initial commit of ebook 26440HEADmain

236 files changed, 21137 insertions, 0 deletions

diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6833f05
--- /dev/null
+++ b/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1,3 @@
+* text=auto
+*.txt text
+*.md text
diff --git a/26440-8.txt b/26440-8.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4dd778
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-8.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6816 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction
+
+Author: James Braidwood
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26440]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Jas. Braidwood]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION
+
+AND
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION.
+
+
+BY
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD,
+
+FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF THE LONDON FIRE-BRIGADE, AND ASSOCIATE OF
+THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
+
+
+INCLUDING
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES, FIRE-PROOF SAFES, PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES, PRIVATE
+MEANS FOR SUPPRESSING FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, FIRE ANNIHILATORS,
+PORTABLE FIRE-ESCAPES, WATER SUPPLY
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, MEMOIR, AND PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+LONDON:
+BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET.
+1866.
+
+[_The right of Translation is reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+MEMOIR.
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+Introductory, Early Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades           5
+
+Mr. Braidwood's birth and education                                  7
+
+Great Fire of Edinburgh, and appointment as head of Brigade          8
+
+Award of Silver Medal of Society of Arts, London; publication
+of work on Fire Engines                                             11
+
+Formation of London Fire Brigade; appointment as Superintendent     13
+
+Testimonials received upon leaving Edinburgh                        14
+
+London residence and routine of duty                                16
+
+Valuable services of the Royal Society for the Protection of
+Life from Fire                                                      17
+
+Statistics of Fires; improvement of Fire Engines                    18
+
+Introduction of ladders, hose reel, and hand pump                   19
+
+Floating Fire Engines, hand worked and steam; Land Steam
+Fire Engine                                                         20
+
+Inspection of Government Dockyards and Public Buildings;
+establishment of a standard hose coupling                           21
+
+Admitted an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers;
+award of Telford Medal; endeavours to restrain the erection
+of immoderate-sized warehouses                                      22
+
+His opinion as to the inadequacy of London Fire Brigade;
+Great Tooley Street Fire                                            23
+
+Death of Mr. Braidwood                                              24
+
+Public funeral                                                      25
+
+Public and private character                                        28
+
+World-wide esteem in which he was held                              30
+
+Poem--A True Hero                                                   32
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION, INCLUDING FIREPROOF STRUCTURES--CAUSES OF FIRES.
+
+
+Inattention in the use of fires and lights                          33
+
+Advantages of a legal inquiry into the cause of Fires               37
+
+Improper construction of buildings                                  37
+
+Acts of Parliament for buildings in London                          39
+
+Results of improper construction of warehouses in Liverpool         41
+
+Arrangements for the safety of the audience in theatres             42
+
+Danger from furnaces and close fires                                43
+
+Danger from pipes conveying products of combustion                  44
+
+Spontaneous ignition; use of gas                                    45
+
+Incendiarism; monomania                                             46
+
+
+FIREPROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+What is fireproof construction                                      47
+
+Use of cast and wrought-iron                                        49
+
+Mr. Fairbairn's experiments                                         50
+
+Danger to life from use of cast-iron columns                        54
+
+Report on warehouses                                                55
+
+Covering timber with iron                                           56
+
+Fireproof dwelling-houses                                           57
+
+Fireproof safes                                                     58
+
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE
+ENGINES, AND WATER SUPPLY--FIRE BRIGADES.
+
+
+Individual exertions for Fire Extinction                            59
+
+Fire Brigades on the Continent of Europe, in England, in America    66
+
+Necessity for the control of arrangements by one individual         67
+
+Proposal for a national system                                      68
+
+Fire Engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences               70
+
+Training and discipline of Firemen                                  71
+
+General instructions for Firemen, and for the use of Fire Engines   72
+
+Necessity for the water striking the burning materials              74
+
+Inventions for elevating branch pipes considered                    76
+
+
+LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+General description of men and engines                              79
+
+Division of London into districts                                   81
+
+General regulations                                                 82
+
+Conditions of entrance into the establishment                       83
+
+Outline of general duty                                             85
+
+Duties of Superintendent                                            88
+
+   "      Foremen                                                   90
+
+   "      Engineers                                                 93
+
+   "      Sub-Engineers and Firemen                                 94
+
+
+EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+Description of men selected                                         96
+
+Mode of communicating with Firemen at a Fire                        97
+
+Dress and drill of Firemen                                          99
+
+Gymnastic exercises                                                104
+
+General regulations                                                106
+
+Duties of Police                                                   107
+
+   "      Superintendent of Brigade                                109
+
+   "      Head Enginemen                                           110
+
+   "      Firemen, and High Constables                             111
+
+   "      Magistrates, and Gas-Light Companies                     113
+
+Special regulations for Firemen                                    114
+
+Means of escape from Fire                                          118
+
+
+FIRE ENGINES.
+
+
+The application of manual power                                    123
+
+Engines used by the British Government                             124
+
+Description of Brigade Fire Engine                                 126
+
+Hand Pump; keeping Fire Engines in order                           130
+
+Selection of Engine House                                          132
+
+Apparatus provided with London Brigade Engine                      133
+
+Leather hose                                                       134
+
+Hose couplings                                                     140
+
+Suction pipes                                                      143
+
+Jet pipes, proper shape                                            145
+
+Fire annihilator                                                   149
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY.
+
+
+By pressure, from surface of ground, and by sunk tanks             150
+
+Experiments with jets under a constant pressure                    153
+
+Fire plug used in London                                           155
+
+Canvas cistern and stand-cock used with fire plug                  156
+
+Double fire-cock used in the Government Dockyards                  158
+
+Double hollow key fire-cock used in the British Museum             159
+
+Supply by Water Companies in London                                162
+
+Supplying Fire Engines from fire-cocks, &c.                        163
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+Steam Fire Engines, progress in construction                       166
+
+Trials before the Jury of the International Exhibition, 1862       168
+
+Trials at the International Competition, London, 1863              173
+
+Steam Fire Engines in use by Metropolitan Brigade, May, 1866       181
+
+Act of Parliament for Metropolitan Fire Brigade                    182
+
+Establishment of Metropolitan Fire Brigade                         197
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+Portrait of Mr. Braidwood on steel by Jeens,
+from a photograph by Williams                            Frontispiece.
+
+Longitudinal section of Brigade Fire Engine                        124
+
+Transverse section of ditto                                        125
+
+Old coupling for hose                                              140
+
+New ditto, ditto                                                   141
+
+Branch and jet pipe                                                145
+
+Opening in sunk tank for suction pipe                              151
+
+Fire plug used in London                                           155
+
+Fire plug with canvas cistern                                      156
+
+Fire plug with stand-cock                                          157
+
+Single fire-cock                                                   158
+
+Double fire-cock used at dockyards                                 158
+
+Double fire-cock used at British Museum                            159
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+The appearance at the beginning of last year, in the Annual Report of
+the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861 and 1862, of a short
+memoir of Mr. Braidwood, suggested the publication of a more extended
+account of the life of the late head of the London Fire Brigade,
+combined with his opinions upon the subject of his profession.
+
+These opinions are comprised in a work on "Fire Engines, and the
+Training of Firemen," published in Edinburgh in 1830; two papers upon
+cognate subjects read before the Institution of Civil Engineers, two
+similar papers read before the Society of Arts, and in a variety of
+reports upon public buildings, warehouses, &c. While regretting the
+great loss that the public has sustained, in being deprived by Mr.
+Braidwood's sudden death of a complete record of his long and varied
+London experience, it has been considered advisable to republish the
+above materials arranged in a systematic form, omitting only such
+parts as the Author's more matured experience rendered desirable, but
+confining the whole to his own words.
+
+LONDON,
+
+  _June, 1866._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+_To his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines and Apparatus; the
+Training of Firemen; and the Method of Proceeding in cases of Fire,"
+published in Edinburgh, in 1830._
+
+
+Not having been able to find any work on Fire-Engines in the English
+language, I have been led to publish the following remarks, in the
+hope of inducing others to give further information on the subject.
+
+For the style of the work I make no apology; and as I presume no one
+will read it except for the purpose of gaining information, my aim
+will be obtained if I shall have succeeded in imparting it, or in
+directing the public attention to the advantage which may be derived
+from the systematic training of Firemen.
+
+
+
+
+MEMOIR
+
+OF
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD.
+
+
+The history of mankind, from the earliest times, has been one of
+alternate peace and war with fire. The immeasurable value of its
+obedience, and the fearful consequences of its insubordination, have,
+in all ages, made its due subjection one of the most important
+conditions of even human existence itself. As camps and trading
+stations grew into populous cities, the dangers of fire were both
+multiplied and aggravated. Its ravages in the ancient capitals of the
+world are matters of history; and it is established that something
+like organization was extended to the means then employed for
+suppressing conflagrations. Even the fire-engine itself, in a
+practicable, although imperfect form, was described and illustrated by
+a sectional working drawing, by Hero of Alexandria, in a book written
+by him more than one hundred years before the Christian era. In its
+many translations, from the original Greek into Latin and into modern
+tongues, Hero's book, with its remarkable series of drawings, still
+occupies a place in the mechanical literature of our own time. But,
+although the construction of the fire-engine was thus known two
+thousand years ago, we have no actual evidence of its use until within
+the last two centuries; and within the whole compass of English
+history, at least, we know that nothing like discipline and
+organization, in the modern sense of the terms, were introduced into
+the management of fire apparatus until a time quite within the
+recollection of the middle-aged men of our own day. If there be
+anything apparently improbable in this fact, we need only recollect
+that many of the grandest triumphs of human genius, with which we are
+already so familiar, are not yet forty years old. The modern system of
+English fire brigades belongs wholly to the period of railways, steam
+navigation, and electric telegraphs, and it owes nearly all to the
+genius and disciplined heroism of a single individual, James
+Braidwood, who, but little more than four years ago, fell--as nobly
+for himself as sadly for others--at his chosen post of duty. What,
+when he first gave his energies--indeed, his whole heart to it, was
+but the rough and unskilful employment of the fireman, became under
+Mr. Braidwood's command and his infusing spirit of order and
+intelligence, as distinguished from reckless daring, a noble pursuit,
+almost rising in dignity to a profession, and indeed acknowledged as
+such by many, and significantly, although indirectly, by Royalty
+itself.
+
+Until the year 1833, not only the parish engines of the metropolis,
+numbering, as they did, about three hundred, but the engines also of
+the Fire Insurance Companies, were comparatively inefficient and often
+out of order, while they were also under the most diverse, if not
+irresponsible management. There were no really trained firemen, and
+those who controlled and worked the engines were oftener in antagonism
+with each other than acting in concert. The parish engines were in the
+care of the beadles, and in one case a beadle's widow, Mrs. Smith, for
+some years commanded one of the city engines. The energies of each
+band of firemen were commonly reserved for the protection of property
+only in which their own insurance company or parish was immediately
+interested. As a rule, whatever water was thrown upon a burning
+building was dashed against the walls, windows, and roof from the
+outside only, very little if any really reaching the actual seat of
+the fire within. As a consequence, fires, which are now quickly "got
+under," were then left to burn themselves out, the spreading of the
+fire being prevented either by deluging the contiguous buildings with
+water, or by pulling them down altogether.
+
+James Braidwood was born in Edinburgh in the year 1800. His father was
+a well-known upholsterer and builder, who appears to have chosen for
+his son the profession of a surveyor. To this end he was entered at
+the High School, then under the rectorship of Mr. (afterwards
+Professor) Pillans, and here, and subsequently under private masters,
+the youth received a sound education in the branches most appropriate
+to his intended pursuit in life. He was for some time engaged in his
+father's business, and thereby gained an amount of practical
+knowledge, which was of, perhaps, as much service to him in his
+subsequent career as a fireman, as it would have been had he adopted
+the profession originally chosen for him. Young Braidwood was an apt
+student, a fact, perhaps, sufficiently attested afterwards by his
+successful authorship, at the age of thirty, of the only English work
+then extant upon the fire-engine and its proper management. He read
+much, wrote well, was a good draughtsman, and had a sound knowledge of
+mechanics. But whether his powers required wider scope than a
+surveyor's practice could offer, or whether, more than forty years
+ago, and in Edinburgh, the chances of professional success were very
+much less than now, James Braidwood soon turned his mind to what
+became the great work of his life. He was becoming known for activity
+and a high order of personal courage, and there were those in place
+and power who saw in him the other elements of character which go to
+make a successful leader of men. He was soon, and when but
+twenty-three years of age, made the superintendent of the Edinburgh
+fire engines, and he almost as soon began to reform their inefficient
+and vicious system of management. He had held his post but three
+weeks, however, when the series of fires broke forth which still bear
+the name of the Great Fire of Edinburgh. Many of the old and lofty
+houses in the High Street were destroyed, between four and five
+hundred families were made houseless, ten persons were either killed
+outright or fatally injured, and for several days nearly the whole of
+the High Street, if not the larger part of the old town, was
+threatened with destruction. Never were the consequences of want of
+organization more conspicuous. There was no real command, for there
+were none to obey; and while those who might have stopped the flames
+at the outset, wasted their own energies in random efforts, or,
+perhaps, fell to quarrelling among themselves, the fearful devastation
+rolled on. The occasion was sufficient to induce the authorities and
+insurance companies to listen to and profit by Mr. Braidwood's
+recommendations. They consented to bear in common the expenses
+necessary to organize and maintain an efficient brigade. This was soon
+formed of picked men, who, although daily engaged in their former
+ordinary occupations, were regularly inspected, trained, and exercised
+early in one morning of every week. Fires were becoming more and more
+numerous year by year; but the influence of the improved system was
+soon felt. The men were taught to improve to the utmost the first few
+minutes after an alarm was given, and by constant emulation and
+discipline, a spirit of wonderful readiness was cultivated in them.
+They were trained to seek out and follow up the source of a fire
+before it had had time to spread, and to throw the water from the
+engines directly upon it, instead of wastefully, if not injuriously
+about. The result was, that while out of forty-eight fires which
+happened in the first year of the history of the brigade, eleven
+proved total losses, and twelve "considerable" losses, the number of
+total losses decreased rapidly, year by year, while the whole number
+of "calls" was almost as rapidly increasing. Thus in the second year
+of the brigade there were eighty "calls," of which seven were total,
+and eighteen considerable losses. In the next three years, with from
+ninety-four to one hundred and ninety-four "calls" yearly, there was
+but one total loss in each year, and but from nine to eighteen
+"considerable" losses.
+
+Mr. Braidwood was meanwhile improving the fire-escapes, and when new
+engines were added to the force, he procured better workmanship. By
+his personal influence, also, more than by the mere advantage of
+official position, Mr. Braidwood secured the constant co-operation of
+the police in giving the earliest alarms of fire, and in facilitating
+the labours of the firemen when actually on duty. As has just been
+shown, the results of method, applied skill, and of a personal
+devotion cultivated under the high impulse of immediate public
+observation and approval, were soon manifest. To this vast improvement
+the _Edinburgh Mercury_, as representing the opinion of the citizens
+of the Scottish capital, bore public testimony in its issue of August
+14, 1828, when the Fire Brigade of that city had been tested by nearly
+five years of constant trial, and with conspicuous success. Referring
+to the excellent organization of the establishment, it was remarked
+that there were then but few, if any, serious fires in Edinburgh, for
+when a fire broke out--and the alarms were as frequent as ever--it was
+speedily checked. Said the writer:--
+
+     "Not only is the apparatus constructed on the best possible
+     principles, but the whole system of operations has been
+     changed. The public, however, do not see the same bustle, or
+     hear the same noise as formerly; and hence they seem
+     erroneously to conclude that there is nothing done. The fact
+     is, the spectator sees the preparation for action made, but
+     he sees no more. Where the strength of the men and the
+     supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown against
+     windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out the spot
+     where the danger lies, and creeping on hands and feet into a
+     chamber full of flame, or smoke, often at the hazard of
+     suffocation, discover the exact seat of danger; and, by
+     bringing the water in contact with it, obtain immediate
+     mastery over the powerful element with which they have to
+     contend. In this daring and dangerous work men have
+     occasionally fainted from heat, or dropped down from want of
+     respiration, in which cases the next person at hand is
+     always ready to assist his companion, and to release him
+     from his service of danger."
+
+In a fire which happened while Mr. Braidwood was at the head of the
+Edinburgh Brigade, he won great admiration by bringing out from the
+burning building a quantity of gunpowder which was known to be stored
+there. He would not ask any of his men to undertake this dangerous
+feat, but, amidst the breathless suspense of thousands of spectators,
+he coolly searched for and safely carried out, first one, and then a
+second, cask of this explosive material. Had the fire reached the
+powder, it was known that the worst consequences of the conflagration
+would have been immensely increased.
+
+The fame of the Edinburgh Brigade rapidly spread throughout the
+kingdom, and it gradually became regarded as a model to which all
+other organizations for the suppression of fires would ultimately be
+made to conform. As a response to constant inquiries from a distance,
+Mr. Braidwood, in 1829, forwarded to the Society of Arts, London, a
+description of his chain-ladder fire-escape. For this invaluable
+apparatus, which had already effected a considerable saving of life,
+the Society's Silver Medal was awarded, and, accompanying the award,
+the Council of the Society extended an invitation to the author to
+"give a complete account of his mode of drilling firemen, and
+combining the use of fire-escapes with the ordinary fire-engine
+service." Responding to this invitation, Mr. Braidwood in the
+following year published his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines
+and Apparatus, the Training of Firemen, and the Method of Proceeding
+in Cases of Fire." From this work, which may still be regarded as an
+authority, extensive extracts have been made in the subsequent
+chapters of the present volume, and it need not, therefore, be further
+referred to here than to say that it formed a thoroughly original
+account of an original system, and that its illustrations, which were
+especially clear, were drawn by the author's own hand. This work
+attracted much attention from municipal bodies and insurance companies
+throughout the kingdom, and more than one official deputation visited
+Edinburgh to learn from Mr. Braidwood himself the details of a system
+which was already working such important results. In London,
+especially, three West India warehouses had been burnt in the year
+1829, with a loss of 300,000_l._; and with the extending use of gas,
+the increasing frequency of fires, and the conspicuous inefficiency of
+the parish engines, and the want of unity of action among the
+insurance companies, it was felt that what had answered so well in
+Edinburgh would prove still more valuable in the metropolis. The
+general estimation in which Mr. Braidwood's services were then held
+may be considered as expressed in the following, among other
+contemporary reviews of his book:--
+
+     "The Edinburgh Fire-engine Establishment is now all but
+     perfect. A unity of system has been accomplished, and a
+     corps of firemen mustered, who, in point of physical vigour
+     and moral intrepidity, are all entitled to be denominated
+     chosen men. At the head of this band stands Mr. Braidwood,
+     an individual who has on several occasions given abundant
+     evidence of promptitude in extremity, and a noble contempt
+     of personal danger, and whose enthusiasm, in what we may
+     call his profession, could not have been more strikingly
+     exemplified than by his illustrating it in the manner we now
+     see before us. It is the only book we are acquainted with
+     that treats of the systematic training of firemen; and from
+     the perspicuity of its details, it must necessarily become
+     the manual of all such institutions, and ought to find a
+     place in every insurance office in the United Kingdom."
+
+It had been from time to time attempted to bring the fire apparatus of
+the London Insurance Companies under a single management; but it was
+nearly ten years after the establishment of the Edinburgh Fire
+Brigade, and only when Mr. Braidwood himself had been invited to come
+to London, that this was at last effected. As for the parish engines,
+they were wholly neglected under this arrangement, and, indeed, a
+great number of them had been already allowed to fall into disuse, as
+far as could be permitted without incurring the penalties of the
+Statutes of 1774. On the 1st January, 1833, at the instance of Mr.
+Ford, of the Sun Fire-office, eight of the insurance companies formed
+an association of fire-engines and firemen, each company withholding
+its own distinctive name and badges from the united force. This was
+known as the London Fire-engine Establishment. It was supported by the
+companies in common, each in proportion to the premiums received from
+its business in London, a minimum rate being fixed. Each company
+contributing to the support of the establishment nominated one member
+of the committee of management. This association existed for
+thirty-three years, when on the 1st of January, 1866, the Metropolitan
+Board of Works took charge of the fire-engines and the general fire
+establishment of the metropolis. Mr. Braidwood took the command of the
+London Brigade thus formed at the onset. The Edinburgh Fire-engine
+Committee, on accepting his resignation, presented him with a gold
+watch, and a vote of thanks, "for the singularly indefatigable manner
+in which he had discharged the duties of his important office, not
+merely by his extraordinary exertions on occasions of emergency, but
+for the care and attention he had bestowed on the training of the
+firemen, whereby the establishment had been brought to its present
+high state of efficiency." He had previously received from the men
+under him a handsome silver cup, bearing the following
+inscription:--"Presented to Mr. James Braidwood, by the City of
+Edinburgh Firemen, as a token of their admiration of him as their
+leader, and of deep respect for him as a gentleman."
+
+As in Edinburgh, the London Fire Brigade under Mr. Braidwood's
+superintendence became a new force, and in every respect a remarkable
+organization. Where the inefficiency of the old firemen could not at
+once be made to yield to discipline, they were pensioned off; and
+within a short time a select band of active, hardy, and thoroughly
+trained men was formed. In 1834, the second year of Mr. Braidwood's
+superintendence, the Houses of Parliament were burnt; and a most
+destructive fire occurred also at Mile-end. The first-named fire
+created general consternation, and there are many persons who can
+still recollect that also at Mile-end. These great fires stimulated
+Mr. Braidwood to increased exertions, and the result was soon visible
+in the lessened proportion of totally destroyed premises to the whole
+number of fires. The brigade had, of course, no power of prevention,
+and alarms of fire were becoming more numerous than ever. The use of
+friction matches and of gas was increasing enormously; manufactures,
+and the steam-engines and machinery for conducting them, were being
+rapidly multiplied; and with the vast progress making in the
+production of cotton goods, the use of cotton curtains and
+bed-furniture was becoming common in dwellings forming a large
+proportion of the metropolis, but in which, not long before, such
+articles were either regarded as luxuries or were altogether unknown.
+The total number of fires attended by the brigade in the year 1833,
+exclusive of chimneys on fire, was 458, while in 1851 the number had
+risen to 928; and although London had been growing all this time, it
+had not doubled in size to correspond with the increased number of
+fires. But while the total yearly number of fires, since the formation
+of the brigade, has shown a large and hardly interrupted increase, the
+number of cases of total destruction has almost as steadily
+diminished. Thus, "totally destroyed" was reported of 31 fires in the
+year 1833, whereas in 1839 there were but 17 cases, and the average
+for twenty-one years, from 1833 to 1853 inclusive, was but 25-1/2
+yearly, while at the present time, with all the vast growth of London,
+the average, under the continuance of Mr. Braidwood's system, is
+hardly if at all greater.
+
+Mr. Braidwood from the first exhibited excellent judgment in his
+choice of men to serve under him. He chose sailors, as a rule, as
+being accustomed to obedience, and to irregular and prolonged duty,
+while also they were especially hardy and active; and where there was
+especial danger which must be met, he was always ready to lead, and
+his men had soon learned to confide in his quick and sound judgment in
+emergency, knowing that he would never permit them to incur needless
+risk. His own iron constitution, and his habits of constant vigilance,
+served as a high standard and incentive to those about him; and thus
+it was, by selection, discipline, and example, resting upon a
+foundation of even paternal kindness, that the men of the London Fire
+Brigade became conspicuous for their courage, energy, hardihood, and
+unalterable devotion to duty. The brigade, too, was most popular with
+the public, and could always count upon any necessary assistance in
+their labours. The system of rewards given to whoever was the first to
+bring a call of fire, the liberal gratuity to the policeman who first
+reached the burning premises, there preventing undue confusion, and by
+keeping the street-door closed, shutting off a strong draught of air
+from the flames, and the handsome pay to the ready throng of
+strong-armed men who worked the engines, secured every co-operation
+from the public, beyond that naturally springing from a general
+admiration of so brave and well-trained a body of men.
+
+Mr. Braidwood's residence was at the principal station of the
+Fire-engine Establishment in Watling-street. To this station came all
+alarms of fire. He attended in person all calls from leading
+thoroughfares, public buildings, or localities where a serious
+conflagration might be expected. In the night a call was announced to
+him through a speaking-tube reaching to his bedside. The gas in his
+room was always burning, and he would quickly decide, from the known
+locality of the fire, and from the report given, whether he need go
+himself. In any case, his men were awake and quickly away. Rapidity in
+dressing, and in horseing and mounting the engines, was but a detail
+of daily drill. The moment the scene of action was reached, nothing
+was allowed to stand in the way of access to the actual seat of the
+fire, and nothing either in securing a supply of water. The inmates of
+the premises, if any, were quickly got out, and wherever an unhappy
+creature was cut off by the flames, there were always one or more
+firemen ready, if necessary, to brave an apparently certain death in a
+heroic attempt at rescue--an attempt, indeed, which but seldom failed.
+It is but just to say here that the firemen were always nobly
+seconded, if not indeed anticipated, in these attempts by the officers
+and men of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire--a
+body which has long rendered priceless services to humanity under most
+appalling circumstances. The men of the Fire Brigade were taught to
+prevent, as much as possible, the access of air to the burning
+materials. What the open door of the ash pit is to the furnace of a
+steam-boiler the open street door is to the house on fire. In both
+cases the door gives vital air to the flames. The men of the Brigade
+were trained to pursue a fire, not yet under full headway, up-stairs
+and down, in at windows and out through the roof, anywhere, so it
+could be reached directly by the water from the engines. They were
+made to regard it as worse than a waste to throw even a gallon of
+water upon a dead wall or upon a surface of slate or plaster, so long
+as by any means the branch pipe could be got to bear upon the seat of
+the fire itself. The statistics of the operations of the London
+Fire-engine Establishment from 1833 to the present time, show with
+what success the system originated and so admirably carried out by Mr
+Braidwood has been pursued. Of the whole number of fires not one in
+fifty now proceeds to the extent of total destruction of the premises.
+
+Previous to the organization of the Fire-engine Establishment there
+were no official annual reports of the fires in the metropolis. No one
+person by himself was indeed in a position to know all of the fires
+that happened, any more than, but for Lloyds', could we know of all
+the wrecks which take place around and upon our coasts. It was
+impossible, under such a state of things, that either the value of
+insurance to the insured or its risk to the insurer could be rightly
+known. The general public could only know that, like fevers and
+certain other classes of disease, fires were always breaking out, but
+no one could know, even approximately, how great or how little was the
+real general risk. When, however, a fire establishment was formed, the
+engines were called to all fires, whether of insured or uninsured
+property. It was not now difficult to tabulate the number and
+localities of fires; but Mr. Braidwood went further, and extended his
+yearly tables to include the various causes of fires, and the
+classification of the premises, whether residences, shops, warehouses,
+manufactories, &c., where they occurred, the subdivision of these
+classes being extended to every variety of occupation and business.
+Even the hours at which the various fires broke out were carefully
+tabulated, and thus the particulars of London fires soon became an
+important branch of statistics, from which the operations of insurance
+have derived increased certainty, with greater economy to the insured.
+
+Although regarding the training and discipline of firemen as of the
+first importance in the organization of a fire brigade, Mr. Braidwood
+gave a large share of attention to the improvement of fire-engines and
+their kindred appliances. While in Edinburgh, where the steepness of
+many of the streets, and the roughness of the pavements in the older
+parts of the town prevented the rapid and easy movement of heavy
+engines, he recommended and adopted a lighter description, but in
+London he recognised the necessity for greater power. Mr. Tilley, then
+a fire-engine maker in the Blackfriars'-road, ably seconded his
+efforts, and at length the distinctive type known as the London Fire
+Brigade Engine was produced, and which, weighing about eighteen cwt.
+when ready for service, would throw eighty-eight gallons of water per
+minute, and, in short trials, as much as 120 gallons in the same time.
+This engine was mounted upon springs, and in strength and ease of
+working presented a marked improvement upon those which had preceded
+it. Its ordinary working complement of men was twenty-eight, and
+larger engines, upon the same general design, have since been made, to
+be worked by from forty-five to sixty men. The steam fire-engine has
+already, to a certain extent, superseded the brigade engine, but the
+latter is still likely, for some time at least, to be preferred for a
+large class of fires, both in London and in the provinces.
+
+Mr. Braidwood at an early date adopted the ordinary military scaling
+ladders to the purposes of his brigade, two being placed on each
+engine, and at his recommendation ladders were also placed on a
+two-wheeled carriage as a convenient fire-escape. He also induced the
+Admiralty, in 1841, to adopt hose-reels in the various dockyards,
+these implements having been previously in successful use in New York.
+In 1848 he was induced, in consequence of the large number of small
+fires to which his engines were called out, to adopt a small hand-pump
+as an auxiliary to the fire-engine. This could be rapidly brought to
+bear, and although worked by but one man, the value of a small
+quantity of water thrown directly upon the seat of a small fire was
+found to be greater than that of perhaps twenty times as much when
+thrown about in the ordinary manner. It was of great importance also
+in warehouses stored with valuable goods, to throw the least necessary
+quantity of water upon a fire. These hand-pumps still form an
+important part of the present apparatus of the brigade, and they have
+been widely adopted elsewhere.
+
+London, unlike Edinburgh, has a vast water-side property, always
+exposed to danger from fire. Almost immediately, therefore, after
+having taken the command of the London Brigade, Mr. Braidwood directed
+his attention to the construction of improved floating fire-engines,
+to be moored in the river, where they would be always available for
+the protection of wharf property. Two were constructed, one being a
+machine of great power, with pumps made to be worked by 120 men. These
+machines proved of great value. In 1852, shortly after the memorable
+fire at Humphrey's warehouses, he persuaded the Fire-engine Committee
+to allow one of these engines to be altered so as to work by steam,
+and in 1855 a large self-propelling floating steam fire-engine was
+made upon a novel construction, and which, having already rendered
+great service at fires on the river side, still ranks as the most
+powerful machine in the service of the brigade. With locomotive
+boilers and large double steam engines, this float can steam nine
+miles an hour, and when in place at a fire it can throw four streams
+of water, each from a jet-pipe of 1-1/2 inch in diameter, to a great
+distance. In the great fire of 1861, this floating engine was worked
+with but little intermission for upwards of a fortnight. In 1860 Mr.
+Braidwood obtained the sanction of the Fire-engine Committee for the
+introduction of a land steam fire-engine, and although he did not live
+to witness the present remarkable development of these machines, he
+was enabled to employ the first one in the brigade with much
+advantage.
+
+We may quote here from a brief but excellent memoir of Mr. Braidwood,
+which appeared in the annual report of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers for 1861:
+
+     "As early as 1841, the Government began to profit by his
+     experience, the Lords of the Admiralty having in that year
+     consulted him on the subject of floating fire-engines for
+     the various dockyards. These were eventually constructed
+     from his designs and under his superintendence. In the
+     following year he inspected all the dockyards, and reported
+     fully on each, with regard to both floating and land
+     fire-engines, the supply of water, the alterations of
+     buildings to prevent spread of fire, and the proper care
+     required in dangerous trades. From this time, although not
+     holding any appointment, he acted as Government consulting
+     engineer on all questions relating to fire prevention and
+     extinction, and he advised from time to time the precautions
+     to be taken for the protection of the royal palaces and
+     various other public buildings. This position enabled him,
+     not without a great deal of opposition, to induce the
+     Government to adopt in all its departments a uniform size of
+     hose-coupling. This is the one which he introduced in
+     Edinburgh, and known as the London Fire Brigade coupling, is
+     now in almost universal use; its application has been found
+     comparatively of as much utility for fire-brigade purposes,
+     as the adoption of the Whitworth gauges of screw-bolts for
+     mechanical engineering.
