+any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition
+towards the United States." After this the recognition of the
+independence of the Spanish colonies was only a matter of time.[82]
+Great Britain recognised the independence of Buenos Ayres, Colombia, and
+Mexico, in 1824, and the rest soon after. In spite of the temporary
+successes of Canterac, Peru, the last of the mainland provinces, was
+lost to Spain in 1825, and the other European powers did not now delay
+their recognition of the American republics. In April of that year
+France recognised the virtual independence of her own revolted colony of
+Hayti.
+
+The Eastern question advanced more slowly. On March 25, 1823, Canning
+recognised the Greeks as belligerents. After this step Great Britain
+enjoyed the advantage of being able to hold the Greek government
+responsible for piracy committed by Greek ships; but, coming as it did
+after the isolated action of Great Britain at Verona, it created a
+suspicion among the eastern powers of a desire to effect a settlement
+of the Eastern question without the co-operation of other states. In
+October, 1823, the Tsar Alexander and the Emperor Francis had a meeting
+at Czernowitz in Bukowina. Here they discussed joint intervention in
+Greece as a means of forestalling the isolated intervention of Great
+Britain. During the meeting the news arrived of the Turkish concessions
+to the Russian demands of 1821. Before the conference broke up, the tsar
+informally suggested a conference at St. Petersburg to arrange joint
+intervention on the basis of the erection of three principalities under
+Turkish suzerainty in Greece and the Ægean. In January, 1824, the same
+proposal was made formally in a Russian circular addressed to the great
+powers. Metternich and Canning both opposed the scheme, thinking that
+the principalities would fall under Russian influence.
+
+Metternich met it by a counter proposal for the complete independence of
+Greece. Canning preferred to adopt neither course, and to watch the
+sequence of events. In April, however, he consented that Great Britain
+should be represented at the conference at St. Petersburg on condition
+that no coercion should be applied to Turkey, and that diplomatic
+relations should have been previously restored between Russia and
+Turkey; in August the Greek government sent to London its protest
+against the Russian proposals, and in November Canning, finding that
+neither Greeks nor Turks would accept the decision of the conference,
+and being still opposed to violent interference, refused to take part in
+it. At the same time he offered British mediation to the Greeks in case
+it should be absolutely necessary. Early in 1825 Metternich induced
+Charles X., the new King of France, to support his proposal. Russia,
+however, would not hear of the independence of Greece, which might mean
+the creation of a rival to her influence in the Turkish dominions. The
+conference therefore merely resolved that the Porte should grant
+satisfaction to its subjects, failing which the powers offered their
+mediation.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I._]
+
+Turkey refused the offer. She was in fact busily engaged in restoring
+order in her own way. In February, 1825, an Egyptian army was landed in
+the Morea, and met with rapid successes of such a nature as to arouse a
+suspicion that it was the fixed policy of its commander, Ibrahim, the
+adopted son of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, to depopulate the Morea.
+His advance upon Nauplia was checked by an order of the British
+commodore, Hamilton, and he retired towards Tripolitza and Navarino. The
+Turkish successes induced Canning to make proposals to Russia through
+Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador at St. Petersburg, for a
+joint intervention of the powers on condition that there should be no
+coercion of Turkey. The tsar refused to accept the condition and made
+preparations for war. Canning meanwhile declined an offer of the Greek
+government to place itself under British protection, and on August 18
+Alexander declared that he would solve the Eastern question by himself.
+He then set out for the south of Russia, where his army had collected.
+Canning now dropped his scheme of an united intervention and opened
+negotiations for a separate intervention on the part of Great Britain
+and Russia alone. Meanwhile he informed the Greek government that he
+would allow no power to effect a settlement without British
+co-operation, and that if Russia invaded Turkey he would land troops in
+Greece. The negotiations with Russia were proceeding favourably when
+they were interrupted by the death of Alexander on December 1.
+
+One event of the year 1825 which attracted little attention at the time
+was destined to be a cause of friction at a much later date. In 1824 the
+boundary between British America and the United States had been
+partially delimited, and this was followed early in the following year
+by a treaty, which attempted to settle the boundary between British and
+Russian America. Unfortunately the words used in this treaty were
+somewhat indefinite, and, although no difficulty was experienced for two
+generations, the discovery of gold in the north-west of America
+subsequently led to a bitter dispute between Canada on the one side and
+the United States, which had acquired the rights of Russia, on the
+other.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[75] Metternich, _Memoirs_, § 484, English translation, iii., 446.
+
+[76] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 343-48.
+
+[77] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 518-23. For a French account of
+the congress see Duvergier de Hauranne, _Gouvernement Parlementaire en
+France_, vii., 130-229.
+
+[78] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, i., 650. Compare pp. 638, 653-57.
+
+[79] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 18, 19.
+
+[80] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., chapters x., xi.
+
+[81] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, ii., 26-33.
+
+[82] See J. W. Foster, _A Century of American Diplomacy_, pp. 442-50;
+Stapleton, _George Canning and his Times_, p. 375.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XI.
+
+ TORY DISSENSION AND CATHOLIC RELIEF.
+
+
+The sudden illness of Liverpool in February, 1827, disclosed the dualism
+and mutual jealousies which had enfeebled his cabinet. One section,
+represented by Canning, advocated catholic emancipation, encouraged the
+practical application of free trade doctrines, and was prepared to
+support the principle of national independence, not only in South
+America, but in Greece and Portugal. This section was dominant in the
+house of commons. The other section, led by Wellington and Peel, which
+was dominant in the house of lords, was strictly conservative on all
+these questions, though Peel was beginning to show an open mind on one,
+at least, of them. The king's known distrust of Canning, largely shared
+by his own party, naturally suggested the hope of rallying it under the
+leadership of some politician with the moderate and conciliatory temper
+of Lord Liverpool. But no such politician could be found, nor was there
+any prospect of Canning accepting a subordinate position in a new
+ministry. For nearly six weeks the premiership was in abeyance, while
+Liverpool's recovery was treated as a possible event. Canning himself
+was in broken health, but, ill as he was, he proposed and carried in the
+house of commons a sliding scale of import duties upon corn, variable
+with its market price. He also made a fierce attack on Sir John Copley,
+then master of the rolls, who had vigorously opposed a motion of Burdett
+for catholic relief. At last the king, having consulted others, made up
+his mind to send for Canning, who had been suffering from a relapse. It
+was in vain that Canning advised him, unless he were prepared for
+concession on the catholic question, to summon a body of ministers
+sharing his own convictions. There was, in fact, no alternative to
+Canning's succession, except that of Wellington or Peel. The former
+declared that he would be worse than mad to accept the premiership; the
+latter was still young for the office and deprecated as hopeless the
+formation of any exclusively "protestant" cabinet. The selection of
+Canning became inevitable, and on April 10 the king determined upon it,
+irritated by what he regarded as an attempt to force his hand in the
+choice of a minister.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANNING ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+From that moment, during the short remainder of his life Canning had to
+undergo the same bitter experience as Pitt in 1804, and to suffer a
+cruel retribution for his aggressive petulance. All his strongest
+colleagues, except Huskisson, deserted him. The resignation of Lord
+Eldon, since 1821 Earl of Eldon, must have been expected, terminating,
+as it did, the longest chancellorship since the Norman conquest. But
+Canning seems to have really hoped that he might secure the support of
+Wellington by the assurance of his desire to carry out the principles of
+Liverpool's government. The duke, however, repelled his overtures with
+something less than courtesy, and even retired from the command of the
+army. Peel had already intimated privately that a transfer of the
+premiership from an opponent to a champion of emancipation would make it
+impossible for him to retain office. Three peers, Bathurst, Melville,
+and Westmorland, followed his example. Canning had no resource but to
+enlist colleagues from the ranks of the whigs. In this he was at first
+unsuccessful. Sturges Bourne was appointed to the home office, Viscount
+Dudley became foreign secretary, and Robinson, who was raised to the
+peerage as Viscount Goderich, became secretary for war and the colonies.
+Canning himself united the offices of first lord of the treasury and
+chancellor of the exchequer. The Duke of Portland became lord privy
+seal. Palmerston, the secretary at war, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+Harrowby, Huskisson, Wynn, and Bexley, retained their former posts, and
+Sidmouth, hitherto an unofficial member of the cabinet, finally retired.
+One important office outside the cabinet, that of chief secretary for
+Ireland, was given to a whig, William Lamb, afterwards Lord Melbourne.
+It was a happy idea to make the Duke of Clarence lord high admiral
+without a seat in the cabinet, and without any power of acting
+independently of his council, while Copley (as Lord Lyndhurst) proved a
+good successor to Eldon.
+
+In May some of the whigs were induced to join the ministry. Tierney
+entered the cabinet as master of the mint and the Earl of Carlisle as
+first commissioner of woods and forests. The Marquis of Lansdowne, the
+former Lord Henry Petty, joined the cabinet without taking office. Other
+minor posts were assigned to whigs, and several whig chiefs, such as
+Holland and Brougham, while they remained outside the government,
+tendered it a friendly support. In July Lansdowne became home secretary,
+Bourne was transferred to the woods and forests department, Carlisle
+became lord privy seal, and Portland remained in the cabinet without
+office.
+
+The new cabinet was therefore still in an unsettled state when it met
+parliament at the beginning of May. It there encountered a storm of
+unsparing criticism even in the house of commons, but still more in the
+house of lords. Lord Stewart, who had succeeded his brother as Marquis
+of Londonderry, and the Duke of Newcastle denounced Canning in the most
+intemperate language; and the veteran whig, Lord Grey, who had not been
+consulted, delivered an elaborate oration against him not the less
+virulent because it was carefully studied and measured. This attack was
+so keenly felt by Canning that he was supposed to meditate the
+acceptance of a peerage, that he might reply to it in person. The climax
+of his vexations was reached when a corn bill, prepared by the late
+cabinet, and passed by the house of commons, was finally wrecked in the
+house of lords through an amendment introduced by Wellington. There was
+some excuse for the duke's action in letters which had passed between
+him and Huskisson, but Canning naturally resented his mischievous
+interposition, and unwisely declared that he must "have been made an
+instrument in the hands of others". So ended the session on July 2,
+amidst discords and divisions which boded ill for the future, but threw
+a retrospective light on the rare merits of Liverpool.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF CANNING._]
+
+The days of Canning were already numbered. Before the end of July he was
+unable to attend a council, and retired for rest to the Duke of
+Devonshire's villa at Chiswick. As in the case of Castlereagh, the king
+had noticed the symptoms of serious illness, and on August 5 the public
+was informed of his danger. On the 8th he died of internal inflammation
+in the room which had witnessed the death of Fox. His loss was deeply
+felt, not only by the king who never showed him confidence, but also by
+the best part of the nation, and his funeral was attended by a great
+concourse of mourners, both whigs and tories. No one doubted that he was
+a patriot, and his noble gifts commanded the admiration of his bitterest
+opponents. He belonged to an age of transition, and it must ever be
+deplored that he missed the opportunity of showing whether his mind was
+capable of further growth in the highest office of state; for the
+inconsistencies of his opinions, obstinately maintained for years, would
+have demanded many changes of conviction or policy. He was as stout an
+enemy of reform at home as he was a resolute friend of constitutional
+liberty abroad. He detested the system of repression consecrated by the
+holy alliance, but he defended the necessity of such measures as the six
+acts and arbitrary imprisonment for a limited period. He never swerved
+in his advocacy of Roman catholic relief, but he was unmoved by
+arguments in favour of repealing the test and corporation acts.
+Probably, at the head of a coalition, embracing the ablest of the
+moderate tories and reformers, and loyally supported by his colleagues,
+he might have proved the foremost British statesman of the nineteenth
+century. But it is more than doubtful whether his proud and sensitive
+nature would have enabled him so to cancel past memories as to
+consolidate such a coalition, or to inspire such loyalty in its members.
+
+The death of Canning involved for the moment far less political change
+than might have been expected. The king at once sent for Sturges Bourne
+and Goderich, as the most intimate adherents of Canning. He then
+commanded Goderich to form, or rather to continue, a ministry of
+compromise, and this was done with little shifting of places. Wellington
+resumed the command of the army, thereby revealing his motive in giving
+it up so abruptly. But a very unwise choice was made in the appointment
+of John Charles Herries, rather than Palmerston, as chancellor of the
+exchequer, and it carried with it the seeds of an early disruption.
+Palmerston had originally been proposed for the office, but the king
+strongly favoured Herries, though he showed good sense in deferring to
+public opinion, and desiring Huskisson to take the post himself.
+Unfortunately, Huskisson preferred the colonial office, and, as neither
+Sturges Bourne nor Tierney would accept the position, royal influence
+prevailed, and Herries found himself at the exchequer. Meanwhile
+Portland succeeded Harrowby as lord president, Charles Grant succeeded
+Huskisson at the board of trade, and Lord Uxbridge, who had been created
+Marquis of Anglesey after the battle of Waterloo, and who was now
+master-general of the ordnance, was given a seat in the cabinet.
+
+In the course of November it was decided by Goderich, in concert with
+Huskisson and Tierney, that a finance committee should be appointed
+early in the next session to consider the state of the revenue. Lord
+Althorp, the son of Earl Spencer, was designated as chairman, and
+provisionally undertook to act, but the chancellor of the exchequer,
+who, contrary to all precedent, had not been taken into counsel,
+strongly protested against the nomination, as soon as he was informed of
+it. Out of this dispute arose the ignoble fall of the Goderich
+administration, though it was preceded by more serious dissensions on
+foreign policy. The king, whose activity revived with the increasing
+weakness of his ministers, committed himself, without asking their
+opinion, to a hearty approval of Codrington's action at Navarino, in
+which, as will be recorded hereafter, that admiral had co-operated in
+the destruction of the Turkish navy, though the British government
+professed to be at peace with the Porte. The king was also adverse to a
+proposal for the admission of Holland and Wellesley into the cabinet.
+Goderich in consequence resigned, but had withdrawn his resignation when
+the quarrel between Huskisson and Herries broke out afresh. Driven to
+distraction by difficulties to which he was utterly unequal, Goderich
+once more abandoned his post. The king gladly dispensed with his
+services, and after some negotiation with Harrowby sent for Wellington
+on January 9, 1828, giving him a free hand to invite any co-operation
+except that of Grey. It was stipulated, however, "that the Roman
+Catholic question was not to be made a cabinet question," and that both
+the lord chancellors, as well as the lord lieutenant of Ireland, were to
+be "protestants".[83]
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+It must ever be regretted, for the sake of the country not less than of
+his own fame, that Wellington undertook the premiership. He was beyond
+all dispute the greatest man in England, and exercised up to the end of
+his life a more powerful influence in emergencies than any other
+subject. But he had judged himself rightly when he declared that he was
+wholly unfit to be prime minister, and his administration was among the
+weakest of modern times. The firmness which had sustained him in so many
+campaigns, the political sagacity which had enabled him to grapple with
+the complications of Spanish affairs, and with the great settlement of
+Europe, equally failed him in party management and in the estimation of
+public opinion at home. He understood better than any man how to deal
+with the king, and overbore not only the king's own prejudices but the
+machinations of the Duke of Cumberland with masterly resolution. He set
+a good example in declining to regard himself as a mere party leader and
+in refusing to study the arts of popularity hunting, but he never
+grasped the principle that constitutional government ultimately rests on
+the will of the people. Still he was too good a general not to see when
+facts were too strong for him. His chief manoeuvres on the field of
+politics consisted in somewhat inglorious though not unskilful retreats;
+when he afterwards carried boldness to the point of rashness, he
+encountered a signal defeat. Nevertheless, while he utterly lost his
+political hold on the masses, and even the confidence of shrewd
+politicians, he never ceased to retain the profound respect of his
+countrymen, not only as the first of English generals, but as the most
+honest of public servants.
+
+Wellington naturally applied first to Peel, and, by his advice, attempted
+a reconstruction of the Goderich cabinet, but with the addition of certain
+new elements. Five of Canning's followers--Lyndhurst, Dudley, who had been
+created an earl, Huskisson, Grant, and Palmerston retained their old
+offices, and Palmerston gave an extraordinary proof of patience by
+cheerfully remaining secretary at war after eighteen years' service in
+that capacity. These cabinet ministers were now joined or rejoined by Peel
+as home secretary, Earl Bathurst as lord president, Henry Goulburn as
+chancellor of the exchequer, Melville as president of the board of
+control, Lord Aberdeen as chancellor of the duchy, and Lord Ellenborough,
+son of the former chief justice, as lord privy seal. Herries was
+transferred from the exchequer to the mastership of the mint. Outside the
+cabinet Anglesey became lord lieutenant of Ireland, where Lamb remained
+chief secretary. It was understood that Eldon, now in his seventy-seventh
+year, would have willingly accepted the presidency of the council, and
+felt hurt that no offer or communication was made to him. On the other
+hand, the whigs were by no means satisfied, while the inclusion of
+Huskisson equally offended extreme tories and the widow of Canning, who
+spoke of him as having become an associate of her husband's murderers.
+This association was not destined to be long lived. The formation of the
+ministry was not completed until the end of January, and very soon after
+parliament met on the 29th of that month a rupture between Huskisson and
+Wellington became imminent. For this Huskisson was mainly responsible.
+Having to seek re-election at Liverpool, and irritated by the attacks made
+upon his consistency, he delivered a very imprudent speech, in which he
+implied, if he did not state, that he had obtained from his chief pledges
+of adhesion to Canning's policy. Such a declaration from such a man was
+inevitably understood as applying at least to free trade and the conduct
+of foreign affairs. Both Huskisson and the duke in parliamentary speeches
+disclaimed the imputation of any bargain; still the rift was not closed,
+and it was speedily widened by events on which harmony between tories and
+friends of Canning was impossible.
+
+For six years the so-called war of Greek independence had been carried
+on with the utmost barbarity on both sides. The sympathies of Canning,
+as foreign secretary, had been entirely with the Greeks, as they had
+been with the South American insurgents, but he was equally on his guard
+against the armed "mediation" of Russia and her claim to be the supreme
+protector of the Greek Christians. We have seen how at last, in 1825,
+hopeless discord between the great continental powers led to overtures
+for the peaceful intervention of Great Britain, and how at this juncture
+the Tsar Alexander died on December 1, 1825. Wellington, at Canning's
+request, undertook a special embassy to St. Petersburg for the
+ostensible purpose of congratulating the new tsar, Nicholas, on his
+accession, and succeeded, during April, 1826, in concluding an
+arrangement for joint action by Russia and Great Britain with a view to
+establishing the autonomy of Greece under the sovereignty of Turkey.
+Meanwhile the impulsive enthusiasm which has so often seized the English
+people on behalf of "oppressed nationalities" had been fanned into a
+flame by the cause of Greek independence. Byron had already sacrificed
+his life to it in April, 1824; Cochrane now devoted to it an energy and
+a naval reputation only second to Nelson's; volunteers joined the Greek
+levies, and subscriptions came in freely. In the course of 1826 Canning
+succeeded in procuring the adhesion of the French government to the
+Anglo-Russian agreement. Early in 1827 the three powers demanded an
+armistice from Turkey, and, on the refusal of the Porte, signed the
+treaty of London for the settlement of the Greek question. This treaty,
+dated July 6, 1827, was almost the last public act of Canning. It was
+moderate in its terms, embodying the conditions laid down in the
+previous year at St. Petersburg, and making the self-government of
+Greece subject to a payment of tribute to the Porte. It provided for a
+combination of the British, French, and Russian fleets in the event of a
+second refusal from Turkey; but Canning died in the hope that
+hostilities might be avoided.
+
+[Pageheading: _NAVARINO._]
+
+This hope was not likely, nor was it destined, to be realised. The Porte
+remained inflexible, and would grant no armistice; indeed, it had
+summoned a contingent of ships from Egypt, and a fleet of twenty-eight
+sail under Ibrahim Pasha was lying in the Bay of Navarino awaiting
+further reinforcements. Admiral Codrington, who commanded the allied
+fleet, now before Navarino, showed much forbearance. In concert with the
+French admiral, he warned Ibrahim Pasha not to leave the harbour, and
+obtained assurances which were speedily broken. Futile negotiations went
+on during the early part of October, ending in a massacre among the
+inhabitants of the coast by the direction of Ibrahim. The admirals of
+the allied fleet no longer hesitated. On the 20th the fleet entered the
+harbour. The first shots were fired by the Turco-Egyptian fleet, which
+was skilfully ranged in three lines, and in the form of a horseshoe. An
+action ensued, which lasted four hours, and resulted in the almost
+complete destruction of the Ottoman armament. Had the allied fleet at
+once proceeded to Constantinople, the Greek question might perhaps have
+been settled promptly, instead of being left to perplex cabinets for two
+years longer.
+
+The news of Navarino reached England when the ministry of Lord Goderich
+was already tottering, and caused its members far more anxiety than
+satisfaction. Probably the wisest of them foresaw that, unless
+immediate action were taken, Russia would declare war single-handed
+against Turkey and enforce her own terms, but nothing in fact was done,
+and Wellington, on coming into power, found the question of our
+relations with Turkey and Greece still open. In spite of his own share
+in bringing about the co-operation of Russia with Great Britain, he was
+by no means prepared for a crusade on behalf of Greek independence, or
+for a definite rupture with Turkey. Hence the memorable phrases inserted
+in the king's speech of January 29, 1828, which described the battle of
+Navarino as "a collision wholly unexpected by His Majesty" and as "an
+untoward event," which His Majesty hoped would not be followed by
+further hostilities. These expressions, however much in accord with the
+pacific tone of the treaty of London, provoked an outburst of
+indignation from the friends of Greece in both houses. Lords Holland and
+Althorp, Lord John Russell, and Brougham recorded earnest protests
+against any disparagement of Admiral Codrington's action. The
+infatuation of the Porte, and the consequent war with Russia, checked
+further agitation on the subject, and Wellington's government was able
+to fall back on the policy of non-intervention proposed, though not
+always practised, by Canning. But the reactionary tendency of
+Wellington's foreign policy betrayed in the king's speech had its effect
+in alienating the more liberal of his colleagues. Nor was his position
+strengthened by his irresolute home policy. During the session of 1828
+issues were raised which inevitably divided and ultimately broke up the
+cabinet.
+
+[Pageheading: _TEST ACTS REPEALED._]
+
+The first of these difficulties was caused by the success of Lord John
+Russell's motion for the repeal of the test and corporation acts, under
+which dissenters were precluded from holding municipal and other
+offices. It was, indeed, a grave blot on the consistency of reformers
+that, while the claims of Roman catholics, and especially of Irish Roman
+catholics, had been vehemently urged for nearly thirty years, those of
+protestant nonconformists had been coldly neglected. Their legal
+disabilities, it is true, had gradually become almost nominal, and an
+indemnity act was passed yearly to cover the constant breaches of the
+obnoxious law. Still, the law was maintained, and was stoutly defended
+by such tories as Eldon on the principle that it was an important
+outwork of the union between Church and State. Even the Canningite
+members of the government supported it against Russell's attack, but on
+the very opposite ground--that it had become a dead letter. However, the
+measure for its repeal was carried in the house of commons by a majority
+of forty-four, including some well-known Churchmen. This measure would
+assuredly have been rejected in the house of lords had not Peel
+judiciously procured the insertion of a clause substituting for the
+sacramental test a declaration binding the office-holder to do nothing
+hostile to the Church. Thus modified, it passed the house of lords, with
+the assent of several bishops, in spite of the implacable opposition of
+Lords Eldon and Redesdale, and the Duke of Cumberland. But the
+declaration was amended by the addition of the words "upon the true
+faith of a Christian," which incidentally continued the statutable
+exclusion of Jews.
+
+The enforced acceptance of this enactment was equivalent to a decisive
+reverse, and could not but injure the prestige of the government, but it
+did not actually cause a schism in the cabinet. It was otherwise when
+the duke proposed a corn bill in lieu of that rejected at his instance
+in the previous year. The difference between these measures was not very
+material, but the duke insisted upon certain regulations of detail,
+which Huskisson persistently opposed. Peel suggested a compromise which,
+after long altercation and some threats of resignation, was adopted. But
+the effect was to weaken the government still further in the eyes of the
+public, inasmuch as the principle of duties on a graduated scale had
+prevailed at last against the declared opinions of the duke. The
+inevitable rupture was only deferred for a few weeks, and arose out of
+motions for disfranchising East Retford and Penryn--a premonitory
+symptom of the great reform bill. These were among the most corrupt of
+the old "rotten boroughs," and the scandalous practices which flourished
+in both of them had more than once shocked even the unreformed
+parliament. In 1827 a bill for disfranchising Penryn had actually been
+carried by the house of commons in spite of Canning's dissent, and one
+for disfranchising East Retford would probably have been carried, but
+that it was introduced too late.
+
+The motions now introduced by Lord John Russell and Charles Tennyson
+respectively could scarcely have been thrown out by the same house, but
+squabbles arose in the cabinet, partly on the comparative guiltiness of
+the two venal constituencies, but chiefly on the disposal of the seats
+to be vacated. It was agreed at last that Penryn should be merged in the
+adjacent hundred, and the majority of the cabinet, represented by Peel,
+were for dealing in like manner with East Retford. The liberal section,
+however, represented by Huskisson, was bent on transferring its
+representation to Birmingham, and voted against Peel in the house of
+commons. Having thus vindicated his independence, Huskisson, somewhat
+too hastily, placed his resignation in the hands of the premier on May
+20. The duke, having fairly lost patience with his insubordinate
+colleagues, was equally prompt in accepting it, and declined to receive
+the explanations offered. In the end, Palmerston, Dudley, Grant, and
+Lamb, followed the fortunes of Huskisson, and Wellington's government
+was completely purged of Canning's old supporters.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CLARE ELECTION._]
+
+Two military officers, without political experience, were now imported
+into the ministry. Sir George Murray succeeded Huskisson at the colonial
+office, and Sir Henry Hardinge replaced Palmerston as secretary at war,
+but was not admitted to the cabinet; Lord Aberdeen became foreign
+secretary, and Vesey Fitzgerald president of the board of trade, while
+Lord Francis Leveson Gower succeeded Lamb as chief secretary for
+Ireland. So purely tory an administration had not been formed since the
+days of Perceval. Looking back we can see that, for that very reason, it
+was doomed; but to politicians of 1828 Wellington's ascendency seemed
+assured, and it was not actually broken for above two years. By far the
+most important event of domestic history within that period was the
+crisis ending in the catholic emancipation act, and this crisis was
+immediately precipitated by the almost casual appointment of Vesey
+Fitzgerald. He was a popular Irish landlord, who had always supported
+catholic relief, and his re-election for the county of Clare was
+regarded as perfectly secure. The landlords were known to be entirely in
+his favour, and Irish tenants, miscalled "forty shilling freeholders,"
+had been used to vote obsequiously for the candidate of their landlords.
+Indeed, these counterfeit freeholds had been manufactured recklessly
+throughout Ireland for the very purpose of extending landlord influence.
+Perhaps the recent defeat of a Beresford at Waterford by a nominee of
+Daniel O'Connell, who had made himself the leader of the movement for
+Catholic relief, ought to have undeceived the Irish tories, but no one
+could have foreseen so daring an act as the candidature of O'Connell
+himself, notwithstanding that, as a catholic, he was incapable of
+sitting in the house of commons.
+
+The contest began on June 30 and lasted five days. All the gentry and
+electors of the higher class supported Fitzgerald, but all the poorer
+electors, headed by their priests, flocked to the poll and voted for
+O'Connell, who, on Fitzgerald's retirement, was triumphantly elected.
+The violence of O'Connell's language was unmeasured, and as was said by
+Sheil, "every altar became a tribune," but perfect order was maintained
+throughout. The terrorism which has since disgraced Irish elections and
+vitiated the whole representation of Ireland had no place in this
+startling victory, and the impression produced by it was thereby
+infinitely enhanced. Two conclusions were instantly drawn from it: the
+one, that electoral power in Ireland could not safely be left in the
+hands of the forty-shilling freeholders; the other, that, whether or not
+they were disfranchised, nothing short of political equality of the
+catholics of Ireland could avert the risk of civil war. It is seldom
+that momentous changes can be so clearly traced to a single cause as in
+the case of catholic emancipation. The whole interval between July,
+1828, and April, 1829, was occupied by the discussion of this question,
+or circumstances arising out of it, and it may truly be said to have
+filled the whole horizon of domestic politics. The first and final
+recognition by a responsible government of emancipation as a political
+necessity dates immediately from the Clare election.
+
+The question of catholic emancipation had been the only reason for the
+resignation of Pitt in 1801, but we have seen that he resumed office in
+1804 under a pledge not to re-open it. It is certain that he never
+contemplated a complete emancipation of the catholics without safeguards
+for the interests of the established church. Such a safeguard (though
+ineffective against a future attack through disestablishment) was
+provided by the act of union,[84] which inviolably united the Irish and
+English churches. The catholic leaders, on their part, were profuse in
+their disavowals of hostility to that establishment and to the
+protestant government in Ireland. In their first solemn memorial,
+presented by Grenville on March 25, 1805, they expressly declared that
+"they do not seek or wish, in the remotest degree, to injure or encroach
+upon the rights, privileges, immunities, possessions, and revenues
+appertaining to the bishops and clergy of the protestant religion, or to
+the churches committed to their charge". They further volunteered an
+expression of their belief that no evil act could be justified by the
+good of the Church, and that papal infallibility was no article of the
+catholic faith. Thenceforward, frequent motions in support of the
+"catholic claims" were made in both houses of parliament. In 1810 such a
+motion was proposed in a very eloquent speech by Grattan, but
+Castlereagh, though a staunch friend of the cause, deprecated it as
+inopportune, since the catholics had injured themselves by imprudent
+conduct, and fresh declarations inconsistent with their former
+assurances. The motion was therefore rejected, and a similar fate befell
+motions of the same kind in the two following years, especially in the
+house of lords, where Eldon inflexibly resisted any concession, and
+always commanded a majority.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+When Liverpool replaced Perceval as prime minister in 1812, catholic
+emancipation became an open question in the cabinet. In that year
+Canning succeeded in carrying triumphantly a resolution pledging the
+house of commons to consider the question seriously in the next session,
+and a like resolution was only lost by one vote in the house of lords.
+Accordingly, in 1813, Grattan's motion for a committee of the whole
+house on catholic disabilities was accepted, and a bill for their
+removal passed its second reading. But it was loaded with vexatious
+securities in committee and wrecked by the vigorous opposition of the
+speaker, Abbot, who on May 24 carried by a majority of four an amendment
+withholding the right to sit and vote in parliament. After this, the
+bill was of course abandoned, but another was unanimously passed
+exempting from penalties Roman catholics holding certain military and
+civil offices, to which, by a harsh construction of law, they were not
+eligible. In 1817 the question was debated at great length in the house
+of commons, and several leading men took part in it, but the motion for
+catholic relief was again defeated by a majority of twenty-four. It was
+revived in 1819 by Grattan, who delivered on this occasion one of his
+greatest speeches, and succeeded in reducing the majority to two only.
+In 1821 a further advance was made by Plunket's success in obtaining a
+committee to consider the claims of the catholics. This was carried by a
+majority of six, and followed up by two bills, removing all catholic
+disabilities with very slight exceptions, but subject to stringent and
+somewhat illusory securities for the loyalty of the priesthood.
+Ultimately on April 2 a comprehensive measure of catholic relief passed
+the house of commons by a majority of nineteen. All the most influential
+members of the lower house now voted in its favour, but the attitude of
+the upper house remained unchanged. The spirit of Eldon still ruled the
+peers, and his speech against Plunket's relief bill contains a complete
+armoury of protestant arguments. But the catholics had a still more
+doughty opponent in the Duke of York, who delivered on this occasion the
+first of his famous declarations, binding himself to life-long
+hostility. As Eldon said, "he did more to quiet this matter than
+everything else put together".[85]
+
+The year 1821 marks a turning point in the history of the catholic
+question, since the protestant cause, no longer safe in the house of
+commons, was felt by its champions to depend on the crown and the house
+of lords. But it would be an error to suppose that catholic relief was
+ever a popular cry in this country, like retrenchment and reform. On the
+contrary, the feelings of the masses in Great Britain were never roused
+in regard to it, and, if roused at all, would probably have been
+enlisted on the other side. It would be too much to say that the
+controversy was merely academical, for it was keen enough to split up
+parties and produce dualism in cabinets. But it was never a hustings
+question. It filled a much larger space in the minds of statesmen than
+in the minds of the people, and even among statesmen it was so far
+secondary that it could be treated as an open question in Liverpool's
+ministry for a period of fifteen years. No doubt the disturbed state of
+Ireland, which ultimately supplied the motive power for carrying the
+emancipation act, contributed at an earlier stage to damp the zeal of
+its advocates. Whatever the merits of the union, it had failed to pacify
+the country, thereby verifying the warning of Cornwallis, that, although
+Ireland could not be saved without the union, "you must not take it for
+granted that it will be saved by it".
+
+In 1800, the very year of the union, the _habeas corpus_ act had been
+suspended and another act passed for the suppression of rebellion.
+Though repealed in the following year, these coercive measures were
+renewed in 1803, after Emmet's abortive rising, and continued in 1804.
+In 1805, when they expired, special commissions were appointed for the
+repression of crime in the south and west of Ireland. In 1807 the
+_habeas corpus_ act was again suspended and a rigorous insurrection act
+passed which continued in force until 1810. In that year a Catholic
+Committee was formed, anticipating the more notorious Catholic
+Association. An essential part of the scheme was the formation of a
+representative assembly in Dublin, to discuss and procure redress for
+the wrongs of catholics. This project was put down by the Irish
+government, which treated it as a breach of the convention act of 1793.
+The next ten years seem to have been somewhat quieter in Ireland, and
+the disturbances which followed the peace in Great Britain had no
+counterpart in that country. Still, it was thought necessary to suppress
+another catholic convention in 1814, and to renew the insurrection act,
+which remained in force with one interval till 1817. It can well be
+imagined that a population so lawless, and so prone to horrible outrages
+which shock Englishmen more than a thousand crimes against property,
+should have excited little general sympathy by their complaints of
+political grievances. These grievances were justly denounced by party
+leaders, but in the eyes of ordinary politicians, and still more of
+electors, coercion rather than concession was the appropriate remedy for
+the ills of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+Canning, however, though suspected of lukewarmness, did not let the
+question rest in 1822. On April 30, while still out of office, he
+introduced a bill which he could scarcely have expected to become law,
+for enabling Roman catholic peers to sit and vote in the house of lords.
+This bill was passed in the commons by a majority of five, but rejected
+in the lords by a majority of forty-four, in spite of somewhat
+transparent assertions that it was not intended to prejudice the main
+issue. On April 18, 1823, an angry protest from Burdett against the
+"annual farce" of motions leading to nothing was followed by a quarrel
+between Canning and Brougham, who accused Canning, then foreign
+secretary, of "monstrous truckling for the purpose of obtaining office";
+and when Plunket moved, as usual, for the relief of catholics, a
+temporary secession of radicals took place, which left him in a
+ridiculous minority. In spite of this discomfiture, Lord Nugent
+succeeded in carrying through the commons a bill, granting the
+parliamentary franchise to Roman catholics in Great Britain. The bill
+was lost in the lords, and the question remained dormant in 1824; but in
+1825 it received a fresh impulse. This time it was Burdett who, at the
+instance of Lansdowne and Brougham, appeared as spokesman of the
+catholics. His action was in some respects inopportune, as the "Catholic
+Association," founded by O'Connell and Sheil in 1823, was now usurping
+the functions of a government, and regularly levying taxes under the
+name of "rent". The necessity of suppressing it, though not apparent to
+Lord Wellesley, the lord-lieutenant, was strongly felt on both sides of
+the house of commons. A bill for this purpose, but applicable to all
+similar associations, was rapidly carried by large majorities in both
+houses, and the opposition was fain to rely mainly on the declaration
+that it would be put in force against catholic associations only, and
+not against those of the Orangemen, as the more violent of the Irish
+protestants were called. It is needless to say that it was evaded by the
+former, but on March 1, while it was still before the house of lords,
+Burdett took courage to move another preliminary resolution in favour of
+the catholics, and obtained a majority of thirteen. A bill founded on
+this resolution was at once introduced.
+
+The debates on this bill were memorable in several respects and opened
+the last stage but one in the long history of catholic relief. In the
+first place, more than one opponent publicly avowed his conversion to
+it; in the second place, now that its "settlement" was actually within
+view, the necessity of providing a counterpoise became admitted.
+Accordingly, one independent member proposed a state grant of £250,000 a
+year for the endowment of the catholic clergy, who might thus be
+indirectly bound over to good behaviour, while another proposed the
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders. Both of these bills were read
+a second time, but held over until the fate of the main relief bill
+should be determined. That bill passed the house of commons on May 10,
+1825, by a majority of twenty-one, and Peel tendered his resignation to
+Lord Liverpool.[86] Two days later, the Duke of York, on presenting a
+petition against the bill in the house of lords, delivered another
+speech which fell like a thunder-clap on the country, and has been
+celebrated ever since as an audacious breach of constitutional usage. In
+this speech, he justified the inflexible attitude of his father, whose
+mental disorder he expressly attributed to the agitation of the catholic
+question. He concluded by declaring that his principles were the same,
+imbibed in early youth and confirmed by mature reflection, and that he
+would maintain them up to the latest moment of his existence, "whatever
+might be his situation in life". It is certain that, in thus pledging
+himself, he acted without having consulted the king, who somewhat
+resented so direct an allusion to his prospect of succession. Still, the
+sensation produced by the duke's utterance was prodigious, and he
+remained the favourite champion of the protestant cause until his death.
+Brougham attacked him with furious sarcasm in the commons, but the lords
+threw out Burdett's relief bill by a majority of forty-eight, and the
+No-popery cry influenced the general election of 1826. In that year no
+further effort was made by the friends of catholic claims, but O'Connell
+showed his growing power in Ireland by exciting a political revolt of
+the peasantry at Waterford, and procuring the defeat of Lord George
+Beresford.
+
+[Pageheading: _CATHOLIC RELIEF._]
+
+In the session of 1827, before Canning succeeded Lord Liverpool, Burdett
+renewed his motion of 1825 on the catholic question, but found himself
+defeated by four votes. The division had taken place in a full house,
+after the fierce encounter, already mentioned, between Copley and
+Canning; but it cannot be regarded as a decisive token of contrast
+between the old and the new parliament, since relief was now claimed
+without any mention of "securities". The subject was in abeyance during
+the short administrations of Canning and Goderich, but was raised again
+by Burdett in May, 1828, after the repeal of the test and corporation
+acts. The number of votes on the catholic side, 272, was the same as in
+1827, that on the protestant side, 266, was less by ten, the result
+being a majority of six for the motion. A similar resolution was lost in
+the house of lords, as a matter of course; but the language held by the
+new lord chancellor, Lyndhurst, and by Wellington himself, as prime
+minister, prepared observant men for an impending change of policy. Then
+followed the Clare election, which revealed nothing which might not have
+been foreseen, but which had the same effect in precipitating the
+removal of catholic disabilities as the Irish famine afterwards had in
+precipitating the repeal of the corn laws.
+
+We now know that Peel had made up his mind to yield shortly after the
+Clare election,[87] partly influenced by the alarming reports of
+Anglesey, the Irish lord-lieutenant, on the state of Ireland. We also
+know that Wellington himself was more than half convinced of the
+necessity of concession, and was preparing to strengthen his government
+for the coming struggle, in the event of Peel feeling bound to retire.
+Meanwhile a vacancy in the ministry had been created by the Duke of
+Clarence's resignation of his office of lord high admiral. In spite of
+the limitations imposed on his power, he had insisted on hoisting his
+flag, and assumed command. For this he was severely reprehended by the
+king and Wellington, and was virtually forced to resign office. Melville
+now became once more first lord of the admiralty, and was succeeded by
+Ellenborough at the board of control. Ellenborough retained his former
+office of lord privy seal, which Wellington was holding in reserve with
+a view to strengthening the government. But the public of those days
+remained in entire ignorance of their intentions until the meeting of
+parliament on February 5, 1829.
+
+The speech of George Dawson, Peel's brother-in-law, at Derry, on August
+12, had greatly startled protestants. As it was never publicly
+disavowed, Brunswick clubs were formed to repel the rising tide of
+sympathy with the catholics, but the only tangible indication of
+Wellington's personal sentiments favoured the belief that nothing would
+be done. The circumstances under which this indication was given were
+peculiar. The duke had written a letter to the Roman catholic archbishop
+of Dublin, an old correspondent, deprecating agitation on the catholic
+question, as likely to prejudice its future settlement, of which,
+however, the duke saw "no prospect".[88] This letter was improperly
+sent by the archbishop to O'Connell as well as to Anglesey. O'Connell
+read it to the Catholic Association as a sign of conciliatory
+inclinations; Anglesey's reply suggested, at least, that agitation might
+continue. He was promptly recalled, and his recall was rendered the more
+significant by the appointment of the Duke of Northumberland, a known
+"protestant," as his successor. What the public could not then know was
+that behind all other difficulties, political or personal, lay the
+almost insuperable difficulty of inducing the king to allow the cabinet
+to be even consulted. Indolent and unprincipled as George IV. was, he
+was still capable of rousing and asserting himself. Probably no one but
+Wellington could have prevailed against his anti-catholic prejudices,
+shared, as they were, not only by most of the peers, both spiritual and
+temporal, but also by the mass of the English people. At this juncture
+Peel informed the duke that, rather than risk the success of the
+proposed measure, he would remain at his post. His example was followed
+by his "protestant" colleagues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE INTRODUCTION OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+During the winter of 1828-29 the strongest pressure was brought to bear
+on the king by his ministers to procure his consent to a measure of
+relief, accompanied by safeguards. Though he afterwards assured Eldon
+that he had never explicitly given such a consent, the old chancellor,
+on seeing the documents, felt obliged to express a contrary opinion. It
+is certain that he gave way most reluctantly, and probable that his
+scruples were as sincere as was consistent with his character; but he
+knew well that, if he dismissed his ministers, he would be left
+isolated, and he bowed to necessity. Indeed even the "protestant"
+members of the cabinet had urged him to yield. His assent was, in fact,
+only given by degrees; after each member of the cabinet, who had
+previously opposed catholic emancipation, had had a separate interview,
+the king consented on January 15 to the consideration of the subject by
+the cabinet, but reserved the right to reject its advice. After this no
+great difficulty was experienced in obtaining the royal assent to the
+introduction of a bill.[89] Accordingly the king's speech, delivered by
+commission on February 5, 1829, distinctly recommended parliament to
+consider whether the civil disabilities of the catholics could not be
+removed "consistently with the full and permanent security of our
+establishments in Church and State". This recommendation, however, was
+preceded by a severe condemnation of the Catholic Association and the
+expression of a resolution to put down the disorders caused by it. The
+sensation produced by the king's speech was increased by the
+simultaneous resignation by Peel of his seat for the university of
+Oxford. Considering that he was originally preferred to Canning mainly
+on protestant grounds, he could not have honourably acted otherwise.
+Many of his old friends stood by him, in spite of differences on the
+catholic question, and Eldon's grandson, who had been proposed as a
+candidate, was set aside as too weak an opponent. Ultimately Sir Robert
+Inglis was put forward by the "protestants," and was returned by 755
+votes against 609. Peel obtained a seat for the borough of Westbury,[90]
+and moved a preliminary bill for suppressing the Catholic Association.
+This passed both houses in February, but was already ineffective when it
+became law, since the association had been shrewd enough to dissolve
+itself upon the advice of its English well-wishers. The catholic relief
+bill was therefore introduced under favourable auspices.
+
+The motives which actuated Wellington and Peel in espousing the cause
+which they had so persistently opposed admit of no doubt whatever. In
+the memoir which Peel left as embodying his own defence, no less than in
+his speech introducing the emancipation bill, he affects no essential
+change of conviction. He rests his case entirely on the public danger of
+leaving the question "unsettled" after the disclosures of the Clare
+election, and argues calmly, as the agitators had been arguing for
+nearly thirty years, that no settlement was practicable short of
+complete, though not unconditional, surrender. There is no pretence of
+consistency. All the constitutional, political, and religious objections
+to civil equality between protestants and catholics in Ireland remained
+unanswered and unabated. Indeed the increasing power and defiant tone of
+the catholic demagogues might well have appeared a crowning reason for
+refusing them seats in parliament. Peel, however, had adopted, and
+pressed upon Wellington, the delusive opinion of Anglesey that by
+"taking them from the Association and placing them in the house of
+commons" they might be reduced to comparative impotence. He lamented, it
+is true, the premature announcement of a new policy by Dawson, and he
+had submitted his own resignation to the duke in the belief, apparently
+sincere, that he could render better service in an independent position.
+But he seems not to have felt the least scruple in urging the duke to
+break all his pledges to his protestant supporters, and conciliate the
+followers of O'Connell. Nor did his advice fall on unwilling ears.
+Trained in a vocation where private conscience is subordinate to
+military duty, where enemies must sometimes be welcomed as allies if it
+may further the plan of campaign, and where a masterly retreat is as
+honourable as a victory, Wellington did not shrink from undertaking the
+part of an opportunist minister. He had always regarded himself as a
+servant of the crown and the nation, rather than as a party leader, and
+he saw no personal difficulty in adopting any political measure as the
+less of two evils. Having once satisfied himself that civil war in
+Ireland was the only alternative to emancipation, he abandoned
+resistance to it as he would have abandoned a hopeless siege, and called
+upon his tory followers to change their front with him.
+
+Notice had been given of a resolution to be moved by Peel on March 5,
+preparing the way for the catholic relief bill, when the king raised
+fresh obstacles to its progress. As the day drew near, George,
+encouraged by the Duke of Cumberland, grew very excited. He had violent
+interviews with his ministers, and finally on March 3 he informed
+Wellington, Lyndhurst, and Peel that he could not assent to any
+alteration in the oath of supremacy. The three ministers accordingly
+tendered their resignations, which were accepted. But the king soon
+found that no alternative administration was possible, and on the
+following day the existing ministers received permission to proceed with
+the bill.[91]
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE RELIEF BILL._]
+
+Peel's great speech on March 5, in favour of his resolution, contains a
+comprehensive review of the Irish question, as well as an elaborate
+defence of his own position, resting solely on grounds of expediency. He
+advocated the measure itself as the only means of pacifying Ireland,
+reducing the undue power of the catholics, and securing the protestant
+religion. It was simple in its main outlines, applying to the whole
+United Kingdom, and purporting to open all political and civil rights to
+catholics, with a very few specified exceptions. It contained, however,
+a number of provisions, in the nature of securities against catholic
+aggression. By the new oath, to be substituted for the oaths of
+allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, a member of parliament, or holder
+of an office, was no longer required to renounce transubstantiation, the
+invocation of saints, or the sacrifice of the mass. But he was still
+obliged not only to swear allegiance, but to profess himself resolved to
+maintain the protestant settlement of the crown, to condemn absolutely
+all papal jurisdiction within the realm, and to disclaim solemnly any
+intention of subverting the existing Church establishment or weakening
+the system of protestant government. Moreover, priests were expressly
+denied the privilege of sitting in parliament. Catholics were still
+excluded from the high positions of sovereign, regent, lord chancellor
+of England or Ireland, and lord-lieutenant of Ireland. They were enabled
+to become ministers of the crown, but were debarred from the power of
+advising the crown on presentations to ecclesiastical dignities or
+benefices, nor were they allowed to exercise such patronage in their
+personal capacity. They were still to be disabled from holding offices
+in the ecclesiastical courts, or in the universities, and their bishops
+were forbidden to assume diocesan titles already appropriated by the
+establishment. Other clauses were directed against the use of catholic
+vestments except in their chapels and private houses, and against the
+importation of Jesuits or members of similar religious orders, with a
+saving clause for those already resident and duly registered. Two other
+safeguards, often proposed, were deliberately omitted from the bill.
+There was no provision for a state endowment of catholic priests, or for
+a veto of the crown on the appointment of catholic bishops. These
+omissions, whether justifiable or not, were pregnant with serious
+consequences.
+
+The debates in both houses on Peel's bill, as it was rightly considered,
+are chiefly interesting as throwing light on contemporary opinion. The
+arguments for and against it had been fairly exhausted in previous
+years, and would carry no great weight in a later age. The
+constitutional objections to it, which seemed vital to Eldon, and
+weighty to every statesman of his time, were at a later date put aside,
+when they were pleaded against the dissolution of the Irish church,
+directly guaranteed by the act of union. The criticisms on the personal
+consistency of Wellington and Peel belong to biography rather than to
+history. But no one can read the speeches of leading men on either side
+without recognising the superior foresight, at least, of those who
+opposed the bill, and distrusted the efficacy of the safeguards embodied
+in it. Two assumptions underlay the whole discussion, and were treated
+as axioms by nearly all the speakers. The one was that catholic
+emancipation must be judged by its effect on the future peace of
+Ireland; the other, that it could not be justified, unless it would
+strengthen, rather than weaken, protestant ascendency, then regarded as
+a bulwark of the constitution. Posterity may contemplate it from a
+different and perhaps higher point of view; but it is certain that, if
+its consequences had been foreseen by those who voted upon it, the bill
+would have been rejected. It is no less certain that its adoption was a
+victory of the educated classes, represented by nomination-boroughs,
+over the unrepresented masses of the people.
+
+The actual result in the division lists was all that its promoters could
+have desired. Though the secret had been so well kept by the government
+that few of its supporters knew what to expect, and though piles of
+petitions showed the preponderance of protestant sentiment outside
+parliament, that sentiment was not reflected in the division lists. The
+first reading of the bill in the house of commons was carried by a
+majority of 348 to 160; the second reading by a majority of 353 to 180;
+the third reading by a majority of 320 to 142. The debates were
+enlivened on the protestant side by a brilliant speech from Michael
+Sadler, a tory friend of the working classes, returned by the Duke of
+Newcastle for Newark, and a violent invective from Sir Charles
+Wetherell, the attorney-general, who was thereupon dismissed from
+office. Peel, who had borne the brunt of these attacks, replied on March
+30, when the bill was sent up to the lords, and on April 2, the second
+reading of it in the upper house was moved by Wellington. His candid
+admission that he was driven to concession by the fear of civil war has
+since become historical, and served as the watchword of many a lawless
+agitation in Ireland. It was natural that most of the peers, and
+especially of the spiritual peers, who took part in the discussion
+should be opponents of the measure, but Lloyd, Bishop of Oxford, severed
+himself from the rest of his order, and vigorous speeches were made in
+support of it by Anglesey and Grey, neither of whom could be regarded as
+friendly to Wellington's government.
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+Anglesey, who had been recently dismissed from the lord-lieutenancy of
+Ireland, went beyond the duke in the use of purely military arguments;
+Grey ventured to prophesy not only a future reign of peace in Ireland,
+but an extension of protestantism, as the consequence of catholic
+emancipation. The hopeless attempt of Lyndhurst to vindicate his own
+consistency, and a forensic duel between Eldon and Plunket, who had been
+raised to the peerage in 1827, relieved the monotony of the debate, but
+probably did not influence a single vote. The old guard of the
+anti-catholic party remained firm, but the mass of tory peers followed
+their leader in his new policy, as they had followed him in his old, and
+the relief bill was read a third time in the house of lords on the 10th,
+by a majority of 104. Three days later it received the royal assent.
+Lord Eldon had virtually encouraged the king to refuse this, at the last
+moment, though he was too honest to accept the assurance of George IV.
+that the bill was introduced without his authority. But the son of
+George III. had not inherited his father's resolute character. After a
+few childish threats of retiring to Hanover and leaving the Duke of
+Clarence to make terms with the ministry, he abandoned further
+resistance and capitulated to Wellington, as Wellington had capitulated
+to O'Connell.
+
+The disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders and the
+substitution of a ten-pound suffrage was the price to be paid for
+catholic emancipation, and no time was lost in completing the bargain.
+In days when it is assumed that every change in the electoral franchise
+must needs be in a downward direction, it may well appear amazing that
+so wholesale a destruction of privileges enjoyed for thirty-six years
+should have provoked so feeble an opposition. It is still more amazing
+that it should have passed without a protest from O'Connell himself, who
+had solemnly vowed to perish on the field or on the scaffold rather than
+submit to it. Yet so it was. These ignorant voters, it is true, had
+never ventured to call their souls their own, and had only ceased to be
+the servile creatures of their landlords in order to become the servile
+creatures of their priests. Still, it was they who, by their action in
+the Waterford and Clare elections, had forced the hand of the
+government, and achieved catholic emancipation. It may safely be said
+that after the reform act of 1832 it would have been politically
+impossible to disfranchise them; and even in the unreformed parliament
+it would have been scarcely possible if gratitude were a trustworthy
+motive in politics. On the other hand, the government could never have
+secured a majority for catholic emancipation, unless it had been
+distinctly understood to carry with it the extinction of democracy in
+Ireland. This, rather than declarations and restrictions of doubtful
+efficacy, was the real "security" on which the legislature relied for
+disarming the disloyalty of Irish catholics. For some time it answered
+its purpose so far as to keep the representation of that disloyalty
+within safe limits in the house of commons. But it naturally produced a
+contrary effect in Ireland itself, and was destined to be swept away
+before a fresh wave of agitation.
+
+A few days before the relief bill passed the house of commons an episode
+occurred which is chiefly interesting for the light which it throws on
+the ideas then prevalent in the highest society. In 1828 Wellington had
+presided at a meeting for the establishment of King's College, London,
+an institution which was to be entirely under the influence of the
+established church, and which was intended as a counterpoise to the
+purely secular institution which had been recently founded under the
+title of the "London University". The Earl of Winchilsea, a peer of no
+personal importance, but a stalwart upholder of Church and State,
+published in the _Standard_ newspaper of March 16, 1829, a virulent
+letter, describing the whole transaction "as a blind to the protestant
+and high church party," and accusing the prime minister of insidious
+designs for the introduction of popery in every department of the state.
+The duke at once sent Hardinge with a note couched in moderate language,
+demanding an apology. Winchilsea made no apology, but offered to express
+regret for having mistaken the duke's motives, if the duke would declare
+that when he presided at the meeting in question he was not
+contemplating any measure of catholic relief. Whereupon the duke
+demanded "that satisfaction which a gentleman has a right to require,
+and which a gentleman never refuses to give". A hostile meeting took
+place on March 21 in Battersea fields. The duke intentionally fired
+wide, and Winchilsea, after discharging his weapon in the air, tendered
+a written apology, in conformity with the so-called rules of honour. The
+duke was conscious that his conduct must have "shocked many good men,"
+but he always maintained that it was the only way, and proved an
+effectual way, of dispelling the atmosphere of calumny in which he was
+surrounded. It is probable that he judged rightly of his contemporaries,
+and that he gained rather than lost in reputation by an act which, apart
+from its moral aspect, risked the success of a great measure largely
+depending on the continuance of his own life. It may be noticed that he
+afterwards became not only the personal friend of his antagonist, but
+the most influential member of the Anti-Duelling Association.[92]
+
+[Pageheading: _EXCLUSION OF O'CONNELL._]
+
+Another episode, or rather sequel, of the great contest on catholic
+relief had more serious political consequences. Though O'Connell was the
+undoubted leader of the movement, and might almost have claimed to be
+the father of the act, he was most unwisely but deliberately excluded
+from its benefits. His exclusion was effected by a clause which rendered
+its operation strictly prospective, for the very purpose of shutting out
+the one catholic who had been elected under the old law. It had been
+decided by a committee of the house of commons that he was duly
+returned, the only question being whether he could take his seat without
+subscribing the oath now abolished. This question was brought to a test
+by the appearance of O'Connell in person in the house itself. The
+speaker, Charles Manners-Sutton, declared that he could not properly be
+admitted to be sworn under the new law, upon which O'Connell claimed a
+hearing. A long and futile discussion followed as to whether he should
+be heard at the table or at the bar. In the end he was heard at the bar,
+and produced a very favourable impression upon his opponents as well as
+his friends by the ingenuity of his arguments and the studied moderation
+of his tone. His case, however, was manifestly untenable from a legal
+point of view, and a new writ was ordered to be issued for the county of
+Clare.
+
+Then was shown both the folly of stirring up so needlessly the
+inflammable materials of Irish sedition and the futility of imagining
+that catholic emancipation, right or wrong, would prove a healing
+measure. Having exhibited the better side of his character in his speech
+before the house of commons, O'Connell exhibited its worst side without
+stint or shame in his addresses to the Irish peasantry. Skilfully
+avoiding the language of sheer treason, he set no bounds to his coarse
+and outrageous vituperation of the nation which had sacrificed even its
+conscience to appease Ireland; nor did he shrink from denouncing
+Wellington and Peel as "those men who, false to their own party, can
+never be true to us". The note which he struck has never ceased to
+vibrate in the hearts of the excitable people which he might have
+educated into loyal citizenship, and the spirit which he evoked has been
+the evil genius of Ireland from his day to our own. He openly unfurled
+the standard of repeal, but the repeal he demanded did not involve the
+creation of an Irish republic. Ireland was still to be connected with
+Great Britain by "the golden link of the crown," and though agitation
+was carried to the verge of rebellion, the great agitator never actually
+advised his dupes to rise in arms for a war of independence. Short of
+this he did all in his power, and with too much success, to inflame them
+with a malignant hatred of the sister country. If the promoters of
+catholic emancipation had ever looked for any reward beyond the inward
+satisfaction of having done a righteous act, they were speedily and
+wofully undeceived.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[83] Wellington to Peel, January 9, 1828, in Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_,
+ii., 27.
+
+[84] Lecky, _History of Ireland_, v., 358-60, _n._; Stapleton, _Life of
+Canning_, ii., 131-34.
+
+[85] Eldon to Sir William Scott, Twiss, _Life of Eldon_, ii., 416. For
+Eldon's Speech, see Twiss, iii., 498-512.
+
+[86] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, i., 372-75.
+
+[87] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 54-60.
+
+[88] Wellington to Curtis, December 11, 1828, Wellington, _Despatches,
+etc._, v., 326.
+
+[89] For the king's qualified assent see Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+82-85; Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 297, 298, 310.
+
+[90] See Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 3, for his unpopularity at Westbury.
+
+[91] Peel's _Memoirs_, i., 343-49; Greville, _Memoirs_, i., 189, 190,
+201, 202.
+
+[92] See Maxwell, _Life of Wellington_, ii., 231-36, for the incident.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XII.
+
+ PORTUGAL AND GREECE.
+
+
+It is now time to turn to the general course of foreign policy during
+the closing years of the reign of George IV. The only foreign problems
+which gave serious trouble during this period were the Eastern and
+Portuguese questions. The influence which the former exercised on
+domestic policy has rendered it necessary to trace its course as far as
+the battle of Navarino in the last chapter. We must now take up the
+other question where we left it, at the recognition of the independence
+of Brazil and the expulsion of the Spanish troops from the mainland of
+America.
+
+Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, though an independent sovereign, was still
+heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal, and the ultra-royalists hoped
+that, in spite of the provisions of the Brazilian constitution, his
+succession to his ancestral crown would restore the unity of the
+Portuguese dominions. The death of King John VI. on March 10, 1826,
+brought the matter to a crisis. Four days before his death he had
+appointed a council of regency which was to be presided over by his
+daughter, Isabella Maria, but from which the queen and Dom Miguel, then
+twenty-three, were both excluded. By this act the absolutist party were
+deprived of power until they should be restored to it by the action of
+the new king, or by a revolution. The regency wished the new king to
+make a speedy choice between the two crowns; and it was anticipated that
+he would abdicate the Portuguese crown in favour of his seven-year-old
+daughter, Maria da Gloria. The absolutists on the other hand hoped that
+the king might by procrastination avoid the separation of the crowns.
+
+What was their surprise when they discovered that the king had indeed
+determined to procrastinate, but in such a way as to displease the
+absolutists as much as the friends of constitutional government? No
+sooner had the news of his father's death reached Peter at Rio Janeiro,
+than he issued a charter of 145 clauses, conferring a constitution on
+Portugal. This constitution which was destined to alternate for nearly a
+generation with absolute monarchy or with the revolutionary constitution
+of 1821, had the advantage of being the voluntary gift of the king. It
+was, however, composed in great haste, and, except that it retained the
+hereditary nobility as a first chamber in the cortes, was almost
+identical with the constitution established in Brazil in the previous
+December. Among other provisions it subjected the nobility to taxation
+and asserted the principle of religious toleration. A few days later, on
+the 2nd of May, King Peter executed an act of abdication in favour of
+his daughter Maria, providing, however, that the abdication should not
+come into effect until the necessary oaths had been taken to the new
+constitution and until the new queen should have been married to her
+uncle, Dom Miguel.
+
+[Pageheading: _CIVIL WAR IN PORTUGAL._]
+
+This compromise pleased nobody. It is true that it seemed to make
+permanent the separation of Brazil from Portugal, since the former state
+was destined for Peter's infant son, afterwards Peter II.; but the
+Brazilian patriots would have preferred a more definite abandonment of
+the Portuguese throne, and Peter's half-measure of abdication was one of
+the main causes of the discontent which drove him to resign the
+Brazilian crown five years later. The Portuguese liberals were alarmed
+at the prospect of a restoration of Dom Miguel to power, while the
+absolutists were indignant at the imposition of a constitution. From the
+very first it encountered opposition. The new constitution was indeed
+proclaimed on July 13, and the necessary oaths were taken on the 31st.
+But on the same day a party, consisting mainly of Portuguese deserters
+in Spanish territory, proclaimed Miguel as king and the queen-mother as
+regent during his absence. Miguel, however, gave no open support to this
+party; on October 4 he actually took the oath to the new constitution,
+and on the 29th he formally betrothed himself at Vienna to the future
+Queen of Portugal. But the Portuguese insurgents were not deterred by
+the apparent defection of the prince whose claim to reign they
+asserted, and they received a thinly disguised encouragement from the
+Spanish government, which certainly did nothing to interfere with their
+organisation in Spanish territory. On the 10th the last insurgents had
+been expelled from Portuguese territory, but in November they were
+openly joined by some Spanish soldiers, and on the 22nd of that month
+they invaded the Portuguese province of Traz-os-Montes. Another division
+made a simultaneous irruption into the province of Alemtejo. This latter
+body was quickly expelled from the kingdom and marched through Spanish
+territory to join its more successful comrades in Northern Portugal. The
+whole province of Traz-os-Montes had fallen into the hands of the
+absolutists in a few days, and its defection was followed by that of the
+northern part of Beira, when the arrival of British forces gave the
+constitutional party the necessary encouragement to enable them to
+arrest the progress of the insurrection.
+
+As in 1823, the Portuguese government, represented in London by
+Palmella, applied for British assistance against the ultra-royalists at
+home. But on the present occasion Portugal was able to appeal to
+something more than the general friendship of Great Britain. By the
+treaties of 1661 and 1703, renewed as recently as 1815, Great Britain
+was bound to defend Portugal against invasion, and Portugal now claimed
+the fulfilment of these treaties. The formal demand was received by the
+British ministry on December 3, but it was not till Friday, the 8th,
+that official intelligence was received of the invasion. Not a moment
+was lost in despatching 5,000 troops to Portugal. This resolution was
+formed by the cabinet on the 9th, approved by the king on the 10th, and
+communicated to parliament on the 11th. On the evening of the 12th
+Canning was able to inform the house of commons that the troops were
+already on the march for embarkation.
+
+The debate in the house of commons on the address in answer to the royal
+message announcing the request of the Portuguese government, was the
+occasion of two of the most famous speeches that Canning ever delivered.
+After recounting the treaty obligations of this country to Portugal, and
+the circumstances of the Portuguese application for assistance, and
+disclaiming any desire to meddle with the domestic politics of
+Portugal, he referred to a previous anticipation that the next European
+war would be one "not so much of armies as of opinions". "Not four
+years," he proceeded, "have elapsed, and behold my apprehension
+realised! It is, to be sure, within narrow limits that this war of
+opinion is at present confined: but it is a war of opinion that Spain
+(whether as government or as nation) is now waging against Portugal; it
+is a war which has commenced in hatred of the new institutions of
+Portugal. How long is it reasonable to expect that Portugal will abstain
+from retaliation? If into that war this country shall be compelled to
+enter, we shall enter into it with a sincere and anxious desire to
+mitigate rather than exasperate, and to mingle only in the conflict of
+arms, not in the more fatal conflict of opinions. But I much fear that
+this country (however earnestly she may endeavour to avoid it) could
+not, in such case, avoid seeing ranked under her banners all the
+restless and dissatisfied of any nation with which she might come in
+conflict. It is the contemplation of this new power in any future war
+which excites my most anxious apprehension. It is one thing to have a
+giant's strength, but it would be another to use it like a giant. The
+consciousness of such strength is undoubtedly a source of confidence and
+security; but in the situation in which this country stands, our
+business is not to seek opportunities of displaying it, but to content
+ourselves with letting the professors of violent and exaggerated
+doctrines on both sides feel that it is not their interests to convert
+an umpire into an adversary."
+
+In his reply at the close of the debate Canning vindicated his
+consistency in resisting Spanish aggression upon Portugal, while
+offering no resistance to the military occupation of Spain by France,
+which had not yet terminated. He pointed out that the Spain of his day
+was quite different from "the Spain within the limits of whose empire
+the sun never set--the Spain 'with the Indies' that excited the
+jealousies and alarmed the imaginations of our ancestors". He admitted
+that the entry of the French into Spain was a disparagement to the pride
+of England, but he thought it had been possible to obtain compensation
+without offering resistance in Spain itself. Then came the famous
+passage: "If France occupied Spain, was it necessary, in order to avoid
+the consequences of that occupation, that we should blockade Cadiz? No.
+I looked another way--I sought materials of compensation in another
+hemisphere. Contemplating Spain, such as our ancestors had known her, I
+resolved that if France had Spain, it should not be Spain 'with the
+Indies'. I called the new world into existence to redress the balance of
+the old."[93]
+
+[Pageheading: _TROOPS SENT TO PORTUGAL._]
+
+The two speeches were greeted with applause both in parliament and in
+the country, but their vanity was excessive. So far from "creating the
+new world," Canning had merely recognised the existence of states which
+had already won their own independence, and even so he was only
+following the example of the United States. It was not only extremely
+foolish, but altogether disingenuous, to maintain that the recognition
+of the South American republics had been resolved on as a counterpoise
+to French influence in Spain. The reasons which prompted this
+recognition were commercial, not political, and it had been announced to
+the powers as our ultimate policy before any invasion of Spain had taken
+place. The king had only consented to the step on condition that it was
+not to be represented as a measure of retaliation, and Canning himself
+when he delivered these speeches knew that the French had promised to
+evacuate Spain in the following April.[94] But however little justified
+by facts, the two speeches made a profound impression throughout Europe.
+Whatever Canning might desire, it was quite clear that he contemplated
+the possibility of a military alliance between this country and the
+revolutionary factions on the continent, and the impression gained
+ground that he desired to pose as the champion of liberalism against
+legitimate government.
+
+The first detachment of the British army reached Lisbon on Christmas
+day. It was not destined, however, to play an active part in the
+Portuguese struggle. The insurgent army was as greatly discouraged as
+the loyal troops were elated by its arrival, and the government was
+moreover enabled to employ a larger force on the scene of hostilities.
+The insurgents were in consequence driven out of the province of Beira
+and the greater part of Traz-os-Montes. A new invasion from Spanish
+territory, supported by some Spanish soldiers and Spanish artillery,
+took place during January, 1827. The greater part of the province of the
+Minho fell into the hands of the rebels, and on February 2 they captured
+the important town of Braga. But the forces of the regency proved too
+strong for them, and early in March the insurgents evacuated Portugal
+altogether. The Spanish government, now that little could be effected by
+further assistance to the Portuguese refugees, determined at length to
+perform the duties of a neutral power, and disarmed them.
+
+The British troops remained in Portugal till March, 1828. By that time
+the disturbances had assumed a purely domestic character, and it was
+ultimately decided to recall them. But a firmer policy than that
+actually followed would have been necessary in order to extricate Great
+Britain from the strife of Portuguese factions, in which her recent
+action had given a decided advantage to the constitutional party. That
+party had been driven into opposition before the British troops were
+recalled. On July 3, 1827, King Peter had issued a decree appointing Dom
+Miguel his lieutenant, and investing him with all the powers which
+belonged to him as king under the charter. Miguel, after visiting
+London, arrived at Lisbon on February 22, 1828, and was sworn in as
+regent four days later. As he was twenty-five years old, and therefore
+of full age according to Portuguese law, he could not with any show of
+equity have been kept out of the regency longer. Miguel's installation
+as regent was followed by a series of riots as well on the part of the
+absolutists, who desired to make him king, as on the part of the
+constitutionalists who feared that he would make himself king. It was
+not long before he definitely identified himself with the absolutist
+party.
+
+[Pageheading: _MIGUEL'S USURPATION._]
+
+On March 14 the cortes were dissolved. On May 3 Miguel summoned the
+ancient cortes in his own name, and on June 26 they acknowledged him as
+king. The immediate result of this act was that all the ambassadors,
+except those of Spain and the Holy See, quitted Lisbon, and the lapse of
+time did not induce them to change their attitude towards Miguel. A
+further complication was introduced by Peter's definite abdication in
+favour of his daughter on March 3, executed before he had any suspicion
+of Miguel's designs, which placed Miguel in the position of regent for
+his infant niece instead of for his brother. After this formal
+abdication Peter despatched his daughter to Europe, intending that she
+should proceed to Vienna. When, however, she arrived at Gibraltar on
+September 2, her conductors, hearing of Miguel's usurpation, determined
+to take her to England, and she landed at Falmouth on the 24th. Peter,
+on hearing of Miguel's usurpation, naturally considered the regency
+terminated, and claimed to act as the guardian of the infant queen; the
+Brazilian ministers in Europe acted as his agents, while his partisans
+assembled in England and attempted to use this country as a basis for
+warlike operations in Portuguese territories.
+
+The situation of 1826 was thus reversed. Instead of an ultra-royalist
+party resting on Spain, a constitutionalist party resting on Brazil and
+attempting to rest on England was now threatening the established
+government at Lisbon. Wellington was anxious to maintain a strict
+neutrality, but he failed to prevent a ship of war and supplies of arms
+and ammunition going from Plymouth to Terceira in the Azores, where
+Donna Maria was acknowledged as queen. He succeeded, however, in
+preventing a larger armament, which had been raised under the name of
+the Emperor of Brazil, with Rio Janeiro as its nominal destination, from
+landing at Terceira. This action, though the logical consequence of the
+British opposition to the conduct of Spain in 1826, was severely
+criticised in England as equivalent to an intervention on behalf of
+Miguel.
+
+Meanwhile Canning's attempt to prevent the separate action of Russia in
+the Eastern question had been doomed to disappointment. The destruction
+of the Turkish navy at Navarino was naturally regarded at Constantinople
+as an outrage, and the Porte demanded satisfaction from the ambassadors
+of the allied powers. This they refused to grant on the ground that the
+Turks had been the aggressors, and they in their turn demanded an
+armistice between the Turkish troops and the Greek insurgents. As the
+Porte remained obdurate, the ambassadors of France, Great Britain, and
+Russia, acting in accordance with their instructions, left
+Constantinople on December 8, 1827. But though war seemed imminent, the
+tsar still disowned all idea of conquest, and professed to desire
+nothing further than the execution of the treaty of London. A protocol
+was accordingly signed on the 12th by which the three powers confirmed
+a clause in the treaty, providing that, in the event of war, none of
+them should derive any exclusive benefit, either commercial or
+territorial.
+
+The British government imagined that the powers might still effect their
+object by diplomacy, and that it would not be necessary to abandon the
+Turkish alliance. But any such idea must have been rudely shaken by the
+hati-sherif of December 20. In that document the sultan enlarged on the
+cruelty and perfidy of the Christian powers and summoned the Muslim
+nations to arms: he denounced Russia in particular as the prime mover of
+the Greek rebellion, the instigator of the other powers, and the
+arch-enemy of Islam; and he declared the treaty of Akkerman, by which
+the outstanding disputes between Russia and the Porte had been settled
+in October, 1826, to have been extorted by force and only signed in
+order to save time. This defiance of Russia, if not of all Christendom,
+was followed by a levy of Turkish troops and the expulsion of most of
+the Christian residents from Constantinople. No course was now open to
+Russia but to make war. It remained to be seen whether any other power
+would join her. On January 6, 1828, a Russian despatch announced the
+tsar's intention of occupying the Danubian principalities, and suggested
+that France and Great Britain should force the Dardanelles and thus
+compel the Porte to comply with the provisions of the treaty of London.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON'S EASTERN POLICY._]
+
+It is possible that if the direction of British foreign policy had
+remained in the hands of Goderich and Dudley, our government might have
+lent its support to a settlement of the Eastern question which would in
+effect have been the work of Russia only. The more daring policy of
+Canning, by which Great Britain had attempted to take the lead as
+opportunity offered, either in active co-operation with Russia or in
+active opposition to her, could only be directed by a more versatile
+statesman than the nation now possessed. The accession to office of
+Wellington, though it left Dudley at the foreign office, was really
+marked by a return to the policy of Castlereagh, a policy which, if not
+brilliant, was at least honourable, consistent, and considerate, and
+which in the hands of Wellington was managed with a sufficient measure
+of firmness, though with less tact and insight than had been shown by
+Castlereagh. The first object of this policy was to keep the special
+grievances of Russia distinct from the complaints which Europe at large
+or, in the present situation, the three allied powers were able to bring
+against the Porte. By so doing the British government hoped to prevent
+Russia from dragging other powers into a war for her private benefit,
+and also to render it impossible for Russia to use her special
+grievances as a lever by which she might effect a separate settlement of
+the general question. For some years this policy was successful. Russia
+did indeed wage a separate war with the Turks, but the Greek question
+was settled by the three powers conjointly, and Great Britain rather
+than Russia took the lead in the settlement. It was only after
+Palmerston had succeeded to the direction of our foreign policy in 1830,
+that it was discovered how far the victory of Russia in war had placed
+her in a position to dictate the general policy of the Ottoman court.
