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diff --git a/26529-h/26529-h.htm b/26529-h/26529-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..011a713 --- /dev/null +++ b/26529-h/26529-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1681 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Dakotan Languages, by A. W. Williamson. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p {margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em;} + + h1,h3 {text-align: center; + clear: both;} + + h1.second {margin-top: 2em;} + + hr {width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both;} + + hr.small {width: 20%; + margin-top: 0.5em; + margin-bottom: 0.5em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto;} + + table {margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto;} + + td {border-color: #000000; + text-align: center; + padding: 5px;} + + td.first {border-right: double;} + + td.firstbottom {border-right: double; + border-bottom: solid 1px;} + + td.firsttop {border-right: double; + border-top: solid 1px;} + + td.right {border-right: solid 1px;} + + td.rightbottom {border-right: solid 1px; + border-bottom: solid 1px;} + + td.righttop {border-right: solid 1px; + border-top: solid 1px;} + + td.top {border-top: solid 1px;} + + td.bottom {border-bottom: solid 1px;} + + body {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%;} + + div.title {width: 75%; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + border: double; + padding-top: 2em; + padding-bottom: 2em;} + + .centerbig {text-align: center; + font-size: 120%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .tn {border: dashed 2px #5a5a5a; + margin-top: 5em; + padding: 10px;} + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px; + margin-top: 1em;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + font-size: 0.9em;} + + .footnote .label {position: absolute; + right: 84%; + text-align: right;} + + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: none;} + + // --> + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dakotan Languages, and Their Relations +to Other Languages, by Andrew Woods Williamson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Dakotan Languages, and Their Relations to Other Languages + +Author: Andrew Woods Williamson + +Release Date: September 4, 2008 [EBook #26529] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES *** + + + + +Produced by Tamise Totterdell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions +(www.canadiana.org)) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="title"> + +<h1>THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES</h1> + +<p class="centerbig">BY</p> + +<p class="centerbig">A. W. WILLIAMSON.</p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois.</span></p> + +<hr /> + +<p class="center">FROM</p> + +<p class="centerbig">AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN, JANUARY, 1882.</p> + +</div> + +<h1 class="second">THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES, AND THEIR RELATIONS TO OTHER LANGUAGES.</h1> + +<hr class="small" /> +<p class="centerbig">BY A. W. WILLIAMSON.</p> +<hr class="small" /> + +<p>To the ethnologist and to the philologist the Dakotas and +those speaking kindred languages are a very interesting people. +There are four principal Dakota dialects, the Santee, Yankton, +Assinniboin and Titon. The allied languages may be divided +into three groups:</p> + +<p>I. a, Winnebago; b, Osage, Kaw, and 2 Quapaw; c, Iowa, +Otoe and Missouri; d, Omaha and Ponka.</p> + +<p>II. Mandan.</p> + +<p>III. a, Minnetaree (Minitari) or Hidatsa; b, Absauraka, or +Crow.</p> + +<p>Pawnee and Aricaree seem also to be somewhat related.</p> + +<p>In my father's opinion the Dakota dialects differ about as +much as the Greek dialects did in the time of Homer, and +the Assinniboin is much nearer to the Yankton dialect of which +it is an offshoot than is the Titon. Judging by the vocabularies +to which I have access chiefly in Hayden's "Indian tribes of +the Missouri," I would suppose the first group to differ from +the Dakota about as much as the German from the English, +and to differ among themselves somewhat as Hollandish, Friesian, +and English. The Mandan appears to be separated much +more widely from them than they are from each other. The +Minnetaree and Crow constitute a distinct group diverging from +each other more than the Santee and Titon, the extreme dialects +of the Dakota. They show more resemblance to the +Mandan than to any other one of the class, but diverge very +widely from it. But very few words approximate identity. +About one half of the words in Matthew's Hidatsa dictionary +appear to me to be in part at least composed of material related +to the Dakota, and about five per cent to fairly represent Dakota +words. Many of these show little similarity except as +compared in the light of sound representation.</p> + +<p>When first discovered the Dakotas and Assinniboins were +nomads, living almost entirely by hunting and fishing. The +Dakotas, then probably less than ten thousand, are now more +than thirty thousand in number. There are probably about +three thousand Assinniboins. The allied tribes, except the +Crows, when first found lived chiefly by agriculture. They +have during the last hundred years rapidly diminished in numbers, +and do not number over twelve thousand including the +Crows.</p> + +<p>All of the Dakotan tribes and some others formerly made +and baked pottery similar to that found in the mounds of the +Ohio valley. The Osages and some others lived in earth +houses, whose ruins are similar to those of the houses of the +mound builders. The Minnetarees, Mandans and Aricarees +still live in houses of the same kind, and make and bake pottery. +Measurements indicate that the crania of the Dakotas +in size of brain and angle decidedly approach the European +form. The cheek bones of the Dakotas are much less prominent +than those of the Chippewas, and those one-fourth Chippewa +and three-fourths white have on an average darker complexions +than those half white and half Dakota. Among the +Minnetarees and Mandans are many persons of light hair, blue +eyes, and tolerably fair complexion, not attributable to an infusion +of Caucasian blood since the time of Columbus.</p> + +<p>No people take more pains to speak their language accurately +than the Dakotas. Their social condition is similar to that +of the Arabs, whose language has within historic observation +changed more slowly than any other. The Assinniboins have +been separated from the Dakotas about three centuries, +perhaps a little less, possibly much more. During all this time +they have been entirely separated, associating wholly with +tribes speaking languages entirely different, and yet their dialect +remains almost identical with the Yankton. We are then +encouraged to believe that their language has not changed so +rapidly as to obliterate traces of its origin.