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diff --git a/26440-h/26440-h.htm b/26440-h/26440-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..15d9627 --- /dev/null +++ b/26440-h/26440-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7489 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- +body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; } + +p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; } + +h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 +{ + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; +} + +hr +{ + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; +} + +table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + +.pagenum +{ /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; +} /* page numbers */ + +.blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + +.author {text-align: right; margin-right: 5%;} + +.bb {border-bottom: solid 2px;} +.bl {border-left: solid 2px;} +.bt {border-top: solid 2px;} +.br {border-right: solid 2px;} +.bbox {border: solid 2px;} + +.center {text-align: center;} +.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} +.u {text-decoration: underline;} + +ul {list-style-type: none; + margin-left: 5%;} + + +.caption {font-weight: bold;} + +/* Images */ +.figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + +.figleft +{ + float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center; +} + +.figright +{ + float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center; +} + +/* Footnotes */ +.footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} +.footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} +.footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} +.fnanchor +{ + vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none; +} + +/* Poetry */ +.poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + +.poem br {display: none;} + +.poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + +.poem span.i0 +{ + display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i2 +{ + display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; +} + +.poem span.i4 +{ + display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; +} + +// --> +/* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction + +Author: James Braidwood + +Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26440] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + + + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;"> +<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a> +<img src="images/image001.jpg" width="485" height="600" alt="Jas. Braidwood" title="Jas. Braidwood" /> +<span class="caption">Jas. Braidwood</span> +</p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + + + +<h1>FIRE PREVENTION</h1> + +<h4>AND</h4> + +<h1>FIRE EXTINCTION.<br /><br /></h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>JAMES BRAIDWOOD,</h2> + +<p class="center"> +FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF THE LONDON FIRE-BRIGADE, AND ASSOCIATE OF<br /> +THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.<br /><br /><br /> +<br /> +INCLUDING<br /> +<br /> +FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES, FIRE-PROOF SAFES, PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES, PRIVATE<br /> +MEANS FOR SUPPRESSING FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, FIRE ANNIHILATORS,<br /> +PORTABLE FIRE-ESCAPES, WATER SUPPLY<br /> +<br /></p> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> +<h4>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, MEMOIR, AND PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR.</h4> +<hr style="width: 25%;" /> + +<h3>LONDON:<br /> +BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET.<br /> +1866.<br /> +<br /></h3> +<p class="center">[<i>The right of Translation is reserved</i>.]</p> + + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2> + + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc"> +<tr><td align='center'><big>MEMOIR.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'> PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introductory, Early Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Braidwood's birth and education</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Great Fire of Edinburgh, and appointment as head of Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Award of Silver Medal of Society of Arts, London; publication of work on Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Formation of London Fire Brigade; appointment as Superintendent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Testimonials received upon leaving Edinburgh</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>London residence and routine of duty</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Valuable services of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Statistics of Fires; improvement of Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Introduction of ladders, hose reel, and hand pump</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Floating Fire Engines, hand worked and steam; Land Steam Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inspection of Government Dockyards and Public Buildings; establishment of a standard hose coupling</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Admitted an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers; award of Telford Medal; endeavours to restrain the erection of immoderate-sized warehouses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>His opinion as to the inadequacy of London Fire Brigade; Great Tooley Street Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Death of Mr. Braidwood</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Public funeral</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Public and private character</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>World-wide esteem in which he was held</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Poem—A True Hero</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE PREVENTION, INCLUDING FIREPROOF STRUCTURES—CAUSES OF FIRES.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inattention in the use of fires and lights</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Advantages of a legal inquiry into the cause of Fires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Improper construction of buildings</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Acts of Parliament for buildings in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Results of improper construction of warehouses in Liverpool</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Arrangements for the safety of the audience in theatres</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Danger from furnaces and close fires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Danger from pipes conveying products of combustion</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Spontaneous ignition; use of gas</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Incendiarism; monomania</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>FIREPROOF STRUCTURES.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>What is fireproof construction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Use of cast and wrought-iron</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Fairbairn's experiments</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Danger to life from use of cast-iron columns</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Report on warehouses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Covering timber with iron</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fireproof dwelling-houses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fireproof safes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES, AND WATER SUPPLY—FIRE BRIGADES.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Individual exertions for Fire Extinction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire Brigades on the Continent of Europe, in England, in America</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Necessity for the control of arrangements by one individual</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Proposal for a national system</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire Engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Training and discipline of Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General instructions for Firemen, and for the use of Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Necessity for the water striking the burning materials</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Inventions for elevating branch pipes considered</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General description of men and engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Division of London into districts</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General regulations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Conditions of entrance into the establishment</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Outline of general duty</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duties of Superintendent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Foremen</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Engineers</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Sub-Engineers and Firemen</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Description of men selected</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mode of communicating with Firemen at a Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Dress and drill of Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Gymnastic exercises</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>General regulations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Duties of Police</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Superintendent of Brigade</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Head Enginemen</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Firemen, and High Constables</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">" Magistrates, and Gas-Light Companies</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Special regulations for Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Means of escape from Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE ENGINES.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>The application of manual power</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Engines used by the British Government</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Description of Brigade Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hand Pump; keeping Fire Engines in order</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Selection of Engine House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Apparatus provided with London Brigade Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Leather hose</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Hose couplings</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Suction pipes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Jet pipes, proper shape</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire annihilator</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>WATER SUPPLY.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>By pressure, from surface of ground, and by sunk tanks</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Experiments with jets under a constant pressure</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug used in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Canvas cistern and stand-cock used with fire plug</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used in the Government Dockyards</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Double hollow key fire-cock used in the British Museum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Supply by Water Companies in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Supplying Fire Engines from fire-cocks, &c.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'><big>APPENDIX.</big></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Steam Fire Engines, progress in construction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Trials before the Jury of the International Exhibition, 1862</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Trials at the International Competition, London, 1863</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Steam Fire Engines in use by Metropolitan Brigade, May, 1866</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Act of Parliament for Metropolitan Fire Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Establishment of Metropolitan Fire Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="loi"> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Portrait of Mr. Braidwood on steel by Jeens, from a photograph by Williams</td><td align='right'> <a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Longitudinal section of Brigade Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_1">124</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Transverse section of ditto</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_2">125</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Old coupling for hose</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_3">140</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>New ditto, ditto</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_4">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Branch and jet pipe</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_5">145</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Opening in sunk tank for suction pipe</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_6">151</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug used in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_7">155</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug with canvas cistern</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_8">156</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug with stand-cock</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_9">157</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Single fire-cock</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_10">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used at dockyards</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_11">158</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used at British Museum</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_12">159</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE.</h2> + + +<p>The appearance at the beginning of last year, in the Annual +Report of the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861 and +1862, of a short memoir of Mr. Braidwood, suggested the +publication of a more extended account of the life of the +late head of the London Fire Brigade, combined with his +opinions upon the subject of his profession.</p> + +<p>These opinions are comprised in a work on "Fire Engines, +and the Training of Firemen," published in Edinburgh in +1830; two papers upon cognate subjects read before the +Institution of Civil Engineers, two similar papers read before +the Society of Arts, and in a variety of reports upon public +buildings, warehouses, &c. While regretting the great loss +that the public has sustained, in being deprived by Mr. +Braidwood's sudden death of a complete record of his long +and varied London experience, it has been considered advisable +to republish the above materials arranged in a +systematic form, omitting only such parts as the Author's +more matured experience rendered desirable, but confining +the whole to his own words.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">London</span>,</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>June, 1866.</i></span></p> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2> + +<p><i>To his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines and +Apparatus; the Training of Firemen; and the Method +of Proceeding in cases of Fire," published in Edinburgh, +in 1830.</i></p> + +<hr style='width: 15%;' /> + +<p>Not having been able to find any work on Fire-Engines in +the English language, I have been led to publish the following +remarks, in the hope of inducing others to give further +information on the subject.</p> + +<p>For the style of the work I make no apology; and as I +presume no one will read it except for the purpose of gaining +information, my aim will be obtained if I shall have +succeeded in imparting it, or in directing the public attention +to the advantage which may be derived from the +systematic training of Firemen.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="MEMOIR" id="MEMOIR"></a>MEMOIR</h2> + +<h4>OF</h4> + +<h2>JAMES BRAIDWOOD.</h2> + + +<p>The history of mankind, from the earliest times, has been +one of alternate peace and war with fire. The immeasurable +value of its obedience, and the fearful consequences of its +insubordination, have, in all ages, made its due subjection +one of the most important conditions of even human existence +itself. As camps and trading stations grew into populous +cities, the dangers of fire were both multiplied and +aggravated. Its ravages in the ancient capitals of the world +are matters of history; and it is established that something +like organization was extended to the means then employed +for suppressing conflagrations. Even the fire-engine itself, +in a practicable, although imperfect form, was described and +illustrated by a sectional working drawing, by Hero of +Alexandria, in a book written by him more than one hundred +years before the Christian era. In its many translations, +from the original Greek into Latin and into modern +tongues, Hero's book, with its remarkable series of drawings, +still occupies a place in the mechanical literature of our +own time. But, although the construction of the fire-engine +was thus known two thousand years ago, we have no +actual evidence of its use until within the last two centuries;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +and within the whole compass of English history, at +least, we know that nothing like discipline and organization, +in the modern sense of the terms, were introduced into the +management of fire apparatus until a time quite within the +recollection of the middle-aged men of our own day. If +there be anything apparently improbable in this fact, we +need only recollect that many of the grandest triumphs of +human genius, with which we are already so familiar, are not +yet forty years old. The modern system of English fire brigades +belongs wholly to the period of railways, steam navigation, +and electric telegraphs, and it owes nearly all to the genius +and disciplined heroism of a single individual, James Braidwood, +who, but little more than four years ago, fell—as +nobly for himself as sadly for others—at his chosen post of +duty. What, when he first gave his energies—indeed, his +whole heart to it, was but the rough and unskilful employment +of the fireman, became under Mr. Braidwood's command +and his infusing spirit of order and intelligence, as +distinguished from reckless daring, a noble pursuit, almost +rising in dignity to a profession, and indeed acknowledged +as such by many, and significantly, although indirectly, by +Royalty itself.</p> + +<p>Until the year 1833, not only the parish engines of the +metropolis, numbering, as they did, about three hundred, but +the engines also of the Fire Insurance Companies, were comparatively +inefficient and often out of order, while they were +also under the most diverse, if not irresponsible management. +There were no really trained firemen, and those who controlled +and worked the engines were oftener in antagonism +with each other than acting in concert. The parish engines +were in the care of the beadles, and in one case a beadle's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +widow, Mrs. Smith, for some years commanded one of the +city engines. The energies of each band of firemen were +commonly reserved for the protection of property only in +which their own insurance company or parish was immediately +interested. As a rule, whatever water was thrown +upon a burning building was dashed against the walls, windows, +and roof from the outside only, very little if any +really reaching the actual seat of the fire within. As a consequence, +fires, which are now quickly "got under," were +then left to burn themselves out, the spreading of the fire +being prevented either by deluging the contiguous buildings +with water, or by pulling them down altogether.</p> + +<p>James Braidwood was born in Edinburgh in the year +1800. His father was a well-known upholsterer and builder, +who appears to have chosen for his son the profession of a surveyor. +To this end he was entered at the High School, then +under the rectorship of Mr. (afterwards Professor) Pillans, and +here, and subsequently under private masters, the youth +received a sound education in the branches most appropriate +to his intended pursuit in life. He was for some time engaged +in his father's business, and thereby gained an amount +of practical knowledge, which was of, perhaps, as much service +to him in his subsequent career as a fireman, as it would +have been had he adopted the profession originally chosen +for him. Young Braidwood was an apt student, a fact, perhaps, +sufficiently attested afterwards by his successful authorship, +at the age of thirty, of the only English work then +extant upon the fire-engine and its proper management. He +read much, wrote well, was a good draughtsman, and had a +sound knowledge of mechanics. But whether his powers +required wider scope than a surveyor's practice could offer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +or whether, more than forty years ago, and in Edinburgh, +the chances of professional success were very much less than +now, James Braidwood soon turned his mind to what +became the great work of his life. He was becoming known +for activity and a high order of personal courage, and there +were those in place and power who saw in him the other +elements of character which go to make a successful leader +of men. He was soon, and when but twenty-three years of +age, made the superintendent of the Edinburgh fire engines, +and he almost as soon began to reform their inefficient and +vicious system of management. He had held his post but +three weeks, however, when the series of fires broke forth +which still bear the name of the Great Fire of Edinburgh. +Many of the old and lofty houses in the High Street were +destroyed, between four and five hundred families were +made houseless, ten persons were either killed outright or +fatally injured, and for several days nearly the whole of the +High Street, if not the larger part of the old town, was +threatened with destruction. Never were the consequences +of want of organization more conspicuous. There was no +real command, for there were none to obey; and while those +who might have stopped the flames at the outset, wasted +their own energies in random efforts, or, perhaps, fell to +quarrelling among themselves, the fearful devastation rolled +on. The occasion was sufficient to induce the authorities +and insurance companies to listen to and profit by Mr. +Braidwood's recommendations. They consented to bear in +common the expenses necessary to organize and maintain an +efficient brigade. This was soon formed of picked men, +who, although daily engaged in their former ordinary occupations, +were regularly inspected, trained, and exercised early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +in one morning of every week. Fires were becoming more +and more numerous year by year; but the influence of the +improved system was soon felt. The men were taught to +improve to the utmost the first few minutes after an alarm +was given, and by constant emulation and discipline, a spirit +of wonderful readiness was cultivated in them. They were +trained to seek out and follow up the source of a fire before +it had had time to spread, and to throw the water from the +engines directly upon it, instead of wastefully, if not injuriously +about. The result was, that while out of forty-eight +fires which happened in the first year of the history of the +brigade, eleven proved total losses, and twelve "considerable" +losses, the number of total losses decreased rapidly, year +by year, while the whole number of "calls" was almost +as rapidly increasing. Thus in the second year of the +brigade there were eighty "calls," of which seven were +total, and eighteen considerable losses. In the next +three years, with from ninety-four to one hundred and +ninety-four "calls" yearly, there was but one total loss +in each year, and but from nine to eighteen "considerable" +losses.</p> + +<p>Mr. Braidwood was meanwhile improving the fire-escapes, +and when new engines were added to the force, he procured +better workmanship. By his personal influence, also, more +than by the mere advantage of official position, Mr. Braidwood +secured the constant co-operation of the police in +giving the earliest alarms of fire, and in facilitating the +labours of the firemen when actually on duty. As has just +been shown, the results of method, applied skill, and of a +personal devotion cultivated under the high impulse of immediate +public observation and approval, were soon manifest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +To this vast improvement the <i>Edinburgh Mercury</i>, as representing +the opinion of the citizens of the Scottish capital, +bore public testimony in its issue of August 14, 1828, when +the Fire Brigade of that city had been tested by nearly +five years of constant trial, and with conspicuous success. +Referring to the excellent organization of the establishment, +it was remarked that there were then but few, if any, serious +fires in Edinburgh, for when a fire broke out—and the +alarms were as frequent as ever—it was speedily checked. +Said the writer:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"Not only is the apparatus constructed on the best +possible principles, but the whole system of operations has +been changed. The public, however, do not see the same +bustle, or hear the same noise as formerly; and hence they +seem erroneously to conclude that there is nothing done. +The fact is, the spectator sees the preparation for action +made, but he sees no more. Where the strength of the men +and the supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown +against windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out +the spot where the danger lies, and creeping on hands and +feet into a chamber full of flame, or smoke, often at the +hazard of suffocation, discover the exact seat of danger; +and, by bringing the water in contact with it, obtain immediate +mastery over the powerful element with which they +have to contend. In this daring and dangerous work men +have occasionally fainted from heat, or dropped down from +want of respiration, in which cases the next person at hand +is always ready to assist his companion, and to release him +from his service of danger."</p></div> + +<p>In a fire which happened while Mr. Braidwood was at the +head of the Edinburgh Brigade, he won great admiration by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +bringing out from the burning building a quantity of gunpowder +which was known to be stored there. He would +not ask any of his men to undertake this dangerous feat, +but, amidst the breathless suspense of thousands of spectators, +he coolly searched for and safely carried out, first one, +and then a second, cask of this explosive material. Had +the fire reached the powder, it was known that the worst +consequences of the conflagration would have been immensely +increased.</p> + +<p>The fame of the Edinburgh Brigade rapidly spread +throughout the kingdom, and it gradually became regarded as +a model to which all other organizations for the suppression +of fires would ultimately be made to conform. As a response +to constant inquiries from a distance, Mr. Braidwood, in +1829, forwarded to the Society of Arts, London, a description +of his chain-ladder fire-escape. For this invaluable +apparatus, which had already effected a considerable saving +of life, the Society's Silver Medal was awarded, and, accompanying +the award, the Council of the Society extended an +invitation to the author to "give a complete account of his +mode of drilling firemen, and combining the use of fire-escapes +with the ordinary fire-engine service." Responding +to this invitation, Mr. Braidwood in the following year +published his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines +and Apparatus, the Training of Firemen, and the Method +of Proceeding in Cases of Fire." From this work, which +may still be regarded as an authority, extensive extracts +have been made in the subsequent chapters of the present +volume, and it need not, therefore, be further referred to +here than to say that it formed a thoroughly original +account of an original system, and that its illustrations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +which were especially clear, were drawn by the author's +own hand. This work attracted much attention from +municipal bodies and insurance companies throughout the +kingdom, and more than one official deputation visited +Edinburgh to learn from Mr. Braidwood himself the details +of a system which was already working such important +results. In London, especially, three West India warehouses +had been burnt in the year 1829, with a loss of +300,000<i>l</i>.; and with the extending use of gas, the increasing +frequency of fires, and the conspicuous inefficiency of the +parish engines, and the want of unity of action among the +insurance companies, it was felt that what had answered so +well in Edinburgh would prove still more valuable in the +metropolis. The general estimation in which Mr. Braidwood's +services were then held may be considered as expressed +in the following, among other contemporary reviews +of his book:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Edinburgh Fire-engine Establishment is now all +but perfect. A unity of system has been accomplished, and +a corps of firemen mustered, who, in point of physical vigour +and moral intrepidity, are all entitled to be denominated +chosen men. At the head of this band stands Mr. Braidwood, +an individual who has on several occasions given +abundant evidence of promptitude in extremity, and a noble +contempt of personal danger, and whose enthusiasm, in what +we may call his profession, could not have been more +strikingly exemplified than by his illustrating it in the +manner we now see before us. It is the only book we are +acquainted with that treats of the systematic training of +firemen; and from the perspicuity of its details, it must +necessarily become the manual of all such institutions, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +ought to find a place in every insurance office in the United +Kingdom."</p></div> + +<p>It had been from time to time attempted to bring the +fire apparatus of the London Insurance Companies under a +single management; but it was nearly ten years after the +establishment of the Edinburgh Fire Brigade, and only when +Mr. Braidwood himself had been invited to come to London, +that this was at last effected. As for the parish engines, +they were wholly neglected under this arrangement, and, +indeed, a great number of them had been already allowed to +fall into disuse, as far as could be permitted without incurring +the penalties of the Statutes of 1774. On the +1st January, 1833, at the instance of Mr. Ford, of the Sun +Fire-office, eight of the insurance companies formed an association +of fire-engines and firemen, each company withholding +its own distinctive name and badges from the united +force. This was known as the London Fire-engine Establishment. +It was supported by the companies in common, +each in proportion to the premiums received from its business +in London, a minimum rate being fixed. Each company +contributing to the support of the establishment nominated +one member of the committee of management. This association +existed for thirty-three years, when on the 1st of +January, 1866, the Metropolitan Board of Works took +charge of the fire-engines and the general fire establishment +of the metropolis. Mr. Braidwood took the command of +the London Brigade thus formed at the onset. The Edinburgh +Fire-engine Committee, on accepting his resignation, +presented him with a gold watch, and a vote of thanks, +"for the singularly indefatigable manner in which he had +discharged the duties of his important office, not merely by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +his extraordinary exertions on occasions of emergency, but +for the care and attention he had bestowed on the training +of the firemen, whereby the establishment had been +brought to its present high state of efficiency." He had +previously received from the men under him a handsome +silver cup, bearing the following inscription:—"Presented +to Mr. James Braidwood, by the City of Edinburgh Firemen, +as a token of their admiration of him as their leader, +and of deep respect for him as a gentleman."</p> + +<p>As in Edinburgh, the London Fire Brigade under Mr. +Braidwood's superintendence became a new force, and in +every respect a remarkable organization. Where the inefficiency +of the old firemen could not at once be made to yield +to discipline, they were pensioned off; and within a short +time a select band of active, hardy, and thoroughly trained +men was formed. In 1834, the second year of Mr. Braidwood's +superintendence, the Houses of Parliament were +burnt; and a most destructive fire occurred also at Mile-end. +The first-named fire created general consternation, and there +are many persons who can still recollect that also at Mile-end. +These great fires stimulated Mr. Braidwood to increased +exertions, and the result was soon visible in the lessened proportion +of totally destroyed premises to the whole number +of fires. The brigade had, of course, no power of prevention, +and alarms of fire were becoming more numerous than ever. +The use of friction matches and of gas was increasing enormously; +manufactures, and the steam-engines and machinery +for conducting them, were being rapidly multiplied; and with +the vast progress making in the production of cotton goods, +the use of cotton curtains and bed-furniture was becoming +common in dwellings forming a large proportion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +metropolis, but in which, not long before, such articles were +either regarded as luxuries or were altogether unknown. +The total number of fires attended by the brigade in the +year 1833, exclusive of chimneys on fire, was 458, while in +1851 the number had risen to 928; and although London had +been growing all this time, it had not doubled in size to +correspond with the increased number of fires. But while the +total yearly number of fires, since the formation of the +brigade, has shown a large and hardly interrupted increase, +the number of cases of total destruction has almost as steadily +diminished. Thus, "totally destroyed" was reported of 31 +fires in the year 1833, whereas in 1839 there were but 17 +cases, and the average for twenty-one years, from 1833 to +1853 inclusive, was but 25-1/2 yearly, while at the present +time, with all the vast growth of London, the average, under +the continuance of Mr. Braidwood's system, is hardly if at all +greater.</p> + +<p>Mr. Braidwood from the first exhibited excellent judgment +in his choice of men to serve under him. He chose sailors, +as a rule, as being accustomed to obedience, and to irregular +and prolonged duty, while also they were especially hardy +and active; and where there was especial danger which must +be met, he was always ready to lead, and his men had soon +learned to confide in his quick and sound judgment in emergency, +knowing that he would never permit them to incur +needless risk. His own iron constitution, and his habits of +constant vigilance, served as a high standard and incentive to +those about him; and thus it was, by selection, discipline, +and example, resting upon a foundation of even paternal +kindness, that the men of the London Fire Brigade became +conspicuous for their courage, energy, hardihood, and unalterable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +devotion to duty. The brigade, too, was most popular +with the public, and could always count upon any necessary +assistance in their labours. The system of rewards given to +whoever was the first to bring a call of fire, the liberal gratuity +to the policeman who first reached the burning premises, +there preventing undue confusion, and by keeping the street-door +closed, shutting off a strong draught of air from the +flames, and the handsome pay to the ready throng of strong-armed +men who worked the engines, secured every co-operation +from the public, beyond that naturally springing from +a general admiration of so brave and well-trained a body of +men.</p> + +<p>Mr. Braidwood's residence was at the principal station of +the Fire-engine Establishment in Watling-street. To this +station came all alarms of fire. He attended in person all calls +from leading thoroughfares, public buildings, or localities +where a serious conflagration might be expected. In the +night a call was announced to him through a speaking-tube +reaching to his bedside. The gas in his room was always +burning, and he would quickly decide, from the known locality +of the fire, and from the report given, whether he need +go himself. In any case, his men were awake and quickly +away. Rapidity in dressing, and in horseing and mounting +the engines, was but a detail of daily drill. The moment the +scene of action was reached, nothing was allowed to stand in +the way of access to the actual seat of the fire, and nothing +either in securing a supply of water. The inmates of the +premises, if any, were quickly got out, and wherever an unhappy +creature was cut off by the flames, there were always +one or more firemen ready, if necessary, to brave an apparently +certain death in a heroic attempt at rescue—an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +attempt, indeed, which but seldom failed. It is but just to +say here that the firemen were always nobly seconded, if not +indeed anticipated, in these attempts by the officers and men +of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire—a +body which has long rendered priceless services to humanity +under most appalling circumstances. The men of the Fire +Brigade were taught to prevent, as much as possible, the +access of air to the burning materials. What the open door +of the ash pit is to the furnace of a steam-boiler the open +street door is to the house on fire. In both cases the door gives +vital air to the flames. The men of the Brigade were trained +to pursue a fire, not yet under full headway, up-stairs and +down, in at windows and out through the roof, anywhere, so +it could be reached directly by the water from the engines. +They were made to regard it as worse than a waste to throw +even a gallon of water upon a dead wall or upon a surface of +slate or plaster, so long as by any means the branch pipe +could be got to bear upon the seat of the fire itself. The +statistics of the operations of the London Fire-engine Establishment +from 1833 to the present time, show with what +success the system originated and so admirably carried out +by Mr Braidwood has been pursued. Of the whole number +of fires not one in fifty now proceeds to the extent of total +destruction of the premises.</p> + +<p>Previous to the organization of the Fire-engine Establishment +there were no official annual reports of the fires in the +metropolis. No one person by himself was indeed in a position +to know all of the fires that happened, any more than, +but for Lloyds', could we know of all the wrecks which take +place around and upon our coasts. It was impossible, under +such a state of things, that either the value of insurance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +the insured or its risk to the insurer could be rightly known. +The general public could only know that, like fevers and +certain other classes of disease, fires were always breaking +out, but no one could know, even approximately, how great +or how little was the real general risk. When, however, a +fire establishment was formed, the engines were called to all +fires, whether of insured or uninsured property. It was not +now difficult to tabulate the number and localities of fires; but +Mr. Braidwood went further, and extended his yearly tables +to include the various causes of fires, and the classification of +the premises, whether residences, shops, warehouses, manufactories, +&c., where they occurred, the subdivision of these +classes being extended to every variety of occupation and +business. Even the hours at which the various fires broke +out were carefully tabulated, and thus the particulars of +London fires soon became an important branch of statistics, +from which the operations of insurance have derived increased +certainty, with greater economy to the insured.</p> + +<p>Although regarding the training and discipline of firemen +as of the first importance in the organization of a fire +brigade, Mr. Braidwood gave a large share of attention to +the improvement of fire-engines and their kindred appliances. +While in Edinburgh, where the steepness of many +of the streets, and the roughness of the pavements in the +older parts of the town prevented the rapid and easy movement +of heavy engines, he recommended and adopted a +lighter description, but in London he recognised the necessity +for greater power. Mr. Tilley, then a fire-engine maker +in the Blackfriars'-road, ably seconded his efforts, and at +length the distinctive type known as the London Fire +Brigade Engine was produced, and which, weighing about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +eighteen cwt. when ready for service, would throw eighty-eight +gallons of water per minute, and, in short trials, as +much as 120 gallons in the same time. This engine was +mounted upon springs, and in strength and ease of working +presented a marked improvement upon those which had +preceded it. Its ordinary working complement of men +was twenty-eight, and larger engines, upon the same general +design, have since been made, to be worked by from forty-five +to sixty men. The steam fire-engine has already, +to a certain extent, superseded the brigade engine, but +the latter is still likely, for some time at least, to be preferred +for a large class of fires, both in London and in the +provinces.</p> + +<p>Mr. Braidwood at an early date adopted the ordinary military +scaling ladders to the purposes of his brigade, two being +placed on each engine, and at his recommendation ladders +were also placed on a two-wheeled carriage as a convenient +fire-escape. He also induced the Admiralty, in 1841, +to adopt hose-reels in the various dockyards, these implements +having been previously in successful use in New +York. In 1848 he was induced, in consequence of the +large number of small fires to which his engines were +called out, to adopt a small hand-pump as an auxiliary to +the fire-engine. This could be rapidly brought to bear, +and although worked by but one man, the value of a small +quantity of water thrown directly upon the seat of a small +fire was found to be greater than that of perhaps twenty +times as much when thrown about in the ordinary manner. +It was of great importance also in warehouses stored with +valuable goods, to throw the least necessary quantity of +water upon a fire. These hand-pumps still form an important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +part of the present apparatus of the brigade, and +they have been widely adopted elsewhere.</p> + +<p>London, unlike Edinburgh, has a vast water-side property, +always exposed to danger from fire. Almost immediately, +therefore, after having taken the command of the London +Brigade, Mr. Braidwood directed his attention to the construction +of improved floating fire-engines, to be moored in +the river, where they would be always available for the +protection of wharf property. Two were constructed, one +being a machine of great power, with pumps made to be +worked by 120 men. These machines proved of great +value. In 1852, shortly after the memorable fire at +Humphrey's warehouses, he persuaded the Fire-engine +Committee to allow one of these engines to be altered so +as to work by steam, and in 1855 a large self-propelling +floating steam fire-engine was made upon a novel construction, +and which, having already rendered great service at +fires on the river side, still ranks as the most powerful +machine in the service of the brigade. With locomotive +boilers and large double steam engines, this float can steam +nine miles an hour, and when in place at a fire it can throw +four streams of water, each from a jet-pipe of 1-1/2 inch in +diameter, to a great distance. In the great fire of 1861, +this floating engine was worked with but little intermission +for upwards of a fortnight. In 1860 Mr. Braidwood obtained +the sanction of the Fire-engine Committee for the introduction +of a land steam fire-engine, and although he did not +live to witness the present remarkable development of these +machines, he was enabled to employ the first one in the +brigade with much advantage.