+
+     "Although so fully occupied, he never refused advice on
+     professional matters to all who sought it. The various dock
+     companies, public institutions, country fire brigades,
+     private firms, &c., benefited largely by his experience. The
+     numerous inquiries from foreign countries and the colonies
+     with regard to the best means of extinguishing fires, also
+     made great inroads on his time. In 1833 he became an
+     Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to which,
+     in 1844, he contributed a valuable paper 'On the means of
+     rendering large supplies of Water available in case of Fire,
+     &c.,' for which he was awarded a Telford Medal; and in 1849
+     a second paper 'On Fire-Proof Buildings.' In 1856, a paper
+     on 'Fires: the best means of preventing and arresting them;
+     with a few words on Fire-Proof Structures,' was read by him
+     before the Society of Arts.
+
+     "He took great interest in the passing of Acts of Parliament
+     for regulating buildings in the metropolis, was consulted by
+     the framers of these Acts, and used his utmost influence to
+     prevent the endangering a whole neighbourhood by the
+     erection of monster warehouses for private profit. He
+     strongly contended for the principle of dividing buildings
+     by party-walls carried through the roof, and restricting
+     these divisions to a moderate cubic content. Writing to Lord
+     Seymour, Commissioner of Woods and Forests, on the 28th
+     June, 1851, he said 'that no preparations for contending
+     with such fires will give anything like the security that
+     judicious arrangements in the size and construction of
+     buildings will do.' The wise provisions introduced through
+     his instrumentality into these Acts of Parliament were
+     continually being evaded, and clusters of warehouses quickly
+     rose which he saw would, if on fire, defy all his means of
+     extinction. In a letter to Sir W. Molesworth, First
+     Commissioner of Public Works, dated 10th February, 1854, on
+     the subject of a proposed warehouse in Tooley-street, he
+     wrote 'The whole building, if once fairly on fire in one
+     floor, will become such a mass of fire that there is now no
+     power in London capable of extinguishing it, or even of
+     restraining its ravages on every side, and on three sides it
+     will be surrounded by property of immense value.' How
+     literally this was realized, and at what cost, was shown by
+     the great warehouse fire in Tooley-street, on the 22nd June,
+     1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life."
+
+The great fire at Cotton's Wharf; Tooley-street, broke out on
+Saturday, June 22nd, 1861, and continued to burn for more than a
+fortnight, consuming Scovell's, and other large warehouses, and, in
+all, upwards of two millions' worth of property. The fire is believed
+to have originated in the spontaneous combustion of hemp, of which
+upwards of 1000 tons were consumed, together with 3000 tons of sugar,
+500 tons of saltpetre, nearly 5000 tons of rice, 18,000 bales of
+cotton, 10,000 casks of tallow, 1100 tons of jute, and an immense
+quantity of tea, spices, &c., besides many other descriptions of
+goods. Although discovered in broad daylight, and before the flames
+had made any considerable headway, the want of a ready supply of
+water, and the fact that the iron doors in the division walls between
+the several warehouses had been left open, taken in connexion with the
+extremely combustible nature of the materials, soon rendered hopeless
+all chance of saving the buildings and property. Mr. Braidwood was
+upon the spot very soon after the alarm had been given, and nearly the
+whole available force of the Fire-engine Establishment was summoned at
+his command. He appears to have at once foreseen that the fire would
+be one of no ordinary magnitude, and that the utmost that could be
+done would be to prevent its extending widely over adjoining property.
+The floating fire-engines had been got to bear upon the flames, and
+the men in charge of the branch pipes were, after two hours' work,
+already suffering greatly from the intense heat, when their chief went
+to them to give them a word of encouragement. Several minor
+explosions, as of casks of tallow or of oil, had been heard, but as it
+was understood that the saltpetre stored at the wharf was in buildings
+not yet alight, no alarm was then felt as to the walls falling in. At
+the moment, however, while Mr. Braidwood was discharging this his last
+act of kindness to his men, a loud report was heard, and the lofty
+wall behind him toppled and fell, burying him in the ruins. Those of
+his men who were near him had barely time to escape, and one person at
+his side, not a fireman, was overwhelmed with him. From the moment
+when the wall was seen to fall, it was known that whoever was beneath
+it had been instantly crushed to death. It is needless, and it would,
+indeed, be out of place, to describe here the further progress of the
+fire, which had then but fairly begun, and which was still burning
+more than a fortnight afterwards.
+
+Great as was the general consternation at so terrible a conflagration,
+it is doubtful if the public were not still more impressed by the
+dreadful death of Mr. Braidwood, and by a feeling that his loss was a
+public misfortune. Her Majesty the Queen, with that ready sympathy
+which she has ever shown for crushed or suffering heroism, commanded
+the Earl of Stamford to inquire on the spot, on Monday, whether the
+body had yet been recovered by the firemen, and Her Majesty's
+sympathies were also conveyed to Mrs. Braidwood. It was not, however,
+until the following morning, that after almost constant exertions,
+under the greatest difficulties, the crushed remains were rescued. An
+inquest was necessary, not merely to ascertain what was already well
+known, that death had been instantly caused by accident, but to know
+whether culpable carelessness of any kind had indirectly led to the
+sorrowful event. None, however, appeared. The remains of the fallen
+chief were afterwards borne to his late residence in Watling-street.
+The members of the committee of the London Fire-engine Establishment,
+formed of representatives from all of the twenty-five insurance
+companies of London, had already met to express, by a formal
+resolution, their sincere condolence with Mrs. Braidwood and her
+family. It was known that the funeral would take place on Saturday,
+June 29th, and it was widely felt that a general expression of sorrow
+and respect should be made, in view of the common loss of so valued a
+public servant, as well as for the noble qualities for which he had
+been so long and so well known. On the occasion of the funeral this
+was shown not more by the great length and marked character of the
+_cortége_ itself than by the general suspension of business in the
+leading thoroughfares of the city through which it passed, and by the
+hushed demeanour of the countless multitude who pressed closely upon
+the procession throughout its entire course. Among the thousands who
+sadly led the way to the grave were the London Rifle Brigade, about
+700 strong (and of which Mr. Braidwood's three sons were members), the
+Seventh Tower-Hamlets, and other rifle corps, upwards of 1000
+constables of the metropolitan police force, besides nearly 400
+members of the city police, the superintendents and men of the various
+water companies, the secretary and conductors and the band of the
+Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, a large number of
+private and local fire-brigades, and the members of the London
+Fire-engine Establishment. The pall-bearers were six of Mr.
+Braidwood's engineers and foremen, some of whom were at his side when
+he fell, and who had barely escaped with their own lives. Following
+the chief mourners were the Duke of Sutherland, the Earl of Caithness,
+the Rev. Dr. Cumming, and a large number of relatives and friends of
+the deceased, and the committee of the London Fire-engine
+establishment. The procession was nearly one mile and a-half in
+length, and was about three hours in its progress from Watling-street
+to Abney Park Cemetery, where the solemn service of the dead was
+conducted by the Rev. Dr. Cumming, of whose congregation the deceased
+had long been a member. With the exception of the great bell of St.
+Paul's, which tolls only on the occasion of the death of a member of
+the royal family or of a lord-mayor in office, the bells of all the
+churches in the city were booming slowly through the day, and so
+evident was the general sorrow that it could be truly said that the
+heart of the nation mourned.
+
+On Thursday, July 4th, a public meeting was held at the Mansion House,
+when resolutions were passed for the collection of subscriptions
+towards a memorial to Mr. Braidwood's long and arduous public
+services. This memorial, it was felt, should take the form of a
+permanent provision for his family, for the post of Fire Brigade
+Superintendent had never been a lucrative one. Before, however, the
+collection of subscriptions had extended beyond a few hundred pounds,
+it was made known that the insurance companies had promptly settled
+upon Mrs. Braidwood the full "value"--speaking in an insurable
+sense--of her husband's life. Mr. Braidwood had for many years
+supported two maiden sisters, and the public subscription was applied,
+therefore, to the purchase of small annuities for each of them.
+
+It will be remembered that the London Fire-engine Establishment was
+from the first controlled only by the insurance companies, upon whom
+of course, fell the whole cost of its maintenance. Their interest in
+the suppression of fires, although direct and unmistakeable, was not
+the same as that of the public. Thus, it would be to the public
+advantage that no fires should happen, whereas such a result would be
+fatal to the insurance companies, since no one in that case would
+insure. Although the protection of the Establishment was in practice
+extended alike to both insured and uninsured property, the real object
+for which it was formed and maintained was undoubtedly that of
+protecting insured property only. It was the interest of the companies
+to incur as little expense as would, on the whole, fairly effect this
+purpose, and it was not their interest to effectually protect the
+whole of the metropolis from fire. Thus it was that, with all the
+excellence of the organization and discipline of the Fire-engine
+Establishment, it was greatly inferior in extent to what was requisite
+for the proper security of the first city in the world. Mr. Braidwood
+had long felt this truth, but, acting for a private association, he
+could only go to the extent of the limited resources at his disposal.
+It was, more than anything else, the great fire at Cotton's Wharf that
+first directed public attention to the necessary insufficiency of any
+private establishment for the general suppression of fires, and that
+has led to the legislation under which the Fire-engine Establishment
+was, on the 1st of January last, taken over and extended by the
+Metropolitan Board of Works. London will now, it is hoped, be better
+protected from fire, because of the increased extent of the means of
+protection; but it can hardly be expected that the discipline of the
+brigade will be improved.
+
+Apart from the public value of Mr. Braidwood's career in increasing
+the common security against a common foe, there was much in his
+personal, intellectual, and moral qualities worthy of admiration. He
+was a man of strong and commanding frame, of inexhaustible energy, and
+of enduring vitality. The constitutions of but few men could have
+withstood such long continued wear and tear as fell to his. He braved
+all weathers, all extremes of heat and cold, could sleep or wake at
+will, and could work on long after others would have given way. He was
+always at his post, and in no moment of difficulty or danger did his
+cool judgment or his steady courage forsake him. It was this, together
+with his considerate bearing, and on occasions of special trial his
+almost womanly kindness to his men, that inspired them with unlimited
+confidence in him and in his plans. Beyond this, he was a man of
+superior mind, with strong comprehensive and generalising faculties.
+His various published papers, and a correspondence of which but few
+could know the extent and importance, as well as his ready, clear, and
+exact manner in stating his views before committees and before those
+in authority, who so often consulted him, all attest an order of mind
+which, in a different sphere, would alone have won distinction for its
+possessor. His profession was one in which it happens that almost
+every person thinks himself competent to give advice; yet, without any
+assumption of authority, Mr. Braidwood could make it felt wherever he
+pleased that he was a master in the art of extinguishing fire. But he
+was not on this account the less ready to listen to suggestions, and
+there are numbers who can bear testimony to the patient, honest, and
+appreciative manner in which he considered the many and diverse
+propositions submitted to him as the head of the Fire Brigade of the
+first city in the world. The soundness of his views and opinions is
+sufficiently attested by the success of his practice--a success which,
+but for the Government tax upon fire policies, would have long since
+made fire insurance in London almost the cheapest of all the forms of
+protection of property from danger. The London Brigade was
+insignificant in numbers and tame in display when compared with the
+eight hundred _sapeurs pompiers_ of Paris, with their parade and all
+their accessories of effect--insignificant and tame, too, after the
+glittering apparatus, imposing paraphernalia, and deafening clatter of
+the "Fire Department" of New York; but Mr. Braidwood's chosen men knew
+how to do their duty, and considering the differences in the mode of
+building and of heating, and in the extent of lighting in the three
+great metropoli just named, it is an easy matter, on reference to
+statistics, to prove that none others have done better.
+
+Above all, Mr. Braidwood was a gentleman of deep Christian feeling;
+and those who knew him best had never doubted that, had it been his
+lot to linger long in pain, knowing the end that was to come, his calm
+but unwavering faith in a better future would have sustained him
+through all. Brought up from childhood in the faith of the Scotch
+church, he was a regular attendant upon the ministrations of the Rev.
+Dr. Cumming. In his own quiet way he did much good in the poorer
+districts of London, and he took a special interest in the ragged
+schools of the metropolis. What he was in his own home may be best
+inferred from the crushing force with which his dreadful yet noble
+fate fell upon those who were dearest to him. His family had already
+too much reason to know the dangers which had always attended his
+career. A step-son had fallen, five years before, in nearly the same
+manner, and now lies buried in the same grave. Eleven members, in all,
+of the brigade, had perished in the discharge of their duty during the
+time Mr. Braidwood had commanded it: a fact which, taken with daily
+experience, pointed to other victims to follow. Such consolation,
+then, as a stricken widow and a mourning family could have, next to an
+abiding faith in the goodness of God, was in the recollection of the
+virtues and noble qualities of the husband and father, and in the
+spontaneous sorrow with which a great people testified their sense of
+his worth and of their common loss.
+
+To show the universal as well as national esteem in which Mr.
+Braidwood was held, two extracts are here given from the numerous
+letters of condolence addressed to his bereaved family, from all parts
+of the world. Mr. G. H. Allen, Secretary to the Boston (America) Fire
+Department, writes: "It gives me pleasure to unite with the Board in
+testimony to the extreme kindness of Mr. Braidwood in the conduct of
+our correspondence, whereby we have been greatly benefited and
+received extensive information. Allow me also to extend our sympathy
+to those who have lost one who will ever be remembered as standing at
+the head of the most valued arm of the Government, and one that you
+can hardly expect to be replaced, except by years of experience and
+great natural ability." Mr. T. J. Bown, Superintendent of the Sydney
+(Australia) Fire Brigade, in a letter dated 22nd August 1861, says,
+"On receipt of the sad news, our large fire-bell was tolled, the
+British ensign hoisted half-mast high, and crape attached to the
+firemen's uniform, as a token of respect for one of the noblest and
+most self-denying men that ever lived, who spent and lost his life in
+the service of his fellow-creatures."
+
+
+
+
+A TRUE HERO.
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD.--_Died, June 22nd, 1861._
+
+By the Author of
+
+"JOHN HALIFAX, GENTLEMAN."
+
+
+    Not at the battle front,--
+      Writ of in story;
+    Not on the blazing wreck,
+      Steering to glory;
+
+    Not while in martyr pangs
+      Soul and flesh sever,
+    Died he--this Hero new--
+      Hero for ever.
+
+    No pomp poetic crown'd,
+      No forms enchained him,
+    No friends applauding watched,
+      No foes arraigned him:
+
+    Death found him there, without
+      Grandeur or beauty,
+    Only an honest man
+      Doing his duty:
+
+    Just a God-fearing man,
+      Simple and lowly,
+    Constant at kirk and hearth,
+      Kindly and holy:
+
+    Death found--and touched him with
+      Finger in flying:--
+    So he rose up complete--
+      Hero undying.
+
+    Now, all mourn for him,
+      Lovingly raise him
+    Up from his life obscure,
+      Chronicle, praise him;
+
+    Tell his last act, done midst
+      Peril appalling,
+    And the last word of cheer
+      From his lips falling;
+
+    Follow in multitudes
+      To his grave's portal;
+    Leave him there, buried
+      In honour immortal.
+
+    So many a Hero walks
+      Daily beside us,
+    Till comes the supreme stroke
+      Sent to divide us.
+
+    Then the Lord calls His own,--
+      Like this man, even,
+    Carried, Elijah-like,
+      Fire-winged, to heaven.
+
+    _Macmillan's Magazine_, Vol. IV., page 294.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION
+
+INCLUDING
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+To prevent fires it is necessary to consider what are the principal
+causes of such calamities. These may be classed under several heads:--
+
+     1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights.
+
+     2. Improper construction of buildings, &c.
+
+     3. Furnaces or close fires for heating buildings, or for
+     mechanical purposes.
+
+     4. Spontaneous ignition.
+
+     5. Incendiarism.
+
+As almost all fires arise from inattention in one shape or another, it
+is of the utmost importance that every master of a house or other
+establishment should persevere in rigidly enjoining and enforcing on
+those under him, the necessity of observing the utmost possible care
+in preventing such calamities, which, in nineteen cases out of twenty,
+are the result of remissness or inattention. Indeed, if any one will
+for a moment consider the fearful risk of life and property, which is
+often incurred from a very slight inattention, the necessity of
+vigilance and care will at once be apparent. Immense hazard is
+frequently incurred for the most trifling indulgences, and much
+property is annually destroyed, and valuable lives often lost, because
+a few thoughtless individuals cannot deny themselves the gratification
+of reading in bed with a candle beside them.
+
+Some years ago, upwards of 100,000_l._ were lost, through the partner
+of a large establishment lighting gas with a piece of paper, which he
+threw away, and thus set fire to the premises, although it was a
+strict rule in the place that gas should only be lighted with tapers,
+which were provided for that purpose. In one department of a great
+public institution, it was, and is still, a rule that only covered
+lights should be carried about, and for that purpose four lanterns
+were provided; yet, on inquiry some time back, it was found that only
+one was entire, the other three being broken--one having lost two
+sides and the top; still they were all used as covered lights.
+
+The opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are so various,
+that it is impossible to notice the whole.
+
+One of the prevailing causes of fire is to be traced to persons
+locking their doors, and leaving their houses to the care of children.
+I believe one-half of the children whose deaths are occasioned by
+accident suffer from this cause alone: indeed, almost every week the
+newspapers contain some melancholy confirmation of what I have here
+stated. Intoxication is also a disgraceful and frequent cause of fire.
+The number of persons burned to death in this way is really
+incredible. It is true that it does not always happen that a fire
+takes place in the house, in either of the above cases, although the
+unfortunate beings whose clothes take fire, rarely escape with their
+lives; but the danger to the neighbourhood is at all times
+considerable, if persons in a state of inebriety are left in a house
+alone. When there is reason to apprehend that any member of a family
+will come home at night in that state, some one should always be
+appointed to receive him, and on no account to leave him till he is
+put to bed, and the light extinguished.
+
+I do not mean to say that people must be actually drunk before danger
+is to be apprehended from them. Indeed, a very slight degree of
+inebriety is dangerous, as it always tends to blunt the perception,
+and to make a person careless and indifferent. I may also add, that no
+inconsiderable number of fires are occasioned by the thoughtless
+practice of throwing spirits into the fire. The dresses of females
+taking fire adds very much to the list of lives lost by fire, if it
+does not exceed all the other causes put together.
+
+Another very general cause of fire is that of approaching with lighted
+candles too near bed or window curtains; these, being generally quite
+dry, are, from the way in which they are hung, easily set on fire,
+and, as the flames ascend rapidly, when once touched, they are in a
+blaze in a moment.
+
+It is really astonishing to find that, with daily examples before
+their eyes, people should persist (whether insured or not seems to
+make little difference) in practices which, there is a hundred chances
+to one, may involve both themselves and the neighbourhood in one
+common ruin. Of this sort are the practices of looking under a bed
+with a lighted candle, and placing a screen full of clothes too near
+the fire.
+
+Houses not unfrequently take fire from cinders falling between the
+joints of the outer and inner hearths. When smoke is observed to arise
+from the floor, the cause should be immediately ascertained, and the
+inmates ought on no account to retire to rest while there is the
+slightest smell of fire, or any grounds to suspect danger from that
+cause.
+
+Occasional fires are caused by a very absurd method of extinguishing
+at night the fires kept in grates during the day. Instead of arranging
+the embers in the grate in such a way as to prevent their falling off,
+and thus allowing the fire to die out in its proper place, they are
+frequently taken off and laid on the hearth, where, should there be
+wood-work underneath, it becomes scorched, and the slightest spark
+falling through a joint in the stones sets it on fire.
+
+A very frequent cause of fire in shops and warehouses arises from the
+carelessness of the person intrusted to lock them up. It is no
+uncommon practice with those to whom this duty is intrusted, to light
+themselves out, or to search for any little article which may have
+been mislaid, with a lighted paper, and then to throw it carelessly on
+the floor, imagining they have taken every necessary precaution,
+merely by setting their foot upon it, forgetting that the current of
+air occasioned by shutting the door frequently rekindles it, and
+produces the most serious consequences.
+
+In warehouses and manufactories, fires are not unfrequently caused by
+the workmen being occasionally kept late at work. By the time their
+task is finished, the men are so tired and sleepy, that the
+extinguishing of fires and lights is done in a very careless manner. I
+recollect an instance of this sort, in which the flames were issuing
+from three upper windows, and observed by the neighbours, while the
+workmen engaged at their employment in the lower floors knew nothing
+of the destruction that was going on above.
+
+A very serious annual loss is also caused by want of due care in
+handing up or removing the goods in linen-drapers' shop windows when
+the gas is burning. Flues taking fire often result in mischief and it
+is believed that many serious fires have arisen from this cause, which
+can hardly be called accidental, as, if flues are properly
+constructed, kept moderately clean, and fairly used, they cannot take
+fire.
+
+From what has been said, it will be seen that care and attention may
+do a very great deal towards the prevention of fire, and consequent
+loss of life. It is very easy to make good rules, and keep them for a
+time, after having been alarmed by some serious loss of property or
+life, but the difficulty is to maintain constant attention to the
+subject. The most evident plan for effecting this seems to be, for the
+masters thoroughly to examine and consider the subject at certain
+stated periods, not too far apart, and to constantly warn their
+domestics, workmen, or others, of the danger of the improper use of
+fires and lights.
+
+One of the greatest preventives of carelessness in the use of fires
+and lights would be a legal inquiry in every case, as it would not
+only show the faults that had been committed, and thus warn others,
+but the idea of being exposed in the newspapers would be another
+motive for increased care. This plan has been adopted in New York, and
+the reports of the proceedings of Mr. Baker, the "Fire Marshal," show
+that the inquiries there made have led to most useful results. Mr.
+Payne, the coroner, held inquests on fires in the City of London some
+years ago, but the authorities would not allow his expenses, and
+therefore they were given up, although believed to be highly
+advantageous in explaining accidental and others causes of fire.
+
+_The improper construction of buildings_ more generally assists the
+spread than is the original cause of fires, although laying hearths on
+timber, and placing timber too near flues, are constant causes of
+fire, and it is believed that many melancholy occurrences have arisen
+from these and similar sources.
+
+One cause of danger from chimneys arises from the communication which
+they often have with each other in one gable. The divisions or
+partitions, being very often found in an imperfect state, the fire
+communicates to the adjoining chimney, and in this way sometimes wraps
+a whole tenement in flames. I know a division of a principal street in
+Edinburgh, in which there is scarcely a single chimney-head that is
+not more or less in this condition; and I have no doubt that this is
+not an uncommon case. There is also great danger from the ends of
+joists, safe-lintels, or other pieces of timber, being allowed to
+protrude into chimneys. In one instance which came under my notice, a
+flue passing under the recess of a window had on the upper side no
+other covering than the wood of the floor; of course, when the chimney
+took fire the floor was immediately in a blaze: but there are many
+instances of such carelessness. It is a common practice amongst
+carpenters to drive small pieces of wood into walls for the purpose of
+fixing their work, not paying the least attention as to whether the
+points run into the flues or not.
+
+In the repairs and alterations of old buildings, house-carpenters are,
+if possible, even more careless in this particular, than in the
+construction of new.
+
+I know of two different buildings which underwent some alterations. In
+both of these, safe-lintels had been run into flues, and both of them,
+after the alterations, took fire; the one in consequence of a foul
+chimney, which set fire to the lintel; and although the other did not
+take fire from the same cause, the lintel was nevertheless very much
+scorched, and obliged to be removed.
+
+Great carelessness is frequently exhibited by builders, when erecting
+at one time two or three houses connected by mutual gables, by not
+carrying up the gables, or party-walls, so as to divide the roofs. I
+have seen more than one instance where the adjoining house would have
+been quite safe, but for this culpable neglect. It is no uncommon
+thing, too, to find houses divided only by lath and standard
+partitions, without a single brick in them. When a fire occurs in
+houses divided in this manner, the vacuities in the middle of the
+partitions act like so many funnels to conduct the flame, thereby
+greatly adding to the danger from the fire, and infinitely increasing
+the difficulty of extinguishing it.
+
+In London the Building Act forbids all such proceedings, but the
+District Surveyors do not seem to have sufficient power, or be able to
+pay sufficient attention to such matters, as they are constantly met
+with at fires. A very flagrant case of laying a hearth on timber was
+lately exposed by a fire in the City. Due notice was given of the
+circumstance, but no farther attention was paid to the matter than to
+make the proprietor construct the floor properly, although the Act
+gave power to fine for such neglect. The omission is to be regretted,
+as there could not have been a better case for warning others; it
+occurred in a very large establishment, and the work was done by one
+of the first builders in the City. Had this fire taken place in the
+night and gained some head, it would have been very difficult to have
+ascertained the cause. As the premises were situated, a serious loss
+of life might have occurred, the apartment in which the fire
+originated being the only means of retreat which ten or twelve female
+servants had from their bedrooms.
+
+The Metropolitan Building Acts, up to about the year 1825, by
+insisting upon party-walls and other precautions, were invaluable for
+the prevention of the spread of fires. By them no warehouse was
+permitted to exceed a certain area. From the year 1842, the area has
+been exchanged for a specified number of cubic feet. But since 1825, a
+class of buildings has arisen of which there are now considerable
+numbers in the City, called Manchester or piece goods warehouses,
+which somehow have been exempted from the law restricting the extent
+of warehouses, on the plea that they are _not_ warehouses, because
+"bulk is broken" in them, although it is thoroughly understood that
+the legislature intended by the Act to restrict the amassing such a
+quantity of goods under one roof as would be dangerous to the
+neighbourhood.
+
+Manchester and piece goods warehouses have for some time past been
+built in London of unlimited size, sometimes equal to twenty average
+houses. This is pretty nearly the same as if that number of houses
+were built without party-walls, only that it is much worse, for the
+whole mass generally communicates by well holes and open staircases,
+and thus takes fire with great rapidity, and, from the quantity of
+fresh air within the building, the fire makes much greater progress
+before it is discovered. By this means the risk of fire in the City
+has been greatly increased, not only to such warehouses themselves,
+but to the surrounding neighbourhood, for it is impossible to say how
+far fires of such magnitude may extend their ravages under untoward
+circumstances, there being at present no preventive power in London
+capable of controlling them. To provide such a power would be a very
+costly business.
+
+Such buildings are also against the generally received rule, that a
+man may burn himself and his own property, but he shall not unduly
+risk the lives and property of his neighbours.
+
+The new Building Act is likely to repress, to a certain extent, this
+great evil, unless its meaning be subverted by some such subterfuge as
+destroyed the efficiency of the last one. But what is to be done with
+those which are already built? It may seem tedious to dwell so much on
+this subject, but it appears to be a risk which is not generally much
+thought of, though it is of the most vital importance to the safety of
+London. It is very desirable that the metropolis should take warning
+by the experience of Liverpool, without going through the fiery ordeal
+which the latter city did.
+
+From 1838 to 1843, 776,762_l._ were lost in Liverpool by fire, almost
+entirely in the warehouse risks. The consequence was, that the
+mercantile rates of insurance gradually rose from about 8_s._ per
+cent. to 30_s._, 40_s._, and, it is said, in some cases, to 45_s._ per
+cent. Such premiums could not be paid on wholesale transactions,
+therefore the Liverpool people themselves obtained an Act of
+Parliament, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 109, by which the size and height of
+warehouses were restricted, party walls were made imperative, and
+warehouses were not allowed to be erected within thirty-six feet of
+any other warehouse, unless the whole of the doors and window-shutters
+were made of _wrought iron_, with many similar restrictions. This Act
+applied to warehouses already built as well as to those to be built,
+and any tenant was at liberty, after notice to his landlord, to alter
+his warehouse according to the Act, and to stop his rent till the
+expense was paid. Another Act, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 75, was also
+obtained, for bringing water into Liverpool for the purpose of
+extinguishing fires and watering the streets _only_. It is supposed
+that the works directed, or permitted, by these two Acts, cost the
+people of Liverpool from 200,000_l._ to 300,000_l._ Shortly after
+these alterations had been made, the mercantile premiums again fell to
+about 8_s._ per cent.
+
+There is another very common cause of fire, which seems to come under
+the head of construction--viz., covering up a fireplace when not in
+use with wood or paper and canvas, &c. The soot falls into the
+fireplace, either from the flue itself, or from an adjoining one which
+communicates with it. A neighbouring chimney takes fire; a spark falls
+down the blocked-up flue, sets fire to the soot in the fireplace,
+which smoulders till the covering is burned through, and thus sets
+fire to the premises.
+
+In theatres, that part of the house which includes the stage and
+scenery should be carefully divided from that where the spectators
+assemble by a solid wall carried up to, and through the roof. The
+opening in this wall for the stage should be arched over, and the
+other communications secured with iron doors, which would be kept shut
+while the audience was in the house. By this plan, there would be
+abundance of time for the spectators to retire, before fire could
+reach that part of the theatre which they occupy.
+
+_The danger from furnaces_ or close fires, whether for heating,
+cooking, or manufacturing purposes, is very great, and no flue should
+be permitted to be so used, unless it is prepared for the purpose. The
+reason is, that in a close fire the whole of the draught must pass
+through the fire. It thus becomes so heated that, unless the flue is
+properly built, it is dangerous throughout its whole course. In one
+instance of a heating furnace, the heat in the flue was found to be
+300°, at a distance of from forty to fifty feet from the fire. In open
+fireplaces, the quantity of cold air carried up with the draught keeps
+the flue at a moderate heat, from the fire upwards, and, unless the
+flue is allowed to become foul, and take fire, this is the safest
+possible mode of heating.
+
+Heating by hot air, steam, and hot water are objectionable. First,
+because there must be a furnace and furnace flue, and the flue used is
+generally that built for an open fire only; and second, the pipes are
+carried in every direction, to be as much out of sight as possible. By
+this means they are constantly liable to produce spontaneous ignition,
+for there appears to be some chemical action between heated iron and
+timber, by which fire is generated at a much lower temperature than is
+necessary to ignite timber under ordinary circumstances. No
+satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been given, but there is
+abundant proof that such is the case. In heating by hot-water pipes,
+those hermetically sealed are by far the most dangerous, as the
+strength of the pipes to resist the pressure is the only limit of the
+heat to which the water, and of course the pipes, may be raised. In
+some cases a plug of metal which fuses at 400° is put into the pipes,
+but the heat to which the plug is exposed will depend very much on
+where it is placed, as, however great may be the heat of the exit
+pipe, the return pipe is comparatively cool. But even where the pipes
+are left open, the heat of the water at the furnace is not necessarily
+212°. It is almost needless to say that 212° is the heat of boiling
+water under the pressure of one atmosphere only; but if the pipes are
+carried sixty or seventy feet high, the water in the furnace must be
+under the pressure of nearer three atmospheres than one, and therefore
+the heat will be proportionately increased. Fires from pipes for
+heating by hot water have been known to take place within twenty-four
+hours after first heating, and some after ten years of apparent
+safety.
+
+The New Metropolitan Building Act prescribes rules for the placing
+steam, hot-air, and hot-water pipes at a certain distance from timber;
+but as it must be extremely difficult for the District Surveyors to
+watch such minute proceedings, it becomes every one who is anxious for
+safety to see that the District Surveyors have due notice of any
+operation of this kind.
+
+Another cause of fire which may come under this head is the use of
+pipes for conveying away the products of combustion. Every one is
+acquainted with the danger of stove pipes, but all are not perhaps
+aware that pipes for conveying away the heat and effluvia from
+gas-burners are also very dangerous when placed near timber. It is not
+an uncommon practice to convey such pipes between the ceiling and the
+flooring of the floor above. This is highly dangerous. Gas-burners are
+also dangerous when placed near a ceiling. A remarkable instance of
+this took place lately, where a gas-burner set fire to a ceiling
+28-1/2 inches from it.