+
+Wellington experienced no difficulty in striking out a line of policy
+along which he could carry France with him. On February 21 De la
+Ferronays, who had been recalled from the French embassy at St.
+Petersburg to occupy the post of foreign minister in the new liberal
+administration, which had been formed in France in December, 1827,
+despatched a note urging the immediate employment of energetic measures
+against the Porte. He saw that the hati-sherif gave special occasion of
+war to Russia, and he was naturally anxious to anticipate her isolated
+action by combined measures of coercion. He had, however, nothing better
+to suggest than the execution of the Russian proposals of January 6.
+Wellington, in his reply, dated the 26th, rightly minimised the
+seriousness of the hati-sherif, and characterised the proposed measures
+of coercion as destined to be ineffectual. He also expressed the fear
+that if the three powers combined to make war on the Turks there would
+be a general insurrection of the subject races in the Turkish dominions
+which might last indefinitely. He therefore proposed first to settle the
+Greek question by local pressure, after which he anticipated no serious
+trouble about events at Constantinople. On the same day he drafted a
+memorandum to the cabinet in which he proposed that the allied squadrons
+should proceed to the Archipelago, blockade the Morea and Alexandria,
+destroy the Greek pirates, stop the warfare in Chios and Crete, and call
+upon the Greek government to withdraw the forces which were operating
+in western and eastern Greece respectively under the command of two
+foreign volunteers, General Church and Colonel Fabvier. In other words,
+he proposed to coerce not the Porte but the actual combatants, Greece
+and Egypt, and to check each party where it was the aggressor. If the
+prime object of the government in the eastern question was the
+maintenance of order, these proposals were excellent. The one capital
+defect of the whole scheme was that it ignored the Russian desire for
+war, which rendered it impossible for the tsar to postpone the
+settlement of his own grievances until an arrangement should be come to
+on the Greek question; on the other hand, by isolating the Greek
+question, it left it possible for the western powers to proceed with its
+solution in spite of the outbreak of hostilities between Russia and the
+Turks.[95]
+
+[Pageheading: _WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND TURKEY._]
+
+Russia's determination to act singly was, however, already made. On the
+same day, February 26, on which Wellington sketched his policy,
+Nesselrode issued a despatch declaring that war was inevitable,
+including among his reasons the repudiation of recent treaties by the
+Porte and the proclamation by it of a holy war. At the same time he
+endeavoured to disarm any possible opposition on the part of the powers
+by an invitation to them to make use of the coming war to carry out the
+treaty of London. In any case Russia would execute the treaty, but if
+she were left to herself, the manner of execution would be determined by
+her own convenience and interest.[96] So far Russia had done nothing
+directly inconsistent with the maintenance of her concert with France
+and Great Britain, whose representatives had been sitting in conference
+with hers at London since January, 1827. But the reference in this last
+note to the possibility of a settlement of the Greek question according
+to the convenience and interest of Russia appeared like a threat of
+breaking up the alliance in case France and Great Britain refused to
+send their fleets to the Mediterranean. At least Wellington so
+understood it, and, rather than be a party to the war, he dissolved the
+conference of London in the middle of March. But he soon found that by
+so doing he lost the co-operation of France, and he was therefore
+compelled to accept the assurances of Russia that she intended to keep
+within the limits of the treaty of London, and to regard the
+Mediterranean as a neutral area. The conference was in consequence
+reopened at the beginning of July. Meanwhile hostilities had actually
+begun between Russia and the Turks. Russia declared war on April 26. On
+May 7 her troops crossed the Pruth. They rapidly overran the Danubian
+provinces, and on June 7 crossed the Danube into Bulgaria. They were
+destined, however, to spend more than a year between the Danube and the
+Balkans before they could force their way into Rumelia.
+
+During the interval considerable progress was made with the settlement
+of the Greek question. The treaty of London in providing for the
+autonomy of Greece had specified no boundaries, and the first problem
+demanding the attention of the powers that had assumed the task of the
+settlement of Greece was to determine the limits within which that
+settlement was to be effected. It might be urged that all the Greeks who
+had accepted the armistice imposed by the powers in consequence of the
+treaty of London had a right to share in the settlement at which that
+treaty aimed. But the armistice had been broken by Greek attacks on
+Chios and Crete, and Wellington held that the powers were, in
+consequence, free from any obligation imposed by the nominal acceptance
+of the armistice. He, accordingly, desired to adopt the simple principle
+of granting the proposed autonomy to those parts of Greece in which the
+insurrection had proved successful, namely, the Morea and the Ægean
+Islands, and refusing it in Northern and Central Greece, where the
+Turkish forces still held their own. But the British cabinet was far
+from being unanimous; many, among whom Palmerston was specially
+prominent, urged the concession of a greatly increased territory. The
+changes which took place in the British ministry towards the end of May,
+1828, deprived Palmerston of his share in its deliberations, and by
+substituting Aberdeen for Dudley at the foreign office, placed our
+foreign relations under the direction of a man of talent and experience,
+who had already exercised an important influence on British policy and
+who was more in sympathy with the policy of the prime minister than
+Dudley had been, but who was not content, like Dudley, to be a mere
+cipher in the department over which he was called to preside. Aberdeen,
+though opposed to the narrow boundaries which Wellington wished to
+assign to liberated Greece, was no less antagonistic than his chief to
+any attempt to make the new Greek state politically important; and he
+was even of opinion that the Russian declaration of war had released
+Great Britain from any further obligation under the treaty of London.
+
+Such were the composition and policy of the British government when the
+conference of London reassembled in July. The differences between the
+powers had prevented any active intervention in Greece, since the battle
+of Navarino. The ports in the Morea, still occupied by Ibrahim, had
+indeed been blockaded, but it had been found impossible to induce
+Austrian vessels to acknowledge a blockade of such questionable
+legality, and the allied fleets had even permitted the embarkation of
+Ibrahim's sick and wounded together with 5,500 Greek prisoners, who were
+sold into slavery on their arrival at Alexandria. The renewal of the
+concert of the three powers was followed by a rapid change in the
+situation. On the 19th it was decided that France should send an
+expedition to expel the Turco-Egyptian troops from the Morea, while
+Great Britain should render her any naval assistance that might be
+necessary. This step was valued by the British government as definitely
+committing France to a share in the settlement of the Greek question,
+and therefore interesting that power in opposition to any attempt at a
+separate settlement by Russia. It also furnished a safe outlet for
+French military ardour, disappointed by the results of the Spanish
+expedition. In fact, the evacuation of Spain, which was in progress at
+the date when this agreement was concluded, materially reduced the
+strain which the new undertaking imposed upon the French government.
+France immediately prepared to send out a force amounting to nearly
+22,000 men. But before they could arrive, the greater part of their task
+had been performed by other hands.
+
+[Pageheading: _TURKS EXPELLED FROM THE MOREA._]
+
+Codrington's conduct in permitting the embarkation of the Turkish sick
+and wounded with their prisoners had given great dissatisfaction at
+home, and the cabinet had resolved on his recall before the ministerial
+crisis of the latter part of May. That crisis occasioned a fortnight's
+delay, and, in consequence, Codrington was able, before his successor
+arrived, to make a naval demonstration before Alexandria and on August 6
+to obtain the consent of Mehemet Ali to the following proposals: an
+exchange of prisoners was to take place, involving the liberation of
+the recently enslaved Greeks, and the Egyptian army was to be withdrawn
+from the Morea, but Ibrahim was to be allowed to leave behind 1,200
+Egyptian troops to help to garrison five fortresses which were held by
+the Turks. Before either the new London protocol or the Alexandria
+convention could be carried into effect, further differences had arisen.
+Russia had proclaimed a blockade of the Dardanelles and ordered her
+admiral to carry it out. This proceeding was regarded by the British
+government as a breach of faith and a menace to British commerce. It
+was, however, impossible to abandon co-operation with Russia for fear
+that the Greek question might become involved in the issues at stake
+between her and the Porte. Wellington, in consequence, contented himself
+with obtaining certain exemptions from the operation of the blockade on
+behalf of British subjects trading with Turkey, and with the exclusion
+of the Russian fleet from the operations conducted in the Mediterranean
+in accordance with the orders of the London conference. The French force
+for expelling the Egyptians from the Morea arrived almost simultaneously
+with the Egyptian transports for removing them. On October 5 Ibrahim set
+sail for Egypt, with 21,000 men, leaving 1,200 behind in the five
+fortresses in accordance with the terms settled at Alexandria. The
+French began their attack on the remaining fortresses two days later,
+and by the end of November had expelled all the Turks from the Morea. By
+the terms of their engagements, they ought now to have departed. But it
+was hardly to be expected that France would so readily abandon the
+advantage that the presence of her troops gave her in the settlement of
+the eastern question.
+
+Meanwhile the negotiations made slow progress. On November 16 a protocol
+was issued placing the Morea with the neighbouring islands under the
+guarantee of the powers. Wellington had opposed any extension of the
+guarantee to Central Greece on the ground that the allies had to provide
+both the necessary military force and the cost of maintaining the Greek
+government, so that any undertaking beyond the Morea would involve heavy
+expense without rendering lighter the task of maintaining order. But the
+real decision of the question lay not with the diplomatists at London,
+but with the diplomatists on the spot. Representatives of the three
+powers had been sent to Poros to make detailed arrangements in
+accordance with the terms of the treaty of London. Stratford Canning,
+who represented Great Britain, was one of the supporters of an extended
+frontier, and in the end the ambassadors at Poros drew up a protocol in
+favour of erecting Greece south of a line connecting the Gulfs of Arta
+and Volo into a hereditary principality, which was also to include
+nearly all the islands. Even Samos and Crete were recommended to the
+benevolent consideration of the courts. All Mohammedans were to be
+expelled from this territory. The tribute payable to Turkey was to be
+fixed at 1,500,000 piastres, but this was to be paid not to the Turkish
+government, but to those who might suffer pecuniary loss by the
+confiscation of lands hitherto owned by Mohammedans.
+
+[Pageheading: _PEACE OF ADRIANOPLE._]
+
+The spring of 1829 was marked by events which went far to cancel the
+arguments on which Wellington had based his case for a restricted
+frontier. Not only the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth but Acarnania
+and Ætolia were liberated by the Greek forces under Sir Richard Church
+the castle of Vonitza falling on March 17, Karavasara shortly
+afterwards, Lepanto on April 30, and Mesolongi on May 17.[97] Meanwhile
+the terms agreed upon at Poros had been adopted and further defined by
+the conference at London on March 22. It was now provided that the
+future hereditary prince was to be chosen by the three powers and the
+sultan conjointly, and that the terms were to be offered to the Porte by
+the British and French ambassadors in the name of the three powers; any
+Turkish objections were to be weighed.[98] It was not till June that
+Robert Gordon and Guilleminot, representing Great Britain and France
+respectively, were able to lay these proposals before the Porte, and it
+was only after a Russian army under Diebitsch had crossed the Balkans
+that the Porte on August 15 accepted them, and even then only with
+extensive modifications. These limited the new state to the Morea and
+the adjacent islands, and left the tribute assigned to the same purposes
+as before the revolt; a limit was to be set to the military and naval
+forces of Greece, and Greeks were not to be allowed to migrate from
+Turkish dominions to the new state.
+
+Wellington was of opinion that these concessions were adequate. He
+attached great importance to the consent of the Porte, to dispense with
+which seemed to him a sure method of encouraging a general revolt in the
+Turkish dominions; and he also advocated a limited frontier in the
+interests of the Ionian Islands. He doubted whether it would be found
+possible to remove Capodistrias, who had been elected president of
+Greece for a period of seven years on April 14, 1827, from his office to
+make room for a hereditary prince, and he felt sure that if Capodistrias
+were once granted Central Greece he would not hesitate to attempt the
+conquest of the Ionian Islands. Capodistrias had in fact refused to
+accept any of the arrangements proposed by the London conference, and
+was still engaged in the vigorous prosecution of the war. Wellington did
+not, however, succeed in inducing France and Russia to remain content
+with the Turkish concessions. Diebitsch's successful march through
+Rumelia encouraged Russia to demand more, and filled the minds of the
+French ministers with the wildest schemes of aggression. They actually
+proposed to Russia that the northern part of the Balkan peninsula should
+be divided between Austria and Russia while the whole peninsula south of
+the Balkans, with Bulgaria to the north, was to be formed into a new
+state under the sovereignty of the King of the Netherlands, whose
+hereditary dominions were in their turn to be divided between France,
+Great Britain, and Prussia.
+
+Such chimerical projects were based on the assumption that
+Constantinople lay at the mercy of the army of Diebitsch; and this was
+believed to be the case not only by the court of Paris, but by that of
+London, and even by that of Constantinople. But no one knew better than
+Diebitsch how precarious his situation was, and, if Russia wished to
+obtain advantageous terms, it was necessary for her to make the most of
+the illusion while it lasted. On September 14 the peace of Adrianople
+was signed, which established the virtual independence of the
+principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia and secured for all powers at
+peace with Turkey a free passage for merchant ships through the
+Bosphorus and Dardanelles; Russia received a small addition to her
+Asiatic territories, and Turkey accepted both the treaty of London of
+July 6, 1827, and the protocol of London of March 22, 1829. The
+difficulties raised by Turkey's opposition to the full terms of the
+protocol were thus swept aside, and it was now clear that, if that
+protocol was to be further modified, it would be modified out of regard
+for the interests of Europe not by way of concession to Turkey. France
+and Great Britain were naturally averse from a settlement of the
+question by Russia alone, even when that settlement was on lines to
+which they had given their consent, and they might have been expected to
+propose some alteration in the scheme. But the conciliatory action of
+Russia rendered such proposals needless. On September 29, only fifteen
+days after the treaty, Aberdeen received a formal proposal from Russia
+that Turkey should be offered a restriction of the Greek boundary in
+return for a recognition of the total independence of Greece.[99] This
+proposal removed Wellington's fear that the new principality might be
+used as a basis for an attack on the Ionian Islands; while the
+maintenance of Turkish suzerainty seemed less important after the
+apparent prostration of Turkish military power in the recent war.
+
+It now remained for the allied powers to select a prince to whom the new
+crown should be offered. This subject engaged their attention from
+October, 1829, to January, 1830. Finally, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg,
+widower of the Princess Charlotte, was selected, greatly to the
+annoyance of King George IV. On February 3 Prince Leopold was formally
+offered the sovereignty of Greece as an independent state, bounded on
+the north by a line drawn from the mouth of the Aspropotamo to
+Thermopylæ. Before accepting the crown he made an effort to obtain a
+stronger position for its future prince. He asked for a complete
+guarantee of independence from the three powers, some security for the
+Greek inhabitants of Crete and Samos, an extension of the boundary to
+the north, and financial and military support. The powers on February 20
+decided to grant the guarantee and a loan of £2,400,000, and to allow
+the French troops to remain in Greece for another year, but refused the
+extension of territory and would not recognise the right of the Greek
+state to interfere in the affairs of Crete and Samos. Leopold accepted
+the crown on these conditions on February 24, and they were accepted by
+the Porte on April 24. Capodistrias, who had no desire to make way for
+another ruler, invited Leopold to the country, but suggested that he
+would not be well received and that he would have to change his
+religion.[100] These considerations, combined with other causes, induced
+him to renounce the crown on May 21.
+
+[Pageheading: _FRANCE CONQUERS ALGERIA._]
+
+One other foreign event exercised the minds of Wellington's cabinet
+during the last months of George IV.'s reign. This was the French
+punitive expedition to Algiers, which resulted In the conquest of that
+state. The expedition was originally planned in concert with Mehemet Ali
+of Egypt, and appeared to Wellington to be prompted by the idea that the
+defeat of the Turks by Russia afforded a convenient opportunity for a
+partition of Turkish territory. The British government was able by means
+of diplomatic pressure to induce Mehemet Ali to refrain from
+co-operating, but it could not deny the justice of the French expedition
+or prevent it from sailing.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[93] Stapleton, _Life of Canning_, iii., 220-25, 227-35.
+
+[94] See Lloyd, _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_, N.S.,
+xviii. (1904), 77-105.
+
+[95] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, iv., 270-79.
+
+[96] _Ibid._, pp. 280-86.
+
+[97] So S. Lane-Poole, writing from Church's papers, _English Historical
+Review_, v., 519.
+
+[98] Hertslet, _Map of Europe by Treaty_, p. 142.
+
+[99] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, vi., 184.
+
+[100] See the letters in the _Annual Register_, lxxii. (1830), 389-401.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIII.
+
+ PRELUDE OF REFORM.
+
+
+The year that elapsed between the prorogation of parliament on June 24,
+1829, and the death of George IV., on June 26, 1830, was barren in
+events of domestic importance. While Ireland was torn by faction, and
+the Orangemen of Ulster rivalled in lawlessness the catholics of the
+other provinces, England was undergoing another period of agricultural
+and commercial depression. The harvest of 1829 was late and bad; the
+winter that followed was the severest known for sixteen years; and a
+fresh series of outrages was committed by the distressed operatives,
+especially by the silk weavers in the east of London and the mill hands
+in the midland counties. In the district of Huddersfield, where the
+people bore their sufferings with admirable patience, a committee of
+masters stated as a fact that "there were 13,000 individuals who had not
+more than twopence half-penny a day to live on". When parliament met on
+February 4, 1830, the prevailing distress was recognised in the king's
+speech, but in guarded terms, and the ministers attributed it in the
+main, probably with justice, to unavoidable causes. This gave the
+enemies of free trade and currency reform an opportunity of renewing
+their protests against Peel's and Huskisson's financial policy. They
+failed to effect their object, but Goulburn, the chancellor of the
+exchequer, initiated a considerable reduction of expenditure and
+remission of taxes. The excise duties on beer, cider, and leather were
+now totally remitted, those on spirits being somewhat increased. The
+government even deliberated on the proposal of a property tax, and,
+stimulated by a motion of Sir James Graham, actually carried out large
+savings in official salaries. On the whole, this session was the most
+fruitful in economy since the conclusion of the peace. The system of
+judicature, too, was subjected to a salutary revision throughout Great
+Britain by the amalgamation of the English and Welsh benches, and the
+concentration of courts in Scotland. As the charter of the East Indian
+Company was about to expire, a strong committee was appointed to
+consider the whole subject of its territorial powers and commercial
+privileges. This committee was not the least beneficial result of a
+session which has left no great mark on the statute-book.
+
+[Pageheading: _MOVEMENT FOR REFORM._]
+
+The weakness of Wellington's position had long since become apparent to
+all. By his conduct in regard to catholic emancipation he had estranged
+a powerful section of his tory followers. By his jealousy and haughty
+attitude towards his whig allies, he had forfeited their good-will,
+never very heartily given. By his treatment of Huskisson, a small but
+able body of politicians was thrown into the ranks of a discordant
+opposition. No one else could have induced the king to give way on
+catholic emancipation, but the king had not forgiven him, and submitted
+to him out of fear rather than out of confidence. Though singularly
+deficient in rhetorical power, he still maintained his ascendency in the
+house of lords by the aid of more eloquent colleagues, but Peel was his
+only efficient lieutenant in the house of commons. The vacancy in the
+office of lord privy seal, occasioned by the transference of
+Ellenborough to the board of control, had at last been filled in June,
+1829, by the appointment of Lord Rosslyn, nephew of the first earl, who,
+however, added nothing to the strength of the ministry. In the meantime,
+reform had succeeded catholic emancipation as the one burning question
+of politics, but with this all-important difference that it roused
+enthusiasm in the popular mind. Political unions, like the branches of
+the catholic association, were springing up all over the country, and a
+series of motions was made in the house of commons which feebly
+reflected the feverish agitation in all the active centres of
+population. One of these, brought forward by the Marquis of Blandford,
+who had made a similar motion in the previous year, was really prompted
+by enmity against the author of catholic emancipation. Another,
+introduced by Lord Howick, son of Earl Grey, called for some general and
+comprehensive measure to remedy the admitted abuses of the electoral
+system. A third, and far more practical, attempt was made by Lord John
+Russell to obtain the enfranchisement of Manchester, Leeds, and
+Birmingham. A fourth, and perfectly futile proposal, was made by
+O'Connell, in the shape of a bill for triennial parliaments, universal
+suffrage, and vote by ballot, to which Russell moved a statesmanlike
+amendment, in favour of transferring members from petty boroughs to
+counties and great unrepresented towns. All these motions were defeated
+by larger or smaller majorities, but no one doubted that parliamentary
+reform was inevitable, and few can have imagined that Wellington was
+either willing or competent to grapple with it.
+
+While domestic affairs were in this state, George IV. died. His
+constitution, weakened by many years of self-indulgence, had been
+further depressed by a growing sense of loneliness and by the long
+struggle with his ministers over catholic emancipation. On April 15 his
+illness had been made public, and on May 24 it had been necessary to
+bring in a bill, authorising the use of a stamp, to be affixed in his
+presence in lieu of the royal sign manual. A month later, the disease of
+the heart from which he suffered took a fatal turn, and on June 26 he
+passed away, not without dignity, in the sixty-eighth year of his age.
+Perhaps no other English king has been so harshly judged by posterity,
+nor is it possible to acquit him of moral vices which outweighed all his
+merits, considerable as they were. The Duke of Wellington, who knew him
+as well as any man, declared that he was a marvellous compound of
+virtues and defects, but that, on the whole, the good elements
+preponderated. Peel, who had become by his father's death Sir Robert,
+testified in Parliament that he "never exercised, or wished to exercise,
+a prerogative of the crown, except for the advantage of his people".
+These estimates assuredly err on the side of charity, and are quite
+inconsistent with other statements of the duke himself.
+
+George IV., it is true, possessed many royal gifts. He was a man of no
+ordinary ability, with a fine presence, courtly manners, various
+accomplishments, and clear-sighted intelligence on every subject within
+the sphere of his duties. But all these kingly qualities were marred by
+a heartlessness which rendered him incapable of true love or friendship,
+and a duplicity which made it impossible for him to retain the respect
+of his ministers. His private life was not wholly unlike that of the
+Regent Orléans and had much the same influence on the society of the
+metropolis. He was an undutiful son, a bad husband, a perfidious friend,
+with little sense of truth or honour, and destitute of that public
+spirit which atoned for the political obstinacy of his father. No one
+sincerely regretted his death, except the favourites who had been
+enriched by his extravagance, and actually succeeded in carrying off a
+large booty out of the valuables that he had amassed. Nevertheless, his
+regency is identified with a glorious period in our military history,
+and his reign ushered in a new age of reform and national prosperity. In
+the great struggle against Napoleon and the pacification of Europe he
+gave his ministers a cordial and effective support. To catholic
+emancipation he was honestly opposed, but he kept his opposition within
+constitutional limits, and his intense selfishness did not exclude a
+certain sentiment of philanthropy and even of patriotism.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+His successor, William IV., was greatly inferior to him intellectually,
+and infinitely less conversant with the business of state. Most of this
+prince's early life was spent at sea, where he saw a fair share of
+service, and became the friend of Nelson, but incurred his father's
+displeasure by infringing the rules of discipline. Having been created
+Duke of Clarence in 1789, he was rapidly promoted in the navy, but
+remained on shore without employment for some forty years before his
+accession, taking an occasional part in debates of the house of lords,
+and generally acting with the whig party. During this long period he was
+little regarded by his future subjects, and led a somewhat obscure life,
+at first in the company of Mrs. Jordan, by whom he had a numerous
+family. After his marriage with the Princess Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen
+in 1818, he became a more important personage, and, as we have seen, was
+made lord high admiral by Canning, but held office for little more than
+a year. He was thus entirely destitute of political training, and was
+living in privacy when he was called to ascend the throne on the eve of
+a singularly momentous crisis.
+
+The session was prolonged until July 23, when parliament was prorogued
+by the new king in person, and on the following day a dissolution was
+proclaimed, the writs being made returnable on September 14. During the
+month that elapsed between the death of George IV. and the prorogation,
+no serious business was done, but the leaders of opposition in both
+houses moved to provide for a regency, in view of a possible demise of
+the crown before a fresh parliament could be assembled. This course was
+clearly dictated by the highest expediency, for, had the king's life
+been cut short suddenly, the young Princess Victoria, then eleven years
+old, would have become sovereign with full powers, but without
+protection against the baleful influence of her uncle, the Duke of
+Cumberland, the least trustworthy person in the realm. In advocating it,
+however, the whigs showed an evident disposition to win the favour of
+William IV., who had never broken away, like his predecessor, from his
+whig connexion. These motions were defeated, but the opposition gained
+popularity at the expense of the government, by raising debates on
+certain state prosecutions for libel, and on the question of colonial
+slavery. Their position was further strengthened by a widespread
+impression that the king himself was a reformer at heart, and would
+seize an early opportunity of declaring his sentiments. His weakness had
+not yet disclosed itself, while his kindliness earned him golden
+opinions, as he "walked in London streets with his umbrella under his
+arm, and gave a frank and sailor-like greeting to all old
+acquaintances".
+
+The election of 1830, following close on the revolution of July in
+Paris, was the death-blow of the old tory rule in England. The
+widespread sympathy which the original uprising of 1789 had excited
+among Englishmen, but which the atrocities of jacobinism had quenched,
+was now revived by the comparatively bloodless victory of constitutional
+principles and the accession of a citizen-king in France. The growing
+enthusiasm for reform, thus stimulated, exercised a decisive effect in
+all the constituencies except the pocket-boroughs. Brougham was returned
+without opposition for Yorkshire, and Hume by a large majority for
+Middlesex, two brothers of Sir Robert Peel lost their seats, and Croker
+was defeated for Dublin University. Distrust of the government was
+equally shown in the counties and in the great cities, but in some
+instances ultra-tories were elected, in revenge for catholic
+emancipation or for alleged neglect of agricultural interests. It was
+calculated that fifty seats, in all, had changed hands, and the
+parliament which assembled in October 26 was very different in
+constitution and temper from any of those which supported tory
+ministries with unshaken constancy during the great war and the long
+period of agitation consequent on the peace.
+
+The losses of the government in Great Britain, partly due to its Irish
+policy, were not compensated by any gain in Ireland, which did not fail
+to display the ingratitude so often experienced by its benefactors.
+Catholic emancipation was now treated as a vantage ground on which the
+battle of repeal might be waged. Association after association was
+formed by O'Connell, only to be put down by proclamation and to
+re-appear under another name. The worst passions of the people were
+effectually roused, assassinations became frequent, and Peel's
+correspondence with Hardinge, then chief secretary, shows that he fully
+recognised the failure of his experiment, as a cure for Irish
+anarchy.[101] In the course of this new agitation, O'Connell used most
+offensive expressions for which Hardinge called him to account. The
+chief secretary's act may have been unjustifiable, but the shuffling and
+faint-hearted conduct of O'Connell in declining this and later
+challenges provoked by his foul language was fatal to his reputation for
+courage. The most insolent of bullies, he never failed to consult his
+own personal safety, by professing conscientious objections to duelling,
+as well as by keeping just outside the meshes of the criminal law.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF HUSKISSON._]
+
+A few weeks before parliament met a tragical accident closed the life of
+Huskisson, whose death was rendered all the more impressive by its
+circumstances. In 1825 the idea of railways for the rapid conveyance of
+goods and passengers bore fruit in an act for the construction of a line
+between Liverpool and Manchester. It was not in itself a new idea, for
+tramways had long been in use, and so far back as 1814 George Stephenson
+had constructed a locomotive engine for a colliery. But it was generally
+believed that such engines must always be limited to a speed of a few
+miles an hour, and even the great engineer, Telford, giving evidence
+before a committee in 1825, did not venture to speak of a higher maximum
+speed than fifteen or twenty miles an hour. Few indeed were far-sighted
+enough to credit this estimate, and the incredulity of ignorance was
+aided by the forces of self-interest, for the profits of canals,
+stage-coaches, and carriers' vans were directly threatened by the
+innovation of railways. However, George Stephenson quietly persevered,
+and from the moment that his pioneer engine, the "Rocket," won the prize
+in a great competition of locomotives, "the old modes of transit were
+changed throughout the whole civilised world". On September 15, 1830,
+the first public trial of this and other engines was made at the opening
+of the Liverpool and Manchester railway. Wellington, Peel, and other
+eminent personages were present, among whom was Huskisson, just returned
+for Liverpool. Two trains proceeded towards Manchester on parallel
+lines, and stopped at the Parkgate station. There several passengers got
+out, and Huskisson was making his way to shake hands with the duke when
+he was struck by a carriage of the other train, already in movement,
+fell upon the rails, and was fatally crushed. He bore his sufferings
+with great fortitude, but died during the night at a neighbouring
+vicarage to which he was carried. He could ill be spared by his party,
+for, though he was not the man to ride the storm which raged over the
+reform bill, his counsels might have saved the whigs from the just
+reproach of financial incapacity and have hastened the advent of free
+trade.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLINGTON ON REFORM._]
+
+The winter session of 1830 opened with an ominous calm. It was believed
+that private negotiations were going on between the ministry and the
+survivors of Canning's following, which might result in a moderate
+scheme of parliamentary reform. These expectations were utterly
+discomfited by the king's speech delivered on November 2. It has
+unjustly been described as "the most offensive that had been uttered by
+any monarch since the revolution". On the contrary, it was tame and
+colourless for the most part, recording his majesty's resolution to
+uphold treaties and enforce order in the United Kingdom, but welcoming
+the new French monarchy in terms which Grey emphatically commended. It
+gave offence to liberals by describing the revolutionary movement in
+Belgium as a "revolt"; but what called forth an immediate outburst of
+popular resentment was its significant reticence on the subject of
+reform. This resentment was aggravated tenfold by the Duke of
+Wellington's celebrated speech in the lords, declaring against any
+reform whatever. The duke always refused to admit that this declaration
+was the cause of his subsequent fall, which he attributed, by
+preference, to his adoption of catholic emancipation. Speaking
+deliberately in reply to Grey, who had indicated reform as the only true
+remedy for popular discontent, the duke stated that no measure of reform
+yet proposed would, in his opinion, improve the representative system
+then existing, which, he said, "answered all the good purposes of
+legislation" to a greater degree than "any legislature in any country
+whatever". He went further, and avowed his conviction not only that this
+system "possessed the full and entire confidence of the country," but
+also that no better system could be devised by the wit of man. Its
+special virtue, according to him, consisted in the fact of its producing
+a representative assembly which "contained a large body of the property
+of the country, and in which the landed interests had a preponderating
+influence". Finally, he protested that he would never bring forward a
+reform measure himself, and that "he should always feel it his duty to
+resist such measures when proposed by others".
+
+There is no reason to suppose that the duke had consulted any of his
+colleagues before making this declaration. Indeed, it is known that Peel
+had just before received a confidential offer of co-operation in
+carrying a moderate reform bill from Palmerston, Edward Stanley,
+grandson of the Earl of Derby, Sir James Graham, and the Grants; nor had
+these overtures been definitely rejected.[102] Some lame attempts were
+made to clear the cabinet, as a whole, from responsibility for their
+chief's outspoken opinions, and Peel cautiously limited himself to a
+doubt whether any safe measure of reform would satisfy the reformers.
+But he would not separate himself from Wellington, and Wellington's
+ultimatum remained unretracted.
+
+Brougham at once gave notice of his intention to bring forward the
+question of parliamentary reform in a fortnight. In the meantime the
+duke had committed a mistake which irritated the people, and especially
+the inhabitants of London. It happened that the king and queen, with the
+ministers, were engaged to dine with the lord mayor on November 9. Three
+days earlier, the lord mayor-elect warned the prime minister that a riot
+was apprehended on that occasion, that an attempt would probably be
+made to assassinate him, and that it would be desirable to come attended
+by a strong military guard. Upon this intimation, confirmed by others,
+the cabinet most unwisely decided not to surround the mansion house with
+a large armed force, but to put off the king's visit to the city. A
+panic naturally ensued, consols fell three per cent. in an hour and a
+half, and the disorderly classes achieved a victory without running the
+smallest risk. There were local disturbances in the evening, and the
+duke arranged to join Peel at the home office, in case decisive measures
+should be required, but the new police were too strong for the mob, and
+the whole affair passed off quietly, though not without involving the
+government in some ridicule. The Marquis Wellesley, now in opposition to
+his brother, declared the postponement of the dinner to be "the boldest
+act of cowardice" within his knowledge.
+
+If Wellington sought to conciliate the ultra-tories by his unfortunate
+speech, he was soon undeceived. While Brougham's motion was pending, the
+government proposed a revision of the civil list which purported to
+effect slight economies for the benefit of the public. It was objected,
+however, that a greater reduction of charges should have been
+contemplated, and that parliament should have been invited to deal with
+the revenues derived from the duchies of Cornwall and Lancaster, which,
+as Peel explained, formed no part of those placed at the disposal of
+parliament. Sir Henry Parnell moved to refer the civil list to a select
+committee; the chancellor of the exchequer directly opposed the motion,
+and, after a short discussion, a division was taken on November 15. The
+result, which had been foreseen, was a majority of twenty-nine against
+the government in a house of 437 members. There were many defections
+among the discontented tories, and the Wellington ministry preferred to
+fall on an issue of minor importance, rather than await a decisive
+contest on the reform question. On the following day, therefore, both
+the duke and Peel announced the acceptance of their resignations, and it
+was known that Grey had received the king's command to form a new
+administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _GREY ACCEPTS OFFICE._]
+
+Grey was the inevitable head of any cabinet empowered to carry
+parliamentary reform. His dignified presence, his stately eloquence, his
+unblemished character, and his parliamentary experience, marked him out
+for leadership, and disguised his want of practical acquaintance with
+the middle and lower classes of his countrymen. His political career,
+ranging over forty-four years, though not destitute of errors, had been
+perfectly consistent. From the first he was a staunch adherent of Fox;
+he was among the managers who conducted the prosecution of Warren
+Hastings; his connexion with the Society of the Friends of the People,
+and his advocacy of reform during Pitt's first administration are
+described in the preceding volume of this history. On Pitt's death he
+became closely associated with Grenville; it will be remembered that he
+joined his short-lived government, originally as first lord of the
+admiralty, and afterwards as Fox's successor at the foreign office. It
+was he who carried through the house of commons the bill for the
+abolition of the slave trade, and it may truly be said that, in
+opposition, he was equally persistent in supporting every measure in
+favour of liberty, political or commercial, and in resisting every
+measure, necessary or otherwise, which could be interpreted as
+restricting it. We have seen how he more than once declined overtures
+for a coalition with his opponents, and showed a bitter personal
+antipathy to Canning, whom he was more than suspected of despising as a
+brilliant plebeian adventurer. This suspicion of aristocratic prejudice,
+ill harmonising with democratic principles, had never been quite
+dispelled, and was now to be confirmed by the composition of his own
+cabinet.
+
+All the members of this cabinet, with four exceptions, sat in the house
+of lords. No cabinet had contained so few commoners since the
+reconstruction of Liverpool's ministry in 1822. Of the four who now sat
+in the house of commons, Lord Althorp was heir-apparent to an earldom;
+Lord Palmerston was an Irish peer; Graham was a baronet of great
+territorial influence; Charles Grant was still a commoner, though he was
+afterwards raised to the peerage. In the distribution of offices, full
+justice was done to Canning's followers. Three of these occupied posts
+of the highest importance, Palmerston at the foreign office, Lamb, who
+had succeeded his father as Viscount Melbourne in 1828, at the home
+office, and Goderich at the colonial office, while Grant became
+president of the board of control. The selection of Graham as first lord
+of the admiralty did not escape criticism, but was due to his tried
+energy in financial reform, and was justified by the result. Lansdowne
+was made president of the council, and Holland chancellor of the duchy
+of Lancaster. Both of these had been Grey's colleagues in the
+administration of "All the Talents". Althorp, who succeeded Goulburn at
+the exchequer, and Carlisle, who accepted a seat in the cabinet without
+office, were both whigs of tried fidelity. But the Duke of Richmond, the
+new postmaster-general, was a deserter from the tory ranks, and Lord
+Durham, the premier's son-in-law, the new lord privy seal, was a radical
+of the most aggressive type, well qualified, as the event proved, to
+disturb the peace of any council to which he might be admitted. Three
+occupants of places outside the cabinet remain to be mentioned. One of
+these, the Marquis Wellesley, had been a warm supporter of catholic
+emancipation when the Duke of Wellington stoutly opposed it, and his
+brother's conversion on that question had not affected his own relations
+with the whig party, which now welcomed him as lord steward. Lord John
+Russell, the new paymaster of the forces, had identified himself as
+prominently as Grey himself with the promotion of parliamentary reform,
+and Stanley, the new chief secretary for Ireland, was probably selected
+for his brilliant powers in debate, as the natural and most worthy
+antagonist of the great demagogue, O'Connell.
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM BECOMES CHANCELLOR._]
+
+But the most formidable of all the "radical reformers" still remained to
+be conciliated, and provided with a post which might satisfy his
+restless ambition. At the end of 1830 Brougham was in the plenitude of
+his marvellous powers, and in the zenith of his unique popularity. As
+member for the great county of York, returned free of expense on the
+shoulders of the people, he already occupied the foremost position among
+British commoners, and it was feared that he might use it for his own
+purposes in a dictatorial spirit. He had recently declared in Yorkshire
+that "nothing on earth should ever tempt him to accept place," and that
+he was conscious of the power to compel the execution of measures which,
+before that democratic election, he could only "ventilate". So late as
+November 16, he assured the house of commons that "no change in the
+administration could by any possibility affect him," adding that he
+would bring forward his motion for parliamentary reform on the 25th,
+whatever might then be the state of affairs, and whatever ministers
+should then be in office. The great whig peers were most anxious to
+keep him out of the cabinet without losing his support, or, still worse,
+provoking his active hostility. With this view, Grey indiscreetly
+offered him the attorney-generalship, and we cannot be surprised that
+Brougham rejected the offer with some indignation and disdain. It was no
+secret that his supreme desire was to become master of the rolls--an
+office compatible with a seat in the house of commons--but his future
+colleagues well knew that, in that case, they would be at his mercy in
+the house. Thereupon it was suggested, probably by the king himself,
+that it might be the less of two dangers to entrust him with the great
+seal, which Lord Lyndhurst was quite prepared to resume under a fourth
+premier. Accordingly, it was known on November 20 that Brougham was to
+be the whig lord chancellor, and on the 22nd he actually took his place
+on the woolsack. His title was Baron Brougham and Vaux, but, though he
+lived to retain it for nearly forty years, he always preferred, with
+pardonable vanity, to sign his name as "Henry Brougham".
+
+Before the close of 1830 the new ministers found time to carry a regency
+bill, whereby the Duchess of Kent (unless she married a foreigner) was
+to be regent in the event of the Princess Victoria succeeding to the
+crown during her minority. Having adopted the watchword of "Peace,
+Retrenchment, and Reform," they gave an earnest of their zeal for
+retrenchment by instituting a parliamentary inquiry into the possible
+reduction of official salaries, including their own. The defeat of
+Stanley by "Orator" Hunt at Preston was a warning against undue reliance
+on popular confidence, for Preston was already a highly democratic
+constituency, largely composed of ignorant "potwallopers". A similar but
+more emphatic warning came from Ireland, where O'Connell did his utmost
+to insult and defy Anglesey, the new lord-lieutenant, in spite of his
+sacrifices for catholic emancipation, and his well-known sympathy with
+the cause of reform. In the southern counties of England, too, violent
+disturbances had broken out, and were marked by all the ferocity and
+terrorism characteristic of luddism in the manufacturing districts. They
+spread from Kent, Sussex, and Surrey into Hampshire, Wiltshire,
+Berkshire, and Buckinghamshire. In these four counties there was a
+wanton and wholesale destruction of agricultural machinery, of
+farm-buildings, and especially of ricks, as if the misery of labourers
+could possibly be cured by impoverishing their only employers. The
+rioters moved about in large organised bodies, and their anarchical
+passions were deliberately inflamed by the writings of unscrupulous men
+like Cobbett and Carlile.
+
+Happily, the ministers showed no sign of the weakness upon which the
+ringleaders had probably calculated. They promptly issued a proclamation
+declaring their resolution to put down lawless outrage, and promised
+effective support to the lords-lieutenant of the disturbed counties.
+Acting upon this assurance, Wellington himself went down to Hampshire,
+and took a leading part in quelling disorder. The government next
+appointed a special commission, which tried many hundreds of prisoners
+and sentenced the worst to death, though few were executed. This vigour
+soon overawed the organised gangs which, in one or two instances, had
+only been dispersed by military force. Finally, they prosecuted Carlile
+and Cobbett for instigating the poor labourers to crime. The former was
+convicted at the Old Bailey, and condemned to a long term of
+imprisonment, with a heavy fine. The trial of Cobbett was postponed
+until the following July, when the frenzy of reform was at its height.
+He defended himself with great audacity in a speech of six hours,
+calling the lord chancellor with other leading reformers as witnesses,
+and succeeded in escaping conviction by the disagreement and discharge
+of the jury.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S FIRST BUDGET._]
+
+Two other questions engaged the attention of parliament on the eve of
+the great struggle over the reform bill. One of these was the settlement
+of the civil list, which the Duke of Wellington's ministry had failed to
+effect. William IV. was not an avaricious sovereign, nor did he share
+the spendthrift inclination of his brother. But he was disposed to
+stickle for the hereditary rights of the crown, both public and private,
+and he greatly disliked the details of his expenditure being scrutinised
+by a parliamentary committee. Now, Grey and his colleagues stood pledged
+to such a committee, and could not avoid promoting its appointment. They
+propitiated the king, however, by excluding the revenues of the Duchy of
+Lancaster from the inquiry, and ultimately succeeded in persuading the
+house of commons to grant a civil list of £510,000 a year. But the
+publication of a return containing a complete list of sinecure offices
+and pensions was turned to good account by the economists, and produced
+an outburst of public indignation, which was by no means unreasonable.
+Great results were expected from the report of the select committee on
+the civil list, which revised the salaries of officials in the royal
+household, as well as the emoluments of pensioners. It was even demanded
+that no regard should be paid to vested interests, but Grey firmly
+supported the private remonstrances of the king against such an act of
+confiscation. In fact, the savings recommended by the committee were so
+trifling that it was thought better to waive the question for the time,
+and the first economical essay of the new _régime_ ended in failure.
+
+The budget introduced by Althorp soon after the meeting of parliament on
+February 3, 1831, and in anticipation of the reform bill, was equally
+unsuccessful as a specimen of whig finance. Finding that, after all, he
+could not effect a saving of more than one million on the national
+expenditure, as reduced by his capable predecessor, Goulburn, he
+nevertheless proposed to repeal the duties on coals, tallow candles,
+printed cottons, and glass, as well as to diminish by one half the
+duties on newspapers and tobacco. To meet the deficit thus created, he
+designed an increase of the wine and timber duties, new taxation of raw
+cotton, and, above all, a tax of ten shillings per cent. on all
+transfers of real or funded property. This last proposal was at once
+denounced by Goulburn, Peel, and Sugden, the late solicitor-general, as
+a breach of public faith between the state and its creditors. Their
+protests were loudly echoed by the city, and the obnoxious transfer duty
+was abandoned. The same fate befell the proposed increase of the timber
+duties, and Althorp only carried his budget after submitting to further
+modifications. Those who had relied on his promises of economical reform
+were signally disappointed, and, had not parliamentary reform
+overshadowed all other issues, the credit of the government would have
+been rudely shaken in the first session after its formation. But this
+great struggle, now to be described, so engrossed the attention of the
+country, that little room was left for the consideration of other
+interests, until it should be decided.
+
+It is probable that no great measure was ever preceded by so thorough a
+preparation of the public mind as the reform bills of 1831-32. Ever
+since the early part of the eighteenth century the abuses of the
+representative system had been freely acknowledged, and no one attempted
+to defend them in principle. The multitude of close boroughs, the
+smallness of the electoral body, the sale of seats in parliament, the
+wide prevalence of gross bribery, and the enormous expense of
+elections--these were notorious evils which no one denied, though some
+palliated them, and few ventured to assail them in earnest by drastic
+proposals, lest they should undermine the constitution. So far back as
+1770 Chatham had denounced them, and predicted that unless parliament
+reformed itself from within before the end of the century, it would be
+reformed "with a vengeance" from without. In 1780 the Duke of Richmond
+had introduced a bill in favour of universal suffrage, and Pitt had
+brought forward bills or motions in favour of parliamentary reform as a
+private member in 1782 and 1783, and as prime minister in 1785. But the
+French revolution persuaded him that the time was not favourable to
+reform, and he successfully opposed Grey's motion for referring a number
+of petitions in favour of reform to a committee in 1793.
+
+After this, a strong reaction set in, and the reform question had little
+interest for the governing classes during the continuance of the great
+war. It was never allowed to sleep, however, and in 1809, a bill
+introduced by Curwen to pave the way for reform by preventing the return
+of members upon corrupt agreements, actually passed both houses, though
+in so mutilated a form that it was practically a dead letter. Still, the
+cause was indefatigably pleaded by Brand, and Burdett, who in 1819 made
+himself the spokesman of the violent reform agitation then spreading
+over the country. Unfortunately, this violence, and the extravagance of
+the demands put forward by the democratic leaders, were themselves fatal
+obstacles to a temperate consideration of the question, and threw back
+the reform movement for several years. In 1821, when Grampound was
+disfranchised, it assumed, as we have seen, a more constitutional form,
+and motions in favour of reform were proposed by Russell in 1822, 1823,
+and 1826, and by Blandford in 1829. Had Canning placed himself at the
+head of the movement the course of domestic history during the reign of
+George IV. might have been very different. As it was, the number of
+petitions in favour of reform sensibly fell off in the last half of the
+reign, and its tory opponents vainly imagined that the movement had
+spent itself. We now know that, in the absence of noisy demonstrations,
+it was really and constantly gaining strength in the minds of thoughtful
+men until it reached its climax at the end of 1830.
+
+[Pageheading: _PUBLIC OPINION AND REFORM._]
+
+The first act of the great political drama which occupied the next
+eighteen months may be said to have opened with the fall of Wellington,
+and the formation of the whig ministry. These events, together with the
+success of the Paris revolution, supplied the motive power needed to
+combine the great body of the middle classes with the proletariat in a
+national crusade against the political privileges long exercised by a
+powerful landed aristocracy. It is true that reform, unlike catholic
+emancipation, had always appealed to broad popular sympathies, and had
+been advocated by men like Grey and Burdett as carrying with it the
+redress of all other grievances. But Canning was by no means the only
+liberal statesman who heartily dreaded it, and even the advanced
+reformers had not fully grasped the comprehensive meaning of the idea
+which they embraced, or the far-reaching consequences involved in it.
+The palpable anomaly of Old Sarum returning members to parliament, while
+Birmingham was unrepresented, was shocking to common sense, and so was
+the monopoly of the franchise by a handful of electors in some of the
+larger boroughs, especially in Scotland. But few appreciated how
+seriously constitutional liberty had been curtailed by the growth of
+these abuses (unchecked by the Commonwealth) since the fourteenth and
+fifteenth centuries, how effectually home and foreign policy was
+controlled by a small circle of noble families dominant in the lower as
+well as in the upper chamber, how vast a transfer of sovereignty from
+class to class would inevitably be wrought by a thorough reform bill,
+and how certainly men newly entrusted with power would use it for their
+own advantage, whether or not that should coincide with the advantage of
+the nation. Such general aspects of the question are seldom noticed in
+the earlier debates upon it, and economical reform sometimes appears to
+occupy a larger space than parliamentary reform in the liberal
+statesmanship of the Georgian age.
+
+With Wellington's declaration against any parliamentary reform, this
+apathy vanished, and the movement, gathering up into itself all other
+popular aspirations thenceforward filled the whole political horizon.
+Reform unions sprang up everywhere, and instituted a most active
+propaganda. So rapid was its spread and so wild the promises lavished by
+radical demagogues, that Grey and his wiser colleagues soon felt
+themselves further removed from their own extreme left wing than from
+the moderate section of the conservatives. It is abundantly clear that
+Grey himself, faithful as he was to reform, never dreamed of
+inaugurating a reign of democracy. He often declared in private that
+such a bill as he contemplated would prove, in its effect, an
+aristocratic measure, and he doubtless believed that it would be
+possible to bring the new constituencies and the new electoral bodies
+under the same conservative influences which had been dominant for so
+many generations. He did not foresee, as Palmerston did thirty years
+later, that, even if the political actors remained the same, they "would
+play to the gallery" instead of to the pit or boxes. He would, indeed,
+have repudiated the maxim: "Everything for the people, and nothing by
+the people"; he was fully prepared to place the house of commons in the
+hands of the people, or at least of the great middle class, but he
+regarded the crown and the house of lords as almost equal powers, and he
+never doubted that property and education would practically continue to
+rule the government of the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _DRAFT OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+When the whigs came into office they were singularly fortunate in the
+high character and consistency of their chief, no less than in the
+divisions of their opponents, whose right wing showed almost as mutinous
+a spirit as their own left wing. Even between Wellington and Peel there
+was a want of cordial harmony and confidence, yet Peel was the only tory
+statesman of eminent capacity in the house of commons. The attitude of
+the king, too, was not only strictly constitutional but friendly, though
+it afterwards appeared that he relied too implicitly on Grey and Althorp
+to protect him against the machinations of the radicals. The letters
+written by his orders, though mostly composed by his private secretary,
+Sir Herbert Taylor, display marked ability together with a very shrewd
+and just conception of the situation. His loyal adoption of a moderate
+reform policy was a most important element of strength to his ministers
+at the outset of their great enterprise, and, if he afterwards held
+back, it was in deference to scruples which several of them shared in
+their hearts. Nor was the violence of the ultra-radicals, or the
+scurrilous language of O'Connell by any means an unmixed source of
+weakness to men engaged in framing and carrying a temperate reform bill.
+Their firm resistance to extravagant demands reassured many a waverer
+and showed how carefully their comprehensive plan had been matured. On
+the other hand, they had to contend against difficulties not yet fully
+revealed. One of these was their own want of administrative experience,
+contrasting unfavourably with the statesmanlike capacity of Peel.
+Another was the intractable character of two at least within their own
+innermost councils--Durham and Brougham. A third was the inflexible
+conservatism of a great majority in the house of lords, who, unlike the
+people at large, clearly understood that the impending conflict was a
+life-and-death struggle for political supremacy between themselves and
+the commons--the greatest that had been waged since the revolutions of
+the seventeenth century.
+
+It was privately known that a committee had been empowered to draft the
+bill awaited with so much impatience. This committee consisted of two
+members of the cabinet, Durham and Graham, together with two members of
+the administration not of cabinet rank, the Earl of Bessborough's eldest
+son, Lord Duncannon, then chief whip of the whig party, and Russell, who
+was second to none as a staunch and judicious promoter of parliamentary
+reform. In spite of his vanity and petulance, Durham deserves the credit
+of having drawn up the report, highly appreciated by the king, upon
+which the projected measure was founded. It originally included vote by
+ballot, and it is rather strange that on this point Durham was
+powerfully supported by Graham, but opposed by Russell. It is still more
+strange that Brougham, whose scheme of reform was locked up in his own
+breast, was honestly disturbed by the radicalism of his colleagues and
+specially objected to so large a disfranchisement of boroughs as they
+contemplated. Upon the whole, however, the bill was the product of an
+united cabinet, and received the express approval of the king in all its
+essential features. The elaborate letter which he addressed to Grey on
+February 4, 1831, betrays a sense of relief on finding that universal
+suffrage and the ballot were not to be pressed upon him In declaring
+that he never could have given his consent to such revolutionary
+innovations, he insists strongly on the necessity of maintaining an
+"equilibrium" between the crown, the lords, and the commons, as well as
+between the "representation of property" and that of numbers.
+
+The reform bill of 1831, which differed only in detail from the act
+passed in 1832, cannot be understood without some knowledge of the
+system which that act transformed. This system has been well described
+as "combining survivals from the middle ages with abuses of the
+prerogative in later times". The counties remained as they had remained
+for centuries; Rutland, for instance, returned as many representatives
+as Yorkshire, until in 1821 the two seats taken from Grampound were
+added to those already possessed by Yorkshire. On the other hand, the
+old franchise of the 40s. freeholders was more widely diffused since the
+value of money had been greatly depreciated. Still, the influence of the
+great county families was almost supreme, and they were firmly
+entrenched in the nomination boroughs, where there was scarcely a
+pretence of free election. The crown had originally a discretion in
+summoning members from boroughs, and used it by issuing writs to all the
+wealthiest as better able to bear taxation and more competent to
+sanction it. The poorer boroughs, too, were also glad to escape
+representation in order to save the expense of their members' wages. The
+discretionary power of the crown was afterwards used in creating petty
+boroughs such as "the Cornish group," for the purpose of packing the
+house of commons with crown nominees. This practice, however, ceased in
+the reign of Charles II., and these petty boroughs fell by degrees into
+the hands of great landowners, who dictated the choice of
+representatives.
+
+The result has been concisely stated as follows: "The majority of the
+house of commons was elected by less than fifteen thousand persons.
+Seventy members were returned by thirty-five places with scarcely any
+voters at all; ninety members were returned by forty-six places with no
+more than fifty voters; thirty-seven members by nineteen places with no
+more than one hundred voters; fifty-two members by twenty-six places
+with no more than two hundred voters. The local distribution of the
+representation was flagrantly unfair.... Cornwall was a corrupt nest of
+little boroughs whose vote outweighed that of great and populous
+districts. At Old Sarum a deserted site, at Gatton an ancient wall sent
+two representatives to the house of commons. Eighty-four men actually
+nominated one hundred and fifty-seven members for parliament. In
+addition to these, one hundred and fifty members were returned on the
+recommendation of seventy patrons, and thus one hundred and fifty-four
+patrons returned three hundred and seven members."[103] Household
+suffrage prevailed in a few boroughs, and here barefaced corruption was
+common. Seats for boroughs, appropriately called "rotten," were
+frequently put up to sale; otherwise, they were reserved for young
+favourites of the proprietor. Neither yearly tenants, nor leaseholders,
+nor even copyholders, had votes for counties. Of Scotland it is enough
+to say that free voting had practically ceased to exist both in counties
+and in boroughs, as the borough franchise was the monopoly of
+self-elected town councils, and the county franchise of persons, often
+non-resident, who happened to own "superiorities".
+
+[Pageheading: _PROVISIONS OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+The reform bill of the whig ministry, drawn on broad and simple lines,
+struck at the root of this system. Its twofold basis was a liberal
+extension of the suffrage with a very large redistribution of seats. The
+elective franchise in counties, hitherto confined to freeholders, was to
+be conferred on £10 copyholders and £50 leaseholders; the borough
+franchise was to exclude "scot and lot" voters, "potwallopers" and most
+other survivals of antiquated electorates, but to include ratepaying £10
+householders. The qualification for this franchise had originally been
+fixed at £20, and the king deprecated any reduction, but the omission of
+the ballot reconciled him and other timid reformers to an immense
+increase in the lower class of borough voters. Sixty boroughs of less
+than 2,000 inhabitants, returning 119 members, were to be disfranchised
+altogether; forty-seven others, with less than 4,000 inhabitants, were
+to be deprived of one member, and Weymouth was to lose two out of the
+four members which it returned in combination with the borough of
+Melcombe Regis. Fifty-five new seats were allotted to the English
+counties, forty-two to the great unrepresented towns, five to Scotland,
+three to Ireland, and one to Wales. Altogether the numerical strength of
+the house of commons was to be reduced by sixty-two, and this entirely
+at the expense of England. Both the county and borough franchises in
+Scotland were to be assimilated generally to those established for
+England, and the £10 borough franchise was extended to Ireland. The bill
+contained many other provisions designed to amend the practice of
+registration, the voting power of non-resident electors, and the
+cumbrously expensive machinery of elections. It is important to notice
+that it also limited the duration of each parliament to five years--a
+concession to radicalism afterwards abandoned and never since adopted.
+
+On February 3 parliament met after the adjournment, and Grey stated that
+a measure of reform had been framed, but the nature of it was not
+disclosed to the house of commons until March 1, and during the interval
+the secret was kept with great fidelity. The task of explaining it was
+entrusted to Russell, whose thorough mastery of its letter and spirit
+fully justified the choice, partly suggested by his aristocratic
+connexions and historical name. His speech was remarkable for clearness
+and cogency rather than for rhetorical brilliancy, and he was careful to
+rest his case on constitutional equity and political expediency of the
+highest order rather than on vague and abstract principles of popular
+rights. The debate on the motion for leave to bring in the bill lasted
+seven nights, and was vigorously sustained on both sides. The drastic
+and sweeping character of the measure took the whole house by surprise,
+while its authors justly claimed some credit for moderation in rejecting
+the radical demands of universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and
+triennial, if not annual, parliaments. Not only inside but outside the
+walls of St. Stephen's the statement of the government had been awaited
+with the utmost impatience, and it was universally felt that an issue
+had now been raised which hardly admitted of compromise. The king
+himself, though much engrossed by minor questions affecting the civil
+list and the pension list, heartily congratulated Grey on the favourable
+reception and prospects of the measure, which he regarded as a safeguard
+against more democratic schemes. His great fear was of a collision
+between the two houses, and the sequel proved that it was not unfounded.
+For the present, however, all promised well. Peel denounced the bill
+with less than his usual caution, but declined to give battle upon it,
+and it passed the first reading on March 9 without a division. Indeed,
+the chief danger to the stability of the government arose from its
+defeat on the timber duties. This and other vexatious rebuffs so
+irritated Grey that he actually contemplated a dissolution, lest the
+reform bill itself should meet with a like fate. But the king would not
+hear of it, and the cabinet wisely decided to follow the example of Pitt
+and ignore an adverse division on a merely financial proposal, however
+significant of parliamentary feeling.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND READING OF THE FIRST BILL._]
+
+Between the 9th and the 21st, the date fixed for the second reading,
+popular excitement rose to a formidable height. Monster meetings were
+held in the great centres of population, and the political unions put
+forth all their strength. Nevertheless, the efforts of the
+"borough-mongers" were all but successful, and after only two nights
+debate the bill passed its second reading by a bare majority of one, 302
+voting for it, and 301 against it. After this demonstration of strength
+on the part of its opponents, no one could expect that it would survive
+the ordeal of discussion in committee, and a letter of Lord Durham,
+written in anticipation of the event, sums up with great force the
+reasons for an early dissolution. The crisis was precipitated by the
+action of General Gascoyne, member for Liverpool, who moved before the
+house could go into committee that in no case should the number of
+representatives from England and Wales be diminished. In the hope of
+conciliating some wavering members, the ministry framed certain
+modifications of their original scheme, but they do not seem to have
+entertained the idea of accepting Gascoyne's proposal in its entirety.
+In the division, which took place on April 19, they were defeated by 299
+votes to 291, and on the following morning advised the king to dissolve.
+In spite of his former refusal, more than once repeated, the king
+yielded to necessity, feeling that another change of government, in the
+midst of European complications, and in prospect of revolutionary
+agitation in the country, would be a greater evil than a general
+election.
+
+The opposition, flushed with victory, pressed its advantage to extremes,
+and successfully resisted a motion for the grant of supplies. Urged by
+Althorp, the cabinet promptly resolved on recommending that the
+dissolution should be immediate, and the king, roused to energy by
+indignation, eagerly adopted their recommendation. Indeed, on hearing
+that Lord Wharncliffe intended to move in the house of lords for an
+address to the crown against a dissolution, he strongly resented such an
+attempt to interfere with his prerogative, and declared himself ready to
+start at once and dissolve parliament in person. Difficulties being
+raised about preparing the royal carriages in time, he cut them short by
+remarking that he was prepared to go in a hackney-coach--a royal saying
+which spread like wildfire over the country. Both houses were scenes of
+confusion and uproar when he arrived, preceded by the usual discharges
+of artillery, which excited the angry disputants to fury. Lord
+Mansfield, who was supporting the motion for an address, continued
+speaking as the king entered, until he was forcibly compelled to resume
+his seat. Even Peel was only restrained by like means from disregarding
+the appearance of the usher of the black rod who came to summon the
+commons from the bar of the house. The king preserved his composure, and
+announced an immediate prorogation of parliament with a view to its
+dissolution, and an appeal to the country on the great question of
+reform. Such an appeal could only be made to constituencies under threat
+of thorough reconstruction or total extinction, but from this moment the
+ultimate issue ceased to be doubtful.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[101] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 160-62.
+
+[102] Arbuthnot to Peel, Nov. 1, 1830, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+163-66.
+
+[103] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 320.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIV.
+
+ THE REFORM.
+
+
+The general election which took place in the summer of 1831 was perhaps
+the most momentous on record. The news of the sudden dissolution,
+carrying with it the assurance of the king's hearty assent to reform,
+stirred popular enthusiasm to an intensity never equalled before or
+since. From John o' Groat's to the Land's End a cry was raised of _The
+bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill_. This cry signified more
+than appears on the surface, and was not wholly one-sided in its
+application. No doubt it was a passionate and defiant warning against
+any manipulation or dilution of the bill in a reactionary sense, but it
+was also a distinct protest against attempts by the extreme radicals to
+amend it in an opposite direction. Now, as ever, the impulse was given
+by the middle classes, and they were in no mood to imperil their own
+cause by revolutionary claims. They could not always succeed, however,
+in checking the fury of the populace, which had been taught to clamour
+for reform as the precursor of a good time coming for the suffering and
+toiling masses of mankind. The streets of London were illuminated, and
+the windows of those who omitted to illuminate or were otherwise
+obnoxious were tumultuously demolished by the mob, which did not even
+spare Apsley House, the town residence of the Duke of Wellington. But,
+except in Scotland, no formidable riots occurred for the present, and
+some good resulted from the new experience of popular opinion gained by
+candidates even from unreformed constituencies hitherto obedient to
+oligarchical influence, but animated for the moment by a certain spirit
+of independence.
+
+Having sanctioned the dissolution, the king addressed an elaborate
+letter to Grey, in which he did not disguise his own misgivings about
+the perilous experiment of reform. Chiefly dreading a collision between
+the two houses, he never ceased to press on his ministers the expediency
+of making all possible sacrifices consistent with the spirit of the bill
+in order to conciliate opposition in the house of peers. Grey's constant
+reply was that no concessions would propitiate men bent on driving the
+government from office, and that no measure less efficacious than that
+already introduced would satisfy the just expectations of the people.
+Both of these arguments were perfectly sound, and the constitutional
+triumph ultimately achieved was largely due to the admirable tenacity of
+purpose which refused to remodel the original reform bill in any
+essential respect to please either the borough-mongers or the radicals.
+The elections were conducted on the whole in good order. Seventy-six out
+of eighty-two English county members (including the four Yorkshire
+members), and the four members for the city of London, were pledged to
+vote for the bill. Several notable anti-reformers were among the many
+county representatives who failed to obtain re-election; even some of
+the doomed boroughs did not venture to return anti-reformers; and the
+government found itself supported by an immense nominal majority. The
+new bill, introduced on June 24 by Lord John Russell, who had recently
+been admitted in company with Stanley to the cabinet, differed little
+from the old one. The number of boroughs to be totally disfranchised was
+slightly greater, that of boroughs to be partially disfranchised
+slightly less, but the net effect of the disfranchising and
+enfranchising schedules was the same, and the £10 rental suffrage was
+retained. The measure was allowed to pass its first reading after one
+night's discussion. The debates on the second reading lasted three
+nights, but the bill passed this stage on July 8 by a majority of 136 in
+a house of 598 members.
+
+[Pageheading: _SECOND REFORM BILL._]
+
+The victory, however, though great, was far indeed from proving
+decisive. By adopting obstructive tactics, of a kind to be perfected in
+a later age, the opposition succeeded in prolonging the discussion in
+committee over forty nights, until September 7. Though Peel separated
+himself from the old tories, and steadily declined to cabal with
+O'Connell's faction against the government, such an unprofitable waste
+of time could not have taken place without his tacit sanction. Only one
+important alteration was made in the bill. This was the famous "Chandos
+clause," proposed by Lord Chandos, son of the Duke of Buckingham,
+whereby the county suffrage was extended to all tenants-at-will of £50
+rental and upwards. A very large proportion of tenant farmers thus
+became county voters, and for the most part followed the politics of
+their landlords. It may be doubted whether Grey seriously lamented
+Chandos's intervention; at all events it went far to verify his own
+prediction that aristocratic dominion would not be undermined by
+reform.[104] Meanwhile, the country was naturally impatient of the
+vexatious delay, and a somewhat menacing conference took place between
+the political unions of Birmingham, Manchester, and Glasgow. Happily
+public attention was diverted to some extent by the coronation, which
+took place on the 8th. The bill was carried more rapidly through its
+later stages, and was finally passed in the house of commons on the
+21st, though by a reduced majority of 345 to 236.
+
+On the following day the bill reached the house of lords and was set
+down for its second reading on October 3. Thenceforth all the hopes and
+fears of its friends and enemies were concentrated on the proceedings in
+that house, whose ascendency in the state was at stake. The question:
+"What will the lords do?" was asked all over the country with the
+deepest anxiety. The debate lasted five nights, and is admitted to have
+been among the finest reported in our parliamentary history. All the
+leading peers took part in it, and several of them were roused by the
+occasion to unwonted eloquence, but the palm was generally awarded to
+the speeches of Grey, Harrowby, Brougham, and Lyndhurst. The first of
+these occupied a position which gave increased weight to his counsels,
+since he was the veteran advocate of reform and yet known to be a most
+loyal member of the nobility which now stood on its trial. In his
+opening speech he appealed earnestly to the bench of bishops, as
+disinterested parties and as ministers of peace, not to set themselves
+against the almost unanimous will of the people. Brougham's great
+oration on the last night of the debate contained a masterly review of
+the whole question, and, in spite of its theatrical conclusion, when he
+sank upon his knees, extorted the admiration of his bitterest critics as
+a consummate exhibition of his marvellous powers.
+
+But very few of the peers were open to persuasion; the votes of
+anti-reformers were mainly guided by a shortsighted conception of their
+own interests, and Eldon did not shrink from contending that nomination
+boroughs were in the nature of property rather than of trusts. A
+memorable division ended in the rejection of the second reform bill on
+the 8th by 199 votes to 158. Twenty-one bishops voted against it. The
+king lost no time in reminding Grey of his own warning against
+submitting the bill, without serious modifications, to the judgment of
+the house of lords. He also intimated beforehand that he could not
+consent to any such creation of peers as would convert the minority into
+a majority. Grey at once admitted that he could not ask for so
+high-handed an exercise of the royal prerogative, and undertook to
+remain at his post, on condition of being allowed to introduce a third
+reform bill as comprehensive as its predecessor. Thereupon the king
+abandoned his intention of proroguing parliament by commission, and came
+down in person to do so on the 20th when he delivered a speech clearly
+indicating legislation on reform as the work of the next session.
+
+[Pageheading: _REFORM BILL RIOTS._]
+
+During the interval between the 8th and the 20th it became evident that
+the reform movement, quickened by the action of the upper house, would
+rise to a dangerous height. A vote of confidence in the government,
+brought forward by Lord Ebrington, eldest son of Earl Fortescue, was
+carried by a majority of 131, and speeches were made in support of it
+which encouraged, in the form of prediction, every kind of popular
+agitation short of open violence. In the course of this debate Macaulay,
+the future historian of the English revolution, delivered one of those
+highly wrought orations which adorn the political literature of reform.
+The excitement in London was great, but kept for the most part within
+reasonable bounds, partly by the firm and sensible attitude of Melbourne
+as home secretary. The mob, however, vented its rage in window breaking
+and personal assaults on some prominent anti-reformers, one of whom,
+Lord Londonderry, was knocked off his horse by a volley of stones. In
+the provinces more serious disturbances broke out. At Derby the rioters
+actually stormed the city jail, releasing the prisoners, and were only
+repelled in their attack on the county jail by the fire of a military
+force. At Nottingham they wreaked their vengeance on the Duke of
+Newcastle by burning down Nottingham Castle, which belonged to him, and
+were proceeding to further outrages when they were overawed by a
+regiment of hussars. A great open-air meeting of the political union was
+held at Birmingham, while the bill was still before the house of lords,
+at which a refusal to pay taxes was openly recommended in the last
+resort, and votes of thanks were passed to Althorp and Russell. The
+former, in acknowledging it, wisely condemned such lawless proceedings;
+the latter unwisely made use of a phrase which gravely displeased the
+king: "It is impossible that the whisper of faction should prevail
+against the voice of a nation". Both were called to account in the house
+of commons for holding correspondence with an illegal association, but
+disclaimed any recognition of the Birmingham union as a body, and fully
+admitted the responsibility of the government for the maintenance of
+order.
+
+This assurance was about to be tested by the most atrocious outbreak
+which disgraced the cause of reform. On Saturday, the 29th, Wetherell,
+as recorder of Bristol, entered the city to open the commission on the
+following Monday. Of all the anti-reformers, he was perhaps the most
+vehement and unpopular, but his visit to Bristol was in discharge of an
+official duty, and had been sanctioned expressly by the government.
+Nevertheless, the cavalcade which escorted him was assailed by a furious
+rabble on its way to the guildhall, and from the guildhall to the
+mansion house, where he was to dine. For a while, they were kept back or
+driven back by a large force of constables, but, on some of these being
+withdrawn, their ferocity increased, and threatened a general assault on
+the mansion house. In vain did the mayor address them and read the riot
+act; they overpowered the constables, and carried the mansion house by
+storm, the mayor and the magistrates escaping by the back premises,
+while the recorder prudently left the city. At last the military were
+called upon to act, and two troops of cavalry were ordered out. But the
+military as well as the civil authorities showed a strange weakness and
+vacillation in presence of an emergency only to be compared with the
+Lord George Gordon riots of a by-gone generation. After making one
+charge and dispersing the populace for the moment, the cavalry were sent
+back to their barracks, and when one troop was recalled on the following
+(Sunday) morning, the rioters were all but masters of the city. Many of
+them, having plundered the cellars of the mansion house, were infuriated
+by drink; they broke into the Bridewell, the new city jail, and the
+county jail, set free the prisoners, and fired the buildings. They next
+proceeded to burn down the mansion house, the bishop's palace, the
+custom-house, and the excise-office. The cathedral is said to have been
+saved by the resolute stand of a few volunteers hastily rallied by one
+of the officials. In the midst of all this havoc, the cavalry were
+almost passive, Colonel Brereton, the commanding officer, waiting for
+orders from the magistrates, and actually withdrawing a part of his
+small force when it was most needed, because it had incurred the special
+hatred of the criminals.
+
+On the morning of Monday, the guardians of law and order seemed to have
+recovered their courage; at all events, the cavalry, no longer forbidden
+to charge, and headed by Major Mackworth, soon cleared the streets,
+fresh troops poured in, and the police made a number of arrests. The
+reign of anarchy was at an end, having lasted three days. When a return
+of casualties was made up, it showed that only twelve were known to have
+lost their lives, besides ninety-four disabled, most of whom were the
+victims of excessive drunkenness or of the flames kindled by themselves.
+But, though the riot was quelled, it was some proof of its deliberate
+promotion, and of the aims which its ringleaders had in view, that
+parties of them issuing out from Bristol attempted to propagate sedition
+in Somersetshire. A special commission sent down to Bristol condemned to
+death several of the worst malefactors; four were hanged and
+eighty-eight sentenced either to transportation or to lighter
+punishments; and Colonel Brereton destroyed himself rather than face the
+verdict of a court-martial.
+
+On the same Monday, the 31st, Burdett took the chair at a meeting in
+Lincoln's Inn Fields, called for the purpose of forming a "National
+Political Union" in London. Soon afterwards, however, he retired from
+the organisation, on the nominal ground that half of the seats on its
+council were allotted to the working classes, but more probably because
+he was beginning to be alarmed by the violence of his associates. His
+fears were justified by a manifesto summoning a mass meeting of the
+working-classes to assemble at White Conduit House on November 7, for
+the purpose of ratifying a new and revolutionary bill of rights. This
+time the government was on its guard, and Melbourne plainly informed a
+working-class deputation that such a meeting would certainly be
+seditious, and perhaps treasonable, in law. The plan was therefore
+abandoned, and soon afterwards a royal proclamation was issued,
+declaring organised political associations, assuming powers independent
+of the civil magistrates, to be "unconstitutional and illegal". The
+political unions proposed to consider themselves outside the scope of
+the proclamation, which had little visible effect, though it was not
+without its value as proving that the government was a champion of order
+as well as of liberty.
+
+[Pageheading: _NEGOTIATIONS WITH WAVERERS._]
+
+During the short recess of less than six weeks political discontent,
+constantly growing, was aggravated by industrial distress and gloomy
+forebodings of a mysterious pestilence, already known as cholera. A
+voluminous correspondence was carried on between the king and Grey on
+the means of silencing the political unions and smoothing the passage of
+a new reform bill. It was not in the king's nature to conceal his own
+conservative leanings, especially on the imaginary danger of increasing
+the metropolitan constituencies, and Grey complained more than once of
+these sentiments being confided, or at least becoming known, to
+opponents of the government. At the same time attempts were being made
+not only by the king himself, but also by peers of moderate views to
+arrange a compromise which might save the honour of the government, and
+yet mitigate the hostility of the tory majority in the upper house. In
+these negotiations behind the scenes, Howley, Archbishop of Canterbury,
+and Carr, Bishop of Worcester, took part, as representing the episcopal
+bench, while Lords Harrowby and Wharncliffe, in temporary concert with
+Chandos, professed to speak for the "waverers" among peers. As little of
+importance resulted from their well-meant efforts, and as nearly all the
+supposed "waverers," including the bishops, drifted into open
+opposition, it is the less necessary to dwell at length on a very
+tedious chapter in the history of parliamentary reform. Suffice it to
+say that when parliament reassembled on December 6, 1831, the prospects
+of the forthcoming bill were no brighter than in October, except so far
+as the danger of rejecting it had become more apparent.