</p> + +<p>We may quote here from a brief but excellent memoir of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +Mr. Braidwood, which appeared in the annual report of the +Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"As early as 1841, the Government began to profit by +his experience, the Lords of the Admiralty having in that +year consulted him on the subject of floating fire-engines +for the various dockyards. These were eventually constructed +from his designs and under his superintendence. +In the following year he inspected all the dockyards, and +reported fully on each, with regard to both floating and land +fire-engines, the supply of water, the alterations of buildings +to prevent spread of fire, and the proper care required +in dangerous trades. From this time, although not holding +any appointment, he acted as Government consulting engineer +on all questions relating to fire prevention and extinction, +and he advised from time to time the precautions to +be taken for the protection of the royal palaces and various +other public buildings. This position enabled him, not without +a great deal of opposition, to induce the Government to +adopt in all its departments a uniform size of hose-coupling. +This is the one which he introduced in Edinburgh, and +known as the London Fire Brigade coupling, is now in +almost universal use; its application has been found comparatively +of as much utility for fire-brigade purposes, as +the adoption of the Whitworth gauges of screw-bolts for +mechanical engineering.</p> + +<p>"Although so fully occupied, he never refused advice on +professional matters to all who sought it. The various dock +companies, public institutions, country fire brigades, +private firms, &c., benefited largely by his experience. The +numerous inquiries from foreign countries and the colonies +with regard to the best means of extinguishing fires, also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +made great inroads on his time. In 1833 he became an +Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to which, in +1844, he contributed a valuable paper 'On the means of +rendering large supplies of Water available in case of Fire, +&c.,' for which he was awarded a Telford Medal; and in +1849 a second paper 'On Fire-Proof Buildings.' In 1856, +a paper on 'Fires: the best means of preventing and +arresting them; with a few words on Fire-Proof Structures,' +was read by him before the Society of Arts.</p> + +<p>"He took great interest in the passing of Acts of Parliament +for regulating buildings in the metropolis, was consulted +by the framers of these Acts, and used his utmost +influence to prevent the endangering a whole neighbourhood +by the erection of monster warehouses for private profit. +He strongly contended for the principle of dividing buildings +by party-walls carried through the roof, and restricting +these divisions to a moderate cubic content. Writing to +Lord Seymour, Commissioner of Woods and Forests, on the +28th June, 1851, he said 'that no preparations for contending +with such fires will give anything like the security that +judicious arrangements in the size and construction of +buildings will do.' The wise provisions introduced through +his instrumentality into these Acts of Parliament were +continually being evaded, and clusters of warehouses quickly +rose which he saw would, if on fire, defy all his means of +extinction. In a letter to Sir W. Molesworth, First Commissioner +of Public Works, dated 10th February, 1854, on +the subject of a proposed warehouse in Tooley-street, he +wrote 'The whole building, if once fairly on fire in one +floor, will become such a mass of fire that there is now no +power in London capable of extinguishing it, or even of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +restraining its ravages on every side, and on three sides it +will be surrounded by property of immense value.' How +literally this was realized, and at what cost, was shown by +the great warehouse fire in Tooley-street, on the 22nd June, +1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life."</p></div> + +<p>The great fire at Cotton's Wharf; Tooley-street, broke +out on Saturday, June 22nd, 1861, and continued to burn +for more than a fortnight, consuming Scovell's, and other +large warehouses, and, in all, upwards of two millions' +worth of property. The fire is believed to have originated +in the spontaneous combustion of hemp, of which upwards +of 1000 tons were consumed, together with 3000 tons +of sugar, 500 tons of saltpetre, nearly 5000 tons of rice, +18,000 bales of cotton, 10,000 casks of tallow, 1100 +tons of jute, and an immense quantity of tea, spices, &c., +besides many other descriptions of goods. Although discovered +in broad daylight, and before the flames had +made any considerable headway, the want of a ready +supply of water, and the fact that the iron doors in the +division walls between the several warehouses had been +left open, taken in connexion with the extremely combustible +nature of the materials, soon rendered hopeless +all chance of saving the buildings and property. Mr. +Braidwood was upon the spot very soon after the alarm +had been given, and nearly the whole available force of the +Fire-engine Establishment was summoned at his command. +He appears to have at once foreseen that the fire would be +one of no ordinary magnitude, and that the utmost that +could be done would be to prevent its extending widely over +adjoining property. The floating fire-engines had been got +to bear upon the flames, and the men in charge of the branch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +pipes were, after two hours' work, already suffering greatly +from the intense heat, when their chief went to them to give +them a word of encouragement. Several minor explosions, +as of casks of tallow or of oil, had been heard, but as it was +understood that the saltpetre stored at the wharf was in +buildings not yet alight, no alarm was then felt as to the +walls falling in. At the moment, however, while Mr. +Braidwood was discharging this his last act of kindness to +his men, a loud report was heard, and the lofty wall behind +him toppled and fell, burying him in the ruins. Those of his +men who were near him had barely time to escape, and one +person at his side, not a fireman, was overwhelmed with him. +From the moment when the wall was seen to fall, it was +known that whoever was beneath it had been instantly +crushed to death. It is needless, and it would, indeed, be +out of place, to describe here the further progress of the fire, +which had then but fairly begun, and which was still burning +more than a fortnight afterwards.</p> + +<p>Great as was the general consternation at so terrible a conflagration, +it is doubtful if the public were not still more +impressed by the dreadful death of Mr. Braidwood, and by a +feeling that his loss was a public misfortune. Her Majesty +the Queen, with that ready sympathy which she has ever +shown for crushed or suffering heroism, commanded the Earl +of Stamford to inquire on the spot, on Monday, whether the +body had yet been recovered by the firemen, and Her +Majesty's sympathies were also conveyed to Mrs. Braidwood. +It was not, however, until the following morning, that after +almost constant exertions, under the greatest difficulties, the +crushed remains were rescued. An inquest was necessary, +not merely to ascertain what was already well known, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +death had been instantly caused by accident, but to know +whether culpable carelessness of any kind had indirectly led +to the sorrowful event. None, however, appeared. The +remains of the fallen chief were afterwards borne to his late +residence in Watling-street. The members of the committee +of the London Fire-engine Establishment, formed of representatives +from all of the twenty-five insurance companies of +London, had already met to express, by a formal resolution, +their sincere condolence with Mrs. Braidwood and her family. +It was known that the funeral would take place on Saturday, +June 29th, and it was widely felt that a general +expression of sorrow and respect should be made, in view of +the common loss of so valued a public servant, as well as for +the noble qualities for which he had been so long and so well +known. On the occasion of the funeral this was shown not +more by the great length and marked character of the +<i>cortége</i> itself than by the general suspension of business in +the leading thoroughfares of the city through which it +passed, and by the hushed demeanour of the countless multitude +who pressed closely upon the procession throughout +its entire course. Among the thousands who sadly led +the way to the grave were the London Rifle Brigade, about +700 strong (and of which Mr. Braidwood's three sons +were members), the Seventh Tower-Hamlets, and other +rifle corps, upwards of 1000 constables of the metropolitan +police force, besides nearly 400 members of the +city police, the superintendents and men of the various +water companies, the secretary and conductors and the +band of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from +Fire, a large number of private and local fire-brigades, +and the members of the London Fire-engine Establishment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +The pall-bearers were six of Mr. Braidwood's engineers and +foremen, some of whom were at his side when he fell, and +who had barely escaped with their own lives. Following the +chief mourners were the Duke of Sutherland, the Earl of +Caithness, the Rev. Dr. Cumming, and a large number of +relatives and friends of the deceased, and the committee of +the London Fire-engine establishment. The procession was +nearly one mile and a-half in length, and was about three +hours in its progress from Watling-street to Abney Park +Cemetery, where the solemn service of the dead was conducted +by the Rev. Dr. Cumming, of whose congregation the +deceased had long been a member. With the exception of +the great bell of St. Paul's, which tolls only on the occasion +of the death of a member of the royal family or of a lord-mayor +in office, the bells of all the churches in the city were +booming slowly through the day, and so evident was the +general sorrow that it could be truly said that the heart of +the nation mourned.</p> + +<p>On Thursday, July 4th, a public meeting was held at the +Mansion House, when resolutions were passed for the collection +of subscriptions towards a memorial to Mr. Braidwood's +long and arduous public services. This memorial, it was felt, +should take the form of a permanent provision for his family, +for the post of Fire Brigade Superintendent had never been a +lucrative one. Before, however, the collection of subscriptions +had extended beyond a few hundred pounds, it was +made known that the insurance companies had promptly +settled upon Mrs. Braidwood the full "value"—speaking in +an insurable sense—of her husband's life. Mr. Braidwood +had for many years supported two maiden sisters, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +public subscription was applied, therefore, to the purchase of +small annuities for each of them.</p> + +<p>It will be remembered that the London Fire-engine +Establishment was from the first controlled only by the +insurance companies, upon whom of course, fell the whole +cost of its maintenance. Their interest in the suppression +of fires, although direct and unmistakeable, was not the same +as that of the public. Thus, it would be to the public +advantage that no fires should happen, whereas such a result +would be fatal to the insurance companies, since no one in +that case would insure. Although the protection of the +Establishment was in practice extended alike to both +insured and uninsured property, the real object for which it +was formed and maintained was undoubtedly that of protecting +insured property only. It was the interest of the +companies to incur as little expense as would, on the whole, +fairly effect this purpose, and it was not their interest to +effectually protect the whole of the metropolis from fire. Thus +it was that, with all the excellence of the organization and +discipline of the Fire-engine Establishment, it was greatly +inferior in extent to what was requisite for the proper +security of the first city in the world. Mr. Braidwood had long +felt this truth, but, acting for a private association, he could +only go to the extent of the limited resources at his disposal. +It was, more than anything else, the great fire at Cotton's +Wharf that first directed public attention to the necessary +insufficiency of any private establishment for the general +suppression of fires, and that has led to the legislation under +which the Fire-engine Establishment was, on the 1st of +January last, taken over and extended by the Metropolitan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +Board of Works. London will now, it is hoped, be better +protected from fire, because of the increased extent of the +means of protection; but it can hardly be expected that the +discipline of the brigade will be improved.</p> + +<p>Apart from the public value of Mr. Braidwood's career +in increasing the common security against a common foe, +there was much in his personal, intellectual, and moral qualities +worthy of admiration. He was a man of strong and +commanding frame, of inexhaustible energy, and of enduring +vitality. The constitutions of but few men could have withstood +such long continued wear and tear as fell to his. He +braved all weathers, all extremes of heat and cold, could +sleep or wake at will, and could work on long after others +would have given way. He was always at his post, and in +no moment of difficulty or danger did his cool judgment or +his steady courage forsake him. It was this, together with +his considerate bearing, and on occasions of special trial his +almost womanly kindness to his men, that inspired them with +unlimited confidence in him and in his plans. Beyond this, +he was a man of superior mind, with strong comprehensive +and generalising faculties. His various published papers, +and a correspondence of which but few could know the extent +and importance, as well as his ready, clear, and exact +manner in stating his views before committees and before +those in authority, who so often consulted him, all attest an +order of mind which, in a different sphere, would alone have +won distinction for its possessor. His profession was one in +which it happens that almost every person thinks himself +competent to give advice; yet, without any assumption of +authority, Mr. Braidwood could make it felt wherever he +pleased that he was a master in the art of extinguishing fire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +But he was not on this account the less ready to listen to +suggestions, and there are numbers who can bear testimony +to the patient, honest, and appreciative manner in which +he considered the many and diverse propositions submitted +to him as the head of the Fire Brigade of the first city +in the world. The soundness of his views and opinions +is sufficiently attested by the success of his practice—a +success which, but for the Government tax upon fire +policies, would have long since made fire insurance in +London almost the cheapest of all the forms of protection +of property from danger. The London Brigade was +insignificant in numbers and tame in display when compared +with the eight hundred <i>sapeurs pompiers</i> of Paris, +with their parade and all their accessories of effect—insignificant +and tame, too, after the glittering apparatus, imposing +paraphernalia, and deafening clatter of the "Fire +Department" of New York; but Mr. Braidwood's chosen +men knew how to do their duty, and considering the +differences in the mode of building and of heating, and in +the extent of lighting in the three great metropoli just +named, it is an easy matter, on reference to statistics, to +prove that none others have done better.</p> + +<p>Above all, Mr. Braidwood was a gentleman of deep +Christian feeling; and those who knew him best had never +doubted that, had it been his lot to linger long in pain, +knowing the end that was to come, his calm but unwavering +faith in a better future would have sustained him through +all. Brought up from childhood in the faith of the Scotch +church, he was a regular attendant upon the ministrations of +the Rev. Dr. Cumming. In his own quiet way he did much +good in the poorer districts of London, and he took a special<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +interest in the ragged schools of the metropolis. What he +was in his own home may be best inferred from the crushing +force with which his dreadful yet noble fate fell upon those +who were dearest to him. His family had already too much +reason to know the dangers which had always attended his +career. A step-son had fallen, five years before, in nearly the +same manner, and now lies buried in the same grave. Eleven +members, in all, of the brigade, had perished in the discharge +of their duty during the time Mr. Braidwood had commanded +it: a fact which, taken with daily experience, +pointed to other victims to follow. Such consolation, then, +as a stricken widow and a mourning family could have, +next to an abiding faith in the goodness of God, was in the +recollection of the virtues and noble qualities of the husband +and father, and in the spontaneous sorrow with which a +great people testified their sense of his worth and of their +common loss.</p> + +<p>To show the universal as well as national esteem in which +Mr. Braidwood was held, two extracts are here given from +the numerous letters of condolence addressed to his bereaved +family, from all parts of the world. Mr. G. H. Allen, +Secretary to the Boston (America) Fire Department, writes: +"It gives me pleasure to unite with the Board in testimony +to the extreme kindness of Mr. Braidwood in the conduct of +our correspondence, whereby we have been greatly benefited +and received extensive information. Allow me also to extend +our sympathy to those who have lost one who will ever be +remembered as standing at the head of the most valued arm +of the Government, and one that you can hardly expect to +be replaced, except by years of experience and great natural +ability." Mr. T. J. Bown, Superintendent of the Sydney<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +(Australia) Fire Brigade, in a letter dated 22nd August +1861, says, "On receipt of the sad news, our large fire-bell +was tolled, the British ensign hoisted half-mast high, and +crape attached to the firemen's uniform, as a token of respect +for one of the noblest and most self-denying men that ever +lived, who spent and lost his life in the service of his fellow-creatures."</p> + + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="A_TRUE_HERO" id="A_TRUE_HERO"></a>A TRUE HERO.</h3> + +<h4><span class="smcap">James Braidwood.</span>—<i>Died, June 22nd, 1861.</i></h4> + +<h4>By the Author of<br /> +"<span class="smcap">John Halifax, Gentleman.</span>"</h4> + + +<div class="poem"><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Not at the battle front,—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Writ of in story;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Not on the blazing wreck,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Steering to glory;<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Not while in martyr pangs<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Soul and flesh sever,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Died he—this Hero new—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Hero for ever.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">No pomp poetic crown'd,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">No forms enchained him,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">No friends applauding watched,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">No foes arraigned him:<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Death found him there, without<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Grandeur or beauty,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Only an honest man<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Doing his duty:<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Just a God-fearing man,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Simple and lowly,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Constant at kirk and hearth,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Kindly and holy:<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Death found—and touched him with<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Finger in flying:—<br /></span> +<span class="i0">So he rose up complete—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Hero undying.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Now, all mourn for him,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Lovingly raise him<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Up from his life obscure,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Chronicle, praise him;<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Tell his last act, done midst<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Peril appalling,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">And the last word of cheer<br /></span> +<span class="i2">From his lips falling;<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Follow in multitudes<br /></span> +<span class="i2">To his grave's portal;<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Leave him there, buried<br /></span> +<span class="i2">In honour immortal.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">So many a Hero walks<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Daily beside us,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Till comes the supreme stroke<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Sent to divide us.<br /></span> +</div><div class="stanza"> +<span class="i0">Then the Lord calls His own,—<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Like this man, even,<br /></span> +<span class="i0">Carried, Elijah-like,<br /></span> +<span class="i2">Fire-winged, to heaven.<br /></span> +</div></div> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>, Vol. IV., page 294.</span><br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="FIRE_PREVENTION" id="FIRE_PREVENTION"></a>FIRE PREVENTION</h2> + +<h4>INCLUDING</h4> + +<h2>FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.</h2> + + +<p>To prevent fires it is necessary to consider what are the +principal causes of such calamities. These may be classed +under several heads:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights.</p> + +<p>2. Improper construction of buildings, &c.</p> + +<p>3. Furnaces or close fires for heating buildings, or for mechanical +purposes.</p> + +<p>4. Spontaneous ignition.</p> + +<p>5. Incendiarism.</p></div> + +<p>As almost all fires arise from inattention in one shape or +another, it is of the utmost importance that every master of +a house or other establishment should persevere in rigidly +enjoining and enforcing on those under him, the necessity of +observing the utmost possible care in preventing such calamities, +which, in nineteen cases out of twenty, are the result +of remissness or inattention. Indeed, if any one will for a +moment consider the fearful risk of life and property, which +is often incurred from a very slight inattention, the necessity +of vigilance and care will at once be apparent. Immense +hazard is frequently incurred for the most trifling indulgences, +and much property is annually destroyed, and valuable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +lives often lost, because a few thoughtless individuals cannot +deny themselves the gratification of reading in bed with a +candle beside them.</p> + +<p>Some years ago, upwards of 100,000<i>l.</i> were lost, through +the partner of a large establishment lighting gas with a piece +of paper, which he threw away, and thus set fire to the premises, +although it was a strict rule in the place that gas +should only be lighted with tapers, which were provided for +that purpose. In one department of a great public institution, +it was, and is still, a rule that only covered lights +should be carried about, and for that purpose four lanterns +were provided; yet, on inquiry some time back, it was found +that only one was entire, the other three being broken—one +having lost two sides and the top; still they were all used as +covered lights.</p> + +<p>The opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are +so various, that it is impossible to notice the whole.</p> + +<p>One of the prevailing causes of fire is to be traced to persons +locking their doors, and leaving their houses to the care +of children. I believe one-half of the children whose deaths +are occasioned by accident suffer from this cause alone: indeed, +almost every week the newspapers contain some melancholy +confirmation of what I have here stated. Intoxication +is also a disgraceful and frequent cause of fire. The number +of persons burned to death in this way is really incredible. +It is true that it does not always happen that a fire takes +place in the house, in either of the above cases, although the +unfortunate beings whose clothes take fire, rarely escape with +their lives; but the danger to the neighbourhood is at all +times considerable, if persons in a state of inebriety are left +in a house alone. When there is reason to apprehend that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +any member of a family will come home at night in that +state, some one should always be appointed to receive him, +and on no account to leave him till he is put to bed, and the +light extinguished.</p> + +<p>I do not mean to say that people must be actually drunk +before danger is to be apprehended from them. Indeed, a +very slight degree of inebriety is dangerous, as it always tends +to blunt the perception, and to make a person careless and +indifferent. I may also add, that no inconsiderable number +of fires are occasioned by the thoughtless practice of throwing +spirits into the fire. The dresses of females taking fire adds +very much to the list of lives lost by fire, if it does not exceed +all the other causes put together.</p> + +<p>Another very general cause of fire is that of approaching +with lighted candles too near bed or window curtains; these, +being generally quite dry, are, from the way in which they +are hung, easily set on fire, and, as the flames ascend rapidly, +when once touched, they are in a blaze in a moment.</p> + +<p>It is really astonishing to find that, with daily examples +before their eyes, people should persist (whether insured or +not seems to make little difference) in practices which, there +is a hundred chances to one, may involve both themselves and +the neighbourhood in one common ruin. Of this sort are +the practices of looking under a bed with a lighted candle, +and placing a screen full of clothes too near the fire.</p> + +<p>Houses not unfrequently take fire from cinders falling +between the joints of the outer and inner hearths. When +smoke is observed to arise from the floor, the cause should be +immediately ascertained, and the inmates ought on no +account to retire to rest while there is the slightest smell of +fire, or any grounds to suspect danger from that cause.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p> + +<p>Occasional fires are caused by a very absurd method of +extinguishing at night the fires kept in grates during the +day. Instead of arranging the embers in the grate in such a +way as to prevent their falling off, and thus allowing the fire +to die out in its proper place, they are frequently taken off +and laid on the hearth, where, should there be wood-work +underneath, it becomes scorched, and the slightest spark +falling through a joint in the stones sets it on fire.</p> + +<p>A very frequent cause of fire in shops and warehouses +arises from the carelessness of the person intrusted to lock +them up. It is no uncommon practice with those to whom +this duty is intrusted, to light themselves out, or to search for +any little article which may have been mislaid, with a lighted +paper, and then to throw it carelessly on the floor, imagining +they have taken every necessary precaution, merely by setting +their foot upon it, forgetting that the current of air occasioned +by shutting the door frequently rekindles it, and produces +the most serious consequences.</p> + +<p>In warehouses and manufactories, fires are not unfrequently +caused by the workmen being occasionally kept late +at work. By the time their task is finished, the men are so +tired and sleepy, that the extinguishing of fires and lights is +done in a very careless manner. I recollect an instance of +this sort, in which the flames were issuing from three upper +windows, and observed by the neighbours, while the workmen +engaged at their employment in the lower floors knew +nothing of the destruction that was going on above.</p> + +<p>A very serious annual loss is also caused by want of +due care in handing up or removing the goods in linen-drapers' +shop windows when the gas is burning. Flues +taking fire often result in mischief and it is believed that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +many serious fires have arisen from this cause, which can +hardly be called accidental, as, if flues are properly constructed, +kept moderately clean, and fairly used, they cannot +take fire.</p> + +<p>From what has been said, it will be seen that care and +attention may do a very great deal towards the prevention +of fire, and consequent loss of life. It is very easy to make +good rules, and keep them for a time, after having been +alarmed by some serious loss of property or life, but the +difficulty is to maintain constant attention to the subject. +The most evident plan for effecting this seems to be, for the +masters thoroughly to examine and consider the subject at +certain stated periods, not too far apart, and to constantly +warn their domestics, workmen, or others, of the danger of +the improper use of fires and lights.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest preventives of carelessness in the +use of fires and lights would be a legal inquiry in every +case, as it would not only show the faults that had been +committed, and thus warn others, but the idea of being exposed +in the newspapers would be another motive for +increased care. This plan has been adopted in New York, +and the reports of the proceedings of Mr. Baker, the "Fire +Marshal," show that the inquiries there made have led to +most useful results. Mr. Payne, the coroner, held inquests +on fires in the City of London some years ago, but the +authorities would not allow his expenses, and therefore they +were given up, although believed to be highly advantageous +in explaining accidental and others causes of fire.</p> + +<p><i>The improper construction of buildings</i> more generally +assists the spread than is the original cause of fires, although +laying hearths on timber, and placing timber too near flues,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +are constant causes of fire, and it is believed that many +melancholy occurrences have arisen from these and similar +sources.</p> + +<p>One cause of danger from chimneys arises from the communication +which they often have with each other in one +gable. The divisions or partitions, being very often found +in an imperfect state, the fire communicates to the adjoining +chimney, and in this way sometimes wraps a whole tenement +in flames. I know a division of a principal street in Edinburgh, +in which there is scarcely a single chimney-head that +is not more or less in this condition; and I have no doubt +that this is not an uncommon case. There is also great +danger from the ends of joists, safe-lintels, or other pieces of +timber, being allowed to protrude into chimneys. In one +instance which came under my notice, a flue passing under +the recess of a window had on the upper side no other +covering than the wood of the floor; of course, when the +chimney took fire the floor was immediately in a blaze: but +there are many instances of such carelessness. It is a +common practice amongst carpenters to drive small pieces of +wood into walls for the purpose of fixing their work, not +paying the least attention as to whether the points run into +the flues or not.</p> + +<p>In the repairs and alterations of old buildings, house-carpenters +are, if possible, even more careless in this particular, +than in the construction of new.</p> + +<p>I know of two different buildings which underwent some +alterations. In both of these, safe-lintels had been run into +flues, and both of them, after the alterations, took fire; the +one in consequence of a foul chimney, which set fire to the +lintel; and although the other did not take fire from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +same cause, the lintel was nevertheless very much scorched, +and obliged to be removed.</p> + +<p>Great carelessness is frequently exhibited by builders, +when erecting at one time two or three houses connected by +mutual gables, by not carrying up the gables, or party-walls, +so as to divide the roofs. I have seen more than one instance +where the adjoining house would have been quite safe, but +for this culpable neglect. It is no uncommon thing, too, to +find houses divided only by lath and standard partitions, +without a single brick in them. When a fire occurs in +houses divided in this manner, the vacuities in the middle +of the partitions act like so many funnels to conduct the +flame, thereby greatly adding to the danger from the fire, +and infinitely increasing the difficulty of extinguishing it.</p> + +<p>In London the Building Act forbids all such proceedings, +but the District Surveyors do not seem to have sufficient +power, or be able to pay sufficient attention to such matters, +as they are constantly met with at fires. A very flagrant +case of laying a hearth on timber was lately exposed by a +fire in the City. Due notice was given of the circumstance, +but no farther attention was paid to the matter than to +make the proprietor construct the floor properly, although +the Act gave power to fine for such neglect. The omission +is to be regretted, as there could not have been a better case +for warning others; it occurred in a very large establishment, +and the work was done by one of the first builders in +the City. Had this fire taken place in the night and +gained some head, it would have been very difficult to have +ascertained the cause. As the premises were situated, a +serious loss of life might have occurred, the apartment in +which the fire originated being the only means of retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +which ten or twelve female servants had from their bedrooms.</p> + +<p>The Metropolitan Building Acts, up to about the year +1825, by insisting upon party-walls and other precautions, +were invaluable for the prevention of the spread of fires. By +them no warehouse was permitted to exceed a certain area. +From the year 1842, the area has been exchanged for a +specified number of cubic feet. But since 1825, a class of +buildings has arisen of which there are now considerable +numbers in the City, called Manchester or piece goods warehouses, +which somehow have been exempted from the law +restricting the extent of warehouses, on the plea that +they are <i>not</i> warehouses, because "bulk is broken" in +them, although it is thoroughly understood that the legislature +intended by the Act to restrict the amassing such +a quantity of goods under one roof as would be dangerous +to the neighbourhood.</p> + +<p>Manchester and piece goods warehouses have for some +time past been built in London of unlimited size, sometimes +equal to twenty average houses. This is pretty nearly the +same as if that number of houses were built without party-walls, +only that it is much worse, for the whole mass generally +communicates by well holes and open staircases, and +thus takes fire with great rapidity, and, from the quantity of +fresh air within the building, the fire makes much greater +progress before it is discovered. By this means the risk of +fire in the City has been greatly increased, not only to such +warehouses themselves, but to the surrounding neighbourhood, +for it is impossible to say how far fires of such magnitude +may extend their ravages under untoward circumstances, +there being at present no preventive power in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +London capable of controlling them. To provide such a +power would be a very costly business.</p> + +<p>Such buildings are also against the generally received rule, +that a man may burn himself and his own property, but he +shall not unduly risk the lives and property of his +neighbours.</p> + +<p>The new Building Act is likely to repress, to a certain +extent, this great evil, unless its meaning be subverted by +some such subterfuge as destroyed the efficiency of the last +one. But what is to be done with those which are already +built? It may seem tedious to dwell so much on this subject, +but it appears to be a risk which is not generally much +thought of, though it is of the most vital importance to the +safety of London. It is very desirable that the metropolis +should take warning by the experience of Liverpool, +without going through the fiery ordeal which the latter city +did.</p> + +<p>From 1838 to 1843, 776,762<i>l.</i> were lost in Liverpool by +fire, almost entirely in the warehouse risks. The consequence +was, that the mercantile rates of insurance gradually rose +from about 8<i>s.</i> per cent. to 30<i>s.</i>, 40<i>s.</i>, and, it is said, in some +cases, to 45<i>s.</i> per cent. Such premiums could not be paid +on wholesale transactions, therefore the Liverpool people +themselves obtained an Act of Parliament, 6 and 7 Vic., +cap. 109, by which the size and height of warehouses were +restricted, party walls were made imperative, and warehouses +were not allowed to be erected within thirty-six feet of any +other warehouse, unless the whole of the doors and window-shutters +were made of <i>wrought iron</i>, with many similar +restrictions. This Act applied to warehouses already built as +well as to those to be built, and any tenant was at liberty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +after notice to his landlord, to alter his warehouse according +to the Act, and to stop his rent till the expense was paid. +Another Act, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 75, was also obtained, for +bringing water into Liverpool for the purpose of extinguishing +fires and watering the streets <i>only</i>. It is supposed that +the works directed, or permitted, by these two Acts, cost +the people of Liverpool from 200,000<i>l.</i> to 300,000<i>l.</i> Shortly +after these alterations had been made, the mercantile premiums +again fell to about 8<i>s.</i> per cent.</p> + +<p>There is another very common cause of fire, which seems +to come under the head of construction—viz., covering up +a fireplace when not in use with wood or paper and canvas, +&c. The soot falls into the fireplace, either from the flue +itself, or from an adjoining one which communicates with it. +A neighbouring chimney takes fire; a spark falls down the +blocked-up flue, sets fire to the soot in the fireplace, which +smoulders till the covering is burned through, and thus sets +fire to the premises.</p> + +<p>In theatres, that part of the house which includes the +stage and scenery should be carefully divided from that +where the spectators assemble by a solid wall carried up +to, and through the roof. The opening in this wall for the +stage should be arched over, and the other communications +secured with iron doors, which would be kept shut while the +audience was in the house. By this plan, there would be +abundance of time for the spectators to retire, before +fire could reach that part of the theatre which they +occupy.</p> + +<p><i>The danger from furnaces</i> or close fires, whether for +heating, cooking, or manufacturing purposes, is very great, +and no flue should be permitted to be so used, unless it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +prepared for the purpose. The reason is, that in a close fire +the whole of the draught must pass through the fire. It +thus becomes so heated that, unless the flue is properly +built, it is dangerous throughout its whole course. In one +instance of a heating furnace, the heat in the flue was found +to be 300°, at a distance of from forty to fifty feet from the +fire. In open fireplaces, the quantity of cold air carried up +with the draught keeps the flue at a moderate heat, from the +fire upwards, and, unless the flue is allowed to become foul, +and take fire, this is the safest possible mode of heating.</p> + +<p>Heating by hot air, steam, and hot water are objectionable. +First, because there must be a furnace and furnace +flue, and the flue used is generally that built for an open fire +only; and second, the pipes are carried in every direction, to +be as much out of sight as possible. By this means they are +constantly liable to produce spontaneous ignition, for there +appears to be some chemical action between heated iron and +timber, by which fire is generated at a much lower temperature +than is necessary to ignite timber under ordinary circumstances. +No satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet +been given, but there is abundant proof that such is the +case. In heating by hot-water pipes, those hermetically +sealed are by far the most dangerous, as the strength of the +pipes to resist the pressure is the only limit of the heat to +which the water, and of course the pipes, may be raised. In +some cases a plug of metal which fuses at 400° is put into +the pipes, but the heat to which the plug is exposed will +depend very much on where it is placed, as, however great +may be the heat of the exit pipe, the return pipe is comparatively +cool. But even where the pipes are left open, the +heat of the water at the furnace is not necessarily 212°. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +is almost needless to say that 212° is the heat of boiling +water under the pressure of one atmosphere only; but if the +pipes are carried sixty or seventy feet high, the water in the +furnace must be under the pressure of nearer three atmospheres +than one, and therefore the heat will be proportionately +increased. Fires from pipes for heating by hot +water have been known to take place within twenty-four +hours after first heating, and some after ten years of apparent +safety.</p> + +<p>The New Metropolitan Building Act prescribes rules for +the placing steam, hot-air, and hot-water pipes at a certain +distance from timber; but as it must be extremely difficult +for the District Surveyors to watch such minute proceedings, +it becomes every one who is anxious for safety to see that +the District Surveyors have due notice of any operation of +this kind.</p> + +<p>Another cause of fire which may come under this head is +the use of pipes for conveying away the products of combustion. +Every one is acquainted with the danger of stove +pipes, but all are not perhaps aware that pipes for conveying +away the heat and effluvia from gas-burners are also very +dangerous when placed near timber. It is not an uncommon +practice to convey such pipes between the ceiling and the +flooring of the floor above. This is highly dangerous. Gas-burners +are also dangerous when placed near a ceiling. A +remarkable instance of this took place lately, where a gas-burner +set fire to a ceiling 28-1/2 inches from it.</p> + +<p>Another evil of furnaces is, that the original fireplace is +sometimes not large enough to contain the apparatus, and +the party wall is cut into. Perhaps it may be necessary to +notice at this point the use of gas, as it is becoming so very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +general. Gas, if carefully laid on, and properly used, is +safer than any other light, so far as actually setting fire to +anything goes, but the greater heat given out so dries up +any combustibles within its reach, that it prepares them for +burning, and when a fire does take place, the destruction is +much more rapid than in a building lighted by other means. +Gas-stoves, also, from the great heat given out, sometimes +cause serious accidents; in one instance, a gas-stove set fire +to a beam through a two-and-half inch York landing, well +bedded in mortar, although the lights were five or six inches +above the stone. This is mentioned to show that gas-stoves +require quite as much care as common fires.