</p> + +<p>So far as I have been able to ascertain them the most important +features characteristic of the Dakotan languages generally +are the following:</p> + +<p>I. Three pronominal prefixes to verbs, i, o and wa. I, this, +forms nouns of instrument. O forms nomen actionis, etc. +Some Crow and Minnetaree words seem to indicate that its original +form was a. Wa, meaning some or something, prefixed to +transitive verbs makes them intransitive or general in their application. +Wa is in Min. ma (ba, wa), in Crow, ba. Scantiness +of material prevents me from more than inferring the existence +of these and other prefixes in the other allied languages, from +a few words apparently containing them.</p> + +<p>II. A system of verbal prefixes used to form verbs from certain +stems, regularly varied in signification, according to the +prefix used. The Dakota has seven of these prefixes. The +Min. has three of these almost identical in force. I should suppose +that I would, with as much material, find greater similarity +in the other languages, but the only one I have been able to +trace at all generally is Dak yu. This merely converts the +stem into a verb without changing its meaning. Dak y is +nearly always represented in the allied languages so far as I +have observed by r, d, l or n; so that I find it in Min. du (ru, +lu, nu), Iowa, Mandan, and Crow ru, Omaha ra.</p> + +<p>III. A reflexive pronoun tawa, Min. tama (tawa, taba), Iowa +tawe, Osage tabe, forming from possessive pronouns double +possessives, related to their primitives somewhat as mine to +my. In some features of structure the Dakotan languages +present an amazing diversity.</p> + +<p>According to Powell (Int. to stud. Am. Lang.) a Ponka in +order to say "a man killed a rabbit," would have to say "the +man, he, one, animate, standing, in the nominative case, purposely, +killed, by shooting an arrow, he, the one animate, sitting, +in the objective case." "For the form of the verb to kill +would have to be selected, and the verb changes its form by inflection, +and by incorporated particles, to denote person, number +and gender, as animate or inanimate, as standing, sitting or +lying."</p> + +<p>On the other hand the Dakota could not vary the form of the +verb to denote any of these things except number, with reference +to either subject or object. He would probably say: +"Wichasta-wan mastincha-wan kte,"—"man-a, rabbit-a, kill,"—in +which each word is about synonymous with its English +equivalent, and case as in English denoted by position. If he +wished to show that the action was done by shooting, he would +probably not vary the form of the verb kill, but would use the +verb kute, meaning shoot whether with arrow or bullet. Except +that the Dak. order corresponds to the Icelandic the only +difference in structure between the Dak. and English expression +is that the Dakota word kte may mean any time, the particular +time being indicated whenever desirable in all cases in Dak. as +mostly in English by auxiliary verbs and adverbs. If the +word man were represented by a pronoun the Dak. would +be still more analytic, since its pronoun would indicate any actor, +male or female, or inanimate, unless it were desirable to distinguish, +in which case the distinction would be made by compounding +the pronoun with a suitable auxiliary word. In this +feature, often given as characteristic of American languages, is +a variation the greatest possible between two languages closely +related. It is also worthy of remark that the Minnetaree, which +I should suppose the most analytic of the group next to the +Dakota, is one of those that least resembles the Dakota in vocabulary. +Some of the features often assigned as peculiarities +of American languages were according to Bopp and Schleicher +features of the I. E. languages in their earlier stages. Of most +other features said to characterize American languages I find +in Dak. but faint traces. The Dak. <i>does have</i> verbs nearly +synonymous with <i>go</i>, <i>walk</i>, <i>eat</i>, <i>drink</i>, <i>strike</i>, <i>etc.</i> +<i>It is well supplied with purely copulative verbs. It has differentiated</i> the various +parts of speech even to the <i>definite</i> and <i>indefinite article</i>. +It is sufficiently supplied with nouns denoting genera and +classes. This is not a feature of recent development. A much +smaller proportion of general than of special names have lost +trace of origin.</p> + +<p>The Dak <i>does not</i> have inclusive and exclusive plurals, etc. +It <i>does not</i> have a multiplicity of verb forms to denote mode +and tense, but when necessary does denote them with elegance +and precision, by auxiliary verbs and adverbs, very much as +we do in English. The Dakota is not made up chiefly of very +long words. On the other hand it uses a great many little particles +and connectives to express fine shades of meaning, wonderfully +reminding one of the Greek. It fully agrees with +other American languages in its wonderful facility for forming +derivatives. The I. E. languages in their earlier stages possessed +equal facility.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact we know scarcely anything concerning +the structure of American languages aside from the Algonquin +and Iroquois groups, and a very few isolated languages. They +have been classified, in fact, almost entirely by examination of +scanty and not very accurate vocabularies. In investigating +the relations of the Dakotan to other American languages we +are therefore compelled to base our conclusions chiefly on vocabulary. +I once resided a year among the Chippewas, and in +various ways have had much better opportunities of comparing +the Dakota with the Chippewa than with any other American +language. I have not been able to find a word alike in the +two; and but very few words even slightly similar in sound and +sense. In pronouns few languages in any part of the world +are so strikingly contrasted. If I were to attempt an argument +for original affinity between Dakota and Chippewa my argument +would be that so great dissimilarity could not be the result +of accident. Aside from the Cheyenne, an Algonkin +language which has incorporated some Dakotan words, and +the Pawnee group, the similarities east of the Rocky mountains +are surprisingly few, though the Huron, Iroquois and Mobilian +languages do not seem quite so strongly contrasted as the Algonkin. +Among the Eskimo, the tribes of the Pacific Slope, +Mexico, Central and South America, we occasionally find +identical and not infrequently similar words. In some the resemblances +seem remarkable considering the size of the vocabulary. +Closer examination shows however that they are not +of a kind to indicate a special relationship. They are almost +exclusively confined to a few pronominal bases of very wide +diffusion, and the following: 1. ata, tata. 2. papa, each meaning +father; 1. ana, nana; 2. ma, mama, each meaning mother. As +an example I take the base ata, tata. Dakota, ate (dialect ata); +Minnetaree, ate, tata, tatish; Mandan, tata; Omaha, adi, dadi; +Ponka, tade-ha; Aricaree, ate-ah; Pawnee, ate-ish.