+
+The final reform bill introduced by Lord John Russell on the 12th was
+identical in its principle and its essential features with the former
+ones. The chief alteration was the maintenance of the house of commons
+at its full strength of 658 members. This enabled its framers not only
+to reduce the number of wholly disfranchised boroughs (schedule A) from
+sixty to fifty-six, and that of semi-disfranchised boroughs (schedule B)
+from forty-six to thirty, but to assign a larger number of members to
+the prosperous towns enfranchised. The bill was at once read a first
+time and passed its second reading after two nights' debate on the 16th
+by a majority of 324 to 162, or exactly two to one. But, after a short
+adjournment for the Christmas holidays, a debate of twenty-two nights
+took place in committee, and the opposition made skilful use of the many
+vulnerable points in the new scheme. Every variation from the original
+bill, even by way of concession, was subjected to minute criticism, and
+especially the fact that the schedules were now framed, not on a scale
+of population only, but on a mixed basis, partly resting on population,
+partly on the number of inhabited houses, and partly on the local
+contribution to assessed taxes.
+
+It was easy to pick such a compound scale to pieces, to uphold the
+claims of one venal borough against another equally venal, and even to
+reproach the government with inconsistency in relying on the census of
+1831, instead of on that of 1821--a course which the opposition had
+specially urged upon them. But it was not so easy to combat the
+irresistible arguments in favour of the bill on its general merits, to
+ignore the reasonable concessions on points of detail which it embodied,
+or to explain away the patent fact that no measure less stringent would
+satisfy the people. There was therefore an air of unreality about this
+debate, spirited as it was, nor is it easy to understand what practical
+object enlightened men like Peel could have sought in prolonging it. He
+well knew, and admitted in private correspondence, that reform was
+inevitable; he must have known that a sham reform would be a stimulus to
+revolutionary agitation; yet he strove to mutilate the bill so that it
+might pass its second reading in the house of lords, and there undergo
+such further mutilation as would destroy its efficacy as a settlement of
+the question. For the present he yielded. No attempt was made to
+obstruct the bill on its third reading, when the division showed 355
+votes to 239, and it passed the commons on March 23 without any
+division.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE THIRD REFORM BILL._]
+
+Such a result would have been conclusive in any parliament during the
+second half of the nineteenth century. A house of commons elected by the
+old constituencies, and under the old franchises, had declared in favour
+of a well-considered reform bill. The same constituencies voting under
+the same franchises had returned an increased majority in support of the
+same, or very nearly the same measure; this measure, with slight
+variations, had been adopted by an immense preponderance of votes in the
+new house of commons: yet its fate in the house of lords was very
+doubtful. Ever since the autumn of 1831, the expedient of swamping the
+house of lords had been seriously contemplated. It was supremely
+distasteful to the king, and Grey himself, in common with a majority of
+the cabinet, was strongly averse from it. Then came the intervention of
+Harrowby and Wharncliffe, the failure of which strengthened the hands of
+the more determined reformers in the cabinet, and induced the king to
+give way. Having already created a few peers on the coronation, he
+consented to a limited addition in the last resort, but with the
+reservation that eldest sons of existing peers should be called up in
+the first instance, and upon the assurance that, reform once carried,
+all further encroachments of the democracy should be resisted by the
+government. He even authorised Grey to inform Harrowby that he had given
+the prime minister this power, in the hope that it would never be
+needed, and that at least the second reading of the bill would be
+carried in the house of lords without it. His objection to a permanent
+augmentation of the peerage remained unshaken, and Grey promised to
+propose no augmentation at all before the second reading.
+
+This compact, if it can be so called, was fulfilled in the letter, for
+the bill was read a first time without a division, and it passed the
+second reading on April 14 by a majority of 184 to 175. To all
+appearance a notable process of conversion had been wrought among the
+peers, seventeen of whom actually changed sides, while ten opponents of
+the former bill absented themselves, and twelve new adherents were
+gained. However encouraging these figures might be, the ministers were
+under no illusion. They had the best reason for expecting the worst
+from the struggle in committee, and they were conscious of gradually
+losing the king's confidence. The very demonstrations of popular
+enthusiasm for reform which impressed others with a sense of its
+necessity impressed him with a sense of its danger; the political unions
+and the Bristol riots alarmed him extremely; and the foreign policy of
+the government elicited from him so outspoken a protest that Grey
+tendered his resignation. The difficulty was overcome for the moment,
+but recurred in a more serious form when parliament reassembled on May
+7. Lyndhurst at once proposed in committee to postpone the consideration
+of schedule A; in other words, to shelve the most vital provisions of
+the bill until the rest should have been dissected in a hostile spirit.
+This proposal is supposed to have been concerted with Harrowby and
+Wharncliffe, if not to have received the sanction of the Duke of
+Wellington. It was adopted by 151 votes to 116, and the cabinet, on May
+8, courageously determined to make a decisive stand. They firmly advised
+the king to confer peerages on "such a number of persons as might ensure
+the success of the bill". The principle thus expressed had, as has been
+seen, been reluctantly approved by the king himself, but he recoiled
+from the application of it when he learned that it would involve at
+least fifty new creations. After a day's thought, he closed with the
+only alternative, and accepted the resignation of his ministry. He then
+sent for Lyndhurst, who of course at once communicated with the duke.
+
+The king, as we have seen, had never been able to understand the real
+force of the reform movement, and his leading idea was that the demand
+for reform might be satisfied by a moderate reform bill, which the house
+of lords would not reject or reduce to nullity. Wellington shared this
+impression, and, though an implacable opponent of reform, was willing to
+undertake office for the purpose of carrying, not merely a mild
+substitute for the whig reform bill, but the whig reform bill itself
+with little modification. Such an act might appear immoral in a
+statesman whose integrity was more open to question, but the duke's
+political _moral_ appears to have been of a less delicate type than that
+which is commonly expected in party politicians. As a general, he
+considered, first of all and above all, what manoeuvres would best
+advance his plan of campaign. As a political leader, he regarded
+himself not as the chief of a party, still less as the exponent of a
+creed, but rather as a public servant to whom his followers owed
+allegiance, whether in office or in opposition. As a public servant he
+felt bound to obey the king's summons, and conduct the administration,
+honestly and efficiently, but without much concern for personal
+convictions. He was also anxious to preserve the house of lords from
+being swamped and so rendered ridiculous by an extensive creation of
+peers.[105]
+
+[Pageheading: _ATTEMPTS TO FORM A TORY MINISTRY._]
+
+But Wellington knew that he was powerless to manage the house of commons
+without the aid of Peel, and Peel, though pliable in the case of
+catholic emancipation, was inflexible in the case of reform. He drew a
+distinction between these cases, and absolutely rejected the advice of
+Croker that he should grasp the helm of state to avert the worse evil of
+the whigs being recalled. "I look," he wrote, "beyond the exigency and
+the peril of the present moment, and I do believe that one of the
+greatest calamities that could befall the country would be the utter
+want of confidence in the declarations of public men which must follow
+the adoption of the bill of reform by me as a minister of the
+crown."[106] This language, repeated under reserve in the house of
+commons, after a direct appeal from the king, strongly contrasts with
+that of the duke who roundly asserted that he should have been ashamed
+to show his face in the streets if he had refused to serve his sovereign
+in an emergency. The marked divergence of views and conduct between the
+two leaders of the conservative party led to a temporary estrangement
+which materially weakened their counsels, and was not finally removed
+until a fresh crisis arose two years later.
+
+While Lyndhurst and the duke were vainly endeavouring to patch up a
+government without Peel or his personal adherents, Goulburn and Croker,
+the house of commons and the country gave decisive proofs of their
+resolution. A vote of confidence in Grey's ministry, proposed by
+Ebrington, was carried on May 10 by a majority of eighty. Petitions came
+in from the city of London and Manchester, calling upon the commons to
+stop the supplies, and the reckless populace clamoured for a run upon
+the Bank of England. A mass meeting convened by the Birmingham
+political union had already hoisted the standard of revolt against the
+legislature, unless it would comply with the will of the people; the
+example was spreading rapidly, and events seemed to be hurrying on
+towards a fulfilment of Russell's prediction that, in the event of a
+political deadlock, the British constitution would perish in the
+conflict. The duke was credited, of course unjustly, with the intention
+of establishing military rule, and doubts were freely expressed whether
+he could rely either on the army or on the police to put down insurgent
+mobs. The excitement in the house of commons itself was scarcely less
+formidable, and it soon became evident that high tories were almost as
+much incensed by the prospect of a tory reform bill as radicals and
+whigs by the vote on Lyndhurst's amendment.
+
+On the 14th Manners Sutton and Alexander Baring, Lyndhurst's trusted
+confidants, plainly informed the duke that his self-imposed task was
+hopeless, and on the next day the duke advised the king to recall Grey.
+The king, who had apparently grasped the position earlier, acquiesced in
+this solution of the question. He agreed to recall Grey and his
+colleagues, and to use his own personal influence in persuading tory
+peers to abstain from voting. He attempted to impose upon his old
+ministers the condition of modifying the bill considerably, but they
+continued to insist on maintaining its integrity, and on swamping the
+upper house, unless its opposition should be withdrawn. It was, happily,
+unnecessary to resort to such extreme measures. A letter from the king,
+dated the 17th, informed Wellington that all difficulties would be
+removed by "a declaration in the house of lords from a sufficient number
+of peers that they have come to the resolution of dropping their further
+opposition to the reform bill". On that night, after stating what had
+passed, the duke retired from the house, followed by about 100 peers,
+and absented himself from the discussion of the bill in committee. A
+stalwart minority remained, and took issue on a few clauses, but their
+numbers constantly dwindled, and when the report was received on June 1
+only eighteen peers recorded their dissent in a protest. Grey himself,
+though suffering from illness, moved the third reading on the 4th, when
+it was carried by 106 to 22. His last words did not lack the dignity
+which had marked his bearing throughout, and expressed the earnest hope
+that, in spite of sinister forebodings, "the measure would be found to
+be, in the best sense, conservative of the constitution".
+
+[Pageheading: _ROYAL ASSENT TO THE BILL._]
+
+The amendments made in the house of lords were slight, and the house of
+commons adopted them without any argument on their merits. Peel, who had
+made a convincing defence of his recent conduct, and who afterwards took
+a statesmanlike course in the reformed parliament, declared, with some
+petulance, that he would have nothing to do with the consideration of
+provisions or amendments passed under compulsion, and that he was
+prepared to accept them, _en bloc_, whatever their nature or
+consequences. The bill, therefore, received the royal assent on the 7th,
+but the king could not be induced to perform this ceremony in person.
+Though his scruples had been respected in framing the scheme of reform,
+though he was consulted at every turn and clearly recognised the
+necessity to which he bowed, and though he was spared the resort to a
+_coup d'état_ which he abhorred, he could not but feel humiliated by the
+ill-disguised subjection of the crown and the nobility to a single
+chamber of the people. It is greatly to his honour that, with limited
+intelligence, and strong prejudices, he should have played a
+straightforward and strictly constitutional part in so perilous a
+crisis.
+
+By the great reform bill, as it was still called even after it became an
+act, the whole representative system of England and Wales was
+reconstructed. Fifty-six nomination boroughs, as we have seen, lost
+their members altogether; thirty more were reduced to one member, and
+Weymouth which, coupled with Melcombe Regis, had returned four members,
+now lost two. Twenty-two large towns, including metropolitan districts,
+were allotted two members each; twenty smaller but considerable towns
+received one member each; the number of English and Welsh county members
+was increased from ninety-four to one hundred and fifty-nine, and the
+larger counties were parcelled out into divisions. All the fanciful and
+antiquated franchises which had prevailed in the older boroughs were
+swept away to make room for a levelling £10 household suffrage, the
+privileges of freemen being alone preserved. The rights of 40s.
+freeholders were retained in counties, but they found themselves
+associated with a large body of copyholders, leaseholders, and
+tenants-at-will paying £50 in rent. The general result was to place the
+borough representation mainly in the hands of shopkeepers, and the
+county representation mainly in those of landlords and farmers. The
+former change had a far greater effect on the balance of parties than
+the latter. The shopkeepers, of whom many were nonconformists, long
+continued to cherish advanced radical traditions, partly derived from
+the reform agitation, and constantly rebelled against dictation from
+their rich customers. The farmers, dependent on their landlords and
+closely allied with them in defending the corn laws, proved more
+submissive to influence, and constituted the backbone of the great
+agricultural interest.
+
+The enactment of the English reform bill carried with it as its
+necessary sequel the success of similar bills for Scotland and Ireland.
+In Scotland electoral abuses were so gross that reform was comparatively
+simple, and that proposed, as Jeffrey, the lord advocate, frankly said,
+"left not a shred of the former system". The nation, as a whole, gained
+eight members, since its total representation was raised from forty-five
+to fifty-three seats, thirty for counties and twenty-three for cities
+and burghs. Two members were allotted to Edinburgh and Glasgow
+respectively; one each to Paisley, Aberdeen, Perth, Dundee, and
+Greenock, as well as to certain groups of boroughs. Both the county and
+burgh electorates were entirely transformed. The "old parchment
+freeholders" in counties, many of whom owned not a foot of land, were
+superseded by a mixed body of freeholders and leaseholders with real
+though various qualifications. The electoral monopoly of town councils
+was replaced by the enfranchisement of householders with a uniform
+qualification of £10. A claim to representation on behalf of the
+Scottish universities was negatived in the house of lords. The number of
+representatives for Ireland was raised from 100 to 105. The
+disfranchisement of the 40s. freeholders was maintained against the
+strenuous attacks of O'Connell and Sheil, but the introduction of the
+£10 borough franchise amply balanced the loss of democratic influence in
+counties. On the whole the transfer of power from class to class was
+greater in Scotland and Ireland than in England itself, and in Ireland
+this signified a corresponding transfer of power from protestants to
+catholics. The rule of the priests was almost as absolute as ever until
+it was checked for a while by a purely democratic movement, and the
+Irish vote in the house of commons was generally cast on the radical
+side.
+
+[Pageheading: _RETROSPECT OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT._]
+
+A calm retrospect of the reform movement, culminating in the acts of
+1832, compels us to see how little the course of politics is guided by
+reason, and how much by circumstances. Every argument employed in that
+and the preceding year possessed equal force at the end of the
+eighteenth century, and the benefits of reform might have been obtained
+at a much smaller cost of domestic strife; nor can we doubt that, but
+for the French revolution, these arguments would have prevailed. Whether
+or not the sanguinary disruption of French society furthered the cause
+of progress on the continent, it assuredly threw back that cause in
+Great Britain for more than a generation. Not only did its horrors and
+enormities produce a reaction which paralysed the efforts of liberals in
+this country, but the wars arising out of it engrossed for twenty years
+the whole energy of the nation. Had it been possible for Pitt to pass a
+reform bill after carrying the Irish union, the current of English
+history would have been strangely diverted. The sublime tenacity of that
+proud aristocracy which defied the French empire in arms, and nerved all
+the rest of Europe by its example and its subsidies, would never have
+been exhibited by a democratic or middle class parliament, and it is
+more than probable that Great Britain would have stood neutral while the
+continent was enslaved or worked out its own salvation. On the other
+hand, in such a case, Great Britain might have been spared a great part
+of the misery and discontent which, following the peace, but indirectly
+caused by the war, actually paved the way for the reform movement. It
+remained for a second French revolution, combined with the infatuation
+of English tories, to supply the motive power which converted a party
+cry into a national demand for justice. The reform act was, in truth, a
+completion of the earlier English revolution provoked by the Stuarts.
+Considering the condition of the people before its introduction, and the
+obstinacy of the resistance to be overborne, we may well marvel that it
+was carried, after all, so peacefully, and must ever remember it as a
+signal triumph of whig statesmanship.
+
+It was the crowning merit of the reform act, from a whig point of view,
+that it stayed the rising tide of democracy, and raised a barrier
+against household suffrage and the ballot which was not broken down for
+a generation more. It put an end to an oligarchy of borough-owners and
+borough-mongers; it was a charter of political rights for the
+manufacturing interest and the great middle class. But it did nothing
+for the working classes in town or country; indeed, by the abolition of
+potwallopers and scot-and-lot voters in a few boroughs, they forfeited
+such fragmentary representation as they had possessed. Hence the seeds
+of chartism, already sown, were quickened in 1832; but socialism was not
+yet a force in politics, and it was still hoped that, under the new
+electoral system, the sufferings of the poor might be mostly remedied by
+act of parliament. The effect of the reform act on the balance of the
+constitution was not, at first, fully appreciated. The grievance of
+nomination-boroughs had been all but completely redressed, and that of
+political corruption greatly diminished, but the hereditary peerage
+remained, and the right of the lords to override the will of the commons
+had ostensibly survived the conflict of 1831-32. But far-sighted men
+could not fail to perceive that, in fact, the upper house was no longer
+a co-ordinate estate of the realm. The peers retained an indefinite
+power of delaying a measure, but it soon came to be a received maxim
+that on a measure of primary importance such a power could only be
+exercised in order to give the commons an opportunity of reconsideration
+or to force an appeal to the country at a general election, and that a
+new house of commons, armed with a mandate to carry that measure, though
+once rejected by the peers, could not be resisted except at the risk of
+revolution.
+
+The best safeguard against collision, however, was to be found in the
+latent conservatism of the house of commons itself. Reformed as it was,
+it had not ceased to be mainly a house of country gentlemen, and the
+non-payment of members was a security for its being composed, almost
+exclusively, of men with independent means and a stake in the country. A
+very large proportion of these had been educated at the great public
+schools, or the old English universities. They might accept on the
+hustings the doctrine, against which Burke so eloquently protested, that
+a representative is above all a delegate, and must go to parliament as
+the pledged mouthpiece of his constituency. But in the house itself they
+could not divest themselves of the sentiments derived from their birth,
+their education, and their own personal interests; nor was it found
+impossible, without a direct violation of pledges, to act upon their own
+opinions in many a critical division. Still, it has been well pointed
+out that, with the flowing tide of reform there arose a new and
+one-sided conception of statesmanship as consisting in progressive
+amendment of the laws rather than in efficient administration, so that
+it is now popularly regarded as a mark of weakness on the part of any
+government to allow a session to pass without effecting some important
+legislative change.[107]
+
+[Pageheading: _CORONATION OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+The supreme interest of the reform bill and its incidents naturally
+dwarfed all other political questions, and the legislative annals of
+1831-32 are otherwise singularly devoid of historical importance. The
+coronation of William IV., which, as has been seen, took place on
+September 8, 1831, was hardly more than an interlude in the great
+struggle, yet it served for the moment to assuage the animosities of
+party warfare. The king himself, who disliked solemn ceremonials, and
+the ministers, deeply pledged to economy, were inclined to dispense with
+the pageant altogether. It was found, however, that not only peers and
+court officials but the public would be grievously disappointed by the
+omission of what, after all, is a solemn public celebration of the
+compact between the sovereign and the nation. The coronation was,
+therefore, carried out with due pomp and all the time-honoured
+formalities, but without the profuse extravagance which attended the
+enthronement of George IV. There was no public banquet, and the public
+celebration ceased with the ceremony in Westminster Abbey. The Duke of
+Wellington and other leading members of the opposition had been duly
+consulted by the government; there was a welcome respite from
+parliamentary warfare; the king's returning popularity was confirmed;
+and all classes of the people were satisfied.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CHOLERA EPIDEMIC._]
+
+Two months later, the appearance of the cholera at Sunderland added
+another grave cause of anxiety to all the difficulties created by the
+defeat of the reform bill in the house of lords, and the ominous riots
+at Bristol. A similar but distinct and infinitely milder disease had
+long been known under the name of _cholera morbus_, or more correctly
+_cholera nostras_. Asiatic cholera, as the new disease was called, had
+no affinity with any other known disease, and excited all the greater
+terror by its novelty, as well as by the suddenness of its fatal effect.
+It was first observed by English physicians in 1817, when 10,000 persons
+fell victims to it in the district of Jessor in Bengal. About the same
+time it attacked and decimated the central division of the army of Lord
+Hastings, advancing against Gwalior. Before long it spread over the
+whole province of Bengal, and eastward along the coasts of Asia as far
+as China and Timur in the East Indies, crossed the great wall, and
+penetrated into Mongolia. In 1818 it broke out at Bombay, and during the
+next twelve years continued to haunt, at intervals, the cities of Persia
+and Asiatic Turkey, with the coasts of the Caspian Sea. It was not until
+1829 that it reached the Russian province of Orenburg, by way of the
+river Volga, visiting St. Petersburg and Archangel in June, 1830. Thence
+it travelled slowly but steadily westward through Northern Europe, as
+well as southward into the valleys of the Danube and its tributaries,
+until it made its appearance at Berlin and Hamburg in the summer of
+1831. Long before this, and while the reform crisis was in its acutest
+stage, the probability of its advent was fully realised in England, and
+orders in council were issued in June, 1831, placing in quarantine all
+ships coming from the Baltic. Notwithstanding the outcry against
+meddling with trade, men of war were appointed to enforce these orders,
+and when the news came that Marshal Diebitsch had died of the disease in
+Poland, the alarm increased and all regulations against plague were made
+applicable to cholera. Whether or not these precautions were
+ineffective, it swooped upon Sunderland on October 26, and prevailed
+there for two months, though its true character was very unwillingly
+recognised.[108]
+
+The conflict between the newly created board of health and the merchants
+importing goods caused the government no little perplexity. The protests
+of the latter were strengthened by the somewhat remarkable fact that,
+once established at Sunderland, the cholera seemed to be arrested in its
+course and for a while spread no further. There seemed to be some ground
+for the belief that it was partly due to extreme overcrowding and
+neglect of all sanitary rules in that town, but this belief was soon
+dissipated by its appearance at Newcastle and progress over the
+north-eastern counties even during the winter months. Seven cases of it
+occurred on the banks of the Thames just below London early in February,
+1832, and though its virulence in England was alleged to be less than on
+the continent, further experience hardly justified that opinion. The
+appalling violence of its first onslaught on some vulnerable districts
+may be illustrated by the example of Manchester, where a whole family
+just arrived from an infected locality was swept away within twenty-four
+hours. The government did its duty by disseminating instructions for its
+prevention and treatment among the local authorities, but the prejudices
+of the lower orders were against all interference for their benefit, and
+scenes of brutality were sometimes enacted such as may still be
+witnessed in oriental cities scourged by the plague. After a temporary
+decline, the visitation recurred in all its severity, and in July the
+deaths of a few persons in the highest circles occasioned a panic in the
+west end of London. Still the declared number of deaths in the
+metropolitan area was only 5,275, showing a far lower rate of mortality
+in London than in Paris at the same time, and much lower than in London
+itself during the epidemic of 1849, when statistics were more
+trustworthy. None of the cholera epidemics, however, approached in
+deadliness the plagues of 1625 and 1665. In the latter year the number
+of deaths in London from plague alone represented about one-fifth of the
+entire resident population--a proportion equivalent to a mortality of
+above 200,000 in the London of 1831-32. This comparative immunity was
+partly due to improved sanitation, the vigorous development of which may
+be said to date from the first visitation of cholera.
+
+The census taken in 1831 revealed an increase of population, which,
+though not equal to that of the preceding decade, indicated a most
+satisfactory growth of wealth and employment. It was found that Great
+Britain contained about 16,500,000 inhabitants, but of these, as might
+be expected, a smaller percentage was employed in agriculture and a
+larger percentage in manufacturing industry than in 1821. It has been
+calculated that since the end of the great war the accumulation of
+capital had been twice as rapid as the multiplication of the people,
+but, in spite of this, pauperism, as measured by poor law expenditure,
+had increased almost continuously since 1823, and emigration received a
+startling impulse in 1831-32. Rick burning and frame breaking were the
+joint result of childish ignorance, miserable wages, mistaken taxes on
+the staple of food, and poor laws administered as if for the very
+purpose of encouraging improvidence and vice. All these causes were
+capable of being removed or mitigated by legislation, for even the rate
+of wages was kept down by the ruinous system of out-door relief. But it
+was only a few thoughtful persons who then appreciated either the extent
+or the real sources of the mischief, and the disputes which soon arose
+about the proper remedies to be applied have been handed on to a later
+age.
+
+Next to parliamentary reform the state of Ireland was by far the most
+important subject which engaged the attention of the legislature in
+1831-32. The population had increased from 6,801,827 in 1821 to
+7,767,401 in 1831, and the increase, unlike that in England, had been
+almost exclusively in the agricultural districts. While the political
+motive for multiplying small freeholds had ceased, the motives for
+multiplying small tenancies were as strong as ever, and were felt by
+landlords no less than by cottiers. This class, often inhabiting huts
+like those of savage tribes and living in a squalor hardly to be seen
+elsewhere in western Europe, chiefly depended for their subsistence on
+potatoes--the most uncertain and the least nutritious of the crops used
+for human food. Many hundred thousands of them had no employment in
+their own country and no means of livelihood except the produce of the
+scanty patches around their own turf cabins. Tens of thousands flocked
+to England annually seeking harvest work, and a small number emigrated
+to Canada or the United States, the passage money for an emigrant being
+then almost prohibitive. Those who could not pay rent were liable to
+eviction, and eviction was a more cruel fate then than now, since there
+was no poor law in Ireland. Fever was rife in their miserable abodes,
+following in the steps of hunger, and for relief of any kind they could
+rely only on the mercy of their landlords or the charity of their
+neighbours. Under such conditions of life crime and disaffection could
+not but flourish, and the Irish peasant could hardly be blamed if he
+listened eagerly to the counsels of O'Connell. For him catholic
+emancipation had no meaning except so far as it gave him a hope that
+parliament, swayed by the great Irish demagogue, would abolish tithes,
+if not rent, and find some means of making Irishmen happy in their own
+country.
+
+[Pageheading: _ANGLESEY LORD LIEUTENANT OF IRELAND._]
+
+Had O'Connell been a true patriot, or even an honest politician, he
+would have devoted his vast powers and influence to practical schemes
+for the good of Ireland, and specially to a solution of the agrarian
+question. Unhappily, smarting under a not unfounded sense of injustice,
+when he was disabled from taking his seat for Clare, he threw his whole
+energy into a new campaign for the repeal of the union, which occupied
+the rest of his life. So far from acknowledging any gratitude to the
+whigs, through whose support emancipation had been carried, he exhausted
+all the resources of his scurrilous rhetoric upon them, lavishing the
+epithets "base, brutal, and bloody," with something like Homeric
+iteration. In December, 1830, Anglesey had returned to succeed the Duke
+of Northumberland, and Stanley occupied the post of chief secretary, in
+place of Hardinge. The ministers were privately advised to buy O'Connell
+at any price, and it was intimated that he would not object to become a
+law officer of the crown, or at least would not refuse a judicial
+appointment. It may well be doubted whether the offer of such a bargain
+to such a man could have been justified by success; it is more than
+probable that it would have failed, and it is quite certain that failure
+would have brought infinite discredit upon the government. At all events
+the attempt was not made, and other catholic aspirants to legal
+promotion were passed over with less excuse.
+
+Lord Anglesey proved a resolute viceroy, and proclaimed the various
+associations, meetings, and processions organised by O'Connell, with
+little regard for his own popularity. O'Connell's policy, carried out
+with the cunning of a skilful lawyer, was to obey the law in the letter,
+but to break it almost defiantly in the spirit. At last, however, he
+went a step too far by advising the people who had come for a prohibited
+meeting to reassemble and hold it elsewhere. He was arrested on January
+18, 1831, and pleaded "Not guilty," but on February 17, when his trial
+came on, he allowed judgment to go by default against him on those
+counts of the indictment which charged him with a statutable offence,
+provided that other counts, which charged him with a conspiracy at
+common law, should be withdrawn. The attorney-general assented, and the
+case was adjourned until the first day in Easter term. Before that day
+arrived, however, the reform bill had been introduced, and O'Connell had
+made a powerful speech in support of it. In the desperate struggle which
+ensued, the ministers shrunk from estranging so formidable an ally, a
+further adjournment of the case was allowed, a sudden dissolution of
+parliament took place, the act under which O'Connell was to be sentenced
+expired with the parliament, and no further action was taken.
+
+[Pageheading: _"TITHE-WAR" IN IRELAND._]
+
+During the year 1831, the agitation for repeal which O'Connell had set
+on foot, as soon as the emancipation act had been passed, was for a
+while thrust into the shade by the fiercer agitation against tithes.
+This agitation was connected, in theory, with the demand for the
+abolition or reduction of the Irish Church establishment, but was, in
+fact, entirely independent of that or any other constitutional movement.
+It may seem inexplicable to political students of a later age that Irish
+questions of secondary importance, and eminently capable of equitable
+treatment, should have convulsed the whole island and disturbed the
+whole course of imperial politics, during the reign of William IV. The
+rebellion against tithes or "tithe-war," as it was called, had not the
+semblance of justification in law or reason. Every tenant who took part
+in it had inherited or acquired his farm, subject to payment of tithes,
+and might have been charged a higher rent if he could have obtained it
+tithe-free. The tithe was the property of the parson as much as the land
+was the property of the landlord, and the wilful refusal of it was from
+a legal point of view sheer robbery. On the other hand, the mode of
+collection was extremely vexatious, perhaps involving the seizure of a
+pig, a bag of meal, or a sack of potatoes; and a starving cottier,
+paying fees to his own priest, was easily persuaded by demagogues that
+it was an arbitrary tribute extorted by clerical tyrants of an alien
+faith.
+
+Thus it came to pass that the history of the Irish "tithe-war" exhibits
+the Irish peasantry in their very worst moods, and it is stained with
+atrocities never surpassed in later records of Irish agrarian
+conspiracy. It is among the strange and sad anomalies of national
+character that a people so kindly in their domestic relations, so little
+prone to ordinary crime, and so amenable to better influences, should
+have shown, in all ages, down to the very latest, a capacity for
+dastardly inhumanity, under vindictive and gregarious impulses, only to
+be matched by Spanish and Italian brigands among the races of modern
+Europe. Yet so it is, and no "coercion" (so-called) ultimately enforced
+by legal authority was comparable in severity with the coercion which
+bloodthirsty miscreants ruthlessly applied to honest and peaceable
+neighbours, only guilty of paying their lawful debts. It is not too much
+to say that anarchy prevailed over a great part of Ireland, especially
+of Leinster, during the years 1831 and 1832. The collection of tithes
+became almost impossible. The tithe-proctors were tortured or murdered;
+the few willing tithe-payers were cruelly maltreated or intimidated; the
+police, unless mustered in large bodies, were held at bay; cattle were
+driven, or, if seized and offered for sale, could find no purchasers;
+and the protestant clergy, who had acted on the whole with great
+forbearance, were reduced to extremities of privations. Five of the
+police were shot dead on one occasion; on another, twelve who were
+escorting a tithe-proctor were massacred in cold blood. A large number
+of rioters were killed in encounters with the police, which sometimes
+assumed the form of pitched battles and closely resembled civil war.
+Special commissions were sent down into certain districts, and a few
+executions took place, but in most cases Irish juries proved as
+regardless of their oaths as they ever have on trials of prisoners for
+popular crimes. O'Connell, and even Sheil, tacitly countenanced these
+lawless proceedings, and openly palliated them in the house of commons.
+
+The whig government, engaged in a life-and-death contest with the
+English borough-mongers, hesitated to crush the Irish insurgents by
+military force, or to initiate a sweeping reform of the Irish Church.
+Early in 1832, however, committees of both houses reported in favour of
+giving the clergy temporary relief out of public funds, and of
+ultimately commuting tithes into a charge upon the land. A preliminary
+bill for the former purpose was promptly carried by Stanley, and made
+the government responsible for recovering the arrears. The committee,
+pursuing their inquiries, produced fuller reports, and again recommended
+a complete extinction of tithes in Ireland. But the method proposed and
+embodied in three bills introduced by Stanley in the same year, was too
+complicated to serve as a permanent settlement, and was denounced as
+illusory by the Irish members. The first bill was, in fact, a compulsory
+extension of acts already passed in 1822 and 1823, the former of which
+had permitted the tithe-owner to lease the tithe to the landlord, while
+the latter permitted the tithe-owner and tithe-payers of each parish to
+arrange a composition. Unfortunately, the act of 1823 had provided that
+the payment in commutation of tithe should be distributed over
+grass-lands hitherto tithe-free in Ireland as well as over land hitherto
+liable to tithe. The act was in consequence unpopular with a section of
+farmers, while at the same time the bishops resented the commutation, as
+likely to diminish the value of beneficies. But in spite of this
+opposition the act of 1823 had been widely adopted. Stanley's bill to
+render such commutations compulsory passed, but his other two bills,
+providing a new ecclesiastical machinery for buying up tithes, were
+abandoned at the end of the session. Of course the substitution of the
+government for the clergyman as creditor in respect of arrears had no
+soothing effect on the debtors. The reign of terror continued unabated,
+and O'Connell contented himself with pointing out that without repeal
+there could be no peace in Ireland. We may so far anticipate the
+legislation of 1833 as to notice the inevitable failure of the
+experiment which converted the government into a tithe-proctor. It was
+then replaced by a new plan, under which the government abandoned all
+processes under the existing law, advanced £1,000,000 to clear off all
+arrears of tithe, and sought reimbursement by a land tax payable for a
+period of five years.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDUCATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+It reflects credit on the unreformed house of commons that in its very
+last session, harassed by the irreconcilable attitude of the catholic
+population in Ireland, it should have found time and patience not only
+for the pressing question of Irish tithes, but for the consideration of
+a resolution introductory to an Irish poor law, of a bill (which became
+law) for checking the abuses of Irish party processions, and of a grant
+for a board to superintend the mixed education of Irish catholic and
+protestant children. The discussion of Sadler's motion in favour of an
+Irish poor law was somewhat academic, and produced a division among the
+Irish members, O'Connell, with gross inconsistency, declaring himself
+vehemently opposed to any such measure. The ministers professed
+sympathy with its principle, but would not pledge themselves to deal
+immediately with so difficult and complicated a subject, perhaps
+foreseeing the necessity of radical change in the English poor law
+system. The processions bill was vigorously resisted on behalf of the
+Orangemen, as specially aimed at their annual demonstrations on July 12,
+but it was so manifestly wise to remove every wanton aggravation of
+party spirit in Ireland, that it was passed just before the prorogation.
+
+The experiment of mixed education in Ireland had already been made with
+partial success, first by individuals, and afterwards by an association
+known as the Kildare Place Society. On the appointment of Dr. Whately to
+the archbishopric of Dublin, it received a fresh impulse, and Stanley,
+as chief secretary, definitely adopted the principle, recommended by two
+commissions and two committees, of "a combined moral and literary and
+separate religious instruction". A board of national education was
+established in Dublin, composed of eminent Roman catholics as well as
+protestants, to superintend all state-aided schools in which selections
+from the Bible, approved by the board, were to be read on two days in
+the week. Though provision was made for unrestricted biblical teaching,
+out of school hours, on the other four days, protestant bigotry was
+roused against the very idea of compromise. A shrewd observer remarked,
+"While the whole system is crumbling to dust under their feet, while the
+Church is prostrate, property of all kind threatened, and robbery,
+murder, starvation, and agitation rioting over the land, these wise
+legislators are debating whether the brats at school shall read the
+whole Bible or only parts of it".[109] The opponents of the national
+board failed to defeat the scheme in parliament, and it was justly
+mentioned with satisfaction by the king in his prorogation speech of
+August 16. But its benefits, though lasting, were seriously curtailed by
+sectarian jealousy. Most of the protestant clergy frowned upon the
+national schools, as the Roman catholic priesthood had frowned upon the
+schools of the Kildare Place Society, and a noble opportunity of
+mitigating religious strife in Ireland was to a great extent wasted.
+Thus ended the eventful session of 1832.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[104] See Professor Dicey's observations on this clause, _Law and
+Opinion in England_, p. 54, _n._
+
+[105] Wellington, _Despatches, etc._, viii., 206; Parker, _Sir Robert
+Peel_, ii., 207.
+
+[106] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 206.
+
+[107] Goldwin Smith, _United Kingdom_, ii., 354; Dicey, _Law and Opinion
+in England_, p. 85.
+
+[108] C. Creighton, _History of Epidemics in Britain_, ii., 768, 793-97,
+860-62.
+
+[109] Greville, _Memoirs_ (March 9, 1832), ii., 267.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XV.
+
+ FRUITS OF THE REFORM.
+
+
+It was assumed in 1832, and has been held ever since, that a
+redistribution act must be speedily followed by a dissolution, so as to
+give the new constituencies the power of returning new members.
+Accordingly, parliament, having been prorogued until October 16, was
+further prorogued until December 3, and then finally dissolved. The
+general election which followed, though awaited with much anxiety, was
+orderly on the whole, and produced less change than had been expected in
+the _personnel_ of the house of commons. The counties, for the most
+part, elected men from the landed aristocracy, the great towns elected
+men of recognised distinction, and few political leaders were excluded,
+though Croker abjured political life and refused to solicit a seat in
+the reformed house of commons. The good sense of the country asserted
+itself; while Cobbett was returned for Oldham, "Orator" Hunt was
+defeated at Preston, and no general preference was shown for violent
+demagogues by the more democratic boroughs. The age of members in the
+new house was higher, on the average, than in the old; its social
+character was somewhat lower, and the high authority of William Ewart
+Gladstone, who now entered parliament for the first time, may be quoted
+for the opinion that it was inferior, in the main, as a deliberative
+assembly. But it was certainly superior as a representative assembly, it
+contained more capable men of business, and its legislative productions,
+as we shall hereafter see, claim the gratitude of posterity. A certain
+want of modesty in the new class of members was observed by hostile
+critics, and was to be expected in men who had won their seats by
+popular oratory and not through patronage. The house of commons had
+already ceased to be "the best club in London," and later reforms have
+still further weakened its title to be so regarded, but they have also
+shown the wonderful power of assimilation inherent in the atmosphere of
+the house itself, and the spirit of freemasonry which springs up among
+those who enter it by very different avenues.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST REFORMED PARLIAMENT._]
+
+The change wrought by the reform act in the strength and distribution of
+parties was immediate and conspicuous. The ancient division of whigs and
+tories, which had become well-nigh obsolete in the reign of George IV.,
+had been revived by the great struggle of 1831-32. It was now superseded
+to a great extent by the combination of the radicals with O'Connell's
+followers into an independent section, and by the growth of a party
+under Peel, distinct from the inveterate tories and known by the name of
+"conservative," which first came into use in 1831.[110] The
+preponderance of liberalism, in its moderate and extreme forms, was
+overwhelming. It was roughly computed that nearly half the house were
+ministerialists and about 190 members radicals, Irish repealers, or free
+lances, while only 150 were classed as "conservatives," apparently
+including tories.[111] In such circumstances the attitude to be adopted
+by Peel was of the highest constitutional importance. It is some proof
+of the respect for statesmanship instinctively felt by the new house of
+commons that Peel, as inexorable an opponent of reform as Canning
+himself, should at once have assumed a foremost position and soon
+obtained an ascendency in an assembly so largely composed of his
+opponents.
+
+But Peel himself was no longer a mere party leader. Unlike Wellington
+and Eldon, he saw the necessity of accepting loyally the accomplished
+fact and shaping his future course in accordance with the nation's will.
+He, therefore, took an early opportunity of declaring that he regarded
+the reform act as irrevocable, and that he was prepared to participate
+in the dispassionate amendment of any institution that really needed it.
+In a private letter to Goulburn he stated that, in his judgment, "the
+best position the government could assume would be that of moderation
+between opposite extremes of ultra-toryism and radicalism," intimating
+further that "we should appear to the greatest advantage in defending
+the government" against their own extreme left wing.[112] In this
+policy he persevered; his influence did much to quell the confusion and
+disorder of the first debate, and his followers swelled the government
+majorities in several of the early divisions. When he came to review the
+first session of the reformed parliament he remarked in a private letter
+that what had been foreseen took place, that "the popular assembly
+exercised tacitly supreme power," and, without abolishing the crown or
+the house of lords, overawed the convictions of both.[113]
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH COERCION BILL._]
+
+The passion for reform, far from spending itself in remodelling the
+house of commons, filled the statute-book with monuments of remedial
+legislation. No session was more fruitful in legislative activity than
+that of 1833. But the way of legislation was at first blocked against
+all projects of improvement by the urgent necessity of passing an Irish
+coercion bill. This had been indicated in the king's speech, and on
+February 15, 1833 Grey introduced the strongest measure of repression
+ever devised for curbing anarchy in Ireland. It combined, as he
+explained, the provisions of "the proclamation act, the insurrection
+act, the partial application of martial law, and the partial suspension
+of the _habeas corpus_ act". But the barbarities and terrorism which it
+was designed to put down were beyond precedent and almost beyond belief.
+The attempt to collect the arrears of tithe, even with the aid of
+military force, had usually failed, and less than an eighth of the sum
+due was actually levied. The organised defiance of law was not, however,
+confined to refusal of tithes; it embraced the refusal of rent and
+extended over the whole field of agrarian relations. The Whiteboys of
+the eighteenth century reappeared as "Whitefeet," and other secret
+associations, under grotesque names, enforced their decrees by wholesale
+murder, burglary, arson, savage assaults, destruction of property, and
+mutilation of cattle. In two counties, Kilkenny and Queen's County,
+nearly a hundred murders or attempted murders were reported within
+twelve months, and the murderous intimidation of witnesses and jurors
+secured impunity to perpetrators of crimes. No civilised government
+could have tolerated an orgy of lawlessness on so vast a scale, and
+nothing but the exigencies of the reform bill can excuse Grey and his
+colleagues for not having grappled with it earlier. Nor does it appear
+that any remedy less stern would have been effectual. Where unarmed
+citizens have not the courage either to protect themselves or to aid the
+constabulary employed for their protection, soldiers, accustomed to face
+death and inflict it upon others under lawful command, must be called in
+to maintain order. Where civil tribunals have become a mockery, summary
+justice must be dealt out by military tribunals. Force may be no remedy
+for grievances, but it is the one sovereign remedy for organised crime,
+and this was soon to be proved in Ireland.
+
+The viceroy, Anglesey, true to his liberal instincts, would have
+postponed coercion to measures of relief, such as a settlement of the
+church question. Stanley, on the other hand, insisted on the prompt
+introduction of a stringent peace preservation bill, and his energetic
+will prevailed. The bill contained provisions enabling the
+lord-lieutenant to suppress any meeting, establishing a curfew law in
+disturbed districts, and placing offenders in such districts under the
+jurisdiction of courts martial with legal assessors. It passed the house
+of lords with little discussion on the 22nd, and was laid before the
+house of commons a few days later by Althorp, who had already brought in
+an Irish Church temporalities bill. The debate on the address had
+already given warning of the reception which the Irish members would
+accord to any coercion bill, and of their malignant hostility to
+Stanley. Efforts were made to delay its introduction, and full advantage
+was taken of Althorp's statement that one special commission had been
+completely successful. His opening speech, tame and inconclusive,
+discouraged his own followers. The fate of the bill appeared doubtful,
+but Stanley, who had twice staked the existence of the ministry on its
+adoption, reversed the whole tendency of the debate by a speech of
+marvellous force and brilliancy, which Russell afterwards described as
+"one of the greatest triumphs ever won in a popular assembly by the
+powers of oratory".[114] It was in this speech that he proved himself at
+least a match for O'Connell, whom he scathed with fierce indignation as
+having lately called the house of commons a body of scoundrels. It cost
+many nights of debate to carry the bill, with slight amendments, but
+Stanley's appeal had a lasting effect, and it became law in April, to
+the great benefit of Ireland.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH CHURCH TEMPORALITIES BILL._]
+
+Meanwhile, the Irish Church temporalities bill was pressed forward as a
+counterpoise to coercion. It imposed a graduated tax upon all episcopal,
+capitular, and clerical incomes above £200 a year, and placed the
+proceeds, estimated at £60,000 or £70,000 a year, in the hands of
+commissioners, to be expended in the repairs of churches, the erection
+of glebe-houses, and other parochial charges. In this way Irish
+ratepayers might be relieved of the obnoxious "vestry cess," a species
+of Church rate, at the expense of the clergy. A further saving of
+£60,000 a year or upwards was to be effected by a reduction of the Irish
+episcopate, aided by a new and less wasteful method of leasing Church
+lands attached to episcopal sees. Two out of four Irish archbishoprics
+and eight out of eighteen bishoprics were doomed to extinction, as
+vacancies should occur. Dioceses and benefices were to be freely
+consolidated, clerical sinecures were to cease, and the more scandalous
+abuses of the Irish Church were to be redressed.
+
+As a scheme for ecclesiastical rearrangement within the Church itself,
+the bill was sound and liberal, but it was utterly futile to imagine
+that it would be welcomed, except as a mere instalment of conciliation,
+by Roman catholics who looked upon the protestant Church itself as a
+standing national grievance. The only boon secured to them was exemption
+from their share of vestry cess, for, though Althorp intimated that the
+ultimate surplus to be realised by the union of sees and livings would
+be at the disposal of parliament, they well knew how many influences
+would operate to prevent its reaching them. Not even O'Connell, still
+less the ministry, ventured to propose "concurrent endowment" as it was
+afterwards called, and the very idea of diverting revenues from the
+protestant establishment to Roman catholic uses was disclaimed with
+horror. More than a century earlier, a partition of these revenues
+between the great protestant communions had been seriously entertained,
+and Pitt had notoriously contemplated a provision for the Roman catholic
+priests out of state funds. But no such demand was now made, and the one
+feature of the bill which commanded the vigorous support of O'Connell
+and his adherents was the 147th section, or "appropriation clause,"
+which enabled parliament to apply the expected surplus of some £60,000
+in income, or some £3,000,000 in capital, to whatever purposes, secular
+or otherwise, it might think fit to approve. The far-reaching importance
+of this principle was fully understood on both sides. To radicals and
+Roman catholics it was the sole virtue of the bill; to friends of the
+Irish Church and tories it was a blot to be erased at any cost.
+
+The progress of the measure was not rapid. Its nature had been explained
+by Althorp on February 12, but it was not in print on March 11 when,
+notwithstanding the reasonable protest of Peel, he induced the house to
+fix the second reading for the 14th. It was then found that, owing to
+its form, it must be preceded by resolutions, in order to satisfy the
+rules of the house. These resolutions, containing the essence of the
+bill, were proposed on April 1, but were not adopted without a long
+debate, and the debate on the second reading did not begin until May 6.
+It ended in a majority of 317 to 78 for the government, chiefly due to a
+moderate speech from Sir Robert Peel, who, however, denounced the policy
+of "appropriation". The discussion in committee was far more vehement,
+and radicals like Hume did not shrink from avowing their desire to pull
+down the Irish establishment, root and branch. The attack on the
+conservative side was mainly concentrated on the appropriation clause.
+In vain was it argued that a great part of the expected surplus was not
+Church property, inasmuch as it would result from improvements in the
+system of episcopal leases to be carried out by the agency of the state.
+Every one saw that, however disguised, and whether legitimate or not,
+appropriation of the surplus for secular purposes would be an act of
+confiscation, and must needs be interpreted as a precedent.
+
+The cabinet itself was divided on the subject, and despaired of saving
+the bill in the house of lords, without sacrificing the disputed clause.
+On June 21, therefore, Stanley announced in the house of commons that
+the appropriation clause would be withdrawn, and that any profits
+arising out of financial reforms within the Church would be allowed to
+fall into the hands of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The fury of
+O'Connell was unbounded, and not so devoid of excuse as many of his
+passionate outbreaks. He treated the Church bill as the stipulated
+price to be paid for the coercion bill, and the appropriation clause as
+the only part of it, except relief from vestry cess, which could possess
+the smallest value for Irish Roman catholics. There was no valid answer
+to his argument, except that another collision with the house of lords
+must be avoided at any tolerable cost, for, as Russell bluntly said,
+"the country could not stand a revolution once a year". Thus lightened,
+and slightly modified in the interest of Irish incumbents, the bill
+passed through committee and was read a third time by very large
+majorities, the minority being mainly composed of its old radical
+partisans. Peel's letters show how anxious he was to "make the reform
+bill work," by protecting the government against this extreme
+faction,[115] and the parliamentary reports show how much he did to
+frustrate the attempt to intimidate the lords by a resolution of the
+commons.
+
+The debate in the upper house lasted three nights in July, but is almost
+devoid of permanent interest. The appropriation question being dropped,
+there was little to discuss except the historical origin of Irish
+dioceses, the precedents for their consolidation, and the economical
+details of the scheme for equalising, in some degree, the incomes of
+Irish clergymen. Two or three peers, headed by the Duke of Cumberland,
+took their stand once more on the coronation oath, and Bishop Phillpotts
+of Exeter availed himself of this objection in one of the most powerful
+speeches delivered against the bill. On the other hand, Bishop Blomfield
+of London, and the Duke of Wellington, now acting in concert with Peel,
+gave it a grudging support, as the less of two evils. After passing the
+second reading by a majority of 157 to 98, it was subjected to minute
+criticism in committee, and one amendment was carried against the
+government, but Grey wisely declined to relinquish it except on some
+vital issue. The majority on the third reading was 135 to 81, and on
+August 2 the commons agreed to the lords' amendments, O'Connell
+remarking that, after all, the peers had not made the bill much worse
+than they found it. More than a generation was to elapse before this
+"act to alter and amend the laws relating to the temporalities of the
+Church in Ireland" was completed by an act severing that Church from
+the state. But the ulterior aims of those who first challenged the
+sanctity of Church endowments were not concealed, and the more than
+Erastian tendency of the liberal movement was henceforth clearly
+perceived by high Churchmen. We know, on the authority of Dr. Newman,
+that he and his early associates regarded the Anglican revival of which
+they were the pioneers as essentially a reaction against liberalism, and
+liberalism as the most formidable enemy of sacerdotal power.
+
+[Pageheading: _STANLEY COLONIAL SECRETARY._]
+
+Long before the Irish church bill had passed the house of commons
+Stanley exchanged the chief secretaryship of Ireland for the higher
+office of colonial secretary, to which he was gazetted on March 28. His
+uncompromising advocacy of the coercion bill, and his known hostility to
+direct spoliation of the Church, alike provoked the hatred of Irish
+Roman catholics, and Brougham had already advised his retirement from
+Ireland. His promotion was facilitated by the resignation of Durham,
+nominally on grounds of health, but also because he was in constant
+antagonism to his own father-in-law, Grey, and his moderate colleagues
+in the cabinet. He received an earldom, and was succeeded as lord privy
+seal by Goderich, who became Earl of Ripon. This opened the colonial
+office to Stanley, who instantly found himself face to face with a
+question almost as intractable as the pacification of Ireland. Sir John
+Hobhouse became chief secretary for Ireland, but without a seat in the
+cabinet. He resigned in May, and was succeeded by Edward John Littleton,
+who was married to a natural daughter of the Marquis Wellesley.
+
+Among the statutes passed in 1833, there are several, besides those
+relating to Ireland, of sufficient importance to confer distinction upon
+any parliamentary session. One of these is entitled "an act for the
+better administration of justice in His Majesty's privy council"; a
+second, "an act for the abolition of slavery throughout the British
+colonies, for promoting the industry of the manumitted slaves, and for
+compensating the persons hitherto entitled to the services of such
+slaves"; a third, "an act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, and
+for the substitution of more simple methods of assurance"; a fourth, "an
+act to regulate the trade to China and India"; a fifth, "an act for
+giving to the corporation of the governor and company of the Bank of
+England certain privileges, for a limited period, under certain
+conditions"; a sixth, "an act to regulate the labour of children and
+young persons in the mills and factories of the United Kingdom". Not one
+of these salutary measures was forced upon the legislature by popular
+clamour, every one of them represents a sincere zeal for what has been
+ridiculed as "world-bettering," and the parliament that passed them must
+have been thoroughly imbued with the spirit of reform.
+
+Foremost of these measures, as a monument of philanthropic legislation,
+will ever stand the act for the abolition of colonial slavery. No class
+in the country was concerned in its promotion; the powerful interests of
+the planters were arrayed against it; and humanity, operating through
+public opinion, was the only motive which could induce a government to
+espouse the anti-slavery cause. Stanley had not occupied his new office
+many weeks when on May 14 it became his lot to explain the ministerial
+scheme in the house of commons. Its essence consisted in the immediate
+extinction of absolute property in slaves, but with somewhat complicated
+provisions for an intermediate state of apprenticeship, to last twelve
+years. During this period negroes were to be maintained by their former
+masters, under an obligation to serve without wages for three-fourths of
+their working hours, and were to earn wages during the remaining fourth.
+All children under six years of age were to become free at once, and all
+born after the passing of the act were to be free at birth. The
+proprietors were to receive compensation by way of loan, to the extent
+of £15,000,000, and additional grants were promised for the institution
+of a stipendiary magistracy and a system of education.
+
+Several resolutions embodying the scheme were carried, with little
+opposition, though some abolitionists, headed by Mr. Fowell Buxton, a
+wealthy brewer and eminent philanthropist, who sat for Weymouth, took
+strong exception to compulsory apprenticeship, as perpetuating the
+principle of slavery, however mitigated by the recognition of personal
+liberty and the suppression of corporal punishment. It was found
+expedient, however, in deference to a very strong remonstrance from West
+Indian proprietors, to convert the proposed loan of £15,000,000 into an
+absolute payment of £20,000,000, and this noble donation, for
+conscience' sake, was actually ratified by parliament and the country.
+The bill founded on the resolutions met with no serious opposition, but
+an amendment by Buxton for adopting free labour at once was lost by so
+narrow a majority that Stanley consented to reduce the period of
+apprenticeship to an average of six years. In this instance the lords
+followed the guidance of the commons, and a measure of almost quixotic
+liberalism was endorsed by them without hesitation. It must be confessed
+that experience has not verified the confident prediction that free
+labour would prove more profitable than slave labour, but Great Britain
+has never repented of the abolition act, and its example was followed,
+thirty years later, by the United States.
+
+[Pageheading: _FACTORY ACTS._]
+
+The first of the general factory acts was marked by the same
+philanthropic character, but here the manufacturing capitalists,
+introduced by the reform act, were induced by self-interest to oppose
+it. Ever since the beginning of the century the sufferings and
+degradation of children in factories had occasionally engaged the
+attention of parliament, but the full enormity of the factory system was
+known to few except those who profited by it. It seems incredible, but
+it was shown afterwards by irresistible evidence, that children of seven
+years old and upwards were often compelled to work twelve or fourteen
+hours a day, with two short intervals for meals, in a most unwholesome
+atmosphere, exposed not only to ill-treatment but to every form of moral
+corruption. A very partial remedy was applied by a law passed in 1802
+which restricted the hours of labour to twelve for mills in which
+apprentices were employed. The same limit of hours was extended to
+cotton mills generally in 1816, and, but for the resistance of the house
+of lords, it would have been reduced to ten, as a select committee had
+recommended on the initiative of the first Sir Robert Peel. A few years
+later the question was revived by Sir John Hobhouse, but left unsettled.
+In 1831 Sadler introduced a ten hours bill for children, and obtained a
+select committee, before which disclosures were made well calculated to
+shock the country. At the general election of 1832, Sadler was defeated
+by Macaulay for the new borough of Leeds, but his mantle fell on Lord
+Ashley, afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the noblest
+philanthropists of modern times.
+
+Early in the session of 1833 Ashley introduced a ten hours bill,
+applicable, like that of Sadler, to all young persons under eighteen
+years of age working in factories. It also prohibited the employment of
+children under nine, and provided for the appointment of inspectors. It
+was strongly opposed by the Lancashire members as interfering with
+freedom of labour even for adults, since mills could not be kept running
+without the labour of boys under eighteen. They also objected to the
+evidence already reported as one-sided, and succeeded in procuring the
+appointment of a royal commission. This commission prosecuted its
+inquiries with unusual despatch, but its report was not in the hands of
+members on July 5, when the bill came on for its second reading. Though
+Althorp, unwilling to offend the manufacturing interest, pleaded for
+deliberation and urged that a select committee should frame the
+regulations to be adopted, the majority of the house was impatient of
+delay, and he encountered a defeat. The question now resolved itself
+into a choice between a greater or less limitation of hours. On this
+question, a compromise proposed by Althorp prevailed, and Ashley
+resigned the conduct of the bill into his hands. It was further modified
+in committee, but ultimately became law in a form which secured the main
+objects of its promoters. No child under nine years of age could be
+employed at all in a factory, after two years none under thirteen could
+be worked more than eight hours, and no young person under eighteen
+could be required to work more than sixty-nine hours a week, while the
+provisions for inspection were retained along with others which
+contained the germ of education on the half-time system.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EAST INDIA COMPANY._]
+
+The trading monopoly of the East India Company, though confined to China
+by the act of 1813, had been regarded ever since with great jealousy by
+the mercantile community. As the revised charter was now on the point of
+expiring, it was for the government to frame terms of renewal which
+might satisfy the growing demand for free trade. Their scheme, which few
+were competent to criticise, met with general approval, and the only
+determined opposition to it was offered in the house of lords by
+Ellenborough, who lived to come into sharp collision with the court of
+directors as governor-general. It was embodied in three simple
+resolutions, the first of which recommended the legislature to open the
+China trade without reserve, the second provided for the assumption by
+the crown of all the company's assets and liabilities but with the
+obligation of paying the company a fixed subsidy, while the last
+affirmed the expediency of entrusting the company with the political
+government of India. Grant, who moved these resolutions, as president of
+the board of control, had no occasion to defend the policy of setting
+free the China trade which no one disputed; but he undertook to show
+that it had declined in the hands of the company, and that private
+competition had already crept in on a large scale. He also dwelt on the
+advantage of bringing the political relations arising out of commercial
+intercourse more directly under the control of the government. His
+reasoning was sound, and the China trade rapidly developed, nor could he
+be expected to foresee the course of events whereby the government
+afterwards became embroiled with the Chinese empire, on the importation
+of opium, and other economical questions. As compensation for the loss
+of its exclusive privileges, the company was to receive an annuity of
+£630,000, charged on the territorial revenues of India.
+
+The policy of continuing the company's rule in India for twenty years
+longer would have excited more earnest discussion in a session less
+crowded with legislative projects. The way had been paved for the
+concession of complete free trade in the eastern seas by the reports of
+select committees and parliamentary debates under former governments.
+The consumers of tea, numbered by millions, promised themselves a better
+quality at a lower price, and a keen spirit of enterprise was kindled by
+the idea of breaking into the unknown resources of China. But public
+interest in the administration of India was languid. It might well have
+appeared that a board sitting in Leadenhall Street was fitter to conduct
+shipping and mercantile operations than to govern an imperial dependency
+like British India. But the contrary alternative was almost tacitly
+accepted. The directors were "to remain princes, but no longer merchant
+princes," and Ellenborough complained that whereas "hitherto the court
+had appeared in India as beneficent conquerors, henceforth they would be
+mortgagees in possession". Perhaps the ministry shrunk from provoking
+the storm of obloquy which must have resulted from placing the vast
+patronage of the company in the hands of the crown. At all events, it
+was agreed, with little dissent, that under the new charter the company
+should nominally retain the reins of power, checked, however, by Pitt's
+"board of control," the president of which, in reality, shared a
+despotic authority with the governor-general of Bengal, who was
+hereafter to be in name what he had long been in fact, governor-general
+of India. The bill strengthened his council, and enabled him to
+legislate for all India.
+
+At the same time Europeans were permitted to settle and hold land in
+India without the necessity of applying for a licence. Lastly, the
+principle was laid down, pregnant with future consequences, that all
+persons in India, without distinction of race or creed, should be
+subject to the same law and eligible for all offices under the
+government. Such was the last charter of the great company. It is
+interesting to observe that Grant, in admitting that the government of
+India under its sway had not been prone "to make any great or rapid
+strides in improvement," paid a just tribute to its eminently pacific
+character. "It excited vigilance," he said, "against any encroachment of
+violence or rapacity; it ensured to the people that which they most
+required--repose, security, and tranquillity." The immense annexations
+of territory and far-reaching reforms which have created the British
+India of the twentieth century were either most reluctantly sanctioned
+by the court of directors or have been carried out since its dominion
+was transferred to the crown. Irrevocable as they are, and beneficent as
+they may be on the whole, they have certainly imposed difficulties of
+portentous magnitude upon the rulers of India, nor would it be
+surprising if some native survivors of the olden days in far-off
+recesses of the country should remember with sad regret the paternal,
+though unprogressive, despotism of the sovereign company.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE BANK CHARTER ACT._]
+
+The bank charter act of 1833, having been superseded by that of 1844,
+fills a less important place than it otherwise would in the history of
+legislation on currency. The bill was founded, however, on the report of
+a secret committee which embraced Peel as well as Althorp and several
+other members of high financial repute or great experience in the city.
+Since the subject of it was familiar to a large section of members
+engaged in business, and touched the pockets of bankers all over the
+country, it was discussed in the house of commons far more earnestly
+than the bill renewing the charter of the East India Company. In the end
+two provisions were dropped, which directly encouraged the increase of
+joint stock banks. The rest were passed, and contained important
+modifications of the banking system as it then existed. The main
+privileges of the Bank of England were continued, in spite of a strong
+opposition and of protests against the one-sided inquiry said to have
+been conducted by the secret committee. These privileges embraced the
+exclusive possession of the government balances, the monopoly of limited
+liability, then refused to other banks, and the right, shared by no
+other joint stock bank, of issuing its own notes. Though private London
+banks might have legally exercised this power they did not actually do
+so, and nearly all of them deposited their reserves with the Bank of
+England.
+
+Another part of the scheme, which even Peel condemned, was thus briefly
+stated in a preliminary resolution: "That, provided the Bank of England
+continued liable, as at present, to defray in the current coin of the
+realm all its existing engagements, it was expedient that its promissory
+notes should be constituted a legal tender for sums of £5 and upwards".
+In other words, country bankers would no longer be compelled to cash
+their own notes, or pay off their deposits in gold, but might use Bank
+of England notes instead, above the value of £5. The Bank of England,
+however, and all its branches, remained liable to cash payments, as
+before, so that, as Baring argued, only one intermediate stage was
+interposed between the presentation of a country note and the exchange
+of it for specie. Peel's objection, which did not prevail, chiefly
+rested on the danger of the Bank of England closing its branches in its
+own interests, in order to check the demand for cash. Though his fears
+were not literally realised, experience disclosed the danger of country
+banks multiplying unduly, and, by their over-issue of notes, causing a
+severe drain upon the Bank of England for gold. For the present,
+however, the critics of the measure were less concerned in forecasting
+such remote consequences than in protesting against the charge to be
+made by the bank for managing the public debt. This charge was, in fact,
+to be reduced by £120,000 a year, but one-fourth part of the advances
+made by the bank to the public (or £3,671,700) was to be paid off, and
+the proposed remuneration was denounced as exorbitant. Althorp hardly
+denied that it was a good bargain for the bank, though he persuaded the
+house of commons to endorse the arrangement, rather than incur the
+dislocation of national finance and commercial business certain to ensue
+if the bank should withdraw from its connexion with the government and
+use its vast influence for its own interest alone.
+
+[Pageheading: _LEGAL REFORMS._]
+
+Two great law reforms close the series of important remedial measures
+passed in the first session of the reformed parliament--a session, be it
+remembered, which embraced all the furious and protracted debates on the
+Irish coercion act and the Irish Church temporalities act. The first of
+these was Brougham's valuable bill constituting a permanent "judicial
+committee of the privy council," and transferring to it the judicial
+functions theoretically belonging to "the king in council," but
+practically exercised by committees selected _ad hoc_ on each occasion.
+Charles Greville, to whose memoirs all historians of this period are
+greatly indebted, and who in 1833 was clerk of the council, was inclined
+to disparage the proposed change as one of Brougham's fanciful projects,
+designed to gratify his own self-importance.[116] Even Greville,
+however, saw reason to modify his view, and the new court has ever since
+commanded general respect, except from those high Churchmen who resented
+its assumption of the appellate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical causes,
+formerly vested, along with a similar jurisdiction in admiralty causes,
+in the king in chancery, and exercised by a "court of delegates,"
+usually consisting of three common law judges and three or four
+civilians selected _ad hoc_.
+
+The essential defects of such a court were fully stated in the report of
+a very strong commission, including six bishops, appointed in 1830.
+Probably the expediency of reforming the jurisdiction of the privy
+council for the purpose of hearing these ecclesiastical appeals may have
+suggested to Brougham the idea of constructing a standing appellate
+tribunal within the privy council, for the purpose of hearing all
+appeals that might come before that body. Accordingly, after carrying a
+bill in 1832 whereby the privy council, as such, took over the powers of
+the "court of delegates," he introduced the general bill whereby the
+judicial committee was created, and under which it still acts. It was to
+consist of the lord chancellor, with the present and past holders of
+certain high judicial offices, and two privy councillors to be
+appointed by the sovereign; to whom prelates, being privy councillors,
+were to be added for ecclesiastical appeals. The system thus founded,
+and since developed, is capable of indefinite expansion, in case still
+closer relations should be established between Great Britain and the
+colonies.
+
+The act for the abolition of fines and recoveries, though scarcely
+intelligible except to lawyers, was a masterpiece not only of
+draughtsmanship, but of honest law amendment. It swept away grotesque
+and antiquated forms of conveyance, which had lost their meaning for
+centuries, and which nothing but professional self-interest kept alive.
+Had it been followed up by legislation in a like spirit on other
+departments of law, the profits of lawyers and the needless expenses of
+clients might have been reduced to an extent of which the unlearned
+public has no conception. As it was, it simplified the process of
+selling land in a remarkable degree, though it left untouched the
+complications of title and transfer affecting real property, which no
+lord chancellor since Brougham has been courageous enough to attack in
+earnest, and which remain the distinctive reproach of English law. It is
+not without shame that we read in the king's prorogation speech,
+delivered on August 29, 1833, the assurance that he will heartily
+co-operate with parliament in making justice easily accessible to all
+his subjects. He adds that, with this view, a commission has been issued
+"for digesting into one body the enactments of the criminal law, and for
+inquiring how far, and by what means, a similar process may be extended
+to the other branches of jurisprudence". Seventy years have since
+elapsed, yet this royal promise of codification is not even in course of
+fulfilment. On the other hand, Brougham's scheme for establishing local
+courts in certain parts of the kingdom was destined to bear ample fruit
+in the next reign. It was described by Eldon as "a most abominable
+bill," and, being generally opposed by the law lords, was rejected by a
+small majority, but it was the germ of the county courts, which have
+since done so much to bring justice within the reach and the means of
+poor suitors.
+
+Notwithstanding its legislative exploits, the whig government was
+declining in popularity at the end of 1833, and was beginning to
+discover how vain it is to rely on political gratitude. Other reforming
+governments have since undergone the same bitter experience, the causes
+of which are by no means obscure. No reform can be effected without
+"harassing interests," and the sense of resentment in the sections of
+the community thus harassed is far stronger and more efficacious than
+any appreciation of the benefits reaped by the general public at home,
+or by mankind at large. Again, the expectations excited by the agitation
+of such a question as parliamentary reform are far beyond the power of
+any legislature to satisfy. Grey and his colleagues were too well aware
+of this, and Stanley, for one, manfully championed the government
+measures on their own merits, disdaining to flatter the radicals, but
+his discretion was not equal to his valour, and every debate brought
+into stronger relief the more statesmanlike capacity and moderation of
+Peel. There was no tory reaction, but a growing distrust of heroic
+remedies for national disorders, and a growing faith in the possible
+development of a liberal policy in a conservative spirit. Even the Duke
+of Wellington found himself restored insensibly to popular favour, and
+was again received in the streets with marks of public respect.
+
+[Pageheading: _ALTHORP'S THIRD BUDGET._]
+
+Of all the ministers, no one enjoyed a greater share of confidence both
+in and out of parliament than Althorp. He was not a great financier, but
+he was an honest and prudent chancellor of the exchequer, a free-trader
+by conviction, and incapable of those artifices by which a plausible
+balance-sheet may be made out at the cost of future liabilities. Yet his
+budgets of 1831, 1832, and 1833 undoubtedly helped to shake the credit
+of the government. The first had been far too ambitious, and became
+almost futile, when the proposed tax on transfers was abandoned, and the
+timber duties left undisturbed. The second was modest enough, and was
+saved from damaging criticism by the absorbing interest of the reform
+bill. Considerable reductions were made in the estimates, the revenue
+yielded somewhat more than had been expected, and Althorp was enabled to
+present a favourable account in 1833. He anticipated a surplus of about
+a million and a half, out of which he was prepared to abolish certain
+vexatious duties and to decrease others. But the country gentlemen,
+headed by Ingilby, member for Lincolnshire, insisted on a reduction of
+the malt duty by one-half, while the borough members, headed by Sir John
+Key, clamoured for a repeal of the house tax and window tax. The former
+motion was actually carried against the government by a small majority,
+but its effect was annulled, and the latter motion was defeated, by a
+skilful manoeuvre. This consisted in the proposal by Althorp of a
+counter-resolution, declaring that, if half of the malt tax and the
+whole tax on windows and houses were to be taken off, it would be
+necessary to meet the deficiency by a general income tax. Such a
+prospect was equally alarming to the landed interest and the
+householders, whose rival demands were mutually destructive, the result
+being that Althorp's amendment was carried by a large majority, and the
+government escaped humiliation, though not without some loss of
+prestige.
+
+It was perhaps to be expected that private members in the first session
+of the reformed parliament should be eager to gain a hearing for their
+special projects of improvement. So it was, but two only of these
+projects deserved historical mention. One of these was the abortive
+attempt of Attwood, the radical member for Birmingham, to reverse the
+policy of 1819 by inducing parliament to initiate the return to a paper
+currency. Cobbett actually followed up this failure by moving for an
+address praying the king to dismiss Sir Robert Peel from his councils, a
+motion defeated by a majority of 295 to 4.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[110] _The Croker Papers_, ii., 198.
+
+[111] Mahon to Peel (Jan, 8, 1833), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 209.
+
+[112] Jan. 3, 1833, Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 213.
+
+[113] Peel to Croker (Sept. 28, 1833), _ibid._, p. 224.
+
+[114] Russell, _Recollections and Suggestions_, p. 113.
+
+[115] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 212-16.
+
+[116] Greville, _Memoirs_, ii., 364, 365.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVI.
+
+ RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS AND POOR LAW REFORM.
+
+
+The year 1833, so fruitful in legislation, may be said to have witnessed
+the birth of a religious movement which has profoundly affected the
+character of the national Church. The neo-catholic revival, which
+afterwards took its popular name from Pusey but drew its chief
+inspiration from Newman, was in a great degree the outcome of the reform
+act and a reaction against the more than Erastian tendencies of the
+reformed parliament. In the early part of the century, as we have seen,
+personal and practical religion was mainly represented by the
+evangelical or low Church party, which did admirable service in the
+cause of philanthropy, as well as in reclaiming the masses from
+heathenism. The high Church party was comparatively inactive, but
+co-operated with its rival in opposition to catholic emancipation. The
+clergy, as a body, were hostile to reform, and the bishops incurred the
+fiercest obloquy by voting against the first reform bill, which had
+unfortunately been rejected by a majority exactly corresponding with the
+number of their votes.[117] The democratic outcry against the Church
+became louder and louder, as the evils of nepotism, pluralism, and
+sinecurism were exposed to public criticism, and a growing disposition
+was shown to deal with Church endowments both in England and in Ireland,
+if not as the property of the state, yet as under its paramount control.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT._]
+
+The recent infusion of Irish Roman catholics into the house of commons,
+following that of Scotch presbyterians a century earlier, rendered it
+less and less fit, in the opinion of high Churchmen, to legislate for
+the Church of England, and every concession to religious liberty shocked
+them as a step towards "National Apostasy". This was, in fact, the
+impressive title of a sermon preached by John Keble, in July, 1833,
+before the university of Oxford. From this sermon Newman himself dated
+the origin of the Oxford or "Tractarian" movement, but its inward source
+lay deeper. Having lost all confidence in the state and even in the
+Anglican hierarchy as a creature of the state, a section of the clergy
+had already been looking about for another basis of authority, and had
+found it in theories of apostolical succession and Church organisation.
+The university of Oxford was a natural centre for such a reaction, and
+it was set on foot with the deliberate purpose of defending the Church
+and the Christianity of England against the anti-catholic aggressions of
+the dominant liberalism. It was not puritanism but liberal secularism
+which Newman always denounced as the arch-enemy of the catholic faith.
+For, as Wesley's sympathies were originally with high Church doctrines,
+so Newman's sympathies were originally with evangelical doctrines, nor
+were they ever entirely stifled by his ultimate secession to the Roman
+Church.
+
+The later development of this movement, which had its cradle in the
+common room of Oriel College, belongs rather to ecclesiastical history,
+and to the reign of Queen Victoria. But from the first it rallied a
+considerable body of support. Many who were not influenced by the
+movement, shared its earlier aspirations. Shortly after the formation of
+an association, under Newman and Keble's auspices, seven or eight
+thousand of the clergy signed an address to the Archbishop of
+Canterbury, insisting upon the necessity of restoring Church discipline,
+maintaining Church principles, and checking the progress of
+latitudinarianism. A large section of the laity ranged themselves on the
+side of the revival, and meetings were held throughout England. The king
+himself volunteered a declaration of his strong affection for the
+national Church now militant, and prepared to assert itself, not merely
+as a true branch of the catholic Church, but as a co-ordinate power with
+the state. In the autumn of 1833, Newman and one of his colleagues
+launched the first of that series of tracts from which his followers
+derived the familiar name of Tractarians. From that day he was their
+recognised leader, yet he claimed no allegiance and issued no commands.