</p> + +<p><i>Spontaneous ignition</i> is believed to be a very fruitful +cause of fires; but, unless the fire is discovered almost at the +commencement, it is difficult to ascertain positively that +this has been the cause. Spontaneous ignition is generally +accelerated by natural or artificial heat. For instance, +where substances liable to spontaneous ignition are exposed +to the heat of the sun, to furnace flues, heated pipes, or are +placed over apartments lighted by gas, the process of ignition +proceeds much more rapidly than when in a cooler atmosphere. +Sawdust in contact with vegetable oil is very likely +to take fire. Cotton, cotton waste, hemp, and most other +vegetable substances are alike dangerous. In one case oil +and sawdust took fire within sixteen hours; in others, the +same materials have lain for years, until some external heat +has been applied to them. The greater number of the +serious fires which have taken place in railroad stations in +and near London have commenced in the paint stores. In +a very large fire in an oil warehouse, a quantity of oil was +spilt the day before and wiped up, the wipings being thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +aside. This was believed to have been the cause of the fire, +but direct proof could not be obtained. Dust-bins also very +often cause serious accidents. In one instance, 30,000<i>l.</i> to +40,000<i>l.</i> were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown +into a dust-bin.</p> + +<p>These accidents may in a great measure be avoided by +constant care and attention to cleanliness, and where paints +and oils are necessary, by keeping them in some place outside +the principal buildings. Dust-bins should, as much as possible, +be placed in the open air, and where that cannot be +done, they should be emptied once a day. No collection of +rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed to be made +in any building of value.</p> + +<p>Mr. Wyatt Papworth, architect, has published some very +interesting notes on spontaneous ignition, giving several well-authenticated +instances.</p> + +<p><i>Incendiarism</i> may be divided into three sorts—malicious, +fraudulent, and monomaniac. Of the former there has been +very little in London for many years. The second, however, +is rather prevalent. The insurance offices, which are the +victims, protect themselves as well as they can, but an +inquest on each fire is the true mode of lessening the evil. +This is much more the interest of the public than at first +seems to be the case. In several instances where the criminals +were brought to punishment by Mr. Payne's inquests, people +were asleep in the upper parts of the houses set fire to, and +in one case there were as many as twelve or fifteen persons. +This, however, is seldom stated in the indictment, as, if it is, +the punishment is still death by the law, and it is supposed +that a conviction is more easily obtained, by the capital +charge being waived. Monomania is a rare cause of incendiarism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +but still several well-certified cases have occurred in +which no possible motive could be given. In one instance a +youth of fifteen set fire to his father's premises seven times +within a few hours. In another, a young female on a visit +set fire to her friend's furniture, &c., ten or eleven times in +the course of one or two days. In neither case could anything +like disagreement or harshness be elicited, but the +reverse. In other instances, it has been strongly suspected +that this disease was the cause of repeated fires, but there +was no positive proof. In all these cases, known or suspected, +the parties were generally from fourteen to twenty +years of age.</p> + + +<h3>FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.</h3> + +<p>What is "Fire-proof Construction?" is a question which +has given rise to a great deal of discussion, simply, as it +appears to me, because the size of the buildings, and the +quantity and description of the contents, have not always +been taken into account. That which may be perfectly fireproof +in a dwelling house, may be the weakest in a +large warehouse. Suppose an average-sized dwelling-house +20 × 40 × 50 = 40,000 cubic feet, built with brick partitions, +stone or slate stairs, wrought-iron joists filled in with concrete, +and the whole well plastered. Such a house will be +practically fire-proof, because there is no probability that the +furniture and flooring in any one room, would make fire +enough to communicate to another. But suppose a warehouse +equal to twenty such houses, with floors completely +open, supported by cast-iron pillars, and each floor communicating +with the others by open staircases and wells; suppose,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +further, that it is half filled with combustible goods, and +perhaps the walls and ceilings lined with timber. Now, if a +fire takes place below, the moment it bursts through the +upper windows or skylights, the whole place becomes an +immense blast furnace; the iron is melted, and in a comparatively +short time the building is in ruins, and, it may be, +the half of the neighbourhood destroyed. The real fire-proof +construction for such buildings is groined brick arches, supported +on brick pillars only. This mode of building, however, +involves so much expense, and occupies so much space, +that it cannot be used with advantage. The next best plan +is to build the warehouses in compartments of moderate size, +divided by party-walls and double wrought-iron doors, so +that if one of these compartments takes fire, there may be a +reasonable prospect of confining the fire to that compartment +only. Again, cast iron gives way from so many different +causes, that it is impossible to calculate when it will give +way. The castings may have flaws in them; or they may be +too weak for the weight they have to support, being sometimes +within 10 per cent., or less, of the breaking weight. +The expansion of the girders may thrust out the side walls. +For instance, in a warehouse 120 feet × 75 feet × 80 feet, +there are three continuous rows of girders on each floor, with +butt joints; the expansion in this case may be twelve inches. +The tie rods to take the strain of the flat arches must expand +and become useless, and the whole of the lateral strain be +thrown on the girders and side walls, perhaps weak enough +already. Again, throwing cold water on the heated iron may +cause an immediate fracture. For these and similar reasons, +the firemen are not permitted to go into warehouses supported +by iron, <i>when once fairly on fire</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> + +<p>Cast and wrought-iron have been frequently fused at fires +in large buildings such as warehouses, sugar houses, &c., but +according to Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on cast iron in a +heated state, it is not necessary that the fusing point should +be attained to cause it to give way.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> He also states, that +the loss of strength in cold-blast cast iron, in a variation of +temperature from 26° to 190° = 164° Fahr., is 10 per cent., +and in hot-blast at a variation of from 21° to 190° = 169° +Fahr., is 15 per cent.; now if the loss of strength advances +in anything like this ratio, the iron will be totally useless as +a support, long before the fusing point is attained.</p> + +<p>Much confidence has been placed in wrought-iron tie or +tension rods, to take the lateral strain of the arches, and also +in trusses to support the beams; but it must be evident +that the expansion of the iron from the heat, would render +them useless, and under a high temperature, it would be so +great as to unsettle the brickwork, and accelerate its fall, on +any part of the iron-work giving way: again, the application +of cold water to the heated iron, in an endeavour to +extinguish the fire, is almost certain to cause one or more +fractures. The brick-arching is also very liable to fall, especially +if only four and a half inches thick, independently of +the weight which may be placed upon it, for it is not uncommon +after a fire in a large building, to find the mortar +almost completely pulverized to the depth of three inches, +or four inches, from the face of the wall. When a fire +occurred under one of the arches of the Blackwall Railway, +on the 15th July, 1843, a portion of the lower ring fell +down, and also a few bricks from the next ring.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p> +<p>Another very serious objection to buildings of this description, +is that, unless scientifically constructed, they are +very unlikely to be safe, even for the common purposes intended, +independent of the risk of fire. In the Report of +Sir Henry De la Bêche and Mr. Thomas Cubitt on the fall +of the mill at Oldham, in October, 1844,<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> it is stated that +the strength of the iron-beams was within ten per cent. of +the breaking weight. Now according to Mr. Fairbairn's +experiments on heated iron, already referred to, an increase +of temperature of only 170° would have destroyed the whole +building. It is quite clear, therefore, that so long as mill-owners +and others continue to construct such buildings without +proper advice, they must be liable to these accidents. +In timber-floors there can be no such risk, as the strains are +all direct, and any journeyman carpenter, by following good +examples, can ascertain the size required; and even if he +makes a mistake, the evil is comparatively trivial, as the +timber will give notice before yielding, and may be propped +up for the time, until it can be properly secured. In the +case of fire-proof buildings, an ignorant person may make +many mistakes without being aware that he has done so, +and the slightest failure is probably fatal to every one within +the walls. This also increases the difficulty and danger of +extinguishing fires in a large building, as the only method of +doing so is for the firemen to enter it with their branches, +and in case of the floors falling, there is no chance of escape. +On the other hand, timber-floors have repeatedly fallen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +while the firemen were inside the building, and they have +made their escape uninjured.</p> + +<p>In a pamphlet published by Mr. S. Holme, of Liverpool, +in 1844,<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> and which contains a report from Mr. Fairbairn on +fire-proof buildings, it is stated, that many people, especially +in the manufacturing districts, are their own architects; that +the warehouses in Liverpool may be loaded to one ton per +yard of flooring; and that unless great care and knowledge +are used in the construction of fire-proof buildings, they are +of all others the most dangerous.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p> + +<p>The following are the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn +proposes to build fire-proof warehouses:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible +materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks.</p> + +<p>In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident or +spontaneous combustion, every opening, or crevice, communicating +with the external atmosphere to be closed.</p> + +<p>An isolated staircase, of stone, or iron, well protected on +every side by brick, or stone walls, to be attached to +every story, and be furnished with a line of water-pipes, +communicating with the mains in the street, and +ascending to the top of the building.</p> + +<p>In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +divided by strong partition-walls, in no case less than +eighteen inches thick, and no more openings to be made +than are absolutely necessary for the admission of goods +and light.</p> + +<p>That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches be of +strength sufficient, not only to support a continuous +dead pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which +they are subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the +floors.</p> + +<p>That in order to prevent accident from the columns being +melted by intense heat in the event of fire in any of +the rooms, a current of cold air should be introduced +into the hollow of the columns, from an arched tunnel +under the floors.</p></div> + +<p>There is no doubt that if the second principle could be +carried out, namely, the total exclusion of air, the fire would +go out of itself; but it seems, to say the least of it, very +doubtful indeed if this can be accomplished, and if it could, +the carelessness of a porter leaving open one of the doors or +windows, would make the whole useless. The fifth principle +shows that Mr. Fairbairn has omitted to allow for the loss of +strength the iron may sustain from the increase of temperature. +The last principle would not be likely to answer its +purpose, even if it was possible to keep these tunnels and +hollow columns clear for a number of years, which is scarcely +to be expected. A piece of cast-iron pipe, one-and-a-half +inch in diameter, was heated for four minutes in a common +forge, both ends being carefully kept open to the atmosphere, +when, on one end being fixed in a vice, and the other pulled +aside by the hand, it gave way.</p> + +<p>One of the principal objections to the kind of fire-proof<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +buildings above described, is, that absolute perfection in their +construction is indispensable to their safety; whereas buildings +of a more common description are comparatively safe, +although there may be some errors or omissions in their +construction. Indeed, Mr. Fairbairn states in the same +Report, that "it is true that negligence of construction on +the one hand, and want of care in management on the other, +might entail risk and loss to an enormous extent."</p> + +<p>The following is a very clear proof of the inability of cast +iron to resist the effects of fire:—</p> + +<p>"A chapel in Liverpool-road, Islington, seventy feet in +length and fifty-two feet in breadth, took fire in the cellar, +on the 2nd October, 1848, and was completely burned down. +After the fire, it was ascertained that of thirteen cast-iron +pillars used to support the galleries, only two remained perfect; +the greater part of the others were broken into small +pieces, the metal appearing to have lost all power of cohesion, +and some parts were melted. It should be observed, +that these pillars were of ample strength to support the galleries +when filled by the congregation, but when the fire +reached them, they crumbled under the weight of the timber +only, lightened as it must have been by the progress of the +fire."</p> + +<p>In this case it mattered little whether the pillars stood or +fell, but it would be very different with some of the large +wholesale warehouses in the City, where numbers of young +men sleep in the upper floors; in several of those warehouses +the cast-iron pillars are much less in proportion to the +weight to be carried than those referred to, and would be +completely in the draught of a fire. If a fire should unfortunately +take place under such circumstances, the loss of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +human life might be very great, as the chance of fifty, +eighty, or one hundred people escaping in the confusion of a +sudden night alarm, by one or two ladders, to the roof, +could scarcely be calculated on, and the time such escape +must necessarily occupy, independent of all chance of accidents, +would be considerable.</p> + +<p>For the reasons here stated, I submit that large buildings, +containing considerable quantities of combustible goods, with +floors of brick-arches, supported by cast-iron beams and +columns, are not, practically speaking, fire-proof; and that +the only construction which would render large buildings +fire-proof; where considerable quantities of combustible goods +are deposited, would be groined brick-arches, supported by +pillars of the same material, laid in proper cement. I am +fully convinced, from a lengthened experience, that the intensity +of a fire,—the risk of its ravages extending to adjoining +premises, and also the difficulty of extinguishing it, +depend, <i>cæteris paribus</i>, on the cubic contents of the building +which takes fire, and it appears to me that the amount +of loss would be very much reduced, if, instead of building +immense warehouses, which give the fire a fortified position, +warehouses were made of a moderate size, with access on two +sides at least, completely separated from each other by party-walls, +and protected by iron-doors and window-shutters. In +the latter case, the probability is, that not more than one +warehouse would be lost at a time, and perhaps that one +would be only partially injured.</p> + +<p>It is sincerely to be hoped that the clause in the last +Metropolitan Building Act, restricting the size of warehouses, +may be more successful than its predecessor, for it is not only +property that is at stake, but human life. In many of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +"Manchester warehouses," there are fifty or one hundred and +upwards of warehousemen and servants sleeping in the upper +floors, whose escape, in case of fire, would be very doubtful, +to say the least of it.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></p> + +<p>Covering timber with sheet-iron is very often resorted to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +as a protection against fire. I have never found it succeed; +but Dr. Faraday, Professor Brande, Dr. D. B. Reid, and Mr. +W. Tite, M.P., are of opinion that it may be useful against a +sudden burst of flame, but that it is worse than useless +against a continued heat.</p> + +<p>In wadding manufactories the drying-rooms were frequently +lined with iron-plates, and when a fire arose there, +the part covered with iron was generally found more damaged +than the rest; the heat got through the sheet-iron, and +burnt the materials behind it, and there was no means of +touching them with water until the iron was torn down; +sheet iron should not, therefore, be used for protecting wood.</p> + +<p>Even cast iron, one inch thick, laid on tiles and cement +three inches thick, has allowed fire to pass through both, to +the boarding and joisting below, merely from the fire in an +open fire-place being taken off and laid on the hearth. This +arises from iron being so good a conductor that, when heat +is applied to it, it becomes in a very short time nearly as hot +on the one side as the other. If the smoke escapes up a +chimney, or in any other way, there may be a serious amount +of fire before it is noticed.</p> + +<p>In a fire at the Bank of England, the hearth on which the +stove was placed was cast iron an inch thick, with two-and-a-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +inches of concrete underneath it; but the timber below +that was fired.</p> + +<p>With regard to the subject of fire-proof dwelling-houses of +average size, I consider that such houses when built of brick +or stone, with party-walls carried through the roof; the partitions +of brick, the stairs of slate or stone, the joists of +wrought iron filled in with concrete, and the whole well +plastered, are practically fire-proof because, as stated at the +opening of this chapter, there is no probability that the furniture +and flooring in any one room would make fire enough +to communicate to another. The safest manner of heating +such houses is with open fire-places, the hearths not being +laid upon timber. Stone staircases, when much heated, will +fracture from cold water coming suddenly in contact with +them; but in a dwelling-house built as described above, there +is very little chance of such a circumstance endangering +human life, even with wooden steps carried upon brick walls, +and rendered incombustible by a ceiling of an inch and a +quarter of good hair mortar and well pugged, all the purposes +of safety to human life would be attained.</p> + +<p>There is a particular description of floor, which, although +not altogether fire-proof, is certainly (at least so far as I can +judge), almost practically so for dwelling-houses. It is composed +simply of plank two and a-half or three inches thick, +so closely joined, and so nicely fitted to the walls, as to be +completely air-tight. Its thickness and its property of being +air-tight, will be easily observed to be its only causes of +safety. Although the apartment be on fire, yet the time required +to burn through the floor above or below, will be so +great, that the property may be removed from the other +floors, or, more probably, if the means of extinguishing fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +be at hand, it may be subdued before it can spread to any +other apartment. The doors must of course be made in +proportion, and the partitions of brick or stone.</p> + +<p>Before closing the subject of fire-proof structures, I will +add a few words upon fire-proof safes. These are all constructed +with double casings of wrought iron, the interstices +being in some filled with non-combustible substances, such as +pumice stone and Stourbridge clay, and in others with metal +tubes, that melt at a low temperature, and allow a liquid +contained in them to escape, and form steam round the box, +with the intention of preventing the heat from injuring the +contents. Such safes I have never found destroyed; and in +some cases, after large fires, the whole of the contents have +been found uninjured, while the papers in common safes, +merely made strong enough to prevent their being broken +into, were generally found consumed.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Seventh Report of the British Association, 1837, vol. vi. +page 409.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Report on the Fall of the Cotton Mill, at Oldham, and part of +the Prison at Northleach, page 4. Folio. London: Clowes and Sons, +1845.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Report of W. Fairbairn, Esq., on the Construction of Fire-proof +Buildings. With introductory Remarks by Samuel Holme, page 11, <i>et +seq.</i> Tract, 8vo. Liverpool: T. Baines, 1844.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> The Author has been informed by Mr. Farey, M. Inst. C.E., +that a fire took place, in 1827, in a mill belonging to Mr. Marshall, of +Leeds, the whole of which, with the exception of the roof, was fire-proof. +The upper floor was filled with flax, which took fire; the roof fell in, +and the heat so affected the iron beams of the floor, as to cause them to +give way.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> In the year 1858, when reporting to the Insurance Offices upon the +Warehouses in the Metropolitan Docks, Mr. Braidwood made the following +suggestions which are applicable to all large buildings. That all the +party-walls where the roofs do not rise above the wall, should be 3 feet +6 inches above such roof. That all the party-walls in the valleys of the +roofs should be raised to the level of the highest ridge on either side, all +openings in such walls being closed by wrought-iron doors on each side +of the walls, at least a quarter of an inch thick in the panels, and such +openings not to exceed 42 superficial feet in the clear. That all windows +which look upon other windows, or loop-hole doors in other warehouses or +compartments, within 100 feet, should be bricked up, or have wrought-iron +shutters at least 3/16th of an inch thick in the panels. +</p><p> +That all loop-hole doors similarly situated should be made entirely of +wrought iron, frames included, or bricked up. That all shafts for lifts or +other purposes, should be of brick, with wrought-iron doors where necessary +to receive or deliver goods, and that all openings whatever for +machinery should be included in such shaft. That every hatchway +or opening in the floors for "shooting" goods from floor to floor should +have a strong flap <i>hinged on</i> to the floor, to be closed when not in use, +especially at night. +</p><p> +That there should be direct access to every room, of every compartment, +of every warehouse, from a fire-proof staircase, by iron doors, and that all +such staircases should enter from the open air, as well as from under any +warehouse on the quay; in the latter case the doors must be of iron +only. +</p><p> +All the windows in the entresol and ground floors to be bricked up, or +have iron shutters, and the doors and frames to be of iron. +</p><p> +Wherever the warehouses face each other within 100 feet, the front +parapet walls to be carried up to the level of the ridge of the roof. +</p><p> +When it is stated in this report that the windows or loop-hole doors +should be bricked up, it is not meant to exclude the use of thick glass, +three or four pieces being built into each door or window space, not exceeding +6 inches in diameter or square, in the clear, and set in the mortar or +cement at least 3/4 of an inch all round, the glass to be not less than 1-1/2 inches +thick, flat on both sides, and so placed that no goods can be stored within +18 inches of the inner surface. +</p><p> +There should be a tank on the top of each staircase, with a tap from +it on each landing, with six fire buckets hung near it, and three small +hand pumps in every staircase; the officers and workpeople seeing these +every day would be certain to run to them in case of fire, and by having +a constant supply of water on every floor small accidents might be extinguished +at once, and the iron doors and roofs kept cool in case of one +room taking fire.</p></div> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="FIRE_EXTINCTION" id="FIRE_EXTINCTION"></a>FIRE EXTINCTION,</h2> + +<h4>INCLUDING</h4> + +<h2>FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES,</h2> + +<h4>AND</h4> + +<h2>WATER SUPPLY.</h2> + + +<p>Before entering upon the subject of Public Fire Brigades, +I will call attention to the course to be pursued by inmates +of the house on fire, and their neighbours.</p> + +<p>When all available means of fire prevention have been +adopted, the next thing to be considered is a supply of water. +In the country, or where there are no water-pipes or engines, +this ought to be particularly attended to, and a hand-pump +should be provided. Where no water is kept solely for the +purpose of extinguishing fire, such vessels as can be spared +should be regularly filled every night, and placed in such situations +as may be most convenient in case of danger; and no +master of a family ought to retire to rest, without being +satisfied that this has been attended to. If it had no other +advantage than merely that of directing the inmates of a +house to the possibility of such an occurrence as fire, it +would be worth much more than the trouble such an +arrangement would cost; but, in addition to that, a supply of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +water would be at hand, in most cases more than sufficient +to extinguish the fire immediately on its being discovered, +and before it had become either alarming or dangerous. But +when no such precaution has been adopted, when even the +bare possibility of fire has not been considered, when no +attention has even been paid to the subject, and no provision +made for it; the inhabitants are generally so alarmed +and confused, that the danger is probably over, by their property +being burned to the ground, before they can sufficiently +recollect themselves to lend any effective assistance.</p> + +<p>In most cases of fire, the people in whose premises it occurs +are thrown into what may be called a state of temporary derangement, +and seem to be actuated only by a desire of +muscular movement, no matter to what purpose their exertions +are directed. Persons may often be seen toiling like +galley-slaves, at operations which a moment's reflection would +show were utterly useless. I have seen tables, chairs, and +every article of furniture that would pass through a window, +three or four stories high, dashed into the street, even when +the fire had hardly touched the tenement. On one occasion +I saw crockery-ware thrown from a window on the third +floor.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p> + +<p>Most of these extravagances take place on the first alarm. +When the engines have got fairly into play, people begin to +recollect themselves, and it is at this time that most of those +"who go to see a fire" arrive. By the exertions of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +police there is then generally a considerable degree of order +restored, and the most interesting part of the scene is over.</p> + +<p>What remains, however, may, from its novelty or grandeur, +if the fire is extensive, be still worth looking at for a little, +but much of the excitement is banished with the confusion; +and if the fire and firemen seem to be well matched, the chief +interest which is excited in the spectators is to ascertain +which of the parties is likely to be victorious. Few people, +comparatively, have thus an opportunity of witnessing the +terror and distraction occasioned by the first alarm of fire, +and this may probably account for the apathy and indifference +with which people who have not seen this regard it.</p> + +<p>When a fire actually takes place, every one should endeavour +to be as cool and collected as possible; screams, cries, +and other exhibitions of terror, while utterly useless in +themselves, have generally the effect of alarming those whose +services might otherwise be of the utmost advantage, and of +rendering them unfit for useful exertion. It is unhappily, +too, at the commencement of fires, that this tendency to confusion +and terror is the strongest, when a bucket of water, +properly applied, is generally of more value than a hundred +will be half an hour afterwards. It is the feeling of total +surprise, on the breaking out of a fire, which thus unhinges +the faculties of many individuals. They have never made +the case their own, nay, one would almost imagine they had +scarcely thought such an occurrence possible, till, coming on +them almost like a thunderbolt, they are lost in perplexity +and terror. The only preventive against this is to think the +matter over frequently and carefully before it occurs.</p> + +<p>The moment it is ascertained that fire has actually taken +place, notice should be sent to the nearest station where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +there is a fire-engine. No matter whether the inmates are +likely to be able to extinguish the fire themselves—this +should never be trusted to if more efficient help can be +had.</p> + +<p>It is much better that an engine should be turned out +twenty times when it is not wanted, than be once too late. +This may cause a trifling expense; but even that expense is +not altogether lost, as it teaches the firemen steadiness and +coolness.</p> + +<p>The person in the house best qualified for such duty +should endeavour to ascertain, with as much precision as possible, +the extent and position of the fire, while the others +collect as much water as they can. If the fire be in an +upper floor, the inmates should be got out immediately, +although the lower part of the house may generally be entered +with safety for some time. If in the lower part of +the house, after the inmates have been removed, great care +should be observed in going into any of the upper floors, as +the flames very often reach the stair before being observed +by those above. The upper floors are, besides, generally +filled with smoke, and, in that case, there is great danger of +suffocation to those who may enter.</p> + +<p>This, indeed, is the principal danger attending fires, and +should be particularly guarded against, as a person, when +being suffocated, is unable to call for assistance. In a case +of this kind the fire took place in the third floor from the +street, and all the inmates immediately left the premises +except one old woman. In about fifteen minutes after the +arrival of the engines, the firemen made their way upstairs, +and the poor woman was found dead beside a basket partly +filled with clothes, which it was supposed she had been packing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +up for removal; had she made any noise, or even broke +a pane of glass, she would, in all probability, have been +saved; as the fire never touched the floor in which she was +found, she must have died entirely from suffocation, which a +little fresh air would have prevented. Had the slightest +suspicion existed that any one was in the upper floors, they +would have been entered by the windows or the roof; but +as the fire took place in daylight, and none of the neighbours +spoke of any one being in the house, it was thought +unnecessary to damage the property, or risk the lives of the +firemen, without some adequate cause. This, however, +shows how little dependence can be placed on information +received from the inmates of the premises on fire. Some of +the people who lived on the same floor with this poor +woman, and who had seen her immediately before they left +the house, never mentioned her. I do not suppose that this +negligence arose from apathy, or any feeling of that sort; +but the people were in such a state of utter confusion, that +they were unable to think of anything. But to return.</p> + +<p>On the first discovery of a fire, it is of the utmost consequence +to shut, and keep shut, all doors, windows, or other +openings. It may often be observed, after a house has been +on fire, that one floor is comparatively untouched, while +those above and below are nearly burned out. This arises +from the door on that particular floor having been shut, and +the draught directed elsewhere. If the person who has +examined the fire finds a risk of its gaining ground upon +him, he should, if within reach of fire-engines, keep everything +close, and await their arrival, instead of admitting air +to the fire by ineffectual efforts to oppose it with inadequate +means. In the meantime, however, he should examine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +where a supply of water is most likely to be obtained, and +communicate that, and any other local information, to the +firemen on their coming forward. If there be no fire-engine +within reach, the person who has examined the fire should +keep the place where it is situated as close as possible, till as +many buckets of water as can be easily collected are placed +within his reach.</p> + +<p>Taking care always that there is some one ready to assist +him, he should then open the door, and creep forward on his +hands and knees till he gets as near the fire as possible; holding +his breath, and standing up for a moment to give the +water a proper direction, he should throw it with force, using +a hand pump if available, and instantly get down to his +former position, where he will be again able to breathe. The +people behind handing forward another bucket of water, he +repeats the operation till the fire is quenched, or until he +feels exhausted; in which case some one should take his +place. If there be enough of water, however, two, three, or +any convenient number of people may be employed in throwing +it; on the contrary, if the supply of water be insufficient +to employ even one person, the door should be kept shut +while the water is being brought, and the air excluded as +much as possible, as the fire burns exactly in proportion to +the quantity of air which it receives.</p> + +<p>One great evil, and which ought to be strictly guarded +against by people not accustomed to fire, is, that on the first +alarm they exert themselves to the very utmost of their +strength. This, of course, can last but a short time; and +when they feel tired, which in that case soon happens, they +very often give up altogether. Now this is the reverse of +what it ought to be. In extinguishing fires, like most other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +things, a cool judgment and steady perseverance are far more +effective than any desultory exertions which can be made.</p> + +<p>The heat generally increases in a considerable degree when +water is first thrown upon a fire, from the conversion of a +portion of it into steam. This is sometimes very annoying; +so much so, that the persons engaged in throwing the water, +frequently feel themselves obliged to give back a little. They +should on no account, however, abate or discontinue their +exertions in throwing the water with as much force as +possible in the direction of the fire; it will in a short time +cool the air and materials, and the steam will, in consequence, +be generated more slowly, while a steady perseverance on the +part of those employed can alone effect the object in view.</p> + +<p>When water is scarce, mud, cow or horse dung, damp +earth, &c., may be used as substitutes; but if there seems no +chance of succeeding by any of these, and the fire is likely +to extend to other buildings, the communication should be +immediately cut off by pulling down the building next to +that on fire. Any operation of this sort, however, should be +begun at a sufficient distance from the fire to allow the communication +to be completely cut off, before it gains upon the +workmen. If this operation be attempted so near the fire as +to be interrupted by it, it must be begun again at a greater +distance; and, in that case, there is a greater destruction of +property than might have been necessary.</p> + +<p>If a fire occur in a stable or cow-house, surrounded with +other buildings of the same description, or with the produce +of a farm, there is much danger. The cattle and horses +should be immediately removed; and, in doing so, if any of +them become restive, they should be blindfolded, taking care +that it is done thoroughly, as any attempt to blindfold them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +partially, only increases the evil. They should be handled +as much as possible in the ordinary manner, and with great +coolness; the violent gestures and excited appearance of the +persons removing them tending greatly to startle the animals, +and render them unmanageable.</p> + + +<h3>PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES AND THE DUTIES OF FIREMEN.</h3> + +<p>The best public means of arresting fires is a very wide +question, as the only limit to the means is the expense. +Different nations have different ways of doing the same +thing. On the Continent generally, the whole is managed +by Government, and the firemen are placed under martial +law, the inhabitants being compelled to work the engines. +In London, the principal means of arresting fires is a voluntary +association of the insurance companies, without legal +authority of any sort, the legal protection by parish +engines being, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, a dead +letter.</p> + +<p>In Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction +of fires by the pressure of water only, without the use of +fire-engines, is very much practised. The advantages of this +system are very great; but, to enable us to follow this +system in London, the whole water supply would require to +be remodelled.</p> + +<p>In America, the firemen are generally volunteers, enrolled +by the local Governments. They are exempt from other +duties, or are entitled to privileges, which appear to satisfy +them, as the situation of fireman is eagerly sought in most +of the American cities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<p>Which is the best of these different modes it is difficult +to say; perhaps each is best suited for the place where it +exists.</p> + +<p>It is now generally admitted, that the whole force brought +together to extinguish a fire ought to be under the direction +and control of one individual. By this means, all quarrelling +among the firemen about the supply of water, the +interest of particular insurance companies, and other matters +of detail, is avoided. By having the whole force under +the command of one person, he is enabled to form one +general plan of operations, to which the whole body is subservient; +and although he may not, in the hurry of the +moment, at all times adopt what will afterwards appear to +be the best plan, yet it is better to have some general +arrangement, than to allow the firemen of each engine to +work according to their own fancy, and that, too, very +often in utter disregard as to whether their exertions +may aid or retard those of their neighbours. The individual +appointed to such a situation ought not to be +interfered with, or have his attention distracted, except by +the chief authority on the spot, or the owner of the premises +on fire. Much valuable information is frequently obtained +from the latter, as to the division of the premises, the party-walls, +and other matters connected with its locality. But, +generally speaking, the less interference and advice the +better, as it occupies time which may generally be better +employed.</p> + +<p>I need scarcely add, that on no account whatever should +directions be given to the firemen by any other individual +while the superintendent of brigade is present; and that +there may be no quarrelling about superiority, the men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +should be aware on whom the command is to devolve in his +absence.</p> + +<p>It has often been to me a matter of surprise, that so small +a portion of the public attention should be directed to the +matter of extinguishing fires. It is only when roused by +some great calamity that people bestir themselves; and then +there is such a variety of plans proposed to avert similar +cases of distress, that to attempt to concoct a rational plan +out of such a crude, ill-digested, and contradictory mass of +opinion, requires more labour and attention than most people +are inclined to give it, unless a regular business was made +of it. In Paris the corps of military firemen are so well +trained, that although their apparatus is not so good as it +should be, the amount of the losses by fire is comparatively +trifling. If the head-quarters of such an establishment were +to be in London, a store of apparatus, constructed on one +uniform plan, could be kept there, to be forwarded to any +other part of the kingdom where it might be required. This +uniformity of the structure and design of the apparatus could +extend to the most minute particulars; a screw or a nut of +any one engine would fit every other engine in the kingdom. +A depôt could also be kept at head-quarters, where recruits +would be regularly drilled and instructed in the business, +and a regular system of communication kept up with all the +provincial corps. Any particular circumstances occurring +at a fire would thus be immediately reported, and the advantages +of any knowledge or experience thus gained, would +be disseminated over the whole kingdom. As the matter at +present stands one town may have an excellent fire-engine +establishment, and another within a few miles a very indifferent +one, and when the one is called to assist the other,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +they can neither act in concert, nor can the apparatus of the +one in case of accident be of the smallest service in replacing +that of the other. The best might (if a proper communication +were kept up) be under frequent obligations to the +worst, and here, as in other matters, it is chiefly by communication +that knowledge is increased. If the whole experience +of the country were brought together, and maturely +considered and digested by persons competent to judge, I +have no doubt that a system might be introduced suitable to +the nation and to the age in which we live. Instead of hearing +of the "<i>dreadful losses by fire</i>," and the "<i>great exertions</i>" +made to extinguish it, all the notice would be, such a place +took fire, the engines arrived, and it was extinguished.</p> + +<p>It would be useless for me to enter into the details of a plan +which I have little hope of ever seeing realized. I may state, +however, that a premium might be offered for the best engine +of a size previously agreed upon, which, when finished, +should be kept as a model.</p> + +<p>Specifications could then be made out, and estimates advertised +for, for all the different parts, such as wheels, axles, +levers, cisterns, barrels, air-vessels, &c., separately. When +any particular part of an engine was damaged, it could be +immediately replaced, and the engine again rendered fit for +service; and upon emergency any number of engines could +be set up, merely by putting the different parts together. +The work would also be better done; at least it would be +much more easy to detect faults in the materials or workmanship +than if the engines were bought ready for use. These +remarks apply to all the rest of the apparatus.</p> + +<p>It could be provided that firemen might be enlisted for a +term of years. When enlisted, they would be sent to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +depôt at head-quarters, drilled to the use of the engines, and +carefully instructed in separating and cleaning the different +parts. Here also they could be practised in gymnastic exercises, +and generally instructed in everything tending to promote +their usefulness as firemen. They could then be sent +off to some large towns, and, after having seen a little active +service, distributed over the country in such parties as might +be deemed necessary for the places they were intended to +protect.</p> + +<p>The practice of keeping fire-engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's +residences, and at large manufactories in the country, +is by no means uncommon, and I have no doubt that many +more would supply themselves in this way if they knew +where to apply for information in such matters; but the +great fault lies in the want of persons of skill and experience +to work them when fire occurs. In the way I have mentioned, +proprietors and others could have one or more of their +workmen instructed in this necessary piece of duty; and I +have no doubt that many gentlemen would avail themselves +of the means of instructing some of their servants.