+
+Another evil of furnaces is, that the original fireplace is sometimes
+not large enough to contain the apparatus, and the party wall is cut
+into. Perhaps it may be necessary to notice at this point the use of
+gas, as it is becoming so very general. Gas, if carefully laid on, and
+properly used, is safer than any other light, so far as actually
+setting fire to anything goes, but the greater heat given out so dries
+up any combustibles within its reach, that it prepares them for
+burning, and when a fire does take place, the destruction is much more
+rapid than in a building lighted by other means. Gas-stoves, also,
+from the great heat given out, sometimes cause serious accidents; in
+one instance, a gas-stove set fire to a beam through a two-and-half
+inch York landing, well bedded in mortar, although the lights were
+five or six inches above the stone. This is mentioned to show that
+gas-stoves require quite as much care as common fires.
+
+_Spontaneous ignition_ is believed to be a very fruitful cause of
+fires; but, unless the fire is discovered almost at the commencement,
+it is difficult to ascertain positively that this has been the cause.
+Spontaneous ignition is generally accelerated by natural or artificial
+heat. For instance, where substances liable to spontaneous ignition
+are exposed to the heat of the sun, to furnace flues, heated pipes, or
+are placed over apartments lighted by gas, the process of ignition
+proceeds much more rapidly than when in a cooler atmosphere. Sawdust
+in contact with vegetable oil is very likely to take fire. Cotton,
+cotton waste, hemp, and most other vegetable substances are alike
+dangerous. In one case oil and sawdust took fire within sixteen hours;
+in others, the same materials have lain for years, until some external
+heat has been applied to them. The greater number of the serious fires
+which have taken place in railroad stations in and near London have
+commenced in the paint stores. In a very large fire in an oil
+warehouse, a quantity of oil was spilt the day before and wiped up,
+the wipings being thrown aside. This was believed to have been the
+cause of the fire, but direct proof could not be obtained. Dust-bins
+also very often cause serious accidents. In one instance, 30,000_l._
+to 40,000_l._ were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown into a
+dust-bin.
+
+These accidents may in a great measure be avoided by constant care and
+attention to cleanliness, and where paints and oils are necessary, by
+keeping them in some place outside the principal buildings. Dust-bins
+should, as much as possible, be placed in the open air, and where that
+cannot be done, they should be emptied once a day. No collection of
+rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed to be made in any
+building of value.
+
+Mr. Wyatt Papworth, architect, has published some very interesting
+notes on spontaneous ignition, giving several well-authenticated
+instances.
+
+_Incendiarism_ may be divided into three sorts--malicious, fraudulent,
+and monomaniac. Of the former there has been very little in London for
+many years. The second, however, is rather prevalent. The insurance
+offices, which are the victims, protect themselves as well as they
+can, but an inquest on each fire is the true mode of lessening the
+evil. This is much more the interest of the public than at first seems
+to be the case. In several instances where the criminals were brought
+to punishment by Mr. Payne's inquests, people were asleep in the upper
+parts of the houses set fire to, and in one case there were as many as
+twelve or fifteen persons. This, however, is seldom stated in the
+indictment, as, if it is, the punishment is still death by the law,
+and it is supposed that a conviction is more easily obtained, by the
+capital charge being waived. Monomania is a rare cause of
+incendiarism, but still several well-certified cases have occurred in
+which no possible motive could be given. In one instance a youth of
+fifteen set fire to his father's premises seven times within a few
+hours. In another, a young female on a visit set fire to her friend's
+furniture, &c., ten or eleven times in the course of one or two days.
+In neither case could anything like disagreement or harshness be
+elicited, but the reverse. In other instances, it has been strongly
+suspected that this disease was the cause of repeated fires, but there
+was no positive proof. In all these cases, known or suspected, the
+parties were generally from fourteen to twenty years of age.
+
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+What is "Fire-proof Construction?" is a question which has given rise
+to a great deal of discussion, simply, as it appears to me, because
+the size of the buildings, and the quantity and description of the
+contents, have not always been taken into account. That which may be
+perfectly fireproof in a dwelling house, may be the weakest in a large
+warehouse. Suppose an average-sized dwelling-house 20 × 40 × 50 =
+40,000 cubic feet, built with brick partitions, stone or slate stairs,
+wrought-iron joists filled in with concrete, and the whole well
+plastered. Such a house will be practically fire-proof, because there
+is no probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room,
+would make fire enough to communicate to another. But suppose a
+warehouse equal to twenty such houses, with floors completely open,
+supported by cast-iron pillars, and each floor communicating with the
+others by open staircases and wells; suppose, further, that it is half
+filled with combustible goods, and perhaps the walls and ceilings
+lined with timber. Now, if a fire takes place below, the moment it
+bursts through the upper windows or skylights, the whole place becomes
+an immense blast furnace; the iron is melted, and in a comparatively
+short time the building is in ruins, and, it may be, the half of the
+neighbourhood destroyed. The real fire-proof construction for such
+buildings is groined brick arches, supported on brick pillars only.
+This mode of building, however, involves so much expense, and occupies
+so much space, that it cannot be used with advantage. The next best
+plan is to build the warehouses in compartments of moderate size,
+divided by party-walls and double wrought-iron doors, so that if one
+of these compartments takes fire, there may be a reasonable prospect
+of confining the fire to that compartment only. Again, cast iron gives
+way from so many different causes, that it is impossible to calculate
+when it will give way. The castings may have flaws in them; or they
+may be too weak for the weight they have to support, being sometimes
+within 10 per cent., or less, of the breaking weight. The expansion of
+the girders may thrust out the side walls. For instance, in a
+warehouse 120 feet × 75 feet × 80 feet, there are three continuous
+rows of girders on each floor, with butt joints; the expansion in this
+case may be twelve inches. The tie rods to take the strain of the flat
+arches must expand and become useless, and the whole of the lateral
+strain be thrown on the girders and side walls, perhaps weak enough
+already. Again, throwing cold water on the heated iron may cause an
+immediate fracture. For these and similar reasons, the firemen are not
+permitted to go into warehouses supported by iron, _when once fairly
+on fire_.
+
+Cast and wrought-iron have been frequently fused at fires in large
+buildings such as warehouses, sugar houses, &c., but according to Mr.
+Fairbairn's experiments on cast iron in a heated state, it is not
+necessary that the fusing point should be attained to cause it to give
+way.[A] He also states, that the loss of strength in cold-blast cast
+iron, in a variation of temperature from 26° to 190° = 164° Fahr., is
+10 per cent., and in hot-blast at a variation of from 21° to 190° =
+169° Fahr., is 15 per cent.; now if the loss of strength advances in
+anything like this ratio, the iron will be totally useless as a
+support, long before the fusing point is attained.
+
+Much confidence has been placed in wrought-iron tie or tension rods,
+to take the lateral strain of the arches, and also in trusses to
+support the beams; but it must be evident that the expansion of the
+iron from the heat, would render them useless, and under a high
+temperature, it would be so great as to unsettle the brickwork, and
+accelerate its fall, on any part of the iron-work giving way: again,
+the application of cold water to the heated iron, in an endeavour to
+extinguish the fire, is almost certain to cause one or more fractures.
+The brick-arching is also very liable to fall, especially if only four
+and a half inches thick, independently of the weight which may be
+placed upon it, for it is not uncommon after a fire in a large
+building, to find the mortar almost completely pulverized to the depth
+of three inches, or four inches, from the face of the wall. When a
+fire occurred under one of the arches of the Blackwall Railway, on the
+15th July, 1843, a portion of the lower ring fell down, and also a few
+bricks from the next ring.
+
+Another very serious objection to buildings of this description, is
+that, unless scientifically constructed, they are very unlikely to be
+safe, even for the common purposes intended, independent of the risk
+of fire. In the Report of Sir Henry De la Bêche and Mr. Thomas Cubitt
+on the fall of the mill at Oldham, in October, 1844,[B] it is stated
+that the strength of the iron-beams was within ten per cent. of the
+breaking weight. Now according to Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on
+heated iron, already referred to, an increase of temperature of only
+170° would have destroyed the whole building. It is quite clear,
+therefore, that so long as mill-owners and others continue to
+construct such buildings without proper advice, they must be liable to
+these accidents. In timber-floors there can be no such risk, as the
+strains are all direct, and any journeyman carpenter, by following
+good examples, can ascertain the size required; and even if he makes a
+mistake, the evil is comparatively trivial, as the timber will give
+notice before yielding, and may be propped up for the time, until it
+can be properly secured. In the case of fire-proof buildings, an
+ignorant person may make many mistakes without being aware that he has
+done so, and the slightest failure is probably fatal to every one
+within the walls. This also increases the difficulty and danger of
+extinguishing fires in a large building, as the only method of doing
+so is for the firemen to enter it with their branches, and in case of
+the floors falling, there is no chance of escape. On the other hand,
+timber-floors have repeatedly fallen while the firemen were inside the
+building, and they have made their escape uninjured.
+
+In a pamphlet published by Mr. S. Holme, of Liverpool, in 1844,[C] and
+which contains a report from Mr. Fairbairn on fire-proof buildings, it
+is stated, that many people, especially in the manufacturing
+districts, are their own architects; that the warehouses in Liverpool
+may be loaded to one ton per yard of flooring; and that unless great
+care and knowledge are used in the construction of fire-proof
+buildings, they are of all others the most dangerous.[D]
+
+The following are the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn proposes to
+build fire-proof warehouses:--
+
+     The whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible
+     materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks.
+
+     In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident or
+     spontaneous combustion, every opening, or crevice,
+     communicating with the external atmosphere to be closed.
+
+     An isolated staircase, of stone, or iron, well protected on
+     every side by brick, or stone walls, to be attached to every
+     story, and be furnished with a line of water-pipes,
+     communicating with the mains in the street, and ascending to
+     the top of the building.
+
+     In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be divided
+     by strong partition-walls, in no case less than eighteen
+     inches thick, and no more openings to be made than are
+     absolutely necessary for the admission of goods and light.
+
+     That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches be of
+     strength sufficient, not only to support a continuous dead
+     pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they
+     are subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors.
+
+     That in order to prevent accident from the columns being
+     melted by intense heat in the event of fire in any of the
+     rooms, a current of cold air should be introduced into the
+     hollow of the columns, from an arched tunnel under the
+     floors.
+
+There is no doubt that if the second principle could be carried out,
+namely, the total exclusion of air, the fire would go out of itself;
+but it seems, to say the least of it, very doubtful indeed if this can
+be accomplished, and if it could, the carelessness of a porter leaving
+open one of the doors or windows, would make the whole useless. The
+fifth principle shows that Mr. Fairbairn has omitted to allow for the
+loss of strength the iron may sustain from the increase of
+temperature. The last principle would not be likely to answer its
+purpose, even if it was possible to keep these tunnels and hollow
+columns clear for a number of years, which is scarcely to be expected.
+A piece of cast-iron pipe, one-and-a-half inch in diameter, was heated
+for four minutes in a common forge, both ends being carefully kept
+open to the atmosphere, when, on one end being fixed in a vice, and
+the other pulled aside by the hand, it gave way.
+
+One of the principal objections to the kind of fire-proof buildings
+above described, is, that absolute perfection in their construction is
+indispensable to their safety; whereas buildings of a more common
+description are comparatively safe, although there may be some errors
+or omissions in their construction. Indeed, Mr. Fairbairn states in
+the same Report, that "it is true that negligence of construction on
+the one hand, and want of care in management on the other, might
+entail risk and loss to an enormous extent."
+
+The following is a very clear proof of the inability of cast iron to
+resist the effects of fire:--
+
+"A chapel in Liverpool-road, Islington, seventy feet in length and
+fifty-two feet in breadth, took fire in the cellar, on the 2nd
+October, 1848, and was completely burned down. After the fire, it was
+ascertained that of thirteen cast-iron pillars used to support the
+galleries, only two remained perfect; the greater part of the others
+were broken into small pieces, the metal appearing to have lost all
+power of cohesion, and some parts were melted. It should be observed,
+that these pillars were of ample strength to support the galleries
+when filled by the congregation, but when the fire reached them, they
+crumbled under the weight of the timber only, lightened as it must
+have been by the progress of the fire."
+
+In this case it mattered little whether the pillars stood or fell, but
+it would be very different with some of the large wholesale warehouses
+in the City, where numbers of young men sleep in the upper floors; in
+several of those warehouses the cast-iron pillars are much less in
+proportion to the weight to be carried than those referred to, and
+would be completely in the draught of a fire. If a fire should
+unfortunately take place under such circumstances, the loss of human
+life might be very great, as the chance of fifty, eighty, or one
+hundred people escaping in the confusion of a sudden night alarm, by
+one or two ladders, to the roof, could scarcely be calculated on, and
+the time such escape must necessarily occupy, independent of all
+chance of accidents, would be considerable.
+
+For the reasons here stated, I submit that large buildings, containing
+considerable quantities of combustible goods, with floors of
+brick-arches, supported by cast-iron beams and columns, are not,
+practically speaking, fire-proof; and that the only construction which
+would render large buildings fire-proof; where considerable quantities
+of combustible goods are deposited, would be groined brick-arches,
+supported by pillars of the same material, laid in proper cement. I am
+fully convinced, from a lengthened experience, that the intensity of a
+fire,--the risk of its ravages extending to adjoining premises, and
+also the difficulty of extinguishing it, depend, _cæteris paribus_, on
+the cubic contents of the building which takes fire, and it appears to
+me that the amount of loss would be very much reduced, if, instead of
+building immense warehouses, which give the fire a fortified position,
+warehouses were made of a moderate size, with access on two sides at
+least, completely separated from each other by party-walls, and
+protected by iron-doors and window-shutters. In the latter case, the
+probability is, that not more than one warehouse would be lost at a
+time, and perhaps that one would be only partially injured.
+
+It is sincerely to be hoped that the clause in the last Metropolitan
+Building Act, restricting the size of warehouses, may be more
+successful than its predecessor, for it is not only property that is
+at stake, but human life. In many of these "Manchester warehouses,"
+there are fifty or one hundred and upwards of warehousemen and
+servants sleeping in the upper floors, whose escape, in case of fire,
+would be very doubtful, to say the least of it.[E]
+
+Covering timber with sheet-iron is very often resorted to as a
+protection against fire. I have never found it succeed; but Dr.
+Faraday, Professor Brande, Dr. D. B. Reid, and Mr. W. Tite, M.P., are
+of opinion that it may be useful against a sudden burst of flame, but
+that it is worse than useless against a continued heat.
+
+In wadding manufactories the drying-rooms were frequently lined with
+iron-plates, and when a fire arose there, the part covered with iron
+was generally found more damaged than the rest; the heat got through
+the sheet-iron, and burnt the materials behind it, and there was no
+means of touching them with water until the iron was torn down; sheet
+iron should not, therefore, be used for protecting wood.
+
+Even cast iron, one inch thick, laid on tiles and cement three inches
+thick, has allowed fire to pass through both, to the boarding and
+joisting below, merely from the fire in an open fire-place being taken
+off and laid on the hearth. This arises from iron being so good a
+conductor that, when heat is applied to it, it becomes in a very short
+time nearly as hot on the one side as the other. If the smoke escapes
+up a chimney, or in any other way, there may be a serious amount of
+fire before it is noticed.
+
+In a fire at the Bank of England, the hearth on which the stove was
+placed was cast iron an inch thick, with two-and-a-half inches of
+concrete underneath it; but the timber below that was fired.
+
+With regard to the subject of fire-proof dwelling-houses of average
+size, I consider that such houses when built of brick or stone, with
+party-walls carried through the roof; the partitions of brick, the
+stairs of slate or stone, the joists of wrought iron filled in with
+concrete, and the whole well plastered, are practically fire-proof
+because, as stated at the opening of this chapter, there is no
+probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room would make
+fire enough to communicate to another. The safest manner of heating
+such houses is with open fire-places, the hearths not being laid upon
+timber. Stone staircases, when much heated, will fracture from cold
+water coming suddenly in contact with them; but in a dwelling-house
+built as described above, there is very little chance of such a
+circumstance endangering human life, even with wooden steps carried
+upon brick walls, and rendered incombustible by a ceiling of an inch
+and a quarter of good hair mortar and well pugged, all the purposes of
+safety to human life would be attained.
+
+There is a particular description of floor, which, although not
+altogether fire-proof, is certainly (at least so far as I can judge),
+almost practically so for dwelling-houses. It is composed simply of
+plank two and a-half or three inches thick, so closely joined, and so
+nicely fitted to the walls, as to be completely air-tight. Its
+thickness and its property of being air-tight, will be easily observed
+to be its only causes of safety. Although the apartment be on fire,
+yet the time required to burn through the floor above or below, will
+be so great, that the property may be removed from the other floors,
+or, more probably, if the means of extinguishing fire be at hand, it
+may be subdued before it can spread to any other apartment. The doors
+must of course be made in proportion, and the partitions of brick or
+stone.
+
+Before closing the subject of fire-proof structures, I will add a few
+words upon fire-proof safes. These are all constructed with double
+casings of wrought iron, the interstices being in some filled with
+non-combustible substances, such as pumice stone and Stourbridge clay,
+and in others with metal tubes, that melt at a low temperature, and
+allow a liquid contained in them to escape, and form steam round the
+box, with the intention of preventing the heat from injuring the
+contents. Such safes I have never found destroyed; and in some cases,
+after large fires, the whole of the contents have been found
+uninjured, while the papers in common safes, merely made strong enough
+to prevent their being broken into, were generally found consumed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote A: _Vide_ Seventh Report of the British Association, 1837,
+vol. vi. page 409.]
+
+[Footnote B: _Vide_ Report on the Fall of the Cotton Mill, at Oldham,
+and part of the Prison at Northleach, page 4. Folio. London: Clowes
+and Sons, 1845.]
+
+[Footnote C: _Vide_ Report of W. Fairbairn, Esq., on the Construction
+of Fire-proof Buildings. With introductory Remarks by Samuel Holme,
+page 11, _et seq._ Tract, 8vo. Liverpool: T. Baines, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote D: The Author has been informed by Mr. Farey, M. Inst. C.E.,
+that a fire took place, in 1827, in a mill belonging to Mr. Marshall,
+of Leeds, the whole of which, with the exception of the roof, was
+fire-proof. The upper floor was filled with flax, which took fire; the
+roof fell in, and the heat so affected the iron beams of the floor, as
+to cause them to give way.]
+
+[Footnote E: In the year 1858, when reporting to the Insurance Offices
+upon the Warehouses in the Metropolitan Docks, Mr. Braidwood made the
+following suggestions which are applicable to all large buildings.
+That all the party-walls where the roofs do not rise above the wall,
+should be 3 feet 6 inches above such roof. That all the party-walls in
+the valleys of the roofs should be raised to the level of the highest
+ridge on either side, all openings in such walls being closed by
+wrought-iron doors on each side of the walls, at least a quarter of an
+inch thick in the panels, and such openings not to exceed 42
+superficial feet in the clear. That all windows which look upon other
+windows, or loop-hole doors in other warehouses or compartments,
+within 100 feet, should be bricked up, or have wrought-iron shutters
+at least 3/16th of an inch thick in the panels.
+
+That all loop-hole doors similarly situated should be made entirely of
+wrought iron, frames included, or bricked up. That all shafts for
+lifts or other purposes, should be of brick, with wrought-iron doors
+where necessary to receive or deliver goods, and that all openings
+whatever for machinery should be included in such shaft. That every
+hatchway or opening in the floors for "shooting" goods from floor to
+floor should have a strong flap _hinged on_ to the floor, to be closed
+when not in use, especially at night.
+
+That there should be direct access to every room, of every
+compartment, of every warehouse, from a fire-proof staircase, by iron
+doors, and that all such staircases should enter from the open air, as
+well as from under any warehouse on the quay; in the latter case the
+doors must be of iron only.
+
+All the windows in the entresol and ground floors to be bricked up, or
+have iron shutters, and the doors and frames to be of iron.
+
+Wherever the warehouses face each other within 100 feet, the front
+parapet walls to be carried up to the level of the ridge of the roof.
+
+When it is stated in this report that the windows or loop-hole doors
+should be bricked up, it is not meant to exclude the use of thick
+glass, three or four pieces being built into each door or window
+space, not exceeding 6 inches in diameter or square, in the clear, and
+set in the mortar or cement at least 3/4 of an inch all round, the
+glass to be not less than 1-1/2 inches thick, flat on both sides, and
+so placed that no goods can be stored within 18 inches of the inner
+surface.
+
+There should be a tank on the top of each staircase, with a tap from
+it on each landing, with six fire buckets hung near it, and three
+small hand pumps in every staircase; the officers and workpeople
+seeing these every day would be certain to run to them in case of
+fire, and by having a constant supply of water on every floor small
+accidents might be extinguished at once, and the iron doors and roofs
+kept cool in case of one room taking fire.]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES, AND WATER
+SUPPLY.
+
+
+Before entering upon the subject of Public Fire Brigades, I will call
+attention to the course to be pursued by inmates of the house on fire,
+and their neighbours.
+
+When all available means of fire prevention have been adopted, the
+next thing to be considered is a supply of water. In the country, or
+where there are no water-pipes or engines, this ought to be
+particularly attended to, and a hand-pump should be provided. Where no
+water is kept solely for the purpose of extinguishing fire, such
+vessels as can be spared should be regularly filled every night, and
+placed in such situations as may be most convenient in case of danger;
+and no master of a family ought to retire to rest, without being
+satisfied that this has been attended to. If it had no other advantage
+than merely that of directing the inmates of a house to the
+possibility of such an occurrence as fire, it would be worth much more
+than the trouble such an arrangement would cost; but, in addition to
+that, a supply of water would be at hand, in most cases more than
+sufficient to extinguish the fire immediately on its being discovered,
+and before it had become either alarming or dangerous. But when no
+such precaution has been adopted, when even the bare possibility of
+fire has not been considered, when no attention has even been paid to
+the subject, and no provision made for it; the inhabitants are
+generally so alarmed and confused, that the danger is probably over,
+by their property being burned to the ground, before they can
+sufficiently recollect themselves to lend any effective assistance.
+
+In most cases of fire, the people in whose premises it occurs are
+thrown into what may be called a state of temporary derangement, and
+seem to be actuated only by a desire of muscular movement, no matter
+to what purpose their exertions are directed. Persons may often be
+seen toiling like galley-slaves, at operations which a moment's
+reflection would show were utterly useless. I have seen tables,
+chairs, and every article of furniture that would pass through a
+window, three or four stories high, dashed into the street, even when
+the fire had hardly touched the tenement. On one occasion I saw
+crockery-ware thrown from a window on the third floor.[F]
+
+Most of these extravagances take place on the first alarm. When the
+engines have got fairly into play, people begin to recollect
+themselves, and it is at this time that most of those "who go to see a
+fire" arrive. By the exertions of the police there is then generally a
+considerable degree of order restored, and the most interesting part
+of the scene is over.
+
+What remains, however, may, from its novelty or grandeur, if the fire
+is extensive, be still worth looking at for a little, but much of the
+excitement is banished with the confusion; and if the fire and firemen
+seem to be well matched, the chief interest which is excited in the
+spectators is to ascertain which of the parties is likely to be
+victorious. Few people, comparatively, have thus an opportunity of
+witnessing the terror and distraction occasioned by the first alarm of
+fire, and this may probably account for the apathy and indifference
+with which people who have not seen this regard it.
+
+When a fire actually takes place, every one should endeavour to be as
+cool and collected as possible; screams, cries, and other exhibitions
+of terror, while utterly useless in themselves, have generally the
+effect of alarming those whose services might otherwise be of the
+utmost advantage, and of rendering them unfit for useful exertion. It
+is unhappily, too, at the commencement of fires, that this tendency to
+confusion and terror is the strongest, when a bucket of water,
+properly applied, is generally of more value than a hundred will be
+half an hour afterwards. It is the feeling of total surprise, on the
+breaking out of a fire, which thus unhinges the faculties of many
+individuals. They have never made the case their own, nay, one would
+almost imagine they had scarcely thought such an occurrence possible,
+till, coming on them almost like a thunderbolt, they are lost in
+perplexity and terror. The only preventive against this is to think
+the matter over frequently and carefully before it occurs.
+
+The moment it is ascertained that fire has actually taken place,
+notice should be sent to the nearest station where there is a
+fire-engine. No matter whether the inmates are likely to be able to
+extinguish the fire themselves--this should never be trusted to if
+more efficient help can be had.
+
+It is much better that an engine should be turned out twenty times
+when it is not wanted, than be once too late. This may cause a
+trifling expense; but even that expense is not altogether lost, as it
+teaches the firemen steadiness and coolness.
+
+The person in the house best qualified for such duty should endeavour
+to ascertain, with as much precision as possible, the extent and
+position of the fire, while the others collect as much water as they
+can. If the fire be in an upper floor, the inmates should be got out
+immediately, although the lower part of the house may generally be
+entered with safety for some time. If in the lower part of the house,
+after the inmates have been removed, great care should be observed in
+going into any of the upper floors, as the flames very often reach the
+stair before being observed by those above. The upper floors are,
+besides, generally filled with smoke, and, in that case, there is
+great danger of suffocation to those who may enter.
+
+This, indeed, is the principal danger attending fires, and should be
+particularly guarded against, as a person, when being suffocated, is
+unable to call for assistance. In a case of this kind the fire took
+place in the third floor from the street, and all the inmates
+immediately left the premises except one old woman. In about fifteen
+minutes after the arrival of the engines, the firemen made their way
+upstairs, and the poor woman was found dead beside a basket partly
+filled with clothes, which it was supposed she had been packing up for
+removal; had she made any noise, or even broke a pane of glass, she
+would, in all probability, have been saved; as the fire never touched
+the floor in which she was found, she must have died entirely from
+suffocation, which a little fresh air would have prevented. Had the
+slightest suspicion existed that any one was in the upper floors, they
+would have been entered by the windows or the roof; but as the fire
+took place in daylight, and none of the neighbours spoke of any one
+being in the house, it was thought unnecessary to damage the property,
+or risk the lives of the firemen, without some adequate cause. This,
+however, shows how little dependence can be placed on information
+received from the inmates of the premises on fire. Some of the people
+who lived on the same floor with this poor woman, and who had seen her
+immediately before they left the house, never mentioned her. I do not
+suppose that this negligence arose from apathy, or any feeling of that
+sort; but the people were in such a state of utter confusion, that
+they were unable to think of anything. But to return.
+
+On the first discovery of a fire, it is of the utmost consequence to
+shut, and keep shut, all doors, windows, or other openings. It may
+often be observed, after a house has been on fire, that one floor is
+comparatively untouched, while those above and below are nearly burned
+out. This arises from the door on that particular floor having been
+shut, and the draught directed elsewhere. If the person who has
+examined the fire finds a risk of its gaining ground upon him, he
+should, if within reach of fire-engines, keep everything close, and
+await their arrival, instead of admitting air to the fire by
+ineffectual efforts to oppose it with inadequate means. In the
+meantime, however, he should examine where a supply of water is most
+likely to be obtained, and communicate that, and any other local
+information, to the firemen on their coming forward. If there be no
+fire-engine within reach, the person who has examined the fire should
+keep the place where it is situated as close as possible, till as many
+buckets of water as can be easily collected are placed within his
+reach.
+
+Taking care always that there is some one ready to assist him, he
+should then open the door, and creep forward on his hands and knees
+till he gets as near the fire as possible; holding his breath, and
+standing up for a moment to give the water a proper direction, he
+should throw it with force, using a hand pump if available, and
+instantly get down to his former position, where he will be again able
+to breathe. The people behind handing forward another bucket of water,
+he repeats the operation till the fire is quenched, or until he feels
+exhausted; in which case some one should take his place. If there be
+enough of water, however, two, three, or any convenient number of
+people may be employed in throwing it; on the contrary, if the supply
+of water be insufficient to employ even one person, the door should be
+kept shut while the water is being brought, and the air excluded as
+much as possible, as the fire burns exactly in proportion to the
+quantity of air which it receives.
+
+One great evil, and which ought to be strictly guarded against by
+people not accustomed to fire, is, that on the first alarm they exert
+themselves to the very utmost of their strength. This, of course, can
+last but a short time; and when they feel tired, which in that case
+soon happens, they very often give up altogether. Now this is the
+reverse of what it ought to be. In extinguishing fires, like most
+other things, a cool judgment and steady perseverance are far more
+effective than any desultory exertions which can be made.
+
+The heat generally increases in a considerable degree when water is
+first thrown upon a fire, from the conversion of a portion of it into
+steam. This is sometimes very annoying; so much so, that the persons
+engaged in throwing the water, frequently feel themselves obliged to
+give back a little. They should on no account, however, abate or
+discontinue their exertions in throwing the water with as much force
+as possible in the direction of the fire; it will in a short time cool
+the air and materials, and the steam will, in consequence, be
+generated more slowly, while a steady perseverance on the part of
+those employed can alone effect the object in view.
+
+When water is scarce, mud, cow or horse dung, damp earth, &c., may be
+used as substitutes; but if there seems no chance of succeeding by any
+of these, and the fire is likely to extend to other buildings, the
+communication should be immediately cut off by pulling down the
+building next to that on fire. Any operation of this sort, however,
+should be begun at a sufficient distance from the fire to allow the
+communication to be completely cut off, before it gains upon the
+workmen. If this operation be attempted so near the fire as to be
+interrupted by it, it must be begun again at a greater distance; and,
+in that case, there is a greater destruction of property than might
+have been necessary.
+
+If a fire occur in a stable or cow-house, surrounded with other
+buildings of the same description, or with the produce of a farm,
+there is much danger. The cattle and horses should be immediately
+removed; and, in doing so, if any of them become restive, they should
+be blindfolded, taking care that it is done thoroughly, as any attempt
+to blindfold them partially, only increases the evil. They should be
+handled as much as possible in the ordinary manner, and with great
+coolness; the violent gestures and excited appearance of the persons
+removing them tending greatly to startle the animals, and render them
+unmanageable.
+
+
+PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES AND THE DUTIES OF FIREMEN.
+
+The best public means of arresting fires is a very wide question, as
+the only limit to the means is the expense. Different nations have
+different ways of doing the same thing. On the Continent generally,
+the whole is managed by Government, and the firemen are placed under
+martial law, the inhabitants being compelled to work the engines. In
+London, the principal means of arresting fires is a voluntary
+association of the insurance companies, without legal authority of any
+sort, the legal protection by parish engines being, with a few
+praiseworthy exceptions, a dead letter.
+
+In Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction of fires by
+the pressure of water only, without the use of fire-engines, is very
+much practised. The advantages of this system are very great; but, to
+enable us to follow this system in London, the whole water supply
+would require to be remodelled.
+
+In America, the firemen are generally volunteers, enrolled by the
+local Governments. They are exempt from other duties, or are entitled
+to privileges, which appear to satisfy them, as the situation of
+fireman is eagerly sought in most of the American cities.
+
+Which is the best of these different modes it is difficult to say;
+perhaps each is best suited for the place where it exists.
+
+It is now generally admitted, that the whole force brought together to
+extinguish a fire ought to be under the direction and control of one
+individual. By this means, all quarrelling among the firemen about the
+supply of water, the interest of particular insurance companies, and
+other matters of detail, is avoided. By having the whole force under
+the command of one person, he is enabled to form one general plan of
+operations, to which the whole body is subservient; and although he
+may not, in the hurry of the moment, at all times adopt what will
+afterwards appear to be the best plan, yet it is better to have some
+general arrangement, than to allow the firemen of each engine to work
+according to their own fancy, and that, too, very often in utter
+disregard as to whether their exertions may aid or retard those of
+their neighbours. The individual appointed to such a situation ought
+not to be interfered with, or have his attention distracted, except by
+the chief authority on the spot, or the owner of the premises on fire.