+He felt himself, not the creator of a new party, but a loyal son of the
+old Church, at last awakened from her lethargy. The spell which he
+exercised over so many young minds was due to a personal influence of
+which he was almost unconscious, but which spread from the pulpit of St.
+Mary's Church and his college rooms at Oriel over a great part of the
+university and the Church. It was broken some years later, when he gave
+up the _via media_ which he had so long been advocating, accepted the
+logical consequences of his own teaching, and reproached others for not
+discovering that Anglicanism was but a pale and deformed counterfeit of
+the primitive Christianity represented, in its purity, by the Church of
+Rome.
+
+Looking back at this movement across an interval of seventy years, we
+may well feel astonished that it satisfied the aspirations of
+inquisitive minds in contact with the ideas of their own times. For this
+was the age of Benthamism in social philosophy and "German neology" in
+biblical criticism. Though national education was in its infancy, a new
+desire for knowledge, and even a free-thinking spirit, was permeating
+the middle classes, and had gained a hold among the more intelligent of
+the artisans. The Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,
+established by Brougham, circulated a mass of instructive and
+stimulating literature at a cheap rate; popular magazines and
+cyclopædias were multiplying yearly; and the British Association, which
+held its first meeting at Oxford in 1832, brought the results of natural
+science within the reach of thousands and tens of thousands incapable of
+scientific research. The _Bridgwater Treatises_, which belong to the
+reign of William IV., are evidence of a widespread anxiety to reconcile
+the claims and conclusions of science with those of the received
+theology. Thoughtful and religious laymen in the higher ranks of society
+were earnestly seeking a reason for the faith that was in them, and
+pondering over fundamental problems like the personality of God, the
+divinity of Christ, the reality of supernatural agency, and the awful
+mystery of the future life. Yet the tractarians passed lightly over all
+these problems, to exercise themselves and others with disputations on
+points which to most laymen of their time appeared comparatively
+trivial.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH._]
+
+To them Church authority was supreme, and every catholic dogma a
+self-evident truth. What engrossed their reason and consciences was the
+discussion of questions affecting Church authority, for example, whether
+the Anglican Church possessed the true note of catholicity or was in a
+state of schism, whether its position in Christendom was not on a par
+with that of the monophysite heretics, whether its articles could be
+brought into conformity with the Roman catholic doctrines expressly
+condemned by them, or whether its alliance with Lutheranism in the
+appointment of a bishop for Jerusalem did not amount to ecclesiastical
+suicide. Their message, unlike that of the early Christian or methodist
+preachers, was for the priestly order, and not for the masses of the
+people; their appeals were addressed _ad clerum_ not _ad populum_; still
+less were they suited to influence scientific intellects. But their
+propaganda was carried on by men of intense earnestness and holy lives,
+few in number but strong in well-organised combination, and they carried
+with them for a time many to whom any "movement" seemed better than
+lifeless "high and dry" conformity. Herein consisted the secret of their
+early success. Their subsequent failure was inevitable when they were
+fairly confronted with protestant sentiment and with the independent
+spirit of the age. How their aims were taken up and partially realised
+in a new form by new leaders and through new methods, is an inquiry
+which must be reserved for a later chapter in the history of the English
+Church.
+
+The strange religious movement which resulted in the foundation of the
+so-called Catholic Apostolic Church was of somewhat earlier date, and
+its author had already been disavowed as a minister by the presbyterian
+Church before the _Tracts for the Times_ began to startle the religious
+world. The most brilliant part of Edward Irving's career falls within
+the reign of George IV., when his chapel in London was crowded by the
+fashionable world, and even attended occasionally by statesmen like
+Canning. According to all contemporary testimony he was among the most
+remarkable of modern preachers, and his visionary speculations in the
+field of biblical prophecy failed to repel hearers attracted by his
+wonderful religious enthusiasm. Compared with the adherents of the
+methodist or of the neo-catholic revival, his followers were a mere
+handful, and his name would scarcely merit a place in history but for
+the impression which he made upon men of high ability and position. What
+brought him into discredit with his own communion and with the public
+was his introduction into his services of fanatics professing the gift
+of speaking with "unknown tongues". These extravagances led to his
+deposition in 1832, and probably hastened his early death in 1834. But
+his creed did not die with him, and a small body of earnest believers
+has carried on into the twentieth century a definite tradition of the
+gospel which he taught.
+
+Far deeper and more lasting in its effects was the change wrought in
+current ideas by the almost unseen but steady advance of science in all
+its branches. During this epoch perhaps the most formidable enemy of
+orthodoxy was the rising study of geology, challenging, as it did, the
+traditional theories of creation. The discoveries of astronomy--the law
+of gravitation, the rotation of the earth, its place in the solar
+system, and, above all, the infinite compass of the universe--were in
+themselves of a nature to revolutionise theological beliefs more
+radically than any conclusions respecting the antiquity of the earth.
+But it may be doubted whether it was so in fact; at all events,
+theologians had slowly learned to harmonise their doctrines with the
+conception of immeasurable space, when they were suddenly required to
+admit the conception of immeasurable time, and staggered under the blow.
+The pioneers of English geology were careful to avoid shocking religious
+opinion, and Buckland devotes a chapter of his famous _Treatise on
+Geology_ to showing "the consistency of geological discoveries with
+sacred history". His explanation is that an undefined interval may have
+elapsed after the creation of the heaven and the earth "in the
+beginning" as recorded in the first verse of Genesis; and he rejects as
+opposed to geological evidence "the derivation of existing systems of
+organic life, by an eternal succession, from preceding individuals of
+the same species, or by gradual transmutation of one species into
+another". But speculations of this order were utterly ignored by such
+religious leaders as Newman and Irving, whose spiritual fervour, however
+apostolical in its influence on the hearts of their disciples, was
+confined within the narrowest circle of intellectual interests.
+
+[Pageheading: _POOR LAW._]
+
+The great event of parliamentary history in 1834, and the crowning
+achievement of the first reformed parliament, was the enactment of the
+"new poor law," as it was long called. No measure of modern times so
+well represents the triumph of reason over prejudice; none has been so
+carefully based on thorough inquiry and the deliberate acceptance of
+sound principles; none has so fully stood the conclusive test of
+experience. It is not too much to say that it was essentially a product
+of the reform period, and could scarcely have been carried either many
+years earlier or many years later. In the dark age which followed the
+great war, contempt for political economy, coupled with a weak sentiment
+of humanity, would have made it impossible for a far-sighted treatment
+of national pauperism and distress to obtain a fair hearing. After the
+introduction of household suffrage, and the growth of socialism, any
+resolute attempt to diminish the charge upon ratepayers for the
+immediate relief but ultimate degradation of the struggling masses would
+have met with the most desperate resistance from the new democracy. The
+philosophical whigs and radicals, trained in the school of Bentham, and
+untainted as yet by a false philanthropy, found themselves in possession
+of an opportunity which might never have recurred. They deserved the
+gratitude of posterity by using it wisely and courageously.
+
+The irregular development of the poor laws, from the act of Elizabeth
+down to that of 1834, belongs to economic rather than to general
+history. It is enough to say here that in later years, and especially
+since the system of allowances adopted by the Berkshire magistrates at
+Speenhamland in 1795 had become general, the original policy of
+relieving only the destitute and helpless, and compelling able-bodied
+men to earn their own living, had been entirely obscured by the
+intrusion of other ideas. The result was admirably described in the
+report of a commission, appointed in 1832, with the most comprehensive
+powers of investigation and recommendation. The commissioners were the
+Bishops of London (Blomfield) and Chester (Sumner), Sturges Bourne,
+Edwin Chadwick, and four others less known, but well versed in the
+questions to be considered. A summary of the information collected by
+them, ranging over the whole field of poor-law management, was published
+in February, 1834. It astounded the benighted public of that day, and it
+still remains on record as a wonderful revelation of ruinous official
+infatuation on the largest possible scale. The evil system was found to
+be almost universal, but the worst examples of it were furnished by the
+southern counties of England. There, an actual premium was set upon
+improvidence, if not on vice, by the wholesale practice of giving
+out-door relief in aid of wages, and in proportion to the number of
+children in the family, legitimate or illegitimate. The excuse was that
+it was better to eke out scanty earnings by doles than to break up
+households, and bring all their inmates into the workhouse. The
+inevitable effect of such action was that wages fell as doles increased,
+that paupers so pensioned were preferred by the farmers to independent
+labourers because their labour was cheaper, and that independent
+labourers, failing to get work except at wages forced down to a minimum,
+were constantly falling into the ranks of pauperism.
+
+Had some theorists of a later generation witnessed the social order then
+prevailing in country districts, they would have found several of their
+favourite objects practically attained. There was no competition between
+the working people; old and young, skilled and unskilled hands, the
+industrious and the idle, were held worthy of equal reward, the actual
+allowance to each being measured by his need and not by the value of his
+work; while the parochial authorities, figuring as an earthly
+providence, exercised a benevolent superintendence over the welfare and
+liberty of every day-labourer in the village community. The fruits of
+that superintendence were the decline of a race of freemen into a race
+of slaves, unconscious of their slavery, and the gradual ruin of the
+landlords and farmers upon whom the maintenance of these slaves
+depended.[118]
+
+[Pageheading: _NEW POOR LAW._]
+
+The evidence laid before the commissioners not only showed how
+intolerable the evil had become in many counties, but also how purely
+artificial it was. While the aggregate amount of the poor rate had risen
+to more than eight millions and a half, while some parishes were going
+out of cultivation and in others the rates exceeded the rental, there
+were certain oases in the desert of agricultural distress where
+comparative prosperity still reigned. These were villages in which an
+enlightened squire or parson had set himself to strike at the root of
+pauperism, and to initiate local reforms in the poor-law system. It was
+clearly found that, where out-door relief was abolished or rigorously
+limited, where no allowances were made in aid of wages, and where a
+manly self-reliance was encouraged instead of a servile mendicity, wages
+rose, honest industry revived, and the whole character of the village
+population was improved. Fortified by these successful experiments, the
+commissioners took a firm stand on the vital distinction, previously
+ignored, between poverty and pauperism. They did not shrink from
+recommending that, after a certain date, "the workhouse test" should be
+enforced against all able-bodied applicants for relief, except in the
+form of medical attendance, and even that women should be compelled to
+support their illegitimate children. They also advised a liberal change
+in the complicated and oppressive system of "parish settlement," whereby
+the free circulation of labour was constricted. They further proposed a
+very large reform in the administrative machinery of the poor laws, by
+the formation of parishes into unions, the concentration of workhouses,
+the separation of the sexes in workhouses, and, above all, the creation
+of a central poor-law board, to consist of three commissioners, and to
+control the whole system about to be transformed.
+
+A bill framed upon these lines, and remedying some minor abuses, was
+introduced by Althorp on April 17, having been foreshadowed in the
+speech from the throne, and carefully matured by the cabinet. So wide
+and deep was the conviction of the necessity for some radical treatment
+of an intolerable evil that party spirit was quelled for a while, and
+the bill met with a very favourable reception, especially as its
+operation was limited to five years. It passed the second reading by a
+majority of 299 to 20 on May 9, notwithstanding a violent protest from
+De Lacy Evans, an ultra-radical, who had displaced Hobhouse at
+Westminster. The keynote of the radical agitation which followed was
+given by his declaration that "the cessation of out-door relief would
+lead to a revolution in the country," and by Cobbett's denunciation of
+the "poor man robbery bill". The _Times_ newspaper, already a great
+political force, took up the same cry, and had not Peel, with admirable
+public spirit, thrown his weight into the scale of sound economy, a
+formidable coalition between extremists on both sides might have been
+organised. He stood firm, however; radicals like Grote declined to
+barter principle for popularity, and the bill emerged almost unscathed
+from committee in the house of commons. It passed its third reading on
+July 2 by a majority of 157 to 50. Peel's example was followed by
+Wellington in the house of lords, and Brougham delivered one of his most
+powerful speeches in support of the measure. With some modification of
+the bastardy clauses and other slighter amendments it was carried by a
+large majority, and received the royal assent on August 4.
+
+No other piece of legislation, except the repeal of the corn laws, has
+done so much to rescue the working classes of Great Britain from the
+misery entailed by twenty years of war. Its effect in reducing the rates
+was immediate; its effect in raising the character of the agricultural
+poor was not very long deferred. Happily for them, though not for the
+farmers, bread was cheap for two years after it came into force. Still,
+the sudden cessation of doles and pensions in aid of wages could not but
+work great hardship to individuals in thousands of rural parishes, and
+there was perhaps too little disposition on the part of the
+commissioners to allow any temporary relaxation of the system. The
+rigorous enforcement of the workhouse test, and the harsh management of
+workhouses, continued for years to shock the charitable sensibilities of
+the public, and actually produced some local riots. When the price of
+bread rose the clamour naturally increased, and petitions multiplied
+until a committee was appointed in 1837 to review the operation of the
+act. In the end the committee found, as might have been expected, that,
+however painful the state of transition, the change had permanently
+improved the condition of the poor in England.
+
+[Pageheading: _QUESTION OF APPROPRIATION._]
+
+While the bill was still in the house of commons the ministry which
+framed it was torn by dissensions; before it came on for its second
+reading in the lords Grey had ceased to be premier. The disruption of
+his government had been foreseen for months, but it was directly caused
+by hopeless discord on Irish policy. Anglesey had been forced by
+ill-health to resign the vice-royalty, and the Marquis Wellesley, who
+succeeded him, was more acceptable to Irish nationalists. But the king's
+speech at the opening of the session contained a stern condemnation of
+the repeal movement. O'Connell at once declared war, and the angry
+feelings of his followers were inflamed by a personal and public quarrel
+between Althorp and Sheil. Another incident, in itself trivial,
+disclosed the discord prevailing in the cabinet on Irish affairs, and,
+though O'Connell was defeated on a motion against the union by a
+crushing majority of 523 to 38, the disturbed state of Ireland continued
+to distract the ministerial councils. The ingenious devices of Stanley
+and Littleton for solving the insoluble Irish tithe question had proved
+almost abortive; the government officials employed to collect tithe were
+almost as powerless to do so as the old tithe-proctors, and a new
+proposal to convert tithe into a land tax was naturally ridiculed by
+O'Connell as delusive. He made a speech so conciliatory in its tone as
+to startle the house, but no words, however smooth, could now conjure
+away the irreconcilable difference of purpose between those who regarded
+Church property as sacred and those who regarded it not only as at the
+disposal of the state, but as hitherto unjustly monopolised by a single
+religious communion. It was reserved for Lord John Russell to "upset the
+coach" by openly declaring his adhesion to "appropriation," in the sense
+of diverting to other objects, secular or otherwise, such revenues of
+the established Church as were not strictly required for the benefit of
+its own members. After this act of mutiny against the collective
+authority of the cabinet Grey's ministry was doomed.
+
+Its ruin was consummated by a motion of Henry Ward, member for St.
+Albans, which expressly affirmed the right of the state to regulate the
+distribution of Church property and the expediency of reducing the Irish
+establishment. This motion was supposed to have been instigated by
+Durham, who had never been loyal to his colleagues. The government was
+notoriously divided upon it; Brougham suggested a commission of inquiry,
+by way of compromise; other ministerialists were in favour of meeting
+the difficulty by moving the previous question. Peel was prepared to
+support the conservative section of the government, and deprecated in
+strong terms "all manoeuvring, all coquetting with radicals" in order
+to snatch a temporary party triumph.[119]
+
+Ward's resolution was introduced on May 27, 1834, and seconded by Grote,
+but Althorp, instead of replying, announced the receipt of sudden news
+so important that he induced the house to adjourn the debate. This news
+was the resignation of Stanley, Graham, Richmond, and Ripon, whose views
+on appropriation, as afterwards appeared, were shared by Lansdowne and
+Spring Rice. The ministry was reconstructed by the accession of Lord
+Conyngham as postmaster-general, without a seat in the cabinet, and of
+Lord Auckland, son of Sidmouth's colleague, as first lord of the
+admiralty, by the appointment of Carlisle (already in the cabinet) to be
+lord privy seal, and the substitution of Spring Rice for Stanley at the
+colonial office. Edward Ellice, the secretary at war, was included in
+the cabinet, and James Abercromby, afterwards Lord Dunfermline, a son of
+the famous general, Sir Ralph Abercromby, became master of the mint with
+a seat in the cabinet. Poulett Thomson became president of the board of
+trade, and minor offices were assigned to Francis Baring, and other whig
+recruits. Grey himself, sick of nominal power, was dissuaded with
+difficulty from retiring; Althorp, conscious of failing authority, was
+retained in his post only by a high sense of duty. Unfortunately, he was
+very soon entangled by his colleague Littleton in something like an
+intrigue with O'Connell, which precipitated the final resignation of
+Grey together with his own temporary secession.
+
+The details of this affair may be passed over in a few words. What is
+clear is that Brougham and Littleton, without the knowledge of Grey, had
+persuaded Lord Wellesley, as viceroy of Ireland, not to insist on a
+renewal of the coercion act in its full severity, and especially to
+sanction an abandonment of clauses suppressing public meetings. Having
+obtained Wellesley's consent behind the backs of Grey and the rest of
+the cabinet, Littleton with the cognisance of Althorp, proceeded to
+bargain with O'Connell for an abatement, at least, of his opposition to
+all coercion. The cabinet as a body declined to ratify any such
+agreement, O'Connell denounced Littleton as having played a trick upon
+him, and Althorp, disdaining to advocate provisions which he was almost
+pledged in honour to drop, resigned his office and the leadership of the
+commons. Grey, who could not have remained in office without the support
+of Althorp's great popularity in the commons, at once resolved to follow
+his example, and on July 9 took leave of political life in a dignified
+and pathetic speech. As for Ward's motion, the original cause of Grey's
+desertion by Stanley and his subsequent fall, it had been rejected by an
+enormous majority in favour of "the previous question" before Althorp's
+disappearance from his old position. Meanwhile Stanley availed himself
+of his liberty to make one of his most dashing but least prudent
+speeches, and permanently compromised his reputation for
+statesmanship.[120]
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE PRIME MINISTER._]
+
+No other whig possessed the prestige derived by Grey from nearly fifty
+years of consistent public service. Althorp commanded an extraordinary
+degree of confidence in the house of commons and the country, but his
+intellectual capacity was not of the highest order, and many expected
+that Peel might receive a summons from the king, whose sympathy with the
+whigs, never very deep, had given place to mistrust. His choice,
+however, fell upon Melbourne, whom he desired, if possible, to form a
+coalition with Peel, Wellington, and Stanley against the radicals. But
+neither Melbourne nor Peel would accept such a coalition, and they both
+showed their wisdom in declining it. The king then empowered Melbourne
+to patch up the whig ministry. In deference to a requisition signed by
+liberals of all sections, Althorp was induced to withdraw his
+resignation, and resumed his leadership in the commons with no apparent
+diminution of popularity. Duncannon, who was created a peer, succeeded
+Melbourne at the home office; Lord Mulgrave, son of the first earl,
+became lord privy seal in place of Carlisle; and Hobhouse entered the
+cabinet as first commissioner of woods and forests. The rest of the
+session was mainly spent in discussing the budget and the two Irish
+questions which for so many years were the curse of English politics. A
+surplus of two millions enabled Althorp to propitiate an importunate
+class of taxpayers by repealing the house tax.
+
+It would have been more statesmanlike to repeal the window tax or reduce
+indirect taxation, but relief was given, as usual, to those who raised
+the loudest clamour, and the vindication of sound finance was reserved
+for a conservative administration. A second and milder Irish coercion
+bill was carried by a large majority, with the fatal proviso, which has
+marred the effect of so many later measures, that it should continue in
+operation for a year only. A far more serious conflict arose on the new
+Irish tithe bill. A complicated plan had been proposed whereby
+four-fifths of the tithe would have been ostensibly secured to the
+church by conversion into a rent-charge, the remaining fifth being
+sacrificed for the sake of peace and security. O'Connell succeeded in
+inducing the house of commons to adopt a counter-plan, of a very
+sweeping nature, whereby two-fifths of the existing tithe would have
+been abandoned, and the tithe owner partly compensated out of the
+revenues of suppressed bishoprics, aided by a state grant. The bill thus
+amended was rejected by a majority of 189 to 122 in the house of lords.
+Peel still cherished the idea of settling the question by a system of
+voluntary commutation, but, after the peremptory action of the lords, no
+compromise was likely to be acceptable, and there is some ground for the
+opinion that in that division the Irish Church establishment received
+its death-blow.
+
+On August 15 parliament was prorogued, and the belief of Peel in the
+stability of the government may be inferred from the fact that he left
+England for Italy on October 14. During the vacation, however, two
+incidents occurred, trivial in themselves, but pregnant with important
+consequences. One of these was Brougham's triumphant progress through
+Scotland, where he was enthusiastically received as the saviour of his
+country, and assumed the air of one who not only kept the king's
+conscience but controlled the royal will. The story of this famous tour
+exhibits alike the greatness of his powers and the littleness of his
+character.[121] The homage paid to him was not undeserved, for he was
+assuredly the foremost gladiator of the whig party, and had given proofs
+of more varied ability than any living politician or lawyer. But the
+dignified eloquence of which he was capable on rare occasions was here
+submerged in a flood of egotistical rhetoric, which carried him away so
+far that he assumed a political independence which his colleagues deeply
+resented, and even spoke of the king in a tone of patronage. Having
+lowered himself in public opinion by these speeches, especially at
+Inverness and Aberdeen, he attended a banquet in honour of Grey at
+Edinburgh, where he provoked a passage at arms with Durham. The press,
+and especially the _Times_ newspaper, which had formerly loaded him with
+extravagant praises, now turned against him, and ridiculed him as a
+political mountebank. But his worst enemy was the king. William IV.'s
+ill-concealed impatience of whig dictation had at last been quickened
+into disgust by this and other sources of irritation, when the sudden
+death of Althorp's father, Earl Spencer, on November 10, gave him an
+opportunity which he eagerly seized.
+
+[Pageheading: _DESTRUCTION OF HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT._]
+
+By a strange fatality, this event almost coincided with the destruction
+by fire of the houses of parliament on October 16. This calamity was the
+result of a carelessness, which it is easy to condemn after the event on
+the part of some subordinate officials and the workmen employed by them.
+Down to 1826, accounts had been kept at the exchequer by means of wooden
+tallies, which were stored in what was called the tally-room of the
+exchequer. This room was required in order to provide temporary
+accommodation for the court of bankruptcy, and an order was given to
+destroy the tallies. The officials charged with the task decided to burn
+them in the stoves of the house of lords, and the work of burning began
+at half-past six in the morning of October 16. The work, hazardous in
+any case, was conducted by the workmen with a rapidity that their orders
+did not justify; the flues used for warming the house were overheated,
+and though the burning of the tallies was completed between four and
+five, the woodwork near the flues must have smouldered till it burst
+into flame about half-past six in the evening. In less than half an hour
+the house of lords was a mass of fire. About eight a change in the wind
+threw the flames upon the house of commons. That house was almost
+completely destroyed. The walls of the house of lords and of the painted
+chamber remained standing, while the house of lords library, the
+parliament offices, and Westminster Hall escaped. The king offered the
+parliament the use of Buckingham Palace, but it was found possible to
+fit up the house of lords for the commons and the painted chamber for
+the lords. When the legislature reassembled on February 9, 1835, a
+conservative ministry was in office, though not, indeed, in power.
+
+It is difficult for a later age to understand why the accession of
+Althorp to a peerage should have afforded even a plausible reason for a
+change of ministry. The position which Althorp held in the house of
+commons is puzzling to a later generation.[122] It is well known that
+Gladstone recorded the very highest estimate of his public services. Yet
+he was not only no orator but scarcely in the second order of speakers,
+he made no pretence of far-sighted statesmanship, he was not a
+successful financier, and he made several blunders which must have
+damaged the authority of any other man. The influence which he obtained
+in leading the unreformed as well as the reformed house of commons was
+entirely due to his character for straightforward honesty, perhaps
+enhanced by his social rank, and his reputation for possessing all the
+virtues of a country gentleman. The national preference for amateurs
+over professionals in politics, no less than in other fields of energy,
+found an admirable representative in him, and he was all the more
+popular as a political leader because it was believed that he had no
+desire to be a political leader at all. At all events, he inspired
+confidence in all, and it was no mere whim of the king which treated his
+removal from the commons to the lords as an irreparable loss to
+Melbourne's administration.
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S RESIGNATION._]
+
+It is often stated that "without a word of preparation" the king got rid
+of his whig ministers on November 14, 1834, and it must be admitted that
+he afterwards took credit to himself for their dismissal as his own
+personal act. But this view is not altogether borne out by contemporary
+evidence. A published letter, of the 12th, from Melbourne to the king
+shows that, as premier, he took the initiative in representing that,
+whereas "the government in its present form was mainly founded upon the
+personal weight and influence possessed by Earl Spencer in the house of
+commons," it was for the king to consider whether, as "that foundation
+is now withdrawn," a change of ministry was expedient.[123] It also
+appears from a letter placed by the king in Melbourne's hands that a
+"very confidential conversation" took place between them at Brighton, in
+consequence of which the king resolved to send for Wellington.[124] In
+the course of this conversation Melbourne informed the king that, in the
+opinion of the cabinet, Lord John Russell should be selected for the
+leadership of the house of commons. The king, incensed by Lord John's
+action on the Irish Church question, would not hear of this arrangement,
+especially as he thought Lord John "otherwise unequal to the task," and
+disparaged the claims of other possible candidates.[125] He also
+strongly resented the recent conduct of Brougham. In the end, he parted
+kindly and courteously from Melbourne, who actually undertook to convey
+the king's summons to Wellington. Another memorandum by the king, of the
+same date, proves that a fear of further encroachments on the church was
+really uppermost in his mind, and that he anticipated, not without
+reason, "a schism in the cabinet" on this very subject.[126]
+
+Wellington acted with his customary promptitude, and with his customary
+obedience to what he regarded as a call of public duty. A certain degree
+of mistrust had existed between him and Peel, arising, in part, out of
+circumstances preceding the duke's election to the chancellorship of
+Oxford University. This suspension of cordiality had now passed away,
+and Wellington strongly urged the king to entrust Peel, then at Rome,
+with the formation of a new government. Hudson, afterwards known as Sir
+James Hudson, delivered the despatch recalling him on the night of the
+25th. Peel started from Rome on the 26th and, travelling with a speed
+then considered marvellous, reached Dover within twelve days on the
+night of December 8. He was in London on the 9th, and, without
+consulting any one else, immediately placed his services at the king's
+disposal. In the meantime, Wellington had stepped into the gap, and
+actually held all the secretaryships of state in his own hands, pending
+the arrival of Peel.
+
+The king had been encouraged to hustle his ministers unceremoniously out
+of office by a paragraph which appeared in the _Times_ of November 15.
+On the previous evening Brougham had been informed by Melbourne in
+confidence that the king had accepted his suggestion of resignation, and
+he carried the news to the _Times_, which, without giving Brougham's
+name, published his message in his own words. It stated that the king
+had turned out the ministry, and ended with the words: "The queen has
+done it all". After this the king was determined to be done with his
+ministers as quickly as possible. It is certain that neither Wellington
+nor Peel wished to be thought responsible for their dismissal, the
+propriety of which they both secretly doubted. The king, however, had
+acted within his strict rights, and the outgoing ministers, as a whole,
+were not ill pleased to be relieved from the burdens of office.
+
+Peel, though by no means hopeful of ultimate success, endeavoured to
+construct a cabinet on a comprehensive basis. He first obtained the
+king's "ready assent" to his inviting the co-operation of Stanley, who
+had succeeded to the courtesy title of Lord Stanley, and Sir James
+Graham. These overtures were declined in friendly terms, and both
+promised independent support. But Stanley explicitly declared that, in
+his judgment, "the sudden conversion of long political opposition into
+the most intimate alliance would shock public opinion, would be ruinous
+to his own character," and would rather injure than strengthen the new
+government.[127] After this failure, Peel felt his task well-nigh
+hopeless, and though he spared no effort to procure an infusion of fresh
+blood, he complained that after all "it would be only the duke's old
+cabinet".[128] There was, in fact, no man of known ability in it, except
+himself, the Duke of Wellington (as secretary for foreign affairs), and
+Lyndhurst, the chancellor; for the capacity of Aberdeen, who had been
+foreign secretary under Wellington, and who now became secretary for war
+and the colonies, and Ellenborough, who returned to the board of
+control, had not yet been generally recognised. Peel himself became
+first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer; Goulburn was
+home secretary, Rosslyn lord president, and Wharncliffe lord privy seal.
+Earl de Grey, elder brother of the Earl of Ripon, was made first lord of
+the admiralty, Murray became master-general of the ordnance, Alexander
+Baring president of the board of trade and master of the mint, Herries
+secretary at war, and Sir Edward Knatchbull paymaster of the forces. It
+was fully understood that a conservative government, even purged of
+ultra-tory elements, could not face the first reformed house of commons,
+and the dissolution which took place at the end of the year had been
+regarded by all as inevitable.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE TAMWORTH MANIFESTO._]
+
+In anticipation of this event, Peel issued an address to his
+constituents which became celebrated as the "Tamworth manifesto". It is
+somewhat cumbrous in style, but it embodies with sufficient clearness
+the new conservative policy of which Peel was the real author and
+henceforth the leading exponent. It opens with an appeal to his own
+previous conduct in parliament, as showing that, while he was no
+apostate from old constitutional principles, neither was he "a defender
+of abuses," nor the enemy of "judicious reforms". In proof of this, he
+cites his action in regard to the currency and various amendments of the
+law; to which he might have added his adoption of catholic emancipation.
+He then declares, absolutely and without reserve, that he accepts the
+reform act as "a final and irrevocable settlement of a great
+constitutional question," which no friend to peace and the welfare of
+the country would seek, either directly or indirectly, to disturb. He
+approves of making "a careful review of institutions, civil and
+ecclesiastical, undertaken in a friendly temper," with a view to "the
+correction of proved abuses, and the redress of real grievances," and
+that "without mere superstitious reverence for ancient usages". He lays
+stress on his recorded assent to the principle of corporation reform,
+the substitution of a treasury grant for Church rates, the relief of
+dissenters from various civil disabilities (but not from university
+tests), the restriction of pensions (saving vested interests), the
+redistribution of Church revenues and the commutation of tithes, but so
+that no ecclesiastical property be diverted to secular uses. After these
+specific pledges, the Tamworth manifesto concludes with more general
+professions of a progressive conservatism equally removed from what are
+now called "advanced radicalism" and "tory democracy".[129] It was, of
+course, too liberal for the followers of Eldon, and was ridiculed as
+colourless by extreme reformers, but its effect on the country was
+great, and it did much to win popular confidence for the new ministry.
+If such a policy must be called opportunism, it was opportunism in its
+best form; and opportunism in its best form, under the conditions of
+party government, is not far removed from political wisdom.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[117] If all the bishops present had not merely abstained, but actually
+voted in favour of the measure, it would have been carried by one vote.
+
+[118] Sir George Nicholls, _History of the English Poor Law_, vol. ii.,
+see especially pp. 242, 243.
+
+[119] Peel to Goulburn (May 25, 1834), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+244.
+
+[120] Hatherton, _Memoir_; Creevey, _Memoirs_, ii., 285-88.
+
+[121] See Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 446-57.
+
+[122] Compare Walpole, _History of England_, iii., 478.
+
+[123] _Lord Melbourne's Papers_, p. 220.
+
+[124] _Ibid._, pp. 222, 223.
+
+[125] Stockmar, _Memoirs_ (English translation), i., 330.
+
+[126] Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii., 235.
+
+[127] Stanley to Peel (Dec. 11, 1834), Peel's _Memoirs_, ii., 39, 40.
+
+[128] Croker to Mrs. Croker, _Croker Papers_, ii., 219.
+
+[129] Peel, _Memoirs_, ii., 58-67.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVII.
+
+ PEEL AND MELBOURNE.
+
+
+The general election which took place in January, 1835, was hotly
+contested, and in the second reformed parliament the conservatives
+mustered far stronger than in the first. The party now consisted of some
+270 members, chiefly returned by the counties. But they were still
+outnumbered by the whigs, radicals, and Irish repealers combined, and it
+was certain that an occasion for such a combination would soon arise. It
+was found at once in the election of a speaker, when the house of
+commons met on February 9, 1835. Sutton, now Sir Charles Manners Sutton,
+was proposed for re-election by the government; the opposition candidate
+was Abercromby. The number of members who took part in the division was
+the largest ever assembled, being 622, and Abercromby was elected by a
+majority of ten. It would have been larger, had not the government been
+supported by some waverers, but its significance was appreciated by the
+ministers, and still more by the king. He expressed his displeasure in a
+very outspoken letter to Peel, declaring that, if the leaders "of the
+present factious opposition" should be forced upon him by a refusal of
+the supplies, he might, indeed, tolerate them, but could never give them
+his confidence or friendship. Two days later, the 24th, the king's
+speech was delivered, reflecting the spirit of the Tamworth
+manifesto.[130]
+
+[Pageheading: _PEEL'S POLICY._]
+
+The government was again defeated by seven on an amendment to the
+address, notwithstanding the loyal aid of Graham and Stanley, whose
+attitude during the general election had excited Peel's mistrust. In the
+course of this debate, the prime minister, abandoning his usual reserve,
+definitely pledged himself not only "to advance, soberly and cautiously,
+in the path of progressive improvement," but to bring forward specific
+measures. "I offer you," he said, "reduced estimates, improvements in
+civil jurisprudence, reform of ecclesiastical law, the settlement of the
+tithe question in Ireland, the commutation of tithe in England, the
+removal of any real abuse in the Church, the redress of those grievances
+of which the dissenters have any just ground to complain." Nor were
+these offers illusory or barren. On March 17, he brought in a bill to
+relieve dissenters from disabilities in respect of marriage, which met
+with general approval. It was founded on the simple principle, since
+adopted, of giving legal validity to civil marriages duly solemnised
+before a registrar, and leaving each communion to superadd a religious
+sanction in its own way. The marriages of Churchmen in a church were to
+be left on their old footing, but Churchmen were of course to be granted
+the same liberty as other citizens of contracting a purely civil
+marriage.
+
+Still more important, as examples of conservative reform, were Peel's
+efforts to purge the established Church of abuses, and to introduce a
+voluntary commutation of tithes. His correspondence amply shows how
+large a space these remedial measures occupied in his mind, and one of
+his first acts was to appoint an ecclesiastical commission, with
+instructions to institute a most comprehensive inquiry into every
+subject affecting the distribution of church revenues. Compared with the
+petty squabbles over the appropriation of an imaginary surplus to be
+derived from Irish tithes which it was impossible to collect, the
+schemes of Peel for purifying and strengthening the Church of England
+assume heroic proportions. The report of the ecclesiastical commission
+originated by him, with its startling disclosures of pluralism and
+non-residence, became the basis of legislation which has wrought a
+veritable revolution in the financial and disciplinary administration of
+the church. His tithe bill, abortive as it was in 1835, was reproduced,
+with little alteration, in the tithe commutation act of 1836.
+
+But the whig-radical allies of 1835 had not the smallest intention of
+giving Peel a fair trial; nor indeed had they any other object beyond
+the recovery of power. His appeals to his opponents, though by no means
+without effect in the country, fell upon deaf ears in the house of
+commons, and further humiliations followed rapidly. One of these was the
+successful outcry against the appointment of Londonderry, who had
+excited much hostility as an uncompromising enemy to reform, to the
+embassy at St. Petersburg, in consequence of which he, very honourably,
+relieved the government from obloquy by declining the post. A motion to
+repeal the malt tax was decisively defeated, and soon afterwards a
+motion in favour of granting a charter to the University of London was
+carried against the government by a large majority. Then came a defeat
+on a motion for adjournment, and the arts of obstruction were
+obstinately practised in debates on the estimates. At last the
+inevitable crisis arrived, and, as might be expected, the final issue
+was taken upon an Irish question.
+
+The influence of O'Connell and his "tail," as his followers were called,
+had been neutralised, since the reform act, by the overwhelming strength
+of the whigs, and the public-spirited action of Peel, who, as leader of
+the conservative opposition, actually supported the whig government in
+sixteen out of twenty most important contests on domestic policy. A very
+different spirit was now shown by the whig opposition, and an evil
+precedent, pregnant with disastrous consequences, was set by the famous
+"Lichfield House compact". This was a close alliance between O'Connell
+and those whom he had so fiercely denounced as "the base, brutal, and
+bloody whigs". It bore immediate fruit in a motion of Russell for a
+committee of the whole house to consider the temporalities of the Irish
+Church. After a debate of four nights, the resolution was carried, on
+March 30, by a majority of thirty-three. On April 5, a further
+resolution was carried by a majority of twenty-five for applying any
+surplus-funds "to the general education of all classes of the people
+without religious distinction," and was more emphatically affirmed two
+days later by a majority of twenty-seven.
+
+Peel had long been conscious of the hopelessness of his position and
+impatient of maintaining the struggle. He felt the constitutional danger
+of allowing the executive government to become a helpless instrument in
+the hands of a hostile majority in the house of commons. Nothing but the
+earnest remonstrances of the king and his tory friends, including
+Wellington, had induced him to retain office so long, and, after the
+division of the 7th, he firmly resolved to resign. On doing so, he
+received from the whole conservative party, of which he was the
+creator, a most cordial address of thanks and confidence. Though his
+short administration had consolidated the whig forces for the moment,
+and given them a new lease of power, it showed him to be the foremost
+statesman in the country, and paved the way for his triumphant return to
+office. As Guizot said, he had proved himself "the most liberal of
+conservatives, the most conservative of liberals, and the most capable
+man of all in both parties".
+
+[Pageheading: _MELBOURNE'S SECOND MINISTRY._]
+
+The king now discovered the fatal mistake which he had made in
+"dismissing" his whig cabinet, as he boasted, instead of waiting for it
+to break down under the stress of internal dissensions. His first idea
+was to fall back on Grey, who had already betrayed his growing mistrust
+of radicalism, but Grey declined to enter the lists again. There was no
+resource but to recall Melbourne, whom the king personally liked, and to
+put up with the elevation of Russell to a position which all admitted
+him to have fairly earned. He became home secretary, as well as leader
+of the house of commons, and the new whig cabinet differed little from
+the old. Palmerston, Lansdowne, Auckland, Thompson, and Holland returned
+to their former offices. Grant was made secretary for war and the
+colonies, Duncannon became lord privy seal, Spring Rice chancellor of
+the exchequer, Hobhouse president of the board of control, and Viscount
+Howick, son of Earl Grey, was appointed secretary at war. Outside the
+cabinet, Viscount Morpeth, son of the Earl of Carlisle, became Irish
+secretary. The most significant difference between the two cabinets lay
+in the omission of Brougham, which was effected by the expedient of
+placing the great seal in commission. This negative act was, in reality,
+the boldest and most perilous in Melbourne's political life. A
+correspondence between Brougham and Melbourne in February must have made
+clear to the ex-chancellor that he would be excluded from office, and he
+reluctantly acquiesced in Melbourne's decision, hoping that it would be
+merely temporary, and that he would soon resume his place on the
+woolsack as the dominant member of the cabinet, but his exclusion was
+destined to be final, and the close of a career to which English history
+in the nineteenth century presents no parallel.[131]
+
+[Pageheading: _BROUGHAM._]
+
+Brougham was called to the Scottish bar at the age of twenty-one, having
+already given proof of brilliant ability and rare versatility at the
+University of Edinburgh. He was the youngest and most prolific of the
+original writers in the _Edinburgh Review_, then a very powerful organ
+of whig opinion, and his contributions to it ranged over some thirty
+years after its first appearance in 1802. He was already twenty-nine
+when he joined the English bar in 1808, and though he never rivalled
+Eldon as a lawyer or Scarlett as a persuasive advocate, he soon became
+an acknowledged master of the highest forensic eloquence. His fame was
+already established by his argument before parliament against the orders
+in council when he entered the house of commons in 1810. There his
+passionate oratory and power of invective made him the most formidable
+of party speakers, and it was said that Canning alone could face him on
+equal terms in debate. Except during four years, 1812-16, when he was
+out of parliament, his prodigious energy and versatility were the
+greatest intellectual force on the liberal side throughout all the
+political conflicts under the regency and the reign of George IV. His
+speeches embraced every question of foreign, colonial, or domestic
+policy, and it may truly be said that no salutary reform was carried
+during that period of which he was not either the author or the active
+promoter. The suppression of the slave-trade which had revived after the
+great war, the liberty of the press, the cause of popular
+education--these were among the almost innumerable objects, outside the
+common run of politics, and largely philanthropic, to which he devoted
+his restless mind, before it was engrossed for a while by parliamentary
+reform. There, as we have seen, he showed a moderation which had not
+been expected of him, nor is it too much to say that, both as a leader
+of the bar and as chancellor, he made good his claim to be the greatest
+of law reformers.
+
+His famous speech of February 7, 1828, had quickened the germs of many
+legal improvements carried out in a later age, and the four years of his
+chancellorship actually produced great constructive amendments of the
+law, such as the institution of the central criminal court and the
+judicial committee of the privy council. Other reforms, in bankruptcy,
+criminal law, and equity, were mainly due to his initiative, and it was
+he who originated the county courts, though his bill was recklessly
+thrown out by the house of lords on party grounds. His public life, up
+to the year 1835, was perhaps the most brilliant and the most useful of
+the century, yet it was hopelessly marred in the end by a certain
+eccentric vanity, and want of loyalty to colleagues, not inconsistent
+with the higher ambition of leaving the world better than he found it.
+For some years after his fall he retained his astounding energy, and
+even his ascendency in the house of lords, where Lyndhurst, his only
+possible rival, was astute enough to court his co-operation. Never was
+his fertility in debate more conspicuously shown than in the session of
+1835, while he was still nominally a supporter of the whig government.
+The last stage of his life, extending over more than thirty years,
+belongs to another chapter of English history; it is enough here to
+notice that, whatever his political aberrations, he continued in his
+isolation and old age to work zealously for those social reforms which
+he sincerely had at heart. The popularity which had been to him as the
+breath of life never, indeed, returned to him, and his figure no longer
+occupies a foremost place in the gallery of our statesmen, but the
+results of his noble services to humanity remain, and the memory of them
+ought not to be obscured by the sad record of his failings.
+
+The new Melbourne administration came in with unfavourable omens.
+Russell failed to secure his re-election in South Devon, but a seat was
+found for him at Stroud, and though the premier emphatically denied that
+he had made any bargain with O'Connell, the Irish people believed it.
+Accordingly, they received the whig lord-lieutenant, Mulgrave, with a
+tumultuous procession, as if his advent portended the repeal of the
+union and extinction of tithes. An attempt to solve the insoluble tithe
+question was, in fact, among the earliest efforts of the government, and
+Morpeth, as chief secretary, introduced a very reasonable measure,
+differing little, except in details, from that of his predecessor. Like
+other proposals for agrarian settlements in Ireland, it involved a
+certain sacrifice on the part of the tithe-owner for the sake of
+security, and a subsidy from the state to relieve of arrears the
+defaulting and rebellious tithe-payers. Peel stated his intention of
+supporting these provisions for commutation, if they could be separated
+from other provisions for "appropriation," coupled with them under the
+influence of political necessity rather than of sound policy. The
+proposals for appropriation were so moderate that little would have been
+lost by dropping or gained by carrying them, but, moderate as they were,
+they embodied a principle on which either party was resolved to stand or
+fall. The consequence might have been foreseen. The bill, as a whole,
+was passed in the house of commons, and even read a second time in the
+house of lords, after which the appropriation clauses were rejected in
+that assembly by a large majority. Thereupon Melbourne withdrew the
+scheme altogether. Thus a question of third-rate importance, having been
+the chronic difficulty of four Irish secretaries, was left to stand over
+for three years longer, and ultimately to be settled on the very basis
+which Stanley and Peel had accepted from the first. A greater waste of
+parliamentary time has perhaps never been recorded.
+
+[Pageheading: _MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS BILL._]
+
+The session of 1835, however, was rendered memorable by the enactment of
+one beneficent measure of the first magnitude. This measure--the
+municipal corporations act--was preceded, like the new poor law, by a
+thorough and exhaustive inquiry. A committee of the house of commons,
+followed by a commission, had been appointed in 1833. The commission
+prosecuted careful researches into the local conditions of each
+municipality, and did not conclude its labours until 1835. Its report
+laid bare not merely grotesque anomalies, but the grossest abuses of
+election and administration in boroughs ruled by small, corrupt, and
+irresponsible oligarchies which then abounded in England, and, still
+more, in Scotland.[132] The reform act had paved the way for the
+purification of such urban communities, by disfranchising the smallest
+and most venal of them, by extending the boundaries of many others, by
+enfranchising great towns which had remained outside the pale of
+representation, and by conferring the suffrage, theretofore monopolised
+by freemen and other privileged classes, on the unprivileged mass of
+ten-pound householders.
+
+The municipal corporations bill, in its ultimate form, rested on the
+same broad lines of policy. It imposed upon all boroughs, with the
+exception of the city of London and a few of minor importance, one
+constitutional form of government, identical in all its essential
+features with those which a few model boroughs already possessed. The
+governing body was to consist of a mayor, aldermen, and councillors,
+together forming a town council. The councillors were to be elected
+directly by ratepaying occupiers, with a saving for the prescriptive
+rights of existing freemen. They were to hold office for three years;
+the aldermen were to be elected by the councillors for six years, with a
+provision for retirement by rotation. The mayor was to be elected
+annually by the town council. The elementary powers of local government,
+such as the control of lighting and the constabulary force, were to be
+transferred (subject to certain exceptions) from the hands of committees
+into those of the one recognised and supreme municipal authority. Other
+clauses provided for a division of the larger boroughs into wards, for
+the abolition of exclusive trading privileges, for the public management
+of charity estates, and for the appointment, at the option of each
+borough, of a recorder, for the purposes of jurisdiction.
+
+Such were the main outlines of the great measure introduced by Russell,
+to which Peel heartily gave his adhesion. It was a natural, and almost
+necessary, sequel of the reform act, which had already broken up many
+nests of jobbery, curtailed the lucrative exercise of the elective
+franchise by freemen, and undermined the influence of those self-elected
+rulers who, in the worst boroughs, had become gangs of public thieves.
+Supported by Peel, the bill was read a second time in the house of
+commons, on June 15, without a division. Several conservative amendments
+were defeated in committee by small majorities, and the bill was sent up
+to the lords on July 21. There its fate was far different. Though
+Wellington himself was not disposed to obstruct it, he entirely failed
+to check the obstructive tactics of Lyndhurst who, on this occasion,
+outdid himself in the deliberate mutilation of a bill approved by the
+late conservative premier. Lord Campbell, no partial judge of Brougham,
+has left on record his belief that, but for his faithful and vigorous
+support, the scheme of municipal reform must have been utterly
+wrecked.[133] It was allowed to be read a second time, but with the
+full concurrence of Eldon and all the ultra-tory peers, Lyndhurst
+succeeded in pulling it to pieces in committee. For instance, one of the
+amendments imported into it perpetuated proprietary rights which it was
+a chief object of the bill to abolish; another gave aldermen a
+life-tenure of their offices; a third retained a part of the old town
+councillors on the new town councils. Proud as he was of his destructive
+exploits, as a triumph of toryism over conservatism, Lyndhurst soon
+found that he could not so lightly override the wiser counsels of Peel.
+When the lords' amendments came to be considered in the commons, Russell
+prudently advised the acceptance of the less important, and the
+disallowance of those inconsistent with the principle of the bill. He
+was followed by Peel who, professing to uphold the independence of the
+upper house, declared against the more obnoxious amendments, and
+stickled only for points which the ministry was not unwilling to
+concede. His action proved decisive. The commons stood firm on the main
+issues, and the hostile party in the lords, who had vowed to mar this
+reform, flinched at the last moment. Many of them abstained from
+attendance. Wellington and even Lyndhurst recommended concession;
+conferences took place between the houses, at which Russell played the
+part of moderator, and on September 9 the corporation bill became law,
+not in its entirety, but in all its essential features.
+
+In spite of this pacific compromise, popular feeling ran higher than
+ever against the house of lords which, under the evil influence of
+Lyndhurst, seemed bent on thwarting every liberal measure. John Roebuck,
+member for Bath, a prominent radical, who acted independently of party
+connexions, took a lead in denouncing their conduct, and went so far as
+to propose giving them a merely suspensory, instead of an absolute, veto
+on legislation. A sweeping reform in their constitution was loudly
+advocated in the press. O'Connell, exasperated by their wanton rejection
+of a Dublin police bill, spent a part of the parliamentary recess in a
+tour over the north of England and Scotland, exhausting the stores of
+his scurrilous invective in pouring contempt on the 170 tyrants who
+could dare to withstand the will of the people. But O'Connell's
+eloquence, marvellous as it was, never stirred British audiences as it
+stirred the Irish masses, and it happened that at this moment he was
+somewhat discredited by accusations of corruption afterwards proved to
+be false. The house of lords not only survived his attacks, but was
+instigated by Lyndhurst to further acts of obstruction in the following
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _COTTENHAM, LORD CHANCELLOR._]
+
+His most powerful opponent was about to disappear from the political
+scenes for the present, and in the future to be converted into an ally.
+When the great seal was entrusted to commissioners, Brougham had
+affected to regard the arrangement as a temporary makeshift to
+propitiate William IV., and hoped that he would inherit the reversion of
+the chancellorship. With this expectation he not only patronised but
+warmly supported the whig ministry in 1835. But his wayward and petulant
+egotism had set all his old colleagues against him, and Melbourne had
+made up his mind that "it was impossible to act with him". The
+interruption of legal business caused by the constant withdrawal of
+three judges from their proper duties, to act as commissioners, was
+severely criticised by the press, and Sir Edward Sugden, who had been
+lord chancellor of Ireland under Peel, published an effective pamphlet
+entitled, "What has become of the great seal?" It was thought necessary
+to appoint a new chancellor, and in January, 1836, Sir Charles Pepys,
+then master of the rolls, was raised to that dignity as Lord Cottenham.
+Foreseeing the implacable indignation of Brougham, the ministry decided
+to confer a peerage on Henry Bickersteth, the new master of the rolls,
+who became Lord Langdale, and who was supposed capable of confronting
+the ex-chancellor in debate. No expectation could have been more
+unfounded or delusive, but the sense of disappointment and desertion so
+preyed on the health and nerves of Brougham that he forsook the house of
+lords for a whole session. Campbell does not shrink from saying that he
+was "atrociously ill-used" on this occasion,[134] and assuredly he
+should not have been left to learn from a newspaper that he was thrust
+aside in favour of a man of vastly inferior gifts and services.
+
+One other change was made in the cabinet during the recess. The Earl of
+Minto became first lord of the admiralty in succession to Auckland who
+had been appointed governor-general of India. When parliament met on
+February 4, 1836, the prospects of the whig government were more
+favourable than on their first accession to office. The factious
+conduct of the house of lords in the last session had disgusted the
+country, while the statesmanlike moderation of Peel secured them
+fair-play in the house of commons, though it was gradually building up a
+strong conservative party. Ireland again blocked the way for a while
+against useful legislation for Great Britain, and the first encounter of
+parties was on an amendment to the address condemning the anticipated
+reform of Irish corporations on the principles already adopted for
+England. This amendment, unwillingly moved by Peel, was defeated by a
+majority of forty-one, and the Irish municipal bill was introduced on
+the 16th. Like its English prototype, it was founded on the report of a
+commission which had disclosed the grossest possible abuses in Irish
+municipalities, chiefly dominated by protestant oligarchies. A similar
+measure substituting elective councils for these corrupt bodies had
+actually passed its third reading in the commons before the end of the
+last session, but the attempt to carry it further was then abandoned.
+The debates on the bill of 1836 for the same purpose inevitably turned
+on broad issues which continued to disturb Irish politics and to perplex
+English statesmen for the rest of the century. On the one hand, no one
+could justify "government by ascendency" in Ireland, or the shameful
+malpractices incident to an exercise of power under no sense of
+responsibility. On the other hand, no one acquainted with Irish history
+and Irish character could honestly regard the people as yet qualified
+for local self-government. In the social and some of the moral virtues
+they might be favourably compared with Englishmen and Scotchmen; in the
+political virtues, upon which civil institutions must rest, they were
+several generations behind their fellow-subjects in Great Britain.
+
+[Pageheading: _IRISH BILLS._]
+
+All were agreed on the necessity of sweeping away or expurgating the
+existing Irish corporations, but the whole strength of the conservative
+party in both houses was enlisted against the experiment of elective
+town councils, especially after the evidence lately taken before the
+so-called "intimidation committee" in the house of commons. Peel's
+scheme was to vest the executive powers and property of Irish
+corporations, at least for the present, in officers appointed by the
+crown. An amendment framed in this sense was defeated by a large
+majority, and the bill passed the commons with little further
+opposition. When it reached the lords it was stoutly contested by
+Lyndhurst, now fortified by Peel's concurrence, on the not unreasonable
+ground that it would make the radicals and repealers predominant in
+every Irish municipality, and create "seats of agitation" for
+revolutionary purposes in the new town councils. Being converted into a
+bill "for the abolition of municipal corporations" in Ireland, it was
+returned in that form to the house of commons. Russell vainly attempted
+to meet the lords half-way by another compromise, and the measure was
+abandoned only to be adopted, in a very modified shape, after the lapse
+of four years. A like course was pursued by the upper house when a new
+Irish tithe bill, with an appropriation clause, was sent up to them. Had
+the whig government been well advised they would scarcely have
+challenged a needless collision between the two houses by reviving this
+burning question so early. It would have been possible to settle the
+Irish tithe system on equitable lines, without prejudicing the future
+application of superfluous Church revenues, and it was a somewhat
+perverse obstinacy which persisted in coupling the two objects year
+after year. The ingenuity of Lyndhurst in wrecking sound reforms should
+have been left without excuse; whereas, in this case, the peers could
+not have accepted what they regarded as a confiscation bill without a
+sacrifice of conviction and self-respect.
+
+Happily the commutation of tithes in England presented no political
+difficulties of the same nature. The payment of tithes in kind, though
+founded on immemorial usage, had, indeed, produced constant discord
+between the parish clergyman and his flock, while landlords and farmers
+justly complained that it impeded the improvement of agriculture. In
+many localities the pressure of these evils had led to voluntary
+compositions between tithe-owners and tithe-payers, which, being
+temporary, lacked the force of law. The permissive tithe bills of
+Althorp and Peel were designed to render general a practice which
+already prevailed in a thousand parishes, and that now introduced by
+Russell was little more than an extension of the same principle. Its
+mainspring was the appointment of commissioners with compulsory powers
+in the last resort, and the provision of a self-acting machinery for
+assessing the reduced annual rent charge payable in lieu of tithes, so
+as to vary with the average price of wheat, barley, and oats in the
+seven preceding years. This practical solution of the question was
+adopted cheerfully by the wearied legislature, and the commissioners
+succeeded before long in effecting universal commutation. Amendments in
+detail have of course been found necessary, but the system established
+by 6 and 7 William IV., cap. 61, has stood the test of long experience,
+and although tithe-owners have been impoverished by the fall of prices,
+the payment of tithes in England has ceased to be a grievance, except
+with those who absolutely condemn the endowment of a Church.
+
+[Pageheading: _REGISTRATION ACTS._]
+
+An equally valuable and permanent legacy of this session is contained in
+two cognate acts regulating marriages and registration in England. By
+the first of these acts two new modes of celebrating marriage were
+provided, without interfering with the old privileges of the established
+Church in regard to marriage by licence or banns. While the essential
+conditions of notice and publicity were carefully secured, the
+superintendent registrar of each district was empowered either to
+authorise the celebration of marriage in a duly registered place of
+worship, but in presence of a district registrar, or to solemnise the
+ceremony himself, without any religious service, in his own office.
+Clergymen of the Church of England were constituted registrars for
+marriages celebrated by themselves, and were bound to furnish the
+superintendent registrars with certified entries of such marriages. The
+act was complicated by a variety of safeguards, enforced by heavy
+penalties, against fraud and evasion, but its leading features were
+simple and have proved effectual for their purpose. It marked an advance
+on the earlier marriage bill of Russell, since it not only allowed
+dissenters to marry in their own chapels, but to marry without having
+their banns published in the parish church. It went beyond the marriage
+bill of Peel, since it not only recognised marriage as a civil contract,
+but utilised the new poor law organisation, and posted in each district
+a civil official before whom that contract could legally be solemnised.
+
+The rules laid down by the first act for the registration of marriages
+were an integral part of a general registration system established by
+the second act, and embracing births and deaths as well as marriages.
+This system, rendered possible by the division of the country into
+unions, brought under effective control the old parochial registers
+which had been loosely kept for three centuries. The statistical value
+of the returns thus checked and digested in a central department is now
+fully recognised, but can only be appreciated by students of social
+history, which, indeed, is now largely founded on reports of the
+registrar-general. The special provisions for the registration of deaths
+are also of the utmost service in the prevention of disease and crime.
+Not until after this act of 1836 was it realised by the mass of the
+people, not only that a sudden death would properly be followed by a
+coroner's inquest, but that every death, with its circumstances, must be
+treated as a matter of public concern and duly notified. Still more
+important in its results has been the requirement of a medical statement
+on the cause of death--a requirement which has brought about the
+discovery of numerous murders and greatly checked the commission of
+others. If the marriage act relieved a large class of the community from
+vexatious disabilities, the whole community assuredly owes the second
+reformed parliament a debt of gratitude for the registration act which,
+like so many of the best acts in the statute book, provoked but little
+discussion.
+
+A far keener party interest was excited by the crusade against the
+Orange lodges in Great Britain and Ireland which Hume and Finn, an Irish
+member, carried on with great energy in the sessions of 1835 and 1836.
+These societies then had an importance which they no longer possess, and
+were the more open to radical attacks because the Duke of Cumberland was
+grand master of the order. It was said, with some justice, that while
+the catholic association was nominally put down, the Orange lodges in
+Ireland were openly spreading, with the connivance at least of the Irish
+authorities. Their officials included noblemen of high position;
+Goulburn, when chief secretary, was an Orangeman, and special efforts
+had been made to enrol members in the army. Their principles were
+strictly loyal, but their demonstrations were naturally resented by the
+Roman catholics, and were not far removed from preparations for civil
+war. They hailed the accession of Peel's short ministry with tumultuous
+enthusiasm, but when the legality of their organisation and proceedings
+was challenged in the house of commons, during the session of 1835,
+their advocates felt compelled to support a committee of inquiry. The
+evidence taken before this committee, and the debate raised by Hume on
+the formation of Orange lodges in the army, damaged their cause in the
+eyes of the public, and seriously compromised the Duke of Cumberland. It
+was shown that his brother, the Duke of York, had resigned the grand
+mastership, and on being convinced of their illegality had forbidden
+Orange lodges in the army, whereas the Duke of Cumberland had accepted
+the grand mastership and directly promoted military lodges.
+
+An address condemning them was carried; the king undertook to discourage
+them, and the commander-in-chief issued a stringent order for their
+suppression. The struggle, however, was continued by the pertinacity of
+the radicals in demanding a more extended inquiry, and the obstinacy of
+the Orangemen in defying both the house of commons and the horse guards.
+Early in the session of 1836 Finn and Hume renewed their assaults, and
+the latter moved for an address, to be framed in the most sweeping
+terms, and calling upon the crown to dismiss all persons in public
+employment, from the highest to the lowest, who should belong to Orange
+societies. Russell, who had been gradually rising in public estimation,
+showed the qualities of a true statesman on this occasion by a firm yet
+conciliatory speech which commanded assent on both sides. He exposed the
+extravagant and impracticable nature of Hume's demand, but condemned the
+Orange societies, and proposed an address urging the crown to use its
+influence for "the effectual discouragement of Orange lodges, and
+generally all political societies, excluding persons of different faith,
+using signs and symbols, and acting by associated branches". This
+resolution was adopted without opposition, the king heartily endorsed
+it, even the Duke of Cumberland acquiesced in it, and the Orange
+societies quietly dissolved themselves, for a while, throughout the
+United Kingdom.
+
+If the session of 1836 had produced no other legislative fruits it could
+not be regarded as wasted. But several minor reforms of great social
+benefit also date from this year, and prove that, however checked by
+political blunders, the energy kindled by the reform act had not yet
+exhausted itself. After repeated efforts of legal philanthropists, a
+bill was now passed for the first time allowing prisoners on trial for
+felony to be defended by counsel. It was brought in by William Ewart, a
+private member, who sat for Liverpool, but was supported by the highest
+legal authorities in the house of lords, including Lyndhurst himself,
+who openly recanted his former opinions, and declared the old law to be
+a barbarous survival, inconsistent with the practice of other civilised
+nations. In the same house an interesting debate took place on the
+management of jails, which had been placed under a system of inspection
+by an act of the previous year. The reports of the inspectors disclosed
+gross abuses, not only in the smaller county jails but in Newgate
+itself. Lansdowne, in pledging the government to deal with the larger
+question, intimated that Russell, as home secretary, was considering the
+means of separating juvenile offenders from hardened criminals by
+establishing places of detention in the nature of what have since been
+known as reformatories.
+
+[Pageheading: _DUTY ON NEWSPAPERS LOWERED._]
+
+A still more notable contribution to social improvement was made by
+Spring Rice, the chancellor of the exchequer, in consolidating the paper
+duties on a reduced scale, and lowering the stamp duty on newspapers
+from fourpence to one penny. These were the only controversial elements
+in a budget otherwise modest and acceptable. The battle over paper
+duties and "taxes upon knowledge" raised in the debates of 1836 was
+destined to rage many years longer, but the relief granted by Spring
+Rice gave a powerful impulse to journalism and periodical literature. It
+was opposed by all the familiar arguments against a cheap press, but
+that which most endangered its success was a rival proposal to apply any
+surplus revenue to cheapening soap. Soap, it was plausibly contended,
+was a necessary, reading newspapers or periodicals was only a luxury,
+and a luxury, too, far move capable of being abused than expenditure on
+soap. When the penny stamp on newspapers was at last preferred to
+reduced soap duties it was said that, "so far as financial arrangements
+were concerned, everything went to supply the essential elements of low
+political clubs, _viz._, cheap gin, cheap newspapers, filthy hands, and
+unwashed faces".[135]
+
+The legislative record of 1836 was creditable to the government, nor was
+the action of the upper house in amending certain of their bills so
+purely mischievous as it has been described. For instance, a strange
+clause had found its way into the newspaper stamp bill, requiring all
+the proprietors of newspapers, however numerous, to be registered at the
+stamp office. This clause was struck out in the house of lords, at the
+instance of Lyndhurst, though Melbourne declared it to be a vital part
+of the measure, which, however, passed without it, and was the better
+for the loss of it. But the same cannot be said of Lyndhurst's conduct
+at the "open conference" between the two houses on a supplementary bill
+for remedying defects in the operation of the municipal corporations
+act. There no question of principle was involved, and the only motive
+for resisting every attempt to improve the new machinery already
+established by law was one unworthy of a statesman. At the close of the
+session, Lyndhurst delivered a masterly vindication of his own
+proceedings, but he was answered by Melbourne in a speech of great
+ability, and the position now occupied by the whigs appeared stronger
+than when they came into office in 1835.
+
+In this year complaints of agricultural distress once more became
+urgent, and a committee was appointed by the house of commons, as in
+1833, to inquire into its cause. Strange to say, the immediate occasion
+for the second inquiry was the occurrence of three magnificent harvests
+in succession, which brought down the average price of wheat from 58s.
+8d. in 1832 to 53s. in 1833, 46s. 2d. in 1834, and 39s. 4d. in 1835,
+whence it rose to 48s. 6d. after the harvest of 1836. The average
+gazette price of 1835 was the lowest touched in the nineteenth century
+until 1884, and was simply due to excess of production. It was stated
+before the committee of 1836, by the comptroller of corn returns, that
+in the period between 1814 and 1834 the quantity of home-grown wheat
+only fell short of the consumption, on the average, by about 1,000,000
+quarters a year, of which at least half was contributed by Ireland. The
+committee published its evidence without making a report, but this fact
+is highly significant as marking the later revolution in British
+agriculture. If the area then devoted to wheat crops almost sufficed to
+feed an estimated population of 14,500,000, when the yield per acre was
+relatively small, we may safely infer, in the absence of trustworthy
+statistics, that it must have been very much greater than at present.
+
+[Pageheading: _AGITATION IN IRELAND._]
+
+At the opening of 1837 there was a marked stagnation in home politics,
+mainly due to an equipoise of parties and serious divisions in the ranks
+of the ministerialists as well as of the opposition. Not only was there
+a very strong conservative majority in the house of lords, with a
+sufficient though dwindling liberal majority in the house of commons,
+but neither majority was amenable to party discipline. The aggressive
+policy and vexatious tactics of Lyndhurst were distasteful to his
+nominal leader, the Duke of Wellington, and still more so to Peel, the
+only possible conservative premier, who eschewed the very name of tory.
+There was greater unity of counsels between Melbourne and Russell, but
+Russell, who had learned moderation, was dependent on the support of his
+extreme left, composed of violent radicals and Irish repealers. The
+king, though he did not carry his repugnance to his ministers so far as
+he once threatened, yet almost excluded them from social invitations,
+and made no secret of his preference for the opposite party. During the
+winter of 1836-37 O'Connell and his satellites were busy in organising
+monster meetings to demand the abolition of tithes and municipal reform.
+A national association was formed on this basis, and a certain number of
+protestants were induced to join it. The government dared not show
+vigour in checking it lest they should estrange their Irish allies, and
+Mulgrave, the lord-lieutenant, was openly accused of favouring sedition
+and discouraging loyalty by his exercise of patronage and the royal
+prerogative of pardon. At last, a very large and influential meeting was
+held in Dublin, at which the discontent of loyalists and patriots was
+expressed with truly Irish vehemence. Still, Ireland was less disturbed
+than in several previous years. About the same time, Peel, having been
+elected lord rector of Glasgow University, was entertained there at
+dinner by a company including many old reformers, and made one of his
+greatest speeches. Its spirit was that of his Tamworth manifesto, but he
+was far more outspoken in his declaration of unswerving adhesion to the
+protestant cause and to the independence of the upper house.
+
+Such were the political conditions when parliament met on January 31.
+The king's speech, delivered by commission, though singularly
+colourless, indicated the importance of legislating on Irish tithes,
+Irish corporations, and Irish poor relief. The debate on the address was
+enlivened by a furious attack of Roebuck on the whigs, but was
+otherwise devoid of importance. On February 7, however, Russell
+introduced a new Irish corporations bill, invoking the authority of Fox
+for the doctrine that "Irish government should be regulated by Irish
+notions and Irish prejudices," and avowing a faith in the efficacy of
+unlimited concession which has not been justified by later experience.
+He further intimated the resolution of the government to stand or fall
+by this measure. No serious resistance was offered by the opposition to
+its first or second reading, but Peel took occasion to protest against a
+transparent inconsistency which seems to beset the advocacy of Irish
+claims. It is generally assumed, and with too much justice, that Ireland
+is so backward and helpless a country as to require exceptional
+treatment; in short, that it must be governed by Irish ideas, with
+little regard to English principles of sound policy or economy. Such
+was, in effect, Fox's contention, adopted by Russell; and yet, like
+future supporters of "Ireland for the Irish," he argued in the same
+breath that every liberal institution suitable to Englishmen, with their
+long training in self-government and instinctive reverence for law, must
+needs be extended to Irishmen, with their long training in anarchy and
+instinctive propensity to lawlessness. He prevailed, however, in the
+house of commons, where a hostile amendment was decisively rejected, and
+the bill, having passed rapidly through committee, was read a third time
+by a large though reduced majority.
+
+Had it been possible to isolate the Irish municipal bill, and to compel
+the house of lords to deal with it singly, the peers might possibly have
+shrunk from another collision with the commons. But it had been coupled
+in the king's speech with two other projects of Irish legislation, a new
+tithe bill, and an Irish poor law. Both of these were, in fact,
+introduced, the former by Russell in February, the latter by Morpeth
+early in May. The course to be taken by the conservative party was the
+subject of anxious consultation between Peel and Wellington, and that
+ultimately adopted had the full sanction of both. They regarded the
+separate presentation of the municipal bill as a "manoeuvre," and,
+while they overruled the wish of Lyndhurst to defeat it by an adverse
+vote on the second reading, they resolved to meet it by a
+counter-manoeuvre. Accordingly Wellington induced the house of lords
+to postpone the committee on the municipal bill until they should have
+the other two bills before them, and Peel not only approved of his
+action but stated reasons for regarding them as essentially connected
+with each other. June 9 was originally fixed as the date for going into
+committee, but this stage was afterwards deferred until July 3, before
+which unforeseen events arrested all further progress.
+
+[Pageheading: _CHURCH RATES._]
+
+In the meantime, the prestige of the government had been weakened by the
+failure of their scheme for abolishing Church rates. The dissenters, no
+longer content with religious liberty, were beginning to demand
+religious equality. In the forefront of their grievances was that of
+paying rates for the repair of parish churches which they did not
+attend, except as members of the annual "vestry," where they could
+object to a rate but might be out-voted by a majority of their
+fellow-parishioners. Althorp had proposed a scheme for the removal of
+this grievance in 1834, involving a parliamentary grant of £250,000.
+Setting aside this alternative, as well as that of a special
+contribution, voluntary or otherwise, from members of the Church, Spring
+Rice now proposed a solution of his own. It consisted in vesting the
+property of bishops and chapters in a commission which, by improved
+management, might raise the necessary sum for church repairs, without
+impairing the incomes of these ecclesiastical dignitaries. Before the
+government plan was discussed in the house of commons, Howley,
+archbishop of Canterbury, entered a strong protest against it in the
+house of lords on the ground that it would reduce the bishops and
+chapters from the position of landowners to that of "mere annuitants".
+Melbourne complained of his protest somewhat angrily as premature, and
+provoked a vehement reply from Blomfield, bishop of London, who, though
+a member of the ecclesiastical commission, denounced any such diversion
+of revenues as "a sacrilegious act of spoliation". In the elaborate
+debates on the resolutions moved by Spring Rice in the house of commons
+Peel took his stand partly on financial objections and partly on the
+injustice of taking away from the Church a fund belonging to it by
+immemorial usage, and in the main willingly contributed. Amendment after
+amendment was proposed by members of the opposition, and, though each
+was defeated, the government resolutions were ultimately carried by so
+narrow a majority in May that no further action was taken.
+
+The conservative reaction, now in visible progress, was typified by the
+open secession of Burdett from the ranks of the reformers. This sincere
+but indiscreet radical, who had once enjoyed a popularity similar to
+that of Wilkes as a political martyr, became estranged from his party
+when it accepted O'Connell as an auxiliary, if not as an ally. Having
+failed in procuring the exclusion of the great Irish demagogue from
+Brooks's club, in 1835, he withdrew his own name. Soon afterwards he
+became irregular in his parliamentary attendance, and more than lukewarm
+in his allegiance. Early in 1837 he was, like Stanley and Graham, so
+much suspected of gravitating towards conservatism, that some of his
+Westminster constituents publicly called upon him to resign. He took up
+the challenge, and was re-elected against a radical opponent by a
+substantial majority. It was his last re-election for a borough which he
+had represented for thirty years. In the Church-rate debate he rose from
+the opposition side of the house, and lamenting his separation from his
+old associates, did not spare them either reproaches or hostile
+criticism.
+
+Another desertion from the whig camp took place during this session, but
+in an opposite direction. Roebuck, originally one of the philosophical
+radicals, had become more and more violent in his attacks on his own
+leaders, whom he accused of having deceived the people. According to
+him, they were "aristocratic in principle, democratic in pretence," and
+all the resources of his incisive rhetoric were exhausted in exposing
+their incapacity, in a motion for a committee to consider the state of
+the nation. This motion, so advocated, met with no support, and gave
+Russell the opportunity of once more vindicating the wisdom of
+moderation in statesmanship. But there were many besides Roebuck who
+were eager to complete the work of the reform act by further organic
+changes, and the notice book of the house of commons in 1837 embodied
+several proposals of this kind. One was Grote's annual motion for the
+ballot, on which an interesting debate took place. Among the others were
+two motions of Sir William Molesworth for a reform of the upper house
+and for the abolition of a property qualification for the lower house, a
+motion of Tennyson, who had taken the additional name of D'Eyncourt, for
+the repeal of the septennial act, and another of Hume for household
+suffrage, overshadowing that of Duncombe for repealing the rate-paying
+clauses of the reform act itself. Nearly all of these contained the
+germs of future legislation, but they formed no part of the whig
+programme, nor could any whig government have carried them against so
+powerful an opposition, with an invincible reserve in the house of
+lords, during the last session of William IV. Only seventeen public acts
+were actually passed in this session.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE DEATH OF WILLIAM IV._]
+
+There were, indeed, other reasons for declining to provoke a grave
+contest at this juncture. The king's health was known to be failing, his
+death under the law then in force would involve a general election, and
+no one could desire his successor, a girl of eighteen, to begin her
+reign in the midst of a political crisis. In May his illness assumed an
+alarming aspect, early in June the medical reports satisfied the country
+that his case was hopeless, on June 19 he received the last sacrament,
+and on the 20th he died at Windsor Castle. Something more than justice
+was done to his character by the leaders of both parties in parliament,
+but something less than justice has been done to it by later historians.