</p> + +<p>It will be observed, I do not propose that the firemen who +are enlisted, drilled, and instructed in the business, should +be sent to the different stations in sufficient numbers to work +the engines; this part of the work can be performed by any +man accustomed to hard labour, as well as by the most expert +fireman, and the local authorities could easily provide +men for this purpose. In small towns, where fires are rare, +the novelty would draw together plenty of hands; and in +large towns, where the inhabitants are not sufficiently disinterested +to work for nothing, there are always plenty who +could be bound to assist in cases of fire at a certain rate per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +hour, to be paid upon a certificate from the fireman who has +charge of the engine at which they worked. The trained +firemen would thus be required only for the direction of the +engine, attaching the hose, &c.</p> + +<p>I am quite aware that many people object to the training +of firemen; but it would be just as reasonable to give to a +mob all the "matériel" of war, and next day expect it to act +like a regular army, as to expect engines to be managed with +any general prospect of success, unless the men are properly +trained and prepared for the duty which is expected from +them. Fire is both a powerful and an insidious enemy, and +those whose business it is to attack it will best succeed when +they have become skilful and experienced in the use of their +arms.</p> + +<p>It is quite obvious that a fire brigade, however complete +in its apparatus and equipments, must depend for its efficiency +on the state of training and discipline of the firemen. +Wherever there is inexperience, want of co-operation, or +confusion amongst them, the utmost danger is to be apprehended +in the event of fire. It is amidst the raging of this +destructive element, the terror and bustle of the inhabitants, +that organization and discipline triumph, and it is there, too, +that coolness and promptitude, steadiness and activity, fearlessness +and caution, are peculiarly required; but, unfortunately, +it is then also that they are most rarely exhibited.</p> + +<p>There should not be less than five or six men attached to +each engine, who should be properly instructed and drilled, +to take charge of it, and to guide the people who work at +the levers.</p> + +<p>The person having the principal charge of the engines +should frequently turn over in his mind what might be the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +best plan, in such and such circumstances, supposing a fire to +take place. By frequently ruminating on the subject, he +will find himself, when suddenly turned out of bed at night, +much more fit for his task than if he had never considered +the matter at all. Indeed he will frequently be surprised, +when examining the premises afterwards (<i>which he ought +always to do, and mark any mistakes he may have committed</i>), +that he should have adopted the very best mode of extinguishing +the fire, amid the noise, confusion, and the innumerable +advices showered down on him, by all those who +consider themselves qualified or entitled to give advice in +such matters; a number, by the way, which sometimes includes +no inconsiderable portion of the spectators. He +should also make himself well acquainted with the different +parts of the town in which he may be appointed to act, and +notice the declivities of the different streets, &c. He will +find this knowledge of great advantage.</p> + +<p>Any buildings, supposed to be particularly dangerous, +should be carefully examined, and all the different places +where supplies of water can be obtained for them noticed.</p> + +<p>A knowledge of the locality thus obtained will be found of +great advantage in case of a fire breaking out. Indeed all +firemen, especially those having the charge of engines, should +be instructed carefully to examine and make themselves +acquainted with the localities of their neighbourhood or district. +Such knowledge will often prove valuable in emergencies; +the proprietors or tenants of the property on fire +being sometimes in such a state of alarm, that no distinct +intelligence can be got from them.</p> + +<p>When an engine is brought to a fire, it ought to be placed +as nearly as possible in a straight line between the supply of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +water and the premises on fire; taking care, however, to +keep at such a distance from the latter that the men who +work the pumps may be in no danger from being scorched +by the heat, or of being annoyed by the falling of water or +burning materials. Running the engine close upon the fire +serves no good purpose, except to shorten the quantity of +hose that would otherwise be required. The addition of +twenty or thirty feet of hose makes very little difference in +the working of the engine, and, when compared with the +disadvantage of the men becoming unsteady from the idea of +personal danger, is not even to be named. Indeed, if the +engine be brought too near the fire, there is danger of the +men quitting the levers altogether. I may also add that, +both for the safety of the hose and the convenience of the +inhabitants, the engine should be kept out of the way of +people removing furniture.</p> + +<p>When the hose is attached and the engine filled with +water, the man who holds the branch-pipe, accompanied by +another, should get so near the fire, inside the house, <i>that the +water from the branch may strike the burning materials</i>. If +he cannot accomplish this standing, he must get down on his +hands and knees and creep forward, those behind handing up +the hose. A stratum of fresh air is almost always to be depended +on from six to twelve inches from the floor, so that if +the air be not respirable to a person standing upright, he +should instantly get down. I have often observed this fact, +which indeed is well known; but I once saw an example of +it which appeared to me to be so striking, that I shall here +relate it. A fire had broken out in the third floor of a house, +and when I reached the top of the stair, the smoke was +rolling in thick heavy masses, which prevented me from seeing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +six inches before me. I immediately got down on the floor; +above which, for a space of about eight inches the air seemed +to be remarkably clear and bright. I could distinctly see +the feet of the tables and other furniture in the apartment; +the flames in this space burning as vivid and distinct as the +flame of a candle, while all above the smoke was so thick that +the eye could not penetrate it. The fire had already burst +through three out of five windows in the apartment, yet, +when lying flat on the floor, no inconvenience was felt except +from the heat.</p> + +<p>When the fire has broken through a floor, the supply of +air along that floor is not to be depended on—the fire +drawing the principal supply of air from the apartments +below.</p> + +<p>When the two first firemen have gained a favourable position, +they should keep it as long as they are able; and when +they feel exhausted, the men behind them should take their +place.</p> + +<p>The great point to which everything ought to be made +subservient is, <i>that the water on its discharge from the branch-pipe +should actually strike the burning materials</i>. This cannot +be too often or too anxiously inculcated on every one connected +with a fire-engine establishment. Every other method +not having this for its grand object, will, in nine cases out +of ten, utterly fail; and upon the degree of attention paid to +this point, depends almost entirely the question as to the +amount of damage the fire will occasion.</p> + +<p>When approaching a fire, it should always be done by the +door, if possible. When this is attended to, it is much easier +to shift the hose from one apartment to another; and the +current of fresh air, entering by the door and proceeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +along the passages, makes respiration easier and safer than +elsewhere.</p> + +<p>When entrance by the door is impracticable, and access is +to be gained by a window, the flames frequently burst through +in such a manner as to render advance in the first instance +impossible. In that case, the branch should be pointed +against the window, nearly in a perpendicular direction; the +water striking the lintel, and falling all round inside the +window, will soon extinguish the fire at that point sufficiently +to render an entrance practicable.</p> + +<p>The old plan of standing with the branch pipe in the +street, and throwing the water into the windows is a very +random way of going to work; and for my own part, +although I have seen it repeatedly tried, I never saw it +attended with success. Indeed it is hardly to be expected +that water, thrown from the street into a room three or four +storeys high, can have any impression on closets, presses, or +passages, divided probably with brick partitions in the centre +of the house. The circumstance of having engines at work +on both sides of the house does not alter the case. The fire +very often burns up through the centre, and frequently, +when the space between the windows is large, along the +front or back wall, till it arrives at the roof, which the water +cannot touch on account of the slates or tiles. On the other +hand, when the firemen enter the house, the fire is almost +wholly under their command. And when it happens that +there is any corner which the water cannot directly strike, +the fire in it may often be extinguished by throwing the +water against an opposite wall or partition, and trusting to +the recoil to throw it to the point required.</p> + +<p>When the water is thrown from the street, it is impossible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> +to say whether it touches the parts on fire or not. No one +can tell anything about it, except when the flame appears at +the windows.</p> + +<p>On going with the branch inside the house, besides the +advantage of the water rushing directly from the hose upon +the fire, there is a great saving in the article of water itself. +The whole that is thrown by the engine is applied to the +right purpose. No part of it is lost; that which does not +strike the burning materials falls within the house; and, by +soaking those parts on which it falls, prevents their burning +so rapidly when the flames approach them.</p> + +<p>If, on entering an apartment, it be found that the flames +cover a considerable space, it is of advantage, in some +instances, to place the point of the thumb in contact with +the water at the nozzle of the branch. By this means the +water may be spread to cover any space under twenty or +thirty feet, according to the pressure applied.</p> + +<p>While speaking of the mode of entering houses on fire, I +may mention that I have tried several inventions for the +purpose of elevating the branch pipe and hose to the level of +a second or third story window. But these, although +exceedingly ingenious, appear to me to rest on a principle +entirely wrong; I mean that of throwing water on the fire +from the outside of the building.</p> + +<p>Independent altogether of a mistaken principle of usefulness, +one insuperable objection to all these machines, is +the difficulty of conveying them with the necessary celerity, +and the impossibility of packing them on the engine in such +a manner that it may be worked without their being taken +off, as it seems to me <i>that every description of apparatus +which cannot be conveyed along with the engine, is likely to be</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +<i>left behind when most wanted</i>. It is notorious that parish +fire-ladders are, for this reason, seldom or never made use of.</p> + +<p>Many people object to going inside a building on fire on +account of the danger. It ought never to be forgotten, however, +that the danger increases with the delay; and that +although at first there may be no danger, if the opportunity +is not promptly seized, it may become very considerable.</p> + +<p>Several of the firemen have at different times fainted, or +become stupefied, from the want of fresh air; but as no one +is ever allowed to enter singly, they have been, in all cases, +immediately observed by their comrades, and relieved.</p> + +<p>Another objection has been raised in the alleged difficulty +of persuading men to risk their lives in this manner for the +small consideration which is allowed them. The truth is, +that any persuasions I have had occasion to use, have been +generally on the other side.</p> + +<p>To hold the branch is considered the post of honour; and +when two engines are working together, I have sometimes +difficulty in preventing the men from pressing forward farther +than is absolutely necessary. This forwardness is not the +result of pecuniary reward for the increase of risk, but a +spirit of emulation is at work, and the man entrusted with +this duty, if found drawing back, would be completely disgraced.</p> + +<p>A retreat should in all cases be kept open, to provide +against any accident that may occur; and as this may be done +in almost all cases by means so easy and simple, there can be +no excuse for its omission. At the same time no one but an +expert fireman should be permitted to enter where there is +personal danger.</p> + +<p>The danger to which firemen are most exposed is catching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +cold, from their being so frequently drenched with water, and +from their exposure to the sudden alternations of heat and +cold. A man is turned out of bed at midnight, and in a few +minutes after quitting it he is exposed to the sharp air, +perhaps, of a frosty winter night; running to the fire as fast +as he can, he is, from the exercise, joined to the oppressive +heat inside the place on fire, in a few minutes in a state of +the most profuse perspiration; and, while in this state, he is +almost certain to be soaked with cold water. The smoke is +sometimes so thick, that he comes under the range of the +branch of the engine without being aware of it till the +water strikes him. If he escape this chance, the water +rushing on some other object, recoils on him, and produces +the same effect; and if the fire be in the roof of the apartment, +he must lie down on his back on the floor, and in this +manner gets completely steeped.</p> + +<p>A bath of this sort is neither very safe nor pleasant; and +the only preventive of injury to the health is to keep the +men in constant motion. When they are allowed to stand +still or sit down, the danger is considerable. When the fire +is extinguished, or in two or three hours after its commencement, +I make it a rule to give every man a dram of spirits. +If it be necessary to leave an engine on the spot, those of +the men who are to remain are sent home to change their +clothes.</p> + + +<h3>THE LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.</h3> + +<p>The London Fire Brigade now (January, 1861) consists of +one superintendent, four foremen, each being appointed to a +district consisting of a fourth part of London, which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +never leaves except on some very pressing emergency, and +who, in the absence of the superintendent, has the sole command +of all engines, or firemen, within, or who may come +within, his district; twelve engineers, ten sub-engineers, +forty-seven senior firemen, and forty-three junior firemen: +in all, one hundred and seventeen individuals. In addition, +there are fifteen drivers and thirty-seven horses, +all living at the several stations, and ready when required. +There is also a supplementary force of four extra +firemen, four drivers, and eight horses living at the +stations, pursuing their usual avocations, and only paid +by the Committee when required. The mechanical appliances +consist of twenty-seven large engines drawn by +horses, eight small engines drawn by hand, two floating-engines +worked by steam, one of forty-horse power, and the +other of eighty-horse power, one land steam fire-engine, and +twenty-eight hand-pumps, one of the latter being carried on +each engine. When an engine is sent to a fire, only four +firemen and one driver accompany it. The levers are worked +by the by-standers, who are paid one shilling for the first +hour, and sixpence for each succeeding hour, besides refreshments. +Upwards of six hundred assistants have been thus +employed at one time. The principal protection of London +against fire is entirely voluntary on the part of the insurance +companies, to whom the above establishment belongs; +there being no law in any shape whatever to control or sustain +the brigade; and with the exception of some fifteen or +twenty, the parish-engines are comparatively useless at a +serious fire. It must not be omitted, that the greatest possible +assistance is given to the firemen by the police, of whom +there are about 7000, in keeping back the crowd, &c. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +fire-offices look upon the whole as a matter of private +business, so that the brigade is proportioned quite as must +to the amount which the offices think it prudent to spend as +to the size of the place. Paris, which is not half the size of +London, and the buildings of which are much more substantial, +has upwards of 800 firemen. It appears to me +that any success which the brigade may have attained +depends, in a great measure, on the liberal pay given, by +which the best men for the purpose can be obtained, the +favourable view in which the brigade is regarded by the +public, and the willing and able assistance given by a +numerous and perhaps the best police in existence.</p> + +<p>The firemen in London being constantly employed on +weekly wages, give their whole time to their employers, and +are much more under command than where men are only +occasionally employed. The wages and treatment being +liberal, although the discipline is severe, there are generally +a considerable number of candidates for each vacancy. Thus +good men are obtained, seamen being preferred, as they are +taught to obey orders, and the night and day watches and +the uncertainty of the occupation are more similar to their +former habits, than to those of other men of the same rank +in life. The large number of fires is, however, the principal +cause of any advantage the London firemen may possess over +those of smaller places; and it is hardly fair to compare firemen +who have only an opportunity of attending one or two +fires in a week, to those who attend nearly three fires a +day.</p> + +<p>The firemen are drilled first daily, and then two or three +times a week, for some months; and this, with an average +of three calls a day, soon makes them acquainted with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +routine of their business; but it takes years of constant +work to make a thoroughly good fireman.</p> + +<p>The management of the London Fire Brigade is confided +to a Committee, consisting of one of the directors or secretaries +from each of the fire-offices in London.</p> + +<p>The superintendent has the command of the whole force.</p> + +<p>The town is divided into four districts, in each of which +there are stationed a sufficient number of engines, under the +charge of a foreman, with engines and firemen under him.</p> + +<p>The districts are as follows:—</p> + +<h4>NORTH SIDE OF RIVER.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>District A. From the eastward to Paul's Chain, St. Paul's +Churchyard, Aldersgate-street, and Goswell-street-road.</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">B. From St. Paul's, &c., to Tottenham-court-road, +Crown-street, and St. Martin's-lane.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">C. From Tottenham-court-road, &c., westward.</span></p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">D. South side of River.</span></p></div> + +<p>The men are clothed uniformly; are distinguished by +numbers corresponding with their names in the books; and +regularly exercised in the use of their engines, and in such +other duties as the Committee or Superintendent may direct.</p> + +<p>The following general regulations do not contain rules +of conduct applicable to every variety of circumstance that +may occur to individuals in the performance of their duty, as +something must always be left for the exercise of intelligence +and discretion; and, according to the degree in which these +qualities in members of the Establishment are combined with +zeal and activity, they become entitled to future promotion +and reward.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> + +<p>It is strongly impressed upon the minds of all persons +serving in the Establishment, that one of the greatest advantages +which the present system possesses above that which +it superseded, is derived from the embodying the whole force +under one responsible officer. It is, therefore, incumbent +upon the men to render prompt and cheerful obedience to +the commands of their superiors; to execute their duties as +steadily and quietly as possible; to be careful not to annoy +the inhabitants of houses they may be called upon to enter, +and to treat all persons with civility; to take care to preserve +presence of mind and good temper, and not to allow +themselves to be distracted from their duty by the advice +or directions of any persons but their own officers, and +to observe the strictest sobriety and general regularity of +behaviour.</p> + +<p>As every man wears the uniform of the Establishment, +which is marked with a number corresponding with his name +in the books, he must constantly bear in mind that misconduct +will not only reflect discredit upon the Establishment, +but be easily brought home to himself and subject him to +proportional punishment.</p> + +<p>The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous +liquors from any individual without special permission of the +superintendent, or, in his absence, of the foreman of the +district; and as intoxication upon the alarming occasion of +fires is not only disreputable to the Establishment, but in +the highest degree dangerous, by rendering the men unfit +for duty, every appearance of it is most rigidly marked, and +the foremen, engineers, and sub-engineers report immediately, +for the purpose of being laid before the Committee, +every instance of insubordination or intoxication, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +men are accordingly apprised that the regulations regarding +the above-mentioned faults will be most strictly enforced.</p> + +<p>All the men in the Establishment are liable to be +punished by fine, suspension, reduction, or dismissal, for +disobeying or neglecting any of these regulations, or for +any other misconduct; and the disposal of the fines so +collected is at the discretion of the Committee.</p> + +<p>The following are the conditions upon which each man is +admitted into the Establishment:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>He devotes his whole time to the service.</p> + +<p>He serves and resides wherever he is appointed.</p> + +<p>He must promptly obey all orders which he may receive +from those placed in authority over him.</p> + +<p>The age of admission does not exceed twenty-five, nor is +under eighteen.</p> + +<p>He conforms himself to all regulations which may be +made from time to time.</p> + +<p>He does not upon any occasion, or under any pretence +whatever, take money from any person, without the express +permission of the Committee.</p> + +<p>He appears at all times in the dress of the Establishment.</p> + +<p>If lodgings be found for him, a deduction of one shilling +per week is made from his pay, if unmarried; if +married, and if lodgings be found for him, an agreement +in each particular case will be made.</p> + +<p>He receives his pay weekly on such day as shall be appointed.</p> + +<p>The pay of a Junior Fireman is 3<i>s.</i> per day, or 21<i>s.</i> a week.</p> + +<p>The pay of a Senior Fireman, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a day, or 24<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a +week.</p> + +<p>The pay of a Sub-Engineer is 26<i>s.</i> a week.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> + +<p>The pay of an Engineer, 4<i>s.</i> a day, or 28<i>s.</i> a week.</p> + +<p>The Foremen are paid by annual salaries.</p> + +<p>Each man contributes towards a Superannuation Fund, +according to a scale determined by the Committee.</p> + +<p>Each man receives annually—</p> + +<p> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">One short frock coat, marked with a number answering to his name in the books.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A black neckcloth.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Two pairs of cloth trousers.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">One cloth cap.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Four pairs of boots in three years, and</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>Once in three years he receives—</p> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">One great coat.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>He does not quit the service without giving fourteen days' +previous notice; if he quits without such notice, or is +dismissed, the whole of his pay then due is forfeited.</p> + +<p>Every man who is dismissed from the Establishment, or +who resigns his situation, delivers up, before he quits +the service, every article of dress and appointment which +may have been supplied to him; if any of such articles +have been, in the opinion of the superintendent, improperly +used or damaged, the man makes good the +damage or supplies a new article.</p> + +<p>Every man in the service is liable to immediate dismissal +for unfitness, negligence, or misconduct. The Committee, +if they see fit, may dismiss a man without +assigning any reason.</p> + +<p>No fireman must allow to be used by any other person, +nor use himself, except while he belongs to the Establishment, +the button and badge given with his clothes.</p> + +<p>In the event of sickness rendering any man incapable of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> +performing his duties, the Committee reserves to itself +the power of making a deduction from his weekly pay.</p> + +<p>Each man, on his admission, gives to the Committee, if +required, a letter of guarantee from some respectable +person, to an amount not exceeding 50<i>l.</i>, as security.</p></div> + + +<h4>OUTLINE OF GENERAL DUTY.</h4> + +<p>One-third of the men are constantly on duty at the +different engine-houses, night and day; and the whole are +liable to be called up for attendance at fires, or for any other +duty. In general, it is arranged as follows, viz.:—</p> + +<p>If a fire happen in District A, the whole of the men and +engines of that district immediately repair to the spot; +two-thirds of the men, and one of the engines, from each of +the districts B and D, also go to the fire; and one-third of +the men from the district C.</p> + +<p>If the fire happen in B, the whole of the men and engines +in that district immediately repair to the fire; one engine +from A, another from C, two-thirds of the men from A and +C, and one-third of the men from D.</p> + +<p>If the fire happen in C, the whole of the men and engines +in that district, one engine and two-thirds of the men from +the district B, and one-third of the men from A and D, go +to the fire.</p> + +<p>If the fire happen in D, the whole of the men and engines +in that district, with one engine and two-thirds of the men +from the district A, and one-third of the men from B and C, +shall go to the fire.</p> + +<p>If a fire happen on the boundary of a district, and it is +doubtful in which district it has occurred, the whole of the +engines and men of the two adjoining districts instantly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +proceed to the spot, and one-third of the men of the two +remaining districts.</p> + +<p>In case of emergency, the superintendent calls in such +additional force as he may require.</p> + +<p>The engines are not taken to alarms of chimneys on fire, +unless the circumstances of the case should, in the opinion of +the superintendent, foreman, or engineer, require a deviation +from this regulation.</p> + +<p>When any of the men from another district come to assist +at a fire, if the engine to which they are attached is not +in attendance, they instantly go to the foreman's engine of +the district to which they come.</p> + +<p>The engines are conveyed to fires at not less than seven +miles per hour, and the men who do not accompany the +engines go at not less than four miles per hour.</p> + +<p>Any engineer or fireman who, when at a fire, is absent +from an engine or a branch pipe, without orders from the +superintendent or foreman, is liable to a fine.</p> + +<p>If any of the men are sick, or absent from any other cause, +their duties are performed by other men attached to their +engine-station.</p> + +<p>With a view to the men being always at hand, they are +lodged as near as possible to their respective engine-houses.</p> + +<p>The roll is called at each station every morning and +evening.</p> + +<p>No man leaves his own residence or the engine-station to +which he belongs from 10 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> except to go to a +fire, or by an order from a superior, or with written leave +from the superintendent, and the senior man on duty is +answerable if he does not report any departure from this +rule.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p> + +<p>Men on duty not at the engine-stations are allowed one +hour for breakfast and one for dinner, as follows:—One-half +of the men on duty go to breakfast from 8 to 9, and +the other half from 9 to 10; also one-half go to dinner +from 1 to 2, and the other half from 2 to 3. The second +half in no case leave until the whole of the first half have +returned, neither do the men on duty leave morning or +evening until the relief has arrived. The engineer or senior +man on duty is answerable for this regulation being carried +into effect. And any man being absent from the premises +he is watching or working in, except at the regular hours, is +punished.</p> + +<p>The men for duty individually assemble at the principal +engine-house in the district before, or precisely at, the hour +fixed for that purpose. Their names are called, and an inspection +made by the foreman of the district, to ascertain +that they are sober and correctly dressed and appointed. +The foreman then reads and explains the orders of the day. +At the hour for relieving the men, no one leaves his engine-house +until the relief has actually arrived there; when the +men are relieved, their names are called over, and they are +inspected by the engineer, that he may ascertain whether +they are sober, and as correctly dressed and appointed as +when they went on duty. The engineer enters these inspections +in a book.</p> + +<p>The engineers deliver a written report, according to a +printed form, twice each day, to the foreman of the district, +who in his turn reports twice a day to the superintendent.</p> + +<p>The whole of the men are, at all times, ready to appear at +any place required, for exercise or any other purpose, and +are ready (whether on duty or not) to execute whatever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +orders they may receive, in relation to the Establishment, +from the engineers, foremen, or superintendent.</p> + + +<h4>DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENT.</h4> + +<p>The Superintendent resides at the principal engine-station +in Watling-street.</p> + +<p>The moment an alarm of fire is given, wherever it may be, +he repairs to the spot with all possible expedition, and takes +the command of the whole force.</p> + +<p>He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and +reports the same to the committee.</p> + +<p>He is responsible for the general conduct of the foremen, +engineers, and firemen under his charge.</p> + +<p>He makes himself well acquainted with the character and +conduct of every man under his orders.</p> + +<p>He must be firm and just, and, at the same time, kind +and conciliating in his behaviour on all occasions.</p> + +<p>He takes care that the printed regulations and all others +given out from time to time, are promptly and strictly +obeyed; and he gives clear and precise instructions to the +men under him, and reports every instance of neglect of a +serious nature to the Committee.</p> + +<p>He must feel the importance of visiting some of the +engine-houses, at uncertain hours, every day and night.</p> + +<p>He suspends and reports to the Committee persons who +are guilty of serious misconduct; and at once punishes by +fines, according to a scale sanctioned by the Committee, irregularities +of a lighter character, reporting such fines to them.</p> + +<p>He must be at all times prepared to furnish the Committee +with particulars respecting the state of the Establishment.</p> + +<p>When a fire is extinguished, the superintendent retains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +only such a number of men and engines as he may think +necessary for watching the premises.</p> + +<p>He communicates with the surveyors of stock of the +offices interested in a fire, and arranges with them, in the +event of its being necessary, to work out salvage from the +ruins.</p> + +<p>When a fire happens, he causes a report to be made immediately, +if in office hours (or, if after office hours, before +ten o'clock next morning), to those offices interested in the +fire, and also to their surveyors of buildings and stock, as +soon as possible after the fire is extinguished, and causes a +daily report to be transmitted to each office of all fires which +have happened, according to a printed form given to him for +that purpose, as follows:—</p> + +<ul><li>Date and hour.</li> + +<li>Situation of premises.</li> + +<li>Name and occupation of tenant.</li> + +<li>Name and residence of landlord.</li> + +<li>Supposed cause of fire.</li> + +<li>In what offices insured.</li> + +<li>No. of Policy.</li> + +<li>If there is gas on the premises.</li> + +<li>By whom called.</li> + +<li>By whom extinguished.</li> + +<li>Supply of water, with name of company.</li> + +<li>No. of engines attending and of what district, and the order in which they arrive.</li> + +<li>No. of men ditto ditto.</li> + +<li>Engines not of the Establishment, and the order in which they arrive.</li> + +<li>Description of damage.</li> +</ul> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p> +<h4>DUTIES OF FOREMAN.</h4> + +<p>The Foreman resides at the place appointed for him.</p> + +<p>He receives his orders and instructions from, and makes +his reports to, the superintendent.</p> + +<p>He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill +in the discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general +behaviour.</p> + +<p>In the absence of the superintendent, the foreman of the +district will take the command of the whole force, both those +of his own district and of all other engines and men which +may come to his assistance in cases of fire.</p> + +<p>He does not attend fires that happen out of his own district +unless he receives orders from the superintendent to +that effect.</p> + +<p>He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and +reports the same to the superintendent.</p> + +<p>On the alarm of fire being given in his own district, he +instantly repairs to the spot, and uses his utmost endeavours +to get the engines into play and supply them with water. +The first engine and firemen which arrive at a fire are not +interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted from +them, by those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct order +from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the foreman +of the district. The same rule applies to each succeeding +engine which takes up a position.</p> + +<p>He is careful to place the engines in such a manner that +the men who work at the levers may be in no danger from +the falling of the premises on fire; and also that the engines +may not be in the way of people carrying out furniture, &c.; +but, above all things, he endeavours to place the engineers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +with their branch pipes in such positions <i>that the water from +the branches may directly strike the burning materials</i>. This +he cannot too often inculcate on the men placed under him, as +upon this point, on being properly attended to, depends +entirely the effect of the engines. To attain this most +desirable end, it is frequently necessary to enter the premises +on fire, and the foreman takes care so to place his men that +they can easily escape. If he has reason to suspect that the +building is not sufficiently secure, he stations one or two +competent men to observe the state of the building, and to +give the alarm when they see any danger.</p> + +<p>He never allows any man unaccompanied by another to +enter a building on fire.</p> + +<p>He does not throw more water on the premises than is +absolutely necessary to extinguish the fire, as all the water +thrown after the fire is extinguished, only tends to increase +the damage.</p> + +<p>When the inmates of the premises on fire are removed, +the foreman endeavours to exclude air from the parts on fire, +by shutting all doors and windows as far as may be practicable.</p> + +<p>He is responsible for the conduct of the men placed under +him, and for the state of the engines, which must at all +times be kept in first-rate order; he also makes himself well +acquainted with the talent and general character of each +individual under him.</p> + +<p>He visits every engine-house in his district at least once +in the twenty-four hours; he sees that the men are on duty, +the engines ready for service, and everything in proper +order, and enters his visit in a book kept for that purpose, +with the date and hour of his visit. If he finds anything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +wrong, he enters it in the book, and immediately sends off a +report to the superintendent by one of the men not on duty.</p> + +<p>He sends a written report twice in every twenty-four +hours to the superintendent, which contains a particular +statement of all fires and everything else connected with the +Establishment which has occurred in his district within the +preceding twelve hours.</p> + +<p>He returns in his report of a fire the names of such men, +if any, as were not ready to start with the engine to which +they are attached.</p> + +<p>It is expected that he is able and ready to give instructions +to the engineers and men on all points relating to their +duty.</p> + +<p>He receives and enters, in a book kept for that purpose, +all complaints which may be made against any person under +his command, causing the complaining party to sign the +same and insert his address, and he reports the whole matter +without delay to the superintendent.</p> + +<p>He is responsible for the engines in his district being each +provided with the articles contained in the following list:—</p> + +<ul> +<li>2 lengths of scaling ladder.</li> + +<li>1 canvas sheet, with 10 or 12 handles of rope round the edge of it, used as a portable fire-escape.</li> + +<li>2 pieces of 2-1/2-inch rope, one 10 fathoms and one 14 fathoms long.</li> + +<li>7 lengths of hose, each 40 feet long.</li> + +<li>2 branch pipes, one 4 and the other 1 foot long.</li> + +<li>3 nozzles, or jet pipes.</li> + +<li>4 lengths of suction-pipe, each about 6 feet long.</li> + +<li>1 flat rose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></li> + +<li>1 standcock.</li> + +<li>1 goose-neck.</li> + +<li>2 balls of strips of sheep-skin.</li> + +<li>2 balls of small cord.</li> + +<li>4 hose wrenches.</li> + +<li>1 fire hook.</li> + +<li>1 mattock.</li> + +<li>1 shovel.</li> + +<li>1 saw.</li> + +<li>1 screw-wrench.</li> + +<li>1 portable cistern.</li> + +<li>1 hatchet or pole-axe.</li> + +<li>1 iron crow-bar.</li> +</ul> + + + +<h4>DUTIES OF THE ENGINEER.</h4> + +<p>He resides in the engine-house to which he is appointed.</p> + +<p>He obeys all orders given to him by the superintendent +or the foreman of the district.</p> + +<p>He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill +in the discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general +behaviour.</p> + +<p>He is held responsible for the conduct of the men under +him, and for the state of his engine, and takes care that it +is provided with the articles contained in the foregoing list.</p> + +<p>He reports to his foreman, every morning and evening, +in writing, whether any of his men have been absent with +or without leave.</p> + +<p>He enters in his book the time when the men go to the +foreman's station before taking duty, and also when they +return.</p> + +<p>On receiving notice of a fire happening within the prescribed +limits, he instantly takes his engine and men to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +spot, and places himself and them at the disposal of the +superintendent, foreman, or senior engineer of the district in +which the fire happens.</p> + +<p>He must make himself acquainted with the character and +abilities of each man under him.</p> + +<p>He is subject to fines at the discretion of the Committee, +for neglect of duty or misbehaviour.</p> + + +<h4>DUTIES OF SUB-ENGINEERS.</h4> + +<p>The sub-engineers being attached to foremen's and double +stations only, in the absence of the foremen or engineer, +or when in charge of an engine, the duties of the sub-engineer +are the same as those described for an engineer; +when the foreman or engineer is absent, the sub-engineer +must set an example to the firemen at the station of constant +attention, implicit obedience and activity, and in so +far as he exhibits these and similar qualifications he expects +to rise in the service.</p> + + +<h4>DUTIES OF THE FIREMAN.</h4> + +<p>Every fireman in the establishment may expect to rise to +the superior stations, by activity, intelligence, sobriety, and +general good conduct.</p> + +<p>He must make it his study to recommend himself to +notice by a diligent discharge of his duties, and strict obedience +to the commands of his superiors, recollecting that he +who has been accustomed to obey will be considered best +qualified to command.</p> + +<p>He resides near the engine-house to which he is attached, +in a situation to be approved of, and devotes the whole of +his time and abilities to the service.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> + +<p>On the alarm of fire, he proceeds with all possible speed +to the engine-house to which he is attached.</p> + +<p>He must at all times appear neat in his person, and correctly +dressed in the establishment uniform, and be respectful +in his demeanour towards his superiors.</p> + +<p>He must readily and punctually obey the orders of the +engineers, foremen, and superintendent.</p> + +<p>He must not quit his engine-house while on duty, except +to go to a fire, unless by special order from a superior.</p> + +<p>He is subject to fines for neglect of duty or misbehaviour, +according to the regulations.</p> + + +<h4>BOOKS KEPT AT THE STATIONS.</h4> + +<p>There is a book kept in each engine-house, in which are +entered all fires or alarms of fires; the time the men come +on duty; the visits made by the foremen, superintendent, or +any of the Committee, and all complaints against the men.</p> + +<p>This book is in charge of the superior on duty at the +time; and the foreman and engineers are answerable for its +being correctly kept.</p> + +<p>Every entry made in this book is signed by the person +making it.</p> + +<p>The superintendent enters, in a book kept for that purpose, +the particulars of every fire, the attendance of engines, +supply of water, &c., and lays it before the Committee +weekly, or oftener, if required.</p> + +<p>Any false entry, for the purpose of concealing absence, is +punished—for the first offence, by the reduction of one step, +and for the second by dismissal.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p> +<h3><a name="THE_EDINBURGH_FIRE_BRIGADE" id="THE_EDINBURGH_FIRE_BRIGADE"></a>THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.</h3> + + +<p>In forming the brigade in Edinburgh, where the firemen +are only occasionally employed, the description of men, from +which I made a selection, were slaters, house-carpenters, +masons, plumbers, and smiths.</p> + +<p>Slaters make good firemen, not so much from their superiority +in climbing, going along roofs, &c., although these are +great advantages, but from their being in general possessed +of a handiness and readiness which I have not been able to +discover in the same degree amongst other classes of workmen. +It is, perhaps, not necessary that I should account for +this, but it appears to me to arise from their being more dependent +on their wits, and more frequently put to their shifts +in the execution of their ordinary avocations. House-carpenters +and masons being well acquainted with the construction +of buildings, and understanding readily from whence +danger is to be apprehended, can judge with tolerable accuracy, +from the appearance of a house, where the stair is +situated, and how the house is divided inside. Plumbers are +also well accustomed to climbing and going along the roofs +of houses; they are useful in working fire-cocks, covering +the gratings of drains with lead, and generally in the management +of water. Smiths and plumbers can also better +endure heat and smoke than most other workmen.