+Much valuable information is frequently obtained from the latter, as
+to the division of the premises, the party-walls, and other matters
+connected with its locality. But, generally speaking, the less
+interference and advice the better, as it occupies time which may
+generally be better employed.
+
+I need scarcely add, that on no account whatever should directions be
+given to the firemen by any other individual while the superintendent
+of brigade is present; and that there may be no quarrelling about
+superiority, the men should be aware on whom the command is to devolve
+in his absence.
+
+It has often been to me a matter of surprise, that so small a portion
+of the public attention should be directed to the matter of
+extinguishing fires. It is only when roused by some great calamity
+that people bestir themselves; and then there is such a variety of
+plans proposed to avert similar cases of distress, that to attempt to
+concoct a rational plan out of such a crude, ill-digested, and
+contradictory mass of opinion, requires more labour and attention than
+most people are inclined to give it, unless a regular business was
+made of it. In Paris the corps of military firemen are so well
+trained, that although their apparatus is not so good as it should be,
+the amount of the losses by fire is comparatively trifling. If the
+head-quarters of such an establishment were to be in London, a store
+of apparatus, constructed on one uniform plan, could be kept there, to
+be forwarded to any other part of the kingdom where it might be
+required. This uniformity of the structure and design of the apparatus
+could extend to the most minute particulars; a screw or a nut of any
+one engine would fit every other engine in the kingdom. A depôt could
+also be kept at head-quarters, where recruits would be regularly
+drilled and instructed in the business, and a regular system of
+communication kept up with all the provincial corps. Any particular
+circumstances occurring at a fire would thus be immediately reported,
+and the advantages of any knowledge or experience thus gained, would
+be disseminated over the whole kingdom. As the matter at present
+stands one town may have an excellent fire-engine establishment, and
+another within a few miles a very indifferent one, and when the one is
+called to assist the other, they can neither act in concert, nor can
+the apparatus of the one in case of accident be of the smallest
+service in replacing that of the other. The best might (if a proper
+communication were kept up) be under frequent obligations to the
+worst, and here, as in other matters, it is chiefly by communication
+that knowledge is increased. If the whole experience of the country
+were brought together, and maturely considered and digested by persons
+competent to judge, I have no doubt that a system might be introduced
+suitable to the nation and to the age in which we live. Instead of
+hearing of the "_dreadful losses by fire_," and the "_great
+exertions_" made to extinguish it, all the notice would be, such a
+place took fire, the engines arrived, and it was extinguished.
+
+It would be useless for me to enter into the details of a plan which I
+have little hope of ever seeing realized. I may state, however, that a
+premium might be offered for the best engine of a size previously
+agreed upon, which, when finished, should be kept as a model.
+
+Specifications could then be made out, and estimates advertised for,
+for all the different parts, such as wheels, axles, levers, cisterns,
+barrels, air-vessels, &c., separately. When any particular part of an
+engine was damaged, it could be immediately replaced, and the engine
+again rendered fit for service; and upon emergency any number of
+engines could be set up, merely by putting the different parts
+together. The work would also be better done; at least it would be
+much more easy to detect faults in the materials or workmanship than
+if the engines were bought ready for use. These remarks apply to all
+the rest of the apparatus.
+
+It could be provided that firemen might be enlisted for a term of
+years. When enlisted, they would be sent to the depôt at
+head-quarters, drilled to the use of the engines, and carefully
+instructed in separating and cleaning the different parts. Here also
+they could be practised in gymnastic exercises, and generally
+instructed in everything tending to promote their usefulness as
+firemen. They could then be sent off to some large towns, and, after
+having seen a little active service, distributed over the country in
+such parties as might be deemed necessary for the places they were
+intended to protect.
+
+The practice of keeping fire-engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's
+residences, and at large manufactories in the country, is by no means
+uncommon, and I have no doubt that many more would supply themselves
+in this way if they knew where to apply for information in such
+matters; but the great fault lies in the want of persons of skill and
+experience to work them when fire occurs. In the way I have mentioned,
+proprietors and others could have one or more of their workmen
+instructed in this necessary piece of duty; and I have no doubt that
+many gentlemen would avail themselves of the means of instructing some
+of their servants.
+
+It will be observed, I do not propose that the firemen who are
+enlisted, drilled, and instructed in the business, should be sent to
+the different stations in sufficient numbers to work the engines; this
+part of the work can be performed by any man accustomed to hard
+labour, as well as by the most expert fireman, and the local
+authorities could easily provide men for this purpose. In small towns,
+where fires are rare, the novelty would draw together plenty of hands;
+and in large towns, where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+disinterested to work for nothing, there are always plenty who could
+be bound to assist in cases of fire at a certain rate per hour, to be
+paid upon a certificate from the fireman who has charge of the engine
+at which they worked. The trained firemen would thus be required only
+for the direction of the engine, attaching the hose, &c.
+
+I am quite aware that many people object to the training of firemen;
+but it would be just as reasonable to give to a mob all the "matériel"
+of war, and next day expect it to act like a regular army, as to
+expect engines to be managed with any general prospect of success,
+unless the men are properly trained and prepared for the duty which is
+expected from them. Fire is both a powerful and an insidious enemy,
+and those whose business it is to attack it will best succeed when
+they have become skilful and experienced in the use of their arms.
+
+It is quite obvious that a fire brigade, however complete in its
+apparatus and equipments, must depend for its efficiency on the state
+of training and discipline of the firemen. Wherever there is
+inexperience, want of co-operation, or confusion amongst them, the
+utmost danger is to be apprehended in the event of fire. It is amidst
+the raging of this destructive element, the terror and bustle of the
+inhabitants, that organization and discipline triumph, and it is
+there, too, that coolness and promptitude, steadiness and activity,
+fearlessness and caution, are peculiarly required; but, unfortunately,
+it is then also that they are most rarely exhibited.
+
+There should not be less than five or six men attached to each engine,
+who should be properly instructed and drilled, to take charge of it,
+and to guide the people who work at the levers.
+
+The person having the principal charge of the engines should
+frequently turn over in his mind what might be the best plan, in such
+and such circumstances, supposing a fire to take place. By frequently
+ruminating on the subject, he will find himself, when suddenly turned
+out of bed at night, much more fit for his task than if he had never
+considered the matter at all. Indeed he will frequently be surprised,
+when examining the premises afterwards (_which he ought always to do,
+and mark any mistakes he may have committed_), that he should have
+adopted the very best mode of extinguishing the fire, amid the noise,
+confusion, and the innumerable advices showered down on him, by all
+those who consider themselves qualified or entitled to give advice in
+such matters; a number, by the way, which sometimes includes no
+inconsiderable portion of the spectators. He should also make himself
+well acquainted with the different parts of the town in which he may
+be appointed to act, and notice the declivities of the different
+streets, &c. He will find this knowledge of great advantage.
+
+Any buildings, supposed to be particularly dangerous, should be
+carefully examined, and all the different places where supplies of
+water can be obtained for them noticed.
+
+A knowledge of the locality thus obtained will be found of great
+advantage in case of a fire breaking out. Indeed all firemen,
+especially those having the charge of engines, should be instructed
+carefully to examine and make themselves acquainted with the
+localities of their neighbourhood or district. Such knowledge will
+often prove valuable in emergencies; the proprietors or tenants of the
+property on fire being sometimes in such a state of alarm, that no
+distinct intelligence can be got from them.
+
+When an engine is brought to a fire, it ought to be placed as nearly
+as possible in a straight line between the supply of water and the
+premises on fire; taking care, however, to keep at such a distance
+from the latter that the men who work the pumps may be in no danger
+from being scorched by the heat, or of being annoyed by the falling of
+water or burning materials. Running the engine close upon the fire
+serves no good purpose, except to shorten the quantity of hose that
+would otherwise be required. The addition of twenty or thirty feet of
+hose makes very little difference in the working of the engine, and,
+when compared with the disadvantage of the men becoming unsteady from
+the idea of personal danger, is not even to be named. Indeed, if the
+engine be brought too near the fire, there is danger of the men
+quitting the levers altogether. I may also add that, both for the
+safety of the hose and the convenience of the inhabitants, the engine
+should be kept out of the way of people removing furniture.
+
+When the hose is attached and the engine filled with water, the man
+who holds the branch-pipe, accompanied by another, should get so near
+the fire, inside the house, _that the water from the branch may strike
+the burning materials_. If he cannot accomplish this standing, he must
+get down on his hands and knees and creep forward, those behind
+handing up the hose. A stratum of fresh air is almost always to be
+depended on from six to twelve inches from the floor, so that if the
+air be not respirable to a person standing upright, he should
+instantly get down. I have often observed this fact, which indeed is
+well known; but I once saw an example of it which appeared to me to be
+so striking, that I shall here relate it. A fire had broken out in the
+third floor of a house, and when I reached the top of the stair, the
+smoke was rolling in thick heavy masses, which prevented me from
+seeing six inches before me. I immediately got down on the floor;
+above which, for a space of about eight inches the air seemed to be
+remarkably clear and bright. I could distinctly see the feet of the
+tables and other furniture in the apartment; the flames in this space
+burning as vivid and distinct as the flame of a candle, while all
+above the smoke was so thick that the eye could not penetrate it. The
+fire had already burst through three out of five windows in the
+apartment, yet, when lying flat on the floor, no inconvenience was
+felt except from the heat.
+
+When the fire has broken through a floor, the supply of air along that
+floor is not to be depended on--the fire drawing the principal supply
+of air from the apartments below.
+
+When the two first firemen have gained a favourable position, they
+should keep it as long as they are able; and when they feel exhausted,
+the men behind them should take their place.
+
+The great point to which everything ought to be made subservient is,
+_that the water on its discharge from the branch-pipe should actually
+strike the burning materials_. This cannot be too often or too
+anxiously inculcated on every one connected with a fire-engine
+establishment. Every other method not having this for its grand
+object, will, in nine cases out of ten, utterly fail; and upon the
+degree of attention paid to this point, depends almost entirely the
+question as to the amount of damage the fire will occasion.
+
+When approaching a fire, it should always be done by the door, if
+possible. When this is attended to, it is much easier to shift the
+hose from one apartment to another; and the current of fresh air,
+entering by the door and proceeding along the passages, makes
+respiration easier and safer than elsewhere.
+
+When entrance by the door is impracticable, and access is to be gained
+by a window, the flames frequently burst through in such a manner as
+to render advance in the first instance impossible. In that case, the
+branch should be pointed against the window, nearly in a perpendicular
+direction; the water striking the lintel, and falling all round inside
+the window, will soon extinguish the fire at that point sufficiently
+to render an entrance practicable.
+
+The old plan of standing with the branch pipe in the street, and
+throwing the water into the windows is a very random way of going to
+work; and for my own part, although I have seen it repeatedly tried, I
+never saw it attended with success. Indeed it is hardly to be expected
+that water, thrown from the street into a room three or four storeys
+high, can have any impression on closets, presses, or passages,
+divided probably with brick partitions in the centre of the house. The
+circumstance of having engines at work on both sides of the house does
+not alter the case. The fire very often burns up through the centre,
+and frequently, when the space between the windows is large, along the
+front or back wall, till it arrives at the roof, which the water
+cannot touch on account of the slates or tiles. On the other hand,
+when the firemen enter the house, the fire is almost wholly under
+their command. And when it happens that there is any corner which the
+water cannot directly strike, the fire in it may often be extinguished
+by throwing the water against an opposite wall or partition, and
+trusting to the recoil to throw it to the point required.
+
+When the water is thrown from the street, it is impossible to say
+whether it touches the parts on fire or not. No one can tell anything
+about it, except when the flame appears at the windows.
+
+On going with the branch inside the house, besides the advantage of
+the water rushing directly from the hose upon the fire, there is a
+great saving in the article of water itself. The whole that is thrown
+by the engine is applied to the right purpose. No part of it is lost;
+that which does not strike the burning materials falls within the
+house; and, by soaking those parts on which it falls, prevents their
+burning so rapidly when the flames approach them.
+
+If, on entering an apartment, it be found that the flames cover a
+considerable space, it is of advantage, in some instances, to place
+the point of the thumb in contact with the water at the nozzle of the
+branch. By this means the water may be spread to cover any space under
+twenty or thirty feet, according to the pressure applied.
+
+While speaking of the mode of entering houses on fire, I may mention
+that I have tried several inventions for the purpose of elevating the
+branch pipe and hose to the level of a second or third story window.
+But these, although exceedingly ingenious, appear to me to rest on a
+principle entirely wrong; I mean that of throwing water on the fire
+from the outside of the building.
+
+Independent altogether of a mistaken principle of usefulness, one
+insuperable objection to all these machines, is the difficulty of
+conveying them with the necessary celerity, and the impossibility of
+packing them on the engine in such a manner that it may be worked
+without their being taken off, as it seems to me _that every
+description of apparatus which cannot be conveyed along with the
+engine, is likely to be left behind when most wanted_. It is notorious
+that parish fire-ladders are, for this reason, seldom or never made
+use of.
+
+Many people object to going inside a building on fire on account of
+the danger. It ought never to be forgotten, however, that the danger
+increases with the delay; and that although at first there may be no
+danger, if the opportunity is not promptly seized, it may become very
+considerable.
+
+Several of the firemen have at different times fainted, or become
+stupefied, from the want of fresh air; but as no one is ever allowed
+to enter singly, they have been, in all cases, immediately observed by
+their comrades, and relieved.
+
+Another objection has been raised in the alleged difficulty of
+persuading men to risk their lives in this manner for the small
+consideration which is allowed them. The truth is, that any
+persuasions I have had occasion to use, have been generally on the
+other side.
+
+To hold the branch is considered the post of honour; and when two
+engines are working together, I have sometimes difficulty in
+preventing the men from pressing forward farther than is absolutely
+necessary. This forwardness is not the result of pecuniary reward for
+the increase of risk, but a spirit of emulation is at work, and the
+man entrusted with this duty, if found drawing back, would be
+completely disgraced.
+
+A retreat should in all cases be kept open, to provide against any
+accident that may occur; and as this may be done in almost all cases
+by means so easy and simple, there can be no excuse for its omission.
+At the same time no one but an expert fireman should be permitted to
+enter where there is personal danger.
+
+The danger to which firemen are most exposed is catching cold, from
+their being so frequently drenched with water, and from their exposure
+to the sudden alternations of heat and cold. A man is turned out of
+bed at midnight, and in a few minutes after quitting it he is exposed
+to the sharp air, perhaps, of a frosty winter night; running to the
+fire as fast as he can, he is, from the exercise, joined to the
+oppressive heat inside the place on fire, in a few minutes in a state
+of the most profuse perspiration; and, while in this state, he is
+almost certain to be soaked with cold water. The smoke is sometimes so
+thick, that he comes under the range of the branch of the engine
+without being aware of it till the water strikes him. If he escape
+this chance, the water rushing on some other object, recoils on him,
+and produces the same effect; and if the fire be in the roof of the
+apartment, he must lie down on his back on the floor, and in this
+manner gets completely steeped.
+
+A bath of this sort is neither very safe nor pleasant; and the only
+preventive of injury to the health is to keep the men in constant
+motion. When they are allowed to stand still or sit down, the danger
+is considerable. When the fire is extinguished, or in two or three
+hours after its commencement, I make it a rule to give every man a
+dram of spirits. If it be necessary to leave an engine on the spot,
+those of the men who are to remain are sent home to change their
+clothes.
+
+
+THE LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+The London Fire Brigade now (January, 1861) consists of one
+superintendent, four foremen, each being appointed to a district
+consisting of a fourth part of London, which he never leaves except on
+some very pressing emergency, and who, in the absence of the
+superintendent, has the sole command of all engines, or firemen,
+within, or who may come within, his district; twelve engineers, ten
+sub-engineers, forty-seven senior firemen, and forty-three junior
+firemen: in all, one hundred and seventeen individuals. In addition,
+there are fifteen drivers and thirty-seven horses, all living at the
+several stations, and ready when required. There is also a
+supplementary force of four extra firemen, four drivers, and eight
+horses living at the stations, pursuing their usual avocations, and
+only paid by the Committee when required. The mechanical appliances
+consist of twenty-seven large engines drawn by horses, eight small
+engines drawn by hand, two floating-engines worked by steam, one of
+forty-horse power, and the other of eighty-horse power, one land steam
+fire-engine, and twenty-eight hand-pumps, one of the latter being
+carried on each engine. When an engine is sent to a fire, only four
+firemen and one driver accompany it. The levers are worked by the
+by-standers, who are paid one shilling for the first hour, and
+sixpence for each succeeding hour, besides refreshments. Upwards of
+six hundred assistants have been thus employed at one time. The
+principal protection of London against fire is entirely voluntary on
+the part of the insurance companies, to whom the above establishment
+belongs; there being no law in any shape whatever to control or
+sustain the brigade; and with the exception of some fifteen or twenty,
+the parish-engines are comparatively useless at a serious fire. It
+must not be omitted, that the greatest possible assistance is given to
+the firemen by the police, of whom there are about 7000, in keeping
+back the crowd, &c. The fire-offices look upon the whole as a matter
+of private business, so that the brigade is proportioned quite as must
+to the amount which the offices think it prudent to spend as to the
+size of the place. Paris, which is not half the size of London, and
+the buildings of which are much more substantial, has upwards of 800
+firemen. It appears to me that any success which the brigade may have
+attained depends, in a great measure, on the liberal pay given, by
+which the best men for the purpose can be obtained, the favourable
+view in which the brigade is regarded by the public, and the willing
+and able assistance given by a numerous and perhaps the best police in
+existence.
+
+The firemen in London being constantly employed on weekly wages, give
+their whole time to their employers, and are much more under command
+than where men are only occasionally employed. The wages and treatment
+being liberal, although the discipline is severe, there are generally
+a considerable number of candidates for each vacancy. Thus good men
+are obtained, seamen being preferred, as they are taught to obey
+orders, and the night and day watches and the uncertainty of the
+occupation are more similar to their former habits, than to those of
+other men of the same rank in life. The large number of fires is,
+however, the principal cause of any advantage the London firemen may
+possess over those of smaller places; and it is hardly fair to compare
+firemen who have only an opportunity of attending one or two fires in
+a week, to those who attend nearly three fires a day.
+
+The firemen are drilled first daily, and then two or three times a
+week, for some months; and this, with an average of three calls a day,
+soon makes them acquainted with the routine of their business; but it
+takes years of constant work to make a thoroughly good fireman.
+
+The management of the London Fire Brigade is confided to a Committee,
+consisting of one of the directors or secretaries from each of the
+fire-offices in London.
+
+The superintendent has the command of the whole force.
+
+The town is divided into four districts, in each of which there are
+stationed a sufficient number of engines, under the charge of a
+foreman, with engines and firemen under him.
+
+The districts are as follows:--
+
+NORTH SIDE OF RIVER.
+
+     District A. From the eastward to Paul's Chain, St. Paul's
+     Churchyard, Aldersgate-street, and Goswell-street-road.
+
+     B. From St. Paul's, &c., to Tottenham-court-road,
+     Crown-street, and St. Martin's-lane.
+
+     C. From Tottenham-court-road, &c., westward.
+
+     D. South side of River.
+
+The men are clothed uniformly; are distinguished by numbers
+corresponding with their names in the books; and regularly exercised
+in the use of their engines, and in such other duties as the Committee
+or Superintendent may direct.
+
+The following general regulations do not contain rules of conduct
+applicable to every variety of circumstance that may occur to
+individuals in the performance of their duty, as something must always
+be left for the exercise of intelligence and discretion; and,
+according to the degree in which these qualities in members of the
+Establishment are combined with zeal and activity, they become
+entitled to future promotion and reward.
+
+It is strongly impressed upon the minds of all persons serving in the
+Establishment, that one of the greatest advantages which the present
+system possesses above that which it superseded, is derived from the
+embodying the whole force under one responsible officer. It is,
+therefore, incumbent upon the men to render prompt and cheerful
+obedience to the commands of their superiors; to execute their duties
+as steadily and quietly as possible; to be careful not to annoy the
+inhabitants of houses they may be called upon to enter, and to treat
+all persons with civility; to take care to preserve presence of mind
+and good temper, and not to allow themselves to be distracted from
+their duty by the advice or directions of any persons but their own
+officers, and to observe the strictest sobriety and general regularity
+of behaviour.
+
+As every man wears the uniform of the Establishment, which is marked
+with a number corresponding with his name in the books, he must
+constantly bear in mind that misconduct will not only reflect
+discredit upon the Establishment, but be easily brought home to
+himself and subject him to proportional punishment.
+
+The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from
+any individual without special permission of the superintendent, or,
+in his absence, of the foreman of the district; and as intoxication
+upon the alarming occasion of fires is not only disreputable to the
+Establishment, but in the highest degree dangerous, by rendering the
+men unfit for duty, every appearance of it is most rigidly marked, and
+the foremen, engineers, and sub-engineers report immediately, for the
+purpose of being laid before the Committee, every instance of
+insubordination or intoxication, and the men are accordingly apprised
+that the regulations regarding the above-mentioned faults will be most
+strictly enforced.
+
+All the men in the Establishment are liable to be punished by fine,
+suspension, reduction, or dismissal, for disobeying or neglecting any
+of these regulations, or for any other misconduct; and the disposal of
+the fines so collected is at the discretion of the Committee.
+
+The following are the conditions upon which each man is admitted into
+the Establishment:--
+
+     He devotes his whole time to the service.
+
+     He serves and resides wherever he is appointed.
+
+     He must promptly obey all orders which he may receive from
+     those placed in authority over him.
+
+     The age of admission does not exceed twenty-five, nor is
+     under eighteen.
+
+     He conforms himself to all regulations which may be made
+     from time to time.
+
+     He does not upon any occasion, or under any pretence
+     whatever, take money from any person, without the express
+     permission of the Committee.
+
+     He appears at all times in the dress of the Establishment.
+
+     If lodgings be found for him, a deduction of one shilling
+     per week is made from his pay, if unmarried; if married, and
+     if lodgings be found for him, an agreement in each
+     particular case will be made.
+
+     He receives his pay weekly on such day as shall be
+     appointed.
+
+     The pay of a Junior Fireman is 3_s._ per day, or 21_s._ a
+     week.
+
+     The pay of a Senior Fireman, 3_s._ 6_d._ a day, or 24_s._
+     6_d._ a week.
+
+     The pay of a Sub-Engineer is 26_s._ a week.
+
+     The pay of an Engineer, 4_s._ a day, or 28_s._ a week.
+
+     The Foremen are paid by annual salaries.
+
+     Each man contributes towards a Superannuation Fund,
+     according to a scale determined by the Committee.
+
+     Each man receives  annually--
+
+      One short frock coat, marked with a number answering to his name
+        in the books.
+
+      A black neckcloth.
+
+      Two pairs of cloth trousers.
+
+      One cloth cap.
+
+      Four pairs of boots in three years, and
+
+     Once in three years he receives--
+
+      One great coat.
+
+     He does not quit the service without giving fourteen days'
+     previous notice; if he quits without such notice, or is
+     dismissed, the whole of his pay then due is forfeited.
+
+     Every man who is dismissed from the Establishment, or who
+     resigns his situation, delivers up, before he quits the
+     service, every article of dress and appointment which may
+     have been supplied to him; if any of such articles have
+     been, in the opinion of the superintendent, improperly used
+     or damaged, the man makes good the damage or supplies a new
+     article.
+
+     Every man in the service is liable to immediate dismissal
+     for unfitness, negligence, or misconduct. The Committee, if
+     they see fit, may dismiss a man without assigning any
+     reason.
+
+     No fireman must allow to be used by any other person, nor
+     use himself, except while he belongs to the Establishment,
+     the button and badge given with his clothes.
+
+     In the event of sickness rendering any man incapable of
+     performing his duties, the Committee reserves to itself the
+     power of making a deduction from his weekly pay.
+
+     Each man, on his admission, gives to the Committee, if
+     required, a letter of guarantee from some respectable
+     person, to an amount not exceeding 50_l._, as security.
+
+
+OUTLINE OF GENERAL DUTY.
+
+One-third of the men are constantly on duty at the different
+engine-houses, night and day; and the whole are liable to be called up
+for attendance at fires, or for any other duty. In general, it is
+arranged as follows, viz.:--
+
+If a fire happen in District A, the whole of the men and engines of
+that district immediately repair to the spot; two-thirds of the men,
+and one of the engines, from each of the districts B and D, also go to
+the fire; and one-third of the men from the district C.
+
+If the fire happen in B, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district immediately repair to the fire; one engine from A, another
+from C, two-thirds of the men from A and C, and one-third of the men
+from D.
+
+If the fire happen in C, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district, one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district B,
+and one-third of the men from A and D, go to the fire.
+
+If the fire happen in D, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district, with one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district
+A, and one-third of the men from B and C, shall go to the fire.
+
+If a fire happen on the boundary of a district, and it is doubtful in
+which district it has occurred, the whole of the engines and men of
+the two adjoining districts instantly proceed to the spot, and
+one-third of the men of the two remaining districts.
+
+In case of emergency, the superintendent calls in such additional
+force as he may require.
+
+The engines are not taken to alarms of chimneys on fire, unless the
+circumstances of the case should, in the opinion of the
+superintendent, foreman, or engineer, require a deviation from this
+regulation.
+
+When any of the men from another district come to assist at a fire, if
+the engine to which they are attached is not in attendance, they
+instantly go to the foreman's engine of the district to which they
+come.
+
+The engines are conveyed to fires at not less than seven miles per
+hour, and the men who do not accompany the engines go at not less than
+four miles per hour.
+
+Any engineer or fireman who, when at a fire, is absent from an engine
+or a branch pipe, without orders from the superintendent or foreman,
+is liable to a fine.
+
+If any of the men are sick, or absent from any other cause, their
+duties are performed by other men attached to their engine-station.
+
+With a view to the men being always at hand, they are lodged as near
+as possible to their respective engine-houses.
+
+The roll is called at each station every morning and evening.
+
+No man leaves his own residence or the engine-station to which he
+belongs from 10 P.M. to 6 A.M. except to go to a fire, or by an order
+from a superior, or with written leave from the superintendent, and
+the senior man on duty is answerable if he does not report any
+departure from this rule.
+
+Men on duty not at the engine-stations are allowed one hour for
+breakfast and one for dinner, as follows:--One-half of the men on duty
+go to breakfast from 8 to 9, and the other half from 9 to 10; also
+one-half go to dinner from 1 to 2, and the other half from 2 to 3. The
+second half in no case leave until the whole of the first half have
+returned, neither do the men on duty leave morning or evening until
+the relief has arrived. The engineer or senior man on duty is
+answerable for this regulation being carried into effect. And any man
+being absent from the premises he is watching or working in, except at
+the regular hours, is punished.
+
+The men for duty individually assemble at the principal engine-house
+in the district before, or precisely at, the hour fixed for that
+purpose. Their names are called, and an inspection made by the foreman
+of the district, to ascertain that they are sober and correctly
+dressed and appointed. The foreman then reads and explains the orders
+of the day. At the hour for relieving the men, no one leaves his
+engine-house until the relief has actually arrived there; when the men
+are relieved, their names are called over, and they are inspected by
+the engineer, that he may ascertain whether they are sober, and as
+correctly dressed and appointed as when they went on duty. The
+engineer enters these inspections in a book.
+
+The engineers deliver a written report, according to a printed form,
+twice each day, to the foreman of the district, who in his turn
+reports twice a day to the superintendent.
+
+The whole of the men are, at all times, ready to appear at any place
+required, for exercise or any other purpose, and are ready (whether on
+duty or not) to execute whatever orders they may receive, in relation
+to the Establishment, from the engineers, foremen, or superintendent.
+
+
+DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENT.
+
+The Superintendent resides at the principal engine-station in
+Watling-street.
+
+The moment an alarm of fire is given, wherever it may be, he repairs
+to the spot with all possible expedition, and takes the command of the
+whole force.
+
+He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and reports the same
+to the committee.
+
+He is responsible for the general conduct of the foremen, engineers,
+and firemen under his charge.
+
+He makes himself well acquainted with the character and conduct of
+every man under his orders.
+
+He must be firm and just, and, at the same time, kind and conciliating
+in his behaviour on all occasions.
+
+He takes care that the printed regulations and all others given out
+from time to time, are promptly and strictly obeyed; and he gives
+clear and precise instructions to the men under him, and reports every
+instance of neglect of a serious nature to the Committee.
+
+He must feel the importance of visiting some of the engine-houses, at
+uncertain hours, every day and night.
+
+He suspends and reports to the Committee persons who are guilty of
+serious misconduct; and at once punishes by fines, according to a
+scale sanctioned by the Committee, irregularities of a lighter
+character, reporting such fines to them.
+
+He must be at all times prepared to furnish the Committee with
+particulars respecting the state of the Establishment.
+
+When a fire is extinguished, the superintendent retains only such a
+number of men and engines as he may think necessary for watching the
+premises.
+
+He communicates with the surveyors of stock of the offices interested
+in a fire, and arranges with them, in the event of its being
+necessary, to work out salvage from the ruins.
+
+When a fire happens, he causes a report to be made immediately, if in
+office hours (or, if after office hours, before ten o'clock next
+morning), to those offices interested in the fire, and also to their
+surveyors of buildings and stock, as soon as possible after the fire
+is extinguished, and causes a daily report to be transmitted to each
+office of all fires which have happened, according to a printed form
+given to him for that purpose, as follows:--
+
+     Date and hour.
+
+     Situation of premises.
+
+     Name and occupation of tenant.
+
+     Name and residence of landlord.
+
+     Supposed cause of fire.
+
+     In what offices insured.
+
+     No. of Policy.
+
+     If there is gas on the premises.
+
+     By whom called.
+
+     By whom extinguished.
+
+     Supply of water, with name of company.
+
+     No. of engines attending and of what district, and the order
+     in which they arrive.
+
+     No. of men ditto ditto.
+
+     Engines not of the Establishment, and the order in which
+     they arrive.
+
+     Description of damage.
+
+
+DUTIES OF FOREMAN.
+
+The Foreman resides at the place appointed for him.
+
+He receives his orders and instructions from, and makes his reports
+to, the superintendent.
+
+He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the
+discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general behaviour.
+
+In the absence of the superintendent, the foreman of the district will
+take the command of the whole force, both those of his own district
+and of all other engines and men which may come to his assistance in
+cases of fire.
+
+He does not attend fires that happen out of his own district unless he
+receives orders from the superintendent to that effect.
+
+He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and reports the same
+to the superintendent.
+
+On the alarm of fire being given in his own district, he instantly
+repairs to the spot, and uses his utmost endeavours to get the engines
+into play and supply them with water. The first engine and firemen
+which arrive at a fire are not interfered with, nor their supplies of
+water diverted from them, by those coming afterwards, unless by a
+distinct order from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the
+foreman of the district. The same rule applies to each succeeding
+engine which takes up a position.
+
+He is careful to place the engines in such a manner that the men who
+work at the levers may be in no danger from the falling of the
+premises on fire; and also that the engines may not be in the way of
+people carrying out furniture, &c.; but, above all things, he
+endeavours to place the engineers with their branch pipes in such
+positions _that the water from the branches may directly strike the
+burning materials_. This he cannot too often inculcate on the men
+placed under him, as upon this point, on being properly attended to,
+depends entirely the effect of the engines. To attain this most
+desirable end, it is frequently necessary to enter the premises on
+fire, and the foreman takes care so to place his men that they can
+easily escape. If he has reason to suspect that the building is not
+sufficiently secure, he stations one or two competent men to observe
+the state of the building, and to give the alarm when they see any
+danger.