+He was inferior in strength of will to his father, in ability to his
+eldest brother, and in the higher virtues of a constitutional sovereign
+to his niece, who succeeded him. But he was not only a kindly and
+well-meaning man, a good husband to Queen Adelaide and a good father to
+his natural children, faithful to his old friends, and bountiful in his
+charities; he was also a loyal servant of the state, with a genuine
+sense of public duty, a natural love of justice, an independent
+judgment, and a noble indifference to personal or selfish objects. His
+lot was cast in almost revolutionary times, and he was called upon to
+reign at an age when few men are capable of shaking off old prejudices,
+yet he deserved well of his people in supporting the ministry of Grey
+through all the stages of the reform movement, in spite of his own
+declared sympathies, but in deference to his own conviction of paramount
+obligation under the laws of the land. He was quite as liberal in
+opinions as Peel, whose hearty interest in the poorer classes he fully
+shared, and far more liberal than the tory majority in the house of
+lords. Great he certainly was not, and he never affected the royal
+dignity which partially concealed the littleness of his predecessor. But
+in honesty and simplicity he was no unworthy son of George III., and the
+greater pliability of his nature contributed, at least, to make the
+seven years of his reign more fruitful in reforms than all the sixty
+years during which the old king occupied the throne of England.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[130] The king to Peel (Feb. 22, 1835), Parker, _Sir Robert Peel_, ii.,
+287-89.
+
+[131] See Melbourne's letters to Brougham, _Melbourne Papers_, pp.
+257-64.
+
+[132] The abuses in the Scottish municipalities had, however, been
+already removed by an act conferring the municipal franchise on £10
+householders. Not the least important result of this act was the
+increased strength which it gave to the "evangelical" party in the
+general assembly of the Church of Scotland, which was partly elected by
+the municipalities.
+
+[133] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 470.
+
+[134] Campbell, _Lives of the Chancellors_, viii., 476.
+
+[135] _Annual Register_, lxxviii. (1836), p. 244
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XVIII.
+
+ FOREIGN RELATIONS UNDER WILLIAM IV.
+
+
+In 1830 the closing months of Wellington's administration were disturbed
+by the French and Belgian revolutions. The former of these was
+occasioned by the publication on July 25 of three ordinances,
+restricting the liberty of the press, dissolving the chambers, and
+amending the law of elections. The Parisian populace rose against this
+infringement of the constitution. In the course of a three days'
+street-fight (the 27th to the 29th) the troops were driven out of Paris.
+On the 30th a few members of the chambers, who had continued in session,
+invited Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, to assume the office of
+lieutenant-general of the kingdom, and he was proclaimed on the
+following day. On August 7 the chamber of deputies offered him the
+crown, which he accepted, and on the 9th he was proclaimed "King of the
+French". On the 2nd Charles X. and the dauphin had renounced their
+rights in favour of the young Duke of Bordeaux, and on the 16th they
+sailed from Cherbourg to England. The change of dynasty was accompanied
+by a transference to the _bourgeoisie_ of such political influence as
+had hitherto belonged to the clergy and _noblesse_. It remained to be
+seen whether it would also be accompanied by a change of foreign policy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RECOGNITION OF LOUIS PHILIPPE._]
+
+The new French revolution occasioned no slight perturbation in the
+European courts. To say nothing of the fear of the precedent being
+followed in other lands, there was no longer any guarantee that France
+would respect the arrangements effected by the treaties of Vienna and
+Paris. Austria, Prussia, and Russia agreed not to recognise Louis
+Philippe, and entered into a convention for mutual aid in the event of
+French aggression. Aberdeen, the British foreign secretary, declared
+that the time had come for applying the treaty of Chaumont, which, as
+extended at Paris, pledged Great Britain and the three eastern powers to
+act together in case fresh revolution and usurpation in France should
+endanger the repose of other states. Wellington, however, saw that the
+cause of the elder Bourbon line was hopeless, and held now, as in 1815,
+that if France was not to menace the peace of Europe, her political
+position must be one with which she could be contented. He considered
+that the arguments which justified the admission of France to the
+councils of the powers at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 applied with no less
+cogency to the government of Louis Philippe than to that of Louis XVIII.
+He therefore determined to acknowledge the new French government at an
+early date after the notification of its assumption of power. Nor were
+the other powers slow in taking the same course. It is true that
+Metternich suggested a closer bond between Austria, Prussia, and Russia,
+partly to restore amicable relations between Austria and Russia, partly
+to oppose any possible designs of France on Italy. Prussia, fearing war,
+resisted the proposal, and preferred to draw France into a guarantee of
+the _status quo_ by recognising Louis Philippe. Russia was last of the
+great powers to acknowledge the new _régime_ in France, and she only did
+so on condition that the powers should hold the French king responsible
+for the execution of the international engagements of the fallen
+dynasty. Louis Philippe was certainly not the man wilfully to embroil
+France in a war with her neighbours, and, had he been independent of
+French public opinion, there would have been no reason to fear French
+aggression.
+
+The state which had most to fear from an aggressive France was the new
+kingdom of the Netherlands. Trusting for protection to the great powers
+rather than to its own forces, the Netherlands government had adopted a
+system which left it almost entirely without troops except during the
+military exercises of September and October. Wellington, who knew the
+pacific character of the new French government, advised the garrisoning
+of certain isolated points on the frontier, but thought no further
+preparation necessary. A few weeks were however to prove that the new
+French revolution had aroused a more implacable enemy, against whom the
+house of Orange would have needed all the troops it could summon to its
+aid. The union of Holland and Belgium had been resolved on by the
+powers at Paris in 1814, mainly for military reasons. Austria had been
+unwilling to resume the heavy burden of guarding the Belgian Netherlands
+and southern Germany against French aggression, and the powers had
+consequently resolved on strengthening those smaller states on whom the
+duty of resistance would fall. In these days, accustomed as we are to
+the distinction between the Teutonic and Latin races, it might seem
+reasonable that two countries in which the prevailing languages are low
+German should be subject to the same government. But it was not yet
+customary to turn the principles of comparative philology into arguments
+for the rearrangement of political boundaries. The French language and
+culture had moreover made considerable progress among the upper and
+middle classes of Belgium, while religious differences alienated the
+clergy from the house of Orange. In the states-general of the
+Netherlands the Dutch had half the votes, and, as the Orange party was
+strong in Antwerp and Ghent, commanded a majority. The fiscal system
+adopted by the government favoured the Dutch rather than the Belgian
+population. Dutchmen were generally preferred for state offices, and an
+attempt to control the education of the clergy was deeply resented as an
+attack on the Roman catholic religion. Belgium in consequence presented
+the curious spectacle of the liberal and clerical parties working on the
+same side, united against the Dutch government.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIAN REVOLUTION._]
+
+The example afforded by France turned a discontent which might have led
+to local riots into a national conflagration. On August 25 there was a
+rising of the populace at Brussels, which the troops proved unable to
+quell. On the 27th it was suppressed by a body of burgher guards, a
+volunteer force drawn from the _bourgeoisie_ of the town. The
+_bourgeoisie_ finding themselves in possession of the Belgian capital,
+at first presented a series of minor demands to the king, but on
+September 3 they went the length of demanding a separate administration
+for Belgium. The king undertook to lay this proposal before the states,
+which assembled on the 13th. But before the states could come to any
+conclusion the question had assumed a new aspect. All the leading towns
+of Belgium had followed the example of Brussels by forming burgher
+guards and had thus joined in the revolution; and on the 20th a fresh
+rising of the populace of Brussels had overthrown the burgher guard and
+instituted a provisional government. This was followed by an attempt on
+the part of Prince Frederick of Orange, a younger son of the King of the
+Netherlands, to occupy Brussels with a military force. After five days'
+fighting he was compelled to retire, and when on the 30th the
+states-general gave their consent to the proposal for a separate
+administration, their decision fell upon deaf ears. All the Belgian
+provinces were in revolt.
+
+It was now clear to everybody that the national party in Belgium would
+not consent even to a personal union with Holland. As the union of the
+two countries formed a part of the treaty of Vienna, every European
+power had a legal right to employ force to prevent its disruption, and
+Russia and Prussia both desired active intervention. In France, on the
+other hand, there was a loud popular demand for the reannexation of
+Belgium to France, of which it had formed a part from 1794 to 1814.
+Louis Philippe saw that he could not resist this demand if the Belgian
+insurgents were coerced on the side of Prussia, and therefore announced
+that Prussian aggression would be met by a French expedition to Belgium
+to keep the balance even, until the question should be settled by a
+congress of the powers. On September 25 Talleyrand had arrived in
+England. He quickly obtained the adhesion of Wellington to the principle
+of non-intervention. The duke had been among the first to grasp the fact
+that reconciliation of Dutch and Belgians was impossible, and that the
+intervention of the powers would necessitate a European war, to avoid
+which the union of the two countries had originally been designed. He
+agreed therefore to a separation of the countries on condition that
+France should bind herself to observe the arrangements of the congress
+of Vienna in 1815 and should take no separate action in Belgium.
+
+On Talleyrand's suggestion it was decided to refer the question to the
+conference already sitting in London for the purpose of settling the
+Greek question, which would of course have to be reinforced by
+representatives of Austria and Prussia for the present purpose. Molé,
+the French foreign minister, would have preferred Paris as the seat of
+the congress, but the King of the Netherlands absolutely refused to
+entrust his cause to a conference meeting in a city where opinion ran so
+strongly against him. On October 5 he made a formal appeal to the
+powers for the aid guaranteed him by treaty, but the demand came too
+late to induce Wellington to swerve from the policy of non-intervention,
+and on November 4 the conference of London began its labours by
+proposing an armistice in Belgium, which was accepted by both parties.
+This left Maastricht and the citadel of Antwerp in the hands of Dutch
+garrisons, and Luxemburg in the hands of a garrison supplied by the
+German confederation. Every other place in Belgium was in the hands of
+the insurgents. But the further solution of the question was reserved
+for other hands. On the 3rd Louis Philippe was compelled to accept a
+revolutionary ministry, and on the 22nd Wellington and Aberdeen had to
+make way for a whig ministry with Grey as premier, and Palmerston as
+foreign secretary.
+
+The new foreign secretary had served a long political apprenticeship as
+secretary at war in the successive administrations of Perceval,
+Liverpool, Canning, Goderich, and Wellington, and under the three
+last-mentioned premiers he had enjoyed a seat in the cabinet. It will be
+remembered that he had been a warm champion of Greece, and had resigned
+office along with Huskisson, Dudley, and Grant. He now returned in
+company with Grant as a member of a whig cabinet. Although this change
+of party involved the adoption of a domestic policy far removed from
+Canning's, Palmerston's foreign policy remained rather Canningite than
+whig. The interest and the honour of England ranked with Palmerston as
+with Canning before all questions which concerned the maintenance of
+European peace. But instead of Canning's versatile diplomacy he
+displayed too often a reckless disregard of the susceptibilities of
+foreign governments, and, if, like Canning, he lent the moral support of
+Great Britain to the liberal party in every continental country, it was
+not, as it had professedly been with Canning, because their success
+would promote the interests of Great Britain, but because he had a
+genuine sympathy with their cause. It is impossible to deny that in his
+earlier years at least Palmerston's policy met with a success such as
+Castlereagh and Wellington had not attempted to gain; real or imaginary
+dangers at home left the foreign governments too weak to oppose the will
+of the one strong man of the moment. Yet it is doubtful whether any
+resultant benefits were not more than counterbalanced by the distrust
+and ill-will with which the greater nations of Europe have learned to
+regard the British government and people.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROPOSED DIVISION OF THE NETHERLANDS._]
+
+During the first few weeks of the new administration, the Belgian
+question advanced far towards a settlement. On November 10 a Belgian
+national congress assembled at Brussels; on the 18th it voted the
+independence of Belgium; on the 22nd it resolved that the new state
+should be a constitutional monarchy, and on the 24th it proclaimed the
+total exclusion of the house of Nassau. Finally the outbreak of a Polish
+insurrection at Warsaw made it clear that Prussia and Russia would be
+too busily occupied in the east to be able to interfere effectively in
+the Belgian question. On December 20 a protocol was signed at London by
+the representatives of the five powers, providing for the separation of
+Belgium from Holland. When however the protocol was sent to the tsar for
+ratification, he would only ratify it subject to the condition that its
+execution should depend on the consent of the King of the Netherlands.
+Meanwhile the London conference was engaged in settling the boundary of
+the new kingdom. For the most part it went on the principle of leaving
+to Holland the districts that had belonged to the United Provinces
+before the wars of the French revolution. The remainder of the kingdom
+of the Netherlands, consisting chiefly of the former Austrian
+Netherlands, but including also territories which had belonged to
+France, Prussia, the Palatinate, the bishopric of Liège, and some minor
+ecclesiastical states, was assigned to Belgium. An exception was,
+however, made in the case of the grand duchy of Luxemburg. Luxemburg was
+reputed to be, next to Gibraltar, the strongest fortress in Europe. It
+was regarded as the key to the lower Rhine; it formed a part of the
+German confederation, and was garrisoned by German troops. Although
+Holland had no historical claim to its possession, the treaty of Vienna
+granted it to the Dutch branch of the house of Nassau, as compensation
+for its former possessions, merged in the duchy of Nassau; and it was
+now felt that a place so important to the safety of Germany could not
+safely be handed over to a state which seemed likely to fall under
+French influence. The powers therefore determined that this duchy should
+continue to belong to the king of the Netherlands.
+
+There was also some difficulty over the apportionment of the debt.
+Belgium was the more populous and the richer of the two countries, but
+the greater part of the debt had been contracted by Holland before the
+union. Belgium was, however, already responsible for its share of the
+whole debt, and the powers can hardly be accused of injustice when they
+determined to divide the debt in the proportion in which the
+debt-charges had been borne in the three previous years, assigning
+sixteen thirty-firsts to Belgium, and fifteen thirty-firsts to Holland.
+Belgium was moreover to possess the right of trading with the Dutch
+colonies and to contribute towards their defence. These provisions were
+embodied in two protocols which were issued at London on January 20 and
+27, 1831. As compared with the _status quo_ the Dutch were slightly the
+gainers. The protocol permitted them to keep Maastricht and Luxemburg,
+but required them to abandon the citadel of Antwerp; while the Belgians
+were required to surrender those less important places which they had
+occupied in Dutch Limburg and in the grand duchy of Luxemburg.
+Talleyrand considered the present a favourable opportunity for claiming
+for France the cession of Mariembourg and Philippeville which she had
+been compelled to surrender to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815.
+Palmerston, however, absolutely refused to hear of any extension of
+French territory, for fear of imperilling the security of Europe. The
+two protocols were accepted by Holland on February 13 but rejected by
+Belgium. Though Talleyrand had signed the protocol of January 20, it was
+repudiated by Sébastiani, the French foreign minister, on the ground
+that the object of the conference was to effect a mediation, not to
+dictate a settlement.
+
+[Pageheading: _BELGIUM CHOOSES A KING._]
+
+Meanwhile the national congress at Brussels had attempted to elect a
+king. At first the most favoured candidate was Auguste Beauharnais, Duke
+of Leuchtenberg, the grandson of Napoleon's first consort. Louis
+Philippe naturally objected to the establishment on his frontier of a
+prince so closely connected with the house of Bonaparte. The pliant
+Belgians accordingly transferred their preference to the Duke of
+Nemours, the second son of Louis Philippe. It was in vain that
+Sébastiani declared that France could not allow such a selection, as it
+would be interpreted by the powers as evidence of a French design to
+reincorporate Belgium in France. On February 3, 1831, the Duke of
+Nemours was actually elected king by the Belgian national congress. But
+the conference of London had, two days earlier, adopted a resolution,
+excluding from the Belgian throne all members of the reigning dynasties
+of the five powers. Still there was a strong party in France, including
+Laffitte, the revolutionary premier, who advocated the claims of
+Nemours. Louis Philippe, however, stood firm on the side of European
+peace, and on the 17th definitively declined the crown offered to his
+son. The French now recommended the Prince of Naples, but the Belgians
+declined to accept him, and on the 25th the national congress appointed
+a regent to hold office till a king should be elected. On March 13 the
+accession to office of an anti-revolutionary ministry in France rendered
+the complete co-operation of the powers easier.
+
+On April 17 France declared her adhesion to the protocol of January 20,
+and by a new protocol the other four powers consented to the demolition
+of some of the Belgian fortresses on the French frontier. Another
+protocol of the same date ordered the Belgians to evacuate the grand
+duchy of Luxemburg. On May 10 a further protocol even threatened Belgium
+with the rupture of diplomatic relations in case she did not by June I
+accept the protocol of January 20. But the powers soon adopted a more
+conciliatory attitude. France and Great Britain desired that Prince
+Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who in the previous year had resigned the crown
+of Greece, should now be offered that of Belgium. Prince Leopold would
+not accept the crown so long as Belgium continued to defy the powers,
+and on the other hand there was no chance of securing his election by
+the Belgian congress unless he undertook to maintain the Belgian claim
+to the possession of Luxemburg. Lord Ponsonby, the British minister at
+Brussels, succeeded in inducing the London conference to sign a new
+protocol, undertaking to negotiate with Holland for the cession of
+Luxemburg to Belgium, in return for an indemnity elsewhere, provided
+that Belgium should first accept the protocol of January 20. The Belgian
+congress gathered that the acceptance of Prince Leopold was regarded by
+the powers as more important than the maintenance of the terms of that
+protocol, and they accordingly elected him as their king on June 4
+without accepting the protocol. In answer to Dutch complaints Ponsonby
+and General Belliard, the French minister, were recalled from Brussels
+as the protocol of May 10 required. Leopold refused to accept the crown
+until the conference should have offered better terms, and on the 26th
+the conference signed another protocol, which differed from that of
+January 20 in that it left the Luxemburg question open for future
+negotiation, and rendered Holland liable for the whole of the debt that
+it had incurred before the union of the two countries. On the same day
+Leopold accepted the Belgian crown. The Belgian congress accepted this
+last protocol on July 7, and on the 21st Leopold was proclaimed king,
+and immediately recognised by Great Britain and France. The other great
+powers were not long in following their example.
+
+It was now Holland's turn to feel aggrieved. She refused to recognise
+the changes proposed by the powers in the terms which she had already
+accepted. On May 21 she had declared that if the protocol of January 20
+were not accepted by June 1 she would consider herself free to act on
+her own account, and on July 12 that the acceptance in Belgium of a king
+who had not agreed to that protocol would be an act of hostility.
+Feeling herself betrayed by the conference she gave notice on August 1
+that the armistice which had existed since the previous November would
+terminate on the 4th. It was soon seen how much Holland had lost in the
+preceding year by being found in a state of military unpreparedness.
+When hostilities began the Dutch carried everything before them. On the
+8th the Belgians were routed at Hasselt, and on the 13th Leopold in
+person was compelled to surrender Louvain. But Holland was now arrested
+in the full tide of her success. The opportunity that French patriots
+had long desired had presented itself, and Louis Philippe would only
+have endangered his own throne if he had failed to come to the
+assistance of Belgium against Holland. On the 4th he received Leopold's
+appeal for assistance; on the 12th the first French division reached
+Brussels, and on the following day the Prince of Orange, who led the
+main Dutch army, received orders from the Hague to retire within the
+Dutch frontier.
+
+[Pageheading: _COERCION OF HOLLAND._]
+
+The conference had in fact found it necessary to join in measures of
+coercion. On the first news of the outbreak of hostilities it severely
+reproached Holland for the breach of the armistice, and ordered the
+Dutch forces to retire. By a protocol of the 6th it accepted and
+justified the French expedition, which, it knew, could not safely be
+recalled, and tried to minimise the danger by forbidding the French to
+cross the Dutch frontier and requiring them to return to France as soon
+as the Dutch should return to Holland. At the same time a semblance of
+joint action was created by the despatch of a British fleet to the
+Downs. If the Dutch invasion of Belgium created excitement in France,
+the French expedition had a similar effect in England, and Palmerston
+found it necessary to insist sternly on the immediate evacuation of
+Belgium upon the withdrawal of the Dutch troops. The French government
+naturally desired to point to some tangible triumph of French arms, and
+requested that the troops should be allowed to remain till the frontier
+fortresses should have been demolished in accordance with the protocol
+of April 17. In a somewhat insulting message Palmerston threatened a
+general war sooner than allow the French troops to remain. The most that
+France could obtain was that 12,000 men might remain a fortnight longer
+than the rest and that a number of French officers might enlist in the
+Belgian service.
+
+The conference now returned to the task of effecting a settlement in
+accordance with the terms of the protocol of June 26. On October 15 it
+provided for the partition of the grand duchy of Luxemburg between
+Holland and Belgium and for the indemnification of Holland with a larger
+portion of Limburg than had belonged to her in 1790. At the same time
+provision was made for the freedom of the Scheldt, and the debt was
+reassessed, 8,400,000 florins of _rentes_[136] being assigned to Belgium
+and 19,300,000 to Holland. Along with this protocol a letter was sent to
+the Belgian plenipotentiary, promising that if Belgium accepted it, the
+powers would undertake to obtain the consent of Holland. The protocol
+was converted into a treaty by the adhesion of Belgium on November 15.
+Meanwhile the King of the Netherlands had appealed to the tsar against
+the action of the western powers and of the Russian plenipotentiaries at
+London, and the tsar had in consequence refused to ratify the treaty
+till the King of the Netherlands should have given his consent. That
+consent was slow in coming. It was only on June 30, 1832, that Holland
+agreed to the exchange of territories and the reduction of Belgium's
+share of the debt, and even then questions remained as to the dues on
+the Scheldt and the transit of goods through Dutch Limburg. The Belgians
+refused to negotiate further until the citadel of Antwerp should be
+surrendered; the Dutch on the other hand refused to surrender it till a
+definite treaty should be signed and ratified. On October 1 France, with
+the approval of the British government, proposed to suspend the payment
+of the Belgian share of the interest on the debt until the citadel of
+Antwerp should be surrendered, and to deduct from the share of the
+principal payable by Belgium, 500,000 florins of _rentes_ for each week
+that should elapse before the surrender. The three eastern powers
+refused to agree to any coercion of Holland, and, in consequence, Great
+Britain and France determined to act alone.
+
+On the 22nd they signed a convention providing for the coercion of
+Holland by an embargo and by the despatch of a squadron to the Dutch
+coast. If any Dutch troops should be still in Belgium on November 15, a
+French force was empowered, subject to the consent of the Belgian
+government, to advance into Belgium and expel the Dutch troops from the
+country. The French were, however, to retire as soon as the Dutch
+evacuation was complete. The first result of this convention was the
+suspension of the conference. On the 29th the two powers made their
+demand. As the Dutch refused compliance, a joint French and British
+fleet sailed on November 4 to blockade the Scheldt, and the embargo was
+proclaimed on the 6th. On the 15th a French army of 56,000 men,
+commanded by Gérard, entered Belgium. On December 4 it opened fire on
+the citadel of Antwerp, which surrendered after a nineteen days'
+bombardment on the 23rd. The French army returned to its own country
+before the end of the year, leaving the Dutch in possession of two small
+forts on the Belgian side of the frontier, which were more than
+compensated by the positions held by the Belgians in Dutch Limburg. Even
+the fall of the citadel of Antwerp did not induce Holland to accept the
+settlement proposed by the powers, and Great Britain and France now
+attempted to effect a working agreement pending negotiations on the
+details of the treaty. It was in vain that Holland asked that Belgium
+should evacuate the Dutch provinces of Limburg and Luxemburg and pay
+her share of the interest on the Dutch debt. Palmerston and Talleyrand
+refused to include these provisions in a preliminary convention. Finally
+on March 21, 1833, a convention was signed between Great Britain,
+France, and Holland, which terminated the embargo and provided for the
+free navigation of the Scheldt and Maas. A similar convention was signed
+between Holland and Belgium on November 18. Six years, however, were to
+elapse before the Dutch government would consent to the conditions drawn
+up by the powers in 1831. Meanwhile the Belgians were free from their
+share of debt, held the greater part of Limburg and Luxemburg, and
+enjoyed the free navigation of the Maas and the Scheldt, over and above
+the terms granted them in 1831.
+
+[Pageheading: _POLISH REBELLION._]
+
+It is inconceivable that the Belgian question should have been left so
+entirely in the hands of the two western powers, and that the settlement
+should have taken the form of a foreign coercion of a legitimate king
+for his unreadiness to make concessions to his revolted subjects, had
+not the attention of the three absolutist powers of eastern and central
+Europe been directed to another quarter. Just as the revolution of 1820
+had spread through southern Europe in spite of Castlereagh's attempt to
+maintain that it was not of a contagious order, so that of 1830 awakened
+similar outbursts not only at Brussels but in various German states, in
+Switzerland, in Poland, and in Italy. The Polish insurrection was, like
+the Belgian, a national revolt, and the consequent military operations
+were of the nature of a war between Poland and Russia. The revolt broke
+out at Warsaw on November 29, 1830, and on January 25, 1831, the Polish
+diet proclaimed the independence of Poland. On February 5 a Russian army
+crossed the Polish frontier. In France there was a loud popular demand
+for intervention. But even the Laffitte ministry would not move without
+the co-operation of Great Britain, though the French ambassador at
+Constantinople tried to stir up the Porte to hostilities. The ministry
+of Casimir-Perier, which came into office in March, proposed a joint
+mediation of France and Great Britain, but to this Palmerston would not
+assent. He remonstrated with Russia on her violations of the Polish
+constitution, which Great Britain, along with the other powers, had
+guaranteed at the congress of Vienna, but he could not support the
+Polish claim to independence, since Great Britain had made herself a
+party to the union of the two countries. As it happened, the
+remonstrance was simply a cause of annoyance, which subsequent events
+were destined to intensify. It was only on September 8, 1831, that the
+Russians under Paskievitch captured Warsaw, an event which was followed
+on February 26, 1832, by the abolition of the Polish constitution.
+Palmerston protested again but with no more success than in the previous
+year.
+
+[Pageheading: _DOM MIGUEL AND DON CARLOS._]
+
+In the Portuguese, as in the Belgian question, Palmerston drifted from
+the position of a neutral into that of a partisan. Ever since the year
+1828, British subjects accused of political offences had been brutally
+ill-treated in Portugal, and as time went on the excesses increased. By
+despatching six British warships to the Tagus Palmerston succeeded in
+obtaining a pecuniary indemnity and a public apology on May 2, 1831.
+Similar insults to France were not so readily redressed. A threat of
+force on the part of the French government was followed by an appeal
+from Dom Miguel for British assistance. This Palmerston refused to
+grant, and in July a French squadron under Admiral Roussin forced the
+passage of the Tagus, and carried off the best ships of the Portuguese
+navy. Meanwhile much irritation had been caused in Brazil by Peter's
+advocacy of his daughter's claim to Portugal, which was considered
+inconsistent with his professed adherence to the separation of the two
+countries. On April 6, Peter abdicated the crown of Brazil in favour of
+his infant son, Peter II., and on the following day sailed for Europe in
+order to assert his daughter's right to the Portuguese throne. He
+arrived in Europe towards the end of May, and visited both England and
+France.
+
+Though neither government assisted him directly, he was permitted to
+raise troops and even to secure the services of naval officers, and in
+December a force of 300 men sailed from Liverpool to Belleisle, which he
+had appointed as the rendezvous. Palmerston had thus, unlike Wellington,
+adopted the same attitude towards the Portuguese liberals that Ferdinand
+VII. had adopted towards the absolutists. Peter's expedition gathered
+further strength at the Azores and sailed for Portugal on June 27, 1832.
+On July 8, the fleet, commanded by Admiral Sartorius, a British officer,
+appeared off Oporto, which submitted on the following day. The town was,
+however, blockaded by Miguel's forces and Peter's cause made no headway
+until in June, 1833, the command of the fleet was transferred to Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Charles) Napier. On the night of June 24, he
+landed at Villa Real a force of 2,500 men who conquered the province of
+Algarve in a week, and on July 5 he annihilated Miguel's navy in an
+engagement off Cape St. Vincent. After a further battle near Lisbon,
+Peter's forces entered the capital on the 24th, and subsequently
+repulsed a Miguelite attack upon the city. Miguel still held out in
+northern Portugal, when another train of events caused the western
+powers to substitute direct for indirect interference.
+
+Ferdinand VII. of Spain had fallen so entirely under the influence of
+his fourth and last queen, Maria Christina of Naples, as to repeal by a
+pragmatic sanction the Salic law which the treaty of Utrecht had
+established as the rule of succession in Spain. The result of this edict
+was to leave the succession to his infant daughter Isabella instead of
+his brother Don Carlos, the leader of the Spanish absolutists. When
+Ferdinand died on September 29, 1833, Don Carlos was absent from the
+kingdom, supporting the cause of his fellow-pretender Dom Miguel.
+Isabella received the hearty support of the constitutional party and was
+almost universally acknowledged as queen. It was only in Biscay, where
+the centralising tendency of the Spanish constitution, published on
+April 10, 1834, seemed to entrench upon local liberty, that Don Carlos
+met with much active support. His cause, like that of Miguel in
+Portugal, was the more popular, but his adherents were as yet almost
+entirely devoid of organisation. Peter's partisans had already made
+substantial progress towards a complete victory, and Santha Martha, the
+Miguelite commander-in-chief, had surrendered in the beginning of April,
+when on April 22 a triple alliance, already signed between Great
+Britain, Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, and Peter, as regent of
+Portugal, was converted into a quadruple alliance by the adhesion of
+France. This treaty provided for the co-operation of Spain and Portugal
+to expel Dom Miguel and Don Carlos from the Portuguese dominions. Great
+Britain was to assist by the employment of a naval force, and France was
+to render assistance, if required, in such manner as should be settled
+afterwards by common consent of the four contracting powers. The Spanish
+general, Rodil, immediately crossed the frontier. He met with no
+resistance, and on May 26 Miguel signed a convention at Evora, by which
+he accepted a pension, renounced his rights to the Portuguese throne,
+and agreed to quit the country.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE CARLIST WAR._]
+
+Don Carlos, however, refused to renounce his rights to the Spanish
+throne, and all that the British navy could do was to convey the two
+pretenders, Carlos to England and Miguel to Genoa. Although Miguel, on
+June 20, repudiated his abdication, the Portuguese question was really
+at an end. The Spanish question was, however, merely entering on its
+critical stage. Don Carlos secretly left London on July 1, and nine days
+later appeared at the Carlist headquarters in Spain. Here he had the
+assistance of the ablest general of this war, Zumalacarregui.
+Melbourne's succession to the premiership in July left Palmerston at the
+foreign office, and was followed by no change in foreign policy. On
+August 18 an additional article to the quadruple alliance provided that
+France was to prevent reinforcements or warlike stores from reaching Don
+Carlos from the French side of the frontier, while Great Britain was to
+supply arms and stores to the Spanish royalists and, if necessary,
+intervene with a naval force. The short interlude of conservative
+government, with Peel as premier and Wellington as foreign secretary,
+was not marked by any change of policy nor yet by any new aggressions.
+Wellington's only interference with the course of hostilities was the
+mission of Lord Eliot to Navarre, which induced the combatants to
+abandon for the time being those cruelties to prisoners which had been
+the disgrace of the Spanish civil wars.
+
+Shortly after the return of Melbourne and Palmerston to power,
+Zumalacarregui won a victory in the valley of Amascoas on April 21 and
+22, 1835, which opened to him the road to Madrid. The Madrid government
+now appealed to France to send 12,000 men to occupy the Basque
+provinces. By the terms of the quadruple alliance the assent of Great
+Britain and Portugal was necessary in order to determine the manner in
+which France was to render assistance. Thiers, on behalf of Louis
+Philippe, suggested a separate French expedition on the lines of that of
+1823. Palmerston, like Canning before him, refused to sanction such an
+expedition, though he was prepared to allow France to make the
+expedition on her own responsibility. He suggested in return that Great
+Britain should intervene. But Louis Philippe was equally opposed to the
+separate action of his own country and of Great Britain, and the result
+was that neither government sent any troops. The Spanish government was,
+however, permitted to enlist volunteers, and actually received the
+assistance of an English legion, a French legion, and 6,000 Portuguese.
+The immediate danger was averted by the obstinacy of Don Carlos, who
+refused to permit Zumalacarregui to march on Madrid till the conquest of
+Biscay was complete. The Carlist general turned aside in consequence to
+the siege of Bilbao, in which a few weeks later he met his death.
+
+In February, 1836, some changes in the French ministry increased the
+power of Thiers, who had so recently advocated the policy of
+intervention. Palmerston now proposed a French expedition to the Basque
+provinces, while the British were to occupy St. Sebastian and Pasages.
+Thiers did not, however, feel strong enough to accept this offer, and
+Palmerston determined to act alone. A British squadron under Lord John
+Hay was despatched to the Spanish coast with instructions to assist the
+royalist forces. This squadron is probably entitled to the principal
+share in the credit for the successful resistance of Bilbao to the
+Carlist armies. In May, however, a conservative government entered upon
+office in Spain, and France became more ready to grant assistance.
+Isturiz, the new Spanish premier, persuaded Louis Philippe to send some
+troops to Spain; but by leaning on foreign support Isturiz had
+overreached himself. Spanish indignation found vent in a revolutionary
+movement, accompanied by bloodshed; one town after another declared for
+the constitution of 1812, which the queen-regent was forced to sign on
+August 13, and on the following day a progressist ministry was installed
+in office. Austria, Prussia, and Russia withdrew their ambassadors from
+Madrid after the riots of the 13th, and Louis Philippe recalled the
+forces he had sent to the assistance of the Spanish government. Had Don
+Carlos listened to the advice of the eastern powers and given such
+assurances as might have won over the more moderate of Isabella's
+supporters, he would probably have proved successful. As it was the war
+dragged on, but De Lacy Evans, who was in command of the British legion,
+left Spain on June 10, 1837, and most of his men followed soon after.
+The question of intervention had, however, put an end to that cordial
+co-operation of Great Britain and France which had existed ever since
+the July revolution, and left Great Britain as isolated in the counsels
+of Europe as she had been when Canning and Wellington dissociated
+themselves from the other powers at Verona.
+
+The settlement of the Greek question proceeded very slowly. While the
+powers were seeking a possible king, Capodistrias exercised an
+autocratic sway as president. However, in the spring of 1831, the
+Mainots of southern Laconia and the Hydriots revolted against him, and
+got possession of the Greek fleet. Capodistrias appealed to Russia for
+assistance, and a Russian squadron was sent to blockade the Greek fleet
+at Poros. But Miaoulis, the Greek admiral, sank his ships in order to
+save them from the Russians. The situation was simplified by the
+assassination of Capodistrias on October 9, which left two rival
+national assemblies struggling for the mastery. The French troops failed
+to maintain order, and the way was clear for a king who would have the
+prestige of an international treaty and an independent revenue to
+support his position. This was the situation when on February 13, 1832,
+a protocol was signed at London, offering the Greek crown to Otto, the
+second son of King Lewis of Bavaria, a boy of seventeen. The boundary
+was to be fixed where Palmerston, while still a member of the Wellington
+administration, had wished to fix it, along a line running from the Gulf
+of Arta to that of Volo. King Lewis would not, however, agree to accept
+the crown for his son unless he should be granted the title of king,
+instead of prince, and should be guaranteed a loan to enable him to meet
+the expenses of his position. On May 7, 1832, the London protocol was
+embodied in a treaty of London; the crown was definitely conferred on
+Otto, who was given the title of king, guaranteed a loan, not exceeding
+£2,400,000, and allowed to take out 3,500 Bavarian troops with him. The
+Turkish consent to the proposed boundary was given on July 21; Greece
+accepted the treaty in August, and the new king left for his kingdom in
+December.[137]
+
+[Pageheading: _VICTORIES OF IBRAHIM._]
+
+Greece now disappears from the eastern question. But Ibrahim Pasha,
+whose successes in Greece had induced Canning to interfere, had already
+disclosed a new phase of that question by successes gained in another
+quarter. Mehemet Ali had quickly repaired the losses which his fleet and
+army had sustained in the Peloponnese. Meanwhile he demanded from
+Sultan Mahmud that Ibrahim should be compensated with a part of Syria
+for the loss of the Morea, which had been promised him as a reward for
+his services in Greece. The sultan refused to grant this insolent
+demand, and Mehemet Ali determined to conquer the province for himself.
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, had taken under his protection some fugitive
+peasants, and Mehemet Ali, in spite of the sultan's prohibition, sent
+Ibrahim with an army of 30,000 men against him. He laid siege to Acre on
+December 9, 1831, and took it on May 27, 1832. On July 8 he routed a
+Turkish army at Homs; on the 29th he routed a larger army at the pass of
+Beilan, and on the 31st he entered Antioch. In November he was at
+Konieh. The Tsar Nicholas had, with Palmerston's approval, already sent
+Lieutenant-General Muraviov on a mission to Constantinople, offering
+military and naval support; but the sultan preferred to seek British
+assistance first.
+
+Unfortunately the message came at a time when the British fleet was
+preparing to blockade the coasts of the Netherlands, and could not be
+spared for service In the Mediterranean. An appeal to France was equally
+unsuccessful. She had by this time formed the siege of the citadel of
+Antwerp, and was moreover naturally averse from a struggle with Ibrahim,
+whose army had been organised and trained by French officers. The sultan
+therefore decided to avail himself of the offers made by Russia. Indeed
+he had no choice, for the news now came that on December 21 Ibrahim had
+completely defeated the Turkish general, Reshid, at Konieh and that
+there was no army between him and Constantinople. Muraviov was sent on a
+vain mission to Alexandria with authority to cede Acre to Mehemet Ali if
+he would surrender his fleet to the sultan. Ibrahim advanced to Kiutayeh
+and his advance-guard came as far as Broussa. The sultan on February 2,
+1833, requested the assistance of the Russian navy, and on the 20th a
+Russian squadron appeared at Constantinople.
+
+The powers that had refused to move to save Turkey from Ibrahim were
+quick enough to interfere when the danger was from Russia and not from
+an oriental. Ibrahim might have been expected to make a stronger ruler
+than the sultan, whose fall seemed imminent. A Russian protectorate was
+a different matter. Roussin, the French ambassador at Constantinople,
+protested against the Russian alliance and threatened to leave
+Constantinople. A French envoy was, at his suggestion, permitted to
+offer Mehemet the governorship of the Syrian pashaliks of Tripoli and
+Acre. On March 8 Mehemet rejected these terms, and declared that if his
+own terms were not accepted within six weeks his troops would march upon
+Constantinople. The sultan then turned to Russia again and asked for
+troops. Fifteen thousand Russians were in consequence landed on the
+shores of the Bosphorus, and in the beginning of April an army of
+24,000, which had remained in Moldavia ever since the war of 1828-29,
+prepared to march southwards. Constantinople at least was thus rendered
+safe from Ibrahim, and there was therefore more hope that Mehemet would
+come to terms. The British, French, and Austrian ambassadors spared no
+effort to induce the Porte to offer terms that might be accepted, and
+their representations were probably rendered the more persuasive by the
+appearance of British and French fleets in the Ægean. Roussin especially
+urged that it was better to surrender Syria than to reconquer it by
+Russian troops. At last the sultan yielded, and on April 10 a peace was
+signed at Kiutayeh, though not ratified by the sultan till May 15. This
+treaty granted to Mehemet Ali Syria and Cilicia, but restored the bulk
+of Asia Minor to the Porte.
+
+[Pageheading: _CONFERENCE OF MÜNCHENGRÄTZ._]
+
+Turkey had been saved by the western powers, but only because they
+dreaded the possibility of her being saved by Russia. A few weeks later
+their worst fears seemed on the point of realisation. The Russian troops
+on the Bosphorus were a sure guarantee of the predominance of Russian
+influence at Constantinople, and this was illustrated in a marked degree
+by the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, signed on July 8, which provided for a
+defensive alliance for eight years between Russia and the Porte. Russia
+was, when required, to provide the sultan with both military and naval
+forces, to be provisioned by him, but otherwise maintained by Russia. A
+secret article, soon made known, provided that Russia would not ask for
+material aid if at war, but that in that event the Porte would close the
+Dardanelles to the warships of other nations. Great Britain had already
+obtained the rights of the most favoured nation, so far as the passage
+of the Dardanelles was concerned, and therefore maintained that the
+treaty did not affect her right to pass those straits; and France
+joined her in presenting identical notes declaring their intention of
+ignoring the treaty in event of war. British public opinion, already
+wounded by the conquest of Poland, was even more vehemently affected
+than British policy. The treaty was regarded as the establishment in
+Turkey of a Russian protectorate, which it was necessary for Great
+Britain to destroy, and the antagonism thus produced has lasted to our
+own day. Matters were not improved when the tsar asked for the cession
+of the Danubian principalities, which were still occupied by Russia, in
+return for a remission of the war indemnity owing since 1829. Austria,
+France, and Great Britain protested against this proposal, and in
+consequence nothing came of it.
+
+Austria then assumed the _rôle_ of mediator. A friendly request for
+explanation elicited a declaration from Russia, disclaiming all
+intention of self-aggrandisement, and promising to accept the mediation
+of Austria in any case where the treaty could be invoked. Austria in
+consequence endeavoured to persuade the western powers that there was no
+immediate danger, and that she would use her mediation to remove any
+danger that might arise. Meanwhile she endeavoured to allay distrust of
+Russia by inducing that power to evacuate the Danubian principalities.
+But before this result could be accomplished the negotiations between
+Austria and Russia had taken a turn which gave Austria, in English eyes,
+the appearance of an accomplice rather than of a mediator. The
+revolutionary movements of 1830 and following years had produced grave
+apprehensions in the minds of the rulers of the three eastern powers,
+Austria, Prussia, and Russia; and the coercion of Holland and Portugal
+caused them to feel a deep distrust of the policy of Great Britain and
+France, and to grasp the necessity of united action against the
+revolutionary forces at work in Europe. For this purpose it was
+considered necessary to revive Metternich's policy of 1820 as defined at
+Troppau. The three powers had for some time been drawing together, and
+in September, 1833, the Emperors Francis and Nicholas and the Crown
+Prince of Prussia met at Münchengrätz in Bohemia, where a secret
+convention was signed on the 18th. They refused to recognise Isabella as
+Queen of Spain in the event of Ferdinand's death; they arranged for
+mutual assistance against the Poles; and agreed to combine to resist
+any change of dynasty in Turkey and any extension of Arab rule into
+Europe. In the event of a collapse of the Ottoman empire, Austria and
+Russia were to act together in settling the reversion. On October 15 the
+three powers signed a further convention at Berlin, containing one
+public and two secret articles. The latter recognised the right, already
+asserted at Troppau, of intervention in the internal affairs of a
+country whose sovereign expressed a desire for foreign assistance. There
+can be little doubt that Austria and Russia were in earnest in their
+professed desire to maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions, but
+an opinion gained ground in England that they had already agreed to
+partition them between themselves.
+
+On January 29, 1834, Austrian mediation bore fruit in a definite treaty
+for the evacuation of the Danubian principalities. Russia merely
+reserved to herself the appointment of the first hospodar of each
+principality. The first act, however, of Alexander Ghika, the new
+hospodar of Wallachia, was to forbid any change of statute without the
+consent of Russia. Silistria alone remained in Russian hands till a
+third part of the indemnity should be paid. The remaining two-thirds
+Russia consented to abandon. A revolt among the Syrian mountaineers gave
+Russia an opportunity of demonstrating her pacific intentions. The
+sultan supported the revolt and also sent troops to conquer Urfa which
+Ibrahim had neglected to surrender. Russia, however, refused to support
+the sultan in an aggressive war, and the powers negotiated a peace. The
+Syrian revolt was quelled, and Urfa surrendered to the sultan. In 1835
+the Tsar Nicholas and the new Austrian emperor, Ferdinand, met at
+Teplitz where they renewed the agreements concluded at Münchengrätz.
+Metternich proposed a conference at Vienna to settle the eastern
+question, but the tsar, who really possessed the decisive voice so long
+as the question remained open, refused to hear of this. Finally in
+September, 1836, the Russian evacuation of Silistria was obtained by a
+payment of 30,000,000 piastres, borrowed, for the most part, in England.
+The Eastern question now seemed to have entered upon a quieter phase,
+and the military reforms which European officers, including Moltke,
+afterwards famous in a different region, were carrying out in Turkey,
+gave promise that she might be able to hold her own in future against
+domestic foes.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[136] The debt was, according to the French practice, expressed in terms
+of the interest payable annually (_rentes_), not in terms of a nominal
+principal as in this country.
+
+[137] Finlay, _History of Greece_, vol. vii., chapters ii., iii.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XIX.
+
+ BRITISH INDIA.
+
+
+When Pitt resigned office in 1801, the Marquis Wellesley had already
+reached the climax, though by no means the close, of his brilliant
+proconsulate. This remarkable man, whose fame has been unduly eclipsed
+by that of his younger brother, may justly be considered the second
+founder of our Indian Empire. This empire, recognised at last, in the
+vote of thanks passed by the house of commons on the fall of
+Seringapatam, was soon to be aggrandised by three important accessions
+of dominion. The first of these was the annexation of the Karnátik on
+the well-founded plea that its nabob was too weak even for the semblance
+of independence, that he was incapable of governing tolerably, and that
+he had been in correspondence with Tipú. The effect of this and two
+minor annexations was to place the entire south-western and
+south-eastern coasts of the Indian peninsula under the British rule. The
+next step was the system of subsidiary treaties, whereby the British
+government assumed a protectorate over native states, providing a fixed
+number of troops for their defence and receiving an equivalent in
+subsidies. The Nizám of Haidarábád was already in a condition little
+removed from vassalage, and now surrendered considerable districts in
+lieu of a pecuniary tribute.
+
+A similar course was taken with the Nawáb Wazír of Oudh whose territory
+was threatened on one side by the Afghán king, Zemán Sháh, and on
+another by the Maráthá lord, Daulat Ráo Sindhia, who had gained
+possession of Delhi. By forcible negotiations Wellesley obtained from
+him the cession of all his frontier provinces, including Rohilkhand, and
+consolidated the power of the Indian government along the whole line of
+the Jumna and Ganges. The last and greatest object of the
+governor-general's ambition was the conquest of the confederate Maráthá
+states, and for this a pretext was not long wanting. His forward policy,
+it is true, had already excited alarm and criticism at home, while the
+peace of Amiens had ostensibly removed the chief justification of
+it--the necessity of combating the aggressive designs of France. But, in
+the case of India, far more than of the American colonies, "months
+passed and seas rolled between the order and the execution"; for in
+those days ships conveying despatches occupied at least four or five
+months on their voyage, and decisions taken in Leadenhall Street might
+be utterly stultified by accomplished facts before they could be read in
+Calcutta.
+
+[Pageheading: _WELLESLEY AND LAKE._]
+
+The Peshwá, at Poona, still maintained a show of independent authority
+over the other great Maráthá chieftains, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Rájá
+of Nágpur or Berár. But the real military power of the Maráthás rested
+with these leaders, and their predatory troops of horsemen terrorised
+all Central India. Happily for Wellesley's purpose, they were often at
+feud with each other, and the Peshwá, though aided by Sindhia, was
+utterly defeated by Jaswant Ráo Holkar. He fled to Bassein near Bombay,
+where, on December 31, 1802, a treaty was signed by which not only the
+Peshwá but the Nizám of Haidarábád was placed under British protection.
+The Peshwá was conducted back to Poona by a British force under Arthur
+Wellesley in May, 1803, but the other Maráthá chiefs naturally resented
+this fresh encroachment on their independence, and a league was shortly
+formed between the Rájá of Nágpur and Sindhia, which it was hoped that
+Holkar would ultimately join. By this time, a rupture of the peace with
+France was known to be impending, and Lord Wellesley eagerly seized the
+opportunity to crush Sindhia, while he urged the home government to
+seize the Cape of Good Hope and the Mauritius. Two expeditions were
+directed against Sindhia's territory, the one under Arthur Wellesley,
+moving from Poona in the west towards the Nizám's frontier; the other,
+under General Lake, operating on the north-west against the highly
+trained forces, under French officers, assembled before Delhi. Both
+campaigns were eminently successful. Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar on
+August 11, encountered the combined armies of Sindhia and the Rájá of
+Nágpur at Assaye on September 23, and, after a desperate conflict,
+obtained a decisive victory. Twelve hundred of the Maráthás were left
+dead on the field and 102 guns were captured. He then advanced into
+Berár and completely defeated the army of the Nágpur Rájá at Argáum.
+Lake marched from Cawnpur, took Delhi and Agra, assuming custody of the
+Mughal emperor, and inflicted a final defeat on a powerful Maráthá army,
+no longer under French officers, at Laswári. Large cessions of territory
+followed. The treaty of Bassein was recognised by Sindhia and the Rájá
+of Nágpur. Gujrát, Cuttack, and the districts along the Jumna passed
+into British possession, and the East India Company became the visible
+successor, though nominally the guardian, of the Mughal emperor.
+
+Meanwhile, Holkar remained a passive spectator of the contest. Jealous
+as he was of Sindhia, he was by no means prepared to acquiesce in the
+subjection of the great Maráthá power. Having taken up a threatening
+position in Rájputána, and defied Lake's summons to retire, he was
+treated as an enemy, and proved a very formidable enemy. Instead of
+relying, like Sindhia, on disciplined battalions, he fell back on the
+old Maráthá tactics, and swept the country with hordes of irregular
+cavalry who lived by pillage. In 1804 a British force of 1,200 troops
+under Colonel Monson was lured away from its base of supplies by a
+feigned retreat and incurred a very serious reverse; scarcely a tenth of
+them, utterly broken, "straggled, a mere rabble, into Agra". This
+disaster was soon afterwards retrieved by other divisions of Lake's
+army, but three attempts to storm the strong fortress of Bhartpur were
+repulsed by the rájá, Ranjít Singh, an ally of Holkar. Though Holkar's
+bands were at last dispersed, a new dispute arose with Sindhia about the
+ownership of Gwalior and Gohad, which remained unsettled when Lord
+Wellesley resigned early in 1805, not so much because his policy was
+disapproved by the court of directors, for whom he always professed a
+sovereign contempt, as because he was no longer cordially supported by
+the home government.
+
+In his despatch to the secret committee of the East India Company after
+the conclusion of the war with Sindhia, Wellesley describes the
+consolidation of the British empire and the pacification of all India,
+as the supreme result of his beneficent rule.[138] That rule was
+followed by ten years of comparative repose, if not of reaction, but two
+events, occurring within this period, threw a significant light on the
+inherent danger of relying too much on a native army under British
+officers. Sepoy regiments had been raised and had served loyally on both
+sides in the struggles between the French and English during the
+eighteenth century. The Bengal sepoys were mostly Rájputs and showed the
+highest military qualities in many a wearisome march and hard fought
+field, from the days of Clive to those of Lake and Arthur Wellesley. But
+outbreaks bordering upon mutiny had occasionally taken place in the
+native armies of all the presidencies, and on July 10, 1806, a most
+formidable mutiny, ending in a massacre at Vellore, west of Madras,
+produced a sense of insecurity throughout all India. It was instigated
+by the family of Tipú who had been quartered in that fortress, and its
+immediate origin was the issue of certain vexatious regulations about
+uniform which offended native prejudices of caste. The European force,
+numbering some 370, was surprised and surrounded by a much larger body
+of sepoys, half of them were killed or wounded, and Tipú's standard was
+hoisted. Within a few hours, however, cavalry and artillery arrived from
+Arcot, the mutineers were slaughtered by hundreds, and the disaffected
+regiments were broken up. Three years later, a serious mutiny broke out
+among the company's own officers at Madras, caused by a petty grievance
+affecting their profits on tent-contracts. It was appeased rather than
+suppressed, and, notwithstanding these discouraging symptoms of
+insecurity, the Company's army retained its separate organisation for
+half a century longer.
+
+[Pageheading: _MINTO'S PACIFIC POLICY._]
+
+Lord Cornwallis, the successor of Lord Wellesley, was opposed by
+conviction to a progressive expansion of British territory, and
+represented not only the cautious views of the home government, but the
+financial anxieties of the East India Company, which always valued a
+steady revenue more highly than imperial supremacy. Wellesley had
+virtually reconstructed the map of India on lines destined to endure
+until a fresh period of annexation set in some forty years later. These
+lines were not disturbed by Cornwallis, who died on October 5, 1805,
+three months after his arrival, but he clearly indicated his desire to
+let the system of protectorates and subsidiary treaties fall gradually
+into abeyance. His correspondence with Lake, whose victories had won him
+the rank of baron, contains a somewhat peremptory warning against fresh
+engagements contemplated by that enterprising officer, whose vigorous
+remonstrance he did not live to receive.[139] Sir George Barlow, who
+became acting governor-general for two years, adopted the same passive
+attitude, and forebore to carry out a projected alliance with Sindhia,
+though he would not allow any interference with our paramount influence
+at Poona and Haidarábád. Lord Minto, father of the Earl of Minto who
+presided at the admiralty under Melbourne, arrived as governor-general
+in 1807. He was imbued with similar ideas, and was fortunate in finding
+the Maráthás too much weakened to be dangerous neighbours. His rule was,
+therefore, essentially pacific, but he did good service in maintaining
+internal order, and especially in putting down the organised brigandage,
+known as "dakáiti," which had been the curse of rural districts. The
+distinctive feature of his career, however, was a permanent enlargement
+of the horizon of Indian statesmanship to a sphere beyond the confines
+of India and even of Asia, a change due to new movements in the vast
+international conflict then engrossing the energies of Europe.
+
+However chimerical the designs of Napoleon against British India may now
+appear, there is no doubt that such designs were seriously entertained
+by him, nor is it self-evident that what Alexander the Great found
+possible would have proved impossible to one who combined with
+Alexander's superhuman audacity the command of resources beyond anything
+known in the ancient world. At all events, after the battle of Friedland
+and the peace of Tilsit, an expedition to be launched from Russian
+territory upon the north-west frontier of India, with the support of
+Persia on the flank, became a contingency which an Indian
+governor-general could not afford to neglect. It is, indeed, strange
+that a march across Europe and half of Asia should have appeared to
+Napoleon more practicable than a voyage across the English Channel, and
+it is highly improbable that he would have cherished the idea of it, if
+he could have foreseen the perils of the Russian expedition. But his
+conversations at St. Helena prove that it was not a mere vision but a
+half-formed design, and, even after it had been discouraged by Russia,
+he sent a preliminary mission to Persia. Minto lost no time in sending
+counter-missions, not only to Tihran, but to Lahore, Afghánistán, and
+Sind.
+
+The Persian court was already in diplomatic relations with the Indian
+government. Colonel Malcolm, afterwards Sir John Malcolm, had been sent
+by Wellesley as envoy to the sháh at the end of 1800, and in January,
+1801, a treaty had been signed, establishing free trade between India
+and Persia, and binding the sháh to exclude the French from his
+dominions, while the company undertook to provide ships, troops, and
+stores, in case of French invasion. This treaty, however, neither was
+nor could have been actively carried out on either side. Early in 1806
+the sháh, who had become embroiled with Russia, appealed to Calcutta for
+aid, regardless of the fact that hostilities with Russia were not a
+_casus foederis_. Failing to obtain it, he appealed to France.
+Napoleon despatched General Gardane, who arrived in December, 1807. He
+obtained a treaty under which the sháh engaged to banish all Englishmen
+on demand of the French emperor. Thereupon Malcolm was entrusted by
+Minto with a fresh mission, but never reached the Persian capital, where
+French influence was still paramount, and the peremptory tone of
+Malcolm's letters was resented. Meanwhile, Sir Harford Jones had been
+sent out by the British foreign office, and was received at Tihran in
+February, 1809, the peace of Tilsit having destroyed the Persian hope of
+French support against Russia. For a while, the right of negotiating
+with the sháh was in dispute between the Indian government and the
+foreign office, and Sir John Malcolm reappeared at Tihran in the spring
+of 1810, as the representative of the former. In the end, however, he
+co-operated loyally with Jones, and a fresh treaty was signed, though
+both these rival emissaries were soon afterwards superseded by Sir Gore
+Ouseley as permanent ambassador.
+
+[Pageheading: _ELPHINSTONE IN AFGHÁNISTÁN._]
+
+Two other envoys selected by Minto left names which are famous in
+Anglo-Indian history, and one achieved an important success. Charles
+Metcalfe, Minto's envoy to Lahore, succeeded with the advantage of an
+armed force within easy reach of the Sikh frontier, in converting into
+an ally the redoubtable Ranjít Singh (not to be confounded with Ranjít
+Singh of Bhartpur), who had gathered into his own hands the Sikh
+confederacy and acquired sovereignty over the whole Punjab. He was now
+induced not only to accept the Sutlej river as the boundary line of his
+dominion, but to conclude a treaty of perpetual amity with the British
+government. This treaty remained unbroken until his death, and stood us
+in good stead during the perilous crisis of the first Afghán war. The
+embassy of Mountstuart Elphinstone to Afghánistán was comparatively
+fruitless, chiefly owing to the unsettled state of that mysterious
+country. Sháh Shujá, its titular amír, so far from being in a condition
+to resist French invasion, had lost possession of Kábul and Kandahár,
+and was only anxious to obtain British aid against his elder brother
+Mahmúd. Elphinstone, of course, had no authority to entangle the Company
+in a civil war far beyond the Indian frontier and was obliged to content
+himself with a worthless treaty empowering Great Britain to defend
+Afghánistán against France. This treaty had scarcely been ratified when
+Sháh Shujá himself was driven into exile, to play an ignoble part thirty
+years later in the great tragedy of the first Afghán war.
+
+However pacific Minto's policy was, he did not shut his eyes to the
+necessity of guarding the coasts and commerce of India against the enemy
+who still dominated Europe, and had not wholly abandoned his visions of
+eastern conquest. We have seen already that the "half way" naval station
+at the Cape of Good Hope had been retaken from the Dutch in 1806, the
+year in which the Berlin decree was issued. In 1810 the French were
+expelled from Java by an expedition despatched under Minto's orders,
+though it was soon to be restored to Holland. In the same year the
+islands of Mauritius and Bourbon were captured from the French and the
+sea route to India was finally secured. Lord Minto, who was recalled in
+1813 and raised to the dignity of an earl, left India after six years of
+peaceful government in a state of tranquillity such as it had never
+before enjoyed, and the settlement of the country under British
+suzerainty appeared to have been assured. Yet the seeds of fresh trouble
+were already working, and his successor was to prove himself a second
+Wellesley, and add new territories of great extent to British India.
+
+Lord Moira, better known by his later title as Marquis of Hastings,
+displayed qualities as governor-general of which his previous career had
+given no indication. He had already proved himself a good soldier, but
+he was a court favourite as well as a somewhat impracticable politician,
+and owed his appointment to other influences than his own merit. His
+arrival in India nearly coincided with the charter of 1813, which threw
+open the India trade, and virtually ushered in a new social era. He was
+at once confronted with an empty treasury, on the one hand, and, on the
+other, with alarming reports both from the northern frontier and from
+the central provinces, still under independent princes of doubtful
+fidelity. The earlier part of his nine years' residence in India was
+engrossed by most harassing operations against the Nepálís and the
+Pindárís, but these operations resulted in perfect success, and Hastings
+was able to show before he left India that he was eminent alike in civil
+and in military administration.
+
+The mountainous region of Nepál, lying on the slopes of the Himálayas
+north of Bengal and Oudh, had been occupied by the warlike nation, still
+known as the Gúrkhas, whose capital was at Khátmándu. Like the Maráthás,
+they had been in the habit of pillaging British territory as well as
+Oudh, and when part of Oudh was annexed by Wellesley, frontier disputes
+were added to former grounds of hostility. Minto remonstrated with them
+sharply but in vain, and Moira lost no time in declaring war against
+them. The first campaign of 1814, which followed, though skilfully
+conceived by Moira, who held the office of commander-in-chief, was
+carried out with little generalship, and was marked by disasters highly
+damaging to British prestige. Three out of four armies launched against
+the hill-tribes met with serious reverses, chiefly due to a contempt for
+the enemy, and a persistence in making frontal assaults on strong
+positions without practicable breaches, which have proved so fatal in
+many a later conflict between British troops and undisciplined foes.
+During the cold season, however, on the extreme north-west, the cautious
+but irresistible advance of General Ochterlony penetrated the hill
+ranges which had baffled all the other commanders, and retrieved the
+fortunes of the war. The Gúrkhas were far, indeed, from being subdued,
+but Ochterlony's success among their strongest fastnesses, aided by
+that of Colonels Gardner and Nicholls in the district of Kumáun,
+induced them to sue for peace, and offer territorial cessions. The loss
+of the Tarái, or belt of forest interspersed with pastures at the foot
+of the Himálayas, was the most onerous of the conditions imposed upon
+them by the treaty of Almora, signed in 1815. Rather than submit to it,
+the Gúrkha chiefs refused to ratify the treaty, and resumed their arms.
+After two defeats, however, in February, 1816, they abandoned further
+resistance, and Moira afterwards wisely consented to a modification of
+the frontier-line. Retaining but a remnant of their dominions in the
+lowlands, the Gúrkhas have ever since preserved their independence with
+their military training in the highlands, and have contributed some of
+the best fighting material to the British army in India.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE PINDÁRÍS._]
+
+While the war in Nepál was still undecided, fresh troubles broke out in
+Central India, where Wellesley's settlement had left no permanent
+security for peace. The very submission of the great Maráthá powers had
+set free large bands of irregular troops, with no livelihood but
+pillage, and ever ready, like the Italian _condottieri_ of the later
+middle ages, to enlist in the service of any aggressive state. These
+mounted freebooters, now called the Pindárís, were secretly encouraged
+by the Maráthá chiefs, who looked upon them as useful auxiliaries in the
+future, either against the government of India or against other native
+princes. Several of these still remained in a more or less dependent but
+restless condition, and the great leaders of the Maráthá confederacy,
+Sindhia, Malhár Ráo Holkar, son and successor of Jaswant Ráo, the
+Peshwá, and the Rájá of Nágpur, retained a large share of their former
+sovereignty. Of these subject-allies, the one most directly under
+British guidance and protection was the Peshwá, but even he took
+advantage of hostile movements among his neighbours to join in a
+combination against British rule, supported by the predatory raids of
+the Pindárís. He had long been discontented with the subordinate
+position which he had occupied since the treaty of Bassein. The
+assassination in 1815 of an envoy of the Gáekwár of Baroda, who had been
+sent to Poona on a special mission under British guarantees, nearly
+provoked hostilities. But in June, 1817, a treaty was concluded, by
+which the Peshwá accepted an increased subsidiary force, ceded part of
+his territory, renounced his suzerainty over the Gáekwár and undertook
+to submit all further disputes to the decision of the British
+government. In November, however, chafing under the restrictions imposed
+by this treaty, he broke out into hostility, burnt the British
+residency, and after vainly attacking the British troops, fled from
+Poona. Almost simultaneously Holkar and the Rájá of Nágpur rose. Holkar
+was defeated in a pitched battle at Mehidpur in Málwá, while the sepoys
+successfully held their own against the Rájá's troops at Nágpur. The
+fugitive Peshwá was energetically pursued, and captured, and was
+stripped of his dominions. The greater part of these was annexed by the
+East India Company, but a portion was reserved for the heir of the old
+Maráthá kings who was established at Sátára. The Rájá of Nágpur was also
+compelled to cede a large portion of his dominions, and at the same time
+the Company acquired the overlordship of Rájputána. Henceforth, the
+British government claimed a control over all the foreign relations of
+native Indian states, whose internal government was to be carefully
+watched by a British resident, and whose military forces were to be
+practically under the supreme command of the paramount power.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE END OF THE PINDÁRÍS._]
+
+Lord Moira, created Marquis of Hastings in 1816, was at last free to
+hunt down the Pindárís, with the sullen acquiescence of the Maráthá
+governments, and he executed his task with extraordinary vigour. He
+would have undertaken it, at the instigation of Metcalfe, then resident
+at Delhi, a year earlier, but for the peremptory orders of Canning, at
+that time president of the board of control, who positively forbade him
+to embark on a new war. These orders were greatly relaxed after the
+bloodthirsty raid of Chítu, the famous Pindárí leader, who in 1816
+desolated vast tracts of Central India. Still no effective action
+against the Pindárís was possible until the Maráthá lords who harboured
+and encouraged them had been crippled and overawed. With their
+connivance, a second Pindárí raid, accompanied by shocking cruelties,
+was made in the same year, but in 1817, when Holkar's followers were
+severely defeated at Mehidpur, the secret coalition between these
+bandits and our nominal allies was thoroughly broken up. Even then it
+proved a most difficult enterprise to root out the Pindárís, who were
+not a race, or a tribe, or a sect, but bands of lawless men of all
+faiths; for they met and vanished like birds of the air, outstripping
+regular cavalry by the length and rapidity of their marches, and
+carrying off their booty almost under the eyes of their pursuers. But
+the resolute tactics of Hastings prevailed in the end. Amír Khán, their
+most powerful leader, disbanded his troops; and hemmed in on all sides,
+cut off from every place of shelter, and chased by successive
+detachments of horsemen almost as fleet as his own, Chítu became a
+hopeless fugitive, with a handful of faithful adherents, who shared his
+desperate efforts to escape, but advised him to surrender. He could not
+bring himself to do so, possessed, it is said, with an unspeakable
+horror of being transported across "the black sea," and he actually
+remained at large or in hiding for a year after his lair was discovered.
+Nor was he ever captured, for, by a strange fate, this ruthless scourge
+of the Deccan, after baffling human vengeance, found his last refuge in
+a jungle and died, a tiger's prey. By this time, all the wild bands
+which sprung into existence out of the Maráthá war had been extirpated
+or dispersed, and after the year 1818 the dreaded name of Pindárí was
+heard no more in history.
+
+The suppression of civil war and anarchy in Central India, which
+completed the work of Wellesley, was the greatest achievement of
+Hastings. One remarkable incident of it was a portentous outbreak of
+cholera in 1817, during a campaign in Gwalior conducted by Hastings in
+person. There had been several minor visitations of this disease in
+India. But it now first established itself as an endemic disease, and it
+has ever since infested the valley of the Ganges. So virulent was its
+onslaught, and so fearful the mortality in Hastings' army, that it was
+only saved by shifting its quarters, and the governor-general himself
+made preparations for his own secret burial, in case he should be among
+the victims. As we have seen already,[140] it was propagated from this
+centre through other regions of Asia, until it spread to Western Europe,
+and the "Asiatic cholera" of 1831-32 may be lineally traced back to the
+last Maráthá war.
+
+The position of Hastings in Indian history closely resembles that of
+Wellesley. Disregarding the instructions of the board of control, as
+well as of the board of directors, he forced upon them, like Wellesley,
+a large extension of their empire. But it cannot be doubted that his
+policy, dictated by exigencies beyond the ken of authorities sitting in
+London, was eminently successful and beneficent in its results. It went
+far to establish a "Pax Britannica" in the Indian Peninsula, and, if it
+took little account of dynastic rights, it broke the rod of oppression,
+and relieved millions upon millions from tyranny and intimidation which
+overshadowed their whole lives. He retired in 1823, after seven years'
+tenure of office, and died in 1826 as governor of Malta. Canning had
+been designated as his successor, and, having accepted the post, was on
+the eve of starting for Calcutta, when the tragical death of Castlereagh
+recalled him to the foreign office, and opened to him the most brilliant
+stage in his career. Thereupon Lord Amherst was appointed
+governor-general, with every prospect of a pacific vice-royalty, whereas
+it is now chiefly remembered for the annexation of new provinces on the
+south-east of Bengal, and the capture of Bhartpur.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE FIRST BURMESE WAR._]
+
+The first Burmese war arose out of persistent aggressions by the new
+kingdom of Ava or Burma on what is now the British province of Assam,
+but was then an independent, though feeble, state. There had been
+earlier frontier disputes between the Indian government and Burma about
+the districts lying eastward of Chittagong along the Bay of Bengal, but
+it was not until Burma conquered Arakan, invaded Assam, and occupied
+passes on the north-east overlooking the plains of Bengal, that serious
+action was felt to be necessary. Indeed, while Hastings was engaged with
+the war in Nepál and the suppression of the Pindárís, even he was in no
+mood to embark on a fresh campaign beyond the borders of India. The
+incursions of the Burmese, however, became more and more threatening
+both on the coast line and on the mountains above the Brahmaputra river,
+and in February, 1824, Amherst resolved to check the extension of their
+dominion. Notwithstanding the experience recently gained in Nepál, the
+first operations of the Anglo-Indian troops were conducted with little
+knowledge of the country, and met with very doubtful success. Rangoon
+was easily captured, but the expedition was disabled from advancing up
+the river Irawadi by the want of adequate supplies and the deadliness of
+the climate. Part of the Tenasserim coast was subdued, but a British
+force was defeated in Arakan. These reverses were retrieved in the
+following year, 1825, when one army under Sir Archibald Campbell made
+its way up the river to Prome, while another army conquered Arakan, and
+a third, moving along the valley of the Brahmaputra, established itself
+in Assam. The Burmese now abandoned further resistance. Assam, Arakan,
+and the Tenasserim provinces were ceded to the company, whose
+protectorate was also recognised over other territories upon the course
+of the Brahmaputra. It was not until February, 1826, that the King of
+Ava could be induced to sign the treaty embodying these cessions, and
+many years were to elapse before the port of Rangoon was opened to
+British commerce.
+
+The strong fortress of Bhartpur, in the east of Rájputána, and near to
+Agra, had acquired an unique importance, in the eyes of all India by its
+successful resistance to Lake's assaults during the Maráthá war of 1805.
+It was still held until 1825 by its own petty rájá, the son of Ranjít
+Singh, who remained on terms of respectful amity with the Indian
+government, though his little principality was a notorious focus of
+native disaffection. In that year he died, and his child, after being
+acknowledged by the Indian government as his successor, was forcibly
+ousted by a usurper. Sir David Ochterlony, the hero of the Nepálese war,
+then resident in Málwá and Rájputána, undertook to support the
+legitimate heir, but was overruled by orders from Amherst. On his
+resignation he was succeeded by Metcalfe, who had become Sir Charles
+Metcalfe by his brother's death in 1822, and who now obtained authority
+to carry out Ochterlony's policy, if necessary, by armed intervention.
+As negotiation failed, Lord Combermere, as commander-in-chief, proceeded
+to reduce the virgin fortress, not by the slow process of siege, but by
+a well-organised assault. Having cut off the water supply, and mined the
+mud walls, he poured in a storming party and overpowered the garrison.
+The feat was probably not so great, from a military point of view, as
+many that have left no record, but its effect on the superstitious
+native mind was prodigious, especially as it nearly coincided with the
+victorious issue of the Burmese war. Nevertheless, Amherst was shortly
+afterwards recalled, and left India in 1828. His annexation of Burmese
+territory and the increase of expenditure under his rule displeased both
+the Company and the home government, so often foiled in the attempt to
+enforce a pacific and economical policy. His successor was Lord William
+Bentinck, who had been compelled to retire from the governorship of
+Madras after the mutiny of Vellore.
+
+Like Hastings, Bentinck showed a firmness and wisdom in his Indian
+administration strongly contrasting with the restless self-assertion of
+his earlier career. His lot was cast in an interval of tranquillity
+after a long period of warfare, and his name is associated with internal
+reforms and social progress in India, not unconnected with a like
+movement in England. The measure upon which his fame chiefly rests was
+the abolition of "satí," that is, the practice of Hindoo widows
+sacrificing themselves by being burned alive on the funeral pile of
+their husbands. This practice, which specially prevailed in Bengal, has
+been explained by a false interpretation of certain texts in sacred
+books of the Hindus, by the selfish eagerness of the husband's family to
+monopolise all his property, and by the utterly desolate condition of a
+childless widow in native communities. At all events, it was deeply
+rooted in Hindu traditions, and no previous governor had dared to go
+beyond issuing regulations to secure that the widow should be a willing
+victim. Bentinck had the courage to act on the conviction that
+inhumanity, however consecrated by superstition and priestcraft, has no
+permanent basis in popular sentiment. With the consent of his council,
+he prohibited "satí" absolutely, declaring that all who took any part in
+it should be held guilty of culpable homicide; and the native population
+acquiesced in its suppression.
+
+But this was only one of Bentinck's reforms. Armed with peremptory
+instructions from the home government, he effected large retrenchments
+in the growing expenditure of the Indian services, both civil and
+military, and a considerable increase in the Indian revenue. It may be
+doubted whether one of these retrenchments, involving a strict revision
+of officers' allowances known as "batta," was considerable enough to be
+worth the almost mutinous discontent which it provoked. Another,
+affecting the salaries of civilians, was aggravated, in their eyes, by
+the admission of natives to "primary jurisdiction," in other words, by
+enabling native judges to sit in courts of first instance. This
+important change had been gradually introduced before the arrival of
+Bentinck, but it was he who most boldly adopted the idea of governing
+India in the interest and by the agency of the natives. On the other
+hand, it was he who, supported by Macaulay's famous minute, but contrary
+to official opinion in Leadenhall Street, issued the ordinance
+constituting English the official language of India. In a like spirit,
+he promoted the work of native education, partly for the purpose of
+developing the political and judicial capacity of the higher orders
+among the Hindus, but partly also for the purpose of making the English
+language and literature the instrument of their elevation. He earnestly
+desired to raise the standard of Indian civilisation, but he equally
+desired to fashion it in an English mould.
+
+[Pageheading: _THE EXTIRPATION OF "THAGÍ"._]
+
+Under the rule of Bentinck, the revenue was largely augmented by a
+reassessment of land in the north-western provinces, where an increasing
+number of zamíndárs had fraudulently evaded the payment of rent, and by
+the imposition of licence-duties on the growers of opium in Málwá, who
+had carried on a profitable but illicit trade through foreign ports. But
+the social benefit of the people was ever his first concern, and not the
+least of his claims to their gratitude was the final extirpation of
+"thagí". This institution was a secret association of highway robbers
+and murderers who had plagued Central India almost as widely as the
+roving troops of Pindárís. Their victims were travellers whom they
+decoyed into their haunts, plundered, strangled, and buried on the spot.