</p> + +<p>Men selected from these five trades are also more robust +in body, and better able to endure the extremes of heat, cold, +wet, and fatigue, to which firemen are so frequently exposed, +than men engaged in more sedentary employments.</p> + +<p>I have generally made it a point to select for firemen, +young men from seventeen or eighteen to twenty-five years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +of age. At that age they enter more readily into the spirit +of the business, and are much more easily trained, than +when farther advanced in life. Men are frequently found +who, although they excel in the mechanical parts of their +own professions, are yet so devoid of judgment and resources, +that when anything occurs which they have not been taught, +or have not been able to foresee, they are completely at a +loss. Now it happens not unfrequently that the man who +arrives first at a fire, notwithstanding any training or instructions +he may have received, is still, from the circumstances +of the case, left almost entirely to the direction of +his own judgment. It is, therefore, of immense importance +to procure men on whose coolness and judgment you can depend. +If they are expert tradesmen, so much the better, as +there is generally a degree of respect shown to first-rate +tradesmen by their fellows, which inferior hands can seldom +obtain; and this respect tends greatly to keep up the character +of the corps to which they belong, which ought never +to be lost sight of.</p> + +<p>Amidst the noise and confusion which more or less attend +all fires, I have found considerable difficulty in being able to +convey the necessary orders to the firemen in such a manner +as not to be liable to misapprehension. I tried a speaking-trumpet; +but, finding it of no advantage, it was speedily +abandoned. It appeared to me indeed, that while it increased +the sound of the voice, by the deep tone which it +gave, it brought it into greater accordance with the surrounding +noise. I tried a boatswain's call, which I have +found to answer much better. Its shrill piercing note is so +unlike any other sound usually heard at a fire, that it immediately +attracts the attention of the firemen. By varying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +the calls, I have now established a mode of communication +not easily misunderstood, and sufficiently precise for the circumstances +to which it is adapted, and which I now find to +be a very great convenience.</p> + +<p>The calls are as follows:—</p> + +<ul> +<li>1 for red, 2 for blue, 3 for yellow, 4 for grey.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></li> + +<li>5 to work the engine.</li> + +<li>6 to stop working.</li> + +<li>7 to attach one length of hose more than the engine has at the time the call is given.</li> + +<li>8 to coil up the hose attached to the engine.</li> + +<li>9 to coil up the hose attached to the fire-cock.</li> + +<li>10 to turn to the left.</li> + +<li>11 to turn to the right.</li> + +<li>12 the call to work the engine answers also to move forward when the engine is prepared for travelling.</li> + +<li>13 the call to stop working answers to stop the engine when moving forward.</li> +</ul> + +<p>In all there are thirty-six calls when compounded with the +first four.</p> + +<p>In speaking of the drilling of firemen, I shall give a short +account of the plan followed here, which has been tolerably +successful.</p> + +<p>The present number of firemen in Edinburgh is fifty, +divided into four companies; three of which consist of +twelve and one of fourteen men. The bounds of the city +are divided into four districts; in each of which there is an +engine-house, containing one or more engines, one of the +companies being attached to each engine-house. In each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +company there is one captain, one sergeant, four pioneers, and +six or eight firemen.</p> + +<p>The whole are dressed in blue jackets, canvas trousers, and +hardened leather helmets, having hollow leather crests over +the crown to ward off falling materials. The form of this +helmet was taken from the war-helmet of the New Zealanders, +with the addition of the hind flap of leather to prevent +burning matter, melted lead, water, or rubbish getting +into the neck of the wearer. The captains' helmets have +three small ornaments, those of the sergeants one—those of +the pioneers and firemen being plain.</p> + +<p>The jackets of the captains have two small cloth wings on +the shoulder, similar to those worn by light infantry. Those +of the sergeants have three stripes on the left arm, and, on +the left arms of the pioneers and firemen, are their respective +numbers in the company. Each company has a particular +colour—red, blue, yellow, and grey. Each engine is painted +of one or other of these colours, and the accoutrements of +the men belonging to it correspond. There is thus no difficulty +in distinguishing the engines or men from each other by +their colours and numbers. Each man also wears a broad +leather waist-belt, with a brass buckle in front. To the +waist-belts of the captains, sergeants, and pioneers is attached +eighty feet of cord; the captains having also a small mason's +hammer, with a crow-head at the end of the handle: the +sergeants have a clawed hammer, such as is used by house-carpenters, +with an iron handle, and two openings at the end +for unscrewing nuts from bolts; the pioneers a small +hatchet, with a crow-head at the end of the handle; and the +firemen each carry a canvas water-bucket folded up.</p> + +<p>The captains assemble every Tuesday night, to give in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +report of such fires as may have occurred in their respective +districts, with a list of the men who have turned out, and a +corresponding list from the sergeant of police of the respective +districts. They then receive any orders which may +be necessary; and any vacancies which have occurred in the +establishment are filled up at these meetings.</p> + +<p>For some months after this fire establishment was +organized, the men were regularly drilled once a week, at +four o'clock in the morning; but now only once a month at +the same hour.</p> + +<p>Among many other good reasons for preferring this early +hour, I may mention, that it does not interfere with the +daily occupation of the firemen. The chance of collecting a +crowd is also avoided, as there are then comparatively few +people on the streets; this is a matter of some importance, +as a crowd of people not only impedes the movements of the +firemen, but, from small quantities of water spilt on the by-standers, +quarrels are generated, and a prejudice excited +against the corps, to avoid which every exertion should be +used to keep the firemen on good terms with the populace.</p> + +<p>The mornings, too, at this early hour, are dark for more +than half the year, and the firemen are thus accustomed to +work by torch-light, and sometimes without any light whatever, +except the few public lamps which are then burning. +And, as most fires happen in the night, the advantage of +drilling in the dark must be sufficiently obvious.</p> + +<p>The inhabitants have sometimes complained of being disturbed +with the noise of the engines at so early an hour; +but when the object has been explained, they have generally +submitted, with a good grace, to this slight evil. A different +part of the city being always chosen for each successive drill,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +the annoyance occasioned to any one district is very trifling, +and of very unfrequent occurrence.</p> + +<p>On the Tuesday evening preceding the drill, the captains +are informed when and where the men are to assemble. +These orders they communicate to the individual firemen. A +point of rendezvous being thus given to the whole body, +every man, who is not on the spot at the hour appointed, +fully equipped, with his clothes and accoutrements in good +order, is subjected to a fine. Arrived on the ground, the +men are divided into two parties, each party consisting of +two companies, that being the number required to work +each large engine without any assistance from the populace. +The whole are then examined as to the condition of their +clothing and equipments.</p> + +<p>The captains, sergeants, and pioneers of each company +alternately take the duty of directing the engine, attaching +the hose, &c., while the whole of each party not engaged in +these duties take the levers as firemen. The call is then +given to move forward, the men setting off at a quick walking +pace, and, on the same call being repeated, they get into +a smart trot. When the call to stop is given, with orders to +attach one or more lengths of hose to the engine and fire-cock, +it is done in the following manner:—No. 1 takes out +the branch pipe, and runs out as far as he thinks the hose +ordered to be attached will reach, and there remains; No. 2 +takes a length of hose out of the engine, and uncoils it +towards No. 1; and No. 3 attaches the hose to the engine. +If more than one length is required, No. 4 takes out another, +couples it to the former length, and then uncoils it. If a +third length is wanted, No. 3 comes up with it, after having +attached the first length to the engine. If more lengths are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +still wanted, No: 2 goes back to the engine for another; +Nos. 3 and 4 follow, and so on till the requisite length is obtained; +No. 1 then screws on the branch-pipe at the farther +extremity of the last length.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> While Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 +are attaching the hose to the engine, No. 5 opens the fire-cock +door, screws on the distributor, and attaches the length +of hose, which No. 6 uncoils; Nos. 7 and 8 assist, if more +than one length of hose be required. Immediately on the +call being given to attach the hose, the sergeant locks the +fore-carriage of the engine, and unlocks the levers. The +fire-cock being opened by No. 5 (who remains by it as long +as it is being used), the sergeant holds the end of the hose +which supplies the engine, and at the same time superintends +the men who work the levers. The call being given to work +the engine, the whole of the men, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the +captain and sergeant excepted, work at the levers along with +the men of the other company.</p> + +<p>Although these operations may appear complicated, they +are all completed, and the engine in full play, with three +lengths, or 120 feet of hose, in one minute and ten seconds, +including the time required for the water to fill the engine so +far as to allow it to work.</p> + +<p>In order to excite a spirit of emulation, as well as to teach +the men dexterity in working the engines, I frequently cause +a competition amongst them. They are ordered to attach<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +one or more lengths of hose to each of two engines, and to +work them as quickly as possible, the first engine which +throws water being considered the winner. They are sometimes +also placed at an equal distance from each of two +separate fire-cocks; on the call being given to move forward, +each party starts for the fire-cock to which it is ordered, and +the first which gets into play is of course held to have beat +the other. The call to stop is then given, and both parties +return to their former station, with their hose coiled up, and +everything in proper travelling order; the first which arrives +being understood to have the advantage.</p> + +<p>The men are also carefully and regularly practised in +taking their hose up common-stairs, drawing them up by +ropes on the outside, and generally in accustoming themselves +to, and providing against, every circumstance which +may be anticipated in the case of fire.</p> + +<p>When a fire occurs in a common-stair, the advantages +arising from this branch of training are incalculable. The +occupants, in some cases amounting to twenty or thirty +families, hurrying out with their children and furniture, +regardless of everything except the preservation of their +lives and property, and the rush of the crowd to the scene of +alarm, form altogether, notwithstanding the exertions of an +excellent police, such a scene of confusion as those only who +have witnessed it can imagine; and here it is that discipline +and unity of purpose are indispensable; for, unless each man +has already been taught and accustomed to the particular duty +expected from him, he only partakes of the general alarm, and +adds to the confusion. But even when a hose has been +carried up the interior of a common-stair, the risk of damage +from the people carrying out their furniture is so great, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +the hose is not unfrequently burst, almost as soon as the +engine has begun to play. If the hose be carried up to the +floor on fire by the outside, the risk of damage is comparatively +small, the hose in that case being only exposed for a +short distance in crossing the stair.</p> + +<p>During a period of four years the only two firemen who +lost their lives were run down by their own engines; and, in +order to avoid danger from this cause, they are frequently +accustomed suddenly to stop the engines when running down +the steep streets with which this city abounds. It is a +highly necessary exercise, and is done by wheeling the engine +smartly round to the right or left, which has the effect of +immediately stopping its course.</p> + +<p>There is a branch of training which I introduced amongst +the Edinburgh firemen some time ago, which has been +attended with more important advantages than was at first +anticipated. I mean the gymnastic exercises. The men +are practised in these exercises (in a small gymnasium fitted +up for them in the head engine-house) regularly once a-week, +and in winter sometimes twice: attendance on their part is +entirely voluntary; the best gymnasts (if otherwise equally +qualified) are always promoted in cases of vacancy.</p> + +<p>So sensible were the Insurance Companies doing business +here, of the advantages likely to arise from the practice of +these exercises, that on one occasion they subscribed upwards +of 10<i>l.</i>, which was distributed in medals and money among +the most expert and attentive gymnasts of the corps, at a +competition in presence of the magistrates, commissioners of +police, and managers of insurance companies.</p> + +<p>Amongst the many advantages arising from these exercises +I shall notice only one or two. The firemen, when at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +their ordinary employments, as masons, house-carpenters, &c., +being accustomed to a particular exercise of certain muscles +only, there is very often a degree of stiffness in their general +movements, which prevents them from performing their duty +as firemen with that ease and celerity which are so necessary +and desirable; but the gymnastic exercises, by bringing all +the muscles of the body into action, and by aiding the more +general development of the frame, tend greatly to remove or +overcome this awkwardness. But its greatest advantage is +the confidence it gives to the men when placed in certain +situations of danger. A man, for example, in the third or +fourth floor of a house on fire, who is uncertain as to his +means of escape, in the event of his return by the stair being +cut off, will not render any very efficient service in extinguishing +the fire; his own safety will be the principal +object of his attention, and till that is to a certain extent +secured, his exertions are not much to be relied upon. An +experienced gymnast, on the other hand, placed in these circumstances, +finds himself in comparative security. With a +hatchet and eighty feet of cord at his command, and a +window near him, he knows there is not much difficulty in +getting to the street; and this confidence not only enables +him to go on with his duty with more spirit, but his +attention not being abstracted by thoughts of personal +danger, he is able to direct it wholly to the circumstances of +the fire. He can raise himself on a window sill, or the top +of a wall, if he can only reach it with his hands; and by his +hands alone he may sustain himself in situations where +other means of support are unattainable, till the arrival of +assistance. These are great advantages; but, as I said +before, the greatest of all is that feeling of safety with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +which it enables a fireman to proceed with his operations, +uncertainty or distraction being the greatest of possible +evils. The cord carried at the waist-belt of the captains, +sergeants, and pioneers, being fully sufficient to sustain a +man's weight, and with the assistance of their small hatchets +easily made fast, and the pioneers always being two together, +there is thus no difficulty in descending even from a height of +eighty feet: the cords should be doubled by way of security.</p> + + +<h4>I.—<span class="smcap">General Regulations of the Edinburgh Fire +Brigade.</span></h4> + +<p>A list of the engine-houses, and the residences of the +superintendent and head enginemen in each district shall be +publicly advertised, that no one may be ignorant where to +apply in cases of fire; and, in the event of fire breaking out +in any house, the possessor shall be bound to give instant +notice of it at the nearest station; and shall take particular +care to keep all doors and windows shut in the premises +where the fire happens to be.</p> + +<p>"Fire-engine house" shall be painted in large characters on +one or more prominent places of each engine-house; and the +residences of the master of engines, head enginemen, inspectors +of gas companies, and water-officers of the district, shall +likewise be marked there.</p> + +<p>The head enginemen and firemen shall reside as near the +engine-house as possible.</p> + +<p>As, in the case of a fire breaking out, it may be necessary +to break open the doors of houses and shops in the neighbourhood, +in order to prevent the fire from spreading, it is +ordered, that no possessors of houses or shops in the neighbourhood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +shall go away, after the fire has broken out, without +leaving the key of their house or shop, as otherwise the door +will be broken open, if necessary; and it is recommended +that all possessors of shops shall have the place of their residence +painted upon their shop-doors, that notice may be sent +them when necessary.</p> + + +<h4>II.—<span class="smcap">Police.</span></h4> + +<p>Upon any watchman discovering fire, he shall call the +neighbouring watchmen to his assistance—shall take the best +means in his power to put all concerned upon their guard—and +shall immediately send off notice to the nearest office +and engine-house. The watchman, who is despatched to give +these intimations, shall run as far as he can, and shall then +send forward any other watchman whom he may meet, he +himself following at a walk to communicate his information, +in case of any mistake on the part of the second messenger.</p> + +<p>Upon intimation of a fire being received at the main +office, or a district office, the head officer on duty shall instantly +give notice thereof to the head engineman of the +district, to the master of engines, to the water-officers of the +district, and to the inspectors of the different gas-light companies, +and shall have power, if his force at the office at the +time be deficient, to employ the nearest watchmen for these +purposes; and, on intimation being first received at a district-office, +the officer on duty in the office shall immediately +send notice to the main office.</p> + +<p>Upon intimation being received at the main office, the +officer on duty shall also instantly send notice to the superintendent +of police, and the lieutenants not at the office at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +time—to the master of engines; to the head enginemen of +the various districts; to the superintendent of the water +company; to the lord provost or chief magistrate for the +time; to the sheriff of the county; to the bailie residing +nearest the place; to the dean of guild; to the members of +fire-engine committee of commissioners of police; to the moderator +of the high constables; and also to the managers of +the different gaslight companies.</p> + +<p>The officer on duty at the main office shall, with the least +possible delay, send off to the fire a party of his men, under +the command of a lieutenant or other officer.</p> + +<p>This party, on arriving at the spot, shall clear off the +crowd, and keep open space and passages for the firemen and +others employed.</p> + +<p>The officer commanding this party of the police shall attend +to no instructions except such as he shall receive from +the acting chief magistrate attending; or, in absence of a +magistrate, from any member of the committee on fire-engines; +and the men shall attend to the instructions of their +own officer alone.</p> + +<p>Three or more policemen shall be in attendance upon the +acting chief magistrate and fire-engine committee; two policemen +shall constantly attend the master of the engines, to +be at his disposal entirely; and one policeman shall attend +with the water-officer at each fire-cock that may be opened.</p> + +<p>The superintendent of police shall always have a list of +extra policemen hung up in the police-office, who, upon occasions +of fire, may be called out, if necessary, and twenty of +these extra men shall always be called out upon notice of +fire being received at the main office, for the purpose of attending +at the police-office, and rendering assistance where it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +may be required. The superintendent shall likewise have a +supply of fire-buckets, flambeaux, and lanterns, at the office, +to be ready when wanted.</p> + +<p>There shall be no ringing of alarm-bells, beating of drums, +or springing of rattles, except by written order from the +chief magistrate for the time; but the alarm may be given +by despatching messengers, with proper badges, through +different parts of the town, when considered necessary.</p> + + +<h4>III. <span class="smcap">Superintendent of Fire Brigade.</span></h4> + +<p>On receiving notice of a fire, the superintendent shall instantly +equip himself in his uniform, and repair to the spot +where the fire is.</p> + +<p>The necessary operations to be adopted shall be under his +absolute control, and he will issue his instructions to the +head enginemen and firemen.</p> + +<p>The superintendent shall report from time to time to the +chief magistrate in attendance (through such medium as +may be at his command, but without his leaving the spot), +the state of the fire, and whether a greater number of policemen, +or a party of the military, be required, and anything +else which may occur to him; and the master shall observe +the directions of the chief magistrate attending, and those +of no other person whatever.</p> + +<p>The superintendent shall frequently inspect the engines, +and all the apparatus connected therewith; he shall be responsible +for the whole being at all times in good order and +condition; and he shall have a general muster and inspection +at least once every three months, when the engines and all +the apparatus shall be tried. He shall also instruct the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +enginemen, firemen, and the watchmen, to unlock the +plates, and screw on the distributors of the fire-cocks, or +open the fire-plugs.</p> + +<p>Whenever any repairs or new apparatus shall appear to be +necessary, the superintendent shall give notice to the clerk of +the police, whose duty it shall be instantly to convene the committee +on fire-engines.</p> + +<p>Upon a fire breaking out, the superintendent shall lose as +little time as possible in stationing chimney-sweepers on the +roofs of the adjoining houses, to keep them clear of flying +embers; and also persons in each flat of the adjoining +houses, to observe their state, and report if any appearances +of danger should arise; such persons taking as much care as +possible <i>to keep all doors and windows of said flats shut</i>, and +the doors and windows of the premises where the fire +happens to be shall, so far as practicable, be carefully kept +shut.</p> + +<p>The superintendent shall forthwith prepare regulations for +the firemen, &c., under his charge, and report the same to +the committee on fire-engines for their approval. Every +fireman shall be furnished with a copy of such regulations, +and shall be bound to make himself master of its contents; +and it shall be the duty of the superintendent to see that the +instructions are duly attended to in training and exercising +the men.</p> + + +<h4>IV.—<span class="smcap">Head Enginemen.</span></h4> + +<p>Each head engineman shall attend to the engines placed +in his district, and all the apparatus connected therewith, +and report to the superintendent when any repairs or new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +apparatus seem requisite, and shall be responsible for the +engines being in proper working condition at all times.</p> + +<p>Upon receiving notice of a fire, the head enginemen shall +call out the firemen in their respective districts; and they +shall all repair, perfectly equipped, with the utmost expedition, +to the spot where the fire happens to be, carrying along +with them the engines and apparatus.</p> + +<p>The head enginemen shall have the carts and barrels +attached to their several districts always in readiness, in +good order, and the barrels filled with water, which shall +accompany the engines to the fire.</p> + +<p>On arriving at the spot, the head enginemen shall take +their instructions from the superintendent, or, in his absence, +from the chief magistrate in attendance on the spot; +or, in their absence, from a member of the fire-engine committee, +and from no other person whatever.</p> + + +<h4>V.—<span class="smcap">Firemen.</span></h4> + +<p>The firemen shall attend at all times when required by +the head enginemen or superintendent, as well as upon the +days of general inspection. They shall keep their engines +in good order and condition, and shall be equipped in their +uniform at all times when called out.</p> + +<p>They shall observe the instructions of no person whatever, +except those of the superintendent or head enginemen.</p> + + +<h4>VI.—<span class="smcap">High Constables and Commissioners of Police.</span></h4> + +<p>Upon occasions of fire, the moderator of the high constables +shall call out the high constables, and, if necessary, he +shall also call out the extra constables, and give notice to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +call out the constables of their districts; and it shall be the +duty of the constables to preserve order and to protect +property, to keep the crowd away from the engines, and +those employed about them; and, when authorized by the +chief magistrate, superintendent of engines, or, in the +absence of a magistrate, by a member of the committee on +fire-engines, to provide men for working the engines.</p> + +<p>Neither the constables nor the commissioners of police +shall assume any management, or give any directions whatsoever, +except in absence of a magistrate and the superintendent +of engines, in which case any member of the +committee on fire-engines may give orders to the head +enginemen.</p> + +<p>In cases of protracted fire, when extra men may be +required to relieve the regular establishment, it shall be the +duty of the high constables to collect those wanted, from +amongst the persons on the street who may be willing to lend +their assistance, mustering them in such parties as may be +required, taking a note of their names, and furnishing each +individual with a certificate or ticket, with which the +moderator of the high constables, or chief constable at the +time, will be supplied; and no person shall receive any +remuneration for alleged assistance given at a fire who may +not produce such certificate or ticket.</p> + +<p>The party or parties so mustered shall be placed and continue +under the care of two high constables, until required +for service, when they shall be moved forward to the engine.</p> + +<p>The men relieved by the party so moved forward, shall +be taken charge of by two high constables, who shall see +them properly refreshed and brought back within a reasonable +time, so that the men employed may thus occasionally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +relieve each other without confusion, and without being too +much exhausted.</p> + + +<h4>VII.—<span class="smcap">Magistrates, &c.</span></h4> + +<p>Upon occasion of fires, the magistrates, sheriff, moderator +of the high constables, the superintendent of the water company, +the managers of the different gas-light companies, and +the fire-engine committee, will give their attendance. They +will assemble in such house nearest to the place of the fire +as can be procured, of which notice shall be immediately +given to the officer commanding the police on the spot.</p> + +<p>The orders of the chief magistrate in attendance shall be +immediately obeyed; and no order, except those issued by +such magistrate, and the particular directions given as to the +fire and engine department by the master of engines, or, in +their absence, by a member of the fire-engine committee on +the spot, shall be at all attended to.</p> + +<p>The magistrates and sheriff further declare, that all +porters holding badges shall be bound to give their attendance +at fires when called upon for that purpose.</p> + + +<h4>VIII.—<span class="smcap">Gas-light Companies.</span></h4> + +<p>The managers of the different gas-light companies, on +receiving notice of a fire, shall instantly take measures for +turning off the gas from all shops and houses in the immediate +neighbourhood of the fire.</p> + + +<h4>IX.—<span class="smcap">Special Regulations for the Firemen.</span></h4> + +<p><i>Captains.</i>—On the alarm of fire being given, an engine +must be immediately despatched from the main office to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +whatever district the fire may be in; and the captain in +whose district the fire happens shall bring his engine to the +spot as quickly as possible, taking care that none of the +apparatus is awanting. On arriving at the spot, he must +take every means in his power to supply his engine with +water, but especially by a service-pipe from a fire-cock, if +that be found practicable. Great care must be taken to +place the engine so that it may be in the direction of the +water, with sufficient room on all sides to work it, but as +little in the way of persons employed in carrying out furniture, +&c., as possible. He must also examine the fire while +the men are fixing the hose, &c., that the water may be +directed with the best effect.</p> + +<p>The captains shall be responsible for any misconduct of +their men, when they fail to report such misconduct to the +superintendent.</p> + +<p>The engines must be at all times in good working order, +and the captain shall report to the superintendent when any +part of the apparatus is in need of repair.</p> + +<p>When the fire is in another district, the captain of each +engine shall get his men and engine ready to proceed at a +moment's notice, but must not move from his engine-house +till a special order arrives from a lieutenant of police or the +superintendent of brigade.</p> + +<p><i>Sergeants.</i>—The sergeant of each engine will take the +command in absence of the captain. When the captain is +present, the sergeant will give him all possible assistance in +conducting the engine to the fire; and it will there be more +particularly the sergeant's duty to see that the engine is +supplied with water, and that every man is at his proper +station, and to remain with his engine while on duty, whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +it is working or not, unless he receives special orders to the +contrary.</p> + +<p><i>Pioneers.</i>—Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of each engine will be considered +pioneers. Nos. 1 and 2 will proceed to the fire +immediately, without going to their engine-house, in order to +prepare for the arrival of the first engine, by ascertaining and +clearing a proper station for it, and by making ready the +most available supplies of water, as also to examine the state +of the premises on fire and the neighbouring ones, so as to +be able to give such information to the captain on his arrival +as may enable him to apply his force with the greatest effect. +<i>The pioneers will attend particularly to the excluding of air +from the parts on fire by every means in their power, and they +will ascertain whether there are any communications with the +adjoining house by the roof, gable, or otherwise.</i> When the +several engines arrive, the pioneers will fall in with their own +company, and take their farther orders from the captain or +sergeant.</p> + +<p><i>Firemen.</i>—On the alarm of fire being given, the whole +company belonging to each engine (Nos. 1 and 2 excepted) +shall assemble as speedily as possible at their engine-house, +and act with spirit under the orders of their officers in getting +everything ready for service. Each man will get a ticket +with his own number and the colour of his engine marked +upon it; and on all occasions when he comes on duty he will +give this ticket into the hands of a policeman, who will be +appointed by the officer of police on duty to collect them at +each engine-house, and who will accompany the engine if it +is ordered to the fire.</p> + +<p>If the ticket be not given in, as before provided, within +half an hour after the alarm is given at their engine-house, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +at all events, within half an hour after the arrival of the +engine at the fire, the defaulter will forfeit the allowance for +turning out, and also the first hour's pay.</p> + +<p>If not given in within the first hour, he will forfeit all +claim to pay.</p> + +<p>The superintendent, however, may do away the forfeiture +in any of these cases, on cause being shown to his satisfaction.</p> + +<p>On quarter-days and days of exercise, every man must be +ready equipped at the appointed hour, otherwise he will forfeit +that day's pay, or such part of it as the superintendent may +determine.</p> + +<p>Any man destroying his equipments, or wearing them when +off duty, will be punished by fine or dismissal from the service, +as the superintendent may determine.</p> + +<p>Careless conduct, irregular attendance at exercise, or disobedience +of superior officers, to be punished as above-mentioned.</p> + +<p>The man who arrives first at the engine-house to which he +belongs, <i>properly equipped</i>, will receive three shillings over +and above the pay for turning out.</p> + +<p>The first of the Nos. 1 and 2 who arrives at the fire, <i>properly +equipped</i>, in whatever district it may be, will receive +three shillings over and above the pay for turning out.</p> + +<p>No pay will be allowed for a false alarm, unless the same +is given by a policeman.</p> + +<p>As nothing is so hurtful to the efficiency of an establishment +for extinguishing fires as unnecessary noise, irregularity, +or insubordination, it is enjoined on all to observe quietness +and regularity, to execute readily whatever orders they may +receive from their officers, and to do nothing without orders.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<p>The first engine and company which arrive at the fire are +not to be interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted +from them by those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct +order from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the +chief magistrate on the spot. The same rule will apply to +each succeeding engine which takes up a station.</p> + +<p>The men must be careful not to allow their attention to be +distracted from their duty by listening to directions from any +persons <i>except their own officers</i>; and they will refer every one +who applies to them for aid to the superintendent, or to the +chief magistrate present at the time.</p> + +<p>All the firemen must be particularly careful to let the +policemen on their respective stations know where they live, +and take notice when the policeman is changed, that they +may give the new one the requisite information.</p> + +<p>The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous +liquors from any individual without the special permission of +the captain of their engine, who will see that every proper +and necessary refreshment be afforded to them; and as intoxication +upon such alarming occasions is not merely disreputable +to the corps, but in the highest degree dangerous, by +rendering the men unfit for their duty, every appearance of +it will be most rigidly marked; and any man who may be +discovered in that state shall not only forfeit his whole allowances +for the turn-out and duty performed, but will be forthwith +dismissed from the corps.</p> + +<p>All concerned are strictly enjoined to preserve their presence +of mind, not to lose temper, and upon no occasion whatsoever +to give offence to the inhabitants by making use of +uncivil language or behaving rudely.</p> + +<p>*<sub>*</sub>* Every one belonging to the establishment will be furnished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +with a printed copy of these Regulations, which they +are enjoined carefully to preserve and <i>read over at least once +every week</i>.</p> + + +<h3>MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE.</h3> + +<p>[The following was written in the year 1830, and does +not refer to Public Fire-Escapes other than those that can +be carried with a Fire-Engine.—<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p> + +<p>When the lower floors of a house are on fire, and the +stairs or other ordinary means of retreat destroyed, the +simplest and easiest mode of removing the inhabitants from +the upper floors, is by a ladder placed against the wall. In +order to be able at all times to carry this plan into effect, the +person having charge of the engines should (as far as possible) +inform himself where long ladders are to be had, and +how they can most easily be removed.</p> + +<p>But if a ladder of sufficient length is not to be procured, +or is at too great a distance to render it safe to wait +for it, recourse must immediately be had to other means.</p> + +<p>If it happens that the windows above are all inaccessible, +on account of the flames bursting through those below, the +firemen should immediately get on the roof (by means of +the adjoining houses,) and descend by the hatch. The +hatch, however, being sometimes directly above the stair, is +in that case very soon affected by the fire and smoke. If, on +approaching, it is found to be so much so as to render an +entrance in that way impracticable, the firemen should +instantly break through the roof, and, descending into the +upper floors, extricate those within. If it should happen, +however, that the persons in danger are not in the upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +floor, and cannot reach it in consequence of the stair being +on fire, the firemen should continue breaking through floor +after floor till they reach them. In so desperate a case as +this the shorter process may probably be to break through +the party-wall between the house on fire and that adjoining, +when there is one; and when there is no house immediately +contiguous, through the gable, taking care in either case to +break through at the back of a closet, press, chimney, or +other recess, where the wall is thinnest. If an opening has +been made from the adjoining house, it should immediately +(after having served the purpose for which it was made) be +built up with brick or stone, to prevent the fire spreading. +All these operations should be performed by slaters, masons, +or house-carpenters, who, being better acquainted with such +work, are likely to execute it in a shorter time than others—time, +in such a case, being everything, as a few minutes +lost may cost the lives of the whole party. It is not impossible, +however, that circumstances may occur to render all or +either of these plans impracticable; in that case, one or two +of the lower windows must be darkened, and by this means +access gained to the upper ones. The plan recommended by +the Parisian firemen is, for a man to wrap himself up in a +wet blanket, and thus pass swiftly through the flames. But +this effort is only to be attempted when the flames from a +single door are to be passed; in any other case the stair will +most likely be in flames, and impassable.</p> + +<p>A simple means of escape from fire is to have an iron ring +fastened to the window sill, and inside of the room a cradle, +with a coil of rope attached to it. The rope is put through +the ring, and the person wishing to escape gets into the +cradle, and lowers himself down by passing the rope through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +his hands. The great objection to this plan, which is certainly +very simple, is the difficulty, or rather impossibility, of +persuading people to provide themselves with the necessary +materials. Many men, too, are incapable of the exertion +upon which the whole plan depends; and if men in a state +of terror are unfit for such a task, what is to become of +women and children?</p> + +<p>Any fire-escape, to be generally useful, must, in the first +place, be capable of being carried about without encumbering +the fire-engine; and, in the next place, must be of instant +and simple application. The means which appear to me to +possess these qualifications in the highest degree, is a combination +of the cradle plan, with Captain Manby's admirable +invention for saving shipwrecked seamen.</p> + +<p>The apparatus necessary for this fire-escape is a chain-ladder +eighty feet long, a single chain or rope of the same +length as the ladder, a canvas bag, a strong steel cross-bow, +and a fine cord of the very best workmanship and materials, +130 feet long, with a lead bullet of three-ounce weight +attached to one end, and carefully wound upon a wooden +cone seven inches high and seven inches broad at the base, +turned with a spiral groove, to prevent the cord slipping +when wound upon it, also a small pulley with a claw +attached to it, and a cord reeved through it of sufficient +strength to bear the weight of the ladder.</p> + +<p>In order to prevent the sides of the ladder from collapsing, +the steps are made of copper or iron tube, fastened +by a piece of cord passed through the tube and into the links +of the chain, till the tube is filled. The steps thus fastened +are tied to the chain with copper-wire, so that, in the event +of the cord being destroyed, the steps will be retained in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +their places by the wire. The ladder is provided with two +large hooks at one end, for the purpose of fixing it to a +roof, window-sill, &c. The bag is of canvas, three feet wide +and four feet deep, with cords sewed round the bottom, and +meeting at the top, where they are turned over an iron +thimble at each side of the mouth of the bag. The steel +cross-bow is of the ordinary description, of sufficient strength +to throw the lead bullet with the cord attached, 120 feet +high.</p> + +<p>When the house from which the persons in danger are to +be extricated is so situated that the firemen can get to the +roof by passing along the tops of the adjoining houses, they +will carry up the chain-ladder with them, and drop it over +the window where the inmates show themselves, fastening the +hooks at the same time securely in the roof. The firemen +will descend by the ladder into the window, and putting the +persons to be removed into the bag, lower them down into +the street by the single chain. If the flames are issuing +from the windows below, the bag, when filled, is easily drawn +aside into the window of the adjoining house, by means of a +guy or guide-rope.</p> + +<p>If the house on fire stands by itself, or if access cannot be +had to the roof by means of the adjoining houses, the lead +bullet, with the cord attached, is thrown over the house by +means of the cross-bow; to this cord a stronger one is +attached, and drawn over the house by means of the former; +a single chain is then attached, and drawn over in like +manner; and to this last is attached the chain-ladder, which, +on being raised to the roof, the firemen ascend, and proceed +as before directed.