+
+He never allows any man unaccompanied by another to enter a building
+on fire.
+
+He does not throw more water on the premises than is absolutely
+necessary to extinguish the fire, as all the water thrown after the
+fire is extinguished, only tends to increase the damage.
+
+When the inmates of the premises on fire are removed, the foreman
+endeavours to exclude air from the parts on fire, by shutting all
+doors and windows as far as may be practicable.
+
+He is responsible for the conduct of the men placed under him, and for
+the state of the engines, which must at all times be kept in
+first-rate order; he also makes himself well acquainted with the
+talent and general character of each individual under him.
+
+He visits every engine-house in his district at least once in the
+twenty-four hours; he sees that the men are on duty, the engines ready
+for service, and everything in proper order, and enters his visit in a
+book kept for that purpose, with the date and hour of his visit. If he
+finds anything wrong, he enters it in the book, and immediately sends
+off a report to the superintendent by one of the men not on duty.
+
+He sends a written report twice in every twenty-four hours to the
+superintendent, which contains a particular statement of all fires and
+everything else connected with the Establishment which has occurred in
+his district within the preceding twelve hours.
+
+He returns in his report of a fire the names of such men, if any, as
+were not ready to start with the engine to which they are attached.
+
+It is expected that he is able and ready to give instructions to the
+engineers and men on all points relating to their duty.
+
+He receives and enters, in a book kept for that purpose, all
+complaints which may be made against any person under his command,
+causing the complaining party to sign the same and insert his address,
+and he reports the whole matter without delay to the superintendent.
+
+He is responsible for the engines in his district being each provided
+with the articles contained in the following list:--
+
+     2 lengths of scaling ladder.
+
+     1 canvas sheet, with 10 or 12 handles of rope round the edge
+     of it, used as a portable fire-escape.
+
+     2 pieces of 2-1/2-inch rope, one 10 fathoms and one 14
+     fathoms long.
+
+     7 lengths of hose, each 40 feet long.
+
+     2 branch pipes, one 4 and the other 1 foot long.
+
+     3 nozzles, or jet pipes.
+
+     4 lengths of suction-pipe, each about 6 feet long.
+
+     1 flat rose.
+
+     1 standcock.
+
+     1 goose-neck.
+
+     2 balls of strips of sheep-skin.
+
+     2 balls of small cord.
+
+     4 hose wrenches.
+
+     1 fire hook.
+
+     1 mattock.
+
+     1 shovel.
+
+     1 saw.
+
+     1 screw-wrench.
+
+     1 portable cistern.
+
+     1 hatchet or pole-axe.
+
+     1 iron crow-bar.
+
+
+DUTIES OF THE ENGINEER.
+
+He resides in the engine-house to which he is appointed.
+
+He obeys all orders given to him by the superintendent or the foreman
+of the district.
+
+He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the
+discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general behaviour.
+
+He is held responsible for the conduct of the men under him, and for
+the state of his engine, and takes care that it is provided with the
+articles contained in the foregoing list.
+
+He reports to his foreman, every morning and evening, in writing,
+whether any of his men have been absent with or without leave.
+
+He enters in his book the time when the men go to the foreman's
+station before taking duty, and also when they return.
+
+On receiving notice of a fire happening within the prescribed limits,
+he instantly takes his engine and men to the spot, and places himself
+and them at the disposal of the superintendent, foreman, or senior
+engineer of the district in which the fire happens.
+
+He must make himself acquainted with the character and abilities of
+each man under him.
+
+He is subject to fines at the discretion of the Committee, for neglect
+of duty or misbehaviour.
+
+
+DUTIES OF SUB-ENGINEERS.
+
+The sub-engineers being attached to foremen's and double stations
+only, in the absence of the foremen or engineer, or when in charge of
+an engine, the duties of the sub-engineer are the same as those
+described for an engineer; when the foreman or engineer is absent, the
+sub-engineer must set an example to the firemen at the station of
+constant attention, implicit obedience and activity, and in so far as
+he exhibits these and similar qualifications he expects to rise in the
+service.
+
+
+DUTIES OF THE FIREMAN.
+
+Every fireman in the establishment may expect to rise to the superior
+stations, by activity, intelligence, sobriety, and general good
+conduct.
+
+He must make it his study to recommend himself to notice by a diligent
+discharge of his duties, and strict obedience to the commands of his
+superiors, recollecting that he who has been accustomed to obey will
+be considered best qualified to command.
+
+He resides near the engine-house to which he is attached, in a
+situation to be approved of, and devotes the whole of his time and
+abilities to the service.
+
+On the alarm of fire, he proceeds with all possible speed to the
+engine-house to which he is attached.
+
+He must at all times appear neat in his person, and correctly dressed
+in the establishment uniform, and be respectful in his demeanour
+towards his superiors.
+
+He must readily and punctually obey the orders of the engineers,
+foremen, and superintendent.
+
+He must not quit his engine-house while on duty, except to go to a
+fire, unless by special order from a superior.
+
+He is subject to fines for neglect of duty or misbehaviour, according
+to the regulations.
+
+
+BOOKS KEPT AT THE STATIONS.
+
+There is a book kept in each engine-house, in which are entered all
+fires or alarms of fires; the time the men come on duty; the visits
+made by the foremen, superintendent, or any of the Committee, and all
+complaints against the men.
+
+This book is in charge of the superior on duty at the time; and the
+foreman and engineers are answerable for its being correctly kept.
+
+Every entry made in this book is signed by the person making it.
+
+The superintendent enters, in a book kept for that purpose, the
+particulars of every fire, the attendance of engines, supply of water,
+&c., and lays it before the Committee weekly, or oftener, if required.
+
+Any false entry, for the purpose of concealing absence, is
+punished--for the first offence, by the reduction of one step, and for
+the second by dismissal.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote F: At a fire which took place in one of the best streets in
+Edinburgh, and which began in the roof, the persons who rushed into
+the house on the first alarm being given, threw the greater part of
+the contents of the drawing-room and library, with several basketsful
+of china and glass, out of the windows; the fire injured nothing below
+the uppermost story.]
+
+
+
+
+THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+In forming the brigade in Edinburgh, where the firemen are only
+occasionally employed, the description of men, from which I made a
+selection, were slaters, house-carpenters, masons, plumbers, and
+smiths.
+
+Slaters make good firemen, not so much from their superiority in
+climbing, going along roofs, &c., although these are great advantages,
+but from their being in general possessed of a handiness and readiness
+which I have not been able to discover in the same degree amongst
+other classes of workmen. It is, perhaps, not necessary that I should
+account for this, but it appears to me to arise from their being more
+dependent on their wits, and more frequently put to their shifts in
+the execution of their ordinary avocations. House-carpenters and
+masons being well acquainted with the construction of buildings, and
+understanding readily from whence danger is to be apprehended, can
+judge with tolerable accuracy, from the appearance of a house, where
+the stair is situated, and how the house is divided inside. Plumbers
+are also well accustomed to climbing and going along the roofs of
+houses; they are useful in working fire-cocks, covering the gratings
+of drains with lead, and generally in the management of water. Smiths
+and plumbers can also better endure heat and smoke than most other
+workmen.
+
+Men selected from these five trades are also more robust in body, and
+better able to endure the extremes of heat, cold, wet, and fatigue, to
+which firemen are so frequently exposed, than men engaged in more
+sedentary employments.
+
+I have generally made it a point to select for firemen, young men from
+seventeen or eighteen to twenty-five years of age. At that age they
+enter more readily into the spirit of the business, and are much more
+easily trained, than when farther advanced in life. Men are frequently
+found who, although they excel in the mechanical parts of their own
+professions, are yet so devoid of judgment and resources, that when
+anything occurs which they have not been taught, or have not been able
+to foresee, they are completely at a loss. Now it happens not
+unfrequently that the man who arrives first at a fire, notwithstanding
+any training or instructions he may have received, is still, from the
+circumstances of the case, left almost entirely to the direction of
+his own judgment. It is, therefore, of immense importance to procure
+men on whose coolness and judgment you can depend. If they are expert
+tradesmen, so much the better, as there is generally a degree of
+respect shown to first-rate tradesmen by their fellows, which inferior
+hands can seldom obtain; and this respect tends greatly to keep up the
+character of the corps to which they belong, which ought never to be
+lost sight of.
+
+Amidst the noise and confusion which more or less attend all fires, I
+have found considerable difficulty in being able to convey the
+necessary orders to the firemen in such a manner as not to be liable
+to misapprehension. I tried a speaking-trumpet; but, finding it of no
+advantage, it was speedily abandoned. It appeared to me indeed, that
+while it increased the sound of the voice, by the deep tone which it
+gave, it brought it into greater accordance with the surrounding
+noise. I tried a boatswain's call, which I have found to answer much
+better. Its shrill piercing note is so unlike any other sound usually
+heard at a fire, that it immediately attracts the attention of the
+firemen. By varying the calls, I have now established a mode of
+communication not easily misunderstood, and sufficiently precise for
+the circumstances to which it is adapted, and which I now find to be a
+very great convenience.
+
+The calls are as follows:--
+
+     1 for red, 2 for blue, 3 for yellow, 4 for grey.[G]
+
+     5 to work the engine.
+
+     6 to stop working.
+
+     7 to attach one length of hose more than the engine has at
+     the time the call is given.
+
+     8 to coil up the hose attached to the engine.
+
+     9 to coil up the hose attached to the fire-cock.
+
+     10 to turn to the left.
+
+     11 to turn to the right.
+
+     12 the call to work the engine answers also to move forward
+     when the engine is prepared for travelling.
+
+     13 the call to stop working answers to stop the engine when
+     moving forward.
+
+In all there are thirty-six calls when compounded with the first four.
+
+In speaking of the drilling of firemen, I shall give a short account
+of the plan followed here, which has been tolerably successful.
+
+The present number of firemen in Edinburgh is fifty, divided into four
+companies; three of which consist of twelve and one of fourteen men.
+The bounds of the city are divided into four districts; in each of
+which there is an engine-house, containing one or more engines, one of
+the companies being attached to each engine-house. In each company
+there is one captain, one sergeant, four pioneers, and six or eight
+firemen.
+
+The whole are dressed in blue jackets, canvas trousers, and hardened
+leather helmets, having hollow leather crests over the crown to ward
+off falling materials. The form of this helmet was taken from the
+war-helmet of the New Zealanders, with the addition of the hind flap
+of leather to prevent burning matter, melted lead, water, or rubbish
+getting into the neck of the wearer. The captains' helmets have three
+small ornaments, those of the sergeants one--those of the pioneers and
+firemen being plain.
+
+The jackets of the captains have two small cloth wings on the
+shoulder, similar to those worn by light infantry. Those of the
+sergeants have three stripes on the left arm, and, on the left arms of
+the pioneers and firemen, are their respective numbers in the company.
+Each company has a particular colour--red, blue, yellow, and grey.
+Each engine is painted of one or other of these colours, and the
+accoutrements of the men belonging to it correspond. There is thus no
+difficulty in distinguishing the engines or men from each other by
+their colours and numbers. Each man also wears a broad leather
+waist-belt, with a brass buckle in front. To the waist-belts of the
+captains, sergeants, and pioneers is attached eighty feet of cord; the
+captains having also a small mason's hammer, with a crow-head at the
+end of the handle: the sergeants have a clawed hammer, such as is used
+by house-carpenters, with an iron handle, and two openings at the end
+for unscrewing nuts from bolts; the pioneers a small hatchet, with a
+crow-head at the end of the handle; and the firemen each carry a
+canvas water-bucket folded up.
+
+The captains assemble every Tuesday night, to give in a report of such
+fires as may have occurred in their respective districts, with a list
+of the men who have turned out, and a corresponding list from the
+sergeant of police of the respective districts. They then receive any
+orders which may be necessary; and any vacancies which have occurred
+in the establishment are filled up at these meetings.
+
+For some months after this fire establishment was organized, the men
+were regularly drilled once a week, at four o'clock in the morning;
+but now only once a month at the same hour.
+
+Among many other good reasons for preferring this early hour, I may
+mention, that it does not interfere with the daily occupation of the
+firemen. The chance of collecting a crowd is also avoided, as there
+are then comparatively few people on the streets; this is a matter of
+some importance, as a crowd of people not only impedes the movements
+of the firemen, but, from small quantities of water spilt on the
+by-standers, quarrels are generated, and a prejudice excited against
+the corps, to avoid which every exertion should be used to keep the
+firemen on good terms with the populace.
+
+The mornings, too, at this early hour, are dark for more than half the
+year, and the firemen are thus accustomed to work by torch-light, and
+sometimes without any light whatever, except the few public lamps
+which are then burning. And, as most fires happen in the night, the
+advantage of drilling in the dark must be sufficiently obvious.
+
+The inhabitants have sometimes complained of being disturbed with the
+noise of the engines at so early an hour; but when the object has been
+explained, they have generally submitted, with a good grace, to this
+slight evil. A different part of the city being always chosen for each
+successive drill, the annoyance occasioned to any one district is very
+trifling, and of very unfrequent occurrence.
+
+On the Tuesday evening preceding the drill, the captains are informed
+when and where the men are to assemble. These orders they communicate
+to the individual firemen. A point of rendezvous being thus given to
+the whole body, every man, who is not on the spot at the hour
+appointed, fully equipped, with his clothes and accoutrements in good
+order, is subjected to a fine. Arrived on the ground, the men are
+divided into two parties, each party consisting of two companies, that
+being the number required to work each large engine without any
+assistance from the populace. The whole are then examined as to the
+condition of their clothing and equipments.
+
+The captains, sergeants, and pioneers of each company alternately take
+the duty of directing the engine, attaching the hose, &c., while the
+whole of each party not engaged in these duties take the levers as
+firemen. The call is then given to move forward, the men setting off
+at a quick walking pace, and, on the same call being repeated, they
+get into a smart trot. When the call to stop is given, with orders to
+attach one or more lengths of hose to the engine and fire-cock, it is
+done in the following manner:--No. 1 takes out the branch pipe, and
+runs out as far as he thinks the hose ordered to be attached will
+reach, and there remains; No. 2 takes a length of hose out of the
+engine, and uncoils it towards No. 1; and No. 3 attaches the hose to
+the engine. If more than one length is required, No. 4 takes out
+another, couples it to the former length, and then uncoils it. If a
+third length is wanted, No. 3 comes up with it, after having attached
+the first length to the engine. If more lengths are still wanted, No:
+2 goes back to the engine for another; Nos. 3 and 4 follow, and so on
+till the requisite length is obtained; No. 1 then screws on the
+branch-pipe at the farther extremity of the last length.[H] While Nos.
+1, 2, 3, and 4 are attaching the hose to the engine, No. 5 opens the
+fire-cock door, screws on the distributor, and attaches the length of
+hose, which No. 6 uncoils; Nos. 7 and 8 assist, if more than one
+length of hose be required. Immediately on the call being given to
+attach the hose, the sergeant locks the fore-carriage of the engine,
+and unlocks the levers. The fire-cock being opened by No. 5 (who
+remains by it as long as it is being used), the sergeant holds the end
+of the hose which supplies the engine, and at the same time
+superintends the men who work the levers. The call being given to work
+the engine, the whole of the men, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the captain
+and sergeant excepted, work at the levers along with the men of the
+other company.
+
+Although these operations may appear complicated, they are all
+completed, and the engine in full play, with three lengths, or 120
+feet of hose, in one minute and ten seconds, including the time
+required for the water to fill the engine so far as to allow it to
+work.
+
+In order to excite a spirit of emulation, as well as to teach the men
+dexterity in working the engines, I frequently cause a competition
+amongst them. They are ordered to attach one or more lengths of hose
+to each of two engines, and to work them as quickly as possible, the
+first engine which throws water being considered the winner. They are
+sometimes also placed at an equal distance from each of two separate
+fire-cocks; on the call being given to move forward, each party starts
+for the fire-cock to which it is ordered, and the first which gets
+into play is of course held to have beat the other. The call to stop
+is then given, and both parties return to their former station, with
+their hose coiled up, and everything in proper travelling order; the
+first which arrives being understood to have the advantage.
+
+The men are also carefully and regularly practised in taking their
+hose up common-stairs, drawing them up by ropes on the outside, and
+generally in accustoming themselves to, and providing against, every
+circumstance which may be anticipated in the case of fire.
+
+When a fire occurs in a common-stair, the advantages arising from this
+branch of training are incalculable. The occupants, in some cases
+amounting to twenty or thirty families, hurrying out with their
+children and furniture, regardless of everything except the
+preservation of their lives and property, and the rush of the crowd to
+the scene of alarm, form altogether, notwithstanding the exertions of
+an excellent police, such a scene of confusion as those only who have
+witnessed it can imagine; and here it is that discipline and unity of
+purpose are indispensable; for, unless each man has already been
+taught and accustomed to the particular duty expected from him, he
+only partakes of the general alarm, and adds to the confusion. But
+even when a hose has been carried up the interior of a common-stair,
+the risk of damage from the people carrying out their furniture is so
+great, that the hose is not unfrequently burst, almost as soon as the
+engine has begun to play. If the hose be carried up to the floor on
+fire by the outside, the risk of damage is comparatively small, the
+hose in that case being only exposed for a short distance in crossing
+the stair.
+
+During a period of four years the only two firemen who lost their
+lives were run down by their own engines; and, in order to avoid
+danger from this cause, they are frequently accustomed suddenly to
+stop the engines when running down the steep streets with which this
+city abounds. It is a highly necessary exercise, and is done by
+wheeling the engine smartly round to the right or left, which has the
+effect of immediately stopping its course.
+
+There is a branch of training which I introduced amongst the Edinburgh
+firemen some time ago, which has been attended with more important
+advantages than was at first anticipated. I mean the gymnastic
+exercises. The men are practised in these exercises (in a small
+gymnasium fitted up for them in the head engine-house) regularly once
+a-week, and in winter sometimes twice: attendance on their part is
+entirely voluntary; the best gymnasts (if otherwise equally qualified)
+are always promoted in cases of vacancy.
+
+So sensible were the Insurance Companies doing business here, of the
+advantages likely to arise from the practice of these exercises, that
+on one occasion they subscribed upwards of 10_l._, which was
+distributed in medals and money among the most expert and attentive
+gymnasts of the corps, at a competition in presence of the
+magistrates, commissioners of police, and managers of insurance
+companies.
+
+Amongst the many advantages arising from these exercises I shall
+notice only one or two. The firemen, when at their ordinary
+employments, as masons, house-carpenters, &c., being accustomed to a
+particular exercise of certain muscles only, there is very often a
+degree of stiffness in their general movements, which prevents them
+from performing their duty as firemen with that ease and celerity
+which are so necessary and desirable; but the gymnastic exercises, by
+bringing all the muscles of the body into action, and by aiding the
+more general development of the frame, tend greatly to remove or
+overcome this awkwardness. But its greatest advantage is the
+confidence it gives to the men when placed in certain situations of
+danger. A man, for example, in the third or fourth floor of a house on
+fire, who is uncertain as to his means of escape, in the event of his
+return by the stair being cut off, will not render any very efficient
+service in extinguishing the fire; his own safety will be the
+principal object of his attention, and till that is to a certain
+extent secured, his exertions are not much to be relied upon. An
+experienced gymnast, on the other hand, placed in these circumstances,
+finds himself in comparative security. With a hatchet and eighty feet
+of cord at his command, and a window near him, he knows there is not
+much difficulty in getting to the street; and this confidence not only
+enables him to go on with his duty with more spirit, but his attention
+not being abstracted by thoughts of personal danger, he is able to
+direct it wholly to the circumstances of the fire. He can raise
+himself on a window sill, or the top of a wall, if he can only reach
+it with his hands; and by his hands alone he may sustain himself in
+situations where other means of support are unattainable, till the
+arrival of assistance. These are great advantages; but, as I said
+before, the greatest of all is that feeling of safety with which it
+enables a fireman to proceed with his operations, uncertainty or
+distraction being the greatest of possible evils. The cord carried at
+the waist-belt of the captains, sergeants, and pioneers, being fully
+sufficient to sustain a man's weight, and with the assistance of their
+small hatchets easily made fast, and the pioneers always being two
+together, there is thus no difficulty in descending even from a height
+of eighty feet: the cords should be doubled by way of security.
+
+
+I.--GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+A list of the engine-houses, and the residences of the superintendent
+and head enginemen in each district shall be publicly advertised, that
+no one may be ignorant where to apply in cases of fire; and, in the
+event of fire breaking out in any house, the possessor shall be bound
+to give instant notice of it at the nearest station; and shall take
+particular care to keep all doors and windows shut in the premises
+where the fire happens to be.
+
+"Fire-engine house" shall be painted in large characters on one or
+more prominent places of each engine-house; and the residences of the
+master of engines, head enginemen, inspectors of gas companies, and
+water-officers of the district, shall likewise be marked there.
+
+The head enginemen and firemen shall reside as near the engine-house
+as possible.
+
+As, in the case of a fire breaking out, it may be necessary to break
+open the doors of houses and shops in the neighbourhood, in order to
+prevent the fire from spreading, it is ordered, that no possessors of
+houses or shops in the neighbourhood shall go away, after the fire has
+broken out, without leaving the key of their house or shop, as
+otherwise the door will be broken open, if necessary; and it is
+recommended that all possessors of shops shall have the place of their
+residence painted upon their shop-doors, that notice may be sent them
+when necessary.
+
+
+II.--POLICE.
+
+Upon any watchman discovering fire, he shall call the neighbouring
+watchmen to his assistance--shall take the best means in his power to
+put all concerned upon their guard--and shall immediately send off
+notice to the nearest office and engine-house. The watchman, who is
+despatched to give these intimations, shall run as far as he can, and
+shall then send forward any other watchman whom he may meet, he
+himself following at a walk to communicate his information, in case of
+any mistake on the part of the second messenger.
+
+Upon intimation of a fire being received at the main office, or a
+district office, the head officer on duty shall instantly give notice
+thereof to the head engineman of the district, to the master of
+engines, to the water-officers of the district, and to the inspectors
+of the different gas-light companies, and shall have power, if his
+force at the office at the time be deficient, to employ the nearest
+watchmen for these purposes; and, on intimation being first received
+at a district-office, the officer on duty in the office shall
+immediately send notice to the main office.
+
+Upon intimation being received at the main office, the officer on duty
+shall also instantly send notice to the superintendent of police, and
+the lieutenants not at the office at the time--to the master of
+engines; to the head enginemen of the various districts; to the
+superintendent of the water company; to the lord provost or chief
+magistrate for the time; to the sheriff of the county; to the bailie
+residing nearest the place; to the dean of guild; to the members of
+fire-engine committee of commissioners of police; to the moderator of
+the high constables; and also to the managers of the different
+gaslight companies.
+
+The officer on duty at the main office shall, with the least possible
+delay, send off to the fire a party of his men, under the command of a
+lieutenant or other officer.
+
+This party, on arriving at the spot, shall clear off the crowd, and
+keep open space and passages for the firemen and others employed.
+
+The officer commanding this party of the police shall attend to no
+instructions except such as he shall receive from the acting chief
+magistrate attending; or, in absence of a magistrate, from any member
+of the committee on fire-engines; and the men shall attend to the
+instructions of their own officer alone.
+
+Three or more policemen shall be in attendance upon the acting chief
+magistrate and fire-engine committee; two policemen shall constantly
+attend the master of the engines, to be at his disposal entirely; and
+one policeman shall attend with the water-officer at each fire-cock
+that may be opened.
+
+The superintendent of police shall always have a list of extra
+policemen hung up in the police-office, who, upon occasions of fire,
+may be called out, if necessary, and twenty of these extra men shall
+always be called out upon notice of fire being received at the main
+office, for the purpose of attending at the police-office, and
+rendering assistance where it may be required. The superintendent
+shall likewise have a supply of fire-buckets, flambeaux, and lanterns,
+at the office, to be ready when wanted.
+
+There shall be no ringing of alarm-bells, beating of drums, or
+springing of rattles, except by written order from the chief
+magistrate for the time; but the alarm may be given by despatching
+messengers, with proper badges, through different parts of the town,
+when considered necessary.
+
+
+III. SUPERINTENDENT OF FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+On receiving notice of a fire, the superintendent shall instantly
+equip himself in his uniform, and repair to the spot where the fire
+is.
+
+The necessary operations to be adopted shall be under his absolute
+control, and he will issue his instructions to the head enginemen and
+firemen.
+
+The superintendent shall report from time to time to the chief
+magistrate in attendance (through such medium as may be at his
+command, but without his leaving the spot), the state of the fire, and
+whether a greater number of policemen, or a party of the military, be
+required, and anything else which may occur to him; and the master
+shall observe the directions of the chief magistrate attending, and
+those of no other person whatever.
+
+The superintendent shall frequently inspect the engines, and all the
+apparatus connected therewith; he shall be responsible for the whole
+being at all times in good order and condition; and he shall have a
+general muster and inspection at least once every three months, when
+the engines and all the apparatus shall be tried. He shall also
+instruct the enginemen, firemen, and the watchmen, to unlock the
+plates, and screw on the distributors of the fire-cocks, or open the
+fire-plugs.
+
+Whenever any repairs or new apparatus shall appear to be necessary,
+the superintendent shall give notice to the clerk of the police, whose
+duty it shall be instantly to convene the committee on fire-engines.
+
+Upon a fire breaking out, the superintendent shall lose as little time
+as possible in stationing chimney-sweepers on the roofs of the
+adjoining houses, to keep them clear of flying embers; and also
+persons in each flat of the adjoining houses, to observe their state,
+and report if any appearances of danger should arise; such persons
+taking as much care as possible _to keep all doors and windows of said
+flats shut_, and the doors and windows of the premises where the fire
+happens to be shall, so far as practicable, be carefully kept shut.
+
+The superintendent shall forthwith prepare regulations for the
+firemen, &c., under his charge, and report the same to the committee
+on fire-engines for their approval. Every fireman shall be furnished
+with a copy of such regulations, and shall be bound to make himself
+master of its contents; and it shall be the duty of the superintendent
+to see that the instructions are duly attended to in training and
+exercising the men.
+
+
+IV.--HEAD ENGINEMEN.
+
+Each head engineman shall attend to the engines placed in his
+district, and all the apparatus connected therewith, and report to the
+superintendent when any repairs or new apparatus seem requisite, and
+shall be responsible for the engines being in proper working condition
+at all times.
+
+Upon receiving notice of a fire, the head enginemen shall call out the
+firemen in their respective districts; and they shall all repair,
+perfectly equipped, with the utmost expedition, to the spot where the
+fire happens to be, carrying along with them the engines and
+apparatus.
+
+The head enginemen shall have the carts and barrels attached to their
+several districts always in readiness, in good order, and the barrels
+filled with water, which shall accompany the engines to the fire.
+
+On arriving at the spot, the head enginemen shall take their
+instructions from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the
+chief magistrate in attendance on the spot; or, in their absence, from
+a member of the fire-engine committee, and from no other person
+whatever.
+
+
+V.--FIREMEN.
+
+The firemen shall attend at all times when required by the head
+enginemen or superintendent, as well as upon the days of general
+inspection. They shall keep their engines in good order and condition,
+and shall be equipped in their uniform at all times when called out.
+
+They shall observe the instructions of no person whatever, except
+those of the superintendent or head enginemen.
+
+
+VI.--HIGH CONSTABLES AND COMMISSIONERS OF POLICE.
+
+Upon occasions of fire, the moderator of the high constables shall
+call out the high constables, and, if necessary, he shall also call
+out the extra constables, and give notice to call out the constables
+of their districts; and it shall be the duty of the constables to
+preserve order and to protect property, to keep the crowd away from
+the engines, and those employed about them; and, when authorized by
+the chief magistrate, superintendent of engines, or, in the absence of
+a magistrate, by a member of the committee on fire-engines, to provide
+men for working the engines.
+
+Neither the constables nor the commissioners of police shall assume
+any management, or give any directions whatsoever, except in absence
+of a magistrate and the superintendent of engines, in which case any
+member of the committee on fire-engines may give orders to the head
+enginemen.
+
+In cases of protracted fire, when extra men may be required to relieve
+the regular establishment, it shall be the duty of the high constables
+to collect those wanted, from amongst the persons on the street who
+may be willing to lend their assistance, mustering them in such
+parties as may be required, taking a note of their names, and
+furnishing each individual with a certificate or ticket, with which
+the moderator of the high constables, or chief constable at the time,
+will be supplied; and no person shall receive any remuneration for
+alleged assistance given at a fire who may not produce such
+certificate or ticket.
+
+The party or parties so mustered shall be placed and continue under
+the care of two high constables, until required for service, when they
+shall be moved forward to the engine.
+
+The men relieved by the party so moved forward, shall be taken charge
+of by two high constables, who shall see them properly refreshed and
+brought back within a reasonable time, so that the men employed may
+thus occasionally relieve each other without confusion, and without
+being too much exhausted.
+
+
+VII.--MAGISTRATES, &c.
+
+Upon occasion of fires, the magistrates, sheriff, moderator of the
+high constables, the superintendent of the water company, the managers
+of the different gas-light companies, and the fire-engine committee,
+will give their attendance. They will assemble in such house nearest
+to the place of the fire as can be procured, of which notice shall be
+immediately given to the officer commanding the police on the spot.
+
+The orders of the chief magistrate in attendance shall be immediately
+obeyed; and no order, except those issued by such magistrate, and the
+particular directions given as to the fire and engine department by
+the master of engines, or, in their absence, by a member of the
+fire-engine committee on the spot, shall be at all attended to.
+
+The magistrates and sheriff further declare, that all porters holding
+badges shall be bound to give their attendance at fires when called
+upon for that purpose.
+
+
+VIII.--GAS-LIGHT COMPANIES.
+
+The managers of the different gas-light companies, on receiving notice
+of a fire, shall instantly take measures for turning off the gas from
+all shops and houses in the immediate neighbourhood of the fire.
+
+
+IX.--SPECIAL REGULATIONS FOR THE FIREMEN.
+
+_Captains._--On the alarm of fire being given, an engine must be
+immediately despatched from the main office to whatever district the
+fire may be in; and the captain in whose district the fire happens
+shall bring his engine to the spot as quickly as possible, taking care
+that none of the apparatus is awanting. On arriving at the spot, he
+must take every means in his power to supply his engine with water,
+but especially by a service-pipe from a fire-cock, if that be found
+practicable. Great care must be taken to place the engine so that it
+may be in the direction of the water, with sufficient room on all
+sides to work it, but as little in the way of persons employed in
+carrying out furniture, &c., as possible. He must also examine the
+fire while the men are fixing the hose, &c., that the water may be
+directed with the best effect.
+
+The captains shall be responsible for any misconduct of their men,
+when they fail to report such misconduct to the superintendent.
+
+The engines must be at all times in good working order, and the
+captain shall report to the superintendent when any part of the
+apparatus is in need of repair.
+
+When the fire is in another district, the captain of each engine shall
+get his men and engine ready to proceed at a moment's notice, but must
+not move from his engine-house till a special order arrives from a
+lieutenant of police or the superintendent of brigade.
+
+_Sergeants._--The sergeant of each engine will take the command in
+absence of the captain. When the captain is present, the sergeant will
+give him all possible assistance in conducting the engine to the fire;
+and it will there be more particularly the sergeant's duty to see that
+the engine is supplied with water, and that every man is at his proper
+station, and to remain with his engine while on duty, whether it is
+working or not, unless he receives special orders to the contrary.