+For years they carried on their infamous trade with impunity, and no
+member of the conspiracy had turned informer. At last, however, a clue
+was found by a skilful and resolute agent of the government, and the
+spell of mutual dread which held together the murderous confederacy was
+effectually broken in India. Meanwhile, the same period of peaceful
+development witnessed the execution of important public works, the
+relaxation of restrictions on the liberty of the press, and a general
+advance towards a more paternal despotism, coincident with the progress
+of liberal ideas at home. These benign influences were favoured by the
+continuance of peace and the maintenance of non-intervention, disturbed
+only by the minor annexations of Cachar and Coorg, to which may be added
+the assumption of direct control over Mysore.
+
+When the charter of 1833 transformed the "company of British merchants
+trading to the east" into the "East India Company," with administrative
+powers only, Bentinck was in failing health, and he soon afterwards
+returned home. On his resignation in 1835, Metcalfe became provisional
+governor-general, but his liberal policy displeased the court of
+directors, and Lord Heytesbury was selected by the short-lived
+government of Peel as Bentinck's successor. Palmerston, however, on
+resuming the foreign office, was believed to have used his influence to
+set aside this nomination, and to procure the appointment of Lord
+Auckland, then first lord of the admiralty. The supposed objection to
+Heytesbury was his known sympathy with Russia, at a moment when distrust
+of Russia's designs on the north-west frontier was about to become the
+keynote of Anglo-Indian statesmanship. During the interregnum between
+Bentinck's retirement and Auckland's accession, three more remedial
+measures were carried into effect, the wisdom of which is not even yet
+beyond dispute. These were the complete liberation of the Indian press,
+the abolition of the exclusive privilege whereby British residents could
+appeal in civil suits to the supreme court at Calcutta, and the definite
+introduction of English text-books into schools for the people. For all
+these reforms Macaulay was largely responsible, but the impulse had been
+given by Bentinck, and was accelerated by Metcalfe.
+
+During the years 1835-37 domestic affairs occupied much less space in
+the counsels of Indian statesmen than schemes for counteracting the
+growth of Russian influence at Tihran, and securing the predominance of
+British influence in Afghánistán. For a time their anxiety was
+concentrated on Herat, which the Sháh of Persia was besieging, with the
+intention of penetrating into the heart of Afghán territory, while the
+Afghán rulers themselves were suspected of secretly conspiring with
+Persia against our ally, Ranjít Singh. Since Persia, having again lost
+faith in British support, was drifting more and more into reliance on
+Russia, this forward movement was regarded as the first step of the
+Russian advance-guard towards India. The fate of India was felt to
+depend on the defence of Herat under Pottinger, a young British officer,
+who volunteered his services without instructions from home. The siege,
+conducted under Russian officers, lasted ten months, and its ultimate
+failure was hailed as a triumph of British policy, for Herat was
+recognised, since the days of Alexander the Great, as the western gate
+of India.
+
+[Pageheading: _COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA._]
+
+About the same time the question of a shorter route to India attracted
+much attention both in Russia and in England. The first project was
+that, ultimately adopted, of a sea passage by Malta to Alexandria, a
+land transit across Egypt to Suez, and a second voyage by the Red Sea to
+Indian ports. The alternative line was more properly described as an
+"overland route," since it was proposed to make the journey from some
+port in the eastern Levant across Syria and by the Euphrates to the
+Persian Gulf. Colonel Chesney was sent out in 1835 as the pioneer of an
+expedition by this route, and parliament twice voted money for its
+development, but it was vigorously opposed by Russia, and abandoned as
+impracticable owing to physical difficulties in navigating the
+Euphrates, then considered as a necessary channel of communication with
+the sea. The scheme has since been revived on a much grander scale in
+the form of a projected railway traversing Asia Minor to Baghdad, and
+running down the valley of the Tigris. In the meantime, the Red Sea
+route, at first discredited, has far more than justified the hopes of
+its promoters. With the aid of steam-vessels, since 1845, and of the
+Suez Canal, since 1869, it has reduced the journey to India from a
+period of four months to one of three weeks, and profoundly affected its
+relations with Great Britain.
+
+It would be well if the premature, but not unfounded, fear of Russian
+invasion had produced no further effects on Anglo-Indian policy.
+Unhappily, those who justly perceived the importance of Afghánistán, as
+lying between Persia and the Punjab, were possessed with the delusion
+that it would prove a more solid buffer as a British dependency than as
+an independent state. In their ignorance of its internal condition and
+the sentiments of its unruly tribes, the Indian government despatched
+Sir Alexander Burnes to Kábul, nominally as a commercial emissary, but
+not without ulterior objects. They could not have chosen a more capable
+agent, for he added to a knowledge of several languages a minute
+geographical acquaintance with Central Asia and an insight into the
+character of its inhabitants which probably no other Englishman
+possessed. He was to proceed by way of Sind to Pesháwar, and in passing
+through Sind he received news of the siege of Herat, the significance
+of which he was not slow to appreciate. Thenceforward his mission
+inevitably assumed a political complexion, since the future of
+Afghánistán became a practical question. His rash negotiations with Dost
+Muhammad, the Amír of Kábul, and his brother at Kandahár, his return to
+India, his second mission to Afghánistán in support of a policy which he
+had deprecated, and his tragical death in the Kábul insurrection,--these
+are events which belong to a later chapter of history. But, though
+Burnes cannot be held responsible for the first Afghán war, there can be
+no doubt that his travels in disguise through Central Asia, and
+confidential reports on the border countries between the Russian and
+British spheres of influence, were the immediate prelude to a campaign
+the most ill-advised and the most disastrous ever organised by the
+Indian government and sanctioned by that of Great Britain.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[138] Despatch of July 13, 1804, _Selection from Wellesley's
+Despatches_, ed. Owen, pp. 436-41. See Sir A. Lyall, _British Dominion
+in India_, p. 260.
+
+[139] Cornwallis to Lake, Sept. 19, 1805, _Cornwallis Correspondence_,
+iii., 547-55.
+
+[140] See p. 310 above.
+
+
+
+
+ CHAPTER XX.
+
+ LITERATURE AND SOCIAL PROGRESS.
+
+
+The period which elapsed between the resignation of Pitt and the battle
+of Waterloo was hardly less eventful in the history of British
+civilisation than in the history of British empire. To some, the
+boundary line between the society of the eighteenth and that of the
+nineteenth century appears to be marked by the outbreak of the French
+revolution, and the far-reaching effects of that catastrophe upon ideas,
+manners, and politics in Great Britain, as well as upon the continent,
+are too evident to be denied. But it is equally certain that, before the
+French revolution, an intellectual and industrial movement was in
+progress which must have given a most powerful impulse to civilisation,
+even if the French revolution had never taken place. In this country,
+especially, the great writers, philanthropists, scientific leaders,
+inventors, engineers, and reformers of various types, who adorned the
+latter part of George III.'s reign, largely drew their inspiration from
+an age, just preceding the French revolution, which is sometimes
+regarded as barren in originality.
+
+When the nineteenth century opened, the classical authors of that
+pre-revolutionary age had mostly passed away. Hume died in 1776, Johnson
+in 1784, Adam Smith in 1790, Gibbon in 1794, Burns in 1796, Burke in
+1797, Cowper in 1800. John Howard, the great pioneer of prison reform,
+became a martyr to philanthropy in 1790. The most remarkable of those
+manufacturing improvements and mechanical inventions upon which the
+commercial supremacy of England is founded date from the same period,
+and have been described in a previous volume. Steam navigation was still
+untried, but preliminary experiments had already been made on both sides
+of the Atlantic before 1789. The application of steam to locomotion by
+land had scarcely been conceived, but the facilities of traffic and
+travelling had been vastly developed in the first forty years of George
+III.'s reign.
+
+It may truly be said, however, that English literature in the early
+party of the nineteenth century bears clear traces of the influence
+exercised on receptive minds by the French revolution. Three of the
+leading poets, Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey, were deeply infected
+by its spirit, and indulged in their youth fantastic dreams of a social
+millennium; Wordsworth, especially, who in his maturer years could be
+justly described as the priest of nature-worship and the poet of rural
+life, had imbibed violent republican ideas during a residence of more
+than a year in France. These were passing off in 1798, when he
+published, jointly with Coleridge, the volume of _Lyrical Ballads_
+containing the latter's immortal tale of the _Ancient Mariner_. In the
+following year he settled in the English lake-country, where Coleridge
+established himself for a while, and Southey for life. Hence the popular
+but very inaccurate title of the "Lake School," applied to a trio of
+poets who, except as friends, had little in common with each other.
+Indeed, after Wordsworth had developed his theory of poetical realism in
+the preface to a volume published in 1800, Coleridge rejected and
+criticised it as wholly untenable. All three, however, may be considered
+as comrades in a revolt against the conventional diction of eighteenth
+century poetry, from which Coleridge's "dreamy tenderness" and mystical
+flights of fancy were as remote as Wordsworth's rusticity and almost
+prosaic studies of humble life.
+
+[Pageheading: _COLERIDGE AND SCOTT._]
+
+Although Coleridge survived to 1834 and Wordsworth to 1850, both seem to
+have lost at an early date that power of imagination, whether displayed
+in sympathy or in creation, in which their greatness consisted.
+Wordsworth wrote assiduously during the whole of this period; in 1807 he
+published a volume of poems, including the famous _Ode on the
+Intimations of Immortality_ and several of his finest sonnets; but of
+his later work only an occasional lyric deserves to be ranked beside the
+poems published in 1800 and 1807. Coleridge, indeed, published two of
+his finest poems, _Christabel_ and _Kubla Khan_, in 1816, but they were
+written long before, _Christabel_, partly in 1797 and partly in 1801,
+and _Kubla Khan_ in 1798. Even the new metre of _Christabel_, which is
+not the least of Coleridge's contributions to English poetry, had, as
+early as 1805, been borrowed in the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ by Scott,
+to whom Coleridge had recited the poem. Nevertheless, Coleridge
+continued to exercise a great influence, partly through the charm of his
+conversation and partly through his prose works, in which he introduced
+to a British public, as yet unused to German literature, a vision of
+that mystical German thought which finds its father in Kant, and was
+represented at that day by Hegel in philosophy and Goethe in poetry. It
+is uncertain how far the general ignorance of German literature in
+England was responsible for the influence exercised in their own day by
+the few English or Scottish thinkers, such as Coleridge, Hamilton, and
+Carlyle, who had either fallen under the spell or learned the secret of
+the German mystics. The most important of Coleridge's prose works was
+_Aids to Reflection_, which appeared in 1828, and whatever be its
+literary value, it deserves the notice of the historian, as the least
+unsystematic treatise of an author who gave the principal philosophical
+impetus to the Oxford movement.
+
+Two other poets, eminently the product of their age, though not the
+offspring of the French revolution, Scott and Byron, were equally in
+revolt against conventional diction. Scott elevated ballad-poetry to a
+level which it had never before attained, and composed some of the most
+beautiful songs in the English language. If it be remembered that he was
+cramped by the drudgery of legal offices during the best years of his
+life, that he was nearly thirty when he made his first literary venture,
+that he was crippled by financial ruin and broken health during his
+later years, that his anonymous contributions to periodicals would fill
+volumes, and that he died at the age of sixty-one, his fertility of
+production must ever be ranked as unique in the history of English
+literature. Already known as the author of various lyrical pieces, and
+the _Border Minstrelsy_, he published the _Lay of the Last Minstrel_ in
+1805, _Marmion_ (with its fine stanzas on Pitt and Fox) in 1808, the
+_Lady of the Lake_ in 1809, _Don Roderick_ in 1811, and _Rokeby_ in
+1813, as well as minor poems of high merit. He is said to have abandoned
+poetry in deference to Byron's rising star, and it is certain that he
+now fills a higher place in the roll of English classics as a prose
+writer than as a poet. His first novel, _Waverley_, appeared in 1814,
+and was followed In the next four years by six of the greatest "Waverley
+Novels," as the series came to be called--_Guy Mannering_, the
+_Antiquary_, the _Black Dwarf_, _Old Mortality_, _Rob Roy_, and the
+_Heart of Midlothian_. It is not too much to say that by these works,
+both in poetry and in prose, he created the historical romance in Great
+Britain. The legends of chivalry and the folk-lore of his native land
+had deeply stirred his soul, and fired his imagination from childhood,
+and though later "research" has far outstripped the range of his
+antiquarian knowledge, no modern writer has ever done so much to awaken
+a reverence for olden times in the hearts of his countrymen. The easy
+flow of his style, the vivid energy of his thought, the graphic power of
+his descriptions, his shrewd and robust sympathy with human nature, and
+the evident simplicity of his own character, not unmingled with flashes
+of true poetical insight, justly rendered him the most popular writer of
+his time.
+
+Byron was born in 1788, and first sprang into notice as the author of
+_English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, a fierce and bitter reply to
+critics who had disparaged his first essay in poetry. This satire
+appeared in 1809, when he was just of age, after which he travelled with
+Hobhouse, and it was not until 1812 that he "woke to find himself
+famous," on publishing the first two cantos of _Childe Harold_. During
+the next three years, he poured forth a succession of characteristic
+poems, including the _Giaour_, the _Bride of Abydos_, the _Corsair_,
+_Lara_, and the _Siege of Corinth_. His later work was of a more
+finished order, including the remaining cantos of _Childe Harold_,
+_Manfred_, _Cain_, and _Mazeppa_, and when he died at Mesolongi in 1824,
+he left unfinished what is, in some ways, the most remarkable of his
+works, _Don Juan_. Long before his death he had become the prophet and
+hero of a pseudo-romantic school, composed of young Englishmen dazzled
+by his intellectual brilliancy, and attracted rather than repelled by a
+certain Satanic taint in his moral sentiments. But he also won the
+admiration of Goethe, and the reaction against his fame in a later
+generation is as exaggerated as the idolatry of which he was the object
+under the regency. His morbid egotism, his stormy rhetoric, and his
+meretricious exaltation of passion, have lost their magical effect, but
+his poetical gifts would have commanded homage in any age. The message
+which he professed to deliver was a false message, but few poets have
+surpassed him in daring vigour of imagination, in descriptive force, in
+wit, or in pathos. His style was eminently such as to invite imitation,
+yet no one has successfully imitated him. Had he been a better man, and
+had his life been prolonged, he might perhaps have towered above his
+literary contemporaries as Napoleon did among the generals and rulers of
+Europe.
+
+[Pageheading: _KEATS, SHELLEY, TENNYSON._]
+
+Yet among these contemporaries were Keats and Shelley, whom some critics
+of a younger generation would place above him in poetical originality.
+Their chief merit lay neither in thought nor in strength, but in an
+exquisite sweetness of expression, which in the case of Shelley at least
+was quite independent of the subject-matter. Keats, though junior to
+Shelley, has been described as his poetical father, but his chief poem,
+_Endymion_, did not appear until several years after Shelley had formed
+his own distinctive style. He died in 1821 at the age of twenty-six,
+leaving a poetical inheritance of the highest quality, which, though
+limited in quantity and unequal in workmanship, has gained an enduring
+reputation. Nevertheless his work lent itself readily to imitation, and
+he exercised a marked influence on the style of later poets, not only in
+this period, but in the Victorian age as well. The rebellious spirit of
+Shelley had already shown itself at an early age in his poetry, and
+especially in _Queen Mab_, printed in 1812. His ethereal fancy, his
+dreamy obscurity, and his witchery of language, designated him from the
+first as a master of lyrical poetry; though he wrote longer pieces, his
+fame rests on the numerous short poems which continued to appear till
+his death in 1822.
+
+Perhaps the greatest master of melody was one who was only coming to the
+front at the close of this period, Alfred Tennyson, born in 1809,
+contributed with two of his brothers to a collection of verses,
+misleadingly entitled _Poems by Two Brothers_, which appeared in 1826.
+At Cambridge his _Timbuctoo_ won the chancellor's prize, but the first
+proof of his powers was given by a volume of short poems published in
+1830, followed by a similar volume two years later. By far the greater
+part of his work lies in the next period, but the volume of 1833 already
+included some of his best known poems.
+
+Among minor poets of this period the highest rank must perhaps be
+assigned to Thomas Campbell and Thomas Moore as authors of some of the
+most stirring and graceful lyrics in the English language. The former
+had attained celebrity by the _Pleasures of Hope_, published before the
+end of the eighteenth century, but his choicest poems, such as _Ye
+Mariners of England_, the fine verses on Hohenlinden and Copenhagen, and
+_Gertrude of Wyoming_, appeared between 1802 and 1809. The series of
+Moore's Irish melodies, on which his poetical fame largely rests, was
+begun in 1807, though not completed until long afterwards. They were
+followed by other lyrical pieces of great merit, and by a series of
+witty and malicious lampoons, collected in 1813 into a volume called the
+_Twopenny Post Bag_. _Lalla Rookh_, his most ambitious effort, was not
+published until 1817.
+
+Two prose writers of the same epoch, Southey and Bentham, claim special
+notice, though Southey may also be numbered among the poets. Having
+established himself close to Keswick in 1804, he prosecuted a literary
+career with the most untiring industry until his mental faculties at
+last failed him some thirty-six years later. During this period he
+produced above a hundred volumes in poetry and prose, besides numerous
+scattered articles and other papers. Most of these were of merely
+ephemeral interest, but the _Life of Nelson_, published in 1813, may be
+said to have set a standard of simplicity, purity, and dignity in
+English prose which has been of permanent value. Bentham's style, on the
+contrary, was so wanting in beauty and perspicuity that one at least of
+his chief works is best known to English readers in the admirable French
+paraphrase of his friend Dumont. This is his famous _Introduction to the
+Principles of Morals and Legislation_, in which the doctrines of the
+utilitarian philosophy are rigorously applied to jurisprudence and the
+regulation of human conduct. Several of his numerous treatises had been
+planned, and others actually composed, before the end of the eighteenth
+century, but his practical influence, ultimately so great, first made
+itself felt in the early part of the nineteenth century. This influence
+may be compared within the sphere of social reform to that of Adam Smith
+within the sphere of economy. Many amendments of the law, an improved
+system of prison discipline, and even the reform of the poor law, may
+be directly traced to his counsels, and it was he who inspired the
+leading radicals when radicalism was not so much a destructive creed as
+a protest against real and gross abuses.
+
+[Pageheading: _MALTHUS._]
+
+Perhaps, next to Bentham, no writer of this period influenced educated
+opinion so powerfully as Malthus, whose _Essay on Population_, first
+published anonymously in 1798, attracted comparatively little attention
+until 1803, when it was republished in a maturer form. No work has ever
+been more persistently misrepresented. While he shows that population,
+if unchecked, will surely increase in a ratio far outstripping any
+possible increase in the means of subsistence, he also shows, by
+elaborate proofs, that it will inevitably be checked by vice and misery,
+whether or not they are aided by moral restraint. Later experience has
+done little to weaken his reasoning, but it has proved that "moral
+restraint" (in the most general sense) operates more widely than he
+ventured to expect, and that larger tracts of the earth's surface than
+he recognised could be brought under profitable cultivation. With these
+modifications, his theory holds the field, and the people of Great
+Britain only escape starvation by ever-growing importations of grain
+from countries whose production--for the present--exceeds their
+consumption.
+
+Several other writers of eminence, such as Sheridan and Paley, who lived
+in the latter days of George III. are more properly to be regarded as
+survivors of eighteenth century literature. Horne Tooke was returned for
+Old Sarum in 1801, and enjoyed a reputation in society until his death
+in 1812, but his old-fashioned radicalism had long since been superseded
+by a newer creed. Dugald Stewart continued to lecture on moral
+philosophy until 1809, and was fortunate in numbering among his pupils
+Palmerston, Lansdowne, and Russell. A younger student of philosophy was
+Richard Whately, who was born in 1787, and elected to a fellowship at
+Oriel College, Oxford, in 1811. He soon began to play an active part in
+university life, and, after being principal of St. Alban Hall, was
+removed to the archbishopric of Dublin in 1831. Though not a great
+philosopher, he was an acute logician, and his _Logic_, published in
+1826, entitled him to a high place among the thinkers of his generation.
+But it was not merely as a teacher and writer that Whately promoted the
+cause of philosophy in Oxford. He was one of the leaders in that
+organisation of studies which made philosophy one of the principal
+studies, if not the principal study, of the abler students in that
+university, and gave elementary logic a place in the ordinary
+"pass-man's" curriculum.
+
+The best work of Maria Edgeworth and Jane Austen appeared in the early
+part of the nineteenth century. Maria Edgeworth's novel, _Castle
+Rackrent_, was published in 1800, and rapidly followed by other tales
+descriptive of Irish life; four of Jane Austen's novels, _Sense and
+Sensibility_, _Pride and Prejudice_, _Mansfield Park_, and _Emma_, were
+published between 1811 and 1816, while _Northanger Abbey_ and
+_Persuasion_ appeared after her death in 1817. All her work displays a
+power of minute analysis of character shared by few, if any, of our
+other novelists. Both authors deserve gratitude not only for having
+inspired Scott with a new idea of novel-writing, but for having
+exercised a purifying influence on the moral tone of English romance.
+
+The most typical feature of English literature in the earlier years of
+the nineteenth century was the extraordinary development of the
+periodical and newspaper press. The eighteenth century was the golden
+age of pamphlets. When the "governing classes" represented but a
+fraction of the population, mostly concentrated in London, the practical
+effect of such political appeals as those issued by Swift or Burke was
+incredibly great, and not to be measured by their limited circulation.
+The rise of journalism as a power in politics may be roughly dated from
+the notoriety of Wilkes' _North Briton_, and of the letters of "Junius"
+in the _Public Advertiser_. Thenceforward, newspapers, at first mere
+chronicles of passing events, inevitably grew to be organs of political
+opinion, and had now almost superseded pamphlets, as addressed to a far
+larger circle of readers. Notwithstanding the heavy stamp duties, as
+well as duties on paper and advertisements, six daily journals were
+published in London, of which the _Times_ was already the greatest.
+Cobbett's _Weekly Political Register_, commenced in 1802, was diffusing
+new ideas among the middle classes, but it was not yet committed to
+radicalism, and did not win its way into cottages until its price was
+greatly reduced in 1816. After Cobbett's death in 1835, it ceased to
+appear. Still the ice was broken, and, as the educated public recovered
+from the panic caused by the French revolution, the newspaper press
+became a potent and independent rival of parliament and the platform.
+
+[Pageheading: _EDINBURGH AND QUARTERLY REVIEWS._]
+
+But the influence of the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_ was perhaps
+even greater among readers of the highest intelligence. The first of
+these was founded in 1802 by Jeffrey, Brougham, Horner, and Sydney
+Smith, but was supported at first by Scott and other able contributors.
+So remarkable a body of writers must have commanded attention in any
+age, but at a time when the only periodicals were annuals and
+miscellanies, the literary vigour and range of knowledge displayed by
+the new review carried all before it. For several years it had an unique
+success, but, as it identified itself more and more with the whig party,
+Canning, with the aid of Scott, determined to challenge its supremacy by
+establishing a new review to be called the _Quarterly_. Scott was
+finally estranged from the _Edinburgh_ by an article against the war of
+independence in Spain, and the first number of the _Quarterly_ appeared
+in February, 1809, with three articles by him. It was published by John
+Murray, and edited by Gifford, on much the same lines as the
+_Edinburgh_, but with a strong tory bias, and with somewhat less of
+literary brilliancy. _Blackwood's Magazine_ followed a few years later,
+and the almost classical dualism of the _Quarterly_ and _Edinburgh_ has
+long since been invaded by a multitude of younger serials.
+
+After the loss of its early monopoly of talent, the _Edinburgh Review_
+still retained Jeffrey and Sydney Smith, and it was abundantly
+compensated for the loss of Scott by the acquisition in 1825 of the
+fluent pen of Macaulay. Born in 1800, the son of Zachary Macaulay, who
+like many other philanthropists was on the tory side, he was early
+converted to the whig party. He was well fitted to be a popular writer.
+His thought, never deep, is always clear and vivid. None knew better how
+to seize a dramatic incident or a picturesque simile, or to strike the
+weak points in his adversary's armour. It has been said of him that he
+always chose to storm a position by a cavalry charge, certainly the most
+imposing if not the most effective method. Many of his contributions to
+the _Edinburgh Review_ were afterwards republished as _Essays_, and
+already in those earlier essays which appeared before 1837, we can see
+him assuming the _rôle_ of the historical champion of the whigs. Widely
+read and with a marvellous memory, he was generally accurate in his
+facts, but his criticism of Gladstone applies with even greater force to
+himself: "There is no want of light, but a great want of what Bacon
+would have called dry light. Whatever Mr. Gladstone sees is refracted
+and distorted by a false medium of passions and prejudices." The critic
+is sunk in the advocate, and even a good cause is spoiled by a too
+obvious reluctance to admit anything that comes from the other side.
+Perhaps his happiest, though far from his greatest, work is to be found
+in the stirring ballads of _Ivry_ and the _Armada_, the precursors of
+the _Lays of Ancient Rome_. Deservedly popular and full of patriotic
+fire, the class of literature to which they belong renders questions of
+fairness or unfairness beside the point.
+
+Another contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, also famous as a
+historian, was Thomas Carlyle. He was born in 1795 at Ecclefechan in
+Dumfriesshire, and wrote for Brewster's _Encyclopædia_ and the _London
+Magazine_ as well as the _Edinburgh_. In 1826 he married Jane Welsh, and
+in 1828 he retired from journalism to live humbly on her means. It was
+now that he began to produce his best work. _Sartor Resartus_ appeared
+in 1833-34, and the _History of the French Revolution_ in 1837. Even in
+the latter of these works he is as much a preacher as a historian.
+Perhaps no other writer of the age exercised a greater direct influence,
+and in his own country, which seems specially amenable to the preacher's
+powers, his message has been as effective in favour of broader views as
+the disruption of the Church of Scotland in 1843 was in favour of the
+old orthodoxy. His teaching has its roots in a German soil, but it bears
+the mark of his own strong personality. His style, with a wilful
+ruggedness, displays the German taste for the humour of an incongruous
+homeliness, where the subject seems to call for a more dignified
+treatment. Perhaps this obvious falseness of expression only relieves
+the weight of his stern earnestness of purpose and makes us the more
+ready to join in his constant denunciation of everything hollow and
+pretentious.
+
+[Pageheading: _LAMB._]
+
+Two new magazines appeared in or about 1817, _Blackwood's_ and the
+_London_. Brilliant as the leading contributors to the former were, none
+of them perhaps can claim a place in the front rank of English
+literature. Of the contributors to the _London_ Lamb is doubtless
+entitled to the first place. Born in 1775, he was employed as a clerk in
+the East India House from 1792 to 1825. He was a schoolfellow of
+Coleridge and contributed to his earlier volume of poems It is, however,
+to the _Essays of Elia_ that he owes his fame. These appeared in the
+_London Magazine_ and were published in a collected form after his death
+in 1834. Few authors that have been so much admired have exercised so
+little influence. The reason for this is not far to seek. His style
+defies imitation, and he would have been the last man to endeavour to
+win disciples to his opinions. Another essayist who belongs to the same
+group of writers as Coleridge and Lamb is Thomas de Quincey. He wrote
+both for _Blackwood's_ and for the _London Magazine_, in the latter of
+which appeared in 1821 his best known work, the _Confessions of an
+English Opium Eater_. He excelled in what was the dominant
+characteristic of English prose of this period, in imagery, a quality
+which is conspicuous in the light fancy of Coleridge's most famous
+poems, and which gives life to an author so uniformly in dead earnest as
+Macaulay. Viewed historically, this taste for imagery is the English
+side of the romantic movement, which in Germany reacted against the
+conventional, not only in works of the imagination, but in the heavier
+form of new philosophical systems. But these systems, in spite of
+Coleridge, never became native in England. The growth of the scientific
+spirit has made such thought and such language seem unreal in serious
+literature, and prevents a later generation from imitating, though not
+from admiring, the brilliance of the early essayists.
+
+Hazlitt's genius was of a heavier type. As an essayist his work breathes
+the spirit of an earlier age; but as a literary critic he is a leader,
+and displays an inwardness in his appreciation that makes him in a sense
+the model of the new age in which criticism has so largely supplanted
+creation. It may be doubted, however, whether the abnormal growth of
+criticism, as a distinct branch of English letters, has been a benefit
+on the whole to our literature. Certainly it has tended to substitute
+the elaborate study of other men's thoughts for original production,
+and, after all, the greatest critics have been those who, being more
+than critics, have shown themselves capable of constructive efforts.
+
+Two statesmen-novelists, Bulwer and Disraeli, are among the most
+interesting literary characters of the end of this period. The former of
+these, like his French contemporary Victor Hugo, had a remarkable gift
+for expressing each successive phase of popular taste. He resembled
+Disraeli in acquiring a pre-eminent position in letters in early youth,
+which was followed by political success at a later age. Though neither
+rose to cabinet rank before a time of life which must with literary men
+rank as "middle age," Bulwer had, in the midst of an active
+parliamentary career, been an active novelist, in fact the most popular
+novelist of his day. Disraeli, on the other hand, only entered
+parliament after the close of the period dealt with in this volume, and
+it is to this period, while he was still unknown to politics, that the
+greater part of his literary work belongs. One other resemblance between
+these writers is perhaps not less interesting to the historian than to
+the critic. Both made use of literature to establish for themselves a
+reputation as "men of the world," an ambition which Bulwer's social
+position might easily justify, and without which it would be impossible
+to understand the career of Disraeli. Born in 1803 and 1804
+respectively, both made their mark with their first novels in 1827,
+Bulwer with _Falkland_, Disraeli with a work in which his own career has
+been supposed to be foreshadowed--_Vivian Grey_. One other great
+novelist had appeared before the close of the reign of William IV. In
+1836 Charles Dickens produced _Sketches by Boz_ and began the _Pickwick
+Papers_, but he belongs properly to the next reign.
+
+Among the historians of this period the first place undoubtedly belongs
+to Henry Hallam. Born in 1788, he produced his _View of the State of
+Europe during the Middle Ages_ in 1818, and his _Constitutional History
+of England_ in 1827, while his _Introduction to the Literature of
+Europe_ began to appear in 1837. Like Macaulay he represents the whig
+attitude towards politics, but does so less consciously and less
+emphatically than his younger contemporary. There is a sense in which no
+constitutional historian has adopted so strictly legal an attitude. It
+is not merely that his interest centres on the legal side of the
+constitution, but, lawyer-like, he judges every constitutional issue of
+the past in the light of the legal system which the law of his own day
+presupposes for the date in question. No one can deny the validity of
+this principle in a court of justice, but no one gifted either with
+historical imagination or with historical sympathy could wish to
+introduce it into a historical work. Yet the very narrowness of his
+outlook made it easier for him to adopt the impartiality of a judge; his
+criterion of justice is too definite to allow him to indulge in special
+pleading or to twist facts to suit his theories; and the student still
+turns to Hallam with a sense of security which he does not feel in
+reading Macaulay or Carlyle.
+
+[Pageheading: _FINE ART._]
+
+The fine arts cannot be said to have flourished in England during the
+period of the great war, and architecture was certainly at a low ebb,
+but several eminent names belong to this period. Sir Thomas Lawrence was
+by far the foremost English portrait painter, and fitly represents the
+elegance of the regency, while Raeburn enjoyed an equal reputation in
+Scotland. Turner, however, was painting in his earlier manner and
+showing originality even in his imitations of old masters. Constable,
+too, was producing some of those quiet English landscapes which, though
+little appreciated at the time, have since made him famous. Two other
+English landscape painters, Callcott and the elder Crome, were also in
+their prime, and Wilkie executed several of his best known masterpieces
+at this time. David Cox and Prout did not earn celebrity till a little
+later. The Water-Colour Society was founded in 1804. Soon afterwards
+Flaxman was in the zenith of his fame, being elected professor of
+sculpture by the Royal Academy in 1810, and Chantrey was beginning to
+desert portrait painting for statuary.
+
+Science, especially in its practical applications, made greater strides
+than art in the early years of the nineteenth century. It was now that
+Jenner's memorable discovery of vaccination, dating from 1796, was
+generally adopted by the medical profession. In 1802 his claim to
+priority was recognised by a parliamentary committee, with the result
+that £10,000 were then voted to him, and a further grant of £20,000 was
+made in 1807, when vaccination was established at the Small-pox
+Hospital. In 1814, George Stephenson, after many preliminary
+experiments, made a successful trial of his first locomotive engine. In
+1812, Bell's steamboat, the _Comet_ made its first voyage on the Clyde,
+and the development of steam navigation proceeded more rapidly than that
+of steam locomotion by land. Sir Humphry Davy began his researches in
+1800, and took part in that year, with Count Rumford and Sir Joseph
+Banks, in founding the Royal Institution. His invention of the safety
+lamp was not matured until 1815.
+
+But if the principal contributions of England to physical science in the
+early years of the century were mainly in the direction of practical
+application, her contributions to pure theory under the regency and in
+the reign of William IV. were no less distinguished. Sir John Herschel,
+following in the footsteps of his father, began in 1824 his observations
+on double stars and his researches upon the parallax of fixed stars,
+while Sir George Airy published in 1826 his mathematical treatises on
+lunar and planetary theory. In Michael Faraday England possessed at once
+an eminent chemist and the greatest electrician of the age. The
+discovery of benzine and the liquefaction of numerous gases were
+followed by an investigation of electric currents, and in 1831 by the
+crowning discovery of induction. Not less valuable perhaps than these
+discoveries of his own were the fertile suggestions which he left to
+others. William Smith, sometimes called the father of modern English
+geology, vigorously followed up the work of James Hutton by publishing
+in 1815 his great map of English _strata_ as identified by fossils.
+Charles Lyell's _Principles of Geology_ marks a great advance in
+geological science. In this book, which appeared in 1833, the author
+advanced the view, now universally accepted, that the great geological
+changes of the past are not to be explained as catastrophes, followed by
+successive creations, but as the product of the continuous play of
+forces still at work. This theory contained all that was vital in the
+doctrine of evolution; but it was only at a later date, when the
+doctrine had become the property of zoologists as well as geologists and
+had been popularised by Darwin, that it came to exercise an influence
+over non-scientific thought.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY REFORM._]
+
+A review of the literary and scientific progress of this period would be
+incomplete without some notice of progress in higher education. The
+universities of Oxford and Cambridge with their numerous colleges had in
+the eighteenth century lapsed into that lethargic condition which seemed
+to be the common fate of all corporations. They had to a certain extent
+ceased to be seats of learning. At Oxford the limitations imposed upon
+colleges by statute or custom in elections to fellowships and
+scholarships ensured the mediocrity of the teachers and gave the
+preference to mediocrities among the students. Where emoluments were not
+so restricted they were generally awarded by interest rather than by
+merit; and it was even the case that a scholarship at Winchester,
+carrying with it the right to a fellowship at New College, was often
+promised to an infant only a few days old. The Oxford examination system
+had not been reformed since the time of Laud, and the degree
+examinations had degenerated into mere formalities until the university
+in 1800 adopted a new examination statute, mainly under the influence of
+Dr. Eveleigh, provost of Oriel. The new statute, which came into
+operation in 1802, granted honours to the better students of each year.
+The number of candidates to whom honours were granted, at first very
+small, rapidly increased till in 1837 about 130 received honours in a
+single year. The attention which the examination system received from
+the hebdomadal board, so often accused of sluggishness, is proved by the
+frequent changes in the regulations, which among other things
+differentiated between honours in "Literæ Humaniores" and in mathematics
+in 1807, and separated the honours and pass examinations in 1830. The
+same desire to encourage meritorious students showed itself in the
+institution of competitive examinations for fellowships, in which Oriel
+led the way. It was followed in 1817 by Balliol, which in 1827 threw
+open its scholarships as well. It was not, however, till the reign of
+Queen Victoria that the college statutes as a whole were so modified as
+to make open competition possible in more than a very few instances.
+
+Cambridge suffered less than Oxford from restrictions as to the choice
+of fellows. In fact the majority of the fellowships, more especially of
+those which carried with them a vote in the government of the colleges,
+were, so far as the statutes went, open to all comers. Though the course
+of study was still nominally regulated by statutes dating from the Tudor
+period, which it would often have been ludicrous to enforce, an
+effective stimulus was given to mathematical studies by the mathematical
+tripos, which had existed from the middle of the eighteenth century,
+and to which in 1824 a classical tripos was added. The ground covered by
+these honour examinations was certainly narrower than that which lay
+within the scope of the corresponding examinations at Oxford, but at
+both places the studies of most undergraduates were still directed more
+by the judgment of their tutors than by the regulations of the
+university.
+
+These two universities were, however, subject to two limitations, which
+prevented them from providing a higher education for all aspiring
+students. The expense of living at Oxford and Cambridge, and the close
+connexion of both universities with the Church of England, rendered them
+difficult of access to many. These limitations were emphasised by the
+fact that Scotland possessed five universities which were the opposite
+of the English in both respects, and not a few English students could
+always be found at the Scottish seats of learning. The reform ministry
+made a serious effort to remove or alleviate the grievances of
+dissenters. Among other reforms mooted was the abolition of theological
+tests for matriculation and graduation. In 1834 a bill, which proposed
+to effect this change, but which left intact such tests as existed for
+fellowships and professorships, passed its second reading in the commons
+by a majority of 321 against 174, and its third reading by 164 against
+75. It was, however, thrown out on the second reading in the lords by
+187 votes against 85. Though in this particular case the demands of the
+dissenters were moderate, they were themselves opposed to other measures
+introduced for their benefit, and the question of tests at Oxford and
+Cambridge was not unnaturally allowed to rest for another twenty years.
+
+[Pageheading: _UNIVERSITY OF LONDON._]
+
+It was only in the reign of George IV. that anything was done to provide
+a university education for those who were unable to proceed to the
+ancient seats of learning. But the movement, once started, progressed
+rapidly. The oldest of the university colleges, as they are now called,
+is St. David's College, Lampeter, which was founded in 1822, mainly
+through the exertions of Dr. Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St. David's, who
+was supported by many others among the Welsh clergy. The college was
+opened in 1827, but at first it had no power of conferring degrees, and
+contented itself with the education of candidates for holy orders. A
+more important movement was initiated in 1825. In a public letter
+written by the poet Campbell to Brougham, the project of founding a
+university of London, which should be free from denominational
+restrictions, was advocated. The scheme was warmly embraced by many
+whose names are found associated with other movements of the times.
+Among them were Hume, Grote, Zachary Macaulay, Dudley, and Russell. A
+large proportion of the promoters of the new university had been
+educated at Scottish universities, and had therefore a clear idea of the
+type of university which they might establish, and the movement,
+although started primarily in the interests of dissenters, received the
+support of many who still valued the connexion of the universities with
+the Church. The "London University," as it was called, was opened in
+1828, when classes were formed in arts, law, and medicine, but not in
+divinity. It was technically a joint-stock company, and the attempt of
+the shareholders to obtain a charter of incorporation was successfully
+resisted by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge.
+
+Meanwhile some of the original supporters of the movement, regarding the
+non-religious character of the new university with suspicion, had
+decided to transfer their support to a new college, where the doctrine
+and worship of the Church of England should be recognised. The Duke of
+Wellington took a lively interest in this movement, and King George
+IV.'s patronage gave the new institution the name of "King's College".
+There seemed every reason to expect that the foundation would be on a
+munificent scale, when Wellington's acceptance of catholic emancipation
+offended many of the subscribers so deeply that they immediately
+withdrew from the undertaking, and the college was in consequence left
+almost entirely without endowment. State recognition, however, was given
+it from the first. It was incorporated in 1829, and opened in 1831. In
+1835 the demand of "London University" for a charter received the
+support of the house of commons, and Lord Melbourne's government decided
+to propose a compromise, by which the so-called "London University" was
+to be converted into University College, and an examining body was to be
+created under the title of the University of London, while the work of
+teaching was to be performed by University College, King's College, and
+other colleges, which might from time to time be named by the crown.
+These terms were accepted by the existing "university," and charters
+were given to the new university and to University College, London, in
+1836. It was thus left open to students or their parents to select
+either a denominational or an undenominational college, according to
+their preference.
+
+Meanwhile another university had been founded in the north of England.
+The dean and chapter of Durham had determined to set aside a part of
+their emoluments for the foundation of a university, and the bishop had
+undertaken to assist them by attaching prebendal stalls in the cathedral
+to some of the professorships. An act of parliament was obtained in
+1832, authorising the establishment of the new university, which was
+opened in October, 1833, and was incorporated by a royal charter on June
+1, 1837. As an ecclesiastical foundation, the university of Durham was
+of course in the closest connexion with the established Church.
+
+None of these new foundations could compare in respect of endowments
+with the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge, yet it was not
+altogether without reason that the founders of University College,
+London, hoped to give as good an education at a greatly reduced cost. It
+must be remembered that only a small fraction of the endowments of the
+old universities and their colleges was at this time applied to strictly
+educational purposes, and, until they should either be reformed or
+become more sensible of their opportunities, there was a fair field for
+an energetic rival.
+
+The beginning of the nineteenth century witnessed a marvellous expansion
+of manufacturing industry, not so much caused by new discoveries as by
+the energetic application of those made at the end of the last century,
+by the growth of the factory-system, and, above all, by the monopoly of
+English-made goods during the great war. The innovation of
+machine-spinning and weaving by power-looms had an instant effect in
+stimulating and cheapening the production of cottons, but that of
+woollens, cramped by heavy duties on the raw material, languished for
+some time longer under traditional methods of handspinning. When
+stocking-frames and other forms of machinery penetrated at last into its
+strongholds in the West Riding of Yorkshire and in the midland counties,
+the demand for "hands" was inevitably reduced, and "frame-breaking"
+riots ensued, which lasted for several years. From this period dates the
+industrial revolution which gradually abolished domestic industries,
+separated mill-owners and mill-hands into almost hostile classes,
+undermined the system of apprenticeship, and brought about a large
+migration of manufactures from centres with abundant water-power to
+centres in close proximity to coal-fields.
+
+[Pageheading: _PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE._]
+
+The progress of British agriculture during the period under review was
+almost as marked as that of British manufactures. Under the impulse of
+war prices, and of the improvements adopted at the end of the eighteenth
+century, the home-production of corn almost kept pace with the growing
+consumption, and between 1801 and 1815 little more than 500,000 quarters
+of imported corn were required annually to feed the population. No
+doubt, when the price of bread might rise to famine-point, the
+consumption of it fell to a minimum per head; still, the rural
+population continued to multiply, though not so rapidly as the urban
+population, and neither could have been maintained without a constant
+increase in the production of the soil. This result was due to a
+progressive extension of enclosure and drainage, as well as to wise
+innovations in the practice of agriculture. Not the least important of
+such innovations was the destruction of useless fences and straggling
+hedge-rows, the multitude and irregular outlines of which had long been
+a picturesque but wasteful feature of old-fashioned English farming.
+This was the age, too, in which many a small farm vanished by
+consolidation, and many an ancient pasture was recklessly broken up,
+some of which, though once more covered with green sward, have never
+recovered their original fertility. Happily, the use of crushed bones
+for manure was introduced in 1800, and the efforts of the national board
+of agriculture, aided by the discoveries of Sir Humphry Davy, brought
+about a far more general application of chemical science to agriculture,
+partly compensating for the exhaustion of the soil under successive
+wheat crops. Not less remarkable was the effect of mechanical science in
+the development of new agricultural implements, which, however, retained
+a comparatively rude form of construction. The Highland Society of
+Scotland took a leading part in encouraging these gradual experiments in
+tillage, as well as in the breeding of sheep and cattle, with a special
+regard to early maturity. Had the farmers of Great Britain during the
+great war possessed no more skill than their grandfathers, it would have
+been impossible for the soil of this island to have so nearly supported
+its inhabitants before the ports were freely thrown open.
+
+The great triumphs of engineering in the fifteen years before the battle
+of Waterloo were mainly achieved in facilitating locomotion, and are
+specially associated with the name of Telford. It was he who, following
+in the footsteps of Brindley and Smeaton, constructed the Ellesmere and
+Caledonian Canals; he far eclipsed the fame of General Wade by opening
+out roads and bridges in the highlands, and first adopted sound
+principles of road-making both in England and Wales, afterwards to be
+applied with marvellous success by Macadam. It is some proof of the
+impulse given to land-travelling by such improvements that 1,355 public
+stage-coaches were assessed in 1812, and that a rate of speed little
+short of ten miles an hour was attained by the lighter vehicles. But
+Telford's labours were not confined to roads or bridges; they extended
+also to harbours and to canals, which continued to be the great arteries
+of heavy traffic until the development of railways. The new power
+destined to supersede both coaches and barges was first recognised
+practically when Bell's little steam vessel the _Comet_ was navigated
+down the Clyde in 1812, to be followed not many years later by a
+steamship capable of crossing the Atlantic Ocean. In a few years steam
+packets were numerous, but it was not till well into the reign of
+Victoria that steam navigation was used in the royal navy.
+
+[Pageheading: _RAILWAYS._]
+
+The most conspicuous improvement in the social and economic condition of
+the country between 1815 and 1837 is undoubtedly the invention of the
+steam locomotive engine. A few steam locomotives had been invented
+before the former date, but they had met with little success and were as
+yet more costly than horse traction. It was only in or about the year
+1815 that George Stephenson, enginewright in Killingworth colliery,
+succeeded in inventing a locomotive engine which was cheaper than
+horse-power. The value of railways was by this time better understood.
+Short railways worked by horses were common in the neighbourhood of
+collieries, and a few existed elsewhere. In 1821 Edward Pease obtained
+parliamentary powers to construct a railway between Stockton and
+Darlington. A visit to Killingworth persuaded him to make use of
+steam-power. In 1823 an act authorising the use of steam on the proposed
+railway was carried, and in 1825 the railway was opened. In 1826 an act
+was passed for the construction of a railway between Liverpool and
+Manchester. Stephenson was employed as engineer to make the line, and
+his success as a road-making engineer proved equal to his brilliance as
+a mechanical inventor.
+
+In 1829 the line was completed. The directors were at first strongly
+opposed to the use of steam-locomotion, but were induced by Stephenson,
+before finally rejecting the idea, to offer a reward of £500 for the
+best locomotive that could be made. Of four engines which were entered
+for the competition, Stephenson's _Rocket_ was the only one that would
+move, and it proved able to travel at the rate of thirty-five miles an
+hour. The opening of the railway in 1830, and the fatal accident to Mr.
+Huskisson which attended it, have been noticed already. The accident did
+more to attract attention to the power of the locomotive than to
+discredit it. The opposition to railways was not, however, at an end. A
+proposal for a railway between London and Birmingham was carried through
+parliament, only after a struggle of some years' duration, but the
+construction of the line was at length authorised in 1833. The English
+railway system now developed with great rapidity, and by the end of the
+reign of William IV. lines had been authorised which would when complete
+form a system, joining London with Dover, Southampton, and Bristol, and
+both London and Bristol with Birmingham, whence lines were to run to the
+most important places in Yorkshire and Lancashire, and on to Darlington.
+Numerous small lines served other portions of the country, partly in
+connexion with these, but more often independently.
+
+Among the more conspicuous metropolitan improvements of this age may be
+mentioned the introduction of gas and the incipient construction of new
+bridges over the Thames, in which the engineer Rennie took a leading
+part. Before the end of the eighteenth century the workshops of Boulton
+and Watt had been lit by gas, and Soho was illuminated by it to
+celebrate the peace of Amiens. By 1807 it was used in Golden Lane, and
+by 1809, if not earlier, it had reached Pall Mall, but it scarcely
+became general in London until somewhat later. At the beginning of the
+century the metropolis possessed but three bridges, old London bridge
+and the old bridges at Blackfriars and Westminster. The first stone of
+the Strand Bridge (afterwards to be called Waterloo Bridge) was laid on
+October 11, 1811, and Southwark Bridge was commenced in 1814, but these
+bridges were not completed till 1817 and 1819 respectively. The existing
+London Bridge, designed by Rennie, but built after his death, was
+completed in 1831. In 1812, the architect Nash was employed in laying
+out the Regent's Park, and in 1813 an act was passed for the
+construction of Regent Street, as a grand line of communication between
+it and Carlton House, the residence of the regent.
+
+The work of geographical discovery had been well commenced before the
+end of the eighteenth century, and was inevitably checked during the
+great war. The wonderful voyages of Cook had revealed Australia and New
+Zealand; Flinders had carried on the survey of the Australian coast;
+Vancouver had explored the great island which bears his name with the
+adjacent shores; Rennell had produced his great map of India; Bruce had
+published his celebrated travels in Abyssinia; and an association had
+been formed to dispel the darkness that hung over the whole interior of
+Africa. Among its first emissaries was Mungo Park, who afterwards was
+employed by the British government, and died in the course of his second
+expedition in 1805-6. The idea of Arctic discovery was revived early in
+the nineteenth century, and was no longer confined to commercial aims,
+such as the opening of a north-east or north-west passage, but was
+rather directed to scientific objects, not without the hope of reaching
+the North Pole itself. Meanwhile, the ordnance survey of Great Britain
+itself was in full progress, and that of British India was commenced in
+1802, while the hydrographical department of the admiralty, established
+in 1795, was organising the system of marine-surveying which has since
+yielded such valuable fruits.
+
+The progress of philanthropy, based on religious sentiment was very
+marked during the later years of the war. The institution of Sunday
+schools between 1780 and 1790 had awakened a new sense of duty towards
+children in the community, and the growing use of child-labour, keeping
+pace with the constant increase of machinery, forced upon the public
+the necessity of legislative restrictions, which have been noticed in an
+earlier chapter. Banks of savings, the forerunners of savings banks
+under parliamentary regulation, had been suggested by Jeremy Bentham,
+and one at least was instituted in 1802. The idea of penitentiaries, for
+the reformation as well as for the punishment of criminals, had
+originated with the great philanthropist, John Howard. It was adopted
+and popularised by Jeremy Bentham, and might have been further developed
+but for the introduction of transportation, which promised the
+well-conducted convict the prospect of a new life in a new country.
+Meanwhile, prison reform became a favourite study of benevolent
+theorists in an age when the criminal law was still a relic of
+barbarism, when highway robbery was rife in the neighbourhood of London,
+when sanitation was hardly in its infancy, when pauperism was fostered
+by the poor law, and when the working classes in towns were huddled
+together, without legal check or moral scruple, in undrained courts and
+underground cellars. So capricious and shortsighted is the public
+conscience in its treatment of social evils.
+
+[Pageheading: _CANADA._]
+
+At the opening of the nineteenth century the colonial empire of Great
+Britain was in a transitional state. The secession of thirteen American
+colonies had not only robbed the mother country of its proudest
+inheritance, but had also shattered the old colonial system of
+commercial monopoly for the supposed benefit of British interests. Its
+immediate effect was to annul the navigation act as affecting American
+trade, which became free to all the world, and by which Great Britain
+itself profited largely. Canada at once gained a new importance, and a
+new sense of nationality, which Pitt recognised by dividing it into two
+provinces, and giving each a considerable measure of independence, both
+political and commercial. It was troubled by the presence of a conquered
+race of white colonists side by side with new colonists of English
+blood, who were, however, united in their resistance to the revolted
+colonies in the war of 1812-14. After the war a steady stream of
+immigration poured into Canada. In 1816 the population was estimated at
+450,000; between 1819 and 1829 Canada received 126,000 immigrants from
+England, and during the next ten years 320,000. The result was that the
+French element ceased to be preponderant, except in Lower Canada. The
+French Canadians felt that they did not enjoy their share of the
+confidence of government; the home government, ready enough to grant any
+favour that home opinion would permit, was trammelled by a public
+opinion, which suspected all who were of a French origin of a desire to
+restore the supremacy of the Roman Catholic religion and to assert
+political independence. A vacillating policy was the result, which only
+increased suspicions, and led in the first year of the reign of Victoria
+to a civil war.
+
+In the Mauritius and the West Indies the one event of importance in this
+period is the abolition of slavery. It was found impossible to obtain
+from free negroes as much work as had been obtained from slaves, and
+their place had to be supplied by Indian coolies in the Mauritius, and
+by Chinese in Jamaica. At the same time the West Indies had begun to
+suffer from the competition of the United States.
+
+The colony of the Cape of Good Hope was still peopled almost entirely by
+blacks or by the descendants of Dutch settlers, known as _boers_, or
+peasants. Four thousand British colonists went out in 1820 to Algoa Bay,
+but these were a mere handful compared with the Dutch. Unfortunately the
+government adopted a line of policy which produced great irritation in
+the Dutch population. They were granted no self-government, and in 1826
+English judicial forms were introduced, and English was declared the
+sole official language. The reform administration made matters worse by
+defending the blacks against the boers. In 1834 it set free the slaves,
+offering £1,200,000, payable in London, very little of which ever
+reached the boers, as compensation for slaves valued at £3,000,000. A
+Kaffir war in 1834 had led to the conquest of Kaffraria, but in 1835 the
+home government restored the independence of the Kaffirs, and appointed
+a lieutenant-governor to defend their rights. After this the boers
+considered their position intolerable, and in 1835 began their first
+"trek" into the country now known as Natal.
+
+[Pageheading: _AUSTRALIA._]
+
+Meanwhile, the great discoveries of Captain Cook, and the first
+settlement of New South Wales, brought within view a possible extension
+of our colonial dominion, which might go far to compensate for its
+losses on the North American continent. Governor Phillip had been sent
+out by Pitt to Botany Bay in 1787-88, but it was many years before the
+earliest of Australian colonies outgrew the character of a penal refuge
+for English convicts. The first convict establishments were at Sydney
+and Norfolk Island, but another settlement was founded on Van Diemen's
+Land in 1805, and in 1807, after this island had been circumnavigated by
+Flinders and Bass, it became the headquarters of that convict system,
+whose horrors are not yet forgotten. Between 1810 and 1822 the resources
+of New South Wales were vastly developed by the energetic policy of
+Governor Macquarie. While his efforts to utilise convict labour, and to
+educate convicts into free men, may have retarded the influx of genuine
+colonists, he prepared the way for settlement by constructing roads,
+promoting exploration, and raising public buildings, so that when he
+returned home the population of New South Wales had increased fourfold,
+and its settled territory in a much greater proportion. This territory
+comprised all English settlements on the east coast, and included large
+tracts of what is now known as Queensland, which did not become a
+separate colony until 1859.
+
+The early history of Australia, it has been said, is chiefly a tale of
+convict settlements, bush-ranging, and expeditions of discovery. There
+is much truth in this saying, but the real basis of Australian
+prosperity was the introduction of sheep-farming on a large scale, after
+the merino-breed had been imported and acclimatised by Macarthur at the
+beginning of the century. Long before the region stretching northward
+from the later Port Phillip grew into the colony of Victoria,
+sheep-owners were spreading over the vast pastures of the interior,
+though many years elapsed before the explorer Sturt opened out the great
+provinces further westward.
+
+The development of Australia made rapid progress during the generation
+following the great war. Though Australia itself and Van Diemen's Land,
+now called Tasmania, were still in the main convict settlements, free
+settlers had been arriving at Sydney for some time, and in 1817 they
+began to arrive in moderate numbers in Van Diemen's Land. In 1825 that
+island had sufficiently progressed to be recognised as a separate
+colony. The attempt to found a colony in western Australia in 1829 was,
+on the other hand, an almost complete failure. But in 1824 a new centre
+of colonisation in New South Wales had been established at Port
+Phillip. Meanwhile a sharp cleavage of parties had arisen. The convicts
+and poorer colonists were opposed to the large sheep-owners, who were
+endeavouring to form an aristocracy. Governor Macquarie favoured the
+convicts, and Governor Darling (1825-31) the sheep-owners. In 1823 a
+legislative council, consisting of seven officials, had been instituted;
+in 1828 it was developed into one of fifteen members, chosen entirely
+from among the wealthiest colonists.
+
+Gibbon Wakefield's _Letter from Sydney_, published in 1829, marks an
+epoch in the history of Australian colonisation. In this work he
+proposed that the land should be sold in small lots at a fairly high
+price to settlers, and that the proceeds of the sales should be used to
+pay the passage of emigrants going out as labourers. This idea had
+hardly been published when it was adopted by the home government, and
+five shillings an acre was fixed as the minimum price of land. The
+number of emigrants increased rapidly, but the new system threatened
+ruin to the owners of sheep-runs. Unable to pay the stipulated price,
+they only moved further into the interior and occupied fresh land
+without seeking government permission, an unlicensed occupation which
+has left its mark upon the language in the word "squatter". At last in
+1837 a compromise was arranged, by which the squatters were to pay a
+small rent for their runs, the crown retaining the freehold with the
+right to sell it to others at some future date. In 1834 the British
+government sanctioned the formation of a new colony, that of South
+Australia. It was to be settled from the outset on the Wakefield system,
+and no convicts were ever sent to it. The first lots were sold as high
+as twelve shillings an acre, and in 1836 a company of emigrants went out
+and founded Adelaide.
+
+
+
+
+ APPENDICES.
+
+ I. ON AUTHORITIES.
+
+ II. ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+
+
+ APPENDIX I.
+
+ ON AUTHORITIES.[141]
+
+
+(1) General histories of England for the period 1801-1837: MASSEY,
+_History of England during the Reign of George the Third_ (4 vols., 2nd
+ed., 1865), closes with the treaty of Amiens in 1802, and therefore
+barely touches this period. There is still room for a general history of
+England on an adequate scale between 1802 and 1815. After that date we
+have HARRIET MARTINEAU, _History of England during the Thirty Years'
+Peace_ (1816-1846, 2 vols., 1849, 1850). This was begun by Charles
+Knight, the publisher, who brought it down to 1819. From 1820 onwards it
+is Miss Martineau's own work. It is too nearly contemporary to depend on
+any authorities except such as were published at the time, and it
+represents in the main the popular view of public events and public men
+held by liberals at the time. Sir SPENCER WALPOLE'S _History of England
+from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815_ (6 vols., revised ed.,
+1890), a work of high quality and thoroughly trustworthy, full of
+references to the best published authorities, sympathises with the whigs
+and more liberal tories. Reference is sometimes made in this volume to
+GOLDWIN SMITH, _The United Kingdom, a Political History_ (2 vols.,
+1899), but the work is too slight to be regarded as an authority. Sir T.
+E. MAY'S (Lord Farnborough) _Constitutional History of England from 1760
+to 1860_ (3 vols., 10th ed., 1891) is also useful.
+
+(2) The _Annual Register_ is probably the most useful authority for this
+period. In addition to more general information, it contains a very full
+report of the more important parliamentary debates and the text of the
+principal public treaties and of numerous other state papers. The
+narrative is not often coloured by the political partisanship of the
+writer, but allowance must be made for the strong tory bias of the
+volumes dealing with the reign of William IV. The _Parliamentary
+History_ closes in 1803, at which date Cobbett's _Parliamentary
+Debates_ had begun to appear. After 1812 Cobbett ceased to superintend
+the work and his name was dropped, and in 1813 and afterwards the
+title-page acknowledged that the work was "published under the
+superintendence of T. C. Hansard," who had also been the publisher of
+Cobbett's series and of the _Parliamentary History_.
+
+[Pageheading: _MEMOIRS AND CORRESPONDENCE._]
+
+(3) Political and other memoirs and printed correspondence. The
+following have been noticed among the authorities for volume x.: PELLEW,
+_Life and Correspondence of H. Addington, Viscount Sidmouth_ (3 vols.,
+1847), very full wherever Sidmouth was directly concerned, written with
+a strong bias in favour of the subject of the biography. Lord STANHOPE,
+_Life of Pitt_ (4 vols., 3rd ed., 1867). The appendix to the last volume
+contains Pitt's correspondence with the king in the years 1804-1806.
+Lord ROSEBERY, _Pitt_ (Twelve English Statesmen Series, 1891), brilliant
+but not always sound. Lord JOHN (Earl) RUSSELL, _Memorials and
+Correspondence of C. J. Fox_ (4 vols., 1853-1854), and _Life and Times
+of C. J. Fox, 1859-1866_. _Memoirs of the Courts and Cabinets of George
+III._ (4 vols., 1853-1855; 1801 falls in vol. iii.), continued in
+_Memoirs of the Court of England during the Regency_ (2 vols., 1856),
+_Memoirs of the Court of George IV._ (2 vols., 1859), and _Memoirs of
+the Courts and Cabinets of William IV. and Victoria_ (2 vols., 1861;
+1837 is reached in vol. i.); these volumes, edited by the Duke of
+Buckingham, contain the correspondence of the Grenville family. The
+first series alone, which contains many important letters of Lord
+Grenville, is of first-rate importance. The editing is often inaccurate.
+_Diaries and Correspondence of the First Earl of Malmesbury_ (4 vols.,
+1844), edited by the third earl (vol. iv. extends from February, 1801,
+to July, 1809), authoritative and useful, especially for the crisis of
+1807. _Correspondence of Marquis Cornwallis_ (3 vols., 1859), edited by
+C. Ross, valuable for the negotiations at Amiens and for Cornwallis's
+brief second governor-generalship of India. The notes are full of useful
+biographical material concerning the persons mentioned in the
+correspondence. _Diaries and Correspondence of George Rose_ (2 vols.,
+1860), edited by L. V. Harcourt. _The Diary and Correspondence of
+Charles Abbot, Lord Colchester_, edited by his son (3 vols., 1861,
+extending from 1795 to 1829), with interesting notices of Perceval, and
+generally useful from 1802-1817, when Abbot was Speaker. Lord HOLLAND,
+_Memoirs of the Whig Party_ (2 vols., 1852), edited by his son, Lord
+Holland. These memoirs do not extend beyond the year 1807. Volume ii.,
+which covers the period during which Holland was a member of the
+Grenville cabinet, is of special importance. His memory is not always
+accurate, and he writes with a whig bias which makes him a harsh judge
+of George III. Holland's _Further Memoirs of the Whig Party, 1807-1821_,
+edited by Lord Stavordale, the present Lord Ilchester (1905),
+interesting, and, like the earlier volumes, full of personal detail, but
+of less value, since Holland was not in office again till 1830.
+
+Similar in character to the above, but only of importance after 1801 are
+the following: _Life of Perceval_ (2 vols., 1874), by his grandson, Sir
+Spencer Walpole, written largely from the Perceval papers, especially
+valuable for the ministerial crisis of 1809. The _Memoirs and
+Correspondence of Viscount Castlereagh_ (12 vols., 1850-1853), edited by
+his brother the third Marquis of Londonderry, consisting mainly of
+military and diplomatic correspondence. Sir ARCHIBALD ALISON, _Lives of
+Lord Castlereagh and Sir Charles Stewart, the Second and Third
+Marquesses of Londonderry_ (3 vols., 1861), much more political than
+biographical; valuable and appreciative, but not rich in documents. _The
+Dispatches of the Duke of Wellington during his various Campaigns in
+India, Denmark [etc.], from 1799 to 1818_ (12 vols., 1834-1838),
+compiled by Lieut.-Colonel GURWOOD (really extending to 1815 only);
+_Supplementary Despatches and Memoranda of the Duke of Wellington_ (15
+vols., 1858-1872), edited by his son, the second Duke of Wellington,
+extending from 1797 to 1818; _Despatches, Correspondence, and Memoranda
+of the Duke of Wellington_ (8 vols., 1867-1880), by the same editor,
+extending from 1819 to 1832. The second and third of these series
+contain not only the duke's despatches, but the vast mass of political
+correspondence which passed through his hands. In spite of the great
+size of the collection, very little that can be considered trivial is
+included. It is our most important authority for all foreign relations
+between 1815 and 1827, and between 1828 and 1830. Sir HERBERT MAXWELL,
+_The Life of Wellington_ (2 vols., 1899). HORACE TWISS, _Life of Eldon_
+(3 vols., 1844). C. PHIPPS, _Memoir of R. Plumer Ward_ (2 vols., 1850),
+containing important political correspondence from 1801 onward, and
+Ward's diary from 1809 to 1820. Ward held numerous minor offices in the
+government and was on terms of intimacy with Perceval and Mulgrave.
+MOORE, _Life of Sheridan_ (2 vols., 1826), valuable for the crisis of
+1811. _The Greville Memoirs; a Journal of the Reigns of King George IV.
+and King William IV._ (3 vols.), edited by Henry Reeve. References are
+to the first edition, 1874. New edition, also including 1837-1860 in 8
+vols. (1888). Greville was clerk to the privy council from 1821 to 1859,
+and as such possessed exceptional opportunities for making himself
+acquainted with secret political transactions and with the personal
+qualities of successive statesmen. _The Creevey Papers_ (2 vols., 1903),
+edited by Sir Herbert Maxwell, not of first-rate historical importance,
+full of gossip and scandal. Creevey was a whig member of parliament,
+1802-1818, 1820-1828 and 1831-1832, and treasurer of the ordnance,
+1830-1834. STAPLETON, _The Political Life of George Canning (from
+September 1822 to August 1827)_ (3 vols., 1831), very full and valuable,
+especially for foreign relations; strikingly deficient in documents and
+dates. _George Canning and His Times_ (1859), by the same author,
+largely written from memory and therefore untrustworthy. YONGE, _Life
+and Administration of Lord Liverpool_ (3 vols., 1868). _Memoirs of Sir
+Robert Peel_ (2 vols., 1856-1857), prepared by Peel himself, and dealing
+with the Roman Catholic question, the administration of 1834-1835, and
+the repeal of the corn laws. The memoirs, which are of the highest
+importance, consist mainly of correspondence and are studiously fair.
+PARKER, _Sir Robert Peel_ (3 vols., 1891-1899), a large collection of
+Peel's correspondence with a brief connecting narrative by the editor,
+of great value even for the periods covered by the _Memoirs_. _The
+Correspondence of King William IV. and Earl Grey, from November 1830 to
+June 1832_ (2 vols., 1867), edited by Henry, Earl Grey, valuable for the
+history of the reform. _The Melbourne Papers_ (1889), edited by Sanders,
+throw light on Melbourne's relations with William IV. and with Brougham.
+TORRENS, _Memoirs of Melbourne_ (2 vols., 1878), polemical, and sadly
+deficient in documents. Lord HATHERTON, _Memoir and Correspondence
+relating to June and July, 1834_ (published 1872), edited by H. Reeve,
+on events connected with the fall of Grey's ministry. _The Croker
+Papers_ (3 vols., 1884), edited by L. J. Jennings. Croker was secretary
+to the admiralty from 1809 to 1830. The papers, which are very full from
+1809 onwards, consist of correspondence and selections from Croker's
+journals and correspondence. L. HORNER, _Memoir of Francis Horner_
+(1843). E. HERRIES, _Public Life of J. C. Herries_ (1880), a defence of
+Herries against the sneers of whig writers. Lord DUDLEY, _Letters to the
+Bishop of Llandaff_ (Copleston), (1840), and _Letters to Ivy_ (1905,
+edited by Romilly), interesting and often vivacious, but not of
+first-rate importance. Sir HENRY BULWER (Lord Dalling), _Life of
+Palmerston_ (2 vols., 1870), extending to 1840. The first chapter of a
+third volume, edited by Evelyn Ashley (1874) makes good a few omissions
+belonging to this period. The work consists mainly of correspondence and
+extracts from Palmerston's journal. _Memoirs of Baron Stockmar_ (2
+vols., 1872-1873), by his son Baron E. von Stockmar, edited by F. Max
+Müller. Stockmar was a confidential agent of Leopold, King of the
+Belgians. The memoirs contain a narrative by William IV. of the
+political history of his reign to 1835, including the circumstances of
+Melbourne's resignation in 1834. CAMPBELL, _Lives of the Chancellors_ (8
+vols., 1848-1869). The last volume contains excellent sketches of
+Lyndhurst and Brougham, based largely on personal knowledge.
+_Correspondence of Princess Lieven and Earl Grey, 1824-1834_, edited by
+G. le Strange (1890). _Letters of Dorothea, Princess Lieven during Her
+Residence in London, 1812-1834_, edited by L. G. Robinson (1902).
+_Letters of Harriet, Countess Granville, 1810-1845_ (2 vols., 1894).
+
+(4) Miscellaneous books. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _Administrations of Great
+Britain (1783-1830)_, edited by Sir E. Head, 1864, has been mentioned
+among the authorities for volume x. It is a valuable history of the
+inner political life of England, but suffers from a strong whig bias.
+LECKY, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 vols., 1892),
+though nominally closing at the union, throws light on Irish history at
+the beginning of the nineteenth century. A. V. DICEY, _Lectures on the
+Relation between Law and Public Opinion in England during the Nineteenth
+Century_ (1905), is very suggestive. HALÉVY, _La formation du
+radicalisme philosophique_ (3 vols., 1901-1904), and Sir L. STEPHEN,
+_The English Utilitarians_, vols. i., ii. (1900), are valuable for the
+history of the radical party. C. CREIGHTON, _History of Epidemics in
+Britain_ (2 vols., 1894), contains an excellent account of the cholera
+epidemic.
+
+[Pageheading: _ON THE GREAT WAR._]
+
+(5) Books dealing with the great war are numerous. The following have
+been already noticed among the authorities for volume x.: Dr. HOLLAND
+ROSE, _Life of Napoleon I._ (2 vols., 1904), our most trustworthy guide
+for the career of the French emperor. The book has gained not a little
+from its author's independent researches at the British Foreign Office.
+Captain MAHAN, _Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and
+Empire_ (2 vols., 1893), and _Life of Nelson_ (2 vols., 1897), valuable
+for their general view of the naval warfare and commercial policy of the
+period. JAMES, _Naval History of Great Britain, 1793-1820_ (6 vols., ed.
+1826; vols. iii.-vi. extend from 1801-1820), very full and accurate,
+largely used in this volume for the American war. Sir JOHN LAUGHTON,
+_Nelson_ (English Men of Action Series, 1895), and articles in the
+_Dictionary of National Biography_.
+
+To these must be added ALISON'S _History of Europe from the Commencement
+of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons in
+1815_ (20 vols., 1847, 1848), an uncritical but still a standard work.
+The reaction against Alison is probably due in large measure to
+political causes. In addition to the European history which gives its
+title to the book, it contains a narrative of the American war of
+1812-1814. The classical though far from trustworthy narrative on the
+French side is THIERS, _Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire_ (21 vols.,
+1845-1869), translated into English by Campbell and Stebbing (12 vols.,
+1893-1894). See also LANFREY'S incomplete _History of Napoleon I._,
+English translation (4 vols., 1871-1879), bitterly anti-Napoleonic. The
+negotiations precedent to the outbreak of war in 1803 are to be found in
+Mr. O. BROWNING'S _England and Napoleon in 1803_, containing despatches
+of Whitworth and others, published in 1887, and in P. COQUELLE,
+_Napoleon and England, 1803-1813_, translated by G. D. KNOX (1904),
+based on the reports of Andréossy, the French ambassador at London. Sir
+H. BUNBURY'S _Narrative of Certain Passages, etc._ (1853) is of the
+highest value for the war in the Mediterranean. The _Times_ of September
+16, 19, 22, 26, 28, 30, and October 19, 1905, contains an excellent
+series of articles on Nelson's tactics at Trafalgar. For the Moscow
+campaign, the Marquis DE CHAMBRAY'S _Histoire de l'Expédition de Russie_
+(3 vols., 1839) is perhaps the most reliable of contemporary narratives.
+There is a good account of the campaign in the Rev. H. B. GEORGE'S
+_Napoleon's Invasion of Russia_ (1899). For the Peninsular war, W.
+NAPIER'S _History of the War in the Peninsula and in the South of
+France_ (6 vols.; vols. i.-iii., ed. 1835-1840; iv.-vi., 1834-1840) is
+of the highest literary as well as historical value. C. OMAN'S _History
+of the Peninsular War_ (in progress, vols. i., ii., 1902-1903, extending
+at present to September, 1809) makes good use of Spanish sources of
+information. The _Wellington Dispatches_ have been noticed already in
+section 3. The _Diary of Sir John Moore_, edited by Sir J. F. Maurice (2
+vols., 1904), is of value for the campaign of 1808-1809. For Waterloo,
+in addition to Maxwell's _Life of Wellington_, and Rose's _Life of
+Napoleon I._, Chesney's _Waterloo Lectures_, 1868; W. O'CONNOR MORRIS,
+_The Campaign of 1815_ (1900), and J. C. ROPES, _The Campaign of
+Waterloo_, may be studied with profit. Morris's work must, however, be
+discounted for his extravagant admiration of Napoleon's genius and his
+faith in the Grouchy legend. For the disputes with the United States and
+war of 1812-1814, see chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_ (vol.
+vii., 1903); BOURINOT, _Canada_ (Story of the Nations), (1897); J.
+SCHOULER, _History of the United States of America under the
+Constitution_ (6 vols., 1880-1889); and MAHAN, _Sea Power in Its
+Relations to the War of 1812_ (2 vols., 1905).
+
+[Pageheading: _ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS._]
+
+(6) For European politics and foreign relations generally, in addition
+to some of the books mentioned in the last section, we have C. A.
+FYFFE'S _History of Modern Europe, 1792-1878_ (ed. 1895), a very
+readable book, which includes the results of some original study, and
+SEIGNOBOS, _Political History of Contemporary Europe_, English
+translation (2 vols., 1901), an useful but not always accurate book. The
+great French work, _Histoire générale du IVe Siècle à nos jours_ (vols.
+ix., x., 1897-1898), by numerous authors, edited by MM. Lavisse and
+Rambaud, is naturally of varying merit; the chapters on France and
+Russia are the best, and there is a very full bibliography at the close
+of each chapter. The _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ix., _Napoleon_
+(1906), is a similar compilation by English writers. ALFRED STERN'S
+_Geschichte Europas seit den Verträgen von 1815_ (3 vols., 1894-1901, to
+be continued to 1871) is perhaps the best general history of the period
+following the great war. _The Memoirs of Prince Metternich_ (5 vols.,
+English translation, 1881-1882, edited by Prince Richard Metternich,
+extending to 1835) contain much that is valuable for diplomatic history.