</p> + +<p>Tuscarora ata; Cherokee e-dauda; Eskimo—Greenland ahtata, +Aleutian ata, California, San Miguel tata; Mexico Aztec teta; +Otomi, ta, te; Yucatan, Cakchequil tata; Central Am. Tarasca +tata; Darien tauta; Eastern Peru, Mossa tata; Western Paraguay, +Villela tata.</p> + +<p>Congo Western Africa, tat, tata.</p> + +<p>Japan dialect tete; Chinese dialect tia.</p> + +<p>Turko Tartar, Turkish ata; Tatar ata, atha; Kunan atta; +Kasanish, Orenburg, Kirgis ata; Samoyedic dialects, Eastern +Russia and Western Siberia ata, atai, atja, tatai; Finno Hungarian, +Lap attje; Hungarian atja.</p> + +<p>Caucasus, Kisti dada. Basque (Pyrenees Mountains) aita.</p> + +<p>Indo European: Sanskrit ata, tata; Hindustanee dada; Latin, +atta, tatta; Greek atta, tatta; Albanian, Albania, at, atti; Calabria +and Sicily tata; Celtic, Welsh tad; Cornish and Bret tat; +Irish, daid; Gaelic daidein; English (according to Skeats of +Welsh) dad, daddy; Old Slav, tata otici; Moldavian tata; Wallachian +tate; Polish tatus; Bohemian, Servian Croatian otsche; +Lithuanian teta; Preuss thetis; Gothic ata; Old Fries tate; O. +H. G. tato; Old Swed atin; Swed island Runoe dadda.</p> + +<p>In fifty-nine of the one hundred and forty-six versions of the +Lord's prayer given by Adelung in the Sclavonic, Lithuanian +and Teutonic families, the word for father is from this base. +Atta is the form used in Ulfillas Gothic version of the fourth +century, the oldest Teutonic relic.</p> + +<p>Papa and mama in Dak., as in I. E. languages, occupy a subordinate +position, having about the same scope as in Latin and +Greek. Words apparently related to these are rare in N. A. +languages, but frequent in S. A., African, Malay Polynesian +and Turanian languages. The Semitic aba, etc., is perhaps related. +The base ana, nana (Dak. ina), though not very much +used in I E languages appears to be more widely distributed +than any of the others.</p> + +<p>All the Dakota pronouns which show much similarity to +other American forms are representative of Fick's I E bases, +and appear to be widely disseminated. Adelung and Latham +do not however give pronominal forms in as many languages +as they give words for father and mother, and I cannot so well +determine their distribution.</p> + +<p>Professor Roehrig, in his able paper on the Dakota, points +out some very interesting analogies to Turanian languages. +Others might be added. These similarities are chiefly in features +common to I. E. and Turanian. On the other hand the +Dakota shows on the surface striking contrasts to Turanian +languages. The numerals are eminently dissimilar. The +Dakota, like I. E. languages, varies both root and suffix in +forming words, and uses both prefixes and suffixes. In Turanian +languages the suffix only is varied, and prefixes are scarcely +at all used.</p> + +<p>It seems to me therefor that it is not unscientific to inquire +whether the similarities of the various Dakotan languages to +various European languages, modern and ancient, so often remarked +are or are not accidental. It is very easy to see that +the Dakota resembles the English in vocabulary much more +than it resembles the Chippewa. The similarities of the Dakota +suffixes, pronouns and prepositions to those given by Bopp, +and the general resemblance of Dakotan languages to Sanskrit, +Gothic, etc., in vocabulary, made me certain of relationship before +I ever saw Fick's dictionary. Yet as I turned over his +pages I was amazed at the similarity of the I. E. roots to the +Dak roots. The Slav Teut bases of Fick seem to me most +similar to the Dak. I am certain that neither the Teutonic or +Graeco-Italic dictionaries resemble the Dakota as much as do +the European, Indo. European and Aryan dictionaries. The +I. E. consonants are represented in Dakota, Santee and Titon +dialects, and in Minnetaree in accordance with the following +table. I omit representatives concerning which I am doubtful. +I have too little material on the other languages to justify me +in including them.</p> + +<table cellspacing="0" summary="Language Comparison Table"> +<tr> +<td class="firsttop">I E</td> +<td class="righttop" colspan="2">k</td> +<td class="righttop">g</td> +<td class="righttop" colspan="2">gh</td> +<td class="righttop">p</td> +<td class="righttop">bh</td> +<td class="righttop">m</td> +<td class="top">w</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">S</td> +<td class="right" colspan="2">k, h, kh, sh<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a></td> +<td class="right">k, h<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td> +<td class="right" colspan="2">gh, kh, zh</td> +<td class="right">p</td> +<td class="right">m, b, w</td> +<td class="right">m</td> +<td>w, p</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">T</td> +<td class="right" colspan="2">k, h, g<a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a>, khsh</td> +<td class="right">k, g<a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a></td> +<td class="right" colspan="2">gh, kh, zh</td> +<td class="right">p</td> +<td class="rightbottom">b, w</td> +<td class="rightbottom">m, b<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a></td> +<td class="bottom">w, p</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">M</td> +<td class="rightbottom" colspan="2">k, h, gh<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a>, sh</td> +<td class="rightbottom">k</td> +<td class="rightbottom" colspan="2">gh<a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></td> +<td class="rightbottom">p</td> +<td class="bottom" colspan="3">m<a name="FNanchor_F_7" id="FNanchor_F_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_7" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> (b, w) p</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">I E</td> +<td class="right">t</td> +<td class="right">d</td> +<td class="right">dh</td> +<td class="right">n</td> +<td class="right">r, l<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></td> +<td class="right">y<a name="FNanchor_E_6" id="FNanchor_E_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_6" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></td> +<td