+
+_Pioneers._--Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of each engine will be considered
+pioneers. Nos. 1 and 2 will proceed to the fire immediately, without
+going to their engine-house, in order to prepare for the arrival of
+the first engine, by ascertaining and clearing a proper station for
+it, and by making ready the most available supplies of water, as also
+to examine the state of the premises on fire and the neighbouring
+ones, so as to be able to give such information to the captain on his
+arrival as may enable him to apply his force with the greatest effect.
+_The pioneers will attend particularly to the excluding of air from
+the parts on fire by every means in their power, and they will
+ascertain whether there are any communications with the adjoining
+house by the roof, gable, or otherwise._ When the several engines
+arrive, the pioneers will fall in with their own company, and take
+their farther orders from the captain or sergeant.
+
+_Firemen._--On the alarm of fire being given, the whole company
+belonging to each engine (Nos. 1 and 2 excepted) shall assemble as
+speedily as possible at their engine-house, and act with spirit under
+the orders of their officers in getting everything ready for service.
+Each man will get a ticket with his own number and the colour of his
+engine marked upon it; and on all occasions when he comes on duty he
+will give this ticket into the hands of a policeman, who will be
+appointed by the officer of police on duty to collect them at each
+engine-house, and who will accompany the engine if it is ordered to
+the fire.
+
+If the ticket be not given in, as before provided, within half an hour
+after the alarm is given at their engine-house, or at all events,
+within half an hour after the arrival of the engine at the fire, the
+defaulter will forfeit the allowance for turning out, and also the
+first hour's pay.
+
+If not given in within the first hour, he will forfeit all claim to
+pay.
+
+The superintendent, however, may do away the forfeiture in any of
+these cases, on cause being shown to his satisfaction.
+
+On quarter-days and days of exercise, every man must be ready equipped
+at the appointed hour, otherwise he will forfeit that day's pay, or
+such part of it as the superintendent may determine.
+
+Any man destroying his equipments, or wearing them when off duty, will
+be punished by fine or dismissal from the service, as the
+superintendent may determine.
+
+Careless conduct, irregular attendance at exercise, or disobedience of
+superior officers, to be punished as above-mentioned.
+
+The man who arrives first at the engine-house to which he belongs,
+_properly equipped_, will receive three shillings over and above the
+pay for turning out.
+
+The first of the Nos. 1 and 2 who arrives at the fire, _properly
+equipped_, in whatever district it may be, will receive three
+shillings over and above the pay for turning out.
+
+No pay will be allowed for a false alarm, unless the same is given by
+a policeman.
+
+As nothing is so hurtful to the efficiency of an establishment for
+extinguishing fires as unnecessary noise, irregularity, or
+insubordination, it is enjoined on all to observe quietness and
+regularity, to execute readily whatever orders they may receive from
+their officers, and to do nothing without orders.
+
+The first engine and company which arrive at the fire are not to be
+interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted from them by
+those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct order from the
+superintendent, or, in his absence, from the chief magistrate on the
+spot. The same rule will apply to each succeeding engine which takes
+up a station.
+
+The men must be careful not to allow their attention to be distracted
+from their duty by listening to directions from any persons _except
+their own officers_; and they will refer every one who applies to them
+for aid to the superintendent, or to the chief magistrate present at
+the time.
+
+All the firemen must be particularly careful to let the policemen on
+their respective stations know where they live, and take notice when
+the policeman is changed, that they may give the new one the requisite
+information.
+
+The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from
+any individual without the special permission of the captain of their
+engine, who will see that every proper and necessary refreshment be
+afforded to them; and as intoxication upon such alarming occasions is
+not merely disreputable to the corps, but in the highest degree
+dangerous, by rendering the men unfit for their duty, every appearance
+of it will be most rigidly marked; and any man who may be discovered
+in that state shall not only forfeit his whole allowances for the
+turn-out and duty performed, but will be forthwith dismissed from the
+corps.
+
+All concerned are strictly enjoined to preserve their presence of
+mind, not to lose temper, and upon no occasion whatsoever to give
+offence to the inhabitants by making use of uncivil language or
+behaving rudely.
+
+*** Every one belonging to the establishment will be furnished with a
+printed copy of these Regulations, which they are enjoined carefully
+to preserve and _read over at least once every week_.
+
+
+MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE.
+
+[The following was written in the year 1830, and does not refer to
+Public Fire-Escapes other than those that can be carried with a
+Fire-Engine.--EDITOR.]
+
+When the lower floors of a house are on fire, and the stairs or other
+ordinary means of retreat destroyed, the simplest and easiest mode of
+removing the inhabitants from the upper floors, is by a ladder placed
+against the wall. In order to be able at all times to carry this plan
+into effect, the person having charge of the engines should (as far as
+possible) inform himself where long ladders are to be had, and how
+they can most easily be removed.
+
+But if a ladder of sufficient length is not to be procured, or is at
+too great a distance to render it safe to wait for it, recourse must
+immediately be had to other means.
+
+If it happens that the windows above are all inaccessible, on account
+of the flames bursting through those below, the firemen should
+immediately get on the roof (by means of the adjoining houses,) and
+descend by the hatch. The hatch, however, being sometimes directly
+above the stair, is in that case very soon affected by the fire and
+smoke. If, on approaching, it is found to be so much so as to render
+an entrance in that way impracticable, the firemen should instantly
+break through the roof, and, descending into the upper floors,
+extricate those within. If it should happen, however, that the persons
+in danger are not in the upper floor, and cannot reach it in
+consequence of the stair being on fire, the firemen should continue
+breaking through floor after floor till they reach them. In so
+desperate a case as this the shorter process may probably be to break
+through the party-wall between the house on fire and that adjoining,
+when there is one; and when there is no house immediately contiguous,
+through the gable, taking care in either case to break through at the
+back of a closet, press, chimney, or other recess, where the wall is
+thinnest. If an opening has been made from the adjoining house, it
+should immediately (after having served the purpose for which it was
+made) be built up with brick or stone, to prevent the fire spreading.
+All these operations should be performed by slaters, masons, or
+house-carpenters, who, being better acquainted with such work, are
+likely to execute it in a shorter time than others--time, in such a
+case, being everything, as a few minutes lost may cost the lives of
+the whole party. It is not impossible, however, that circumstances may
+occur to render all or either of these plans impracticable; in that
+case, one or two of the lower windows must be darkened, and by this
+means access gained to the upper ones. The plan recommended by the
+Parisian firemen is, for a man to wrap himself up in a wet blanket,
+and thus pass swiftly through the flames. But this effort is only to
+be attempted when the flames from a single door are to be passed; in
+any other case the stair will most likely be in flames, and
+impassable.
+
+A simple means of escape from fire is to have an iron ring fastened to
+the window sill, and inside of the room a cradle, with a coil of rope
+attached to it. The rope is put through the ring, and the person
+wishing to escape gets into the cradle, and lowers himself down by
+passing the rope through his hands. The great objection to this plan,
+which is certainly very simple, is the difficulty, or rather
+impossibility, of persuading people to provide themselves with the
+necessary materials. Many men, too, are incapable of the exertion upon
+which the whole plan depends; and if men in a state of terror are
+unfit for such a task, what is to become of women and children?
+
+Any fire-escape, to be generally useful, must, in the first place, be
+capable of being carried about without encumbering the fire-engine;
+and, in the next place, must be of instant and simple application. The
+means which appear to me to possess these qualifications in the
+highest degree, is a combination of the cradle plan, with Captain
+Manby's admirable invention for saving shipwrecked seamen.
+
+The apparatus necessary for this fire-escape is a chain-ladder eighty
+feet long, a single chain or rope of the same length as the ladder, a
+canvas bag, a strong steel cross-bow, and a fine cord of the very best
+workmanship and materials, 130 feet long, with a lead bullet of
+three-ounce weight attached to one end, and carefully wound upon a
+wooden cone seven inches high and seven inches broad at the base,
+turned with a spiral groove, to prevent the cord slipping when wound
+upon it, also a small pulley with a claw attached to it, and a cord
+reeved through it of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the
+ladder.
+
+In order to prevent the sides of the ladder from collapsing, the steps
+are made of copper or iron tube, fastened by a piece of cord passed
+through the tube and into the links of the chain, till the tube is
+filled. The steps thus fastened are tied to the chain with
+copper-wire, so that, in the event of the cord being destroyed, the
+steps will be retained in their places by the wire. The ladder is
+provided with two large hooks at one end, for the purpose of fixing it
+to a roof, window-sill, &c. The bag is of canvas, three feet wide and
+four feet deep, with cords sewed round the bottom, and meeting at the
+top, where they are turned over an iron thimble at each side of the
+mouth of the bag. The steel cross-bow is of the ordinary description,
+of sufficient strength to throw the lead bullet with the cord
+attached, 120 feet high.
+
+When the house from which the persons in danger are to be extricated
+is so situated that the firemen can get to the roof by passing along
+the tops of the adjoining houses, they will carry up the chain-ladder
+with them, and drop it over the window where the inmates show
+themselves, fastening the hooks at the same time securely in the roof.
+The firemen will descend by the ladder into the window, and putting
+the persons to be removed into the bag, lower them down into the
+street by the single chain. If the flames are issuing from the windows
+below, the bag, when filled, is easily drawn aside into the window of
+the adjoining house, by means of a guy or guide-rope.
+
+If the house on fire stands by itself, or if access cannot be had to
+the roof by means of the adjoining houses, the lead bullet, with the
+cord attached, is thrown over the house by means of the cross-bow; to
+this cord a stronger one is attached, and drawn over the house by
+means of the former; a single chain is then attached, and drawn over
+in like manner; and to this last is attached the chain-ladder, which,
+on being raised to the roof, the firemen ascend, and proceed as before
+directed.
+
+If the house be so high that the cord cannot be thrown over far enough
+to be taken hold of by those on the opposite side, then the persons to
+be extricated must take hold of the cord, as it hangs past the window
+at which they may have placed themselves. By means of it they draw up
+the small pulley, and hook it on the window-sill. The chain-ladder is
+then made fast to the end of the cord, and drawn up by those below.
+When the end of the chain-ladder comes in front of the window, the
+persons inside fasten the hooks of the ladder on its sill, or to the
+post of a bed, the bars of a grate, or anything likely to afford a
+sufficient hold. After having ascertained that the ladder is properly
+fixed, the firemen will ascend and proceed as in the former cases.
+
+I must here remark, that before this plan can be properly put in
+execution, the firemen must be regularly trained to the exercise. When
+the firemen here are practised with the fire-escape, the man ascending
+or descending has a strong belt round his middle, to which another
+chain is fastened, and held by a man stationed at the window for that
+purpose; if any accident, therefore, were to occur with the
+chain-ladder, the man cannot fall to the ground, but would be swung by
+the chain attached to the belt round his body. The men are also
+frequently practised in ascending and descending by single chains. The
+firemen here are very fond of the above exercise; the bagging each
+other seems to amuse them exceedingly.[I]
+
+The last resort, in desperate cases, is to leap from the window. When
+this is to be attempted, mattresses, beds, straw, or other soft
+substances, should be collected under the window; a piece of carpet or
+other strong cloth should be held up by ten or twelve stout men. The
+person in the window may then leap, as nearly as possible, into the
+centre of the cloth, and if he has sufficient resolution to take a
+fair leap, he may escape with comparatively little injury.[J]
+
+
+FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+In the application of manual power to the working of fire-engines, the
+principal object is, to apply the greatest aggregate power to the
+lightest and smallest machine; that is, suppose two engines of the
+same size and weight, the one with space for 20 men to work throws 60
+gallons per minute; and the other, with space for 30 men, throws 80
+gallons in the same time; the latter will be the most useful engine,
+although each man is not able to do so much work as at the former.
+
+The reciprocating motion is generally preferred to the rotary for
+fire-engines. Independent of its being the most advantageous movement,
+a greater number of men can be employed at an engine of the same size
+and weight; there is less liability to accident with people
+unacquainted with the work, and such as are quite ignorant of either
+mode of working, work more freely at the reciprocating than the rotary
+motion. To these reasons may be added, the greater simplicity of the
+machinery.
+
+Various sizes of engines, of different degrees of strength and weight,
+have been tried, and it is found that a fire-engine with two cylinders
+of 7 inches diameter, and a stroke of 8 inches, can be made
+sufficiently strong at 17-1/2 cwt. If 4 cwt. be added for the hose and
+tools, it will be found quite as heavy as two fast horses can manage,
+for a distance under six miles, with five firemen and a driver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade.
+Longitudinal section,--with the Levers turned up for travelling.]
+
+This size of engine has been adopted by the Board of Admiralty and the
+Board of Ordnance, and its use is becoming very general.
+
+When engines are made larger, it is seldom that the proper proportions
+are preserved, and they are generally worked with difficulty, and soon
+fatigue the men at the levers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Transverse section.]
+
+When an engine is large, it not only requires a considerable number of
+men to work it, but it is not easily supplied with water; and, above
+all, _it cannot be moved about with that celerity on which, in a
+fire-engine establishment, everything depends_. When the engine is
+brought into actual operation, the effect to be produced depends less
+on the quantity of water thrown than upon its being made actually to
+strike the burning materials, the force with which it does so, and the
+steadiness with which the engine is worked. If the water be steadily
+directed upon the burning materials, the effect even of a small
+quantity is astonishing.
+
+When a large engine is required in London, two with 7-inches cylinders
+are worked together by means of a connecting screw, thus making a jet
+very nearly equal (as 98 to 100) to that of an engine with cylinders
+10 inches diameter.
+
+It is also an advantage not unworthy of consideration, that two 7-inch
+engines may be had nearly for the price of one 10-inch one; so that if
+one happens to be rendered unserviceable the other may still be
+available.
+
+The usual rate of working an engine of the size described is 40
+strokes of each cylinder per minute; this gives 88 gallons. The number
+of men required to keep steadily at work for three or four hours is
+26; upwards of 30 men are sometimes put on when a great length of hose
+is necessary. The lever is in the proportion of 4-1/4 to 1. With 40
+feet of leather hose and a 7/8 inch jet, the pressure is 30 lb. on the
+square inch; this gives 10.4 lbs. to each man to move a distance of
+226 feet in one minute. The friction increases the labour 2-1/2 per
+cent. for every additional 40 feet of hose, which shows the necessity
+of having the engine, and of course the supply of water, as close to
+the fire as is consistent with the safety of the men at the levers.
+
+In order that the reader may have a distinct idea of such a
+fire-engine, I shall here endeavour to give a description, chiefly
+taken from those made by W. J. Tilley,[K] fire-engine maker, London.
+
+The engravings (figs. 1 and 2) represent a fire-engine of 7-inch
+barrels and 8-inch stroke.[L] The cistern marked A is made of mahogany
+or oak. The upper work, B, and side-boxes or pockets, C, are of Baltic
+fir. The sole, D, upon which the barrels stand, and which also
+contains the valves, is of cast-iron, with covers of the same
+material, which are screwed down, and the joints made good with
+leather or india-rubber. The pieces E, at each end of the cast-iron
+sole D, are of cast brass, and screwed to the cast-iron sole D, with a
+joint the same as above. In one of these pieces is the screwed
+suction-cap F, and to the other is attached the air-vessel G, made of
+sheet-copper, and attached to the piece E by a screw. The exit-pipe H
+is attached to the under side of the casting E by a swivel. The valves
+at I are of brass, ground so as to be completely water-tight. The
+barrels K are of cast brass. The engine is set on four grasshopper
+springs M. The shafts or handles O, of the levers P, are of lancewood.
+The box S, under the driving seat, is used for keeping wrenches, cord,
+&c.; in the fore part of the cistern A, and the box B above the
+cistern, the hose is kept; the branch and suction-pipes are carried in
+the side-boxes or pockets C; the rest of the tools and materials are
+kept along with the above-mentioned articles, in such situations as
+not to interfere with the working of the engine.
+
+The cistern is made of oak or mahogany, for strength and durability;
+but, for the sake of lightness, the upper work and side-boxes are made
+of Baltic fir, strength in them being of less importance.
+
+As the valve cannot be made without a rise for the lid to strike
+against, there is a small step at each of the valves, and the sole is
+carried through as high as this step, to admit of the water running
+off when the engine is done working. If constructed in a different
+manner, the water will lodge in the bottom, and produce much
+inconvenience in situations where the engine is exposed to frost.
+
+The valve-covers are of cast-iron, fastened down with copper screws, a
+piece of leather or india-rubber being placed between them and the
+upper edges of the sole.
+
+The pieces at each end of the sole are of cast-brass, instead of
+sheet-copper, with soft-solder joints, which are very apt to give way.
+
+The screwed suction cap with iron handle admits the water in two
+different directions, according as it is open or closed: the one to
+supply the engine when water is drawn from the cistern, the other for
+drawing water through the suction-pipe.
+
+The valves are brass plates, truly ground to fit the circular brass
+orifice on which they fall. The brass being well ground, no leather is
+used for the purpose of making them tight. The longer they are used
+the better they fit, and by having no leather about them they are less
+liable to the adhesion of small stones or gravel. The whole valve is
+put together and then keyed into a groove in the sides and bottom of
+the sole, left for that purpose.
+
+The barrels are of cast-brass, with a piston made of two circular
+pieces of the same metal, each put into a strong leather cup, and
+bolted to the other. The bottoms of the cups being together, when the
+piston becomes loose in the barrels, and there is not sufficient time
+to replace the cups by new ones, they are easily tightened by putting
+a layer of hemp round the piston between the leather and the brass.
+This operation, however, requires to be carefully performed; for if
+more hemp is put into one part than another it is apt to injure the
+barrels. The barrels are fixed to the cast-iron sole by copper screws,
+a little red lead being placed between the bottom flange of the barrel
+and the sole.
+
+When the engine is likely to be dragged over rough roads or causeways,
+it is of importance to have it set on springs, to prevent the jolting
+from affecting the working part of the engine, everything depending on
+that being right.
+
+The engines used in Paris are mounted on two wheels, the carriage and
+the engine being separate, the latter being dismounted from the former
+before it can be used. In Paris, where the engines are managed by a
+corps of regularly-trained firemen, this may answer well enough; but
+if hastily or carelessly dismounted by unskilful persons, the engine
+may be seriously damaged. It is also worthy of remark, that the proper
+quantity of hose, tools, &c., can be more easily attached to and
+carried on a four-wheeled engine.
+
+In order that the men may work more easily at the handles, and suffer
+less fatigue, the engine is not higher than to enable them to have the
+levers easily under their command. The shafts of the levers are of
+lancewood, being best calculated to bear the strain to which they are
+exposed when the engine is at work, and they are made to fold up at
+each end for convenience in travelling.
+
+The air-vessel should be placed clear of any other part of the engine,
+excepting only the point where it is attached.
+
+The fore-carriage of the engine is fitted with a pole, and is made to
+suit the harness of coach-horses, these being, in large towns, more
+easily procured than other draught cattle; this can be altered,
+however, to suit such harness as can most readily be obtained. Where
+horses are seldom used to move the engines, a drag-handle is attached,
+by which one or two men are able easily to direct the progress of the
+engine.
+
+Two drag-ropes, each twenty-five feet long, of three-inch rope, with
+ten loops to each, are attached, one to each end of the splinter-bar,
+by means of which the engines are dragged; and to prevent the loops
+collapsing on the hand, they are partly lined with sheet-copper.
+
+The whole of the brass work of an engine should be of the best
+gun-metal, composed of copper and tin only. Yellow brass should never
+be used; even at first it is far inferior to gun-metal, and after
+being used for some time it gets brittle. The whole of the materials
+used in the construction of a fire-engine should be of the best
+description.
+
+In London for some years past a hand-pump has been carried with each
+engine. They have been found of the greatest service in keeping doors,
+windows, &c., cool. They throw from six to eight gallons per minute,
+to a height of from thirty to forty feet, and can be used in any
+position. The idea of the hand-pumps I took from the old-fashioned
+squirt, or "hand-engine."
+
+When fire-engines are unserviceable it arises more frequently from
+want of care in keeping in order than from any damage they may have
+received in actual service or by the wearing out of the materials; so
+it is quite plain that this important part of the duty has not
+generally had that degree of attention paid to it which it deserves.
+
+Although an engine were to be absolutely perfect in its construction,
+if carelessly thrown aside after being brought home from a fire, and
+allowed to remain in that state till the next occasion, it would be in
+vain (especially in small towns, where alarms are rare) to expect to
+find it in a serviceable condition; some of the parts must have grown
+stiff, and if brought into action in this state something is likely to
+give way.
+
+When an engine is brought back from a fire, it ought to be immediately
+washed, the cistern cleaned out, the barrels and journals cleaned and
+fresh oil put on them, the wheels greased, and every part of the
+engine carefully cleaned and examined, and if any repairs are needed
+they should be executed immediately. When all this has been attended
+to clean hose should be put in, and the engine is again fit for
+immediate service. Besides this cleaning and examination after use,
+the engine ought to be examined and the brass part cleaned once a
+week, and worked with water once a month whether it has been used or
+not.
+
+In addition to the keeping of the engine always in an effective state,
+this attention has the advantage of reminding the men of their duty,
+and making them familiar with every part of the mechanism of the
+engine; thus teaching them effectually how the engines ought to be
+protected when at work, by enabling them to discover those parts most
+liable to be damaged, and to which part damage is the most dangerous.
+It is more troublesome generally to get the engines well kept when
+there are no fires, than when there are many. But the only effectual
+method of inducing the men to keep them in good order, in addition to
+the moral stimulants of censure and applause, is to fine those who
+have the charge of them for the slightest neglect.
+
+When the engine has been properly placed, before beginning to work the
+fore-carriage should be locked. This is done by putting an iron pin
+through a piece of wood attached to the cistern, into the
+fore-carriage. This prevents the wheels from turning round, and coming
+under the shafts, by which the latter might be damaged, and the hands
+of the men at work injured.
+
+Small stones, gravel, and other obstructions, sometimes find their way
+into the nozzle of the branch-pipe, from having dropped into the hose
+before being attached, or having been drawn through the suction-pipe
+or from the cistern. Whenever the engine is found to work stiffly, it
+should be stopped and examined, otherwise the pressure may burst the
+hose, or damage some part of the engine. If anything impedes the
+action of the valves the pistons must be drawn, and if a person's hand
+be then introduced they may easily be cleared--constant care and
+attention to all the minutiæ of the engine and apparatus being
+absolutely indispensable, if effective service be expected from them.
+
+Considerable attention ought to be paid to the selecting a proper
+situation for an engine-house. Generally speaking, it ought to be
+central, and on the highest ground of the district it is meant to
+protect, and care should be taken to observe when any of the streets
+leading from it are impassable.
+
+If, in addition to these advantages, the engine-house can be had
+adjoining to a police watch-house, it may be considered nearly
+perfect, in so far as regards situation. These advantages being all
+attained, the engine can be conveyed to any particular spot by a
+comparatively small number of men, while the vicinity of a police
+watch-house affords a facility of communicating the alarm of fire to
+the firemen not to be obtained otherwise. When the engine-house is
+placed in a low situation the men who first arrive must wait till the
+others come forward to assist them to drag the engine up the ascent,
+and many minutes must thus be lost at a time when moments are
+important.
+
+After choosing a proper situation for the engine-house, the next care
+should be directed towards having it properly ventilated, as nothing
+contributes more to the proper keeping of the engines and hose than
+fresh and dry air. For this purpose a stove should be fitted up, by
+which the temperature may be kept equal. When engines are exposed to
+violent alternations of heat and cold, they will be found to operate
+very considerably on the account for repairs, besides occasioning the
+danger of the engine being frozen and unserviceable when wanted.
+
+There ought to be at least half a dozen keys for each engine-house,
+which should be kept by the firemen, watchmen, and those connected
+with the establishment, that the necessity of breaking open the door
+may not occur.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH ENGINE IS PROVIDED.
+
+Having considered the sort of fire-engine which is best adapted for
+general purposes, I shall now notice the different articles which, in
+London, are always attached to, and accompany, each engine of this
+kind:--
+
+     7 coils of hose, 40 feet each.
+     4 bundles of sheepskin and lay-cord.
+     4 lengths of suction-pipe, each between 6 and 7 feet long.
+     2 branch pipes.
+     3 jet pipes or nozzles and an elbow for jet.
+     3 wrenches for coupling-joints.
+     2 lamps.
+     2 lengths of scaling ladder.
+     1 fire-hook.
+     60 feet of patent line, and 20 feet of trace line.
+     1 mattock.
+     1 shovel.
+     1 hatchet or pole-axe.
+     1 saw.
+     1 iron crow-bar.
+     1 portable cistern.
+     1 flat suction strainer.
+     1 standcock, and hook for street plugs.
+     1 screw wrench.
+     1 canvas sheet with 10 or 12 rope handles round its edges.
+     9 canvas buckets.
+     1 hand-pump with 10 feet of hose and jet pipe.
+
+Of these articles I shall endeavour to give a description as they
+stand in the above list.
+
+The article of hose being first in order, as well as importance,
+merits particular attention.
+
+The sort used is leather, made with copper rivets, and is by far the
+most serviceable and durable hose that I have yet seen.
+
+Manufacturers of this article, however, for a very obvious reason, are
+not always careful to select that part of the hide which, being
+firmest, is best adapted for the purpose. Indeed, I have known several
+instances wherein nearly the whole hide has been cut up and made into
+hose, without any selection whatever. The effect of this is very
+prejudicial. The loose parts of the hide soon stretch and weaken, and
+while, by stretching, the diameter of the pipe is increased, the
+pressure of the water, in consequence, becomes greater on that than on
+any other part of the hose, which is thereby rendered more liable to
+give way at such places.
+
+Hose are frequently made narrow in the middle, and, in order to fit
+the coupling-joints, wide at the extremities--a practice which lessens
+their capability of conveying a given quantity of water, in proportion
+to the difference of the area of the section of the diameters at the
+extremity and the middle part.
+
+In order to make them fit the coupling-joints, when carelessly widened
+too much, I have frequently seen them stuffed up with brown paper, and
+in that case they almost invariably give way, the folds of the paper
+destroying the hold which the leather would otherwise have of the
+ridges made on the ends of the coupling-joints.
+
+In order to avoid all these faults and defects, the riveted hose used
+are made in the following manner:--
+
+The leather is nine and five-eighths inches broad (that being the
+breadth required for coupling-joints of two and a half inches diameter
+of clear water-way), and levelled to the proper uniform thickness. The
+leather used is taken from hides of the very best description,
+perfectly free from flesh-cuts, warble-holes, or any other blemish,
+and stuffed as high as possible.[M] Not more than four breadths are
+taken from each hide, and none of the soft parts about the neck,
+shoulders, or belly are used. No piece of leather is less than four
+feet long.
+
+The leather is gauged to the exact breadth, and holes punched in it
+for the rivets. In the operation of punching, great care must be taken
+to make the holes on each side of the leather exactly opposite to each
+other. If this precaution be not attended to, the seam when riveted
+takes a spiral direction on the hose, which the heads of the rivets
+are very apt to cut at the folds. Care must also be taken that the
+leather is equally stretched on both sides, otherwise the number of
+holes on the opposite sides may be unequal. The ends are then cut at
+an angle of thirty-seven degrees; if cut at a greater angle, the
+cross-joint will be too short, and if at a smaller, the leather will
+be wasted. This must, however, be regulated in some degree by the
+number of holes in the cross-joint, as the angle must be altered a
+little if the holes at that part do not fit exactly with the holes
+along the side.
+
+The different pieces of leather necessary to form one length, or forty
+feet of hose, are riveted together by the ends.
+
+Straps of leather, three inches broad, are then riveted across the
+pipe, ten feet apart, to form loops for the purpose of handing or
+making fast the hose when full of water. The leather is then laid
+along a bench, and a bar of iron, from eight to ten feet long, three
+inches broad, and one inch thick, with the corners rounded off, is
+laid above it. The rivets are next put into the holes on one side of
+the leather, along the whole length of the iron bar. The holes on the
+other side are then brought over them, and the washers put on the
+points of the rivets, and struck down with a hollow punch. The points
+of the rivets are then riveted down over the washers, and finished
+with a setting punch. The bar of iron is drawn along, and the same
+operation repeated till the length of the hose be finished.
+
+The rivets and washers should be made of the best wrought copper, and
+must be well tinned before being used.
+
+Some objections have been made to riveted hose on account of the
+alleged difficulty of repairing them; but this is not so serious a
+matter as may at first view appear. Indeed, they very seldom require
+any repairs, and when they do, the process is not difficult. If any of
+the rivets be damaged, as many must be taken out as will make room for
+the free admission of the hand. A small flat mandrel being introduced
+into the hose, the new rivets are put into the leather, and riveted up
+the same as new pipe; the mandrel is then shaken out at the end.
+
+If the leather be damaged, it may be repaired either by cutting out
+the piece, and making a new joint, or by riveting a piece of leather
+upon the hole.
+
+The manner of attaching the hose to the coupling-joint is also a
+matter of very considerable importance. If a joint come off when the
+engine is in operation, a whole length of hose is rendered useless for
+the time, and a considerable delay incurred in getting it detached,
+and another substituted.
+
+To prevent this, the hose ought to fit as tightly as possible to the
+coupling-joint, without any packing. In riveted hose, a piece of
+leather, thinned down to the proper size, should be put on to make up
+the void which the thick edge of the leather next the rivet
+necessarily leaves; the hose should then be tied to the coupling-joint
+as firmly as possible with the best annealed copper wire, No. 16
+gauge.
+
+When the hose are completely finished in this manner they are proved
+by a proving-pump, and if they stand a pressure of two hundred feet of
+water they are considered fit for service. I may also add, that when
+any piece of hose has been under repair it is proved in the same
+manner before it is deemed trustworthy.
+
+The proving of the hose is of very considerable importance, and the
+method of doing so which I have mentioned is greatly superior to the
+old plan of proving them on an engine or fire-cock. By the latter
+method, no certain measure can be obtained by which the pressure can
+be calculated. In the first place it must depend on the relative
+height of the reservoir from whence the water is obtained and that of
+the fire-cock where the experiment is made; and as the supply of water
+drawn from the pipes by the inhabitants may be different on different
+days of the week and even in different hours of the day, it is quite
+evident that by this method no certain rule can be formed for the
+purpose required, the pressure being affected by the quantity of water
+drawn at the time.
+
+The method of proving by an engine is considerably better than this;
+but when a proving-pump can be obtained it is infinitely better than
+either. One disadvantage of an engine is, that it requires a
+considerable number of men; but even the proof, that of throwing the
+water to a given height on the gable of a house or other height, is
+not always a test of the sufficiency of the hose. As the temperature
+is low or high, the wind fresh or light, the degree of pressure on the
+hose in throwing the water to the required height will be greater or
+less. Indeed, in high winds it is a matter of extreme difficulty to
+throw the water to any considerable height.
+
+With an engine of 7-inch barrels and 7-inch stroke, fitted with eighty
+feet of 2-3/8-inch hose, I have found from several experiments that
+when the water is thrown seventy-five feet high, the pressure on the
+hose is equal to one hundred feet. The same engine, with 160 feet of
+hose, and the branch-pipe raised fifty feet above the level of the
+engine, when the water was thrown fifty-six feet from the branch,
+occasioned a pressure equal to 130 feet on the hose. From these
+experiments, I am convinced that the pressure will not be equal to 200
+feet, except in very extreme cases, or when some obstacle gets into
+the jet pipe.
+
+I tried the extreme strength of a piece of riveted hose 4 feet long
+and 2-3/8 inches diameter, and found that it did not burst till the
+pressure increased to 500 feet; and when it gave way the leather was
+fairly torn along the rivet-holes.