</p> + +<p>If the house be so high that the cord cannot be thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +over far enough to be taken hold of by those on the opposite +side, then the persons to be extricated must take hold of the +cord, as it hangs past the window at which they may have +placed themselves. By means of it they draw up the small +pulley, and hook it on the window-sill. The chain-ladder is +then made fast to the end of the cord, and drawn up by +those below. When the end of the chain-ladder comes in +front of the window, the persons inside fasten the hooks +of the ladder on its sill, or to the post of a bed, the bars of +a grate, or anything likely to afford a sufficient hold. After +having ascertained that the ladder is properly fixed, the firemen +will ascend and proceed as in the former cases.</p> + +<p>I must here remark, that before this plan can be properly +put in execution, the firemen must be regularly trained to +the exercise. When the firemen here are practised with the +fire-escape, the man ascending or descending has a strong +belt round his middle, to which another chain is fastened, +and held by a man stationed at the window for that purpose; +if any accident, therefore, were to occur with the chain-ladder, +the man cannot fall to the ground, but would be +swung by the chain attached to the belt round his body. +The men are also frequently practised in ascending and +descending by single chains. The firemen here are very +fond of the above exercise; the bagging each other seems to +amuse them exceedingly.<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a></p> + +<p>The last resort, in desperate cases, is to leap from the +window. When this is to be attempted, mattresses, beds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +straw, or other soft substances, should be collected under the +window; a piece of carpet or other strong cloth should be +held up by ten or twelve stout men. The person in the window +may then leap, as nearly as possible, into the centre of the +cloth, and if he has sufficient resolution to take a fair leap, +he may escape with comparatively little injury.<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a></p> + + +<h3><a name="FIRE-ENGINES" id="FIRE-ENGINES"></a>FIRE-ENGINES.</h3> + +<p>In the application of manual power to the working of +fire-engines, the principal object is, to apply the greatest +aggregate power to the lightest and smallest machine; that +is, suppose two engines of the same size and weight, the one +with space for 20 men to work throws 60 gallons per +minute; and the other, with space for 30 men, throws +80 gallons in the same time; the latter will be the most +useful engine, although each man is not able to do so much +work as at the former.</p> + +<p>The reciprocating motion is generally preferred to the +rotary for fire-engines. Independent of its being the most +advantageous movement, a greater number of men can be +employed at an engine of the same size and weight; there is +less liability to accident with people unacquainted with the +work, and such as are quite ignorant of either mode of +working, work more freely at the reciprocating than the +rotary motion. To these reasons may be added, the greater +simplicity of the machinery.</p> + +<p>Various sizes of engines, of different degrees of strength<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +and weight, have been tried, and it is found that a fire-engine +with two cylinders of 7 inches diameter, and a stroke +of 8 inches, can be made sufficiently strong at 17-1/2 cwt. If +4 cwt. be added for the hose and tools, it will be found quite +as heavy as two fast horses can manage, for a distance under +six miles, with five firemen and a driver.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a> +<img src="images/image124.png" width="600" height="372" alt="Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade. +Longitudinal section,—with the Levers turned up for travelling." title="Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade. +Longitudinal section,—with the Levers turned up for travelling." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade. +Longitudinal section,—with the Levers turned up for travelling.</span> +</p> + +<p>This size of engine has been adopted by the Board of +Admiralty and the Board of Ordnance, and its use is +becoming very general.</p> + +<p>When engines are made larger, it is seldom that the +proper proportions are preserved, and they are generally +worked with difficulty, and soon fatigue the men at the +levers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;"> +<a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a> +<img src="images/image125.png" width="538" height="600" alt="Fig. 2. Transverse section." title="Fig. 2. Transverse section." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 2. Transverse section.</span> +</p> + +<p>When an engine is large, it not only requires a considerable +number of men to work it, but it is not easily supplied +with water; and, above all, <i>it cannot be moved about +with that celerity on which, in a fire-engine establishment, +everything depends</i>. When the engine is brought into +actual operation, the effect to be produced depends less on +the quantity of water thrown than upon its being made +actually to strike the burning materials, the force with +which it does so, and the steadiness with which the engine +is worked. If the water be steadily directed upon the +burning materials, the effect even of a small quantity is +astonishing.</p> + +<p>When a large engine is required in London, two with +7-inches cylinders are worked together by means of a connecting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +screw, thus making a jet very nearly equal (as 98 to +100) to that of an engine with cylinders 10 inches diameter.</p> + +<p>It is also an advantage not unworthy of consideration, +that two 7-inch engines may be had nearly for the price of +one 10-inch one; so that if one happens to be rendered +unserviceable the other may still be available.</p> + +<p>The usual rate of working an engine of the size described +is 40 strokes of each cylinder per minute; this gives 88 +gallons. The number of men required to keep steadily at +work for three or four hours is 26; upwards of 30 men +are sometimes put on when a great length of hose is +necessary. The lever is in the proportion of 4-1/4 to 1. With +40 feet of leather hose and a 7/8 inch jet, the pressure +is 30 lb. on the square inch; this gives 10.4 lbs. to each +man to move a distance of 226 feet in one minute. The +friction increases the labour 2-1/2 per cent. for every additional +40 feet of hose, which shows the necessity of having +the engine, and of course the supply of water, as close to +the fire as is consistent with the safety of the men at the levers.</p> + +<p>In order that the reader may have a distinct idea of such +a fire-engine, I shall here endeavour to give a description, +chiefly taken from those made by W. J. Tilley,<a name="FNanchor_K_11" id="FNanchor_K_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_K_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> fire-engine +maker, London.</p> + +<p>The engravings (figs. 1 and 2) represent a fire-engine of +7-inch barrels and 8-inch stroke.<a name="FNanchor_L_12" id="FNanchor_L_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_L_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> The cistern marked A +is made of mahogany or oak. The upper work, B, and +side-boxes or pockets, C, are of Baltic fir. The sole, D, upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +which the barrels stand, and which also contains the valves, +is of cast-iron, with covers of the same material, which +are screwed down, and the joints made good with leather or +india-rubber. The pieces E, at each end of the cast-iron +sole D, are of cast brass, and screwed to the cast-iron sole +D, with a joint the same as above. In one of these pieces +is the screwed suction-cap F, and to the other is attached the +air-vessel G, made of sheet-copper, and attached to the piece +E by a screw. The exit-pipe H is attached to the under +side of the casting E by a swivel. The valves at I are +of brass, ground so as to be completely water-tight. The +barrels K are of cast brass. The engine is set on four +grasshopper springs M. The shafts or handles O, of the +levers P, are of lancewood. The box S, under the driving +seat, is used for keeping wrenches, cord, &c.; in the fore +part of the cistern A, and the box B above the cistern, the +hose is kept; the branch and suction-pipes are carried in +the side-boxes or pockets C; the rest of the tools and materials +are kept along with the above-mentioned articles, in such +situations as not to interfere with the working of the engine.</p> + +<p>The cistern is made of oak or mahogany, for strength +and durability; but, for the sake of lightness, the upper +work and side-boxes are made of Baltic fir, strength in +them being of less importance.</p> + +<p>As the valve cannot be made without a rise for the lid to +strike against, there is a small step at each of the valves, +and the sole is carried through as high as this step, to admit +of the water running off when the engine is done working. +If constructed in a different manner, the water will lodge in +the bottom, and produce much inconvenience in situations +where the engine is exposed to frost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p> + +<p>The valve-covers are of cast-iron, fastened down with +copper screws, a piece of leather or india-rubber being placed +between them and the upper edges of the sole.</p> + +<p>The pieces at each end of the sole are of cast-brass, instead +of sheet-copper, with soft-solder joints, which are very apt +to give way.</p> + +<p>The screwed suction cap with iron handle admits the +water in two different directions, according as it is open +or closed: the one to supply the engine when water is +drawn from the cistern, the other for drawing water through +the suction-pipe.</p> + +<p>The valves are brass plates, truly ground to fit the circular +brass orifice on which they fall. The brass being well ground, +no leather is used for the purpose of making them tight. +The longer they are used the better they fit, and by having +no leather about them they are less liable to the adhesion of +small stones or gravel. The whole valve is put together +and then keyed into a groove in the sides and bottom of the +sole, left for that purpose.</p> + +<p>The barrels are of cast-brass, with a piston made of two +circular pieces of the same metal, each put into a strong +leather cup, and bolted to the other. The bottoms of the +cups being together, when the piston becomes loose in the +barrels, and there is not sufficient time to replace the cups +by new ones, they are easily tightened by putting a layer of +hemp round the piston between the leather and the brass. +This operation, however, requires to be carefully performed; +for if more hemp is put into one part than another it is apt +to injure the barrels. The barrels are fixed to the cast-iron +sole by copper screws, a little red lead being placed between +the bottom flange of the barrel and the sole.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p> + +<p>When the engine is likely to be dragged over rough roads +or causeways, it is of importance to have it set on springs, to +prevent the jolting from affecting the working part of the +engine, everything depending on that being right.</p> + +<p>The engines used in Paris are mounted on two wheels, the +carriage and the engine being separate, the latter being dismounted +from the former before it can be used. In Paris, +where the engines are managed by a corps of regularly-trained +firemen, this may answer well enough; but if hastily +or carelessly dismounted by unskilful persons, the engine may +be seriously damaged. It is also worthy of remark, that the +proper quantity of hose, tools, &c., can be more easily attached +to and carried on a four-wheeled engine.</p> + +<p>In order that the men may work more easily at the +handles, and suffer less fatigue, the engine is not higher than +to enable them to have the levers easily under their command. +The shafts of the levers are of lancewood, being best +calculated to bear the strain to which they are exposed when +the engine is at work, and they are made to fold up at each +end for convenience in travelling.</p> + +<p>The air-vessel should be placed clear of any other part of +the engine, excepting only the point where it is attached.</p> + +<p>The fore-carriage of the engine is fitted with a pole, and +is made to suit the harness of coach-horses, these being, in +large towns, more easily procured than other draught cattle; +this can be altered, however, to suit such harness as can most +readily be obtained. Where horses are seldom used to move +the engines, a drag-handle is attached, by which one or two +men are able easily to direct the progress of the engine.</p> + +<p>Two drag-ropes, each twenty-five feet long, of three-inch +rope, with ten loops to each, are attached, one to each end of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +the splinter-bar, by means of which the engines are dragged; +and to prevent the loops collapsing on the hand, they are +partly lined with sheet-copper.</p> + +<p>The whole of the brass work of an engine should be of the +best gun-metal, composed of copper and tin only. Yellow +brass should never be used; even at first it is far inferior to +gun-metal, and after being used for some time it gets brittle. +The whole of the materials used in the construction of a fire-engine +should be of the best description.</p> + +<p>In London for some years past a hand-pump has been +carried with each engine. They have been found of the +greatest service in keeping doors, windows, &c., cool. They +throw from six to eight gallons per minute, to a height of +from thirty to forty feet, and can be used in any position. +The idea of the hand-pumps I took from the old-fashioned +squirt, or "hand-engine."</p> + +<p>When fire-engines are unserviceable it arises more frequently +from want of care in keeping in order than from +any damage they may have received in actual service or by +the wearing out of the materials; so it is quite plain that +this important part of the duty has not generally had that +degree of attention paid to it which it deserves.</p> + +<p>Although an engine were to be absolutely perfect in its +construction, if carelessly thrown aside after being brought +home from a fire, and allowed to remain in that state till the +next occasion, it would be in vain (especially in small towns, +where alarms are rare) to expect to find it in a serviceable +condition; some of the parts must have grown stiff, and if +brought into action in this state something is likely to give +way.</p> + +<p>When an engine is brought back from a fire, it ought to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +be immediately washed, the cistern cleaned out, the barrels +and journals cleaned and fresh oil put on them, the wheels +greased, and every part of the engine carefully cleaned and +examined, and if any repairs are needed they should be +executed immediately. When all this has been attended to +clean hose should be put in, and the engine is again fit for +immediate service. Besides this cleaning and examination +after use, the engine ought to be examined and the brass part +cleaned once a week, and worked with water once a month +whether it has been used or not.</p> + +<p>In addition to the keeping of the engine always in an +effective state, this attention has the advantage of reminding +the men of their duty, and making them familiar with every +part of the mechanism of the engine; thus teaching them +effectually how the engines ought to be protected when at +work, by enabling them to discover those parts most liable to +be damaged, and to which part damage is the most dangerous. +It is more troublesome generally to get the engines well kept +when there are no fires, than when there are many. But the +only effectual method of inducing the men to keep them in +good order, in addition to the moral stimulants of censure +and applause, is to fine those who have the charge of them +for the slightest neglect.</p> + +<p>When the engine has been properly placed, before +beginning to work the fore-carriage should be locked. This +is done by putting an iron pin through a piece of wood +attached to the cistern, into the fore-carriage. This prevents +the wheels from turning round, and coming under the shafts, +by which the latter might be damaged, and the hands of the +men at work injured.</p> + +<p>Small stones, gravel, and other obstructions, sometimes find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +their way into the nozzle of the branch-pipe, from having +dropped into the hose before being attached, or having been +drawn through the suction-pipe or from the cistern. Whenever +the engine is found to work stiffly, it should be stopped +and examined, otherwise the pressure may burst the hose, or +damage some part of the engine. If anything impedes the +action of the valves the pistons must be drawn, and if a +person's hand be then introduced they may easily be cleared—constant +care and attention to all the minutiæ of the +engine and apparatus being absolutely indispensable, if +effective service be expected from them.</p> + +<p>Considerable attention ought to be paid to the selecting a +proper situation for an engine-house. Generally speaking, it +ought to be central, and on the highest ground of the district +it is meant to protect, and care should be taken to observe +when any of the streets leading from it are impassable.</p> + +<p>If, in addition to these advantages, the engine-house can +be had adjoining to a police watch-house, it may be considered +nearly perfect, in so far as regards situation. These +advantages being all attained, the engine can be conveyed to +any particular spot by a comparatively small number of men, +while the vicinity of a police watch-house affords a facility of +communicating the alarm of fire to the firemen not to be +obtained otherwise. When the engine-house is placed in a +low situation the men who first arrive must wait till the +others come forward to assist them to drag the engine up the +ascent, and many minutes must thus be lost at a time when +moments are important.</p> + +<p>After choosing a proper situation for the engine-house, the +next care should be directed towards having it properly ventilated, +as nothing contributes more to the proper keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span> +of the engines and hose than fresh and dry air. For this +purpose a stove should be fitted up, by which the temperature +may be kept equal. When engines are exposed to +violent alternations of heat and cold, they will be found to +operate very considerably on the account for repairs, besides +occasioning the danger of the engine being frozen and unserviceable +when wanted.</p> + +<p>There ought to be at least half a dozen keys for each +engine-house, which should be kept by the firemen, watchmen, +and those connected with the establishment, that the +necessity of breaking open the door may not occur.</p> + + +<h4>DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH ENGINE IS +PROVIDED.</h4> + +<p>Having considered the sort of fire-engine which is best +adapted for general purposes, I shall now notice the different +articles which, in London, are always attached to, and accompany, +each engine of this kind:—</p> + +<ul> +<li>7 coils of hose, 40 feet each.</li> +<li>4 bundles of sheepskin and lay-cord.</li> +<li>4 lengths of suction-pipe, each between 6 and 7 feet long.</li> +<li>2 branch pipes.</li> +<li>3 jet pipes or nozzles and an elbow for jet.</li> +<li>3 wrenches for coupling-joints.</li> +<li>2 lamps.</li> +<li>2 lengths of scaling ladder.</li> +<li>1 fire-hook.</li> +<li>60 feet of patent line, and 20 feet of trace line.</li> +<li>1 mattock.</li> +<li>1 shovel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></li> +<li>1 hatchet or pole-axe.</li> +<li>1 saw.</li> +<li>1 iron crow-bar.</li> +<li>1 portable cistern.</li> +<li>1 flat suction strainer.</li> +<li>1 standcock, and hook for street plugs.</li> +<li>1 screw wrench.</li> +<li>1 canvas sheet with 10 or 12 rope handles round its edges.</li> +<li>9 canvas buckets.</li> +<li>1 hand-pump with 10 feet of hose and jet pipe.</li> +</ul> + +<p>Of these articles I shall endeavour to give a description as +they stand in the above list.</p> + +<p>The article of hose being first in order, as well as importance, +merits particular attention.</p> + +<p>The sort used is leather, made with copper rivets, and is by +far the most serviceable and durable hose that I have yet +seen.</p> + +<p>Manufacturers of this article, however, for a very obvious +reason, are not always careful to select that part of the hide +which, being firmest, is best adapted for the purpose. Indeed, +I have known several instances wherein nearly the +whole hide has been cut up and made into hose, without any +selection whatever. The effect of this is very prejudicial. +The loose parts of the hide soon stretch and weaken, and +while, by stretching, the diameter of the pipe is increased, +the pressure of the water, in consequence, becomes greater +on that than on any other part of the hose, which is thereby +rendered more liable to give way at such places.</p> + +<p>Hose are frequently made narrow in the middle, and, in +order to fit the coupling-joints, wide at the extremities—a +practice which lessens their capability of conveying a given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +quantity of water, in proportion to the difference of the +area of the section of the diameters at the extremity and +the middle part.</p> + +<p>In order to make them fit the coupling-joints, when carelessly +widened too much, I have frequently seen them stuffed +up with brown paper, and in that case they almost invariably +give way, the folds of the paper destroying the hold which +the leather would otherwise have of the ridges made on the +ends of the coupling-joints.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid all these faults and defects, the riveted +hose used are made in the following manner:—</p> + +<p>The leather is nine and five-eighths inches broad (that +being the breadth required for coupling-joints of two and a +half inches diameter of clear water-way), and levelled to the +proper uniform thickness. The leather used is taken from +hides of the very best description, perfectly free from flesh-cuts, +warble-holes, or any other blemish, and stuffed as high +as possible.<a name="FNanchor_M_13" id="FNanchor_M_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_M_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a> Not more than four breadths are taken from +each hide, and none of the soft parts about the neck, +shoulders, or belly are used. No piece of leather is less than +four feet long.</p> + +<p>The leather is gauged to the exact breadth, and holes +punched in it for the rivets. In the operation of punching, +great care must be taken to make the holes on each side of +the leather exactly opposite to each other. If this precaution +be not attended to, the seam when riveted takes a +spiral direction on the hose, which the heads of the rivets +are very apt to cut at the folds. Care must also be taken +that the leather is equally stretched on both sides, otherwise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +the number of holes on the opposite sides may be unequal. +The ends are then cut at an angle of thirty-seven degrees; +if cut at a greater angle, the cross-joint will be too short, +and if at a smaller, the leather will be wasted. This must, +however, be regulated in some degree by the number of holes +in the cross-joint, as the angle must be altered a little if the +holes at that part do not fit exactly with the holes along the +side.</p> + +<p>The different pieces of leather necessary to form one +length, or forty feet of hose, are riveted together by the +ends.</p> + +<p>Straps of leather, three inches broad, are then riveted +across the pipe, ten feet apart, to form loops for the purpose +of handing or making fast the hose when full of water. The +leather is then laid along a bench, and a bar of iron, from +eight to ten feet long, three inches broad, and one inch thick, +with the corners rounded off, is laid above it. The rivets +are next put into the holes on one side of the leather, along +the whole length of the iron bar. The holes on the other +side are then brought over them, and the washers put on the +points of the rivets, and struck down with a hollow punch. +The points of the rivets are then riveted down over the +washers, and finished with a setting punch. The bar of iron +is drawn along, and the same operation repeated till the +length of the hose be finished.</p> + +<p>The rivets and washers should be made of the best +wrought copper, and must be well tinned before being +used.</p> + +<p>Some objections have been made to riveted hose on account +of the alleged difficulty of repairing them; but this is not +so serious a matter as may at first view appear. Indeed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +they very seldom require any repairs, and when they do, the +process is not difficult. If any of the rivets be damaged, as +many must be taken out as will make room for the free +admission of the hand. A small flat mandrel being introduced +into the hose, the new rivets are put into the leather, +and riveted up the same as new pipe; the mandrel is then +shaken out at the end.</p> + +<p>If the leather be damaged, it may be repaired either by +cutting out the piece, and making a new joint, or by riveting +a piece of leather upon the hole.</p> + +<p>The manner of attaching the hose to the coupling-joint +is also a matter of very considerable importance. If a joint +come off when the engine is in operation, a whole length of +hose is rendered useless for the time, and a considerable +delay incurred in getting it detached, and another substituted.</p> + +<p>To prevent this, the hose ought to fit as tightly as possible +to the coupling-joint, without any packing. In riveted +hose, a piece of leather, thinned down to the proper size, +should be put on to make up the void which the thick edge +of the leather next the rivet necessarily leaves; the hose +should then be tied to the coupling-joint as firmly as possible +with the best annealed copper wire, No. 16 gauge.</p> + +<p>When the hose are completely finished in this manner +they are proved by a proving-pump, and if they stand a +pressure of two hundred feet of water they are considered +fit for service. I may also add, that when any piece of +hose has been under repair it is proved in the same manner +before it is deemed trustworthy.</p> + +<p>The proving of the hose is of very considerable importance, +and the method of doing so which I have mentioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +is greatly superior to the old plan of proving them on an +engine or fire-cock. By the latter method, no certain measure +can be obtained by which the pressure can be calculated. +In the first place it must depend on the relative height of +the reservoir from whence the water is obtained and that of +the fire-cock where the experiment is made; and as the +supply of water drawn from the pipes by the inhabitants +may be different on different days of the week and even in +different hours of the day, it is quite evident that by this +method no certain rule can be formed for the purpose required, +the pressure being affected by the quantity of water +drawn at the time.</p> + +<p>The method of proving by an engine is considerably better +than this; but when a proving-pump can be obtained it is +infinitely better than either. One disadvantage of an engine +is, that it requires a considerable number of men; but even +the proof, that of throwing the water to a given height on +the gable of a house or other height, is not always a test of +the sufficiency of the hose. As the temperature is low or +high, the wind fresh or light, the degree of pressure on the +hose in throwing the water to the required height will be +greater or less. Indeed, in high winds it is a matter of extreme +difficulty to throw the water to any considerable +height.</p> + +<p>With an engine of 7-inch barrels and 7-inch stroke, fitted +with eighty feet of 2-3/8-inch hose, I have found from several +experiments that when the water is thrown seventy-five feet +high, the pressure on the hose is equal to one hundred feet. +The same engine, with 160 feet of hose, and the branch-pipe +raised fifty feet above the level of the engine, when the water +was thrown fifty-six feet from the branch, occasioned a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +pressure equal to 130 feet on the hose. From these experiments, +I am convinced that the pressure will not be equal +to 200 feet, except in very extreme cases, or when some +obstacle gets into the jet pipe.</p> + +<p>I tried the extreme strength of a piece of riveted hose +4 feet long and 2-3/8 inches diameter, and found that it did +not burst till the pressure increased to 500 feet; and when +it gave way the leather was fairly torn along the rivet-holes.</p> + +<p>Every possible care should be taken to keep the hose soft +and pliable, and to prevent its being affected by mildew. +After being used, in order to dry them equally they should +be hung up by the centre, with the two ends hanging down, +until half dry. They should then be taken down and +rubbed over with a composition of bees'-wax, tallow, and +neats-foot oil,<a name="FNanchor_N_14" id="FNanchor_N_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_N_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> and again hung up to allow the grease to sink +into the leather. When the hose appear to be dry they should +be a second time rubbed with the composition, and then +coiled up for use. In order that the hose undergoing the +operation of greasing may not be disturbed or used till in a +fit state, it is better to have a double set, and in this way, +while one set is in grease the other is in the engine ready +and fit for service. More time can also be taken for any +repairs which may be necessary, and they will in consequence +be more carefully done, and at fires where a great +length of hose is required the spare set will always be +available. When the weather is damp, and the hose cannot +be dried so as to be fit for greasing in two or three days, a +stove should be put into the room in order to facilitate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +process. The greatest care, however, must be taken in the +use of artificial heat. The whole apartment should be kept +of one equal temperature, which ought never to be higher +than is requisite to dry the hose for greasing in about forty +hours.</p> + +<p><i>Coupling-joints.</i><a name="FNanchor_O_15" id="FNanchor_O_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_O_15" class="fnanchor">[O]</a>—So much of the efficiency and duration +of the hose depend on the proper form given to the brass +coupling-joints, that I deem it useful to give a detailed +description, both of those generally made use of and of those +adopted by the Edinburgh fire-establishment, and also to +point out their various defects and advantages.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a> +<img src="images/image140.png" width="600" height="350" alt="Fig. 3. Old Coupling" title="Fig. 3. Old Coupling" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 3. Old Coupling</span> +</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 is the construction commonly made by engine-makers. +Its defects are as follows:—From the form of the +furrows and ridges where the leather is tied it does not hold +on well against a force tending to pull the hose off end-ways;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +screw-nails are therefore often employed, as at A, to +secure the hose on the brass. The points of these nails +always protrude more or less into the inside of the joint, +and materially impede the current of water. The mouths +of the joints are also turned outwards, and form a shoulder, +as at B. The intention of this is probably to assist in +securing the leather in its place, and to prevent the lapping +from slipping. The effects of it are as follows:—First, from +the leather being strained over this projection, it becomes +liable to be cut by every accidental injury, and very soon +cracks and gives way, when a portion must be cut off and a +fresh fixing made; second, the leather being stretched over +the projection, does not fit the other part of the joint, and +must be loose or filled up with pieces of leather, or, as is +sometimes done, with brown paper; third, the irregularity +of the calibre of the conduit which this shoulder occasions +diminishes the performance of the engine.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a> +<img src="images/image141.png" width="600" height="303" alt="Fig. 4. New Coupling" title="Fig. 4. New Coupling" /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 4. New Coupling</span> +</p> + +<p>Fig. 4 is the coupling-joint adopted in Edinburgh. The +furrows at the tying place are shallow, but their edges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +present a powerful obstacle to the slipping of the leather. +No screw-nails are employed, nor is there any shoulder, as at +B; there is therefore no impediment to or variation in the +velocity of the current, as the calibres of the coupling joints +and of the hose are so nearly uniform. It will be seen also +that as the lapping projects above the leather this latter can +never be injured by falls or rubbing on the ground.</p> + +<p>Another great advantage attending the joints used here +is the manner in which their screws are finished. On +examining the figure minutely, it will be observed that the +male-screw ends in a cylinder of the diameter of the <i>bottom</i> +of its thread, consequently of the diameter of the top of the +thread of the female-screw. The effect of this is, that, when +the screws are brought together, the cylindric portion serves +as a guide to the threads, and the most inexperienced person +cannot fail to make them catch fair at the first trial. The +advantage of this in the circumstances attending fires is +obvious.</p> + +<p>These joints, although requiring three or four turns to +close them up, yet as it is only the ring D which requires to +be turned, it can easily be done with the hand alone without +the use of wrenches. Although, when the whole length of +hose has been jointed, it may be as well to send a man with +a pair of wrenches to set the joints firm; this, however, is +by no means absolutely necessary; if the joints are kept +in proper order a man can secure them sufficiently with +the hand.</p> + +<p>There is also a facility in taking turns out of the hose, +which no other but a swivel joint affords. By slackening a +single turn any twist may be taken out, without undoing +the joint or stopping the engine, while, from the number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +turns required to close the joints, there is no chance of the +screw being by any accident undone. In order to prevent +the threads from being easily damaged, they should be of a +pretty large size, not more than five or six to the inch. For +the same reason also the thread should be a little rounded.</p> + +<p>As it sometimes happens that the screws are damaged by +falling on the street, or by heavy bodies striking them, +whenever the hose have been used the joints should be tried +by a steel gauge-screw, to be kept for that purpose. This +ought to be particularly attended to, as, on arriving at a +fire, it is rather an awkward time to discover that a joint +has been damaged, while the delay thus occasioned may be +attended with very serious consequences.</p> + +<p><i>Four Bundles of Sheepskin and Lay-cord.</i>—These are simply +four or five stripes of sheepskin, each about three or four +inches broad. When a leak occurs in a length of hose +which cannot be easily replaced at the time, one or more +pieces of sheepskin are wrapt tightly over the leak and tied +firmly with a piece of cord. This is but an indifferent +method of mending, but I do not know of any other which +can be so readily applied with the same effect. If another +length of hose can be substituted for the leaky one it is +better to do so; but that is not always at hand, nor does it +always happen that time can be spared for the purpose.</p> + +<p><i>Four Lengths of Suction-pipe.</i>—These are generally made +of leather, riveted tightly over a spiral worm of hoop-iron, +about three-quarters of an inch broad, a piece of tarred +canvas being placed between the worm and the leather. +They are usually made from six to eight feet long, with a +copper strainer screwed on the farther end, to prevent as +much as possible any mud or dirt from getting into the engine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +with the water. It is of advantage to carry four lengths of +suction-pipe, as they can be joined to reach the water; if +one is damaged the others will still be serviceable.</p> + +<p>The suction-pipes are more troublesome to rivet than the +common hose, and are done in the following manner:—After +the joints are fixed on the spiral worm, and it is +covered with the tarred canvas, an iron mandrel longer than +the worm is put through it, the edge being rounded to the +circle of the inside of the worm. The projecting ends of the +mandrel are supported to allow the worm to lie quite clear. +One end of the mandrel has a check, that the brass joint +may not prevent the worm from lying flat on the mandrel. +The leather is then put over the worm, and the rivets being +put into one side, a small thin mandrel is laid over the +canvas and the rivets struck down upon it. If the small +mandrel be not used the heads of the rivets are apt to lie +unequally on the worm.</p> + +<p><i>Three Wrenches for Coupling-joints.</i>—These are for tightening +the coupling-joints, when that cannot be sufficiently +done by hand. When the hose are all put together a man +is sent along the whole line with a pair of wrenches to +tighten such of the coupling-joints as require it. The +wrenches are generally made with a hole to fit the knob on +the coupling-joint, and, when used, are placed, one on the +nob of the male and another on the nob of the female-screw, +so as to pull them in opposite directions.</p> + +<p><i>Two Branch Pipes.</i>—These are taper copper tubes, having +a female-screw at one end to fit the coupling-joints of the +hose, and a male-screw at the other to receive the jet pipes, +one is 4 feet long to use from the outside of a house on fire, +the other 12 inches for inside work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p> + +<p><i>Three Jet-pipes</i> or nozzles of various sizes made to screw +on the end of the branch pipe.</p> + +<p>A great many different shapes of jet have been tried, and +that shown in Fig. 5, I found to answer best when tried +with other forms. The old jet was a continuation in a +straight line of the taper of the branch, from the size of the +hose-screw, to the end of the jet-pipe; this had many inconveniences; +the size of the jet could not be increased +without making the jet-pipe nearly parallel. As the +branches were sometimes 7 feet or 8 feet long, in some +instances the orifice at the end of the jet-pipe was larger +than that at the end of the branch. The present form of +the jet completely obviates this difficulty, as the end of the +branch is always 1-1/2 inches diameter.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a> +<img src="images/image145.png" width="600" height="208" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span> +</p> + +<p>The curve of the nozzle of the present jet is determined +by its own size; five times one-half of the difference between +the jet to be made and the end of the branch, is set up on +each side of the diameter of the upper end of the branch, a +straight line is then drawn across, and an arc of a circle +described on this line, from the extremity of each end of +the diameter of the jet, until it meets the top of the branch;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +the jet is then continued parallel, the length of its own +diameter; the metal is continued one-eighth of an inch +above this, to allow of a hollow being turned out to protect +the edge: The rule for determining the size of the jet for +inside work is, to "make the diameter of the jet one-eighth +of an inch for every inch in the diameter of the cylinder, +for each 8 inches of stroke." The branch used in this case +is the same size as shown in Fig. 5. When it is necessary +to throw the water to a greater height, or distance, a jet +one-seventh less in area is used, with a branch from 4 feet to +5 feet long.</p> + +<p><i>Two Lengths of Scaling Ladders.</i>—These are 6-1/2 feet long, +and are fitted with sockets so that any number up to 7 or +8 may be joined together to form one ladder varying in +length according to circumstances from 6-1/2 to upwards of +40 feet.</p> + +<p><i>One Fire-hook.</i>—This is similar to a common boat-hook, +of such length as may be most convenient to strap on the +handles of the engine. It is used for pulling down ceilings, +and taking out deafening-boards when the fire happens to +be between the ceiling and the floor above. It is +also used when a strong door is to be broken open. +It is placed with the point upon the door, one or two +men bearing upon it, while another striking the door, the +whole force of the blows is made to fall upon the lock +or other fastening, which generally yields without much +difficulty.</p> + +<p><i>Sixty Feet of Patent Line and Twenty Feet of Trace +Line.</i>—These are generally used for hoisting the hose into +the windows of the house, in which there is a fire, the stairs +being sometimes so crowded with people and furniture, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +it is difficult to force a passage, and when the pipe is laid +in the stair, it is liable to be damaged by people treading +on it.</p> + +<p><i>One Mattock and Shovel.</i>—These are useful in damming +any running water or gutter, uncovering drains, &c., from +which the engine may be supplied with water. The mattock +should be short and strong, and the shovel of the sort called +diamond-pointed.</p> + +<p><i>One Hatchet.</i>—The most serviceable hatchet for a fire-engine, +is similar to that used as a felling axe by wood-cutters. +The back part is made large that it may be conveniently +used as a hammer.</p> + +<p><i>One Saw.</i>—This should be a stout cross-cut saw, very +widely set. It is useful in cutting off the communication +between one house and another, which, when water is scarce, +is sometimes necessary.</p> + +<p><i>One Iron Crow-bar.</i>—This should be about two feet +long. It is used in opening doors, breaking through +walls, &c.</p> + +<p><i>One Portable Cistern.</i><a name="FNanchor_P_16" id="FNanchor_P_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_P_16" class="fnanchor">[P]</a>—This is made of canvas on a folding +iron frame, and is used in London placed over the street-fire +plugs, a hole is left in the bottom through which the +water enters and fills the cistern, the escape between the +canvas and the plug box being trifling. Two and sometimes +three engines are worked by suction-pipe from one plug in +this manner. The portable cistern is also used when the +engine is supplied by suction, from water conveyed in carts +or buckets, and is greatly preferable to any plan of emptying +the water directly into the engine. By this latter method<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +there is always a considerable waste of water, arising both from +the height of the engine, and the working of the handles; +and, in addition to these objections only one person can pour +in water at a time. When the water is poured into the +engine from carts, it must stop working till the cart is +emptied. All these objections, are in a great measure removed +by placing the portable cistern clear of the engine; +when used in this manner there must of course be no hole +in the bottom.</p> + +<p><i>One Flat Suction Strainer</i>, made to screw on to the suction +pipe, to prevent anything being drawn in that would not +pass through the jet-pipe, and made flat, with no holes in the +upper surface, for use in the portable cistern.</p> + +<p><i>One Standcock</i>, with stem to insert direct in the fire-plug, +and used principally with hose to throw a jet for cooling +ruins.</p> + +<p><i>One Canvas Sheet.</i>—This, when stretched out and held +securely by several men, may be jumped into from the +window of a house on fire with comparative safety.</p> + +<p><i>One Hand-pump</i>, as described at page <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, and used with +the canvas buckets.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p> + +<h3>FIRE ANNIHILATOR</h3> + +<p>With regard to the Fire Annihilator, I have seen several +experiments with this machine, and heard of more which +were not successful; and if an invention fails when experiments +are tried, it is open to the impression that it might +fail when brought into active operation. There have also +been many cases where these machines have met with accidents, +one at Drury Lane Theatre amongst the number.</p> + +<p>Water, properly applied, will do whatever the Annihilator +can accomplish, and also many things which the latter cannot +do. As it is, there are some forty or fifty different articles +to carry with each fire-engine, and to add to them such unwieldy +things as Fire Annihilators, would be to encumber +the men more than they are at present, with a very doubtful +prospect of advantage.