colspan="3">s</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">S</td> +<td class="right">t, n</td> +<td class="right">t, d, n</td> +<td class="right">d</td> +<td class="right">n</td> +<td class="right">n, d</td> +<td class="right">y, z</td> +<td colspan="3">s, sh, z, zh, t</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="first">T</td> +<td class="right">t, n</td> +<td class="rightbottom">t, l, n</td> +<td class="rightbottom">l</td> +<td class="rightbottom">n</td> +<td class="rightbottom">n, l</td> +<td class="rightbottom">y, z</td> +<td class="bottom" colspan="3">s, sh, z, zh, t</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="firstbottom">M</td> +<td class="rightbottom">t, d</td> +<td class="rightbottom" colspan="5">t d<a href="#Footnote_F_7" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> (l, n, r) ts</td> +<td class="bottom" colspan="3">ts, sh, t</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> Chiefly, probably not always, for Fick's second k, +Lith sz (pron sh), Slav s. The k's and g's liable to +labialization in Eu. languages appear to be occasionally +labialized in Dakotan languages.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> In S. hd, Yankton kd, T. gl; S. hn, Y. kn, T. gn +or gl; S. hm, Y. km, T. gm.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> In S. md, Y. bd, T. bl.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> In a previous paper I represented this by kh; and +do not know whether it is nearest Dak kh German ch, or Dak gh; +I E gh.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Santee d always becomes l in Titon.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_6" id="Footnote_E_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_6"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> Dak y becomes r, d, l or n in the allied +languages, except perhaps the Osage, and perhaps in part +represents I E r.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_7" id="Footnote_F_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_7"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> In Minnetaree m, interchanges so freely with b and +w, and d with l, n, and r, that Matthews represents each group +by one letter. The same irregularity occurs largely in Crow, +and somewhat also in Mandan.</p></div></div> + +<p>Ch as in chin very often occurs in Dak as a euphonic modification +of k. Otherwise it stands chiefly for d, r, l, n of the allied +languages. On the other hand Win and Iowa ch usually +represents Dak, and I E t. R is found in all the allied languages, +and in Winnebago is more frequent than even in Icelandic. +Iowa aspirate th, represents Dak s, and other sibilants. +Hayden does not distinguish the subvocal and aspirate th in +Omaha. From a small list gathered by my father I judge that +the aspirate is probably similar to the Iowa, and that the subvocal +represents Dak and I E dentals. F in Iowa represents +some Dak p's.</p> + +<p>There is wonderful regularity in the sound changes in passing +from Santee to Titon Dak, and so far as I can yet discover +great irregularity in passing to the allied languages. Possibly +fuller materials and closer study may reduce the changes to +system.</p> + +<p>Dak proper has but five vowels; a and e represent I E a; i, +i; u, u; and o, either u or a. They are weakened as in I E languages, +and suffixes which raise I E vowels raise i and u to a. +The allied languages have a larger number of vowels, the Minnetaree +ten.</p> + +<h3>VERB STEMS.</h3> + +<p>The reduplication of roots in Dak as in I E is extremely frequent, +in both, as in other languages, developing iteratives +which occasionally become intensives. The reduplication of +Dak words is like Skt of but one syllable, usually but not always +the root.</p> + +<p>The suffix a, aya, which formed verb stems of I E roots +usually becomes a, e, i in Dak as in old Eu. languages.</p> + +<p>Ya seems to be rarely preserved: I E pak cook, Skt papakaya +parch; Dak papakhya parch; I E agh say, Lat ajo for aghya +say; Dak eya say. The Dak has many relics of the n of suffix +na, which worked its way before the final consonant; I E tag +touch whence I E tang, Lat tango; Dak tan touch. There +seem to be relics of the other methods, which were however +so closely akin to methods of forming nominal stems that they +need not be discussed here.</p> + +<p>Schleicher gives two methods of forming secondary verb +stems: by suffix sa forming frequentatives; by suffix ya cause +to be, forming transitive verbs from verbs, adjectives and +nouns. Both are living suffixes extremely frequent and having +the same force in Dak.</p> + +<h3>NOMINAL STEMS.</h3> + +<p>As in I E a few Dak roots either single or reduplicated form +nomen actionis, etc. This similarity is too widely spread to be +of value. It is far otherwise with suffixes, which are in a majority +of cases usually representative of one or more of Schleicher's +twenty suffixes, and if otherwise at least derived from I E +roots, excepting a few of obscure origin.</p> + +<p>1. I E -a formed from roots, adjectives, also appellatives, and +abstracts, of which the Dak. has many relics: I E stag, Teut +stak strike beat; Dak staka beaten, broken; Slav. Teut kak +sound; Dak kaka rattling; I E pu stink, rot; Min pua stinking, +rotten; Eu sap understand; Lat sapa wise; Dak k-sapa wise.</p> + +<p>Slav Teut kak cackle, kaka the crow; Pawnee kaka; Man +keka the crow; Eu sara stream flow, sara butter; Min tsara; +Tit Dak sla grease; I E ar join whence our arm; Win and Min +ara, the arm; Slav Teut lap, lamp shine; Dak ampa light; Slav +Teut krup fear; Dak kopa noun fear, a fearful place; adj insecure; +a Scandinavian base naf, nap, our nab, Icel nefi; Swed +nefwa (perhaps i was the original suffix) the hand; Dak nape +the hand; I E kak spring; Lith szaka (pronounced shaka) twig +shoot, etc; Dak shake nails claws; Om shage finger; Min shaki +hand paw.</p> + +<p>In Dak as in I E -a usually raises the stem vowel; I E kid +burn; Teut haita hot; Dak kata hot; I E sik dry; Dak saka also +shecha dried; I E lip adhere; Tit Dak lapa sticky adhesive; I E +migh pour out water, Skt megha cloud; Om magha, mangha +cloud sky; Crow makha sky; Dak in makhpiya (maghapiya) +cloud sky, maghazhu rain. The zhu is Dak-zhu, Min-ghu, I E +ghu pour.</p> + +<p>2. I E -i formed abstracts and nouns of agency; I E ar go; +Min ari, way, track, trail.</p> + +<p>3. I E -u formed adjectives; I E ragh spring, raghu light, +whence lungs; Min dagho, agho; Dak chaghu lungs;<a name="FNanchor_G_8" id="FNanchor_G_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_8" class="fnanchor">[G]</a> Eu park +whence parka wrinkle; Dak pako crooked, wrinkled.