+
+Every possible care should be taken to keep the hose soft and pliable,
+and to prevent its being affected by mildew. After being used, in
+order to dry them equally they should be hung up by the centre, with
+the two ends hanging down, until half dry. They should then be taken
+down and rubbed over with a composition of bees'-wax, tallow, and
+neats-foot oil,[N] and again hung up to allow the grease to sink into
+the leather. When the hose appear to be dry they should be a second
+time rubbed with the composition, and then coiled up for use. In order
+that the hose undergoing the operation of greasing may not be
+disturbed or used till in a fit state, it is better to have a double
+set, and in this way, while one set is in grease the other is in the
+engine ready and fit for service. More time can also be taken for any
+repairs which may be necessary, and they will in consequence be more
+carefully done, and at fires where a great length of hose is required
+the spare set will always be available. When the weather is damp, and
+the hose cannot be dried so as to be fit for greasing in two or three
+days, a stove should be put into the room in order to facilitate the
+process. The greatest care, however, must be taken in the use of
+artificial heat. The whole apartment should be kept of one equal
+temperature, which ought never to be higher than is requisite to dry
+the hose for greasing in about forty hours.
+
+_Coupling-joints._[O]--So much of the efficiency and duration of the
+hose depend on the proper form given to the brass coupling-joints,
+that I deem it useful to give a detailed description, both of those
+generally made use of and of those adopted by the Edinburgh
+fire-establishment, and also to point out their various defects and
+advantages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. Old Coupling]
+
+Fig. 3 is the construction commonly made by engine-makers. Its defects
+are as follows:--From the form of the furrows and ridges where the
+leather is tied it does not hold on well against a force tending to
+pull the hose off end-ways; screw-nails are therefore often employed,
+as at A, to secure the hose on the brass. The points of these nails
+always protrude more or less into the inside of the joint, and
+materially impede the current of water. The mouths of the joints are
+also turned outwards, and form a shoulder, as at B. The intention of
+this is probably to assist in securing the leather in its place, and
+to prevent the lapping from slipping. The effects of it are as
+follows:--First, from the leather being strained over this projection,
+it becomes liable to be cut by every accidental injury, and very soon
+cracks and gives way, when a portion must be cut off and a fresh
+fixing made; second, the leather being stretched over the projection,
+does not fit the other part of the joint, and must be loose or filled
+up with pieces of leather, or, as is sometimes done, with brown paper;
+third, the irregularity of the calibre of the conduit which this
+shoulder occasions diminishes the performance of the engine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. New Coupling]
+
+Fig. 4 is the coupling-joint adopted in Edinburgh. The furrows at the
+tying place are shallow, but their edges present a powerful obstacle
+to the slipping of the leather. No screw-nails are employed, nor is
+there any shoulder, as at B; there is therefore no impediment to or
+variation in the velocity of the current, as the calibres of the
+coupling joints and of the hose are so nearly uniform. It will be seen
+also that as the lapping projects above the leather this latter can
+never be injured by falls or rubbing on the ground.
+
+Another great advantage attending the joints used here is the manner
+in which their screws are finished. On examining the figure minutely,
+it will be observed that the male-screw ends in a cylinder of the
+diameter of the _bottom_ of its thread, consequently of the diameter
+of the top of the thread of the female-screw. The effect of this is,
+that, when the screws are brought together, the cylindric portion
+serves as a guide to the threads, and the most inexperienced person
+cannot fail to make them catch fair at the first trial. The advantage
+of this in the circumstances attending fires is obvious.
+
+These joints, although requiring three or four turns to close them up,
+yet as it is only the ring D which requires to be turned, it can
+easily be done with the hand alone without the use of wrenches.
+Although, when the whole length of hose has been jointed, it may be as
+well to send a man with a pair of wrenches to set the joints firm;
+this, however, is by no means absolutely necessary; if the joints are
+kept in proper order a man can secure them sufficiently with the hand.
+
+There is also a facility in taking turns out of the hose, which no
+other but a swivel joint affords. By slackening a single turn any
+twist may be taken out, without undoing the joint or stopping the
+engine, while, from the number of turns required to close the joints,
+there is no chance of the screw being by any accident undone. In order
+to prevent the threads from being easily damaged, they should be of a
+pretty large size, not more than five or six to the inch. For the same
+reason also the thread should be a little rounded.
+
+As it sometimes happens that the screws are damaged by falling on the
+street, or by heavy bodies striking them, whenever the hose have been
+used the joints should be tried by a steel gauge-screw, to be kept for
+that purpose. This ought to be particularly attended to, as, on
+arriving at a fire, it is rather an awkward time to discover that a
+joint has been damaged, while the delay thus occasioned may be
+attended with very serious consequences.
+
+_Four Bundles of Sheepskin and Lay-cord._--These are simply four or
+five stripes of sheepskin, each about three or four inches broad. When
+a leak occurs in a length of hose which cannot be easily replaced at
+the time, one or more pieces of sheepskin are wrapt tightly over the
+leak and tied firmly with a piece of cord. This is but an indifferent
+method of mending, but I do not know of any other which can be so
+readily applied with the same effect. If another length of hose can be
+substituted for the leaky one it is better to do so; but that is not
+always at hand, nor does it always happen that time can be spared for
+the purpose.
+
+_Four Lengths of Suction-pipe._--These are generally made of leather,
+riveted tightly over a spiral worm of hoop-iron, about three-quarters
+of an inch broad, a piece of tarred canvas being placed between the
+worm and the leather. They are usually made from six to eight feet
+long, with a copper strainer screwed on the farther end, to prevent as
+much as possible any mud or dirt from getting into the engine with the
+water. It is of advantage to carry four lengths of suction-pipe, as
+they can be joined to reach the water; if one is damaged the others
+will still be serviceable.
+
+The suction-pipes are more troublesome to rivet than the common hose,
+and are done in the following manner:--After the joints are fixed on
+the spiral worm, and it is covered with the tarred canvas, an iron
+mandrel longer than the worm is put through it, the edge being rounded
+to the circle of the inside of the worm. The projecting ends of the
+mandrel are supported to allow the worm to lie quite clear. One end of
+the mandrel has a check, that the brass joint may not prevent the worm
+from lying flat on the mandrel. The leather is then put over the worm,
+and the rivets being put into one side, a small thin mandrel is laid
+over the canvas and the rivets struck down upon it. If the small
+mandrel be not used the heads of the rivets are apt to lie unequally
+on the worm.
+
+_Three Wrenches for Coupling-joints._--These are for tightening the
+coupling-joints, when that cannot be sufficiently done by hand. When
+the hose are all put together a man is sent along the whole line with
+a pair of wrenches to tighten such of the coupling-joints as require
+it. The wrenches are generally made with a hole to fit the knob on the
+coupling-joint, and, when used, are placed, one on the nob of the male
+and another on the nob of the female-screw, so as to pull them in
+opposite directions.
+
+_Two Branch Pipes._--These are taper copper tubes, having a
+female-screw at one end to fit the coupling-joints of the hose, and a
+male-screw at the other to receive the jet pipes, one is 4 feet long
+to use from the outside of a house on fire, the other 12 inches for
+inside work.
+
+_Three Jet-pipes_ or nozzles of various sizes made to screw on the end
+of the branch pipe.
+
+A great many different shapes of jet have been tried, and that shown
+in Fig. 5, I found to answer best when tried with other forms. The old
+jet was a continuation in a straight line of the taper of the branch,
+from the size of the hose-screw, to the end of the jet-pipe; this had
+many inconveniences; the size of the jet could not be increased
+without making the jet-pipe nearly parallel. As the branches were
+sometimes 7 feet or 8 feet long, in some instances the orifice at the
+end of the jet-pipe was larger than that at the end of the branch. The
+present form of the jet completely obviates this difficulty, as the
+end of the branch is always 1-1/2 inches diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The curve of the nozzle of the present jet is determined by its own
+size; five times one-half of the difference between the jet to be made
+and the end of the branch, is set up on each side of the diameter of
+the upper end of the branch, a straight line is then drawn across, and
+an arc of a circle described on this line, from the extremity of each
+end of the diameter of the jet, until it meets the top of the branch;
+the jet is then continued parallel, the length of its own diameter;
+the metal is continued one-eighth of an inch above this, to allow of a
+hollow being turned out to protect the edge: The rule for determining
+the size of the jet for inside work is, to "make the diameter of the
+jet one-eighth of an inch for every inch in the diameter of the
+cylinder, for each 8 inches of stroke." The branch used in this case
+is the same size as shown in Fig. 5. When it is necessary to throw the
+water to a greater height, or distance, a jet one-seventh less in area
+is used, with a branch from 4 feet to 5 feet long.
+
+_Two Lengths of Scaling Ladders._--These are 6-1/2 feet long, and are
+fitted with sockets so that any number up to 7 or 8 may be joined
+together to form one ladder varying in length according to
+circumstances from 6-1/2 to upwards of 40 feet.
+
+_One Fire-hook._--This is similar to a common boat-hook, of such
+length as may be most convenient to strap on the handles of the
+engine. It is used for pulling down ceilings, and taking out
+deafening-boards when the fire happens to be between the ceiling and
+the floor above. It is also used when a strong door is to be broken
+open. It is placed with the point upon the door, one or two men
+bearing upon it, while another striking the door, the whole force of
+the blows is made to fall upon the lock or other fastening, which
+generally yields without much difficulty.
+
+_Sixty Feet of Patent Line and Twenty Feet of Trace Line._--These are
+generally used for hoisting the hose into the windows of the house, in
+which there is a fire, the stairs being sometimes so crowded with
+people and furniture, that it is difficult to force a passage, and
+when the pipe is laid in the stair, it is liable to be damaged by
+people treading on it.
+
+_One Mattock and Shovel._--These are useful in damming any running
+water or gutter, uncovering drains, &c., from which the engine may be
+supplied with water. The mattock should be short and strong, and the
+shovel of the sort called diamond-pointed.
+
+_One Hatchet._--The most serviceable hatchet for a fire-engine, is
+similar to that used as a felling axe by wood-cutters. The back part
+is made large that it may be conveniently used as a hammer.
+
+_One Saw._--This should be a stout cross-cut saw, very widely set. It
+is useful in cutting off the communication between one house and
+another, which, when water is scarce, is sometimes necessary.
+
+_One Iron Crow-bar._--This should be about two feet long. It is used
+in opening doors, breaking through walls, &c.
+
+_One Portable Cistern._[P]--This is made of canvas on a folding iron
+frame, and is used in London placed over the street-fire plugs, a hole
+is left in the bottom through which the water enters and fills the
+cistern, the escape between the canvas and the plug box being
+trifling. Two and sometimes three engines are worked by suction-pipe
+from one plug in this manner. The portable cistern is also used when
+the engine is supplied by suction, from water conveyed in carts or
+buckets, and is greatly preferable to any plan of emptying the water
+directly into the engine. By this latter method there is always a
+considerable waste of water, arising both from the height of the
+engine, and the working of the handles; and, in addition to these
+objections only one person can pour in water at a time. When the water
+is poured into the engine from carts, it must stop working till the
+cart is emptied. All these objections, are in a great measure removed
+by placing the portable cistern clear of the engine; when used in this
+manner there must of course be no hole in the bottom.
+
+_One Flat Suction Strainer_, made to screw on to the suction pipe, to
+prevent anything being drawn in that would not pass through the
+jet-pipe, and made flat, with no holes in the upper surface, for use
+in the portable cistern.
+
+_One Standcock_, with stem to insert direct in the fire-plug, and used
+principally with hose to throw a jet for cooling ruins.
+
+_One Canvas Sheet._--This, when stretched out and held securely by
+several men, may be jumped into from the window of a house on fire
+with comparative safety.
+
+_One Hand-pump_, as described at page 130, and used with the canvas
+buckets.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote G: The engines and their crews are distinguished by these
+colours.]
+
+[Footnote H: The hose are made up in flat coils, with the male
+coupling-screw in the centre, and the female on the outside. When a
+length is to be laid out in any direction, it is set on its edge, and
+then run out in the required direction,--in this way no turns or
+twists can ever occur. When the hose is to be taken up, it is
+uncoupled, and then wound up, beginning at the end farthest from the
+engine or from the fire-cock (as the case may be): by this method all
+the water is pressed out.]
+
+[Footnote I: In practising this exercise the men are in the habit of
+descending by the chains from the parapet of the North Bridge,
+Edinburgh, to the ground below: a height of 75 feet.]
+
+[Footnote J: Mr. Braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this
+principle with hand holes for a dozen men, in the ordinary service of
+the London Fire Brigade.]
+
+[Footnote K: Now Shand, Mason, and Co.]
+
+[Footnote L: This description applies to the most recently constructed
+fire-engines belonging to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.]
+
+[Footnote M: "Stuffing," a technical term need by leather-dressers or
+curriers.]
+
+[Footnote N: The proportions are, 1 gallon neats-foot oil, 2 lbs.
+tallow, 1/4 lb. bees-wax, melted together, and laid while warm on the
+leather.]
+
+[Footnote O: This description of the Edinburgh coupling-joints was
+written in 1830, and is inserted here to show how the present form of
+the well-known London Brigade hose-coupling was arrived at. The
+internal diameter was originally 2-3/8 inches, but Mr. Braidwood, when
+in London, found that he could increase it to 2-1/2 inches.]
+
+[Footnote P: See engraving of portable cistern, page 156.]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE ANNIHILATOR
+
+
+With regard to the Fire Annihilator, I have seen several experiments
+with this machine, and heard of more which were not successful; and if
+an invention fails when experiments are tried, it is open to the
+impression that it might fail when brought into active operation.
+There have also been many cases where these machines have met with
+accidents, one at Drury Lane Theatre amongst the number.
+
+Water, properly applied, will do whatever the Annihilator can
+accomplish, and also many things which the latter cannot do. As it is,
+there are some forty or fifty different articles to carry with each
+fire-engine, and to add to them such unwieldy things as Fire
+Annihilators, would be to encumber the men more than they are at
+present, with a very doubtful prospect of advantage.
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY.
+
+The supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions towards
+extinguishing fire. Where the pressure is sufficient, and the mains
+large enough, by far the most efficient and economical mode of using
+the water is to attach the hose directly to the mains.
+
+In London, however, this can rarely be done, for several reasons. The
+greatest number of plugs are on the service pipes, that is, the pipes
+for supplying water for domestic and other purposes, which are only
+open a short time every day. If the cisterns are nearly empty, the
+pressure cannot be obtained till they are filled. Then, again, the
+plugs being some distance apart, it is difficult to obtain a
+sufficient number of jets. But when the plugs are full open 1-3/4
+diameter, a sufficient quantity of water is obtained from each to
+supply three engines, each of which will give a jet equal to the plug
+if confined to one jet. The pressure also in the mains in London
+seldom exceeds 120 feet at the utmost. For these reasons the pressure
+from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked, when the ruins
+are cooled by the "dummies," as the jets from the mains are named by
+the firemen.
+
+If water can be obtained at an elevation, pipes with plugs or
+firecocks on them, are preferable to any other mode at present in use
+for the supply of fire-engines. The size of the pipes will depend on
+the distance and elevation of the head, and also on the size of the
+buildings to be protected. It may be assumed as a general rule, that
+the intensity of a fire depends, in a great measure, on the cubic
+content of the building; distinction being made as to the nature and
+contents of such building. If no natural elevation of water can be
+made available, and the premises are of much value, it may be found
+advisable to erect elevated tanks; where this is done, the quantity of
+water to be kept ready, and the rate at which it is delivered, must
+depend on the means possessed of making use of the water.
+
+The average size of fire-engines may be taken at two cylinders of 7
+inches diameter, with a length of stroke of 8 inches, making forty
+strokes each per minute. This sized engine will throw 141 tons of
+water in six hours, and allowing one-fourth for waste, 176 tons would
+be a fair provision in the tanks for six hours' work; this quantity
+multiplied by the number of engines within reach, will give an idea of
+what is likely to be required at a large fire. If, however, there are
+steam-engines to keep up the supply through the mains, the quantity of
+water kept in readiness may be reduced to two hours' consumption, as
+it is likely that the steam-engines would be at work before that
+quantity was exhausted. This is what may be supposed to be required,
+in cases of serious fires in dockyards, in large stacks of warehouses,
+or in large manufactories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 6. Opening for Suction-pipe.]
+
+Where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises, such as
+from rivers, canals, &c., if it is not thought prudent to erect
+elevated tanks, the water may be conducted under the surface by large
+cast-iron pipes, with openings at such distances as may seem advisable
+for introducing the suction-pipes (Fig. 6). This plan should not be
+adopted where the level of the water is more than 12 feet below the
+surface of the ground, as although a fire-engine will, if perfectly
+tight, draw from a much greater depth than 14 feet (2 feet being
+allowed for the height of the engine), still a very trifling leakage
+will render it useless for the time, at such a depth.
+
+The worst mode of supplying engines with water is by covered sunk
+tanks; they are generally too small, and unless very numerous, confine
+the engines to one or two particular spots, obliging the firemen to
+increase the length of the hose which materially diminishes the effect
+of the fire-engine. If the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir,
+it would be much better to save the expense of the tank, and to place
+plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe. Another evil in sunk tanks is,
+that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity of water they may
+depend upon, and they may thus be induced to attempt to stop a fire,
+at a point they would not have thought of if they had known correctly
+the quantity of water in store.
+
+Where sunk tanks are already constructed, they may be rendered more
+available by a partial use of the method shown in Fig. 6.
+
+_Memoranda of Experiments tried on the mains and service pipes of the
+Southwark Water Company, between 4 and 9_ A.M. _of the 31st January,
+1844. The wind blowing fresh from N.N.W._
+
+The pressure at the water-works at Battersea was kept at 120 feet
+during the experiments, and every service pipe or other outlet was
+kept shut.
+
+_1st Experiment._--Six standcocks, with one length of 2-1/2 inches
+riveted leather hose 40 feet long, and one copper branch 4 feet to 5
+feet long, with a jet 7/8 inch in diameter on each, were placed in six
+plugs on a main 7 inches diameter, in Union-street, between
+High-Street, Borough, and Gravel-lane, Southwark, at distances of
+about 120 yards apart. The water was brought from the head at
+Battersea, by 4250 yards of iron pipes 20 inches diameter, 550 yards
+of 15 inches diameter, and 500 yards of 9 inches diameter.
+
+1st. One standcock was opened, which gave a jet of 50 feet in height,
+and delivered 100 gallons per minute.
+
+With four lengths of hose the jet was 40 feet high, and the delivery
+92 gallons per minute. When the branch and jet were taken off with one
+length of hose the delivery was 260 gallons per minute.
+
+2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the jet from the first
+was 45 feet high.
+
+3rd. The third standcock was opened, and the jet from the first 40
+feet high.
+
+4th. The fourth standcock being opened, the first gave a jet of 35
+feet high.
+
+5th. The fifth being opened, the first gave a jet of 30 feet high.
+
+6th. All the six being opened, the first gave a jet of 27 feet in
+height.
+
+_2nd Experiment._--Six standcocks were then put into plugs, on a main
+9 inches diameter in Tooley-Street, the extreme distance being 450
+yards, with hose and jets as in the first experiment. The water was
+brought from the head at Battersea by 4250 yards of iron pipes of 20
+inches diameter, 1000 yards of 15 inches diameter, 1400 yards of 9
+inches diameter. The weather was nearly the same, but the place of
+experiment was more protected from the wind than in Union-street.
+
+1st. With one standcock open, a jet 60 feet in height was produced,
+and 107 gallons per minute were delivered.
+
+2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the difference in the
+first jet was barely perceptible.
+
+3rd. Other two standcocks being opened, the first jet was reduced to
+45 feet in height, and the delivery to 92 gallons per minute.
+
+4th. All the six standcocks being opened, the first jet was further
+reduced to 40 feet high, and the delivery to 76 gallons per minute.
+
+_3rd Experiment._--Two standcocks, with hose, &c., as in the first
+experiment, were then put into a service-pipe, 4 inches diameter and
+200 yards long, in Tooley-street, the service-pipe was connected with
+200 yards of main 5 inches diameter, branching from the main of 9
+inches diameter. The weather was still the same as at first, but the
+wind did not appear to affect the jets, owing to the buildings all
+round being so much higher than the jet.
+
+1st. The standcock nearest the larger main was opened, and a jet of 40
+feet high was produced, delivering 82 gallons per minute.
+
+2nd. Both standcocks being opened, the first gave a jet of 31 feet,
+and delivered 68 gallons per minute.
+
+3rd. The standcock farthest from the large main only being opened,
+gave a jet of 34 feet, and delivered 74 gallons per minute.
+
+4th. Both standcocks being opened, the farthest one gave a jet of 23
+feet, and delivered 58 gallons per minute.
+
+When both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without hose, the
+water from that nearest the large main, rose about 18 inches, and the
+farther one about 1 inch above the plug-box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Common Fire-plug.]
+
+These and other experiments prove the necessity of placing the plugs
+on the mains, and not on the service pipes, where there are mains in
+the street.
+
+The different modes of obtaining water from the mains or pipes are
+shown in the accompanying drawings.
+
+(Fig. 7) is a section of a common plug when not in use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern.]
+
+(Fig. 8) is a section of the common plug, with a canvas dam or cistern
+over it, as used in London. The cistern is made of No. 1 canvas, 15
+inches deep, extended at top and bottom by 5/8-inch round iron frames,
+a double stay is hinged on the top frame at each end. When the cistern
+is used the top frame is lifted up, and the stays put into the
+notches, in two pieces of hoop iron, fixed to the bottom frame. There
+is a circular opening 9 inches diameter in the canvas bottom, two
+circular rings of wash-leather, about 2 inches broad, are attached to
+the edges of the opening in the canvas, so as to contract it to 4
+inches or 5 inches diameter; the plug being opened, the cistern is
+placed over it; the wash-leather is pressed down to the surface of the
+road by the water, and a tolerably water-tight cistern, with about 12
+inches or 14 inches of water in it, is immediately obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Plug, with Standcock.]
+
+(Fig. 9) is a plug with a standcock in it, to which hose may be
+attached.
+
+(Fig. 10) is a common single firecock with a round water-way 2-1/2
+inches diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Single Firecock.]
+
+(Fig. 11) is a double firecock, as laid down in Her Majesty's
+Dockyards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards.]
+
+It will be observed, that the short piece of pipe between the main and
+this firecock is not curved to the current of the water, but merely
+opened a little; this is done with a view of increasing the supply by
+steam power, and as the steam engines are, in most cases, situated in
+a different direction from the tanks or reservoirs, therefore the
+curve that would have assisted the current in one direction would have
+retarded it in the other. It has been objected to these firecocks,
+that the opening does not run through the centre of the key, therefore
+only one side of the key covers the opening in the barrel, while in
+the common firecock both sides are covered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum.]
+
+(Fig. 12) is a double firecock, as laid down at the British Museum.
+
+This has a very good delivery, and is certain to be always tight, if
+well made, as the pressure of the water forces the key into the
+barrel; this also renders the cock somewhat difficult to be opened and
+shut, if the pressure be great; but as a lever of any length may be
+used, and the key, from its perpendicular position, may be loosened by
+a blow, this objection is in a great measure obviated.
+
+In Figs. 10 and 11 the openings in the street are large enough to
+admit of the levers for opening the cock to be fixed, that no mistake
+may occur from the lever being mislaid; but with those at the British
+Museum, it was not thought necessary to have fixed levers, as a
+crow-bar, or anything that could be introduced into the eye of the
+spanner, would open them.
+
+The plug and firecock have both certain advantages and disadvantages,
+which are now described.
+
+The plug, with a canvas cistern, is the easiest mode of obtaining
+water; the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone, is no
+annoyance in the street, and the water has only one angle to turn
+before it is delivered.
+
+On the other hand, where the supply of water is limited, the plugs
+give but little command of it; there is, however, comparatively very
+small loss at a large fire in London from this cause, as it is very
+seldom that all the fire-engines can be supplied direct from the
+plugs, and those that arrive late must pick up the waste water as they
+best can, by using another description of canvas dam, or opening the
+street; but in enclosed premises, especially where the water is kept
+for the purpose of extinguishing fires, firecocks are much to be
+preferred. It is very difficult to insert the standcock into a plug if
+there is a considerable force of water, and if the paving has moved,
+it cannot be done without raising the plug-box; but this is, however,
+the easiest mode of using firecocks, and where there is a considerable
+pressure of water, if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a
+hose-reel and branch-pipe, they can, in enclosed premises, direct a
+jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared, and if they
+cannot reach the fire, they will have water ready for the engine when
+it arrives.
+
+Inclosed premises are particularly mentioned, because the principal
+duty of the watchmen, in these cases, is to guard against fire, and
+their other duties being comparatively few, the men are not often
+changed, and they can be instructed thoroughly in the matter. With the
+general police of the metropolis it is quite different, their duties
+are so numerous and varied, that to add that of firemen to them would
+only be to confuse them.
+
+Firecocks, if kept at 9 inches to 12 inches below the surface, are
+easily protected from frost, by stuffing the opening with straw.
+
+The advantage which the double firecocks have over the single ones, is
+merely the increased water-way, as a firecock 3-1/2 inches diameter
+could not be so easily opened or shut, as two cocks of 2-1/2 inches
+diameter.
+
+One of the greatest objections to firecocks, is the very large
+openings required in the streets, the first cost and the repair of
+which are both considerable, besides their liability to accident. To
+take them to the footpath, increases the expenses and diminishes the
+supply of water, as it is generally done with a small pipe, and the
+number of angles is increased. In some instances, where firecocks have
+been put down on one side of the street, no less than four right
+angles have been made in the course of the water; and if the fire
+happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the firecock,
+the thoroughfare must be stopped. The expense also is no slight
+consideration, for if laid along with the water-pipes, each firecock,
+if properly laid, and the pit built round with cement, will cost eight
+or ten times as much as a plug.
+
+London is, upon the whole (except in the warehouse districts), fairly
+supplied with water for the average description of fires, that is,
+where not more than five or six engines are required. When, however,
+it is necessary to work ten or twelve engines, there is very often a
+deficiency. In many of the warehouse districts the supply is very
+limited indeed, although it is there that the largest fires take
+place.
+
+The water companies are generally willing to give any quantity of
+water, but they object to lay down large mains without any prospect of
+remuneration. The warehouse keepers decline to be at the expense of
+laying the pipes, and there the matter seems to rest. In most other
+places of importance, the water is under the management of the civic
+authorities, and they, of course, endeavour to obtain a good supply of
+water at fires in warehouse as well as in other districts.
+
+In supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks, one or more
+lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock; the extreme end being put
+into the engine, the firecock is then opened and the water rushes in.
+When the water-pipes are large and the pressure considerable, two or
+even three engines may be supplied from the same firecock.
+
+If the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the place on
+fire, to be reached by the supply of hose brought with the engine, the
+next resource is, to open the nearest firecock above the level of the
+place where the water is required. By covering the eyes of drains, and
+stopping up any cross-water channels, the water may in this manner be
+conveyed along the street, from a very considerable distance. From the
+nature of the ground it does not always happen that the water will run
+directly from the nearest firecock, to the spot where it is required;
+acclivities, buildings, and many other causes, may prevent this; but
+in some of these cases a few lengths of the hose, attached to the
+firecock, may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to
+the required point. Upon the arrival of the water, it ought to be
+dammed up, and the engine will lift it by suction out of the pool so
+formed.
+
+If, however, from the nature of the ground, from the want of hose, or
+from other causes, it is found impracticable to convey the water by
+either of the above methods, the next best is, to conduct the water in
+hose as far as can be accomplished, and carry it the remainder of the
+distance in carts, buckets, or whatever else may be most convenient.
+
+When carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line of men from
+the water to the engine, each man covering five or six feet of ground.
+The buckets are then handed from one man to another, till they reach
+the two or three men who are stationed round the suction-tub or
+fire-engine to receive them. The buckets when emptied are returned by
+a different line of men (women or boys) stationed in the same manner
+as the former. If a sufficient number of hands cannot be had to return
+the buckets in this manner, any convenient number may be employed to
+carry them to the firecock, that they may be again filled. When a fire
+occurs where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or plugs,
+the ground should be immediately opened, and the water-pipe cut. If it
+be of cast-iron, a large hammer may effect the purpose: on the
+water-pipe being broken, the suction-pipe of the engine is placed in
+the opening so made. If the pipe be of lead, the opening in the street
+should be made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it, when
+cut, being turned into the engine. If the supply of water by this
+means be so great as to occasion waste, it may be regulated by the
+nearest stopcock on the water-pipe, by driving a wooden plug into the
+end of a cast-iron pipe, or compressing the end of a leaden one.
+
+The next plan I shall notice of supplying fire-engines is from drains,
+gutters, &c. In particular situations and wet weather considerable
+supplies of water from these and similar sources may be obtained. In
+the gutters all that is required is to dam them up; and, if there be
+no materials at hand for this purpose, the causeway must be dug up,
+till there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of the
+engine.
+
+When the water is to be drawn from drains or common sewers, great care
+should be taken not to damage them farther than is absolutely
+necessary.
+
+If enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to enter easily, it
+will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes. When the man
+inside the drain or common sewer has collected a proper supply of
+water by damming up the channel, the suction-pipe should be handed
+down to him, and the engine set to work.
+
+Although it be true that foul water quenches fire, I will here
+observe, that the water from a common sewer should never be used,
+except when it is impossible to procure it from a purer source. For
+the purpose of procuring water to extinguish a fire, I had at one time
+occasion to open a common sewer, in which, with the usual impurities,
+the waste from a gas manufactory was intermixed, and the stench in the
+premises where the fire had been extinguished by this water, was for
+some time after very disagreeable.
+
+If the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little distance,
+one engine may be stationed close to it, and that engine made to pump
+the water into another at work. If the water be conveyed in carts, an
+engine may be kept at the pond or river for the purpose of filling
+them. Of course this can only be done where there is a proper supply
+of engines.
+
+In working from an open water, such as a gutter, drain, river, or
+pond, it is proper, in order to prevent sand or gravel being drawn
+into the engine, to sink an iron or wooden bucket, into which the
+suction-pipe of the engine should be placed. If nothing better can be
+had, a good wicker basket will be found useful.
+
+It is of great advantage to have a number of carts, with butts upon
+them full of water, as it ensures a small supply to the engines the
+moment they arrive at the fire. This plan, however, entails a very
+considerable expense, as carters must be paid for taking them out on
+every alarm, besides giving prizes to the owners of the first and
+second horses, to ensure their coming in time.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+The following, on Steam Fire-engines and the Metropolitan Fire
+Brigade, is added as a supplement to Mr. Braidwood's account of the
+London Fire Brigade, and brings the information upon these subjects up
+to the present date (May, 1866):--
+
+The steam fire-engine was first constructed in London, in 1830, before
+the formation of the London Fire Brigade, by Braithwaite, who made
+several engines, and exhibited them at various public trials, also at
+several fires, but without being able to bring them into general use.
+
+The matter remained in abeyance till 1852, when the London Fire
+Brigade caused their large hand-worked floating fire-engine to be
+altered so as to be worked by steam. This engine having been
+originally made by Tilley, of London, the alterations were entrusted
+to Shand and Mason, his successors. In the same year the first
+American steam fire-engine was constructed in New York.
+
+In 1855 the London Fire Brigade, stimulated by their first experiment,
+caused an entirely new self-propelling, floating steam fire-engine to
+be constructed. The experience gained by their first attempt at steam
+fire-engine making, enabled Shand and Mason to compete successfully in
+this matter, as their design was adopted after receiving the approval
+of the late Mr. Walker, Engineer, of Great George Street, London.