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="WATER_SUPPLY" id="WATER_SUPPLY"></a>WATER SUPPLY.</h3> + +<p>The supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions +towards extinguishing fire. Where the pressure is +sufficient, and the mains large enough, by far the most +efficient and economical mode of using the water is to attach +the hose directly to the mains.</p> + +<p>In London, however, this can rarely be done, for several +reasons. The greatest number of plugs are on the service +pipes, that is, the pipes for supplying water for domestic +and other purposes, which are only open a short time +every day. If the cisterns are nearly empty, the pressure +cannot be obtained till they are filled. Then, again, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +plugs being some distance apart, it is difficult to obtain +a sufficient number of jets. But when the plugs are full +open 1-3/4 diameter, a sufficient quantity of water is obtained +from each to supply three engines, each of which +will give a jet equal to the plug if confined to one jet. +The pressure also in the mains in London seldom exceeds +120 feet at the utmost. For these reasons the pressure +from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked, +when the ruins are cooled by the "dummies," as the jets +from the mains are named by the firemen.</p> + +<p>If water can be obtained at an elevation, pipes with +plugs or firecocks on them, are preferable to any other +mode at present in use for the supply of fire-engines. +The size of the pipes will depend on the distance and +elevation of the head, and also on the size of the buildings +to be protected. It may be assumed as a general rule, +that the intensity of a fire depends, in a great measure, +on the cubic content of the building; distinction being +made as to the nature and contents of such building. If +no natural elevation of water can be made available, and +the premises are of much value, it may be found advisable +to erect elevated tanks; where this is done, the +quantity of water to be kept ready, and the rate at which +it is delivered, must depend on the means possessed of +making use of the water.</p> + +<p>The average size of fire-engines may be taken at two +cylinders of 7 inches diameter, with a length of stroke of +8 inches, making forty strokes each per minute. This sized +engine will throw 141 tons of water in six hours, and +allowing one-fourth for waste, 176 tons would be a fair +provision in the tanks for six hours' work; this quantity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span> +multiplied by the number of engines within reach, will give +an idea of what is likely to be required at a large fire. If, +however, there are steam-engines to keep up the supply +through the mains, the quantity of water kept in readiness +may be reduced to two hours' consumption, as it is likely +that the steam-engines would be at work before that +quantity was exhausted. This is what may be supposed to +be required, in cases of serious fires in dockyards, in large +stacks of warehouses, or in large manufactories.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;"> +<a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a> +<img src="images/image151.jpg" width="404" height="500" alt="Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe." title="Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe." /> +<span class="caption">Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe.</span> +</p> + +<p>Where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises, +such as from rivers, canals, &c., if it is not thought +prudent to erect elevated tanks, the water may be conducted +under the surface by large cast-iron pipes, with openings at +such distances as may seem advisable for introducing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +suction-pipes (Fig. 6). This plan should not be adopted +where the level of the water is more than 12 feet below the +surface of the ground, as although a fire-engine will, if perfectly +tight, draw from a much greater depth than 14 feet +(2 feet being allowed for the height of the engine), still a +very trifling leakage will render it useless for the time, at +such a depth.</p> + +<p>The worst mode of supplying engines with water is by +covered sunk tanks; they are generally too small, and unless +very numerous, confine the engines to one or two particular +spots, obliging the firemen to increase the length of the hose +which materially diminishes the effect of the fire-engine. If +the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir, it would be +much better to save the expense of the tank, and to place +plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe. Another evil in sunk +tanks is, that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity +of water they may depend upon, and they may thus be +induced to attempt to stop a fire, at a point they would not +have thought of if they had known correctly the quantity +of water in store.</p> + +<p>Where sunk tanks are already constructed, they may be +rendered more available by a partial use of the method shown +in Fig. 6.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Memoranda of Experiments tried on the mains and service +pipes of the Southwark Water Company, between 4 and 9</i> +<span class="smcap">A.M.</span> <i>of the 31st January, 1844. The wind blowing fresh +from N.N.W.</i></p></div> + +<p>The pressure at the water-works at Battersea was kept at +120 feet during the experiments, and every service pipe or +other outlet was kept shut.</p> + +<p><i>1st Experiment.</i>—Six standcocks, with one length of 2-1/2 +inches riveted leather hose 40 feet long, and one copper +branch 4 feet to 5 feet long, with a jet 7/8 inch in diameter on +each, were placed in six plugs on a main 7 inches diameter, +in Union-street, between High-Street, Borough, and Gravel-lane, +Southwark, at distances of about 120 yards apart. The +water was brought from the head at Battersea, by 4250 +yards of iron pipes 20 inches diameter, 550 yards of 15 inches +diameter, and 500 yards of 9 inches diameter.</p> + +<p>1st. One standcock was opened, which gave a jet of 50 +feet in height, and delivered 100 gallons per minute.</p> + +<p>With four lengths of hose the jet was 40 feet high, and +the delivery 92 gallons per minute. When the branch and +jet were taken off with one length of hose the delivery was +260 gallons per minute.</p> + +<p>2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the jet +from the first was 45 feet high.</p> + +<p>3rd. The third standcock was opened, and the jet from the +first 40 feet high.</p> + +<p>4th. The fourth standcock being opened, the first gave a +jet of 35 feet high.</p> + +<p>5th. The fifth being opened, the first gave a jet of 30 feet +high.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p> + +<p>6th. All the six being opened, the first gave a jet of 27 +feet in height.</p> + +<p><i>2nd Experiment.</i>—Six standcocks were then put into +plugs, on a main 9 inches diameter in Tooley-Street, the +extreme distance being 450 yards, with hose and jets as in +the first experiment. The water was brought from the head +at Battersea by 4250 yards of iron pipes of 20 inches +diameter, 1000 yards of 15 inches diameter, 1400 yards of 9 +inches diameter. The weather was nearly the same, but the +place of experiment was more protected from the wind than +in Union-street.</p> + +<p>1st. With one standcock open, a jet 60 feet in height +was produced, and 107 gallons per minute were delivered.</p> + +<p>2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the +difference in the first jet was barely perceptible.</p> + +<p>3rd. Other two standcocks being opened, the first jet was +reduced to 45 feet in height, and the delivery to 92 gallons +per minute.</p> + +<p>4th. All the six standcocks being opened, the first jet was +further reduced to 40 feet high, and the delivery to 76 gallons +per minute.</p> + +<p><i>3rd Experiment.</i>—Two standcocks, with hose, &c., as in +the first experiment, were then put into a service-pipe, 4 +inches diameter and 200 yards long, in Tooley-street, the +service-pipe was connected with 200 yards of main 5 inches +diameter, branching from the main of 9 inches diameter. +The weather was still the same as at first, but the wind did +not appear to affect the jets, owing to the buildings all round +being so much higher than the jet.</p> + +<p>1st. The standcock nearest the larger main was opened, +and a jet of 40 feet high was produced, delivering 82 gallons +per minute.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<p>2nd. Both standcocks being opened, the first gave a jet +of 31 feet, and delivered 68 gallons per minute.</p> + +<p>3rd. The standcock farthest from the large main only +being opened, gave a jet of 34 feet, and delivered 74 gallons +per minute.</p> + +<p>4th. Both standcocks being opened, the farthest one gave +a jet of 23 feet, and delivered 58 gallons per minute.</p> + +<p>When both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without +hose, the water from that nearest the large main, rose +about 18 inches, and the farther one about 1 inch above +the plug-box.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 518px;"> +<a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a> +<img src="images/image155.jpg" width="518" height="500" alt="Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug." title="Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug.</span> +</p> + +<p>These and other experiments prove the necessity of +placing the plugs on the mains, and not on the service pipes, +where there are mains in the street.</p> + +<p>The different modes of obtaining water from the mains or +pipes are shown in the accompanying drawings.</p> + +<p>(Fig. 7) is a section of a common plug when not in use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;"> +<a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a> +<img src="images/image156.png" width="537" height="500" alt="Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern." title="Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern.</span> +</p> + +<p>(Fig. 8) is a section of the common plug, with a canvas +dam or cistern over it, as used in London. The cistern is +made of No. 1 canvas, 15 inches deep, extended at top and +bottom by 5/8-inch round iron frames, a double stay is hinged +on the top frame at each end. When the cistern is used +the top frame is lifted up, and the stays put into the notches, +in two pieces of hoop iron, fixed to the bottom frame. +There is a circular opening 9 inches diameter in the canvas +bottom, two circular rings of wash-leather, about 2 inches +broad, are attached to the edges of the opening in the canvas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +so as to contract it to 4 inches or 5 inches diameter; the +plug being opened, the cistern is placed over it; the wash-leather +is pressed down to the surface of the road by the +water, and a tolerably water-tight cistern, with about 12 +inches or 14 inches of water in it, is immediately obtained.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;"> +<a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a> +<img src="images/image157.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock." title="Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock.</span> +</p> + +<p>(Fig. 9) is a plug with a standcock in it, to which hose +may be attached.</p> + +<p>(Fig. 10) is a common single firecock with a round water-way +2-1/2 inches diameter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a> +<img src="images/image158a.png" width="500" height="389" alt="Fig. 10. Single Firecock." title="Fig. 10. Single Firecock." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 10. Single Firecock.</span> +</p> + +<p>(Fig. 11) is a double firecock, as laid down in Her +Majesty's Dockyards.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"> +<a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a> +<img src="images/image158b.png" width="500" height="311" alt="Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards." title="Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards.</span> +</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + +<p>It will be observed, that the short piece of pipe between +the main and this firecock is not curved to the +current of the water, but merely opened a little; this is +done with a view of increasing the supply by steam power, +and as the steam engines are, in most cases, situated in a +different direction from the tanks or reservoirs, therefore +the curve that would have assisted the current in one +direction would have retarded it in the other. It has been +objected to these firecocks, that the opening does not run +through the centre of the key, therefore only one side of the +key covers the opening in the barrel, while in the common +firecock both sides are covered.</p> + +<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;"> +<a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a> +<img src="images/image159.png" width="600" height="388" alt="Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum." title="Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum." /> +<span class="caption">Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum.</span> +</p> + +<p>(Fig. 12) is a double firecock, as laid down at the British +Museum.</p> + +<p>This has a very good delivery, and is certain to be always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +tight, if well made, as the pressure of the water forces the +key into the barrel; this also renders the cock somewhat +difficult to be opened and shut, if the pressure be great; but +as a lever of any length may be used, and the key, from its +perpendicular position, may be loosened by a blow, this objection +is in a great measure obviated.</p> + +<p>In Figs. 10 and 11 the openings in the street are large +enough to admit of the levers for opening the cock to be +fixed, that no mistake may occur from the lever being mislaid; +but with those at the British Museum, it was not +thought necessary to have fixed levers, as a crow-bar, or +anything that could be introduced into the eye of the +spanner, would open them.</p> + +<p>The plug and firecock have both certain advantages and +disadvantages, which are now described.</p> + +<p>The plug, with a canvas cistern, is the easiest mode of +obtaining water; the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone, +is no annoyance in the street, and the water has +only one angle to turn before it is delivered.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, where the supply of water is limited, +the plugs give but little command of it; there is, however, +comparatively very small loss at a large fire in London from +this cause, as it is very seldom that all the fire-engines can +be supplied direct from the plugs, and those that arrive late +must pick up the waste water as they best can, by using +another description of canvas dam, or opening the street; +but in enclosed premises, especially where the water is kept +for the purpose of extinguishing fires, firecocks are much +to be preferred. It is very difficult to insert the standcock +into a plug if there is a considerable force of water, and if +the paving has moved, it cannot be done without raising the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span> +plug-box; but this is, however, the easiest mode of using +firecocks, and where there is a considerable pressure of +water, if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a +hose-reel and branch-pipe, they can, in enclosed premises, +direct a jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared, +and if they cannot reach the fire, they will have water +ready for the engine when it arrives.</p> + +<p>Inclosed premises are particularly mentioned, because the +principal duty of the watchmen, in these cases, is to guard +against fire, and their other duties being comparatively few, +the men are not often changed, and they can be instructed +thoroughly in the matter. With the general police of the +metropolis it is quite different, their duties are so numerous +and varied, that to add that of firemen to them would only +be to confuse them.</p> + +<p>Firecocks, if kept at 9 inches to 12 inches below the surface, +are easily protected from frost, by stuffing the opening +with straw.</p> + +<p>The advantage which the double firecocks have over the +single ones, is merely the increased water-way, as a firecock +3-1/2 inches diameter could not be so easily opened or shut, as +two cocks of 2-1/2 inches diameter.</p> + +<p>One of the greatest objections to firecocks, is the very +large openings required in the streets, the first cost and the +repair of which are both considerable, besides their liability +to accident. To take them to the footpath, increases the +expenses and diminishes the supply of water, as it is generally +done with a small pipe, and the number of angles is increased. +In some instances, where firecocks have been put +down on one side of the street, no less than four right angles +have been made in the course of the water; and if the fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the +firecock, the thoroughfare must be stopped. The expense +also is no slight consideration, for if laid along with the +water-pipes, each firecock, if properly laid, and the pit built +round with cement, will cost eight or ten times as much as a +plug.</p> + +<p>London is, upon the whole (except in the warehouse districts), +fairly supplied with water for the average description +of fires, that is, where not more than five or six engines are +required. When, however, it is necessary to work ten or +twelve engines, there is very often a deficiency. In many of +the warehouse districts the supply is very limited indeed, +although it is there that the largest fires take place.</p> + +<p>The water companies are generally willing to give any +quantity of water, but they object to lay down large mains +without any prospect of remuneration. The warehouse +keepers decline to be at the expense of laying the pipes, and +there the matter seems to rest. In most other places of importance, +the water is under the management of the civic +authorities, and they, of course, endeavour to obtain a good +supply of water at fires in warehouse as well as in other +districts.</p> + +<p>In supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks, one +or more lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock; the +extreme end being put into the engine, the firecock is then +opened and the water rushes in. When the water-pipes are +large and the pressure considerable, two or even three engines +may be supplied from the same firecock.</p> + +<p>If the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the +place on fire, to be reached by the supply of hose brought +with the engine, the next resource is, to open the nearest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> +firecock above the level of the place where the water is required. +By covering the eyes of drains, and stopping up +any cross-water channels, the water may in this manner be +conveyed along the street, from a very considerable distance. +From the nature of the ground it does not always happen +that the water will run directly from the nearest firecock, +to the spot where it is required; acclivities, buildings, and +many other causes, may prevent this; but in some of these +cases a few lengths of the hose, attached to the firecock, +may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to +the required point. Upon the arrival of the water, it ought +to be dammed up, and the engine will lift it by suction out +of the pool so formed.</p> + +<p>If, however, from the nature of the ground, from the +want of hose, or from other causes, it is found impracticable +to convey the water by either of the above methods, the +next best is, to conduct the water in hose as far as can be +accomplished, and carry it the remainder of the distance in +carts, buckets, or whatever else may be most convenient.</p> + +<p>When carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line +of men from the water to the engine, each man covering five +or six feet of ground. The buckets are then handed from +one man to another, till they reach the two or three men +who are stationed round the suction-tub or fire-engine to receive +them. The buckets when emptied are returned by a +different line of men (women or boys) stationed in the same +manner as the former. If a sufficient number of hands +cannot be had to return the buckets in this manner, any +convenient number may be employed to carry them to the +firecock, that they may be again filled. When a fire occurs +where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +plugs, the ground should be immediately opened, and the +water-pipe cut. If it be of cast-iron, a large hammer may +effect the purpose: on the water-pipe being broken, the +suction-pipe of the engine is placed in the opening so made. +If the pipe be of lead, the opening in the street should be +made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it, when +cut, being turned into the engine. If the supply of water +by this means be so great as to occasion waste, it may be regulated +by the nearest stopcock on the water-pipe, by driving +a wooden plug into the end of a cast-iron pipe, or +compressing the end of a leaden one.</p> + +<p>The next plan I shall notice of supplying fire-engines is +from drains, gutters, &c. In particular situations and wet +weather considerable supplies of water from these and +similar sources may be obtained. In the gutters all that is +required is to dam them up; and, if there be no materials +at hand for this purpose, the causeway must be dug up, till +there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of +the engine.</p> + +<p>When the water is to be drawn from drains or common +sewers, great care should be taken not to damage them +farther than is absolutely necessary.</p> + +<p>If enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to +enter easily, it will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes. +When the man inside the drain or common sewer +has collected a proper supply of water by damming up the +channel, the suction-pipe should be handed down to him, +and the engine set to work.</p> + +<p>Although it be true that foul water quenches fire, I will +here observe, that the water from a common sewer should +never be used, except when it is impossible to procure it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +from a purer source. For the purpose of procuring water to +extinguish a fire, I had at one time occasion to open a common +sewer, in which, with the usual impurities, the waste +from a gas manufactory was intermixed, and the stench in +the premises where the fire had been extinguished by this +water, was for some time after very disagreeable.</p> + +<p>If the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little +distance, one engine may be stationed close to it, and that +engine made to pump the water into another at work. If +the water be conveyed in carts, an engine may be kept at +the pond or river for the purpose of filling them. Of course +this can only be done where there is a proper supply of +engines.</p> + +<p>In working from an open water, such as a gutter, drain, +river, or pond, it is proper, in order to prevent sand or +gravel being drawn into the engine, to sink an iron or +wooden bucket, into which the suction-pipe of the engine +should be placed. If nothing better can be had, a good +wicker basket will be found useful.</p> + +<p>It is of great advantage to have a number of carts, with +butts upon them full of water, as it ensures a small supply +to the engines the moment they arrive at the fire. This +plan, however, entails a very considerable expense, as carters +must be paid for taking them out on every alarm, besides +giving prizes to the owners of the first and second horses, to +ensure their coming in time.</p> + + + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> At a fire which took place in one of the best streets in Edinburgh, +and which began in the roof, the persons who rushed into the house on +the first alarm being given, threw the greater part of the contents of the +drawing-room and library, with several basketsful of china and glass, out +of the windows; the fire injured nothing below the uppermost story.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The engines and their crews are distinguished by these colours.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> The hose are made up in flat coils, with the male coupling-screw in +the centre, and the female on the outside. When a length is to be laid +out in any direction, it is set on its edge, and then run out in the required +direction,—in this way no turns or twists can ever occur. When the +hose is to be taken up, it is uncoupled, and then wound up, beginning at +the end farthest from the engine or from the fire-cock (as the case may +be): by this method all the water is pressed out.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> In practising this exercise the men are in the habit of descending +by the chains from the parapet of the North Bridge, Edinburgh, to the +ground below: a height of 75 feet.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> Mr. Braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this principle with +hand holes for a dozen men, in the ordinary service of the London Fire +Brigade.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_K_11" id="Footnote_K_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_K_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Now Shand, Mason, and Co.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_L_12" id="Footnote_L_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_L_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> This description applies to the most recently constructed fire-engines +belonging to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_M_13" id="Footnote_M_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_M_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> "Stuffing," a technical term need by leather-dressers or curriers.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_N_14" id="Footnote_N_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_N_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> The proportions are, 1 gallon neats-foot oil, 2 lbs. tallow, 1/4 lb. bees-wax, +melted together, and laid while warm on the leather.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_O_15" id="Footnote_O_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_O_15"><span class="label">[O]</span></a> This description of the Edinburgh coupling-joints was written in +1830, and is inserted here to show how the present form of the well-known +London Brigade hose-coupling was arrived at. The internal +diameter was originally 2-3/8 inches, but Mr. Braidwood, when in London, +found that he could increase it to 2-1/2 inches.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_P_16" id="Footnote_P_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_P_16"><span class="label">[P]</span></a> See engraving of portable cistern, page <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p></div></div> + + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> +<h2>APPENDIX.</h2> + + +<p>The following, on Steam Fire-engines and the Metropolitan +Fire Brigade, is added as a supplement to Mr. +Braidwood's account of the London Fire Brigade, and brings +the information upon these subjects up to the present date +(May, 1866):—</p> + +<p>The steam fire-engine was first constructed in London, in +1830, before the formation of the London Fire Brigade, by +Braithwaite, who made several engines, and exhibited them +at various public trials, also at several fires, but without +being able to bring them into general use.</p> + +<p>The matter remained in abeyance till 1852, when the +London Fire Brigade caused their large hand-worked floating +fire-engine to be altered so as to be worked by steam. +This engine having been originally made by Tilley, of +London, the alterations were entrusted to Shand and Mason, +his successors. In the same year the first American steam +fire-engine was constructed in New York.</p> + +<p>In 1855 the London Fire Brigade, stimulated by their first +experiment, caused an entirely new self-propelling, floating +steam fire-engine to be constructed. The experience gained +by their first attempt at steam fire-engine making, enabled +Shand and Mason to compete successfully in this matter, as +their design was adopted after receiving the approval of +the late Mr. Walker, Engineer, of Great George Street, +London.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<p>The re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into London +was accomplished by Shand and Mason, who, in 1858, constructed +their first; this engine, after several public trials, +was in the same year sent to St. Petersburgh.</p> + +<p>In 1859 the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines, +which they offered to the London Fire Brigade for +hire or purchase, and in the following year (1860) the Fire +Brigade took one on hire for one year. This experiment +proved so successful, that in 1861 the committee purchased, +from Shand and Mason, the fourth steam engine of their +construction. This, with one of the two made in 1859, were +the only land steam engines that were at work at the Great +Tooley Street Fire of 1861.</p> + +<p>In the beginning of 1862, Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and +Larned, of New York, brought over a land steam fire-engine +to be placed in the International Exhibition. This +was worked in public at Hodges' Distillery on the +24th of March previous to the opening of the Exhibition.</p> + +<p>Shand and Mason supplied the London Fire Brigade in +April, 1862, with the eighth land steam fire-engine of their +construction. Messrs. Merryweather and Sons, of London, +placed their first land steam fire-engine in the International +Exhibition of 1862, but this, like the ninth by Shand and +Mason, was not in time for the opening, and consequently +could not compete for a prize medal, which was awarded to +Lee and Larned, of New York.</p> + +<p>A public trial, however, took place before the jury of the +Exhibition, of which the following is an account extracted +verbatim from the jurors' published reports:—<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p> + + +<h3>INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862.</h3> + +<h4>SPECIAL JURY FOR FIRE-ENGINES.</h4> + + +<p> +<span class="smcap">J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.</span>, <i>London</i>; Civil Engineer.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Capt. Bent</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of Fire Arrangements in the Exhibition.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">W. M. Brown</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of Westminster Fire Brigade.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Earl of Caithness</span>, <i>London</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">J. Hawkshaw</span>, <i>London</i>; Civil Engineer.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">C. Jenny</span>, <i>Austria</i>; Councillor of Mines in the Imperial Royal Academy of Mines at Schemnitz.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">P. Luuyt</span>, <i>France</i>; Engineer to the Imperial Commissioners of Mines.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">J. E. McConnell</span>, <i>Wolverton</i>; late Locomotive Superintendent of the London and North Western Railway.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">O. Pihl</span>, <i>Norway</i>; Civil Engineer.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">W. M. Rankine</span>, <i>Glasgow</i>; Professor of Mechanics in the University of Glasgow.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Capt. Shaw</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of the London Fire Brigade.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Duke of Sutherland</span>, <i>London</i>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">F. B. Taylor</span>, <i>United States</i>; Mechanical Engineer.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">H. Thomas</span>, <i>Zollverein</i>; Manufacturer.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">H. Tresca</span>, <i>France</i>; Professor of Mechanics, President of the French Institute of Civil Engineers.<br /> +</p> + + +<h4><span class="smcap">Report of the Special Committee of Class VIII. on Fire-Engines.</span></h4> + +<p><i>After detailing the Trials of Hand-worked Fire-Engines, the +Report states that</i>,—</p> + +<p>The Committee next proceeded to take the necessary steps +for trying the steam fire-engines on the 1st of July, and, as +before, invited the engine builders to a preliminary meeting, +that they might receive full information as to the rules and +regulations to be observed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<p>In compliance with this invitation, the following engine-makers +attended a meeting on the 28th of June, viz:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, Novelty Iron-works, New York.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason.</p></div> + +<p>Mr. Lee declined to produce his steam fire-engine for +trial, alleging various reasons for so doing, and though +strongly urged, persisted in his resolution, and declined the +contest.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son expressed themselves +ready to produce their steam fire-engine on the appointed +day.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason informed the Committee that +the engine which they had intended to work would not be +ready owing to an accident, but requested permission to +produce for trial two steam-engines made by them for the +London Fire-Engine Establishment, although they were not +in the Exhibition. All the arrangements having been +made for trying several engines together, the Committee +granted this request, as otherwise only one engine would +have been present, and a complete table of results could +therefore not have been obtained.</p> + +<p>The Committee assembled in the appointed place at eight +o'clock on the morning of the 1st of July, and found three +engines present, viz., one of Messrs. Merryweather and Son +and two of Messrs. Shand and Mason.</p> + +<p>After the Committee had examined the boilers and machinery +generally, the engine-makers filled their respective +boilers with cold water from the river, and fires having been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +laid, the three were lighted at the same moment, and the +makers were ordered to commence working into a tank at +sixty feet distance as soon as they had attained a steam +pressure of 100 lbs. to the square inch.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Merryweather's engine attained the pressure +named in 12 minutes 10 seconds, Messrs. Shand and Mason's +large engine in 18 minutes 30 seconds, the small engine in +about 30 minutes, some mismanagement having occurred +which compelled them to draw the fire in the latter and +light it a second time. Messrs. Merryweather's engine commenced +working as arranged when the steam-gauge indicated +a pressure of 100 lbs., and was 2 minutes and 50 seconds at +work before water passed through the nose-pipe. Notwithstanding +this very serious defect, this engine had poured 500 +gallons of water into a tank 60 feet distant in 17 minutes +and 15 seconds from the time at which the fire was lighted. +After the difficulty of drawing the water had been surmounted, +this engine worked well, and threw an admirable +jet, losing 15 lbs. steam-pressure during the first trial. After +three trials this engine became disabled; it was, however, +repaired on the ground in about an hour and a half, and resumed +work at the ninth trial, continuing to work well +until the thirteenth, when it became again disabled, and was +withdrawn by the maker, to the great regret of the Committee, +who were thus left to continue the experiments with +only two engines, both made by one firm.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine was 18 minutes +30 seconds getting up steam to 100 lbs., and when started +drew water instantly, losing during the first trial 5 lbs. of +steam-pressure.</p> + +<p>This engine was severely tested, and worked without accident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +throughout the day, the seventeenth trial lasting no +less than 63 minutes, during which the steam and water +were both kept to a pressure of 90 lbs. on the square inch +throughout, working through a 1-3/8 inch nose-pipe.</p> + +<p>At the eighteenth and last trial this engine threw a good +vertical jet.</p> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason's small engine did not raise the +steam to 100 lbs. in less than 30 minutes, owing, of course, +partly to the mismanagement already mentioned, and partly +to the nature of the boiler and fire-box, which, according to +the makers' account, are not adapted for raising steam in the +shortest possible time. After the engine got to work the +steam-pressure was well sustained, and the engine continued +working the entire day without accident, concluding in the +evening by throwing a good vertical jet.</p> + +<p>During the time occupied by the trials the direction of +the wind was W.N.W. to W. by N., pressure 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 lbs. +on the square foot. The barometer stood at 29.97 inches.</p> + + +<h5><i>Summary.</i></h5> + +<p>On the whole the Committee find as follows:—</p> + +<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son have produced, at a price +of 700<i>l.</i>, a steam fire-engine, weighing, according to the +makers' account, 65 cwt., with jets and lamps, but without +water, coal, suction-pipes, hose, or other gear, and capable, if +no accidents occur, of throwing in an available stream the +following average quantities of water per minute:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="mws"> +<tr><td align='center'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>61 feet.</td><td align='center'>10°</td><td align='left'>230 gallons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>85 "</td><td align='center'>21°</td><td align='left'>124 "</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason have produced an engine, at a +cost of 650<i>l.</i>, weighing, according to their statement, 55 +cwt., with jets and lamps, but without water, coals, suction-pipes, +hose, or other gear, and capable of throwing in an +available stream the following average quantities of water +per minute:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm650"> +<tr><td align='left'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>61 feet. </td><td align='left'>10°</td><td align='left'> 250 gallons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>63 " </td><td align='left'> 18°</td><td align='left'> 165 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>82 " </td><td align='left'>14°</td><td align='left'> 172 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>85 " </td><td align='left'>21°</td><td align='left'> 137 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>102 " </td><td align='left'>11°</td><td align='left'> 94 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>104 " </td><td align='left'>17°</td><td align='left'> 19 "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason have also produced, at a price +of 370<i>l.</i>, an engine which, under the same conditions, weighs +35 cwt., and is capable of throwing in an available stream +the following average quantities per minute:—</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm370"> +<tr><td align='left'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>61 feet. </td><td align='left'>10°</td><td align='left'> 142 gallons.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>63 " </td><td align='left'> 18°</td><td align='left'> 133 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>82 " </td><td align='left'>14°</td><td align='left'> 56 "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='right'>85 " </td><td align='left'>21°</td><td align='left'> 27 "</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The best performance during the five trials from which +this last average was taken being forty-six gallons, and the +lowest five gallons per minute.</p> + +<p>At greater distances, in consequence of the wind, this engine +could not deliver a stream, but continued working without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +accident throughout the day, and concluded in the +evening by throwing a good vertical jet.</p> + +<p class="author"> +SUTHERLAND, <span class="smcap">Chairman.</span><br /> +E. M. SHAW, <span class="smcap">Hon. Sec.</span><br /> +</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Shand and Mason's tenth land steam fire-engine was supplied +to the London Brigade in June, 1862, and their +twelfth, in February, 1863, upon orders given on the 4th +January, 1862. But as the Committee of the London Fire +Brigade were now negotiating with Government to take the +duty of extinguishing fires off their hands, no orders for +steam-engines were given out by them after the above +date.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<h3>STEAM FIRE-ENGINE COMPETITION,</h3> + +<h4>CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON, 1863.</h4> + +<p>Towards the close of 1862, several engineers and other +gentlemen interested in the improvement of steam fire-engines, +offered prizes to be awarded at competitive trials to +take place in London. The following is the Committee's +published account of these trials which were held in the +grounds of the Crystal Palace Company on the 1st, 2nd, and +3rd July, 1863.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Committee consisted of the following gentlemen, viz.:—</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Chairman.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">His Grace the Duke of Sutherland.</span></p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Members.</i></p> + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">The Right Hon. the Earl Of Caithness.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Lord Richard Grosvenor, M.P.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. G. Appold, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. T. Bateman, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">W. M'Browne, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">T. R. Crampton, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">W. M. Crossland, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">W. Fairbairn, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">T. Hawksley, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. E. McConnell, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Henry Maudslay, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. Mathews, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. Nasmyth, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">J. Penn, Esq.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">William Smith, Esq.</span><br /> +</p> + + +<p class="center"><i>Hon. Sec.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Captain E. M. Shaw.</span></p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The engines were divided into two classes, the large class +consisting of those weighing over 30 cwts., and not exceeding +60 cwts. and the small class of those not exceeding 30 cwts.</p> + +<p>The prizes offered were 250<i>l.</i> for the best engine, and 100<i>l</i>. +for the second best, in each class.</p> + +<p>The chief points to which the Committee directed their +attention, in addition to the consideration of cost and +weight, were those relating to the general efficiency of the +machines as fire-engines, combining among other points of +excellence—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>Rapidity in raising and generating steam.</p> + +<p>Facility of drawing water.</p> + +<p>Volume thrown.</p> + +<p>Distance to which it can be projected with the least +amount of loss.</p> + +<p>Simplicity, accessibility, and durability of parts.</p> +</div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> + + +<h4>LARGE CLASS.</h4> + + +<h5>FIRST TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 67 +feet, and 27° from the horizon. Depth from which water +was drawn, 4 feet 6 inches. The water in the boiler being +cold when the signal was given to commence, each engine +commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of +100lb. to the square inch.</p> + + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg1"> +<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> <span class="smcap">Maker</span>.</td><td align='center'> Weight.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />raising<br />Steam to<br />100lbs.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td><td align='center'> Total<br /> Time.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> T. c. q. lbs.