+For French history see DUVERGIER DE HAURANNE, _Histoire du gouvernement
+parlementaire en France_ (1814-1848, 10 vols., 1857-1872), which, in
+spite of the title, does not extend beyond 1830. For the Greek revolt,
+vols. vi. and vii. of G. FINLAY'S _History of Greece_ (7 vols., ed.
+1877) are important. American policy is treated by J. W. FOSTER, _A
+Century of American Diplomacy_ (1901). Sir EDWARD HERTSLET'S _Map of
+Europe by Treaty_ (4 vols., 1875-1891), while professedly confined to
+the treaties dealing with boundaries, contains the majority of those of
+general historical interest. It covers the period 1815-1891. LE COMTE DE
+GARDEN, _Histoire générale des traités de paix_ (14 vols., 1848-1888,
+vols. vi.-xv., extending to 1814), and F. DE MARTENS, _Recueil des
+traités et conventions, conclus par la Russie_ (tomes xi., xii.
+(Angleterre), 1895-1898), contain the principal treaties belonging to
+the period. The _Castlereagh_ and _Wellington_ _Despatches_ have been
+noticed under section 3.
+
+(7) For Indian history: JAMES MILL and WILSON, _History of British
+India_ (10 vols., 1858), vols. vi.-ix., noticed as an authority for
+volume x., ends in 1835; Sir ALFRED C. LYALL'S _Rise and Expansion of
+the British Dominion in India_ (1894) contains a brief and masterly
+sketch of the subject. See also _A Selection from the Despatches,
+Treaties and Other Papers of the Marquess Wellesley_ (1877), well edited
+by S. J. Owen; the first two series of the _Wellington Dispatches_,
+noticed under section 3; and the vast mass of information collected in
+Sir W. W. HUNTER'S _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (14 vols., 1885-1887).
+
+(8) For social and economic history: Dr. W. CUNNINGHAM'S _The Growth of
+English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times_, vol. iii., _Laissez
+Faire_ (1903), extending from 1776 to 1850, is now the standard work.
+Reference has also been made to G. R. PORTER, _Progress of the Nation_
+(1847), a work abounding more in statistics than in narrative, and to
+Sir GEORGE NICHOLLS, _History of the English Poor Law_ (2 vols., 1854).
+Nicholls took an active interest in social and economic questions from
+1816 till his death in 1857. He probably understood the working of the
+poor-law better than any other man of that date, and the poor-law
+legislation of 1834 and 1838 was largely founded on his suggestions. He
+was one of the poor-law commissioners of 1834, and was permanent
+secretary to the poor-law board from 1847 to 1851. Sir G. C. LEWIS, _The
+Government of Dependencies_ (1891), edited by C. P. Lucas, and LUCAS,
+_Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vols. i.-v. (1888-1901),
+are of value. For literary history, SAINTSBURY'S _History of Nineteenth
+Century Literature, 1780-1895_, (1896), is an excellent guide. For
+educational progress at Oxford University reference may be made to the
+_Report of H.M.'s Commissioners appointed to inquire into the State,
+etc., of the University and Colleges of Oxford_ (1852), which contains a
+good historical summary. The report of the similar commission appointed
+for Cambridge hardly touches the progress of studies, and is therefore
+of less value to the historical student.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[141] The dates given are, as far as possible, those of the editions
+used by the authors of this volume.
+
+
+
+
+ APPENDIX II.
+
+ ADMINISTRATIONS, 1801-1837.
+
+
+ 1. ADDINGTON, MARCH, 1801.
+
+_First lord of treasury } H. Addington.
+ and chanc. exchequer_ }
+ { _home_ Duke of Portland.
+ { Lord Pelham, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Secretaries of { C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803.
+ state_ { _foreign_ Lord Hawkesbury.
+ { _war and } Lord Hobart.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl of Chatham.
+ Duke of Portland, _succeeded_ July, 1801.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_ Earl St. Vincent.
+_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham, _appointed_ June, 1801.
+_Board of trade_ Lord Auckland.
+_Board of control_ Viscount Lewisham (July, 1801, Earl of
+ Dartmouth), _in cabinet_.
+ Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+ 1802, _admitted to cabinet_ Oct., 1802.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ C. P. Yorke, _not in cabinet_.
+ C. Bragge, _succeeded_ Aug., 1803, _not in
+ cabinet_.
+
+
+ 2. PITT, MAY, 1804.
+
+_First lord of treasury } W. Pitt
+ and chanc. exchequer_ }
+ { _home_ Lord Hawkesbury.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Lord Harrowby.
+ state_ { Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+ { _war and } Earl Camden.
+ { colonies_ } Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ July,
+ 1805.
+_Lord president_ Duke of Portland (after Jan., 1805,
+ _without office in cabinet_).
+ Viscount Sidmouth (_before_ H. Addington),
+ _succeeded_ Jan., 1805.
+ Earl Camden, _succeeded_ July, 1805.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_ Viscount Melville (_before_ H. Dundas).
+ Lord Barham, _succeeded_ May, 1805.
+_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_ Duke of Montrose.
+_Board of control_ Viscount Castlereagh.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Mulgrave, _in cabinet_.
+ Earl of Buckinghamshire (_before_ Lord
+ Hobart), _succeeded_ Jan., 1805, _in
+ cabinet_.
+ Lord Harrowby, _succeeded_ July, 1805, _in
+ cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Hardwicke, _not in cabinet_.
+ Earl Powis, _succeeded_ Nov., 1805, _not
+ in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ W. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 3. GRENVILLE, FEBRUARY, 1806.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Lord Grenville.
+ { _home_ Earl Spencer.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ C. J. Fox.
+ state_ { Viscount Howick, _succeeded_ Sept.
+ { _war and } W. Windham
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl Fitzwilliam (after Oct., _without
+ office in cabinet_).
+ Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Erskine.
+_Lord privy seal_ Viscount Sidmouth.
+ Lord Holland, _succeeded_ Oct.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ Lord H. Petty.
+_Admiralty_ C. Grey (April, Viscount Howick).
+ T. Grenville, _succeeded_ Sept.
+_Ordnance_ Earl of Moira.
+_Chief justice, King's bench_ Lord Ellenborough, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Bedford, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ R. Fitzpatrick, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 4. PORTLAND, MARCH, 1807.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Portland.
+ { _home_ Lord Hawkesbury (1808 Earl of Liverpool).
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ G. Canning.
+ state_ { _war and } Viscount Castlereagh.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl Camden.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chanc. exchequer and } S. Perceval.
+ duchy of Lancaster_ }
+_Admiralty_ Lord Mulgrave.
+_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.
+_Board of trade_ Earl Bathurst, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_ R. S. Dundas, _not in cabinet_.
+ Earl of (_before_ Lord) Harrowby,
+ _succeeded_ July, 1809, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Sir J. Pulteney, _not in cabinet_.
+ Lord G. Leveson Gower, _succeeded_ June,
+ 1809, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 5. PERCEVAL, OCTOBER, 1809.
+
+_First lord of treasury, }
+ chanc. exchequer and } S. Perceval.
+ duchy of Lancaster_[142] }
+ { _home_ R. Ryder.
+ { _foreign_ Earl Bathurst.
+_Secretaries of { Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1809.
+ state_ { Viscount Castlereagh, _succeeded_ March,
+ { 1812.
+ { _war and } Earl of Liverpool.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl Camden (after April, 1812, _without
+ office in cabinet_).
+ Viscount Sidmouth, _succeeded_ April,
+ 1812.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.
+_Admiralty_ Lord Mulgrave.
+ C. P. Yorke, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Ordnance_ Earl of Chatham.
+ Lord Mulgrave, _succeeded_ May, 1810.
+_Board of trade_ Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 6. LIVERPOOL, JUNE, 1812
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Earl of Liverpool.
+ { _home_ Viscount Sidmouth (after Jan., 1822,
+ { _without office in cabinet_).
+ { R. Peel, _succeeded_ Jan., 1822.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Castlereagh (1821 Marquis of.
+ state_ { Londonderry).
+ { G. Canning, _succeeded_ Sept., 1822.
+ { _war and } Earl Bathurst.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Eldon (1821 Earl of Eldon).
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Westmorland.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ N. Vansittart.
+ F. J. Robinson, _succeeded_ Jan., 1823.
+_Admiralty_ Viscount Melville (_before_ R. S. Dundas).
+_Ordnance_ Lord Mulgrave (Sept., 1812, Earl of
+ Mulgrave), (from 1818-May, 1820,
+ _without office in cabinet_).
+ Duke of Wellington, _succeeded_ Jan.,
+ 1819.
+_Board of trade_ Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+ F. J. Robinson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan.,
+ 1818, _in cabinet_.
+ W. Huskisson,[143] _succeeded_ Jan., 1823,
+ _in cabinet_.
+_Board of control_ Earl of Buckinghamshire, _in cabinet_.
+ G. Canning, _succeeded_ June, 1816, _in
+ cabinet_.
+ C. B. Bathurst, _succeeded_ Jan., 1821,
+ _in cabinet_.
+ C. W. Wynn, _succeeded_ Feb., 1822, _in
+ cabinet_.
+_Master of the mint_ Earl of Clancarty, _not in cabinet_.
+ W. W. Pole (1821 Lord Maryborough),
+ _succeeded_ Sept., 1814, _in cabinet_.
+ T. Wallace, _succeeded_ Oct., 1823, _not
+ in cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ C. B. Bathurst (_before_ C. Bragge).
+ N. Vansittart (March, 1823, Lord Bexley),
+ _succeeded_ Feb., 1823.
+_Without office_ Earl Camden (Sept., 1812, Marquis Camden),
+ _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Duke of Richmond, _not in cabinet_.
+ Viscount Whitworth (1815 Earl Whitworth),
+ _succeeded_ Aug., 1813, _not in
+ cabinet_.
+ Earl Talbot, _succeeded_ Oct., 1817, _not
+ in cabinet_.
+ Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Dec., 1821,
+ _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 7. CANNING, APRIL, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury } G. Canning.
+ and chanc. exchequer_ }
+ { _home_ W. S. Bourne.
+ { Marquis of Lansdowne (_before_ Lord H.
+_Secretaries of { Petty), _succeeded_ July.
+ state_ { _foreign_ Viscount Dudley.
+ { _war and } Viscount Goderich (_before_ F. J.
+ { colonies_ } Robinson).
+_Lord president_ Earl of Harrowby.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_ Duke of Portland (_after_ July, _without
+ office in cabinet_).
+ Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ July.
+_Lord high admiral_ Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and } W. Huskisson.
+ treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_ C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_ T. Wallace, _not in cabinet_.
+ G. Tierney, _succeeded_ May, _in cabinet_.
+ { C. Arbuthnot, _not in cabinet_.
+_First commissioner of { Earl of Carlisle _succeeded_ May, _in
+ woods and forests_ { cabinet_.
+ { W. S. Bourne, _succeeded_ July, _in
+ { cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Bexley.
+_Without office_ Marquis of Lansdowne, May-July, _in
+ cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 8. GODERICH, SEPTEMBER, 1827.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Goderich.
+ { _home_ Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Earl (_before_ Viscount) Dudley.
+ state_ { _war and } W. Huskisson.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Duke of Portland.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Carlisle.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ J. C. Herries.
+_Lord high admiral_ Duke of Clarence, _not in cabinet_.
+_Ordnance_ Marquis of Anglesey, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and } C. Grant.
+ treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_ C. W. Wynn.
+_Master of the mint_ G. Tierney.
+_First commissioner of } W. S. Bourne.
+ woods and forests_ }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Bexley.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston.
+
+
+9. WELLINGTON, JANUARY, 1828.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Wellington.
+ { _home_ R. (May, 1830, Sir R.) Peel.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Earl Dudley.
+ state_ { Earl of Aberdeen, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+ { _war and } W. Huskisson.
+ { colonies_ } Sir G. Murray, _succeeded_ May, 1828.
+_Lord president_ Earl Bathurst.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_ Lord Ellenborough.
+ Earl of Rosslyn, _succeeded_ June, 1829.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ H. Goulburn.
+_Admiralty_ Duke of Clarence (_lord high admiral_),
+ _not in cabinet_.
+ Viscount Melville, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+ 1828, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and } C. Grant.
+ treasurer of navy_ } W. V. Fitzgerald, _succeeded_ June, 1828.
+_Board of control_ Viscount Melville.
+ Lord Ellenborough, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+ 1828.
+_Master of the mint_ J. C. Herries.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Earl of Aberdeen, _in cabinet_.
+ C. Arbuthnot, _succeeded_ June, 1828, _not
+ in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis of Anglesey, Feb., 1828, _not in
+ cabinet_.
+ Duke of Northumberland, _succeeded_ Feb.,
+ 1829, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Palmerston, _in cabinet_.
+ Sir H. Hardinge, _succeeded_ May, 1828,
+ _not in cabinet_.
+
+
+ 10. GREY, NOVEMBER, 1830.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Earl Grey (_before_ Viscount Howick).
+ { _home_ Viscount Melbourne.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.
+ state_ { _war and { Viscount Goderich.
+ { colonies_ { E. G. Stanley, _succeeded_ March, 1833.
+ { { T. S. Rice, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_ Lord Durham.
+ Earl of Ripon (_before_ Viscount Goderich)
+ _succeeded_ April, 1833.
+ Earl of Carlisle, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_ Sir J. R. Graham.
+ Lord Auckland, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of trade_ Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+ C. P. Thomson, _succeeded_ June, 1834.
+_Board of control_ C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_ Lord Auckland, _not in cabinet_.
+ J. Abercromby, _succeeded_ June, 1834, _in
+ cabinet_.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Postmaster-general_ Duke of Richmond, _in cabinet_.
+ Marquis of Conyngham, _succeeded_ June,
+ 1834, _not in cabinet_.
+_Paymaster of forces_ Lord J. Russell, _admitted to cabinet_
+ June, 1831.
+_Without office_ Earl of Carlisle (to June, 1834).
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis of Anglesey, _not in cabinet_.
+ Marquis Wellesley, _succeeded_ Sept.,
+ 1833, _not in cabinet_.
+_Chief secretary for Ireland_ E. G. Stanley, _admitted to cabinet_ June,
+ 1831.
+ Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ March,
+ 1833, _not in cabinet_.
+ E. J. Littleton, _succeeded_ May, 1833,
+ _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ C. W. Wynn, _not in cabinet_.
+ Sir H. Parnell, _succeeded_ April, 1831,
+ _not in cabinet_.
+ Sir J. Hobhouse, _succeeded_ Feb., 1832,
+ _not in cabinet_.
+ E. Ellice, _succeeded_ April, 1833,
+ _admitted to cabinet_ June, 1834.
+
+
+ 11. MELBOURNE, JULY, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Melbourne.
+ { _home_ Viscount Duncannon.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.
+ state_ { _war and } T. S. Rice.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Brougham.
+_Lord privy seal_ Earl of Mulgrave.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ Viscount Althorp.
+_Admiralty_ Lord Auckland.
+_Board of trade and } C. P. Thompson.
+ treasurer of navy_ }
+_Board of control_ C. Grant.
+_Master of mint_ J. Abercromby.
+_First commissioner of } Sir J. C. Hobhouse, _in cabinet_.
+ woods and forests_ }
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland.
+_Paymaster of forces_ Lord J. Russell.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Marquis Wellesley, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ E. Ellice.
+
+
+ PROVISIONAL ADMINISTRATION, NOVEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Duke of Wellington.
+ { _home_ Duke of Wellington.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Duke of Wellington.
+ state_ { _war and } Duke of Wellington.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ Lord Denman.
+
+
+ 12. PEEL, DECEMBER, 1834.
+
+_First lord of treasury } Sir R. Peel.
+ and chanc. exchequer_ }
+ { _home_ H. Goulburn.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Duke of Wellington.
+ state_ { _war and } Earl of Aberdeen.
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Earl of Rosslyn.
+_Lord chancellor_ Lord Lyndhurst.
+_Lord privy seal_ Lord Wharncliffe.
+_Admiralty_ Earl de Grey.
+_Ordnance_ Sir G. Murray, _in cabinet_.
+_Board of trade and } A. Baring.
+ master of the mint_ }
+_Board of control_ Lord Ellenborough.
+_Paymaster of forces_ Sir E. Knatchbull.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Haddington, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ J. C. Herries.
+
+
+ 13. MELBOURNE, APRIL, 1835.
+
+_First lord of treasury_ Viscount Melbourne.
+ { _home_ Lord J. Russell.
+_Secretaries of { _foreign_ Viscount Palmerston.
+ state_ { _war and } C. Grant (May, 1835, Lord Glenelg).
+ { colonies_ }
+_Lord president_ Marquis of Lansdowne.
+_Lord chancellor_ Great seal in commission.
+ Lord Cottenham, _appointed_ Jan., 1836.
+_Lord privy seal_ Viscount Duncannon.
+_Chancellor of exchequer_ T. S. Rice.
+_Admiralty_ Lord Auckland.
+ Earl of Minto, _succeeded_ Sept., 1835.
+_Board of trade_ C. P. Thompson.
+_Board of control_ Sir J. C. Hobhouse.
+_Duchy of Lancaster_ Lord Holland, _in cabinet_.
+_Lord-lieutenant Ireland_ Earl of Mulgrave, _not in cabinet_.
+_Secretary at war_ Viscount Howick.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[142] On May 23, 1812, after Perceval's death, the Earl of
+Buckinghamshire was appointed chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
+
+[143] Also treasurer of the navy.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+Abbot, Charles (afterwards Lord Colchester), speaker, 36, 61, 72, 85, 238.
+
+Abdallah, Pasha of Acre, 393.
+
+Abercromby, James (afterwards Lord Dunfermline), master of the mint, 346;
+ speaker, 354.
+
+Abercromby, Sir Ralph, general, 6, 346.
+
+Aberdeen, 306, 348.
+
+Aberdeen, Earl of (Gordon), 138;
+ chancellor of the duchy, 231;
+ foreign secretary, 236, 263, 264, 268, 352, 376, 380;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 352.
+
+Åbo, treaty of, 123.
+
+Abolition of slavery, acts for the, 46-48, 325-327, 438.
+
+Abolition of slave trade, 48, 143, 151, 152, 167, 188, 274, 279, 358, 438.
+
+Abrantes, 98.
+
+Abyssinia, 436.
+
+Academy, Royal. See London.
+
+Acarnania, 266.
+
+Acre, 393, 394.
+
+_Acte Additionnel_, the, 155.
+
+Adams, John Quincy, 128.
+
+Addington, Henry (afterwards Viscount Sidmouth), 25, 39, 50, 54, 68, 200,
+ 202, 346;
+ first lord of treasury and chancellor of exchequer, 1, 2, 11, 15, 16, 27,
+ 34;
+ relations with Pitt, 2, 24-29;
+ attacked by Pitt, 30, 31;
+ resignation, 31, 32;
+ his adherents, 34, 36, 68, 81;
+ becomes Viscount Sidmouth and lord president of the council, 35;
+ resignation, 37;
+ lord privy seal, 45;
+ lord president of the council, 49;
+ resignation, 49;
+ lord president of the council, 76, 82;
+ home secretary, 81, 83, 172, 177, 179, 180, 183;
+ in cabinet without office, 199;
+ retirement, 227.
+
+Addington, John Hiley, M.P., 28, 36.
+
+Adelaide, 440.
+
+Adelaide, Princess of Saxe-Meiningen (afterwards queen of William IV.),
+ 184, 273, 277, 351, 375.
+
+Adige, river, 138.
+
+Adour, river, 115, 117.
+
+Adrianople, peace of, 267, 268.
+
+Ægean islands, the, 263;
+ sea, 224, 394.
+
+Ætolia, 266.
+
+Afghánistán, 397, 402, 403, 412-414;
+ treaty with East India Company, 403;
+ first Afghán war, 403, 414.
+
+Africa, interior of, 436.
+
+Agra, 399, 409.
+
+Agriculture, condition of, 84, 433, 434.
+
+Ahmadnagar, 398.
+
+Airy, Sir George, 428.
+
+Aix, island, 69.
+
+Aix-la-Chapelle, conference of, 189-191, 377.
+
+Akkerman, treaty of, 260.
+
+Alava, Spanish admiral, 40.
+
+Albuera, battle, 103, 104.
+
+Albuquerque, Duke of, 100.
+
+Alcantara, 99.
+
+Alemtejo, province, 255.
+
+Alessandria, 213.
+
+Alexander the Great, 401, 413.
+
+Alexander I., Tsar of Russia, 5, 7, 23, 37, 52, 59, 66, 78, 80, 81, 92,
+ 104, 105, 124, 144-148, 151-153, 168, 189-191, 210-212, 214, 216-218,
+ 224, 225, 232.
+
+Alexandria, 261, 264, 265, 393, 413;
+ battle and capitulation of, 6;
+ retention by England, 19;
+ expeditions to, 52, 57, 264;
+ convention of, 264, 265.
+
+Algarve, province, 389.
+
+Algeciras, 8.
+
+Algiers, Dey of, 187, 188;
+ bombardment of, 188;
+ conquest of, 269.
+
+Algoa bay, 438.
+
+Alliance, La Belle, 164.
+
+"All the Talents" ministry. See ministries, Grenville's.
+
+Almaraz, 106.
+
+Almeida, 100, 102, 103.
+
+Almora, treaty of, 405.
+
+Alps, the, 138.
+
+Alsace, 143, 168.
+
+Alten, Count, 162.
+
+Althorp, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Spencer), 230, 234;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 279, 280, 283, 286, 291, 297, 321-323, 328,
+ 330, 334, 335, 343-345;
+ resignation, 346;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 347, 349, 350, 373.
+
+Amager, island, 4.
+
+Amascoas, battle, 390.
+
+_Ambigu, L'_, newspaper, 12.
+
+Amelia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 74.
+
+America, British North, 85, 225.
+ See also Canada.
+
+America, South, 205, 226.
+ See also Spain and Portugal.
+
+Amherst, Earl, governor-general of Bengal, 408, 409.
+
+Amherstburg, 141.
+
+Amiens, 10;
+ treaty of, 16, 17, 19, 20, 208, 398;
+ negotiations, 7-12;
+ preliminary treaty, 9, 13, 14;
+ definitive treaty, 12, 13, 435.
+
+Amír Khán, Pindárí leader, 407.
+
+Andalusia, 94, 100, 102, 106, 107.
+
+Anglesey, Marquis of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+Angoulême, Duke of. See Louis Antoine, dauphin.
+
+Ansbach, 43.
+
+Anti-Duelling Association, 251.
+
+Antioch, 393.
+
+Antwerp, 43, 64, 65, 200, 378, 380, 382, 386.
+
+Apsley House. See London.
+
+Aragon, 100.
+
+Arakan, 408, 409.
+
+Aranjuez, 87, 92, 93;
+ treaty of, 6.
+
+Arapiles hills, the, 107.
+
+Archangel, 310.
+
+Archipelago, the, 261.
+
+Arcis-sur-Aube, battle, 145.
+
+Arcot, 400.
+
+Arden, Lord (Perceval), 50.
+
+Argáum, battle, 399.
+
+Argentine, the (La Plata), 190.
+
+_Argus_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Arkwright, Sir Richard, 83.
+
+Arta, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Artois, Count of. See Charles X. of France.
+
+Ascot races, 148.
+
+Ashley, Lord (Ashley-Cooper), afterwards Earl of Shaftesbury, 327, 328.
+
+Asia Minor, 394, 413.
+
+Aspern, 63.
+
+Aspropotamo, river, 268.
+
+Assam, 408, 409.
+
+Assaye, battle, 399.
+
+Astorga, 93-95.
+
+Attwood, Thomas, M.P., 335.
+
+Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, 56, 81.
+
+Auckland, first Lord (Eden), president of the board of trade, 34, 346.
+
+Auckland, second Lord (Eden), afterwards Earl of, first lord of the
+ admiralty, 346, 357;
+ governor-general of India, 363, 412.
+
+Auerstädt, battle, 47.
+
+Augusta, Princess of Hesse, 184.
+
+Augusta, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Austen, Jane, 422.
+
+Austerlitz, battle, 42, 43, 51, 60.
+
+Australia, 436, 438-440;
+ New South Wales, 438, 439;
+ Queensland, 439;
+ South Australia, 440;
+ Victoria, 439;
+ West Australia, 439.
+
+Austria, 17, 54, 58, 59, 62, 78, 80, 124, 214, 215, 220, 264, 267, 391;
+ guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+ treaty with France, 14;
+ third coalition, 37, 38, 41;
+ Ulm and peace of Pressburg, 42;
+ struggle with France, 61-64;
+ treaty with England, 63;
+ war with Bavaria, 63;
+ piece of Vienna, 64, 66;
+ national bankruptcy, 81;
+ treaty with France, 122;
+ attacks North Italy, 133;
+ diplomacy, 132, 134-137, 144, 187-189, 217;
+ truce with Russia, 135;
+ treaty of Ried, 137;
+ treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+ war with France, 137, 142;
+ alliance with Murat, 143;
+ campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+ treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+ treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+ first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+ congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 166, 167, 186, 188-190, 376, 379, 381,
+ 388;
+ secret treaty of Vienna, 153;
+ acquires Venetia and Lombardy, 166;
+ second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+ holy alliance, 168;
+ treaties with the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Modena and Parma, 187;
+ conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191;
+ congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+ congress of Laibach, 212, 223;
+ army in Italy, 212, 213, 216;
+ congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+ conference at London, 222;
+ conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+ joins conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+ secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+ convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Ava. See Burma.
+
+Azores, islands, 259, 388.
+
+Azzara, Chevalier, 21.
+
+
+Bacon, Lord, 424.
+
+Badajoz, 99, 102-106, 108, 113, 147;
+ treaty of, 6.
+
+Baden, 34, 189.
+
+Baghdad, 413.
+
+Bailey, Old. See London.
+
+Baird, David (afterwards Sir David), general, 6, 47, 93-95.
+
+Balkans, the, 263, 266, 267.
+
+Baltic, the, 52, 78, 90, 199, 310.
+
+Baltic, battle of the, 4, 5, 420.
+
+Baltimore, 146.
+
+Banda Oriental. See Uruguay.
+
+Bank charter acts, 325, 326, 330, 331.
+
+Bank of England, 183, 205, 206, 303;
+ notes made legal tender, 182.
+
+Bank restriction act, 16.
+
+Bankes, Henry, M.P., 157.
+
+Banks, Sir Joseph, 428.
+
+Barcelona, 88, 110, 220.
+
+Barclay, Commander, 139.
+
+Barham, Lord (Sir Charles Middleton), first lord of the admiralty, 36.
+
+Baring, Alexander (afterwards Lord Ashburton), 304;
+ president of board of trade and master of the mint, 352.
+
+Baring, Francis (afterwards Lord Northbrook), 346.
+
+Barlow, Sir George, governor-general of Bengal, 401.
+
+Barnstaple, 193.
+
+Baroda, Gáekwár of, 405, 406.
+
+Barrosa, 102.
+
+Basque provinces, 390, 391.
+
+Basque roads, 69.
+
+Bass, George, 439.
+
+Bassein, treaty of, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Batavian republic. See Holland.
+
+Bath, 43, 362.
+
+Bath (Holland), 65.
+
+Bathurst, Charles Bragge-. See Bragge, Charles.
+
+Bathurst, Earl, president of the board of trade, 50, 68;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 82, 109, 112;
+ resignation, 227;
+ lord president of the council, 231.
+
+Battersea Fields. See London.
+
+Bautzen, battle, 135.
+
+Bavaria, 41, 42, 66, 136, 152, 153, 166, 189, 392;
+ war with Austria, 63;
+ treaty of Ried, 137.
+
+Baylen, 58, 88, 89, 92.
+
+Bayonne, 88, 89, 92, 112, 115-117, 119;
+ road to, 111.
+
+Beachy Head, 8.
+
+Beauharnais, Auguste, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 382.
+
+Beauharnais, Eugène, viceroy of Italy, 138.
+
+Bedford, Duke of (Russell), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 49.
+
+Beilan, pass, 393.
+
+Beira, province, 255, 257.
+
+Belgium, 143, 144, 150, 158, 159, 161, 162, 200, 377;
+ Prince of Orange proclaimed, 138;
+ troops, 156;
+ Waterloo campaign, 157-164;
+ united to Holland, 166;
+ revolution, 276, 376-382;
+ elects Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king, 383;
+ war with Holland, 384-386, 393;
+ convention with Holland, 387.
+
+Belgrade, 80.
+
+Bell, Henry, 427, 434.
+
+Belleisle, 388.
+
+_Bellerophon_, the, British ship, 165, 168, 169.
+
+Belliard, French general, 383, 384.
+
+Bellingham, John, 76.
+
+Benevente, 94, 95.
+
+Bengal, 310, 330, 400, 404, 408, 410.
+
+Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 341, 420, 421, 437.
+
+Bentinck, Lord William, 114, 143;
+ governor-general of India, 410-412.
+
+Berár, 399.
+ See Nágpur.
+
+Berbice, 9.
+
+Beresford, Lord George, 242.
+
+Beresford, William (afterwards Lord and later Viscount), 47, 96, 103, 109,
+ 118, 119, 211, 222.
+
+Berezina, river, 125.
+
+Berkeley, Vice-admiral, 127.
+
+Berkshire, 281, 341.
+
+Berlin, 53, 81, 134, 310;
+ convention at, 396.
+
+Berlin decree, the, 55, 403.
+
+Bernadotte, Marshal (afterwards Charles XIV. of Sweden), 54, 80, 136, 137,
+ 143, 150.
+
+Berry, Duke of, 210.
+
+Bessarabia, 123.
+
+Bessborough, Earl of (Ponsonby), 287.
+
+Bessières, Marshal, 88, 92.
+
+Betanzos, 95.
+
+Bexley, Lord. See Vansittart, Nicholas.
+
+Bhartpur, 399, 403, 408, 409.
+
+Bickersteth, Henry (afterwards Lord Langdale), 363.
+
+Bidassoa, river, 112, 114, 115.
+
+Bilbao, 111, 391.
+
+Birmingham, 178, 236, 272, 285, 295, 297, 304, 335, 435.
+
+Biscay, province, 109, 389, 391.
+
+Bishopp, British officer, 130.
+
+Blackburn, Francis, attorney-general for Ireland, 313, 314.
+
+Blackfriars. See London.
+
+Blackheath. See London.
+
+_Blackwood's Magazine_, 423-425.
+
+Bladensburg, battle, 146.
+
+Blake, Spanish general, 88.
+
+Blandford, Marquis of (Churchill), afterwards Duke of Marlborough, 271,
+ 284.
+
+Blanketeers, the, 176.
+
+Blomfield, bishop of London, 324, 341, 373.
+
+Blücher, Marshal, 138, 143-145, 148;
+ Waterloo campaign, 156-161, 163-164.
+
+Bohemia, 64, 137.
+
+Bombay, 310, 398.
+
+Bona, 188.
+
+Bonaparte, Joseph, 10-12, 21;
+ King of Naples, 47, 53;
+ King of Spain, 59, 88, 89, 92, 98, 104, 106, 107, 109-111, 122, 123, 190.
+
+Bonaparte, Josephine (wife of Napoleon), 382.
+
+Bonaparte, Louis, King of Holland, 46, 53, 78.
+
+Bonaparte, Napoleon, 6, 19, 39, 41, 42, 51, 53-56, 58, 62, 64-66, 78,
+ 80-82, 87-89, 91, 92, 95, 96, 99-102, 104, 105, 109-112, 114, 115,
+ 117, 119, 120-126, 128, 143, 145, 148, 150, 168, 171, 186, 199, 382;
+ concordat with the pope, 7;
+ refuses overtures of peace, 8;
+ meets Cornwallis, 10;
+ elected president of the Italian republic, 12, 17;
+ plans for the invasion of England, 8, 35, 38, 41, 71;
+ attacked by French exiles in London, 12, 17;
+ consul for life, 15, 17;
+ Fox presented to him, 15, 16;
+ annexes Piedmont, 17;
+ mediates in Switzerland and Germany, 17;
+ schemes of colonial expansion, 18;
+ Whitworth, 20-22;
+ declared emperor, 33, 34;
+ plots against his life, 33, 34;
+ coronations, 35, 37, 38;
+ Ulm and Austerlitz, 42, 64;
+ Jena and Auerstädt, 47, 55, 64;
+ Eylau, 51, 56;
+ Friedland, 52, 122, 401;
+ meets Alexander, 52;
+ "continental system," 53, 55-58, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 171, 403;
+ manifesto, 57;
+ at Erfurt, 59;
+ Eckmühl and Wagram, 60, 63;
+ Borodino, 63, 124;
+ Leipzig, 63, 114, 118, 133, 137, 138;
+ marriage with Maria Louisa, 78;
+ fiscal policy, 79;
+ first abdication, 82, 118, 145;
+ in Spain, 92, 94;
+ war with Russia, 121-126, 402;
+ campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+ Lützen and Bautzen, 135;
+ Dresden, 137;
+ campaign of 1814, 143-145;
+ La Rothière, 144;
+ Arcis-sur-Aube, 145;
+ treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+ Elba, 145, 146, 153, 201;
+ "The Hundred Days," 151, 153-165;
+ Ligny, 158, 159;
+ Quatre Bras, 159;
+ Waterloo, 160-165;
+ second abdication, 165;
+ St. Helena, 166, 167, 169, 170, 402;
+ designs on India, 401-403.
+
+Bond, Nathaniel, M.P., 36.
+
+Bonnymuir, 193.
+
+Bordeaux, 118, 154;
+ road to, 117.
+
+Bordeaux, Henry, Duke of. See Chambord, Count of.
+
+Borisov, battle, 125.
+
+Borodino, battle, 63, 124, 164.
+
+Bosphorus, the, 267, 394.
+
+Boston (United States), 142.
+
+Botany Bay, 438.
+
+Boulogne, 8, 35, 38.
+
+Boulton, Matthew, 435.
+
+Bourbon, island, 69, 403.
+
+Bourbon, Duke of, 154.
+
+Bourne, W. Sturges, 341;
+ home secretary, 227;
+ first commissioner of woods and forests, 228, 229.
+
+Braga, 258.
+
+Bragge, Charles (afterwards Bragge-Bathurst), 28, 68, 202;
+ chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 81, 82, 174;
+ president of the board of control, 199.
+
+Brahmaputra, the, 408, 409.
+
+Braine l'Alleud, Belgian village, 162.
+
+Brand, M.P., 284.
+
+Brazil, 89, 190, 211, 221, 222, 253, 254, 259, 388;
+ commercial treaty with England, 222.
+
+Brereton, Colonel, 298.
+
+Breslau, 134, 135.
+
+Brest, 39, 55.
+
+Brewster's _Encyclopædia_, 424.
+
+_Bridgwater Treatises_, the, 338.
+
+Brienne, 143.
+
+Brighton, 350.
+
+Brindley, James, 434.
+
+Bristol, 175, 297, 298, 302, 309, 435.
+
+British Association, the, 338.
+
+Brittany, 154.
+
+Brock, Major-general, 129, 130.
+
+Broke, Captain, 142.
+
+Brooks's club. See London.
+
+Brougham, Henry (afterwards Lord Brougham and Vaux), 48, 172, 173, 182,
+ 193-196, 207, 228, 234, 241, 242, 274, 277, 278, 280, 357-359, 363,
+ 423, 431;
+ lord chancellor, 281, 282, 287, 295, 325, 338, 343, 345, 346, 348, 351;
+ legal reforms, 332, 333, 358, 359, 361.
+
+Broussa, 393.
+
+Brown, American commander, 146.
+
+Bruce, Michael, 436.
+
+Brünn, 42.
+
+Brunswick, 196.
+
+Brunswick (Charles), Duke of, 184 n.
+
+Brunswick (Frederick William), Duke of, 159.
+
+Brunswick, troops, 158.
+
+Brunswick clubs, 243.
+
+Brussels, 158-161, 378, 379, 381, 383, 384, 387.
+
+_Bucentaure_, the, French ship, 40.
+
+Bucharest, treaty of, 123.
+
+Buckingham, Marquis of (Temple-Nugent-Brydges-Chandos-Grenville),
+ afterwards Duke of, 199, 295.
+
+Buckingham palace. See London.
+
+Buckinghamshire, 281.
+
+Buckinghamshire, third Earl of (Hobart), 1.
+
+Buckinghamshire, fourth Earl of. See Hobart, Lord.
+
+Buckland, William, Dean of Westminster, 340.
+
+Buenos Ayres, 47, 56, 57, 205, 216, 223.
+
+Bukowina, 224.
+
+Bulgaria, 263, 267.
+
+Bull-baiting, 15.
+
+"Bullion committee," the, 73.
+
+Bülow, Frederick William von, General, afterwards Count, 143, 145, 163,
+ 164.
+
+Bulwer, Edward Lytton (afterwards Lord Lytton), 426.
+
+Burdett, Sir Francis, M.P., 51, 72, 175, 226, 240-242, 284, 285, 298, 374.
+
+Burgess, Thomas, bishop of St. Davids, 430.
+
+Burgos, 92, 108, 110.
+
+Burgundy, 154.
+
+Burke, Edmund, 308, 415, 422.
+
+Burlington Heights, 139, 140.
+
+Burma, first Burmese war, 408, 409;
+ treaty with East India Company, 409.
+
+Burnes, Sir Alexander, 413, 414.
+
+Burns, Robert, 415.
+
+Burrard, Sir Harry, general, 90, 91, 93.
+
+Bussaco, 101, 113.
+
+Butrinto, 188.
+
+Buxton, Thomas Fowell, M.P., 326, 327.
+
+Bylandt, Dutch general, 162.
+
+Byron, Lord, 233, 417-419.
+
+
+Cachar, 411.
+
+Cadiz, 8, 39-41, 89, 96, 100, 102-104, 109, 256.
+
+Cadoudal, Georges, 33.
+
+Cairo, capture of, 6.
+
+Calabria, 47.
+
+Calcott, Sir Augustus, 427.
+
+Calcutta, 398, 402, 408, 412.
+
+Calder, Sir Robert, 39.
+
+Caledonian canal, 434.
+
+Cambridge. See Universities.
+
+Cambridge (Adolphus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Cambridgeshire, 175 n.
+
+Camden, Earl (Pratt), afterwards Marquis Camden, secretary for war and
+ colonies, 34, 37;
+ lord president of the council, 37, 50, 66, 67;
+ in cabinet without office, 76, 82.
+
+Camelford, 193.
+
+Campbell, Lord, 361, 363.
+
+Campbell, Sir Archibald, 409.
+
+Campbell, Sir Neil, 153.
+
+Campbell, Thomas, 420, 431.
+
+Canada, 128, 147, 157, 225, 312, 437, 438;
+ attacked by the United States, 129, 130, 139-141, 146.
+
+Candia. See Crete.
+
+Cannes, 153.
+
+Canning, George, 2, 24, 68, 76, 84, 85, 172, 209, 231, 232, 238, 240, 245,
+ 279, 284, 285, 319, 339, 358, 423;
+ _jeux d'esprit_, 26, 28;
+ foreign secretary, 50, 52-54, 59, 66, 92;
+ resignation, 67;
+ president of the board of control, 174, 176, 185, 199, 201, 406;
+ foreign secretary, 197, 199-201, 207, 208, 216, 218-226, 232-235, 241,
+ 242, 255-257, 259, 260, 390, 392, 408;
+ first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 227, 228,
+ 273, 380;
+ death, 228, 229.
+
+Canning, Sir Stratford (afterwards Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe), 225,
+ 266.
+
+Canterac, Spanish general, 223.
+
+Canterbury, archbishop of (Howley), 299, 337, 373.
+
+Cape Finisterre, 39.
+
+Cape Formoso, 151.
+
+Cape of Good Hope, 9, 47, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Cape St. Vincent, battle, 389.
+
+Cape Trafalgar, battle, 40, 43, 69.
+
+Capodistrias, Greek president, 267, 268, 392.
+
+Carcassonne, road to, 119.
+
+Carinthia, 66.
+
+Carlile, agitator, 282.
+
+Carlisle, sixth Earl of (Howard), first commissioner of woods and forests,
+ 228, 357;
+ lord privy seal, 228;
+ in cabinet without office, 280;
+ lord privy seal, 346, 347.
+
+Carlos, Don. 389-391.
+
+Carlsbad, 189.
+
+Carlton House. See London.
+
+Carlyle, Jane Welsh, 424.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas, 417, 434, 427.
+
+Carnot, French statesman, 155, 165.
+
+Caroline of Brunswick, Princess of Wales (afterwards queen of George IV.),
+ 48, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197, 200.
+
+Carr, R. J., bishop of Worcester, 299.
+
+Cartwright, Edmund, 83.
+
+Cartwright, Major, 175.
+
+Casimir-Perier, French premier, 387.
+
+Caspian Sea, 310.
+
+Castalla, 109, 114.
+
+Castaños, Francisco Xavier de, 93.
+
+Castlereagh, Viscount (Stewart), afterwards second Marquis of Londonderry,
+ 2, 68, 71, 73, 100, 201, 202, 208, 209, 228, 238;
+ president of the board of control, 15, 34;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 37, 50, 52, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65-67, 90,
+ 92, 200;
+ resignation, 67;
+ foreign secretary, 76, 82, 85, 123, 144-147, 153, 156, 169, 171-173, 183,
+ 189, 191, 195, 199, 210-212, 214, 217, 260, 387;
+ death, 199-201, 216, 408.
+
+Catalonia, 88, 92, 112, 114, 115, 118.
+
+Cathcart, Lord (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of), 43, 54, 123, 134, 136.
+
+Catholic Apostolic Church, 339.
+
+Catholic Association, 240, 241, 244-246.
+
+Catholic emancipation, 49, 76, 200, 207, 226, 230, 236-249, 431;
+ abandoned, 2, 34;
+ opposition to, 32, 34, 45, 50, 208, 227;
+ carried, 249.
+
+Cato Street conspiracy, 192, 193.
+
+Cattaro, 142.
+
+Caulaincourt, French diplomatist, 144.
+
+Cawnpur, 399.
+
+Census, 300, 311, 312.
+
+Ceylon, 9, 167.
+
+Chadwick, Edwin, 341.
+
+Chambéry, 149.
+
+Chambord, Count de, 210, 376.
+
+Chambray, Marquis de, 125.
+
+Champagne, 143, 144.
+
+Champlain, lake, 140, 146.
+
+Chandos, Marquis of (Brydges-Chandos-Temple-Grenville), afterwards second
+ Duke of Buckingham, 295, 299;
+ "Chandos clause," 295.
+
+Chantrey, Sir Francis Legatt, 427.
+
+Charity Commission, 182.
+
+Charleroi, 158, 161.
+
+Charles, Count of Artois (afterwards Charles X. of France), 34, 116, 154,
+ 224, 376.
+
+Charles IV., King of Spain, 87, 88.
+
+Charles XII., King of Sweden, 54.
+
+Charles XIII., King of Sweden and Norway, 54, 150.
+
+Charles, Archduke, 63.
+
+Charles Albert, Prince, of Carignano (afterwards King of Sardinia), 213.
+
+Charles Emmanuel II., King of Sardinia, 10.
+
+Charles Felix, King of Sardinia, 213.
+
+Charlotte, Princess (daughter of the Prince Regent), 86, 174, 183-185, 194,
+ 195, 268.
+
+Charlotte, Queen-dowager of Würtemburg (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Charlotte, queen of George III., 74, 184, 185.
+
+Charlotte, queen of John VI. of Portugal, 253, 254.
+
+Chartism, 308.
+
+Chassé, D. H., Dutch general, 162.
+
+Chateauguay, battle of river, 141.
+
+Chatham, Earl of (John Pitt), lord president of the council, 1;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 1, 24, 50, 64, 65, 71;
+ resignation, 72.
+
+Châtillon-sur-Seine, congress at, 118, 144.
+
+Chaumont, treaty of, 144, 145;
+ extended at Paris, 168, 186, 191, 377.
+
+Chauncey, Commodore, 140.
+
+Cherbourg, 376.
+
+Chesapeake Bay, 146;
+ estuary, 141.
+
+_Chesapeake_, the, American frigate, 127, 142, 147.
+
+Chesney, Francis Rawdon, colonel, 413.
+
+Chester, bishop of (Sumner), 341.
+
+Chichagov, Russian general, 125.
+
+Chichester, first Earl of (Pelham), 1.
+
+Chile, 190, 221.
+
+China, 86, 310, 325, 328, 329;
+ coolies, 438.
+
+Chios, island, 261, 263.
+
+Chippewa, 130, 146.
+
+Chiswick, 228.
+
+Chittagong, 408.
+
+Chítu, Pindárí leader, 406, 407.
+
+Cholera, 299, 309, 311, 407.
+
+Christian, Prince (afterwards Christian VIII. of Denmark), 143, 150.
+
+Chrystler's Farm, battle, 141.
+
+Church, Sir Richard, general, 262, 266.
+
+Church, Irish, temporalities act, 321-325.
+
+Church rates, 373, 374.
+
+Church, Scottish, 360 n., 424.
+
+Church, states of the. See Papal states.
+
+Cilicia, 394.
+
+Cinque Ports, 23.
+
+Cintra, convention of, 60, 91.
+
+Cisalpine republic (Italian republic), 9, 12, 17, 38.
+
+Ciudad Real, 96.
+
+Ciudad Rodrigo, 100, 102-108.
+
+Civil list, 15, 173, 174, 192, 278, 282, 283, 290.
+
+Clancarty, Earl of (Le Poer-Trench), 61, 68.
+
+Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313.
+
+Clare, Earl of (Fitzgibbon), 3.
+
+Clarence (William), Duke of. See William IV.
+
+Clarke, Mrs., 60, 61.
+
+Clarkson, Thomas, philanthropist, 48.
+
+Clausel, General, 107, 108, 111-113.
+
+Cleves, 43.
+
+Clinton, Sir Henry, general, 162.
+
+Clive, Lord, 396.
+
+Clyde, the, 428, 434.
+
+Coa, river, 110.
+
+Cobbett, William, 177, 207, 282, 318, 335, 343, 423;
+ _Weekly Register_, 72, 175, 204, 422, 423.
+
+Coblenz, 138.
+
+Cochrane, Lord (afterwards Earl of Dundonald), 51, 69, 72, 88, 175, 190,
+ 221, 222, 233.
+
+Codrington, Admiral, 230, 233, 234, 264.
+
+Coercion acts (Irish), 330-322, 324, 325, 346, 347.
+
+Coimbra, 98, 101.
+
+Colchester, Lord. See Abbot, Charles.
+
+Cole, General (afterwards Sir) G. L. 103.
+
+Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 416, 417, 425.
+
+Colle, La, Mill, 146.
+
+Collingwood, Admiral, 39, 40, 41, 57, 69, 88.
+
+_Collingwood, the Lord_, British ship, 216.
+
+Cologne, 43.
+
+Colombia, 216, 223.
+
+Combermere, Lord (Cotton), afterwards Viscount, 409.
+
+Combination laws, 204, 207.
+
+_Comet_, the, steamboat, 427, 434.
+
+Concordat, the, 7.
+
+Congreve rockets, 117.
+
+"Conservative," origin of name, 319.
+
+Constable, John, 427.
+
+Constantinople, 57, 214, 216, 233, 259, 261, 267, 387, 393, 394.
+
+_Constitution_, the, American frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Continental system, the, 33, 55-58, 66, 78-80, 83, 87, 105, 126, 128, 171,
+ 403.
+
+Convention act (Irish), 240.
+
+Conyngham, Marquis of, 346.
+
+Cook, Captain, 436, 438.
+
+Cooke, General, 162.
+
+Coorg, 411.
+
+Copenhagen, 3-5, 54, 55, 57.
+ See Baltic, battle of the.
+
+Copley, Sir John (afterwards Lord Lyndhurst), 226, 242, 281, 295, 302-304,
+ 359, 361-363, 365, 369-372;
+ lord chancellor, 227, 231, 243, 246, 249, 352.
+
+Corn, price of, 7 n., 84, 85, 172, 174, 203, 370.
+
+Corn laws, 85, 173, 204, 207, 243, 306.
+
+Cornwall, 288.
+
+Cornwall (Canada), 141.
+
+Cornwall, revenues of duchy of, 15, 278.
+
+Cornwallis, Admiral, 39.
+
+Cornwallis, Marquis, 239;
+ master-general of ordnance, 1;
+ negotiates treaty of Amiens, 10-12;
+ warns England, 17;
+ governor-general of Bengal, 400, 401.
+
+Corporation act, 229, 334, 235, 242.
+
+Corporation act (Irish), 372.
+
+Coruña, 39, 90, 92, 93;
+ battle, 95, 96, 108.
+
+Cottenham, Lord. See Pepys, Sir Charles.
+
+Countries, the Low. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Cowper, William, 415.
+
+Cox, David, 427.
+
+Cracow, 153, 166.
+
+Cradock, Sir John, 96.
+
+Craig, Sir James, 42;
+ governor of Canada, 128, 129.
+
+Craufurd, Robert, general, 105.
+
+Crete, 261, 263, 266, 268.
+
+Criminal law, reform of, 51, 77, 194, 201, 369.
+
+Croker, John Wilson, 274, 303, 318.
+
+Crome, John, the elder, 427.
+
+Cronstadt fleet, 123.
+
+Cuba, 222.
+
+Cuesta, Spanish general, 88, 98, 99.
+
+Cumberland (Ernest), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185, 197, 231, 235,
+ 246, 274, 324, 367, 368.
+
+Curtis, Roman Catholic archbishop of Dublin, 243, 244.
+
+Curwen, John Christian, M.P., 181, 182, 284.
+
+Cuttack, 399.
+
+Czartoryski, Prince Adam, 80.
+
+Czernowitz, 224.
+
+
+Dakáiti, 401.
+
+Dalmatia, 42, 142;
+ Duke of. See Soult, Marshal.
+
+Dalrymple, Sir Hew, general, 90, 91.
+
+Danube, the, 41, 63, 77, 94, 124, 263, 310.
+
+Danubian principalities. See Moldavia and Wallachia.
+
+Danzig, surrender of, 52.
+
+Dardanelles, the, 55, 57, 188, 214, 215, 260, 265, 267, 394, 395.
+
+Darling, Governor, 440.
+
+Darlington, 435.
+
+Darnley, Earl of (Bligh), 54.
+
+Dartmouth, Earl of. See Lewisham, Viscount.
+
+Darwin, Charles, 428.
+
+Daulat Ráo Sindhia. See Sindhia.
+
+Davoût, Marshal, 81, 136, 137.
+
+Davy, Sir Humphry, 428, 433.
+
+Dawson, George, M.P., 243, 246.
+
+"Days, the Hundred." See Bonaparte, Napoleon.
+
+Dearborn, American general, 130, 140.
+
+Decaen, French general, 18.
+
+Deccan, the, 407.
+
+Delaborde, French officer, 90.
+
+Delaware, estuary, 141.
+
+Delhi, 397-399, 406.
+
+Demerara, 9.
+
+Denman, Thomas (afterwards Lord Denman), 195.
+
+Denmark, 3-5, 53-55, 59, 69, 136, 190;
+ treaties of Kiel, 143, 189;
+ loses Norway, 166.
+
+Dennewitz, battle, 137.
+
+De Quincey, Thomas, 425.
+
+Derby, 296.
+
+Derby, twelfth Earl of (Smith-Stanley), 277.
+
+Derbyshire, 83.
+
+Derry, 243.
+
+Desnoëttes, General Lefebvre-, 88.
+
+Despard, Edward Marcus, colonel, 16.
+
+Detroit, 129, 138.
+
+Devonshire, 359.
+
+Devonshire, Duke of (Cavendish), 228.
+
+D'Eyncourt. See Tennyson, Charles.
+
+Dickens, Charles, 426.
+
+Diebitsch, Russian general, 266, 267, 310.
+
+Dijon, 145.
+
+Disraeli, Benjamin (afterwards Earl of Beaconsfield), 426.
+
+Dissenters, 306;
+ disabilities of, 85, 234, 235, 353, 355, 430.
+
+Donauwörth, 41, 63.
+
+Dost Muhammad, Amír of Kábul, 414.
+
+Douro, the, 94, 98, 99, 110.
+
+Dover, 148, 195, 351, 435.
+
+Downs, the, 64.
+
+Drake, British envoy, 33.
+
+Dresden, 112, 114, 135;
+ battle, 137.
+
+Dropmore, seat of Lord Grenville, 24.
+
+Drummond, Sir Gordon, 146.
+
+Dublin, 19, 77, 197, 240, 317, 371;
+ castle, 23;
+ police bill, 362;
+ archbishop of (Whately), 317, 421, 422;
+ Roman Catholic archbishop of (Curtis), 243, 244.
+
+Duckworth, Sir John, admiral, 57.
+
+Dudley, Viscount and Earl of. See Ward, J. W.
+
+Duhesme, French general, 88.
+
+Dumont, Pierre Étienne Louis, 420.
+
+Duncannon, Viscount (Ponsonby), afterwards Earl of Bessborough, 287;
+ home secretary, 347;
+ lord privy seal, 357.
+
+Duncombe, Thomas S., M.P., 374.
+
+Dundas, Sir David, commander-in-chief, 61, 62.
+
+Dundas, Henry (afterwards first Viscount Melville), 3, 24, 25, 30, 32, 68;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 34;
+ impeachment, 36.
+
+Dundas, Robert S. (afterwards second Viscount Melville), president of board
+ of control, 68;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 82;
+ resignation, 227;
+ president of board of control, 231;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 243.
+
+Dundee, 306.
+
+Dupont, General, 88.
+
+Durham. See Universities.
+
+Durham, Lord (Lambton), afterwards Earl of, 345, 348;
+ lord privy seal, 280, 287, 291;
+ resignation, 325.
+
+
+East India Company. See India.
+
+East Retford, 235, 236.
+
+Ebrington, Viscount (Fortescue), afterwards second Earl Fortescue, 206,
+ 303.
+
+Ebro, the, 89, 92, 110, 114.
+
+Ecclefechan, 424.
+
+Ecclesiastical commission, 355, 373.
+
+Eckmühl, battle, 63.
+
+Edgeworth, Maria, 422.
+
+Edgware Road. See London.
+
+Edinburgh, 306, 348.
+
+_Edinburgh Review_, the, 358, 423, 424.
+
+Education, national, 49, 51, 182, 193, 194, 358;
+ Irish, 316, 317.
+
+Edwards, George, informer, 192.
+
+Egmont, Earl of (Perceval), 50.
+
+Egypt, 6, 9, 18, 57, 224, 225, 233, 262, 264, 265, 269, 396, 413;
+ convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+ peace of Kiutayeh, 394.
+
+Elba, island, 145, 146, 151, 153, 169, 201.
+
+Elbe, the, 55, 62, 133, 135, 137.
+
+Eldon, Lord (Scott), afterwards Earl of Eldon, 232, 234, 235, 238, 239,
+ 244, 248, 249, 296, 319, 333, 353, 358, 362;
+ lord chancellor, 1, 29, 30, 31, 49, 50, 51, 60, 67 n., 74-76, 82, 85,
+ 169, 172, 179, 180, 194-196, 202, 209;
+ resignation, 227.
+
+Elections, general. See Parliament.
+
+Eliot, Lord (afterwards Earl of St. Germans), 390.
+
+Elizabeth, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n., 185.
+
+Ellenborough, first Lord (Law), lord chief justice, 45, 49, 169, 177.
+
+Ellenborough, second Lord, afterwards Earl (Law), 328, 329;
+ lord privy seal, 231;
+ president of the board of control, 243, 271, 352.
+
+Ellesmere canal, 434.
+
+Ellice, Edward, secretary at war, 346.
+
+Elphinstone, Mountstuart, 403.
+
+Elsinore, 4.
+
+Elvas, 93, 103.
+
+Embargo act (United States), 128.
+
+Emmet, Robert, 18, 23, 240.
+
+Empire, Holy Roman, dissolved, 46;
+ treaty of Lunéville, 6, 17.
+
+Enghien, Duke of, murder of, 34, 35, 37.
+
+England, negotiates with France, 7-12;
+ conquests, 9, 14, 47, 69, 81, 398, 403;
+ signs treaty of Amiens, 12, 13, 398;
+ industrial and agricultural depression, 13, 83, 171, 172, 174-180,
+ 205-207, 270, 299, 312, 370;
+ fresh discord with France, 16, 17;
+ war declared against France, 22;
+ preparations for invasion, 23;
+ third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41, 52;
+ treaty with Russia, 37:
+ treaty with Sweden, 38;
+ expeditions to Naples, 42, 47, 63;
+ Anglo-Hanoverian expedition to North Germany, 42, 43, 51;
+ negotiations with France, 46;
+ state of army in 1806, 51;
+ in 1807, 59, 60;
+ in 1813, 86;
+ troops in Sweden, 52;
+ troops in Denmark, 53, 54;
+ orders in council, 55, 56, 126, 130, 171;
+ commercial warfare, 58;
+ Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 129, 182;
+ treaty with Spanish junta, 96;
+ Walcheren expedition, 62-66, 99:
+ treaty with Austria, 63;
+ Sweden declares war on, 78;
+ treaties with Russia and Sweden, 85, 123, 136;
+ war with United States, 58, 82, 126-132, 138-142, 146, 147, 156, 171;
+ treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+ treaties of Reichenbach, 136;
+ treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+ treaty of Ried, 137;
+ treaty of Kiel, 143;
+ treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+ treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+ treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+ visit of the allied sovereigns, 147, 148;
+ first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+ treaty with Spain, 150;
+ congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 376, 379,
+ 381, 388;
+ Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+ second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+ union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+ expedition against the Barbary States, 187, 188;
+ conferences of Vienna, 189, 216, 217;
+ conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+ congress of Troppau, 211-215, 395, 396;
+ the Eastern question, 213, 216, 232-234, 259-269, 392;
+ congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+ assists Portugal, 220, 221, 255-258;
+ commercial treaty with Brazil, 322;
+ conferences of London, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+ conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+ treaty with United States, 225;
+ treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+ treaties with Portugal, 255;
+ convention of Alexandria, 264, 265;
+ convention with France and Holland, 387;
+ triple and quadruple alliances, 389-391;
+ treaties with Indian states, 398, 399;
+ treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+Epirus, 188.
+
+Erfurt, 59, 92.
+
+Erie, lake, 139, 141.
+
+Erlon, d', French general, 159, 162, 163.
+
+Erskine, Lord, 77, 177;
+ lord chancellor, 49.
+
+Esdremadura, 99, 106.
+
+Espinosa, battle, 92.
+
+Essequibo, 9.
+
+Essex, 175 n.
+
+Essling, 63.
+
+Etruria, kingdom of, 9.
+
+Euphrates, the, 413.
+
+Evans, De Lacy (afterwards Sir de Lacy), 343, 391.
+
+Eveleigh, Dr., 429.
+
+Evora, convention at, 390.
+
+Ewart, William, M.P., 369.
+
+Exchange, Royal. See London.
+
+Exeter, bishop of (Phillpotts), 324.
+
+Exmouth, Lord (Pellew), afterwards Viscount, 187, 188.
+
+Eylau, battle, 51, 199;
+ campaign, 56.
+
+
+Fabvier, Colonel, 262.
+
+Factory acts, 326-328.
+
+Falmouth, 259.
+
+Faraday, Michael, 428.
+
+Fath Ali, Sháh of Persia, 402.
+
+Fauvelet, French agent, 19.
+
+Fawkes, Guy, 192.
+
+Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 396.
+
+Ferdinand III., Grand Duke of Tuscany, 166.
+
+Ferdinand IV., King of the Two Sicilies, 7, 47, 58, 166, 187, 211, 212,
+ 216, 221.
+
+Ferdinand VII., King of Spain, 87, 88, 103, 123, 150, 187, 190, 210, 215,
+ 218, 222, 388, 389, 395.
+
+Ferrol, 39.
+
+Ferronays, De la, French foreign minister, 261.
+
+Finance, 15, 48, 49, 86, 172, 173, 198, 201-204, 206, 207, 226, 238, 235,
+ 270, 283, 291, 334, 335, 347, 356, 369;
+ income and property tax, 15, 23, 48, 49, 172, 173;
+ currency reform, 74, 182, 183.
+
+Fines, act for abolition of, 325, 333.
+
+Finland, 54, 59, 122, 123, 125, 166.
+
+Finn, W. F., M.P., 367, 368.
+
+Fischer, Danish commander, 5.
+
+Fitzgerald, Vesey, M.P., 236, 237.
+
+Fitzherbert, Mrs., 194.
+
+Fitzwilliam, Earl, 14, 29, 32, 180;
+ lord president of the council, 45;
+ in cabinet without office, 49.
+
+Flaxman, John, 427.
+
+Fletcher, Colonel, 101.
+
+Fleurus, 158.
+
+Flinders, Matthew, 436, 439.
+
+Florence, 212, 216;
+ treaty of, 7.
+
+Florida, 215.
+
+Flushing, 65, 71.
+
+Fontainebleau, 82, 118, 145;
+ decree 79;
+ treaties of, 87, 145, 146.
+
+Fort Erie, 130.
+
+Fortescue, first Earl, 296.
+
+Fort George, 130, 140, 141.
+
+Fort Sandusky, 139.
+
+Fouché, French politician, 155, 165, 168.
+
+Fox, Charles James, 14-16, 26, 27, 29-34, 200, 279, 372, 417;
+ relations with George III., 32, 33, 45, 46, 185;
+ foreign secretary, 45, 46;
+ abolition of slave trade, 46, 48;
+ death, 46, 47, 49, 228.
+
+Foy, French general, 111, 112, 160.
+
+France, 13, 14, 17, 21, 39-41, 47, 54, 58, 64, 65, 69, 79, 88, 105, 119,
+ 128, 130, 145, 150-153, 186, 187, 189-191, 205, 210, 212, 221, 223,
+ 377, 398;
+ treaties of Lunéville and Aranjuez, 6, 17;
+ treaty of Florence, 7;
+ negotiations resulting in treaty of Amiens, 7, 13;
+ proposed invasion of England, 8;
+ war declared against England, 22;
+ alliance with Spain, 35;
+ encroachments in Europe, 37;
+ war with Austria, 38, 41, 42;
+ war with Russia, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+ "army of England," 38, 42;
+ peace of Pressburg, 42;
+ treaty with the Two Sicilies, 42;
+ treaty of Schönbrunn, 43;
+ treaty with Prussia, 46, 55;
+ war with Prussia, 47, 52;
+ treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 78, 87, 401, 402;
+ secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+ Milan decree, 56;
+ Peninsular war, 59-63, 65, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+ war with Austria, 61-64;
+ peace of Vienna, 64, 66;
+ loss of foreign possessions, 69, 81, 215, 223, 403;
+ annexations, 77-79;
+ breach with Russia, 79-81, 105, 108;
+ treaty with Prussia, 122;
+ war with Russia, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 402;
+ campaign of 1813, 132-138;
+ war with Prussia, 134;
+ war with Austria, 137, 142, 143;
+ campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+ the allies enter, 118, 143;
+ congress at Châtillon-sur-Seine, 118, 144;
+ first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+ congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 167, 186, 188, 190, 379, 381,
+ 388;
+ Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+ second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+ congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+ dispute with Spain, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+ congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+ conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+ treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+ the Eastern question, 259-269, 392-395;
+ conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+ conquest of Algiers, 269;
+ revolution of July, 274, 276, 285, 376, 378;
+ assists Belgium, 384-386;
+ convention with England and Holland, 387;
+ attacks Portugal, 388;
+ quadruple alliance, 389-391;
+ officers in India, 398;
+ treaty with Persia, 402.
+
+France, Isle of. See Mauritius, the.
+
+Franche-Comté, 143.
+
+Francis II., Holy Roman Emperor (afterwards Francis I., Emperor of
+ Austria), 17, 46, 78, 144, 145, 148, 218, 224, 395.
+
+Francis IV., Duke of Modena, 166.
+
+Frankfort, 189.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 185.
+
+Fraser, General, 57.
+
+Frasnes, 158, 159.
+
+Frederick, Prince Regent of Denmark (afterwards Frederick VI.), 5, 53.
+
+Frederick, Prince, of Orange, 379.
+
+Frederick II., the Great, King of Prussia, 47.
+
+Frederick Augustus, King of Saxony, 135.
+
+Frederick Joseph, Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 184.
+
+Frederick William III., King of Prussia, 38, 42, 43, 46, 47, 52, 62, 122,
+ 134, 144, 147, 148, 152, 189.
+
+Frederick William, Crown Prince of Prussia (afterwards Frederick William
+ IV.), 395.
+
+Fréjus, 146.
+
+Frenchtown, 138.
+
+Freyre, English officer, 118.
+
+Friedland, battle, 52, 122, 401.
+
+_Frolic_, the, British sloop, 132.
+
+Fuentes d'Oñoro, battle, 103.
+
+
+Gáekwár. See Baroda, Gáekwár of.
+
+Galicia, 39, 66, 80, 88, 90, 94, 98, 122.
+
+Gambier, Admiral (afterwards Lord), 54, 69.
+
+Gamonal, battle, 92.
+
+Ganges, the, 398, 407.
+
+Gantheaume, French admiral, 39.
+
+Gardane, French general, 402.
+
+Gardner, Colonel, 405.
+
+Garonne, the, 118.
+
+Gascoyne, General, M.P., 291.
+
+Gatton, 289.
+
+Gebora, river, 102.
+
+Genappe, 160.
+
+Genoa, 143, 149, 166, 390;
+ bay of, 69.
+
+George III., 2, 14, 22, 31, 32, 34, 48-50, 55, 62, 66-68, 71, 92, 96, 171,
+ 194, 208, 242, 375;
+ insanity, 29, 74, 83;
+ relations with Fox, 32, 33, 45, 46;
+ jubilee, 69;
+ family, 184;
+ death, 185, 192;
+ character, 185, 186, 249, 273.
+
+George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), his friends, 29;
+ regent for George III., 74-76, 83, 85, 148, 156, 157, 165, 168, 176, 179,
+ 186;
+ marriage relations, 85, 86, 183, 184, 192-197;
+ character, 173, 174, 183, 184, 194, 197, 208, 244, 282, 375;
+ king, 192, 199, 201, 226-231, 242-244, 246, 249, 268, 271;
+ coronation, 196, 197, 309;
+ death, 272, 273.
+
+Gérard, General (afterwards Marshal), 164, 386.
+
+Germany, 38, 41-43, 46, 47, 55, 58, 59, 61-64, 71, 79, 80, 82, 92, 97, 105,
+ 115, 118, 123, 132-138, 142, 144, 149, 152, 156, 188, 189, 381, 387,
+ 424, 425;
+ redistribution of territory, 17, 53, 78, 153;
+ forces in the Peninsula, 98, 114, 116;
+ organisation of, 166.
+ See also Austria, Bavaria, Hanover, Prussia, etc.
+
+Gerona, 88.
+
+Ghent, 155, 378;
+ treaty of, 147, 156, 203.
+
+Ghika, Alexander, Hospodar of Wallachia, 396.
+
+Gibbon, Edward, 415.
+
+Gibraltar, 188, 259, 381;
+ governor of, 90;
+ straits of, 8, 39.
+
+Giessen, 189.
+
+Gifford, William, 423.
+
+Gillray, James, 26.
+
+Gladstone, William Ewart, 44, 200, 318, 350, 424.
+
+Glasgow, 193, 295, 306, 371.
+
+Glenelg, Lord. See Grant, Charles.
+
+Gloucester (William), Duke of (nephew of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Goderich, Viscount. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Godoy, Spanish statesman, 87.
+
+Goethe, Wolfgang von, 417, 418.
+
+Gohad, 399.
+
+Golden Lane. See London.
+
+Gordon, Robert, diplomatist, 266.
+
+Goulburn, Henry, 284, 303, 319;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 231, 270, 278, 280;
+ home secretary, 352, 367.
+
+Gower, Lord Francis Leveson (afterwards Earl of Ellesmere), 236.
+
+Gower, Lord Granville Leveson- (afterwards Earl Granville), secretary at
+ war, 66;
+ retirement, 68.
+
+Graham, Sir James, 270, 277, 352, 354, 374;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 279, 287;
+ resignation, 345.
+
+Graham, Sir Thomas (afterwards Lord Lynedoch), 102, 104, 110-113.
+
+Grampound, 193, 198, 284, 288.
+
+Granby, Marquis of (Manners), 52.
+
+Grand, river, 139.
+
+Grant, Charles (afterwards Lord Glenelg), 277;
+ board of trade, 230, 231;
+ resignation, 236, 380;
+ president of the board of control, 279, 329, 330, 380;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 357.
+
+Grattan, Henry, M.P., 197, 238.
+
+Graves, Rear-admiral, 5.
+
+Greece, 379, 380, 383;
+ revolts against Turkey, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-226, 232-234, 253,
+ 259-267, 393;
+ independent, 268;
+ boundary fixed, 392.
+
+Greenock, 306.
+
+Grenoble, 153.
+
+Grenville, Thomas, first lord of the admiralty, 49.
+
+Grenville, Lord, 2, 14, 24-26, 29, 33, 35, 54, 56, 67 n., 68, 74-76, 109,
+ 238, 279;
+ his followers, 26, 27, 30, 32, 34;
+ first lord of the treasury, 45, 47-49, 51, 52;
+ resignation, 49, 50;
+ opposition to Peninsular war, 71, 76.
+
+Greville, Charles, 332.
+
+Grey, Charles (afterwards Viscount Howick and later second Earl Grey), 46,
+ 67 n., 68, 74-76, 199, 228, 230, 249, 271, 276, 277, 348, 357;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 45;
+ foreign secretary, 49, 52, 55;
+ opposition to Peninsular war, 76;
+ first lord of the treasury, 278-283, 285-287, 290, 291, 293-296, 299,
+ 301-304, 320, 321, 324, 325, 334, 375, 380;
+ resignation, 344-347.
+
+Grey, Earl de, first lord of the admiralty, 352.
+
+Grossbeeren, battle, 137.
+
+Grosvenor Square. See London.
+
+Grote, George, 341, 345, 374, 431.
+
+Grouchy, Marshal, 160, 163, 164.
+
+Guadeloupe, 136.
+
+Guadiana, the, 99.
+
+Guarda, 100.
+
+_Guerrière_, the, British frigate, 131, 132.
+
+Guildhall. See London.
+
+Guilleminot, French diplomatist, 266.
+
+Guizot, French statesman, 357.
+
+Gujrát, 399.
+
+Gúrkhas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Gustavus IV., King of Sweden, 37, 54, 90.
+
+Gwalior, 310, 399, 407.
+ See Sindhia.
+
+
+_Habeas corpus act_, suspension of, 3, 176-178, 181, 240, 320.
+
+Hague, the, 384.
+
+Haidarábád, 40;
+ Nizám of, 397, 398;
+ treaty of Bassein, 398, 399.
+
+Hal, 158, 161.
+
+_Halifax_, the, British sloop, 127.
+
+Hallam, Henry, 426, 427.
+
+Hamburg, 134, 136, 138, 310.
+
+Hamilton, English commodore, 225.
+
+Hamilton, Sir William, philosopher, 417.
+
+Hampden clubs, 175.
+
+Hampshire, 281, 282.
+
+Hampton, General, 140, 141.
+
+Hampton roads, 127.
+
+Hanau, battle, 133.
+
+_Hannibal_, the, British ship, 8.
+
+Hanover, 22, 38, 42, 43, 46, 55, 134, 136, 166, 249.
+
+Hanoverian troops, 137, 158, 159, 161.
+
+Hanse Towns, the, 55.
+
+Hardenberg, Prussian minister, 144, 152.
+
+Hardinge, Henry (afterwards Sir Henry and later Viscount Hardinge), 104;
+ secretary at war, 236, 250, 275, 313.
+
+Hardwicke, Earl of (Yorke), lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 2, 23, 27.
+
+Harrison, American general, 138, 139.
+
+Harrowby, Lord (Dudley Ryder), afterwards Earl of Harrowby, 68, 193, 295,
+ 299, 301, 302;
+ foreign secretary, 34;
+ retirement, 35;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 37;
+ president of the board of control, 66;
+ lord president of the council, 81, 82, 227, 230.
+
+Hartwell, Bucks, 147.
+
+Harwich, 197.
+
+Hasselt, 384.
+
+Hastings, Marquis of. See Moira, Earl of.
+
+Hastings, Warren, 279.
+
+Haugwitz, Prussian minister, 42, 43.
+
+Hawkesbury, Lord (Jenkinson), afterwards Earl of Liverpool, foreign
+ secretary, 1, 8, 9, 11, 12, 19, 20, 25, 34, 228;
+ called to the house of lords, 27;
+ home secretary, 34;
+ declines office as first lord of the treasury, 45;
+ home secretary, 50;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 68, 71, 82, 100, 106;
+ first lord of the treasury, 77, 82, 83, 85, 108, 109, 151, 168, 169, 172,
+ 173, 183, 195-199, 205, 238, 239, 242, 279, 380;
+ resignation, 208, 209, 226.
+
+Hay, Lord John, 391.
+
+Haye, La, farm, 162.
+
+Haye Sainte, La, farm, 162, 163.
+
+Hayti, 215, 223.
+
+Hazlitt, William, 425.
+
+Health, board of, 310.
+
+Hegel, Georg, 417.
+
+Heligoland, 143, 167.
+
+Helvetian republic. See Switzerland.
+
+Helvoetsluis, 18.
+
+Henry IV., King of France, 219.
+
+Henry, John, 128.
+
+Herat, 412-414.
+
+Herries, J. C., chancellor of the exchequer, 229, 230;
+ master of the mint, 231;
+ secretary at war, 352.
+
+Herschel, Sir John, 428.
+
+Hesse, Princess' Augusta of (Duchess of Cambridge), 184.
+
+Heytesbury, Lord, 412.
+
+Hill, Rowland (afterwards Sir Rowland and later Viscount Hill), 104-106,
+ 108, 110-113, 115-117, 119.