</p> + +<p>4. I E -ya formed nouns, adjectives and participles. The +Dak still retains some adjectives thus formed, and hundreds of +participles rendered by English participles, but used only adverbially, +and it has become an adverbial suffix.</p> + +<p>5. I E -wa formed passive participles, adjectives and nouns. +It is in Dak a living passive participial suffix combined with the +like suffix -an, forming wa(h)an. When added directly to the +root it raises the stem vowel as in; Eu ku contain to be +hollow; Lat cava; Dak -ko be hollow, noun ko a hole; kawa +open. After consonants the w becomes p; I E akwa water of +ak; Gothic ahva river; Dak wakpa river.</p> + +<p>6. I E -ma, -mana, -man formed adjectives, present participles +and nouns; I E akman stone of ak, A S iman; Dak imni stone.</p> + +<p>7. I E -ra, -la formed adjectives and nouns; Eu kira yellow; +Old Slav seru; Crow shira, Min tsidi, tsiri, Man psida, Iowa +thi, Om thi, zi; Win and Dak zi yellow; I E ghu pour; Min +ghu pour; Dak zhu pour, ozhu pour in, in ozhudan, Tit ozhu la +full; Eu wasra spring of was; Icel vara, Lat ver; Win wera +spring; Eu tag cover whence; Welsh and Irish ti house, our +thatch; Win chira house; Man, Min, Om, Dak ti house; Aryan +nira water of ni; Tit Dak nila water; Om and Win ni +water.</p> + +<p>Ra, la is also a diminutive suffix in I E languages. It is the +regular diminutive suffix in Win, -ra, in Tit Dak, -la, in Yank +-na, in Santee Dak -dan also -na.</p> + +<p>8. I E -an formed past passive participles whence our en in +fallen, etc. It is still the regular passive participial suffix in +Dak either alone or combined with wa. As Dak verb stems +end in a vowel it is preceded by a euphonic h. When added +directly to the root it raises the stem vowel, as in Eu wik +whence Gothic veiha holy; Dak wakan sacred.</p> + +<p>9. I have not found infinitive suffix -na in Dak.</p> + +<p>10. I E -na was a passive participial suffix, developing also +denominatives. The Dak has perhaps a few relics; I E ku +bring low, kauna low; Dak ku- in kuchedan, also kun low. I +E mi, diminish (mince); Yank and Tit Dak mina knife.</p> + +<p>11. I E -ni formed abstracts and nouns of agency. Possibly +it is found in; I E migh pour out water; Dak mini water; and +a few others.</p> + +<p>12. Two words containing -nu, are recognized by Schleicher +as I E; I E and Dak su bear; I E sunu son; Dak sun younger +brother. I E and Dak tan extend; I E tanu adj thin, noun +body; Dak tan body.</p> + +<p>13. I E -ta (our -d) formed the past passive participle, and +nouns of similar signification, in which uses it is tolerably frequent +in Dak; I E ski collect, arrange; Dak shki plait gather, skita +bound together, tied on; I E pu destroy rot; Min pu rot; Dak po in +pon (=po an) rotten, po -ta used up, worn out; I E sta stand, +stata standing, stopped, brought to a stand; Dak -sdata standing, +stopped, hence also sdata feeble; I E su sew, sut sewed; +Dak suta strong, compare Min ashu a string cord; I E and +Dak wi wind, wrap around, encircle; Dak wita island; wita +bound together, in witaya together.</p> + +<p>14. I E -ta formed nouns of agency and future participles. +It is derived by Bopp from I E tar pass-over, whence also Eu +tar, tur pass-over, possess, accomplish, fulfil. The root is extremely +frequent in these uses in the Dakotan languages, and +in Dak at least is much used as a suffix. The last half of the +word Mini-tari is tari, cross over. In Dak, Eu tur is re; represented +as accurately as possible by ton possess, accomplish, fulfil, +have, give birth, and the preposition tan in composition from +equally represents Skt tar, from.<a name="FNanchor_H_9" id="FNanchor_H_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_9" class="fnanchor">[H]</a></p> + +<p>As forming nouns of agency it has in Dak lost the r; Eu pa, +whence Eu pana fire; Dak peta fire; I E ak Skt iksh see, +whence our eye; Min aka, ika see; Crow am-aka, Iowa at-aka +see; ishta eye, in all Dakotan languages.</p> + +<p>We perhaps have a few relics of tar as a comparative suffix; +I E uk increase whence Old Sax agen our again; Mand age, +Dak ake again, Dak akton more than.</p> + +<p>15. I have not recognized -ti in Dak.</p> + +<p>16. Dak wetu, etu time, season, may be I E and Dak, -wi encircle, +with -tu, but is more probably related to I E vatas year, +adj. old.</p> + +<p>17. I have not recognized -dhi in Dak.</p> + +<p>18. I E -ant (our ing) forming active participles necessarily +drops t and prefixes h in Dak, and in this form, han, is used as +active participial suffix with some verbs.</p> + +<p>19. As a plural suffix I E -as seems to be presented by the +Mandan plural suffix osh.</p> + +<p>20. I E -ka as a primary suffix forms a few nouns and adjectives; +I E ku contain be hollow; Dak root ko the same, koka a +cask, barrel, box, etc; I E and Dak tan extend, stretch; Dak +tanka large (cf Iowa tanra large). I E da bind; Dak daka +bound by obligation, relationship or league, whence their name +Dakota, those bound by league, those making a league, friend, +comrade (-ta for I E tar). As a secondary suffix it is extremely +frequent in Dak as well as I E, forming in both words of +multifarious relations to their primitives. I E kuan, kwan, +kwanka dog; Lith szun (pronounced shun); Dak shunka dog; +Old Slav suka a bitch; Min shuka a dog. Ka is used both in +I E and Dak as a negative suffix. In Sanskrit and several +other I E languages it is used as a diminutive suffix, and forms +one syllable of the various Min diminutive suffixes.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_8" id="Footnote_G_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_8"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> For I E r—Dak ch compare Eu wira Dak wicha-man; +Eu wera; Dak wicaka true. Teut legya thigh whence leg of lak; +Win lega and legra; Iowa reke; Mandan doka; Min diki, liki the +leg, the thigh; Dak checha the thighs. The r probably first +became d.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_9" id="Footnote_H_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_9"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> Dak n—I E r is supported by about fifty +examples.</p></div></div> + +<h3>PREPOSITIONS.</h3> + +<p>The Dak is like the I E languages remarkable for its copiousness +in prepositions. In their use or omission the Dak +differs from the English less than does the Anglo Saxon. As +in some of the old I E languages they are either verbal prefixes +or follow their nouns. Nearly all of them seem to be of I E +prepositions mostly compounded. I give examples of the more +obvious similarities.</p> + +<p>Sam. together with, in skt. A. S. and Dak.</p> + +<p>En in, Greek, Teutonic and Dak.</p> + +<p>On, A. S. with dat, for, on account of, of, Dak the same.</p> + +<p>A verbal prefix on, Icel, A. S., Dak.</p> + +<p>I E ana A. S. an on, Dak an in composition on.