</td><td align='center'> ' "</td><td align='center'> ' "</td><td align='center'> ' "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Easton & Amos,<br /> London</td><td align='left'> 2 18 3 12</td><td align='center'> 13 14</td><td align='center'> 6 16</td><td align='center'> 19 30</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Merryweather &<br /> Son, London<br /></td><td align='left'> 2 18 0 8</td><td align='center'> 10 25</td><td align='center'> 9 42</td><td align='center'> 20 7</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Shand & Mason,<br /> London<br /></td><td align='left'> 2 17 1 0</td><td align='center'> 10 51</td><td align='center'> 12 19</td><td align='center'> 23 10</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Butt and Co.,<br /> United States<br /></td><td align='left'> 2 14 0 4</td><td align='center'> 16 30</td><td align='center'> 6 48</td><td align='center'> 23 18</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 5</td><td align='left'> Roberts, London<br /></td><td align='left'> 1 19 1 4</td><td align='center'> 11 40</td><td align='center'> 20 24</td><td align='center'> 32 4</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> Nichols (Manhattan)<br /> United States<br /></td><td align='left'> 2 10 1 4</td><td align='left'> } Did not work.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> Gray & Son,<br /> London<br /></td><td align='left'> 1 18 1 4</td><td align='left'> } Did not work. </td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span> began to work at 100 lbs., fell +directly to 40 lbs., and continued so throughout; stopped +and steam rose to 130 lbs.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>—Suction-pipe choked; left off working +about 2 minutes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>SECOND TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance commencing +with full steam.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg2"> +<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Name.</span></td><td align='center'>Steam at<br />Beginning.</td><td align='center'> Steam<br />during<br />Work.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> ' "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>1</td><td align='left'>Shand & Mason</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> 3 0</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>2</td><td align='left'>Butt & Co.</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> 3 3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>3</td><td align='left'>Merryweather & Son</td><td align='right'>145</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> 3 7</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>4</td><td align='left'>Roberts</td><td align='right'>80</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> 12 30</td></tr> +</table></div> +<p class="center">Roberts did not fill the tank.<br /> +</p> + + +<h5>THIRD TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering into large tank at a horizontal distance of 40 feet, +a vertical height of 40 feet, a true distance of 56 feet, and +at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizon, the depth from +which water was drawn being 16 feet 4 inches.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +Key:<br /> +A — No. of Deliveries Open.<br /> +B — Length of Hose.<br /> +C — Average Steam Pressure.<br /> +D — Average Water Pressure.<br /> +E — No. of Gallons Delivered.<br /> +</p></div> + + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg3"> +<tr><td align='center'>No.</td><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'> Time.</td><td align='center'> A</td><td align='center'> B</td><td align='center'>Size of<br />Nozzle.</td><td align='center'> C</td><td align='center'> D</td><td align='center'> E</td><td align='left'> Time of<br />Raising<br />Steam.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> hr. m. s.</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Merryweather<br /> & Son</td><td align='left'> 1 24 55</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='left'> 91</td><td align='left'> 89</td><td align='right'> 16,086</td><td align='center'> 10' 32"<br /> to<br />80lbs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Shand<br /> & Mason</td><td align='left'> 2 0 0</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2 &<br />1-3/8</td><td align='left'> 96</td><td align='left'> 62</td><td align='right'> 12,917</td><td align='center'> 11' 21"<br /> to<br />120lbs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Roberts</td><td align='left'> 2 0 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> 420</td><td align='left'> 1-1/4</td><td align='left'> 75</td><td align='left'> 75</td><td align='right'> 9,936</td><td align='center'> 11' 20"<br /> to<br />80lbs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Butt & Co.</td><td align='left'> 0 46 50</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='left'> 78</td><td align='left'> 78</td><td align='right'> 8,280</td><td align='center'> 14' 10"<br /> to<br />45lbs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 5</td><td align='left'> Easton &<br /> & Amos</td><td align='left'> 1 32 35</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-3/8</td><td align='left'> 98</td><td align='left'> 41</td><td align='right'> 3,036</td><td align='center'> 12' 30"<br /> to<br />90lbs.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 6</td><td align='left'> Nichols<br /> (Manhattan)</td><td align='left'> 0 4 55</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 420</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='center'> —</td><td align='center'> —</td><td align='center'> None.</td><td align='center'> 13' 09"<br /> to<br />45lbs.</td></tr> + +</table></div> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span>—Fire lighted at 4h. 1m. 55s.; +gauge moved at 4h. 8m. 20s.; engine started at 4h. 12m. +27s.; water drawn in about 10 revolutions; pumps not +primed, valve box leaked slightly, and engine worked +satisfactorily in every respect.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>—Fire lighted at 11h. 25m. 46s.; gauge +moved at 11h. 32m. 53s.; engine started at 11h. 37m. 7s.; +pump primed at 11h. 45m. 48s.; drew water at 11h. 47m.; +water first through the nozzle at 11h. 48m. 59s.; in hood +at 11h. 49m. 19s.; shifted nozzle (3-1/4m. delay); high +wind.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Roberts</span>—Fire lighted at 11h. 17m.; engine, started at +11h. 28m. 20s.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Butt and Co.</span>—Fire lighted at 5h. 55m. 10s.; started +engine at 6h. 9m. 20s.; repeatedly stopped from slide +valves not acting, and stopped entirely at 6h. 46m., from +cylinder cover breaking.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Easton and Amos</span>—Fire lighted at 2h. 2m. 35s.; gauge +moved 2h. 10m.; started engine at 2h. 15m. 5s.; pumps +primed, worked till 2h. 54m. 5s.; stopped to shift +plungers; went to work again, and stopped entirely at +3h. 35m. 10s., from two fire bars falling out.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nichols</span> (Manhattan)—Fire lighted at 10h. 51m. 14s.; +gauge moved at 10h. 59m. 20s.; drew water directly; +steam up to 140lbs. at 11h. 8m. 45s.; stopped two +minutes; started again; made a few revolutions, and fly-wheel +broke.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>FOURTH TRIAL</h5> + +<p class="center">Vertical Jet against Tower.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg4"> +<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Name.</td><td align='center'> Size<br /> of Jet.</td><td align='center'> Greatest Height<br /> Thrown.</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Shand & Mason</td><td align='center'> 22/16</td><td align='center'> 180 ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Merryweather & Son</td><td align='center'> 26/16</td><td align='center'> 180 ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Roberts</td><td align='center'> 14/16</td><td align='center'> 150 ft.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Lee & Co</td><td align='center'> 21/16</td><td align='center'> 55 ft.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="smcap">Gray's</span> engine lighted fire at 7h. 7m. 40s.; steam 9lbs. at +7h. 17m. 0s.; got to work at 7h. 23m. 40s. to blow fires; +at 7h. 27m. 0s. water through hose. Owing to some of the +pipe connected with the steam gauge breaking, no further +experiments could be made.</p> + + +<h4>SMALL CLASS.</h4> + +<h5>FIRST TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of +50ft. and 37° from the horizon. Depth from which water +was drawn, 4ft. 6in. The water in the boilers being cold +when the signal was given to commence, each engine commencing +to work on attaining steam pressure of 100lbs. +to the square inch.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm1"> +<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Name.</td><td align='center'> Weight.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />raising<br />Steam to<br />100lbs.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td><td align='center'> Total<br /> Time.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> T. c. q. lbs.</td><td align='center'> ' "</td><td align='center'> ' "</td><td align='center'> ' "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Shand & Mason,</td><td align='left'> 1 9 2 0</td><td align='center'> 11 36</td><td align='center'> 5 24</td><td align='center'> 17 0</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Lee & Co.<br /></td><td align='left'> 1 10 0 0</td><td align='center'> 11 55</td><td align='center'> 6 3</td><td align='center'>17 58</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Merryweather & Son.</td><td align='left'> 1 10 1 12</td><td align='center'> 12 15</td><td align='center'> 9 14</td><td align='center'> 21 29</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>Owing to a broken bolt, there was great leakage in water +cylinder of Lee and Co's. engine.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + + +<h5>SECOND TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance, commencing +with full steam.</p> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm2"> +<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'>Steam at<br />Beginning.</td><td align='center'> Steam<br />during<br />Work.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> ' "</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>1</td><td align='left'>Shand & Mason</td><td align='right'>85</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'> 5 49</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>2</td><td align='left'>Lee & Co.</td><td align='right'>125</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'> 5 50</td></tr> +<tr><td align='center'>3</td><td align='left'>Merryweather & Son</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='center'>—</td><td align='center'> 6 17</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center">The leakage in Lee and Co's. engine was remedied.<br /> +</p> + + +<h5>THIRD TRIAL.</h5> + +<p>Delivering into large tank, commencing with Full Steam. +At a horizontal distance of 40ft., a vertical height of 40ft., +a true distance of 56ft., and at an angle of 45° from the +horizon; the depth from which water was drawn being +16ft. 4in.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +Key<br /> +A — Number of Deliveries open.<br /> +B — Average Steam Pressure.<br /> +C — Average Water Pressure.<br /> +D — No. of Gallons Delivered.<br /> +</p></div> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm3"> +<tr><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Time.</td><td align='center'> A </td><td align='center'> Length<br />of<br />Hose</td><td align='center'>Size of<br />Nozzle.</td><td align='center'> B </td><td align='center'> C </td><td align='center'> D</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='center'> </td><td align='left'> h. m. s.</td><td align='center'> </td><td align='center'> </td><td align='center'>in.</td><td align='right'> </td><td align='center'> </td><td align='center'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Shand<br /> & Mason </td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1 0 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 1 &<br />1-1/4</td><td align='right'> 146</td><td align='center'> 80</td><td align='center'> 8142</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> Merryweather<br /> & Son</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 1 0 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 7/8</td><td align='right'> 86</td><td align='center'> 45</td><td align='center'> 4885</td></tr> + +<tr><td align='left'> Lee & Co.</td><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1 0 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 3/4</td><td align='right'> 80</td><td align='center'> 60</td><td align='center'> 4278</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>—Steam ready at 150 lbs.; started at +7h. 3m. 32s.; stopped at 7h. 12m. 5s. to put on an additional +length of hose; worked well throughout.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span>—Steam ready at 110 lbs.; commenced +work at 3h. 43m. 30s.; pumps primed.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lee and Co.</span>—Steam ready, started at 2h. 1m. 0s.; worked +well, without any stoppage.</p> + + +<h4>AWARDS.</h4> + +<p>At a meeting of the Committee held on the 8th July, +1863, his Grace the Duke of Sutherland in the Chair, the +following prizes were awarded:—</p> + +<p class="center">LARGE CLASS.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="awardslg"> +<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Merryweather & Sons,</td><td align='right'>1st Prize, 250<i>l.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Shand & Mason</td><td align='right'>2nd Prize, 100<i>l.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Mr. W. Roberts, highly commended.</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center">SMALL CLASS.</p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="awardssm"> +<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Shand & Mason</td><td align='right'>1st Prize, 250<i>l.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. W. Lee & Co.</td><td align='right'>2nd Prize, 100<i>l.</i></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p class="center">(Signed) On behalf of the Committee,</p> + +<p class="author">SUTHERLAND, <span class="smcap">Chairman.</span><br /> +E. M. SHAW, <span class="smcap">Hon. Sec.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p>From the above trials it was found that the first prize +large-class engine weighed 6504 lbs., and delivered in one +hour 11,366 gallons, being at the rate of 196 gallons for +each hundred-weight of the engine; while the first prize +small-class engine delivered in the same time 8142 gallons, +or 276 for each hundred-weight of the engine, showing that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +the latter engine delivered nearly one-half more water in +proportion to its weight, than was delivered by the large one, +the conditions of the two trials being the same.</p> + +<p>As the greatest amount of power in the smallest possible +bulk and weight, was considered most available for use at +London fires, the Committee of the London Fire Brigade, +although not in a position, for the reasons already stated, to +purchase additional steam fire-engines, commenced hiring +Shand, Mason, and Co.'s prize engines, and at the close of +1865 had four such in use in this manner.</p> + +<p>The Metropolitan Fire Brigade, an extension of the late +London Fire Brigade, has now (May, 1866) the following +steam fire-engines in use:—The Floating Steam Fire-engine, +by Shand and Mason, in 1855; a Land Steam Fire-engine by +Easton and Amos, which was worked at the Crystal Palace +trials, and is now used in a barge as a floating engine; one +by Roberts, which was also worked at the Crystal Palace; +three by Merryweather and Sons; and fifteen of Shand, +Mason, and Co.'s Land Steam Fire-engines.</p> + + +<h3>METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE.</h3> + +<p>The disastrous results of the great fire at Tooley-street, in +1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life, fully demonstrated +the inadequacy (in men and appliances) of the +fire brigade supported by the insurance offices, and as these +bodies declined extending their establishment so as to meet +the wants of the whole of the metropolis, a Parliamentary +inquiry was instituted, which resulted in the passing of the +following Act:—</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p> + +<h4>ANNO VICESIMO OCTAVO & VICESIMO NONO</h4> + +<h3>VICTORIÆ REGINÆ.</h3> + +<h4>CAP. XC.</h4> + +<h4>An Act for the Establishment of a Fire Brigade +within the Metropolis. [5th July, 1865.]</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Whereas</span> it is expedient to make further provision for the +protection of life and property from fire within the +metropolis: Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent +Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords +Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present +Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as +follows:</p> + + +<h5><i>Preliminary.</i></h5> + +<p>1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the "Metropolitan +Fire Brigade Act, 1865."</p> + +<p>2. For the purposes of this Act the "Metropolis" shall +mean the City of <i>London</i> and all other parishes and places +for the time being within the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan +Board of Works:</p> + +<p>"Insurance Company" shall include any persons corporate +or unincorporate, or any person carrying on the business +of fire insurance.</p> + +<p>3. The expression "Metropolis Local Management Acts" +shall mean the Acts following; that is to say, "The Metropolis +Management Act, 1855," "The Metropolis Management<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +Amendment Act, 1856," and "The Metropolis +Management Amendment Act, 1862."</p> + + +<h5><i>Establishment and Duties of Fire Brigade.</i></h5> + +<p>4. On and after the first day of <i>January</i> one thousand +eight hundred and sixty-six the duty of extinguishing fires +and protecting life and property in case of fire shall +within the metropolis be deemed for the purposes of this +Act to be entrusted to the Metropolitan Board of Works; +and with a view to the performance of that duty it shall +be lawful for them to provide and maintain an efficient +force of firemen, and to furnish them with all such fire +engines, horses, accoutrements, tools, and implements +as may be necessary for the complete equipment of the +force, or conducive to the efficient performance of their +duties.</p> + +<p>5. The said Board, hereinafter referred to as the Board, +may take on lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire stations +for engines, stables, houses for firemen, and such other +houses, buildings, or land as they may think requisite for +carrying into effect the purposes of this Act, and may from +time to time sell any property acquired by or vested in them +for the purposes of this Act:</p> + +<p>The Board may also contract with any company or persons +authorized to establish the same for the establishment +of telegraphic communication between the several stations +in which their fire engines or firemen are placed, and +between any of such stations and other parts of the +metropolis.</p> + +<p>6. On and after the said first day of January one thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +eight hundred and sixty-six, all stations, fire-engines, +fire escapes, plant, and other property belonging to or used +by the fire engine establishment of the insurance companies +in the metropolis shall vest in or be conveyed or +assigned to the Board for all the estate and interest of the +said companies therein, upon trust to be applied by the +Board to the purposes of this Act, but subject to all legal +liabilities and obligations attaching thereto, including the +payment of all pensions that have been granted to the members +of the said Fire Engine Establishment, according to a +list that has been furnished to the chairman of the said +Board by the chief officer of the said fire-engine establishment, +and all trustees for the same shall be indemnified +against such liabilities and obligations. The Board may +also, if they think fit, purchase the stations, fire-engines, +and plant belonging to any parish, place, or body of persons +within their jurisdiction.</p> + +<p>7. The force of firemen established under this Act, hereinafter +called the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, shall be under +the command of an officer, to be called the chief officer of +the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.</p> + +<p>The chief officer and men composing the said fire +brigade shall be appointed and removed at the pleasure of +the Board.</p> + +<p>8. The Board shall pay such salaries as they think expedient +to the said fire brigade. They may also make such +regulations as they think fit with respect to the compensation +to be made to them in case of accident, or to their +wives or families in case of their death; also with respect +to the pensions or allowances to be paid to them in case of +retirement; also with respect to the gratuities to be paid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +to persons giving notices of fires; also with respect to +gratuities by way of a gross sum or annual payment to be +from time to time awarded to any member of the said +force, or to any other person, for extraordinary services +performed in cases of fire; also with respect to gratuities to +turncocks belonging to waterworks from which a supply of +water is quickly derived.</p> + +<p>9. The Board may by byelaws make regulations for the +training, discipline, and good conduct of the men belonging +to the said fire brigade, for their speedy attendance with +engines, fire escapes, and all necessary implements on the +occasion of any alarm of fire, and generally for the maintenance +in a due state of efficiency of the said brigade, and +may annex to any breach of such regulations penalties not +exceeding in amount forty shillings, but no byelaw under +this section shall be of any validity unless it is made and +confirmed in manner directed by the Metropolis Local +Management Acts; and all the provisions of the said Acts +relating to byelaws shall, with the necessary variations, +apply to any byelaws made in pursuance of this Act.</p> + +<p>10. The vestry of any parish or place in the metropolis +may allow such compensation as they think just to any engine +keeper or other person employed in the service of fire +engines who has hitherto been paid out of any rate raiseable +in such parish or place, and who is deprived of his employment +by or in consequence of the passing of this Act, and +any compensation so allowed shall be paid out of the rate +out of which the salary of the officer so compensated was +payable.</p> + +<p>11. The Board may make such arrangements as they +think fit as to establishing fire escapes throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +metropolis. They may for that purpose contribute to the +funds of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from +Fire, or of any existing society that provides fire escapes, +or may purchase or take by agreement the property of any +existing society in their stations and fire escapes, and +generally may maintain such fire escapes and do such things +as they think expedient towards aiding persons to escape +from fire; and any expenses incurred by them in pursuance +of this section shall be deemed to be expenses incurred +in carrying into effect this Act.</p> + +<p>12. On the occasion of a fire, the chief or other officer +in charge of the fire brigade may, in his discretion, take +the command of any volunteer fire brigade or other persons +who voluntarily place their services at his disposal, and may +remove, or order any fireman to remove, any persons who +interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire +brigade, and generally he may take any measures that appear +expedient for the protection of life and property, with +power by himself or his men to break into or through, or +take possession of, or pull down any premises for the purpose +of putting an end to a fire, doing as little damage as possible; +he may also on any such occasion cause the water to be shut +off from the mains and pipes of any district, in order to give +a greater supply and pressure of water in the district in +which the fire has occurred; and no water company shall +be liable to any penalty or claim by reason of any interruption +of the supply of water occasioned only by compliance +with the provisions of this section.</p> + +<p>All police constables shall be authorized to aid the fire +brigade in the execution of their duties. They may close +any street in or near which a fire is burning, and they may +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +of their own motion, or on the request of the chief or other +officer of the fire brigade, remove any persons who interfere +by their presence with the operations of the fire brigade.</p> + +<p>Any damage occasioned by the fire brigade in the due +execution of their duties shall be deemed to be damage by +fire within the meaning of any policy of insurance against +fire.</p> + + +<h5><i>Expenses.</i></h5> + +<p>13. Every insurance company that insures from fire any +property in the metropolis shall pay annually to the Metropolitan +Board of Works, by way of contribution toward the +expenses of carrying this Act into effect, a sum after the rate +of thirty-five pounds in the one million pounds on the +gross amounts insured by it, except by way of reassurance, +in respect of property in the metropolis for a year, and at a +like rate for any fractional part of a million, and for any +fractional part of a year as well as for any number of years +for which the insurance may be made, renewed, or continued.</p> + +<p>The said payments by insurance companies shall be made +quarterly in advance, on the 1st of January, 1st of April, +1st of July, and 1st of October in every year; the first of +such payments to be made on the 1st of January one +thousand eight hundred and sixty-six, and such first payment +and the other payments for the year one thousand eight +hundred and sixty-six to be based upon the amounts insured +by the several companies in respect of property in the +metropolis in the year ending the twenty-fourth of December +one thousand eight hundred and sixty-four: provided +that any insurance company which at the time of the passing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +of this Act contributes to the expenses of the said fire +engine establishment may, in respect of all payments to be +made by it in the years one thousand eight hundred and +sixty-six and one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, +but not afterwards, contribute after the yearly rate of thirty-five +pounds in one million pounds of the business in +respect of which it contributes to the said fire engine +establishment for the present year, according to a return +which has been furnished to the chairman of the said Metropolitan +Board, instead of in the manner in this Act provided.</p> + +<p>14. All contributions due from an insurance company to +the Board in pursuance of this Act shall be deemed to be +specialty debts due from the company to the Board, and be +recovered accordingly.</p> + +<p>15. For the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be contributed +by every such insurance company as aforesaid, +every insurance company insuring property from fire in the +metropolis shall, on the thirtieth day of December one +thousand eight hundred and sixty-five, with respect to the +amounts insured in the year one thousand eight hundred +and sixty-four, and on the 1st of June one thousand eight +hundred and sixty-six, and on every succeeding 1st of June, +or on such other days as the Metropolitan Board of Works +may appoint, make a return to the said Board, in such form +as they may require, of the gross amount insured by it in +respect of property in the metropolis.</p> + +<p>There shall be annexed to the return so made a declaration +made by the secretary or other officer performing the +duties of secretary of the company by whom it is made, +stating that he has examined the return with the books of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +the company, and that to the best of his knowledge, information, +and belief, it contains a true and faithful account of the +gross amount of the sums insured by the company to which +he belongs in respect of property in the metropolis.</p> + +<p>The return made in the June of one year shall not come +into effect till the 1st of January of the succeeding year, +and shall be the basis of the contributions for that year.</p> + +<p>16. If any insurance company makes default in making +such returns to the Board as are required by this Act, it shall +be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every +day during which it is so in default.</p> + +<p>17. The secretary or other officer having the custody of +the books and papers of any insurance company that is +required to pay a contribution to the Board in pursuance of +this Act shall allow any officer appointed by the Board to +inspect, during the hours of business, any books and papers +that will enable him to ascertain the amount of property +insured by such company in the metropolis, and the amount +for which it is insured, and to make extracts from such books +or papers; and any secretary or other such officer as aforesaid +of a company failing to comply with the requisitions of +this section in respect of such inspections and extracts shall +be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding +five pounds for each offence.</p> + +<p>18. The Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury shall +pay or cause to be paid to the Board by way of contribution +to the expenses of maintaining the fire brigade such sums +as Parliament may from time to time grant for that purpose, +not exceeding in any one year the sum of ten thousand +pounds.</p> + +<p>19. For the purpose of defraying all expenses that may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +be incurred by the Board in carrying into effect this Act +which are not otherwise provided for, the Board may from +time to time issue their precepts to the overseers of the +poor of every parish or place within the metropolis, requiring +the overseers to pay over the amount mentioned in the +precepts to the Treasurer of the Board, or into a bank to be +named in the precepts, within forty days from the delivery of +the precept.</p> + +<p>The overseers shall comply with the requisitions of any +such precept by paying the sums mentioned out of any +monies in their hands applicable to the relief of the poor, or +by levying the amount required as part of the rate for the +relief of the poor, but no contribution required to be paid +by any parish or place under this section shall exceed in the +whole in any one year the rate of one halfpenny in the +pound on the full and fair annual value of property rateable +to the relief of the poor within the said parish or place, such +full and fair annual value to be computed in all parts of the +metropolis, exclusive of the city of London, according to the +last valuation for the time being acted on in assessing the +county rate, or, where there is no county rate, according to a +like estimate or basis; and no liberty, precinct, or place, +shall be exempt from the rate leviable for the purposes of +this Act by reason of its being extra-parochial or otherwise; +and in default of proper officers in any liberty, precinct, or +place, to assess or levy the said rate, the Board may appoint +such officers, and add the amount of any expenses so incurred +to the amount to be raised by the next succeeding rate in +such liberty, precinct, or place.</p> + +<p>Overseers shall, for the purposes of levying any amount +required to be levied by them under this Act, have the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +powers and be subject to the same obligations as in levying +a rate for the relief of the poor.</p> + +<p>The word "Overseers" shall include any persons or bodies +of persons authorized or required to make and collect or +cause to be collected rates applicable to the relief of the +poor; and such persons or bodies shall pay to the Board the +amount so mentioned in the precept out of the said rates.</p> + +<p>20. In case the amount ordered by any such precept as +aforesaid to be paid by the overseers of any parish or place +be not paid in manner directed by such precept and within +the time therein specified for that purpose, it shall be lawful +for any justice of the peace, upon the complaint by the +Board or by any person authorized by the Board, to issue his +warrant for levying the amount or so much thereof as may +be in arrear by distress and sale of the goods of all or any +of the said overseers, and in case the goods of all the overseers +be not sufficient to pay the same, the arrears thereof +shall be added to the amount of the next levy which is +directed to be made in such parish or place for the purposes +of this Act, and shall be collected by the like methods.</p> + +<p>21. The Board may, with the consent of the Commissioners +of Her Majesty's Treasury, borrow any sum not exceeding +forty thousand pounds, and apply the same for the purposes +of this Act; and all powers contained in the Metropolis +Local Management Acts authorizing the Board to borrow +money, or any commissioners or persons to lend money to +the Board, and all other provisions as to the mode of borrowing, +the repayment of principal or interest, or in anywise +relating to borrowing by the Board, shall be deemed to apply +and to extend to this Act in the same manner as if the +monies borrowed in pursuance of this Act were monies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +borrowed for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the +Metropolis Local Management Acts, or one or more of those +acts. The Board shall apply the monies received by them +under this Act in liquidation of the principal and interest of +the monies so borrowed, but no creditor shall be concerned +to see to such application, or be liable for any misapplication +of the monies received or borrowed by the Board in pursuance +of this Act.</p> + + +<h5><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous.</span></h5> + +<p>22. Where any chief officer, or other person who has been +employed by the Board in any capacity under this Act, and +has been discharged therefrom, continues to occupy any +house or building that may be provided for his use, or any +part thereof, after one week's notice in writing from the +Board to deliver up possession thereof, it shall be lawful for +any police magistrate, on the oath of one witness, stating +such notice to have been given, by warrant under his hand +to order any constable to enter into the house or building +occupied by such discharged chief officer or other person as +aforesaid, and to remove him and his family and servants +therefrom, and afterwards to deliver the possession thereof +to the Board, as effectually, to all intents and purposes, as +the sheriff having jurisdiction within the place where such +house or building is situate might lawfully do by virtue of a +writ of possession or a judgment at law.</p> + +<p>23. If the chimney of any house or other building within +the metropolis is on fire, the occupier of such house or building +shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty shillings; +but if such occupier proves that he has incurred such +penalty by reason of the neglect or wilful default of any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +other person, he may recover summarily from such person +the whole or any part of the penalty he may have incurred +as occupier.</p> + +<p>24. All penalties imposed by this Act, or by any byelaw +made in pursuance thereof, and all expenses and other sums +due to the Board in pursuance of this Act, in respect of +which no mode of recovery is prescribed, may be recovered +summarily before two justices in manner directed by the +Act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth +years of the reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, +or any Act amending the same, and when so recovered +shall be paid to the treasurer of the Board, notwithstanding +any police act or other act of parliament directing a different +appropriation of such monies.</p> + +<p>25. Any dispute or other matter which is by this Act +directed to be determined summarily by two justices shall +be deemed to be a matter in respect of which a complaint is +made upon which they have authority by law to make an +order for payment of money within the meaning of the said +Act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years +of the reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, +or any Act amending the same.</p> + +<p>26. Any act, power, or jurisdiction hereby authorized to +be done or exercised by two justices may be done or exercised +by the following magistrates within their respective +jurisdictions; that is to say, by any metropolitan police +magistrate sitting alone at a police court or other appointed +place, or by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, or any +alderman of the said City, sitting alone or with others at the +Mansion House or Guildhall.</p> + +<p>27. The accounts of the Board in respect of expenses incurred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +by them under this Act shall be audited in the same +manner as if they were expenses incurred under the said +Metropolis Local Management Acts, and the Board shall in +each year make a report to one of her Majesty's principal +Secretaries of State of all acts done and expenditure incurred +by them in pursuance of this Act, and that report shall be +laid before Parliament within one month after the commencement +of the session.</p> + +<p>28. The Board may delegate any powers conferred on +them by this Act to a committee of their body; and such +committee shall, to the extent to which such powers are +delegated, be deemed to be the Board within the meaning of +this Act.</p> + +<p>29. If the companies insuring property within the metropolis, +or any such number of them as may in the opinion +of the said Board be sufficient, establish a force of men +charged with the duty of attending at fires and saving insured +property, it shall be the duty of the Fire Brigade, +with the sanction of the Board, and subject to any regulations +that may be made by the Board, to afford the necessary +assistance to that force in the performance of their duties, +and, upon the application of any officer of that force, to hand +over to their custody property that may be saved from fire; +and no charge shall be made by the said Board for the services +thus rendered by the fire brigade.</p> + +<p>30. It shall be lawful for the Board, when occasion requires, +to permit any part of the fire brigade establishment, +with their engines, escapes, and other implements, to proceed +beyond the limits of the metropolis for the purpose of +extinguishing fires. In such case the owner and occupier +of the property where the fire has occurred shall be jointly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +and severally liable to defray all the expenses that may be +incurred by the Fire Brigade in attending the fire, and +shall pay to the Board a reasonable charge for the attendance +of the Fire Brigade, and the use of their engines, escapes, +and other implements. In case of difference between the +Board and the owner and occupier of such property, or +either of them, the amount of the expenses, as well as the +propriety of the Fire Brigade attending such fire (if the +propriety thereof be disputed), shall be summarily determined +by two justices. In default of payment, any expenses under +this section may be recovered by the Board in a summary +manner.</p> + +<p>The Board may also permit any part of the Fire Brigade +Establishment to be employed on special services upon such +terms of remuneration as the said Board may think just.</p> + +<p>31. The Metropolitan Fire Brigade shall in the morning +of each day, with the exception of Sundays, send information, +by post or otherwise, to all the insurance offices contributing +for the purposes of this Act, of all fires which have +taken place within the metropolis since the preceding return, +in such form as may be agreed upon between the Board +and the said companies.</p> + +<p>32. All the powers now exercised by any local body or +officer within the metropolis as respects fireplugs shall +henceforth be exercised by the Board, and the Board shall be +entitled to receive copies or extracts of all plans kept by any +water company under the provision of the Act of the session +of the fifteenth and sixteenth years of her Majesty, +chapter eighty-four; and every such water company shall +provide at the expense of the Board in any mains or pipes +within the metropolis plugs for the supply of water in case<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +of fire at such places, of such dimensions, and in such form +as the Board may require, and the Fire Brigade shall be at +liberty to make such use thereof as they may deem necessary +for the purpose of extinguishing any fire; and every such +company shall deposit keys of all their fireplugs at such +places as may be appointed by the Board, and the Board may +put up on any house or building a public notice in some conspicuous +place in each street in which a fireplug is situated, +showing its situation.</p> + +<p>33. "Owner" in this Act shall mean the person for the +time being receiving the rackrent of the premises in connexion +with which the word is used, either on his own +account or as agent or trustee for some other person, or who +would receive the same if the premises were let at rackrent.</p> + + +<h5><i>Repeal.</i></h5> + +<p>34. On and after the first day of January, one thousand +eight hundred and sixty-six, there shall be repealed so much +as is unrepealed of an Act passed in the fourteenth year of +his late Majesty King George the Third, chapter seventy-eight, +and intituled an Act for the further and better regulation +of buildings and party walls, and for the more +effectually preventing mischief by fire, within the Cities of +London and Westminster and the liberties thereof, and +other the parishes, precincts, and places within the weekly +bills of mortality, the parishes of St. Marylebone, Paddington, +St. Pancras, and St. Luke, at Chelsea, in the +County of Middlesex, and for indemnifying, under certain +conditions, builders and other persons against the penalties +to which they are or may be liable for erecting buildings +within the limits aforesaid contrary to law, with the exception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +of sections eighty-three and eighty-six which +shall remain in full force, but such repeal shall not affect +any penalty or liability incurred under the repealed +sections.</p> + +<p>35. On and after the first day of January, one thousand +eight hundred and sixty-six, section forty-four of an Act +passed in the session holden in the third and fourth years of +the reign of King William the Fourth, chapter ninety, +shall be repealed so far as respects any parish or place +within the limits of the metropolis as defined by this Act; +provided that the repeal of the said section shall not affect the +power of the churchwardens and overseers of any parish or +place to contribute to the funds of any society that at the +time of the passing of this Act maintains fire escapes in +such parish or place, unless and until the Board purchase +the property of such society, or otherwise provide fire +escapes in such parish or place.</p></div> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>In accordance with the provisions of the above recited +Act of Parliament, the London Fire Brigade of the Insurance +Offices is now being extended to meet the requirements +of the whole of London, under the title of the +Metropolitan Fire Brigade, with Captain E. M. Shaw, Mr. +Braidwood's successor, as chief officer.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h6>LONDON:<br /> +SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET,<br /> +COVENT GARDEN.</h6> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h3><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber's Notes</h3> + +<p>Variations in spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, and punctuation +have been retained from the original book. The Table of Contents +and List of Illustrations do not exactly match the chapter, section, and +illustration titles in the text.</p> + +<p>The following changes have been made:</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_70">70</a>: Missing word "of" added (avail themselves of the means).</p> + +<p>Page <a href="#Page_183">183</a>: Typo estalishment changed to establishment (establishment +of telegraphic communication).</p> + +<p>Tables in the Appendix have been modified in format, but not in +content, to fit the plain-text spacing constraints.</p> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by +James Braidwood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE *** + +***** This file should be named 26440-h.htm or 26440-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/4/4/26440/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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