+
+Himálayas, the, 404, 405.
+
+Hobart, Lord (afterwards fourth Earl of Buckinghamshire), secretary for war
+ and colonies, 1, 2, 34;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 35;
+ resignation, 37;
+ president of the board of control, 81, 82, 174.
+
+Hobhouse, Sir John Cam (afterwards Lord Broughton), 325, 327, 343, 418;
+ first commissioner of woods and forests, 347;
+ president of the board of control, 357.
+
+Hohenlinden, battle, 420.
+
+Holkar, Jaswant Ráo Holkar, 398, 399, 405;
+ Malhár Ráo Holkar, 405, 406.
+
+Holland (Batavian republic), 9, 11, 18 19, 21, 38, 53, 61, 81, 149-151,
+ 156, 158, 159, 161, 162, 166, 199, 377;
+ treaty of Amiens, 13;
+ Louis Bonaparte, king of, 46;
+ loss of Cape of Good Hope, 47, 403;
+ Walcheren expedition, 65;
+ annexed by France, 78;
+ revolts, 133, 138;
+ Prince of Orange proclaimed King of the Netherlands, 138;
+ Dutch at Waterloo, 158, 161, 162;
+ united to Belgium, 166;
+ separation from Belgium, 376-386, 393;
+ convention with Great Britain and France, 387;
+ convention with Belgium, 387;
+ settlers in South Africa, 438.
+
+Holland, Lord (Vassall-Fox), 170, 180, 199, 228, 230, 234;
+ lord privy seal, 49;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 280, 357.
+
+Holy Alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 200, 229.
+
+Holyhead, 197.
+
+Homs, 393.
+
+Hone, William, 177.
+
+Hope, John (afterwards Sir John, later Lord Niddry and Earl of Hopetoun),
+ 93, 95, 116, 117, 119.
+
+Horner, Francis, M.P., 73, 183, 423.
+
+_Hornet_, the, American ship, 141.
+
+Hougoumont, 161, 162.
+
+Howard, John, 415, 437.
+
+Howick, Viscount. See Grey, Charles.
+
+Howick, Viscount (afterwards third Earl Grey), 271;
+ secretary at war, 357.
+
+Howley, archbishop of Canterbury, 299, 337, 373.
+
+Huddersfield, 270.
+
+Hudson, James (afterwards Sir James Hudson), 351.
+
+Hugo, Victor, 426.
+
+Hull, American general, 129.
+
+Hume, David, 415.
+
+Hume, Joseph, 198, 274, 323, 367, 368, 374, 431.
+
+Hunt, "Orator," 175, 179, 207, 281, 318.
+
+Huron, lake, 129.
+
+Huskisson, William, 84, 86;
+ president of the board of trade, 198, 202, 203, 205, 207, 227, 228;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 229-232, 235, 270, 271;
+ resignation, 236, 380;
+ death, 275, 276, 435.
+
+Hutchinson, General, 6.
+
+Hutton, James, 428.
+
+Hydriots, the, 392.
+
+
+Ibrahim, Pasha, 224, 225, 233, 264, 265, 392-394, 396.
+
+Illyrian provinces, 66, 122, 134, 137.
+
+_Impérieuse_, the, British frigate, 88.
+
+_Inconstant_, the, Napoleon's brig, 153.
+
+Indemnity acts, 234.
+
+India, 3, 18, 50, 59, 61, 104, 329, 330, 397-414, 436;
+ French towns in India, 18, 19;
+ East India Company, 201, 271, 399, 400, 406, 409;
+ acts and charters relating to East India Company, 86, 325, 328-330, 404,
+ 411, 412;
+ treaties, 398, 399, 402, 403-406, 409, 412;
+ coolies, 438.
+
+Indians (America), 129, 138, 147.
+
+Indies, East, 20, 81, 310.
+
+Indies, West, 20, 39, 69, 131, 219, 326, 438.
+
+Indore. See Holkar.
+
+Ingilby, Sir W. A., M.P., 334.
+
+Inglis, Sir Robert, M.P., 245.
+
+Inn, river, 63.
+
+Insurrection act, 240, 320.
+
+Inverness, 348.
+
+Ionian islands, 69, 167, 187, 188, 267, 268.
+
+Irawadi, the, 408.
+
+Ireland, 16, 51, 55, 85, 197, 208, 242, 246, 247, 281, 289, 290, 312, 316,
+ 317, 359, 360, 367, 368, 370-373;
+ condition of, in 1801, 2, 3;
+ in 1821, 199, 239;
+ in 1824, 205;
+ in 1828, 243;
+ in 1829, 270;
+ in 1830, 275;
+ in 1831-32, 312-317;
+ in 1833, 320, 321;
+ in 1834, 345;
+ in 1837, 371;
+ French spies, 18, 19, 23;
+ Emmet's rebellion, 18, 23, 240;
+ scheme for representative assembly, 77;
+ union of Irish and English exchequers, 174;
+ Clare election, 236, 237, 243, 245, 250, 251, 313;
+ disfranchisement of forty shilling freeholders, 241, 249;
+ famine, 243;
+ reform bill, 306, 307;
+ agitation against tithe, 313-316, 320;
+ church, 315-317, 322;
+ processions act, 316, 317;
+ education, 316, 317;
+ coercion act, 320-322, 324, 325, 332;
+ church temporalities act, 321-325, 332;
+ second coercion act, 347;
+ municipal corporations bill, 364, 365.
+
+Irving, Edward, 339, 340.
+
+Isabella II., Queen of Spain, 389, 395.
+
+Isabella Maria, Regent of Portugal, 253.
+
+Ischia, island, 63.
+
+Isle-aux-noix, 140.
+
+Istria, 42.
+
+Isturiz, Spanish premier, 391.
+
+Italy, 42, 58, 63, 79, 133, 137, 138, 143-145, 149, 153, 157, 166, 187,
+ 210, 211, 213, 215-217, 348, 377, 387;
+ Napoleon crowned King of Italy, 37, 38.
+
+Italian republic. See Cisalpine republic.
+
+
+Jackson, Andrew (afterwards President of the United States), 147.
+
+Jackson, Francis J., British envoy, 53.
+
+Jails, 369, 437.
+
+Jaswant Ráo Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Java, 81, 403.
+
+_Java_, the, British frigate, 132.
+
+Jefferson, Thomas, President of the United States, 58, 127, 128.
+
+Jeffrey, Francis (afterwards Lord), 423.
+
+Jena, battle, 47, 199.
+
+Jenner, Dr. Edward, 15, 427.
+
+Jessor, 310.
+
+Jesuits, 247.
+
+Jews, disabilities of, 235.
+
+John VI., King of Portugal, 211, 215, 220, 221, 253, 254.
+
+Johnson, Samuel, 186, 415.
+
+Jones, Sir Harford (afterwards Brydges), 402.
+
+Jones, John Gale, 72.
+
+Jordan, Mrs., 273.
+
+Jourdan, Marshal, 98, 110.
+
+Jumna, river, 398, 399.
+
+Junot, Duke of Abrantes, 54, 58, 89-91, 100.
+
+
+Kábul, 403, 413, 414.
+
+Kaffraria, 438.
+
+Kalisch, treaty of, 134.
+
+Kandahár, 403, 414.
+
+Kant, Immanuel, 417.
+
+Karavasara, 266.
+
+Karnátik, the, 397.
+
+Katzbach, the, battle, 137.
+
+Keats, John, 419.
+
+Keble, John, 337.
+
+Kehl, 138.
+
+Kellermann, French general, 159, 162.
+
+Kent, 23, 281.
+
+Kent (Edward), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Kent (Victoria Mary), Duchess of 184, 185, 281.
+
+Keswick, 420.
+
+Key, Sir John, M.P., 334.
+
+Khátmándu, 404.
+
+Kiel, treaty of, 142, 143, 189.
+
+Kilkenny, murders in, 320.
+
+Killingworth colliery, 434, 435.
+
+Kilwarden, Viscount (Wolfe), 23.
+
+King's College. See London.
+
+Kiutayeh, 393;
+ peace of, 394.
+
+Kléber, French general, 6.
+
+Knatchbull, Sir Edward, paymaster of forces, 352.
+
+Knights of St. John, 9, 10, 13;
+ property of the order, 11.
+
+Konieh, 393.
+
+Königsberg, 81.
+
+Kotzebue, murder of, 189.
+
+Krasnoe, battle, 125.
+
+Kronborg, 4.
+
+Kruse, Dutch officer, 162.
+
+Kulm, 137.
+
+Kumáun, district of, 405.
+
+Kutuzov, Russian general, 124.
+
+
+Labedoyère, Colonel, 154.
+
+Laconia, 392.
+
+Laffitte, French premier, 383, 387.
+
+Lahore, 402.
+
+Laibach, treaty of, 212, 213.
+
+Lake, General (afterwards Lord and later Viscount Lake), 398-401, 409.
+
+Lamb, Charles, 425.
+
+Lamb, William (afterwards Viscount Melbourne), 227, 231, 236;
+ home secretary, 279, 296, 299;
+ first lord of the treasury, 347, 350;
+ resignation, 351;
+ first lord of the treasury, 357, 359, 360, 363, 370, 371, 373, 390, 401,
+ 431.
+
+Lampeter, St. David's College, 430.
+
+Lancashire, 83, 179, 435.
+
+Lancaster, revenues of duchy of, 278, 282.
+
+Landau, 149, 167.
+
+Langdale, Lord. See Bickersteth, Henry.
+
+Lansdowne, Marquis of. See Petty, Lord Henry.
+
+Laswári, battle, 399.
+
+Laud, William, 429.
+
+Lauderdale, Earl of (Maitland), 46, 170.
+
+Lauriston, General (afterwards Marshal), 13.
+
+Lawley, Sir Robert, M.P., 29.
+
+Lawrence, Captain, 141, 142.
+
+Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 427.
+
+Leach, Sir John, 195.
+
+Leadenhall Street. See London.
+
+Leeds, 198, 272, 327.
+
+Leghorn, 143.
+
+Leicestershire, 83.
+
+Leinster, 315.
+
+Leipzig, battle, 63, 82, 114, 117, 118, 133, 137, 138, 143, 164.
+
+Leon, plains of, 88, 106.
+
+_Leopard_, the, British flagship, 127.
+
+Leopold, Prince, of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians), 174,
+ 183, 185, 268, 269, 383, 384.
+
+Lepanto, 266.
+
+L'Estrange, Colonel, 179.
+
+Levant, the, 18, 413.
+
+Lewis I., King of Bavaria, 392.
+
+Lewisham, Viscount (Legge), afterwards Earl of Dartmouth, president of the
+ board of control, 1, 15.
+
+"Lichfield House Compact," 356.
+
+Liège, 43, 381.
+
+Ligny, 158, 164;
+ battle, 158-160.
+
+Ligurian republic, 9, 12, 37, 38.
+
+Lille, negotiations at, 9, 14.
+
+Limburg, province, 382, 385-387.
+
+Lincolnshire, 334.
+
+Lincoln's Inn Fields. See London.
+
+Linois, French admiral, 8.
+
+Lisbon, 54, 89-91, 93-98, 100, 102, 109, 201, 211, 215, 220-222, 257-259,
+ 389.
+
+Littleport, 175 n.
+
+Littleton, Edward John (afterwards Lord Hatherton), 325, 345, 346.
+
+Liverpool, 201, 232, 275, 276, 291, 369, 388, 435.
+
+Liverpool, Earl of. See Hawkesbury, Lord.
+
+Lloyd, Charles, bishop of Oxford, 249.
+
+Lobau, island, 63.
+
+Lobau, Prince of, 163.
+
+Lombardy, 149, 166, 187.
+ See also Cisalpine republic.
+
+London, 195, 196, 201, 202, 206, 270, 277, 278, 296, 303, 311, 435, 437;
+ bishop of (Blomfield), 324, 341, 373.
+
+London:--
+ Apsley House, 293.
+ Battersea Fields, 251.
+ Blackheath, 194.
+ Bridges: Blackfriars, London, Southwark, Strand (Waterloo), Westminster,
+ 436.
+ Brooks's Club, 374.
+ Buckingham Palace, 349.
+ Carlton House, 70, 436.
+ Cato Street, 193.
+ Corporation of, 173.
+ Edgware Road, 193.
+ Golden Lane, 435.
+ Guildhall, 148.
+ Grosvenor Square, 193.
+ King's College, 250, 431.
+ Leadenhall Street, 329, 398, 411.
+ Lincoln's Inn Fields, 298.
+ "London University," 250, 356, 431;
+ university of London, 431, 432.
+ Newgate, 72, 369.
+ Old Bailey, 282.
+ Pall Mall, 435.
+ Regent Street and Park, 436.
+ Royal Academy, 427.
+ Royal Exchange, 175.
+ St. Paul's, 196.
+ Small-pox Hospital, 427.
+ Southwark, 26.
+ Spa Fields, Bermondsey, 175.
+ Spitalfields, 202.
+ Tower, 72, 175.
+ University College, 431, 432.
+ Westminster, 51, 72, 343.
+ Westminster Abbey, 46, 196, 309.
+ Westminster Hall, 349.
+ White Conduit House, 298.
+
+London, conferences of, 222, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+ protocols of, 265, 267, 381-385, 392;
+ treaties of, 96, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266-268, 385, 392.
+
+_London Magazine_, the, 424, 425.
+
+Londonderry, second Marquis of. See Castlereagh, Viscount.
+
+Londonderry, third Marquis of. See Stewart, Sir Charles.
+
+Lonsdale, Earl of (Lowther), 67 n.
+
+Lorraine, 143, 168.
+
+Loughborough, Lord (Wedderburn), afterwards first Earl of Rosslyn, 1, 271.
+
+Louis XIV., King of France, 186.
+
+Louis XVI., King of France, 145.
+
+Louis XVIII., King of France, 118, 119, 145, 147, 149, 154-157, 166, 167,
+ 169, 187, 215, 218, 219, 377.
+
+Louis Antoine, Duke of Angoulême (afterwards dauphin), 116, 118, 154, 220,
+ 376.
+
+Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans (afterwards King of France), 154, 274, 376,
+ 377, 379, 380, 382-384, 390, 391.
+
+Louisiana, 6, 18.
+
+Louvain, 384.
+
+Low Countries. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Lübeck, 78.
+
+Luddite riots. See Riots.
+
+Lugo, 95.
+
+Lundy's Lane, battle, 146.
+
+Lunéville, treaty of, 6, 10, 13, 17, 38.
+
+Lützen, battle, 135.
+
+Luxemburg, grand duchy of, 43, 380-387.
+
+Lyell, Charles (afterwards Sir C.), 428.
+
+Lyndhurst, Lord. See Copley, Sir John.
+
+Lyons, 154.
+
+
+Maas, river, 387.
+
+Maastricht, 380, 382.
+
+Macadam, John Loudon, roadmaker, 434.
+
+Macarthur, John, 439.
+
+Macaulay, Thomas Babington (afterwards Lord Macaulay), 296, 327, 411, 412,
+ 423-427.
+
+Macaulay, Zachary, 423, 431.
+
+Macdonald, Marshal, 124, 125, 154.
+
+_Macedonian_, the, British ship, 132.
+
+Mack, Austrian general, 42.
+
+Mackinac, 129, 139.
+
+Mackintosh, Sir James, 16, 194, 201.
+
+Mackworth, Major, 298.
+
+Macquarie, Governor, 439, 440.
+
+Madison, James, President of the United States, 128-130.
+
+Madras, 400, 410.
+
+Madrid, 71, 87-89, 92-94, 96, 98, 103, 107, 108, 111, 150, 217-220, 390,
+ 391;
+ treaty of, 6.
+
+Magdeburg, 138.
+
+Mahmúd, Amír of Afghánistán, 403.
+
+Mahmud II., Sultan of Turkey, 57, 168, 188, 266, 393, 394, 396.
+
+Maida, battle, 47.
+
+Maine, state, 147.
+
+Mainots, the, 392.
+
+Mainz, 136.
+
+Maitland, Captain, 169.
+
+Majorca, 88.
+
+Malcolm, Sir John, colonel, 402.
+
+Malden, 129.
+
+Malhár, Ráo Holkar. See Holkar.
+
+Malmaison, 165.
+
+Malmesbury, Earl of (Harris), 14, 49.
+
+Malta, possession of, 9-13, 20, 22, 37, 408, 413;
+ independence guaranteed, 13;
+ parliamentary debate on, 14;
+ retention by England, 19, 20, 167.
+
+Malthus, Thomas Robert, 421.
+
+Málwá, 406, 409, 411.
+
+Manchester, 176, 178, 179, 272, 275, 276, 295, 303, 311, 435.
+
+Mansfield, first Earl of (Murray), 45.
+
+Mansfield, third Earl of (Murray), 292.
+
+Maráthá wars, 398, 399, 406, 407.
+
+Marcoff, Count, 21.
+
+Marengo, battle, 159.
+
+Maria II., da Gloria, Queen of Portugal, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388.
+
+Maria Christina, Queen-regent of Spain, 389, 391.
+
+Maria Louisa, empress of Napoleon I., 78, 145, 150, 166.
+
+Mariembourg, 149, 382.
+
+Marlborough, Duke of (Churchill), 52.
+
+Marmont, Marshal, 104-108.
+
+Marriage reform bills, 355;
+ act, 366, 367.
+
+Martinique, 9.
+
+Mary, Duchess of Gloucester (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Masséna, Marshal, 100-104.
+
+Maumee, river, 130, 138.
+
+Mauritius, the (Isle of France), 18, 149, 167, 398, 403, 438.
+
+Maya, pass, 113.
+
+McClure, General, 141.
+
+McDonnell, Colonel, 141.
+
+Medellin, 96.
+
+Medina de Rio Seco, 88.
+
+Mediterranean, the, 39, 69, 188, 262, 265, 393.
+
+Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, 224, 225, 264, 269, 392-394.
+
+Mehidpur, battle, 406.
+
+_Melampus_, the, British warship, 127.
+
+Melbourne, Viscount. See Lamb, William.
+
+Melcombe Regis, 289, 305.
+
+Melville, first Viscount. See Dundas, Henry.
+
+Melville, second Viscount. See Dundas, Robert S.
+
+Menou, 6.
+
+Merton, Surrey, 39.
+
+Mesolongi, 266, 418.
+
+Metcalfe, Charles (afterwards Sir Charles and later Lord Metcalfe), 402,
+ 403, 406, 409, 411, 412.
+
+Methodist revival, the, 339.
+
+Metternich, Prince, 122, 134, 138, 144-146, 152, 156, 189, 191, 210, 217,
+ 218, 224, 377, 395, 396.
+
+Mexico, 223.
+
+Miaoulis, Greek admiral, 393.
+
+Michigan, lake, 129;
+ state, 138, 139.
+
+Middle Ground shoal, 4.
+
+Middleton, Sir Charles. See Barham, Lord.
+
+Miguel, Dom (afterwards King of Portugal), 220, 221, 253-255, 258, 259,
+ 388-390;
+ convention at Evora, 390.
+
+Milan, 37;
+ decree, 56;
+ commission, 195.
+
+Milhaud, French officer, 162.
+
+Militia, the, 16, 21, 31.
+
+Militia balloting bill, 59.
+
+Militia transfer bill, 60.
+
+Mina, guerilla leader, 104.
+
+Minho, province, 258.
+
+Ministries: Addington's, 1-31;
+ Pitt's, 33-44;
+ Grenville's (All the Talents), 45-50;
+ Portland's, 50-67, 87-99;
+ Perceval's, 68-76, 99-106;
+ Liverpool's, 77-86, 107-226, 253-258;
+ Canning's, 227, 228, 258;
+ Goderich's, 229, 230, 259, 260;
+ Wellington's, 230-252, 260-278, 376-380;
+ Grey's, 278-347, 380-390, 392-396;
+ Melbourne's, 347-351;
+ provisional administration, 351;
+ Peel's, 352;
+ Melbourne's, 357-375, 390-392.
+
+Minorca, 9, 88.
+
+Minto, second Earl of (Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound), first lord of the
+ admiralty, 363, 401.
+
+Minto, Lord (Elliot), afterwards first Earl of Minto, governor-general of
+ Bengal, 401-404.
+
+Modena, 213;
+ treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Moira, Earl of (Rawdon-Hastings), afterwards Marquis of Hastings, 75, 76,
+ 310;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 45;
+ governor-general of Bengal, 404-408.
+
+Moldavia, 57, 59, 80, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 394-396.
+
+Molé, French foreign minister, 379.
+
+Molesworth, Sir William, M.P., 374.
+
+Moltke, 396.
+
+Moncey, Marshal, 88.
+
+Mondego, river, 90, 101.
+
+Mongolia, 310.
+
+_Moniteur_, newspaper, 18.
+
+Monroe, James, President of the United States, 223;
+ Monroe doctrine, 223.
+
+Mons, 158.
+
+Monson, Colonel, 399.
+
+Montbéliard, 149.
+
+Montenegrins, the, 142.
+
+Monte Video, 56, 57, 190.
+
+Montmorency, French diplomatist, 217, 218.
+
+Montreal, 140.
+
+Montrose, Duke of (Graham), president of the board of trade, 34.
+
+Mont St. Jean, 160.
+
+Moore, Sir John, general, 54, 90-95, 108, 200.
+
+Moore, Thomas, 420.
+
+Moravia, 42, 64.
+
+Moraviantown, 139.
+
+Morea, the, 214, 224, 225, 261, 263-266, 393.
+
+Moreau, General, 33.
+
+Morpeth, Lord (afterwards seventh Earl of Carlisle), 357, 359, 372.
+
+Morrison, Colonel, 141.
+
+Mortier, Marshal, 99.
+
+Moscow, 124.
+
+Moss, convention of, 150.
+
+Mughal emperor, 399.
+
+Muhammad, Sháh of Persia, 412.
+
+Mühlhausen, 149.
+
+Mulgrave, Lord (Phipps) (afterwards first Earl of Mulgrave), 347;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 34;
+ foreign secretary, 35;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 50, 67 n.;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 72, 82;
+ in cabinet without office, 178;
+ retirement of, 194.
+
+Mulgrave, second Earl of (Phipps), lord privy seal, 347;
+ lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 359, 371.
+
+Münchengrätz, secret convention at, 395, 396.
+
+Munich, 33.
+
+Municipal corporations act, 360-362, 370;
+ bill (Ireland), 364, 365.
+
+Murat, Joachim, 87;
+ King of Naples, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157, 168;
+ death, 157.
+
+Muraviov, Russian general, 393.
+
+Murray, Colonel, 141.
+
+Murray, Sir George, secretary for war and colonies, 236;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 352.
+
+Murray, John, 423.
+
+Murray, Sir John, general, 109, 114.
+
+Mysore, 411.
+
+
+Nágpur, 406;
+ Rájá of, 398, 390, 405, 406.
+
+Namur, 157, 160, 161.
+
+Napier, Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Charles Napier), 389.
+
+Napier, General Sir W., 110.
+
+Naples, 47, 63, 157, 213;
+ bay of, 42.
+
+Naples, kingdom of, 47, 53, 63, 88, 123, 143, 150, 157.
+ See also Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Naples, Prince of, 383.
+
+Napoleon, King of Rome, son of Napoleon I., 145, 165.
+
+Nash, John, architect, 436.
+
+Nassau, troops, 158.
+
+National debt, the, 204, 206;
+ in 1802, 15;
+ in 1815, 171.
+
+"National Political Union," 298.
+
+Nauplia, 225.
+
+Navarino, 225;
+ battle, 230, 233, 234, 253, 259, 264.
+
+Navarre, province, 300.
+
+Navigation laws, reform of the, 202, 203, 207, 216, 437.
+
+Neapolitan States. See Sicilies, the Two.
+
+Nelson, Lord (afterwards Viscount), 8, 16, 39, 69, 233, 273;
+ expedition to Copenhagen, 3-5, 8;
+ Trafalgar, 40, 41.
+
+Nemours, Louis, Duke of, 382, 383.
+
+Nepál, 404, 405, 408, 409;
+ treaty of Almora, 405.
+
+Nesselrode, Russian diplomatist, 138, 262.
+
+Netherlands, the. See Belgium and Holland.
+
+Neuchâtel, 43.
+
+Neuville, De, French ambassador, 222.
+
+Newark (Canada), 141, 146.
+
+Newark (England), 248.
+
+Newcastle, 311.
+
+Newcastle, Duke of (Fiennes-Pelham-Clinton), 228, 248, 296, 297.
+
+New England, 128.
+
+Newfoundland, fishery, 10.
+
+Newgate. See London.
+
+Newman, John Henry, 325, 336-338, 340.
+
+New Orleans, 147.
+
+"New poor law," 340-344.
+
+New South Wales. See Australia.
+
+Newspaper stamp act, 369, 370.
+
+New York, 146;
+ state, 146.
+
+New Zealand, 436.
+
+Ney, Marshal, 17, 99-101, 154, 155, 158-160, 163.
+
+Niagara, river, 130, 140, 141, 146;
+ falls, 130, 146.
+
+Nicholas I., Tsar of Russia, 232, 259, 260, 262, 361, 385, 393, 395, 396.
+
+Nicholls, Colonel, 405.
+
+Niemen, the, 52, 124, 133.
+
+Nile, the, 6;
+ battle of the, 69.
+
+Nive, river, 115-117.
+
+Nivelle, river, 115.
+
+Nivelles, 159.
+
+Nonconformists. See Dissenters.
+
+Non-intercourse act (United States), 83, 128.
+
+Norfolk (United States), 127.
+
+Norfolk Island, 439.
+
+_North Briton_, the, journal, 422.
+
+Northern confederacy, the, 5, 8.
+
+Northumberland, Duke of (Percy), lord lieutenant of Ireland, 244, 313.
+
+_Northumberland_, the, British ship, 166.
+
+Norway, 54, 80, 122, 123, 189;
+ ceded to Sweden, 136, 142, 143, 150, 166;
+ convention at Moss, 150.
+
+Nottingham, 296;
+ castle, 297.
+
+Nottinghamshire, 83, 176.
+
+Novara, battle, 213.
+
+Nugent, John, 122, 142.
+
+Nugent, Lord (Grenville-Nugent-Temple), 241.
+
+
+Ocaña, battle, 100.
+
+Ochterlony, General (afterwards Sir David), 404, 405, 409.
+
+O'Connell, Daniel, 2, 237, 241, 242, 244, 246, 249, 251, 252, 272, 275,
+ 280, 281, 287, 294, 306, 312-316, 319, 321-324, 344-346, 348, 356,
+ 359, 362, 363, 371, 374.
+
+Oder, the, 80, 135.
+
+Ohio, state, 138.
+
+Old Bailey. See London.
+
+Oldenburg, duchy of, 78, 105.
+
+Oldham, 318.
+
+Old Sarum, 3, 285, 289.
+
+Oléron, island, 69, 165.
+
+Olivenza, 6, 102, 123.
+
+Oliver, the spy, 176.
+
+Ontario, lake, 139.
+
+Oporto, 89, 90, 96, 98, 211, 388.
+
+Orange lodges, 367, 368;
+ Orangemen, 241, 270, 317, 367, 368.
+
+Orenburg, 310.
+
+Orfordness, 8.
+
+Orléans, Duke of. See Louis Philippe.
+
+Orléans, Philip, Duke of, 186, 272.
+
+Orthez, battle, 117.
+
+Otranto, 12.
+
+Otto, French diplomatist, 80.
+
+Otto, Prince of Bavaria (afterwards King of Greece), 392.
+
+Oudh, 404;
+ Nawáb Wazír of, 397.
+
+Ouseley, Sir Gore, 402.
+
+Oxford, 148, 337, 338;
+ bishop of (Lloyd), 249;
+ movement, 337-340, 417;
+ university. See Universities.
+
+
+Paget, Lord (afterwards Earl of Uxbridge and later Marquis of Anglesey),
+ 94, 162, 245, 249;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 230;
+ lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 231, 243;
+ recalled, 244;
+ lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 281, 313, 321;
+ resignation, 344.
+
+Paisley, 306.
+
+Pakenham, Sir Edward, general, 147.
+
+Palatinate, the, 381.
+
+Palermo, 63, 211.
+
+Paley, William, 421.
+
+Pall Mall. See London.
+
+Palmella, Portuguese statesman, 220, 255.
+
+Palmerston, Viscount (Temple), 277, 286, 421;
+ secretary at war, 68, 172, 227, 229, 231, 263, 392;
+ resignation, 236;
+ foreign secretary, 261, 279, 357, 380, 382, 387, 388, 390, 391, 393, 412.
+
+Pamplona, 111-113, 115.
+
+Papal States, 9, 58, 157, 166, 187, 213, 258.
+
+Papelotte, farm, 162.
+
+Paraguay, 190.
+
+Parga, 188.
+
+Paris: the Tuileries, 31, 105, 155;
+ first capitulation, 145;
+ first treaty of, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+ second capitulation, 165;
+ second treaty of, 167, 168, 376;
+ treaty of Chaumont extended at, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+ revolution of July, 274, 285, 376;
+ cholera at, 311.
+
+Park, Mungo, 436.
+
+Parker, Sir Hyde, admiral, 3-5.
+
+Parliament: general election of 1802, 15;
+ of 1806, 48;
+ of 1807, 50;
+ of 1812, 85;
+ of 1818, 178;
+ of 1820, 193;
+ of 1826, 207, 242;
+ of 1830, 274;
+ of 1831, 293, 294;
+ of 1832, 318;
+ of 1835, 354;
+ reform, 61;
+ liberals and conservatives, 319;
+ houses destroyed by fire, 349.
+
+Parma, duchy of, 145, 150, 166;
+ treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Parnell, Sir Henry, M.P., 84, 278.
+
+Pasages, 391.
+
+Paskievitch, Russian general, 388.
+
+Patten, Colonel, M.P., 26, 27.
+
+Patuxent, river, 146.
+
+Paul, Tsar of Russia, 5.
+
+_Peacock_, the, British ship, 141.
+
+Pease, Edward, 434, 435.
+
+Peel, Sir Robert (first baronet), 327.
+
+Peel, Robert (afterwards Sir Robert), 44, 71, 172, 183, 200, 227, 283, 286,
+ 287, 290, 292, 294, 300, 303, 305, 319, 323, 324, 330, 331, 334, 335,
+ 343, 345, 347, 348, 351, 359-362, 364, 365, 371-373, 375;
+ home secretary, 199, 201, 202, 209, 226, 231, 235, 236, 242-248, 252,
+ 270-272, 274-278;
+ first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 352-355, 363,
+ 366, 367, 390, 412;
+ resignation, 356, 357.
+
+Pelham, Lord (afterwards second Earl of Chichester), home secretary, 1;
+ resigns office, 27;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 27.
+
+_Pelican_, the, British ship, 142.
+
+Peloponnese, the, 393.
+ See Morea, the.
+
+Peltier, Jean, editor, 12, 16.
+
+Peña, La, Spanish commander, 102.
+
+Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87, 120, 129, 146, 182,
+ 200, 423.
+
+Pennsylvania, 139.
+
+Penryn, 193, 235, 236.
+
+Pepys, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord and later Earl Cottenham), lord
+ chancellor, 363.
+
+Perceval, Spencer, 49;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 50, 61, 67 n., 82, 83;
+ first lord of the treasury, etc., 68, 71, 74-76, 77, 236, 238, 380;
+ assassination, 76, 81.
+
+Perry, Commodore, 139.
+
+Persia, 123, 310, 401, 402, 412, 413;
+ treaties with East India Company and Great Britain, 402.
+
+Perth, 306.
+
+Peru, 215, 223.
+
+Pesháwar, 413.
+
+Peshwá, the, of Poona, 398, 405, 406;
+ treaty of Bassein, 398, 399, 405.
+
+Peter (afterwards Peter I., Emperor of Brazil, and Peter IV., King of
+ Portugal), 221, 253, 254, 258, 259, 388, 389.
+
+Peter II., Emperor of Brazil, 254, 388.
+
+Peterloo, massacre of. See Riots.
+
+Petty, Lord Henry (afterwards Marquis of Lansdowne), 241, 345, 421;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 45;
+ home secretary, 228;
+ president of the council, 279, 280, 357, 369.
+
+Philippeville, 149, 382.
+
+Philippon, governor of Badajoz, 106.
+
+Phillip, Governor, 438.
+
+Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, 324.
+
+Pichegru, French general, 33.
+
+Picton, Thomas (afterwards Sir Thomas), 106, 118, 159, 162.
+
+Piedmont, 17, 38, 213, 217.
+
+Pindárís, the, 404-408, 411.
+
+Pitt, William, the elder (first Earl of Chatham), 44, 284.
+
+Pitt, William, the younger, 2, 14, 15, 23, 47-50, 86, 173, 176, 181, 182,
+ 185, 202, 208, 227, 237, 279, 284, 291, 307, 322, 330, 417, 437, 438;
+ his resignation in 1801, 1, 397, 415;
+ alienation from Addington's ministry, 24;
+ negotiations with Addington, 24-26;
+ attacks Addington, 30, 31;
+ overtures from Eldon, 30;
+ interview with the king, 32;
+ first lord of the treasury, 33-37;
+ organises third coalition, 35, 37, 38, 41;
+ loss of Melville, 36;
+ collapse of the third coalition, 43, 46;
+ death, 43;
+ his adherents, 68, 200.
+
+Pius VII., Pope, 7, 35, 78, 150, 166, 163.
+
+Plasencia, 98.
+
+Plata, La. See Argentine, the.
+
+Plattsburg (United States), 140, 141, 146.
+
+Plunket, William (afterwards Lord Plunket), 239;
+ attorney-general of Ireland, 199, 241, 249.
+
+Plymouth, 259.
+
+_Poictiers_, the British ship, 132.
+
+Poischwitz, 135.
+
+Poland, 52, 53, 79, 80, 122, 144, 152, 153, 156, 166, 310, 381, 387, 388,
+ 395.
+
+Pole & Co., 206.
+
+Pole, W. Wellesley (afterwards Lord Maryborough), master of the mint, 174,
+ 178, 202.
+
+Polignac, French statesman, 223.
+
+Pomerania, Swedish, 54, 80, 122, 143, 166.
+
+Pondicherri, 18;
+ French towns in India, 18, 19.
+
+Ponsonby, Sir William, 162.
+
+Ponsonby, Lord (afterwards Viscount Ponsonby), 383.
+
+Poona, 398, 405, 406.
+ See Peshwá.
+
+Poor law, 171, 181, 311, 312, 420, 437;
+ poor rates, 182, 203;
+ "new poor law," 340-344, 366;
+ poor law board, 343;
+ Ireland, 312, 316, 317, 372, 373.
+
+Popham, Sir Home, 47.
+
+Poros, 266, 392.
+
+Porte, the. See Turkey.
+
+Portland, third Duke of (Cavendish-Bentinck), 49, 66;
+ home secretary, 1;
+ lord president of the council, 1;
+ in cabinet without office, 35;
+ first lord of the treasury, 50, 52, 60;
+ minor reforms, 51, 61;
+ changes in his ministry, 66;
+ resignation, 67;
+ death, 68.
+
+Portland, fourth Duke of (Cavendish Scott Bentinck), lord privy seal, 227;
+ in cabinet without office, 228;
+ lord president of the council, 230.
+
+Port Mahon, 188.
+
+Port Phillip, 439, 440.
+
+Portsmouth, 39, 148, 197.
+
+Portugal, 11, 53, 60, 122, 151, 190, 200, 201, 226, 395;
+ treaties of Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+ Junot's expedition to, 54, 58, 89-91;
+ Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120;
+ revolutions, 211, 220, 221, 254, 255-258;
+ cortes, 211, 215, 220, 221, 254, 258;
+ junta, 220, 221;
+ relations with Brazil, 221, 222, 253, 254, 388-390;
+ conference at London, 222;
+ triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+ convention of Evora, 390.
+
+Posen, 166.
+
+Pottinger, British officer, 412.
+
+Potwallopers, 281, 289, 308.
+
+Prague, 135.
+
+Prescott, 141.
+
+Presqu'isle (Pennsylvania), 139.
+
+Press, liberty of the, 180, 358;
+ Indian press, 411, 412.
+
+Pressburg, peace of, 42.
+
+Press-gang, 23.
+
+Preston, 281, 318.
+
+Prevost, Sir George, governor of Canada, 129, 130, 140, 146.
+
+Privy Council, acts relating to the, 325, 332.
+
+Processions act (Ireland), 316, 317.
+
+Procida, island, 63.
+
+Proclamation act, 320.
+
+Proctor, English colonel, 138, 139.
+
+Prome, 409.
+
+Prout, Samuel, 427.
+
+Prussia, 17, 51-53, 59, 80, 81, 105, 124, 136, 144, 187-189, 220, 267, 391;
+ guarantees independence of Malta, 13;
+ vacillation, 38, 41-43, 51;
+ treaty of Schönbrunn, 43;
+ treaty with France, 46, 55;
+ treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+ treaty with France, 122;
+ convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+ campaign of 1813, 133-138;
+ convention with Russia, 134;
+ treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+ treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+ treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+ treaty of Ried, 137;
+ campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+ treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+ first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167;
+ congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 378, 381,
+ 388;
+ campaign of 1815, 156-165;
+ gains Swedish Pomerania, 166;
+ second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+ Holy Alliance, 168;
+ conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+ congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+ congress of Laibach, 212, 313;
+ congress of Verona, 216-219, 222, 223, 392;
+ conference at St. Petersburg, 224;
+ conference of London, 379-386, 392;
+ secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+ convention at Berlin, 396.
+
+Pruth, river, 263.
+
+_Public Advertiser_, the, newspaper, 422.
+
+Puebla, pass, 111.
+
+Punjab, 403, 413.
+
+Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 336.
+
+Putney, 43.
+
+Pyrenees, the, 110, 115, 136, 138;
+ battle, 113.
+
+
+Quadruple alliance, 389, 391.
+
+Quakers, the, 48.
+
+_Quarterly Review_, the, 423.
+
+Quatre Bras, 158-160;
+ battle, 159.
+
+Queen's County, murders in, 320.
+
+Queensland. See Australia.
+
+Queenstown (Canada), 130.
+
+
+Raeburn, Sir Henry, 427.
+
+Railways, 275, 276, 427, 428, 434, 435.
+
+Raisin, river, 138.
+
+Rájputána, 399, 400, 406, 409.
+
+Rangoon, 408, 409.
+
+Ranjít Singh, Rájá of Bhartpur, 309, 403, 409.
+
+Ranjít Singh, Sikh ruler, 403, 412;
+ treaty with East India Company, 403.
+
+Ratisbon, 63.
+
+Ré, island, 165.
+
+Reciprocity of duties act, 203, 207.
+
+Redesdale, Lord (Mitford), 235.
+
+_Redoutable_, the, French ship, 41.
+
+Red Sea, the, 6, 413.
+
+Reform, movement for, 61, 77, 174, 175, 178, 181, 198, 204, 271, 272, 277,
+ 278, 280-308;
+ partial reforms, 198, 235;
+ first bill of 1831, 287-291;
+ second bill, 294-296;
+ third bill, 300-306;
+ Scotch and Irish bills, 306, 307.
+
+Regency act (1811), 74, 75.
+
+Regency act (1830), 281.
+
+Regent Street and Park. See London.
+
+_Register, Weekly_. See Cobbett.
+
+Registration bill, 355;
+ acts, 366, 367.
+
+Reichenbach, treaties of, 136.
+
+Reille, French general, 111, 113, 158, 162.
+
+Religious movements, 336-340, 417.
+
+Rennell, James, 436.
+
+Rennie, John, 435, 436.
+
+Rensselaer, Van, American general, 130.
+
+Reshid, Turkish general, 393.
+
+Revel, 4.
+
+Rey, Emmanuel, governor of St. Sebastian, 112-114.
+
+Reynier, French general, 100, 101.
+
+Rhine, the, 9, 41, 138, 143, 152, 153, 158, 166, 381;
+ confederation of the, 46, 53, 134, 138.
+
+Riall, General, 146.
+
+Rice, Thomas Spring (afterwards Lord Monteagle), 345;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 346;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 357, 369, 373.
+
+Richelieu, Duke of, 212.
+
+Richmond, Charlotte, Duchess of, 159.
+
+Richmond, third Duke of (Lennox), 284.
+
+Richmond, fifth Duke of (Lennox), postmaster-general, 280;
+ resignation, 345.
+
+Ried, treaty of, 137.
+
+Rieti, battle, 212.
+
+Riga, 124.
+
+Rio Janeiro, 254, 259.
+
+Riot act, 72, 176, 297.
+
+Riots, 344;
+ Luddite, 83, 85, 175, 432, 433;
+ bread, 174;
+ agricultural, 174, 281, 282;
+ Spa Fields, 175;
+ Derbyshire insurrection, 176;
+ "Peterloo" or "Manchester massacre," 178-180, 192;
+ reform bill, 293, 296-298, 302, 309.
+
+Riou, Edward, 5.
+
+Ripon, Earl of. See Robinson, F. J.
+
+Robinson, Frederick John (afterwards Viscount Goderich, later Earl of
+ Ripon), president of the board of trade, etc., 177, 178, 198;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 202, 207;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 227;
+ first lord of the treasury, 229, 230, 233, 242, 260, 380;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 279;
+ lord privy seal, 325;
+ resignation, 345.
+
+Rochefort, 165.
+
+Rodil, Spanish general, 389.
+
+Roebuck, John, M.P., 362, 372, 374.
+
+Rohilkhand, 397.
+
+Roliça, 90.
+
+Rolleston, magistrate, 176.
+
+Romaña, Spanish general, 95.
+
+Roman Empire, Holy. See Empire, Holy Roman.
+
+Roman States. See Papal States.
+
+Rome, 58, 351.
+
+Romilly, Sir Samuel, M.P., 51, 77, 194, 199, 201.
+
+Roncesvalles, pass, 112, 113.
+
+Rose, George, M.P., 182.
+
+Rosetta, 57.
+
+Ross, General, 146.
+
+Rosslyn, first Earl of. See Loughborough, Lord.
+
+Rosslyn, second Earl of (St. Clair Erskine), president of the board of
+ control, 271;
+ lord president of the council, 352.
+
+Rothière, La, battle, 144.
+
+Roussin, French admiral, 388, 393, 394.
+
+Royal Institution, the, 428.
+
+_Royal Sovereign_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Rügen, island, 52, 53, 143.
+
+Rumelia, 263, 267.
+
+Rumford, Count, 428.
+
+Russell, Lord John (afterwards Earl Russell), 193, 198, 207, 234, 235, 272,
+ 284, 356, 421, 431;
+ paymaster of the forces, 280, 287, 290, 294, 297, 300, 304, 321, 324,
+ 345, 350, 351;
+ home secretary, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366, 368, 369, 371, 372, 374.
+
+Russia, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 35, 38, 41-43, 51, 52, 62, 66, 88, 90, 92, 187,
+ 188, 210, 220, 225, 232, 391, 392, 402, 412;
+ holy alliance, 37, 168, 169, 186, 199, 229;
+ war of third coalition, 37, 38, 41, 42, 51;
+ treaty with England, 37;
+ treaty with Sweden, 38;
+ treaty of Tilsit, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402;
+ war with Turkey, 52, 57, 77;
+ secret convention at Erfurt, 59, 92;
+ breach with France, 79-81, 105;
+ armistice with Turkey, 81;
+ war with France, 82, 97, 100, 121-126, 132-138;
+ treaty with England, 85;
+ fleet, 90, 92;
+ alliance with Sweden, 54, 122, 123;
+ treaty of Åbo, 123;
+ treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+ treaties with England and Sweden, 123, 136;
+ convention of Tauroggen, 125;
+ convention with Prussia, 134;
+ treaty of Kalisch, 134;
+ treaty of Reichenbach, 136;
+ treaty of Teplitz, 137;
+ treaty of Ried, 137;
+ campaign of 1814, 118, 143-145;
+ treaty of Chaumont, 144, 145, 168, 186, 191, 377;
+ treaty of Fontainebleau, 145, 146;
+ first treaty of Paris, 147, 149, 151, 156, 167, 378;
+ congress of Vienna, 149, 151-153, 156, 166, 168, 186, 188-190, 376, 379,
+ 381, 388;
+ gains Finland, 166;
+ second treaty of Paris, 167, 168, 376;
+ conference of Aix-la-Chapelle, 189-191, 377;
+ congress of Troppau, 211-214, 395, 396;
+ congress of Laibach, 212, 213;
+ breach with Turkey, 213-215;
+ congress of Verona, 217-219, 222, 223, 392;
+ conference of St. Petersburg, 224;
+ treaty of Akherman, 260;
+ conference of London, 262-268, 379-386, 392;
+ treaty of London, 233, 234, 259, 260, 262-264, 266, 267;
+ war with Turkey, 234, 260-267;
+ peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+ war with Poland, 387, 388;
+ assists Turkey, 393-395;
+ treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+ secret convention at Münchengrätz, 395, 396;
+ convention at Berlin, 396;
+ treaty with Turkey, 396;
+ influence in the east, 412-414.
+
+Rutlandshire, 288.
+
+Ryder, Dudley. See Harrowby, Earl of.
+
+Ryder, Richard, home secretary, 68;
+ retirement, 81.
+
+
+Saale, river, 133.
+
+Sackett's Harbour, 139, 140.
+
+Sadler, Michael, M.P., 248, 316, 327.
+
+Sahagun, 94.
+
+St. Albans, 345.
+
+St. Amand, 158.
+
+_St. Antoine_, the, French ship, 8.
+
+St. David's, bishop of (Burgess), 430.
+
+St. George's Channel, American privateers in, 141.
+
+St. Helena, 153, 157, 165, 166, 167, 169, 170.
+
+St. Jean de Luz, 115, 117.
+
+St. Lawrence, river, 141;
+ fishery, 10.
+
+St. Lucia, 149, 167.
+
+St. Marcial, battle, 114.
+
+St. Paul's cathedral. See London.
+
+St. Petersburg, 121, 225, 232, 233, 261, 310, 356;
+ conference at, 224.
+
+St. Sebastian, 112-114, 391.
+
+St. Vincent, Earl of (Jervis), first lord of the admiralty, 1, 30, 34, 36.
+
+Salaberry, Colonel de, 141.
+
+Salamanca, 93, 94, 105-108;
+ battle, 107.
+
+Saldaña, 94.
+
+Salzburg, 66.
+
+Sambre, river, 164.
+
+Samos, 266, 268.
+
+San Domingo, 18, 49, 215.
+
+Sandvliet, 65.
+
+_Santa Ana_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Santander, 108, 110.
+
+Santarem, 102.
+
+Santha Martha, Miguelite general, 389.
+
+_Santísima Trinidad_, the, Spanish ship, 40.
+
+Sardinia, kingdom of, 150, 166, 167, 187.
+
+Sartorius, Admiral, 388.
+
+Sarum, Old, 421.
+
+Sátára, 406.
+
+"Satí," 410.
+
+Saumarez, Sir James (afterwards Baron), admiral, 8.
+
+Savary, French minister, 88.
+
+Savings-banks, 182, 437.
+
+Savoy, 149, 167.
+
+Saxony, 53, 133, 136, 138, 144, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Scarlett, James (afterwards Lord Abinger), 358.
+
+Scharnhorst, Prussian statesman, 81.
+
+Scheldt, the, 64-66, 71, 99, 385-387.
+
+Schönbrunn, treaty of, 43.
+
+Schwarzenberg, Austrian general, 124, 143-145.
+
+Scientific discoveries, 340, 427-436.
+
+Scotland, 193, 197, 271, 285, 289, 290, 293, 348, 360, 362, 433;
+ reform bill, 306;
+ church of, 360 n., 424.
+
+Scott, Sir Walter, 417, 418, 422, 423.
+
+Scott, Sir William (afterwards Lord Stowell), 169.
+
+Scylla, castle, 63.
+
+Sébastiani, French officer (afterwards foreign minister), 18, 20, 57, 98,
+ 382.
+
+Secretaries of state, division of departments of, 1, 2.
+
+Selim III., Sultan of Turkey, 7.
+
+Sepoys, 6, 400, 406.
+
+Septennial act, 374.
+
+Seringapatam, 397.
+
+Servia, 80.
+
+Seville, 68, 96.
+
+Shaftesbury, Earl of. See Ashley, Lord.
+
+Sháh Shujá, Amír of Afghánistán, 403.
+
+_Shannon_, the, British frigate, 142, 147.
+
+Shaw, Sir Robert, M.P., 197.
+
+Sheaffe, Major-general, 130, 140.
+
+Sheil, Richard Lalor, M.P., 237, 241, 306, 315, 344.
+
+Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 419.
+
+Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 14, 16, 29, 75, 200, 421.
+
+Sicilies, the Two, 9-14, 47, 166, 187, 188, 211-213;
+ treaty of Florence, 7;
+ treaty of neutrality with France, 42.
+
+Sicily, island and kingdom of, 47, 57, 58, 150;
+ army in Spain, 109, 114.
+
+Sidmouth, Viscount. See Addington, Henry.
+
+Sikhs, the, 403.
+ See Ranjít Singh, Sikh ruler.
+
+Silesia, 53, 135, 137.
+
+Silistria, 396.
+
+Simmons, Dr. Samuel Foart, 29.
+
+Sind, 402, 413, 414.
+
+Sindhia, Daulat Ráo Sindhia, 397-399, 401, 405.
+
+Six acts, the, 180, 229.
+
+Skaw, the, 3.
+
+Small-pox, 15;
+ hospital, see London.
+
+Smeaton, John, 434.
+
+Smohain, hamlet, 162.
+
+Smith, Adam, 415, 420.
+
+Smith, Sydney, 423.
+
+Smith, William, 428.
+
+Smyth, American general, 130.
+
+Socialists, 175.
+
+Society for diffusion of useful knowledge, 338.
+
+Society, Highland, 433.
+
+Society, Kildare Place, 317.
+
+Society of friends of the people, 279.
+
+Society, Water-colour, 427.
+
+Soissons, 145.
+
+Sombreffe, French general, 158.
+
+Somerset, Lord Robert, 162.
+
+Somersetshire, 175, 298.
+
+Sophia, Princess (daughter of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Sophia, Princess, of Gloucester (niece of George III.), 184 n.
+
+Souham, French general, 108.
+
+Soult (Duke of Dalmatia), French general, 94-96, 98, 99, 102-108, 110,
+ 112-119.
+
+South Australia. See Australia.
+
+Southey, Robert, 416, 420.
+
+Southwark. See London.
+
+Spa Fields, Bermondsey. See London and Riots.
+
+Spain, 13, 35, 39-41, 47, 58, 59, 81, 85, 123, 144, 149-151, 166, 187, 188,
+ 190, 200, 205, 231, 254, 259;
+ treaties of Aranjuez, Badajoz and Madrid, 6;
+ treaty of Amiens, 13;
+ alliance with France, 35;
+ Peninsular war, 59-61, 66, 68, 71, 73, 76, 77, 82, 87-120, 423;
+ juntas, 68, 92, 93, 96, 97, 103, 120;
+ secret treaty of Fontainebleau, 87;
+ abdication of Charles IV., 87;
+ Joseph Bonaparte, king of, 59, 88, 89, 104, 122, 123;
+ treaties with England, 96, 150, 151;
+ cortes, 103, 109, 112, 210, 215;
+ insurrection, 210, 215-217;
+ loss of colonies in America, 190, 205, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 223, 253,
+ 257;
+ dispute with France, 215, 217-221, 256, 257, 264;
+ aggressions in Portugal, 254-256, 258;
+ triple and quadruple alliances, 389, 390;
+ Carlist war, 389-391.
+
+Speculation, 205, 206.
+
+Speenhamland, 341.
+
+Spenceans, the, 175.
+
+Spencer, second Earl, 14, 25, 34, 230, 349;
+ home secretary, 45, 49;
+ resignation, 50.
+
+Spencer, General, 90, 103.
+
+Spitalfields. See London.
+
+Spithead, 39.
+
+Stafford, Marquis of, afterwards Duke of Sutherland (Gower), 66.
+
+_Standard_, the, newspaper, 250.
+
+Stanley, Edward Geoffrey Smith- (afterwards Lord Stanley, later fourteenth
+ Earl of Derby), 277, 347, 352, 354, 360, 374;
+ chief secretary for Ireland, 280, 281, 294, 313, 315-317, 321;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 322, 323, 325-327, 334;
+ resignation, 345, 346.
+
+Steamboats, 427, 428, 434.
+
+Stephenson, George, 275, 276, 427, 434, 435.
+
+Stewart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stewart, later third Marquis of
+ Londonderry), 146, 212, 228, 296, 356.
+
+Stewart, Dugald, 421.
+
+Stockholm, treaty of, 136.
+
+Stockton on Tees, 435.
+
+Strachan, Sir Richard, admiral, 64.
+
+Stralsund, 43.
+
+Strand Bridge. See London.
+
+Strangford, Viscount (Smythe), 214-216.
+
+Strassburg, 41.
+
+Strikes, 178, 204.
+
+Stroud, 359.
+
+Stuart, Sir Charles (afterwards Lord Stuart de Rothesay), 218.
+
+Stuart, Sir John, 47.
+
+Sturt, Charles, 439.
+
+Subsérra, Count of, 222.
+
+Suchet, Marshal, 100, 107, 109, 112, 114, 115, 118, 119.
+
+Suez, 413;
+ canal, 413.
+
+Suffolk, 175 n.
+
+Sugden, Sir Edward (afterwards Lord St. Leonards), 283.
+
+Sumatra, 81.
+
+Sumner, John B., bishop of Chester, 341.
+
+Sunderland, 309, 310.
+
+Surrey, 281.
+
+Sussex, 281.
+
+Sussex (Augustus), Duke of (son of George III.), 184, 185.
+
+Sutlej, river, 403.
+
+Sutton, Charles Manners- (afterwards Sir C. Manners-Sutton, later Viscount
+ Canterbury), speaker, 251, 304, 354.
+
+Sweden, 43, 51-54, 58, 59, 78, 80, 105, 151, 166, 190;
+ third coalition, 37, 38;
+ treaties with Russia and England, 38, 123, 136;
+ declares war on England, 78;
+ ally of Russia, 122, 123, 133, 136;
+ treaty of Åbo, 123;
+ treaty of Stockholm, 136;
+ war with France, 136, 137;
+ treaty of Kiel, 142, 143, 189;
+ acquires Norway (convention of Moss), 150.
+
+Swift, Jonathan, 422.
+
+Switzerland (Helvetian republic), 9, 38, 79, 138, 143, 166, 387;
+ civil war, 17;
+ invasion of, 17, 20;
+ revolts, 133.
+
+Sydney, 439.
+
+Syria, 18, 393, 394, 396, 413.
+
+
+Tagus, the, 89, 90, 92, 96, 98, 99, 102, 104-106, 221, 388.
+
+Talavera, 93;
+ battle, 98, 99, 101.
+
+Talleyrand, French statesman, 10, 19, 21, 22, 34, 46, 78, 151, 152, 156,
+ 379, 382, 387.
+
+"Tamworth manifesto," the, 332, 354, 371.
+
+Tarái, the, 405.
+
+Tarbes, 118.
+
+Tarragona, 112, 114.
+
+Tasmania. See Van Diemen's Land.
+
+Tauroggen, convention of, 125.
+
+Taylor, Sir Herbert, 286.
+
+Telford, Thomas, 275, 434.
+
+Temporalities, Irish Church, act, 321-325.
+
+Tenasserim, 408, 409.
+
+_Tenedos_, the, British frigate, 142.
+
+Tennyson, Alfred (afterwards Lord), 419.
+
+Tennyson, Charles (afterwards Tennyson D'Eyncourt), M.P., 235, 374.
+
+Teplitz, treaty of, 137;
+ conference at, 396.
+
+Terceira, island, 259.
+
+Terneuze, 65.
+
+Test act, 229, 234, 235, 242.
+
+Thagí, 411.
+
+Thames, the, 435.
+
+Thames, river (Canada), 139.
+
+Thermopylæ, 268.
+
+Thiers, French statesman, 390, 391.
+
+Thistlewood, Arthur, 192, 193.
+
+Thompson, Charles Poulett (afterwards Lord Sydenham), president of the
+ board of trade, 346, 357.
+
+Ticino, river, 149, 166.
+
+Tierney, George, 26, 28, 86;
+ master of the mint, 228-230.
+
+Tigris, the, 413.
+
+Tihran, 402, 412.
+
+Tilsit, treaty of, 52, 53, 55, 57, 59, 62, 78, 87, 124, 401, 402.
+
+_Times_, the, newspaper, 343, 348, 351, 422.
+
+Timur, 310.
+
+Tipú, 397, 400.
+
+Tithe, agitation against (Ireland), 313-316, 320.
+
+Tithe commutation act, 355, 365, 366.
+
+Tithe commutation bills (Ireland), 347, 348, 365, 372.
+
+Tobago, 9, 11, 149, 167.
+
+Tooke, Horne, 3, 421;
+ act, 3.
+
+Tormes, river, 107.
+
+Toronto, 139.
+
+Torres Vedras, 90, 91, 100-102, 115.
+
+Tortosa, 112.
+
+Toulon, 39.
+
+Toulouse, battle, 109, 118, 119.
+
+Tower of London. See London.
+
+Tractarians. See Oxford movement.
+
+_Tracts for the Times_, 339.
+
+Trades Unions, 204.
+
+Trafalgar, battle, 40, 41.
+
+Traz-os-Montes, province, 255, 257.
+
+Trekroner, the, battery, 4, 5.
+
+Trianon tariff, the, 79.
+
+Trieste, 62, 66, 142.
+
+Trinidad, 9, 151, 167.
+
+Triple alliance, 389.
+
+Tripoli, 394;
+ Bey of, 187, 188.
+
+Tripolitza, 225.
+
+Trondhjem, diocese of, 136.
+
+Troppau, congress of, 211-214, 395, 396.
+
+Trotter, paymaster, 36.
+
+Tudela, battle, 92, 93.
+
+_Tugendbund_, the, 62.
+
+Tuileries, the. See Paris.
+
+Tunis, Dey of, 187, 188.
+
+Turin, 213.
+
+Turkey, 7, 57-59, 122, 188, 269, 387;
+ treaty of Amiens, 13;
+ treaty with France, 14;
+ war with Russia, 52, 57, 77;
+ armistice, 81;
+ treaty of Bucharest, 123;
+ Greek revolt, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223-225, 232-234, 259-267, 392;
+ rupture with Russia, 214, 217, 225;
+ war with Russia, 234, 260-267;
+ treaty of Akherman, 260;
+ peace of Adrianople, 267, 268;
+ treaty and protocol of London, 267;
+ Egyptian revolt, 393, 394;
+ assisted by Russia, 393-396;
+ treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 394, 395;
+ treaty of Kiutayeh, 394;
+ Austrian mediation, 395, 396;
+ treaty with Russia, 396;
+ Asiatic Turkey, 310.
+
+Turner, J. M. W., 427.
+
+Tuscany, treaty with Austria, 187.
+
+Tyrol, the, 66, 134.
+
+
+Ucles, 96.
+
+Ulm, 42.
+
+Ulster, 270.
+
+Union, act of, 237, 239, 240, 248;
+ movement for repeal, 252, 275, 313, 314, 316, 344.
+
+United States, 56, 58, 83, 131, 157, 190, 216, 223, 257, 312, 337, 438;
+ sale to them of Louisiana, 18;
+ war with England, 82, 85, 126-132, 138, 146, 147;
+ non-intercourse act, 83, 128;
+ treaty of Ghent, 147, 156, 203;
+ buys Florida, 215;
+ treaty with England, 225.
+
+_United States_, the, American ship, 132.
+
+Universities, 247, 306, 308, 430;--
+ Cambridge, 419, 428-432.
+ Dublin, 274.
+ Durham, 432.
+ Edinburgh, 358.
+ Glasgow, 371.
+ London, 250, 356, 431, 432;
+ King's College, 250, 431;
+ University College, 431, 432.
+ Oxford, 148, 245, 337, 351, 421, 422, 428, 432;
+ Balliol College, 429;
+ New College, 429;
+ Oriel College, 337, 338, 421, 429;
+ St. Alban Hall, 421.
+
+Unkiar Skelessi, treaty of, 394, 395.
+
+Urfa, 396.
+
+Uruguay (Banda Oriental), 190.
+
+Utrecht, treaty of, 389.
+
+Uxbridge, Earl of. See Paget, Lord.
+
+
+Valencia, 88, 107, 109, 110, 112.
+
+Valladolid, 93, 108, 109.
+
+Vallais, republic of, 79.
+
+Vancouver, Captain, 436.
+
+Vandamme, French general, 137.
+
+Vandeleur, Sir John Ormesby, 164.
+
+Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), 439.
+
+Vansittart, Nicholas (afterwards Lord Bexley), 68, 73;
+ envoy at Copenhagen, 3, 4;
+ chancellor of the exchequer, 81, 82, 86, 173-174, 183, 193, 198;
+ chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, 202, 227.
+
+Vellore, 400, 410.
+
+Venaissin, 149.
+
+Vendée, La, 155.
+
+Venetia, 42, 134, 149, 166, 187.
+
+Verdier, General, 88.
+
+Verona, congress of, 199, 216-219, 222, 223, 392.
+
+Victor, Marshal, 96, 98, 102.
+
+Victor Emmanuel I., King of Sardinia, 38, 213, 216.
+
+Victoria. See Australia.
+
+Victoria, Princess (afterwards Queen), 70, 185, 274, 281, 375.
+
+_Victory_, the, British ship, 40.
+
+Vienna, 42, 63, 80, 134, 189, 191, 254, 259;
+ peace of, 64, 66;
+ congress of, 149, 151-153, 156, 166;
+ secret treaty, 153;
+ treaty of, 166, 168, 186-188, 190, 379-381, 388;
+ final act, 189;
+ conference at, 216, 217;
+ proposed conference, 396.
+
+Vigo, 39, 95.
+
+Villafranca, 93, 95.
+
+Villa Real, 389.
+
+Villèle, French statesman, 215, 217-219.
+
+Villeneuve, French admiral, 39-41.
+
+Vimeiro, battle, 91.
+
+Vincennes, castle, 34.
+
+Vincent, Colonel, 140.
+
+Vistula, the, 123, 133.
+
+Vitoria, battle, 109-112, 114, 136.
+
+Vivian, Sir Richard H. (afterwards Lord), 164.
+
+Volga, the, 310.
+
+Volhynia, 122.
+
+Volo, gulf of, 266, 392.
+
+Volunteer consolidation bill, 30.
+
+Vonitza, 266.
+
+
+Wade, General, 434.
+
+Wadsworth, American general, 130.
+
+Wagram, battle, 63, 100.
+
+Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, 440.
+
+Walcheren expedition, the, 62-67, 71, 72, 74, 99, 199.
+
+Wales, 289, 291, 305, 434;
+ amalgamation of English and Welsh benches, 271.
+
+Wales, Caroline, Princess of. See Caroline, queen of George IV.
+
+Wales (George), Prince of. See George IV.
+
+Walker, George T. (afterwards Sir G. T.), 106.
+
+Wallachia, 57, 59, 213-215, 260, 263, 267, 395, 396.
+
+Walmoden, Hanoverian general, 137.
+
+Walpole, Sir Robert (afterwards Earl of Orford), 205-208.
+
+Walpole, Lord (afterwards Earl of Orford), 134.
+
+Ward, Henry, M.P., 345, 346.
+
+Ward, John William (afterwards Viscount, later Earl of Dudley), 197, 431;
+ foreign secretary, 227, 231, 260;
+ resignation, 236, 263, 380.
+
+Wardle, Colonel, M.P., 60, 61, 72.
+
+Warsaw, 55, 381, 387, 388;
+ duchy of, 53, 66, 79, 124, 152, 153, 166.
+
+Wartburg festival, 188.
+
+Washington, 130, 146.
+
+_Wasp_, the, American sloop, 132.
+
+Waterford, 237, 242, 250.
+
+Waterloo, battle, 44, 147, 160-166, 230, 415.
+
+Waterloo Bridge. See London.
+
+Watsons, the, father and son, 175, 192.
+
+Watt, James, 435.
+
+Wavre, 159-161, 164.
+
+_Weekly Political Register_, the. See Cobbett.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Arthur (afterwards Duke of Wellington), 61, 151, 152, 156,
+ 167, 168, 174, 189, 195, 199, 201, 208, 209, 216-219, 226, 227-229,
+ 259, 280, 282, 285, 286, 293, 302-304, 309, 319, 324, 334, 343, 347,
+ 350, 361, 362, 371, 372, 392, 397, 431;
+ chief secretary for Ireland, 50;
+ bombardment of Copenhagen, 54;
+ Peninsular war, 60, 71, 76, 90-120, 200;
+ viscount, 71, 99;
+ Vimeiro, 91;
+ commander-in-chief in the Peninsula, 96, 97;
+ Talavera, 98, 99;
+ Bussaco, 101;
+ lines of Torres Vedras, 101, 102;
+ Fuentes d'Oñoro, 103;
+ earl, 105;
+ sieges of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, 105, 106;
+ Salamanca, 107;
+ marquis, 108;
+ Vitoria, 110, 111, 136;
+ the Pyrenees, 113;
+ siege of St. Sebastian, 113, 114;
+ Bayonne, 115-117;
+ Toulouse, 118, 119;
+ duke, 151;
+ Waterloo campaign, 156-165;
+ Waterloo, 160-165;
+ master-general of the ordnance, 178, 194;
+ first lord of the treasury, 230-232, 234, 236, 243-246, 248-252, 260-263,
+ 265-269, 271, 272, 276-278, 376, 377, 379, 380, 388;
+ duel with Winchilsea, 250, 251;
+ provisional administration, 351;
+ foreign secretary, 352, 356, 390;
+ Indian campaign, 398-400;
+ Assaye and Argáum, 399.
+
+Wellesley, Sir Henry (afterwards Lord Cowley), 150.
+
+Wellesley, Richard, marquis, 54, 67, 76, 96, 109, 174, 230, 278, 280, 325;
+ foreign secretary, 68, 76;
+ lord-lieutenant of Ireland, 199, 241, 344, 346;
+ governor-general of Bengal, 397-400, 402-405, 407, 408.
+
+Wellington, Duke of. See Wellesley, Sir Arthur.
+
+Wesel, 138.
+
+Wesley, John, 337.
+
+Westbury, 245.
+
+West Australia. See Australia.
+
+Westminster abbey and hall. See London.
+
+Westmorland, Earl of (Fane), lord privy seal, 1, 50, 82;
+ resignation, 237.
+
+Westphalia, 53, 153;
+ troops, 158.
+
+Wetherell, Sir Charles, 248, 297.
+
+Weymouth, 289, 305, 326.
+
+Wharncliffe, Lord (Stuart-Wortley-Mackenzie), 291, 292, 299, 301, 302;
+ lord privy seal, 352.
+
+Whately, Dr., archbishop of Dublin, 317, 421, 422.
+
+Whitbread, Samuel, M.P., 36, 49, 51, 156, 157, 182, 199.
+
+Whiteboys, 320.
+
+White Conduit House. See London.
+
+Whitefeet, 320.
+
+Whitelocke, General, 56, 57.
+
+Whitworth, Lord (afterwards Earl), ambassador extraordinary to France, 19;
+ negotiates with French government, 20-22, 46.
+
+Wilberforce, William, M.P., 15, 48, 195.
+
+Wild, Jonathan, 181.
+
+Wilkes, John, 72, 374, 422.
+
+Wilkie, Sir David, 427.
+
+Wilkinson, American general, 141, 146.
+
+William, Duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), 208, 249;
+ marriage, 184, 185;
+ lord high admiral, 227;
+ resignation, 243;
+ king, 273, 274, 277, 278, 281-283, 286, 287, 289-294, 296, 297, 299,
+ 301-305, 337, 347-352, 354, 356, 357, 363, 368, 371;
+ coronation, 295, 301, 309;
+ death, 375.
+
+William, Prince of Orange, 9-13.
+
+William Frederick, Prince of Orange (afterwards William I., King of the
+ Netherlands), 138, 158, 267, 378, 381, 385.
+
+William, Prince of Orange (afterwards William II., King of the
+ Netherlands), 159, 384.
+
+Wilson, Sir Robert, 125.
+
+Wiltshire, 281.
+
+Winchester, school, 429.
+
+Winchilsea, Earl of (Finch-Hatton), 250, 251.
+
+Winder, American general, 146.
+
+Windham, William, 14, 15, 25, 26, 28, 31, 34, 47, 51;
+ secretary for war and colonies, 45.
+
+Windsor Castle, 70, 375.
+
+_Windsor Castle_, the, British ship, 221.
+
+Wittgenstein, Russian general, 125, 143, 145.
+
+Worcester, bishop of (Carr), 299.
+
+Wordsworth, William, 416.
+
+Würtemburg, 42, 187, 189.
+
+Wynn, Charles Williams, president of the board of control, 199, 227.
+
+
+Yanzi, gorge, 113.
+
+Yarmouth, Viscount (Ingram-Seymour-Conway), afterwards third Marquis of
+ Hertford, 46.
+
+Yeo, Sir James, captain, 140.
+
+Yorck, Count, 125, 133.
+
+York, 83.
+
+York (Toronto), 139, 140, 146.
+
+York (Frederick), Duke of (son of George III.), 49, 60, 61, 72, 74-76,
+ 184 n., 185, 197, 207, 208, 239, 242, 268.
+
+Yorke, Charles Philip, home secretary, 27, 34;
+ first lord of the admiralty, 72, 82;
+ retirement, 81.
+
+Yorkshire, 38, 180, 198, 274, 280, 288, 294, 432, 435.
+
+
+Zadorra, river, 110.
+
+Zaragoza, 88, 96.
+
+Zemán Sháh, King of Afghánistán, 397.
+
+Znaim, 64.
+
+Zumalacarregui, Carlist general, 390, 391.
+
+
+ PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN AT
+ THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, ABERDEEN
+
+[Illustration: GREAT BRITAIN
+showing
+PARLIAMENTARY REPRESENTATION
+according to the
+REFORM ACT OF 1832.]
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF
+SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
+illustrating
+THE PENINSULAR WAR.]
+
+[Illustration: INDIA]
+
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+| TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES |
+| |
+| General: Changes to punctuation have not been individually documented. |
+| |
+| Page 11: reopen standardised to re-open |
+| |
+| Page 13: Shortlived standardised to Short-lived |
+| |
+| Pages 42, 187, 189, 466, 486, footnote 66: Spelling of Würtemberg, |
+| Würtemburg as in original |
+| |
+| Pages 47, 296: short-sighted standardised to shortsighted |
+| |
+| Page 60: heartbreaking standardised to heart-breaking |
+| |
+| Page 66: Lord Granville Leveson Gower standardised to Leveson-Gower |
+| (note that Francis Leveson Gower never has a hyphen in the original |
+| version so that is maintained here) |
+| |
+| Page 85: non-conformists standardised to nonconformists |
+| |
+| Page 94: shortlived standardised to short-lived |
+| |
+| Pages 108, 113: rearguard standardised to rear-guard |
+| |
+| Page 109, 363: Spelling of make-shift, makeshift not standardised as |
+| usage differs. |
+| |
+| Page 127: flag-ship standardised to flagship |
+| |
+| Page 176: lifelong standardised to life-long |
+| |
+| Page 182: it corrected to its after "measure of relief owes" |
+| |
+| Page 183: bank-notes standardised to banknotes |
+| |
+| Page 201: But replaced by but at start of page as it is a continuation |
+| of the sentence from the previous page. |
+| |
+| Page 252: wofully as in original |
+| |
+| Pages 260, 481, 484: Spelling of Akkerman, Akherman as in original |
+| |
+| Page 274: deathblow standardised to death-blow |
+| |
+| Pages 289, 361 and 374: Spelling of rate-paying and ratepaying not |
+| standardised as it is used in two different contexts |
+| |
+| Page 298: ring-leaders standardised to ringleaders |
+| |
+| Page 316: tithe proctor standardised to tithe-proctor |
+| beneficies as in original |
+| |
+| Page 335: house-holders standardised to householders |
+| |
+| Page 341: outdoor standardised to out-door |
+| |
+| Page 345: tithe proctors standardised to tithe-proctors |
+| |
+| Page 349: re-assembled standardised to reassembled |
+| |
+| Page 362: over-ride standardised to override |
+| |
+| Pages 393, 403, 475: Spelling of Mahmud and Mahmúd not standardised as |
+| it is used in two different contexts |
+| |
+| Page 394: MUNCHENGRATZ standardised to MÜNCHENGRÄTZ |
+| |
+| Pages 407, 416, 462: Spelling of Khan and Khán not standardised as it |
+| is used in two different contexts |
+| |
+| Pages 427, 465: Spelling of Callcott, Calcott as in original |
+| |
+| Page 443: Italicisation of "Constitutional History of England from 1760 |
+| to 1860" corrected |
+| |
+| Page 461: Aetolia standardised to Ætolia |
+| Aegean standardised to Ægean |
+| |
+| Page 463: In entry Beauharnais, Eugene standardised to Eugène |
+| |
+| Page 464: Bridgewater standardised to Bridgwater |
+| |
+| Page 475: Malhar standardised to Malhár |
+| In entry Louis Antoine, Angouléme standardised to Angoulême |
+| In entry Louis Philippe, Orleans standardised to Orléans |
+| |
+| Page 479: Pressgang standardised to Press-gang |
+| |
+| Page 483: ) added to entry for Stewart, Sir Charles, after Londonderry |
+| ) added to entry for Switzerland, after republic |
+| Thermopylae standardised to Thermopylæ |
+| |
+| Page 484: Volgo standardised to Volga |
+| |
+| Page 486: Ingram-Seymour Conway corrected to Ingram-Seymour-Conway |
++-------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Political History of England - Vol
+XI, by George Brodrick and J.K. Fotheringham
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