</p> + +<p>A. S. at our at; Dak ta at necessarily transposed.</p> + +<p>Eu da Old Ir du, our to, Germ zu; Min du, during, at that +time; Dak tu to, till etc.</p> + +<p>Eu ek over, of I E ak; Min ak over, Dak in ak -an upon, ak +-am beyond over upon, ek -ta at, etc.</p> + +<p>Eu api about, around; Min api with.</p> + +<p>Eu ambhi about, around, over; Dak am in akam over upon; +A S and Ger um. Swed om same meaning; Dak om with, used +with plural object only.</p> + +<p>A S ni negative; Dak ni prefix in nicha none and base of +negative words in shni not combined with reflexive sa.</p> + +<h3>PRONOUNS.</h3> + +<p>The Dak and Algonkin pronouns are amazingly dissimilar; +the Dak and I E are remarkably alike.</p> + +<p>1st person sing. inflection, ma, mi, m, in I E and Dakota. +The Dakotan forms are however oftener prefixed than suffixed +eg; Dak root ha have (Teut aih own) yu formative prefix, +3 yuha he has; 2 duha thou hast; 1 mduha I have; Titon 3 yuha, +2 luha, 1 bluha.</p> + +<p>1st p stem. The ga of Lat ego A S, ic etc. appears in Iowa, +ka, ke, etc. The chief base of nearly all the Dak languages is +however, ma, mi, corresponding to I E ma, mi; Lat me, mi; Eng +me, etc.</p> + +<p>1st dual and Plural stem. I E na, Lat no, Mandan nu; Teut +dual onki, Goth ugki, A S unc, Dak unki and un. The base +wa whence we, has become in Dak wa I, in Omaha wi me, in +Iowa inflection plural wa, us, etc.</p> + +<p>2d. I E twa has become in Dak ni (cf Swed ni thou). It is +however in Omaha thi identical in sound with our thee, and da, +di in most allied languages similar to German du. Dak ya pl +yapi you, and our you are probably also of this base. The +Iowa forms the possessive of personal pronouns like the Icelandic +by -i; Icel min my; Iowa min my.</p> + +<p>3d person, I, he, she, it, extremely frequent in I E languages, +is the base used in all the Dakotan languages as least partaking +of a demonstrative nature. In Dak it is omitted except +when emphatic.</p> + +<p>I E sa reflexive and emphatic; Min she, the same. Contracted +to s it forms I E nominative; in Dak, as sh nominatives +of i (ish), mi, ni and unki, and occurs in composition; in Min it +forms proper names.</p> + +<p>I E sa, ta; Teut tha, this, that; Om the, this; Dak ta, to in +many compounds.</p> + +<p>I E sawa genitive of sa, ta reflexive possessive for all persons; +Dak tawa the same, also ta. It is in the third person used +alone in Dak, but suffixed to i in Minnetaree. All its forms in +Min, and those of the first and second persons in Dak are +double possessives analogous to mine, thine.</p> + +<p>Eu ki, kina, that, this, he, she, it; Dak ki, his, her, its, etc. In +Nom kana those, etc.; sing ka that, the vowel is raised as in +the Greek keinos. For abridgement of stem in singular compare +our ox, pl. oxen, Nortumbrian oxena, and other relics of +stems in na; Teut hina this; Crow hina this.</p> + +<p>From kina, hina, originated the Icelandic and Swedish pastpositive +def. article the; likewise Dak kin postpositive def. +article the; ke emphatic pronoun kuns, clf, etc. Of this base +A S stem he, he, she, it; Dak he (pl hena) he, she, it, that.</p> + +<p>Slav Teut da this; Dak de (pl dena) this.</p> + +<p>I E antara other; Mandan ant that.</p> + +<p>I E i demon, pref, this; Dak i.</p> + +<p>I E a dem. pref; Min a, o; Dak o.</p> + +<p>I E wa pronominal base used in compounds; Dak wa pronominal +prefix some, something. Prefix wo (wa-|-o) forms abstract +nouns and nouns of agency.</p> + +<p>I E ka int. and rel. pronoun; Pawnee ka interrogative; Dak +ka interrogative suffix and in compounds; Ger wer; Dak +tu-we who int. and rel; Gk po; Min tape who, tapa or tako +what. I E neuter base ku what; Dak ta-ku what rel. and +int.</p> + +<p>I E wika all the whole; Dak wicha them, incorporated objective. +Iowa wi; Dak pi plural suffix seems to be a contraction +of this base.</p> + +<p>Analogous to A S, accusative mik of ma-|-ga we have; Dak +accusative michi, in which the k has become ch through the influence +of i; also the accusatives unki-chi, ni-chi, i-chi.</p> + +<h3>NUMERALS.</h3> + +<p>I have compared the Dakotan numerals with all others accessible +to me, including some of the forms of more than five +hundred dialects. I can find less than half a dozen American +or Turanian sets that resemble any Dakotan set as much as the +English numerals resemble the Hebrew. The similarity of the +Dak to the I E numerals can therefore be accounted for only +as the result of special relationship or of accident. Except as +noted below all changes are in accordance with well sustained +laws.</p> + +<p>1, A S an, Lith (w)ena; Dak (w)-an, ind. article wanzhi one, +wancha one, once.</p> + +<p>2, I E dwa; Min d(o)pa; Iowa n(o)wa; Dak n(o)m pa cf +A S ta two; Dak ta a pair.</p> + +<p>3, I E traya; Iowa tanye; Dak ya -mni [or ya (m) ni?]</p> + +<p>4, I E k-atwar; Iowa towa; Dak S topa; Y tom; T tol.</p> + +<p>5, I E kankan, kwankwan; Mand kikhun; Dak zaptan?</p> + +<p>6, I E kswakswa; Win hakwa; Iowa shagwa; Dak shakpe.</p> + +<p>7, A S seowon; Dak shakowin.</p> + +<p>8, I E aktu, Gk hokto; Dak Y sh-akdo-ghan; Sant sh-ahdo-ghan.</p> + +<p>9, I E nawan; Dak na (pchi) wan-ka.</p> + +<p>10, I E dwakan; Lat decem; Dak wikchem-na.</p> + +<p>5, I E k = Dak z otherwise sustained but not proved. +Kw = kp = tp = pt, t and k being interchangeable before labials +in Dak.</p> + +<p>7, Neither A S seowon nor Dak shakowin are legitimately +deducible from saptan. Perhaps sakan, sakwan was the true +base.</p> + +<p>8, Either Gk h or Dak sh may equal I E s. Dak d for I E t +is rare but S. hd, Y. kd is a favorite combination.</p> + +<p>9, I cannot explain inserted pchi.</p> + +<p>10, In Dak m and n are interchangeable before labials, but m +for I E n is here unsupported.<a name="FNanchor_I_10" id="FNanchor_I_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_10" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> D cannot stand before w in +Dak.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_10" id="Footnote_I_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_10"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> Whitney Skt Gr 487 appears to regard m, as in +Latin decem, the original nasal.</p></div></div> + +<h3>VOCABULARY.</h3> + +<p>The table of sound representation heretofore given serves to +compare the materials of the main body of the Dak with Fick's +I E bases. The results are, however, in many cases ambiguous. +Besides the number of accidental resemblances of the Dakotan +to the I E languages seems, to be much greater than the whole +number of similarities between Dakotan and Algonkin languages. +Dak anapta is identical with I E anapta in sound, closely +similar in meaning. Dak a-na-pta is prep. a = Icel a on, na prefix +converting root to verb, and pta separate; cf I E pat fall, also +open (Lat pateo). I E an-apta is an negative prefix, and apta +participle of ap attain. My father compared Dak chepa fat +with Lat adeps. I have since found Min idip fat almost identical +with Lat stem adipi. I E and Lat d and p are nearly always +d and p in Min; but it is extremely doubtful whether the words +are related. On the other hand there is little apparent similarity +between Eu karpya shoe, and Dak hanpa shoe; but the +Dak word represents the Eu as accurately as possible; similar +forms are found in every Dakotan language, and it seems +scarcely possible to me that the similarity can be accidental.</p> + +<p>In giving a few additional examples of similar roots I select +those that are the most obvious, rather than the most certain. +I exclude those not in accordance with sound representation, +and the analogies of such allied Dakotan and I E forms as are +known to me.</p> + +<p>Where the Dakotan forms are not used as separate words it +is indicated by a hyphen, before, if used alone as a verb stem, +after if it requires suffixes. Where the root is found primarily +combined with only one suffix or prefix the derivative form is +given. In some cases the Dak root has one of the meanings +given in one combination, another in another.</p> + +<p>Eu i go; Dak i go.</p> + +<p>Aryan u mangle; Min u wound; Dak o.</p> + +<p>Eu ak tell, relate; Dak o(y)-aka.</p> + +<p>Eu aka mother; Min ika mother.</p> + +<p>Eu ap attain; Dak ape wait for, expect.</p> + +<p>Eu ad; Icel eta eat; Dak ta eat.</p> + +<p>Eu as be; Ital, Alb, Pers e is; Dak e is, -esh be it so.</p> + +<p>Eu as mouth, asta lips; Dak i mouth, ishti the under lip.</p> + +<p>Eu unk dwell; Dak un dwell, be; unkan be, unkan and, (act +part for unkant continuing.)</p> + +<p>Eu ka bend, curl, kak (for kaka) laugh; Min ka laugh; Dak +kha bend, curl, i-khakha laugh.</p> + +<p>Eu kak be injurious, Gk kakos bad; Mand khekosh bad; +Crow kawi bad; Dak shicha bad?</p> + +<p>Eu ka and; Dak ka and.</p> + +<p>I E ka, kan, kar desire; Dak kon desire.</p> + +<p>I E ka, kar, gar honor; Dak kan honor.</p> + +<p>I E ka, ga know; Min eke know; Dak ka mean, signify.</p> + +<p>Eu ka pierce, cut in; Dak ka dig.</p> + +<p>Eu kat cover; Dak o-kati, o in, kati cover.</p> + +<p>Eu kap take hold of; Dak yu-kapa catch as a ball, kapa surpass.</p> + +<p>Eu kam; Teut him bend, curve, arch; Dak S-hmi, Y-kmi +curve; S hmi-hma, Y kmikma round.</p> + +<p>Eu kas rub against, scratch; Dak kashe rub against, kaza +pick to pieces.</p> + +<p>Eu skar, kar shave off; Dak ka strip off, as the feather part +of a quill.</p> + +<p>Eu ki, gi possess by force; Dak ki take by force.</p> + +<p>Eu ki, kit seek; Dak a-kita seek.</p> + +<p>Teut han waver, hang; Dak -han hang, totter, waver.</p> + +<p>Teut haf lift, heave; Dak -ha lift, heave.</p> + +<p>Teut hata hate; Dak -hiti hate.</p> + +<p>Teut hama the hull; Dak ha the hull.</p> + +<p>Teut hiwan related of the same family. Icel hjun household; +O. H. G. hun both husband and wife; Dak hun- of the same +family, also hun mother.</p> + +<p>Teut kan, kin beget, germinate; Goth kuni related; Dak ku +suffix kin, root ku-, kin-, chin- in many derivatives. Goth +kwino woman; Dak wino.</p> + +<p>Eu gha open out, whence gate, gape; Dak -gha, ghapa, +ghata open out.</p> + +<p>Eu ghagh move convulsively; Dak gheghe swing the arms +like a drunken man.</p> + +<p>Eu ghans goose; Win wighanna, Mandan mihan, Dak +magha goose.</p> + +<p>Eu ghans be rough; Min -gha, Dak kha be rough.</p> + +<p>Eu tap press; Min tapi press; Dak -tpa.</p> + +<p>Eu tarp satisfy; Dak tpa satisfying, etc.</p> + +<p>Eu tan thunder; Dak o-tin thunder.</p> + +<p>Icel taka take, touch, fasten; Dak yu-taka take, touch, na-taka +fasten.</p> + +<p>Eu da know, dak show, suppose; Dak da, daka think, regard, +have an opinion.</p> + +<p>Eu da give; Dak da ask.</p> + +<p>Eu di go, hasten; Min di go, travel.</p> + +<p>Eu du go forth; Dak du-za run.</p> + +<p>Eu dup sink in, our dive; Dak dopa mire; Min dipi bathe.</p> + +<p>Eu nu now; Dak i-nu suddenly, na-ka now, wan-na now.</p> + +<p>Eu nar man; Om no, nu man.</p> + +<p>Eu pak, Gk pakto- bind; Dak pakhta bind.</p> + +<p>Eu pat press; Min pati press.</p> + +<p>Eu pat fill up, crowd; Dak in pta-ya together.</p> + +<p>Eu pa swallow nourish; Dak -pa- nourish papa the nourishment, +Min pe swallow, take nourishment.</p> + +<p>Eu pap swell up, puff out; Dak popa swell burst.</p> + +<p>Eu par divide (our part); Dak a-pa a part.</p> + +<p>Eu pi hate; Crow -pi hate.</p> + +<p>Eu pik pierce; Min pi tatoo, -pi pierce.</p> + +<p>Eu pu dry; Dak pu- dry.</p> + +<p>Icel fok our fog; Dak po fog, mist, steam, etc.</p> + +<p>Icel finn, Swed, Nor, M. H. G. fin, Dan, Sax finn, O. Du fijn +M Eng fine; Win pin, Dak -pi, Iowa pi good, perfected.<a name="FNanchor_J_11" id="FNanchor_J_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_11" class="fnanchor">[J]</a></p> + +<p>Eu bub (of bu) make a noise; Dak -bu make a noise, bubu +noisy.</p> + +<p>Teut and Ir bata boat; Min mati, bati, Cr bashe, Dak wata +boat.</p> + +<p>Teut blas flame, our blaze; T Dak bleza clear, transparent.</p> + +<p>Lat and Gr bison from Teut; Crow bishe the bison; Dak pte.</p> + +<p>Lat and Gr mamma the mother breast; Dak mama the +mother breast.</p> + +<p>Eu man remain; Dak man remain, stay.</p> + +<p>Sclav Teut man go, step; Dak mani walk.</p> + +<p>Eu magh grow; Ir magh field; Dak magha field.</p> + +<p>Teut marka limit, boundary, territory of a tribe; Dak maka +the ground, the earth, makoche country.</p> + +<p>Eu ya go; Dak ya go.</p> + +<p>Eu rup break; Min dupi, rupi break.</p> + +<p>A S throte the throat; T Dak lote, S dote throat.</p> + +<p>Eu wak say, speak, wad speak, sing; Gk wepos word; Dak +wo-wa-pi that related by pictures and writing, root wa in various +compounds, relate, count, write, sing, etc. (Gk p is root, +Dak p suffix.)</p> + +<p>Eu wagh carry, our way; Dak o-we way, trail.</p> + +<p>Eu wad flow forth, our wet; Dak wi-wi a marsh, a springy +place.</p> + +<p>Eu wasu good; Dak wash-te good.</p> + +<p>Teut wantra winter; Dak wani- winter.</p> + +<p>Icel wakta watch, guard; Dak wakta watch, guard.</p> + +<p>Teut widu wood; Min mida, bida wood.</p> + +<p>Eu sa refrain from; Crow suffix sa the same.</p> + +<p>Teut swa, Old Fris sa like as; Dak se like as.</p> + +<p>Eu sak divide, cut; Min tsaki divide cut.</p> + +<p>Eu sama summer; Min tsame hot, very warm.</p> + +<p>Eu si bind; Min -shi bind; Dak -shi command.</p> + +<p>Swed si! lo! behold! Dak. shi! hark!</p> + +<p>Eu su good; Dak -su good.</p> + +<p>Eu suk suck; Min tsuki, Dak zoka suck.</p> + +<p>I E ska shine; Lat candidus white; Dak ska white shining.</p> + +<p>I E ska separate; Dak ksa separate.</p> + +<p>I E ska kill, Gk kten- kill; Dak kte kill.</p> + +<p>I E ska tarry, Gk kta possess; Dak kta defer, tarry, used also +as sign of future tense. The Mandan future inflection -kit -kt +-t appears to be an abridgement of this.</p> + +<p>Eu skat spring, leap; Dak skata play.</p> + +<p>Eu ska, skad burn; Dak shku roast.</p> + +<p>Eu skap annihilate; Dak skepa evaporate, remove entirely, +cause to disappear.</p> + +<p>Eu skap strike; Dak -skapa strike.</p> + +<p>Eu skad, Gk keda spill, scatter; Dak kada spill, scatter, applied +only to solids.</p> + +<p>Eu skap scratch, shave; Min kape scratch.</p> + +<p>Eu kopa concave; Dak skopa concave.</p> + +<p>Eu skid press; Dak -ski- press.</p> + +<p>Eu sku shave off, flay; Dak -sku shave off, flay.</p> + +<p>Eu skru rough hew; Dak sku broken in gaps.</p> + +<p>Eu snigh cold; Dak sni cold.</p> + +<p>Eu swan sonare; Dak sna ring, rattle.</p> + +<p>Eu skud, Teut skut shoot; Dak kate shoot.</p> + +<p>Teut sota soot; Dak shota smoke, shotkazi soot.</p> + +<p>Eu sad sit; Dak si, siha the foot.</p> + +<p>The Dakota words that most resemble I E forms are those +in daily use, those roots entering into the largest number of +compounds, those most widely distributed in languages more +nearly related.</p> + +<p>Excluding words repeated in compounds and those contained +in phrases I have not satisfactorily analyzed, and including +words derivative rather than compound, I find in Hayden, +Morgan and Schoolcraft 262 different Iowa words. Of these +thirty-five as words represent words discussed in this paper; +thirty-nine others appear to be derived from roots herein discussed, +a number of them varying from the Dak. word only by +using a different suffix also herein compared. Out of 159 that +I have been able plainly to trace to Dakota words and roots 121 +are to Dakotan roots and words which seem to be related to I +E forms. If I had sufficient Iowa material to enable me to find +Iowa roots independently, I doubt not the resemblance to the +Dakota would be much increased, and the resemblance to the +I E in a still greater degree.</p> + +<p>The parable of the prodigal son as printed in Dr. Rigg's +dictionary, page 61, contains as there printed 417 words, 199 +different<a name="FNanchor_K_12" id="FNanchor_K_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_K_12" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> words. Of these 36 words, occurring 186 times, are +in the exact form<a name="FNanchor_L_13" id="FNanchor_L_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_L_13" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> given in this paper; 8 other words, occurring +11 times, as given in my preceding paper; 75 other words, +occurring 106 times, are composed wholly of the words, roots +and pronominal elements compared with I E forms in the two +papers. There remain 114 words, 80 different words. If I +have correctly analyzed them they contain the following elements +compared in this paper: words and verb roots, 9 times, +pronouns 19 times, prepositional and pronominal prefixes 35 +times. Much of the remainder, in all about nine-tenths of the +whole, seems to me represent I E materials with which I have +compared it. I do not doubt that some of the similarities will +prove in the end fallacious. On the other hand I have no doubt +that many new similarities will be found. My father made a list +of 1,243 Dakota verb stems, radical words and words which he +could not satisfactorily to himself derive from simpler elements. +Of these about 500 seem to be similar to I E forms with which +I have compared them, and from them are derived more than +three-fourths of the 16,000 words in Dr. Rigg's dictionary.</p> + +<p>The pronouns, prepositions and suffixes herein given seem +to indicate that the Dakotas did not separate from the Teutonic +family till long after the latter separated from the South European +family. The fact that the Dak resembles the Icelandic +and Gothic in vocabulary and in structure much more than it +resembles the older Latin, points in the same direction. The +laws of consonantal change in many cases produce the same result +as Grimm's law, but the laws themselves are entirely different. +It <i>is certain</i>, therefore, that the Dakota has not been connected +with the Teutonic since the development of Grimm's law +made any considerable progress. I have studied the question +less, yet I think I have enough evidence in the system of consonantal +change <i>to prove</i> that the Dakota has not been connected +with the Slavonic or Lithuanian since they separated +from each other, or for some time previously. It is possible so +far as I can now say that the Dak may have borrowed material +from some language not I E, but I have found no evidence of it. +Undoubtedly the adoption of prisoners has introduced a considerable +percentage of Algonkin blood. It is also certain that they +have adopted some Chippewa religious observances, but even +in these they do not appear to have adopted any Chippewa +words.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_11" id="Footnote_J_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_11"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> A word of this kind used every day by the masses +of all Teutonic people, and corresponding to the principal +languages in such a variety of meanings, could not possibly be +derived from the Latin finitum. Our fine may be in part from +finitum, but fin—I E pin is certainly a Teut word.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_K_12" id="Footnote_K_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_K_12"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Words varied by inflection are classed as +different words.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_L_13" id="Footnote_L_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_L_13"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> Except that in accordance with euphonic laws +initial k becomes ch sixteen times, and final a e seven +times.</p></div></div> + +<p class="tn">Transcriber's Note: Inconsistencies in the punctuation +around abbreviations have been retained.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dakotan Languages, and Their +Relations to Other Languages, by Andrew Woods Williamson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DAKOTAN LANGUAGES *** + +***** This file should be named 26529-h.htm or 26529-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/5/2/26529/ + +Produced by Tamise Totterdell and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by the +Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions +(www.canadiana.org)) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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