+
+The re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into London was
+accomplished by Shand and Mason, who, in 1858, constructed their
+first; this engine, after several public trials, was in the same year
+sent to St. Petersburgh.
+
+In 1859 the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines, which
+they offered to the London Fire Brigade for hire or purchase, and in
+the following year (1860) the Fire Brigade took one on hire for one
+year. This experiment proved so successful, that in 1861 the committee
+purchased, from Shand and Mason, the fourth steam engine of their
+construction. This, with one of the two made in 1859, were the only
+land steam engines that were at work at the Great Tooley Street Fire
+of 1861.
+
+In the beginning of 1862, Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, of
+New York, brought over a land steam fire-engine to be placed in the
+International Exhibition. This was worked in public at Hodges'
+Distillery on the 24th of March previous to the opening of the
+Exhibition.
+
+Shand and Mason supplied the London Fire Brigade in April, 1862, with
+the eighth land steam fire-engine of their construction. Messrs.
+Merryweather and Sons, of London, placed their first land steam
+fire-engine in the International Exhibition of 1862, but this, like
+the ninth by Shand and Mason, was not in time for the opening, and
+consequently could not compete for a prize medal, which was awarded to
+Lee and Larned, of New York.
+
+A public trial, however, took place before the jury of the Exhibition,
+of which the following is an account extracted verbatim from the
+jurors' published reports:--
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862.
+
+SPECIAL JURY FOR FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+
+J. F. BATEMAN, F.R.S., _London_; Civil Engineer.
+
+CAPT. BENT, _London_; Superintendent of Fire Arrangements in the
+Exhibition.
+
+W. M. BROWN, _London_; Superintendent of Westminster Fire Brigade.
+
+EARL OF CAITHNESS, _London_.
+
+J. HAWKSHAW, _London_; Civil Engineer.
+
+C. JENNY, _Austria_; Councillor of Mines in the Imperial Royal Academy
+of Mines at Schemnitz.
+
+P. LUUYT, _France_; Engineer to the Imperial Commissioners of Mines.
+
+J. E. McCONNELL, _Wolverton_; late Locomotive Superintendent of the
+London and North Western Railway.
+
+O. PIHL, _Norway_; Civil Engineer.
+
+W. M. RANKINE, _Glasgow_; Professor of Mechanics in the University of
+Glasgow.
+
+CAPT. SHAW, _London_; Superintendent of the London Fire Brigade.
+
+DUKE OF SUTHERLAND, _London_.
+
+F. B. TAYLOR, _United States_; Mechanical Engineer.
+
+H. THOMAS, _Zollverein_; Manufacturer.
+
+H. TRESCA, _France_; Professor of Mechanics, President of the French
+Institute of Civil Engineers.
+
+
+REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF CLASS VIII. ON FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+_After detailing the Trials of Hand-worked Fire-Engines, the Report
+states that_,--
+
+The Committee next proceeded to take the necessary steps for trying
+the steam fire-engines on the 1st of July, and, as before, invited the
+engine builders to a preliminary meeting, that they might receive full
+information as to the rules and regulations to be observed.
+
+In compliance with this invitation, the following engine-makers
+attended a meeting on the 28th of June, viz:--
+
+     Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, Novelty Iron-works,
+     New York.
+
+     Messrs. Merryweather and Son.
+
+     Messrs. Shand and Mason.
+
+Mr. Lee declined to produce his steam fire-engine for trial, alleging
+various reasons for so doing, and though strongly urged, persisted in
+his resolution, and declined the contest.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather and Son expressed themselves ready to produce
+their steam fire-engine on the appointed day.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason informed the Committee that the engine which
+they had intended to work would not be ready owing to an accident, but
+requested permission to produce for trial two steam-engines made by
+them for the London Fire-Engine Establishment, although they were not
+in the Exhibition. All the arrangements having been made for trying
+several engines together, the Committee granted this request, as
+otherwise only one engine would have been present, and a complete
+table of results could therefore not have been obtained.
+
+The Committee assembled in the appointed place at eight o'clock on the
+morning of the 1st of July, and found three engines present, viz., one
+of Messrs. Merryweather and Son and two of Messrs. Shand and Mason.
+
+After the Committee had examined the boilers and machinery generally,
+the engine-makers filled their respective boilers with cold water from
+the river, and fires having been laid, the three were lighted at the
+same moment, and the makers were ordered to commence working into a
+tank at sixty feet distance as soon as they had attained a steam
+pressure of 100 lbs. to the square inch.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather's engine attained the pressure named in 12
+minutes 10 seconds, Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine in 18
+minutes 30 seconds, the small engine in about 30 minutes, some
+mismanagement having occurred which compelled them to draw the fire in
+the latter and light it a second time. Messrs. Merryweather's engine
+commenced working as arranged when the steam-gauge indicated a
+pressure of 100 lbs., and was 2 minutes and 50 seconds at work before
+water passed through the nose-pipe. Notwithstanding this very serious
+defect, this engine had poured 500 gallons of water into a tank 60
+feet distant in 17 minutes and 15 seconds from the time at which the
+fire was lighted. After the difficulty of drawing the water had been
+surmounted, this engine worked well, and threw an admirable jet,
+losing 15 lbs. steam-pressure during the first trial. After three
+trials this engine became disabled; it was, however, repaired on the
+ground in about an hour and a half, and resumed work at the ninth
+trial, continuing to work well until the thirteenth, when it became
+again disabled, and was withdrawn by the maker, to the great regret of
+the Committee, who were thus left to continue the experiments with
+only two engines, both made by one firm.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine was 18 minutes 30 seconds
+getting up steam to 100 lbs., and when started drew water instantly,
+losing during the first trial 5 lbs. of steam-pressure.
+
+This engine was severely tested, and worked without accident
+throughout the day, the seventeenth trial lasting no less than 63
+minutes, during which the steam and water were both kept to a pressure
+of 90 lbs. on the square inch throughout, working through a 1-3/8 inch
+nose-pipe.
+
+At the eighteenth and last trial this engine threw a good vertical
+jet.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason's small engine did not raise the steam to 100
+lbs. in less than 30 minutes, owing, of course, partly to the
+mismanagement already mentioned, and partly to the nature of the
+boiler and fire-box, which, according to the makers' account, are not
+adapted for raising steam in the shortest possible time. After the
+engine got to work the steam-pressure was well sustained, and the
+engine continued working the entire day without accident, concluding
+in the evening by throwing a good vertical jet.
+
+During the time occupied by the trials the direction of the wind was
+W.N.W. to W. by N., pressure 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 lbs. on the square foot.
+The barometer stood at 29.97 inches.
+
+
+_Summary._
+
+On the whole the Committee find as follows:--
+
+Messrs. Merryweather and Son have produced, at a price of 700_l._, a
+steam fire-engine, weighing, according to the makers' account, 65
+cwt., with jets and lamps, but without water, coal, suction-pipes,
+hose, or other gear, and capable, if no accidents occur, of throwing
+in an available stream the following average quantities of water per
+minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+     61 feet.       10°       230 gallons.
+     85   "         21°       124    "
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason have produced an engine, at a cost of 650_l._,
+weighing, according to their statement, 55 cwt., with jets and lamps,
+but without water, coals, suction-pipes, hose, or other gear, and
+capable of throwing in an available stream the following average
+quantities of water per minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+      61 feet.      10°       250 gallons.
+      63   "        18°       165    "
+      82   "        14°       172    "
+      85   "        21°       137    "
+     102   "        11°        94    "
+     104   "        17°        19    "
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason have also produced, at a price of 370_l._, an
+engine which, under the same conditions, weighs 35 cwt., and is
+capable of throwing in an available stream the following average
+quantities per minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+     61 feet.       10°       142 gallons.
+     63   "         18°       133    "
+     82   "         14°        56    "
+     85   "         21°        27    "
+
+The best performance during the five trials from which this last
+average was taken being forty-six gallons, and the lowest five gallons
+per minute.
+
+At greater distances, in consequence of the wind, this engine could
+not deliver a stream, but continued working without accident
+throughout the day, and concluded in the evening by throwing a good
+vertical jet.
+
+                    SUTHERLAND, CHAIRMAN.
+                    E. M. SHAW, HON. SEC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Shand and Mason's tenth land steam fire-engine was supplied to the
+London Brigade in June, 1862, and their twelfth, in February, 1863,
+upon orders given on the 4th January, 1862. But as the Committee of
+the London Fire Brigade were now negotiating with Government to take
+the duty of extinguishing fires off their hands, no orders for
+steam-engines were given out by them after the above date.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+STEAM FIRE-ENGINE COMPETITION,
+
+CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON, 1863.
+
+Towards the close of 1862, several engineers and other gentlemen
+interested in the improvement of steam fire-engines, offered prizes to
+be awarded at competitive trials to take place in London. The
+following is the Committee's published account of these trials which
+were held in the grounds of the Crystal Palace Company on the 1st,
+2nd, and 3rd July, 1863.
+
+The Committee consisted of the following gentlemen, viz.:--
+
+_Chairman._
+
+HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SUTHERLAND.
+
+
+_Members._
+
+THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CAITHNESS.
+LORD RICHARD GROSVENOR, M.P.
+J. G. APPOLD, ESQ.
+J. T. BATEMAN, ESQ.
+W. M'BROWNE, ESQ.
+T. R. CRAMPTON, ESQ.
+W. M. CROSSLAND, ESQ.
+W. FAIRBAIRN, ESQ.
+T. HAWKSLEY, ESQ.
+J. E. McCONNELL, ESQ.
+HENRY MAUDSLAY, ESQ.
+J. MATHEWS, ESQ.
+J. NASMYTH, ESQ.
+J. PENN, ESQ.
+WILLIAM SMITH, ESQ.
+
+_Hon. Sec._
+
+CAPTAIN E. M. SHAW.
+
+
+The engines were divided into two classes, the large class consisting
+of those weighing over 30 cwts., and not exceeding 60 cwts. and the
+small class of those not exceeding 30 cwts.
+
+The prizes offered were 250_l._ for the best engine, and 100_l._ for
+the second best, in each class.
+
+The chief points to which the Committee directed their attention, in
+addition to the consideration of cost and weight, were those relating
+to the general efficiency of the machines as fire-engines, combining
+among other points of excellence--
+
+  Rapidity in raising and generating steam.
+
+  Facility of drawing water.
+
+  Volume thrown.
+
+  Distance to which it can be projected with the least amount of loss.
+
+  Simplicity, accessibility, and durability of parts.
+
+
+LARGE CLASS.
+
+FIRST TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 67 feet, and
+27° from the horizon. Depth from which water was drawn, 4 feet 6
+inches. The water in the boiler being cold when the signal was given
+to commence, each engine commencing to work on attaining steam
+pressure of 100lb. to the square inch.
+
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+|   |                 |              | Time of  | Time of |        |
+|No.|     MAKER.      |    Weight.   | raising  | filling | Total  |
+|   |                 |              | Steam to | Tank.   | Time.  |
+|   |                 |              | 100lbs.  |         |        |
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+|   |                 | T. c. q. lbs.|  '   "   |  '   "  |  '   " |
+| 1 | Easton & Amos,  | 2 18  3   12 | 13  14   |  6  16  | 19  30 |
+|   |   London        |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 2 | Merryweather &  | 2 18  0    8 | 10  25   |  9  42  | 20   7 |
+|   |   Son, London   |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 3 | Shand & Mason,  | 2 17  1    0 | 10  51   | 12  19  | 23  10 |
+|   |   London        |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 4 | Butt  and  Co., | 2 14  0    4 | 16  30   |  6  48  | 23  18 |
+|   |   United States |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 5 | Roberts, London | 1 19  1    4 | 11  40   | 20  24  | 32  4  |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |                             |
+|   | Nichols         | 2 10  1    4 | Did not work.               |
+|   |   (Manhattan)   |              |                             |
+|   |   United States |              |                             |
+|   |                 |              |                             |
+|   | Gray & Son,     | 1 18  1    4 | Did not work.               |
+|   |   London        |              |                             |
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON began to work at 100 lbs., fell directly to 40
+lbs., and continued so throughout; stopped and steam rose to 130 lbs.
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Suction-pipe choked; left off working about 2
+minutes.
+
+
+SECOND TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance commencing with
+full steam.
+
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    | Steam at   | Steam  | Time of |
+| No. |       NAME.        | Beginning. | during | filling |
+|     |                    |            | Work.  |  Tank.  |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |            |        |  '    " |
+|  1  | Shand & Mason      |    100     |        |  3    0 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  2  | Butt & Co.         |    100     |        |  3    3 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  3  | Merryweather & Son |    145     |        |  3    7 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  4  | Roberts            |     80     |        | 12   30 |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+                Roberts did not fill the tank.
+
+
+THIRD TRIAL.
+
+Delivering into large tank at a horizontal distance of 40 feet, a
+vertical height of 40 feet, a true distance of 56 feet, and at an
+angle of 45 degrees from the horizon, the depth from which water was
+drawn being 16 feet 4 inches.
+
+Key:
+A--No. of Deliveries Open.
+B--Length of Hose.
+C--Average Steam Pressure.
+D--Average Water Pressure.
+E--No. of Gallons Delivered.
+
++-----+-----------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+|   |             |         |   |   |Size of |    |    |       |Time of|
+|No.| Name.       | Time.   | A | B |Nozzle. | C  | D  |   E   |Raising|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |Steam. |
++---+-------------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+|   |             |hr. m. s.|   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 1 | Merryweather| 1 24 55 | 2 |440| 1-1/2  | 91 | 89 |16,086 |10' 32"|
+|   | & Son       |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |  to   |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 80lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 2 | Shand       | 2  0  0 | 2 |440| 1-1/2 &| 96 | 62 |12,917 |11' 21"|
+|   | & Mason     |         |   |   | 1-3/8  |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |120lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 3 | Roberts     | 2  0  0 | 1 |420| 1-1/4  | 75 | 75 | 9,936 |11' 20"|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 80lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 4 | Butt & Co.  | 0 46 50 | 2 |440| 1-1/2  | 78 | 78 | 8,280 |14' 10"|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 45lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 5 | Easton &    | 1 32 35 | 2 |440| 1-3/8  | 98 | 41 | 3,036 |12' 30"|
+|   | & Amos      |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 90lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 6 | Nichols     | 0  4 55 | 2 |420| 1-1/2  | -- | -- | None. |13' 09"|
+|   | (Manhattan) |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 45lbs.|
++---+-------------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON--Fire lighted at 4h. 1m. 55s.; gauge moved at 4h.
+8m. 20s.; engine started at 4h. 12m. 27s.; water drawn in about 10
+revolutions; pumps not primed, valve box leaked slightly, and engine
+worked satisfactorily in every respect.
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Fire lighted at 11h. 25m. 46s.; gauge moved at 11h.
+32m. 53s.; engine started at 11h. 37m. 7s.; pump primed at 11h. 45m.
+48s.; drew water at 11h. 47m.; water first through the nozzle at 11h.
+48m. 59s.; in hood at 11h. 49m. 19s.; shifted nozzle (3-1/4m. delay);
+high wind.
+
+ROBERTS--Fire lighted at 11h. 17m.; engine, started at 11h. 28m. 20s.
+
+BUTT AND CO.--Fire lighted at 5h. 55m. 10s.; started engine at 6h. 9m.
+20s.; repeatedly stopped from slide valves not acting, and stopped
+entirely at 6h. 46m., from cylinder cover breaking.
+
+EASTON AND AMOS--Fire lighted at 2h. 2m. 35s.; gauge moved 2h. 10m.;
+started engine at 2h. 15m. 5s.; pumps primed, worked till 2h. 54m.
+5s.; stopped to shift plungers; went to work again, and stopped
+entirely at 3h. 35m. 10s., from two fire bars falling out.
+
+NICHOLS (Manhattan)--Fire lighted at 10h. 51m. 14s.; gauge moved at
+10h. 59m. 20s.; drew water directly; steam up to 140lbs. at 11h. 8m.
+45s.; stopped two minutes; started again; made a few revolutions, and
+fly-wheel broke.
+
+
+FOURTH TRIAL
+
+Vertical Jet against Tower.
+
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+| No. |       Name.        |  Size   | Greatest Height |
+|     |                    | of Jet. |     Thrown.     |
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+|  1  | Shand & Mason      |  22/16  |     180 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  2  | Merryweather & Son |  26/16  |     180 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  3  | Roberts            |  14/16  |     150 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  4  | Lee & Co           |  21/16  |      55 ft.     |
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+
+GRAY'S engine lighted fire at 7h. 7m. 40s.; steam 9lbs. at 7h. 17m.
+0s.; got to work at 7h. 23m. 40s. to blow fires; at 7h. 27m. 0s. water
+through hose. Owing to some of the pipe connected with the steam gauge
+breaking, no further experiments could be made.
+
+
+SMALL CLASS.
+
+FIRST TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 50ft. and
+37° from the horizon. Depth from which water was drawn, 4ft. 6in. The
+water in the boilers being cold when the signal was given to commence,
+each engine commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of 100lbs.
+to the square inch.
+
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+|   |               |               | Time of   | Time of |        |
+|No.|     Name.     |    Weight.    | raising   | filling | Total  |
+|   |               |               | Steam     | Tank.   | Time.  |
+|   |               |               | to 100lbs.|         |        |
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+|   |               | T.  c. q. lbs.|  '    "   | '   "   | '    " |
+| 1 | Shand & Mason | 1   9  2   0  |  11  36   | 5  24   | 17   0 |
+|   |               |               |           |         |        |
+| 2 | Lee & Co      | 1  10  0   0  |  11  55   | 6   3   | 17  58 |
+|   |               |               |           |         |        |
+| 3 | Merryweather  | 1  10  1  12  |  12  15   | 9  14   | 21  29 |
+|   |   & Son       |               |           |         |        |
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+
+Owing to a broken bolt, there was great leakage in water cylinder of
+Lee and Co's. engine.
+
+
+SECOND TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance, commencing with
+full steam.
+
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |   Steam    | Steam  |  Time   |
+| No. |      Name.         |     at     | during | filling |
+|     |                    | Beginning. | Work.  |  Tank.  |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |            |        |  '  "   |
+| 1   | Shand & Mason      |     85     |   --   |  5 49   |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+| 2   | Lee & Co.          |    125     |   --   |  5 50   |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+| 3   | Merryweather & Son |    100     |   --   |  6 17   |
++---------------------------------------+--------+---------+
+     The leakage in Lee and Co's. engine was remedied.
+
+
+THIRD TRIAL.
+
+Delivering into large tank, commencing with Full Steam. At a
+horizontal distance of 40ft., a vertical height of 40ft., a true
+distance of 56ft., and at an angle of 45° from the horizon; the depth
+from which water was drawn being 16ft. 4in.
+
+Key
+A--Number of Deliveries open.
+B--Average Steam Pressure.
+C--Average Water Pressure.
+D--No. of Gallons Delivered.
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+|              |   |         |   | Length | Size of |     |    |      |
+|     Name.    |No.|  Time.  | A |   of   | Nozzle. |  B  | C  |  D   |
+|              |   |         |   |  Hose. |         |     |    |      |
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+|              |   | h. m. s.|   |        |   in.   |     |    |      |
+| Shand &      | 1 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   1 &   | 146 | 80 | 8142 |
+|   Mason      |   |         |   |        |  1-1/4  |     |    |      |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+| Merryweather | 2 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   7/8   |  86 | 45 | 4885 |
+|   & Son      |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+| Lee & Co.    | 3 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   3/4   |  80 | 60 | 4278 |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Steam ready at 150 lbs.; started at 7h. 3m. 32s.;
+stopped at 7h. 12m. 5s. to put on an additional length of hose; worked
+well throughout.
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON--Steam ready at 110 lbs.; commenced work at 3h.
+43m. 30s.; pumps primed.
+
+LEE AND CO.--Steam ready, started at 2h. 1m. 0s.; worked well, without
+any stoppage.
+
+
+AWARDS.
+
+At a meeting of the Committee held on the 8th July, 1863, his Grace
+the Duke of Sutherland in the Chair, the following prizes were
+awarded:--
+
+LARGE CLASS.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather & Sons,      1st Prize, 250_l._
+Messrs. Shand & Mason             2nd Prize, 100_l._
+Mr. W. Roberts, highly commended.
+
+
+SMALL CLASS.
+
+Messrs. Shand & Mason             1st Prize, 250_l._
+Messrs. W. Lee & Co.              2nd Prize, 100_l._
+
+(Signed) On behalf of the Committee,
+
+                    SUTHERLAND, CHAIRMAN.
+                    E. M. SHAW, HON. SEC.
+
+From the above trials it was found that the first prize large-class
+engine weighed 6504 lbs., and delivered in one hour 11,366 gallons,
+being at the rate of 196 gallons for each hundred-weight of the
+engine; while the first prize small-class engine delivered in the same
+time 8142 gallons, or 276 for each hundred-weight of the engine,
+showing that the latter engine delivered nearly one-half more water in
+proportion to its weight, than was delivered by the large one, the
+conditions of the two trials being the same.
+
+As the greatest amount of power in the smallest possible bulk and
+weight, was considered most available for use at London fires, the
+Committee of the London Fire Brigade, although not in a position, for
+the reasons already stated, to purchase additional steam fire-engines,
+commenced hiring Shand, Mason, and Co.'s prize engines, and at the
+close of 1865 had four such in use in this manner.
+
+The Metropolitan Fire Brigade, an extension of the late London Fire
+Brigade, has now (May, 1866) the following steam fire-engines in
+use:--The Floating Steam Fire-engine, by Shand and Mason, in 1855; a
+Land Steam Fire-engine by Easton and Amos, which was worked at the
+Crystal Palace trials, and is now used in a barge as a floating
+engine; one by Roberts, which was also worked at the Crystal Palace;
+three by Merryweather and Sons; and fifteen of Shand, Mason, and Co.'s
+Land Steam Fire-engines.
+
+
+METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+The disastrous results of the great fire at Tooley-street, in 1861, at
+which Mr. Braidwood lost his life, fully demonstrated the inadequacy
+(in men and appliances) of the fire brigade supported by the insurance
+offices, and as these bodies declined extending their establishment so
+as to meet the wants of the whole of the metropolis, a Parliamentary
+inquiry was instituted, which resulted in the passing of the following
+Act:--
+
+     ANNO VICESIMO OCTAVO & VICESIMO NONO
+
+     VICTORIÆ REGINÆ.
+
+     CAP. XC.
+
+     An Act for the Establishment of a Fire Brigade within the
+     Metropolis. [5th July, 1865.]
+
+     WHEREAS it is expedient to make further provision for the
+     protection of life and property from fire within the
+     metropolis: Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent
+     Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
+     Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
+     Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as
+     follows:
+
+
+     _Preliminary._
+
+     1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the
+     "Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865."
+
+     2. For the purposes of this Act the "Metropolis" shall mean
+     the City of _London_ and all other parishes and places for
+     the time being within the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan
+     Board of Works:
+
+     "Insurance Company" shall include any persons corporate or
+     unincorporate, or any person carrying on the business of
+     fire insurance.
+
+     3. The expression "Metropolis Local Management Acts" shall
+     mean the Acts following; that is to say, "The Metropolis
+     Management Act, 1855," "The Metropolis Management Amendment
+     Act, 1856," and "The Metropolis Management Amendment Act,
+     1862."
+
+
+     _Establishment and Duties of Fire Brigade._
+
+     4. On and after the first day of _January_ one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six the duty of extinguishing fires
+     and protecting life and property in case of fire shall
+     within the metropolis be deemed for the purposes of this Act
+     to be entrusted to the Metropolitan Board of Works; and with
+     a view to the performance of that duty it shall be lawful
+     for them to provide and maintain an efficient force of
+     firemen, and to furnish them with all such fire engines,
+     horses, accoutrements, tools, and implements as may be
+     necessary for the complete equipment of the force, or
+     conducive to the efficient performance of their duties.
+
+     5. The said Board, hereinafter referred to as the Board, may
+     take on lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire stations for
+     engines, stables, houses for firemen, and such other houses,
+     buildings, or land as they may think requisite for carrying
+     into effect the purposes of this Act, and may from time to
+     time sell any property acquired by or vested in them for the
+     purposes of this Act:
+
+     The Board may also contract with any company or persons
+     authorized to establish the same for the establishment of
+     telegraphic communication between the several stations in
+     which their fire engines or firemen are placed, and between
+     any of such stations and other parts of the metropolis.
+
+     6. On and after the said first day of January one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, all stations, fire-engines,
+     fire escapes, plant, and other property belonging to or used
+     by the fire engine establishment of the insurance companies
+     in the metropolis shall vest in or be conveyed or assigned
+     to the Board for all the estate and interest of the said
+     companies therein, upon trust to be applied by the Board to
+     the purposes of this Act, but subject to all legal
+     liabilities and obligations attaching thereto, including the
+     payment of all pensions that have been granted to the
+     members of the said Fire Engine Establishment, according to
+     a list that has been furnished to the chairman of the said
+     Board by the chief officer of the said fire-engine
+     establishment, and all trustees for the same shall be
+     indemnified against such liabilities and obligations. The
+     Board may also, if they think fit, purchase the stations,
+     fire-engines, and plant belonging to any parish, place, or
+     body of persons within their jurisdiction.
+
+     7. The force of firemen established under this Act,
+     hereinafter called the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, shall be
+     under the command of an officer, to be called the chief
+     officer of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.
+
+     The chief officer and men composing the said fire brigade
+     shall be appointed and removed at the pleasure of the Board.
+
+     8. The Board shall pay such salaries as they think expedient
+     to the said fire brigade. They may also make such
+     regulations as they think fit with respect to the
+     compensation to be made to them in case of accident, or to
+     their wives or families in case of their death; also with
+     respect to the pensions or allowances to be paid to them in
+     case of retirement; also with respect to the gratuities to
+     be paid to persons giving notices of fires; also with
+     respect to gratuities by way of a gross sum or annual
+     payment to be from time to time awarded to any member of the
+     said force, or to any other person, for extraordinary
+     services performed in cases of fire; also with respect to
+     gratuities to turncocks belonging to waterworks from which a
+     supply of water is quickly derived.
+
+     9. The Board may by byelaws make regulations for the
+     training, discipline, and good conduct of the men belonging
+     to the said fire brigade, for their speedy attendance with
+     engines, fire escapes, and all necessary implements on the
+     occasion of any alarm of fire, and generally for the
+     maintenance in a due state of efficiency of the said
+     brigade, and may annex to any breach of such regulations
+     penalties not exceeding in amount forty shillings, but no
+     byelaw under this section shall be of any validity unless it
+     is made and confirmed in manner directed by the Metropolis
+     Local Management Acts; and all the provisions of the said
+     Acts relating to byelaws shall, with the necessary
+     variations, apply to any byelaws made in pursuance of this
+     Act.
+
+     10. The vestry of any parish or place in the metropolis may
+     allow such compensation as they think just to any engine
+     keeper or other person employed in the service of fire
+     engines who has hitherto been paid out of any rate raiseable
+     in such parish or place, and who is deprived of his
+     employment by or in consequence of the passing of this Act,
+     and any compensation so allowed shall be paid out of the
+     rate out of which the salary of the officer so compensated
+     was payable.
+
+     11. The Board may make such arrangements as they think fit
+     as to establishing fire escapes throughout the metropolis.
+     They may for that purpose contribute to the funds of the
+     Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, or of
+     any existing society that provides fire escapes, or may
+     purchase or take by agreement the property of any existing
+     society in their stations and fire escapes, and generally
+     may maintain such fire escapes and do such things as they
+     think expedient towards aiding persons to escape from fire;
+     and any expenses incurred by them in pursuance of this
+     section shall be deemed to be expenses incurred in carrying
+     into effect this Act.
+
+     12. On the occasion of a fire, the chief or other officer in
+     charge of the fire brigade may, in his discretion, take the
+     command of any volunteer fire brigade or other persons who
+     voluntarily place their services at his disposal, and may
+     remove, or order any fireman to remove, any persons who
+     interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire
+     brigade, and generally he may take any measures that appear
+     expedient for the protection of life and property, with
+     power by himself or his men to break into or through, or
+     take possession of, or pull down any premises for the
+     purpose of putting an end to a fire, doing as little damage
+     as possible; he may also on any such occasion cause the
+     water to be shut off from the mains and pipes of any
+     district, in order to give a greater supply and pressure of
+     water in the district in which the fire has occurred; and no
+     water company shall be liable to any penalty or claim by
+     reason of any interruption of the supply of water occasioned
+     only by compliance with the provisions of this section.
+
+     All police constables shall be authorized to aid the fire
+     brigade in the execution of their duties. They may close any
+     street in or near which a fire is burning, and they may of
+     their own motion, or on the request of the chief or other
+     officer of the fire brigade, remove any persons who
+     interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire
+     brigade.
+
+     Any damage occasioned by the fire brigade in the due
+     execution of their duties shall be deemed to be damage by
+     fire within the meaning of any policy of insurance against
+     fire.
+
+
+     _Expenses._
+
+     13. Every insurance company that insures from fire any
+     property in the metropolis shall pay annually to the
+     Metropolitan Board of Works, by way of contribution toward
+     the expenses of carrying this Act into effect, a sum after
+     the rate of thirty-five pounds in the one million pounds on
+     the gross amounts insured by it, except by way of
+     reassurance, in respect of property in the metropolis for a
+     year, and at a like rate for any fractional part of a
+     million, and for any fractional part of a year as well as
+     for any number of years for which the insurance may be made,
+     renewed, or continued.
+
+     The said payments by insurance companies shall be made
+     quarterly in advance, on the 1st of January, 1st of April,
+     1st of July, and 1st of October in every year; the first of
+     such payments to be made on the 1st of January one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, and such first payment and the
+     other payments for the year one thousand eight hundred and
+     sixty-six to be based upon the amounts insured by the
+     several companies in respect of property in the metropolis
+     in the year ending the twenty-fourth of December one
+     thousand eight hundred and sixty-four: provided that any
+     insurance company which at the time of the passing of this
+     Act contributes to the expenses of the said fire engine
+     establishment may, in respect of all payments to be made by
+     it in the years one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six and
+     one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, but not
+     afterwards, contribute after the yearly rate of thirty-five
+     pounds in one million pounds of the business in respect of
+     which it contributes to the said fire engine establishment
+     for the present year, according to a return which has been
+     furnished to the chairman of the said Metropolitan Board,
+     instead of in the manner in this Act provided.
+
+     14. All contributions due from an insurance company to the
+     Board in pursuance of this Act shall be deemed to be
+     specialty debts due from the company to the Board, and be
+     recovered accordingly.
+
+     15. For the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be
+     contributed by every such insurance company as aforesaid,
+     every insurance company insuring property from fire in the
+     metropolis shall, on the thirtieth day of December one
+     thousand eight hundred and sixty-five, with respect to the
+     amounts insured in the year one thousand eight hundred and
+     sixty-four, and on the 1st of June one thousand eight
+     hundred and sixty-six, and on every succeeding 1st of June,
+     or on such other days as the Metropolitan Board of Works may
+     appoint, make a return to the said Board, in such form as
+     they may require, of the gross amount insured by it in
+     respect of property in the metropolis.
+
+     There shall be annexed to the return so made a declaration
+     made by the secretary or other officer performing the duties
+     of secretary of the company by whom it is made, stating that
+     he has examined the return with the books of the company,
+     and that to the best of his knowledge, information, and
+     belief, it contains a true and faithful account of the gross
+     amount of the sums insured by the company to which he
+     belongs in respect of property in the metropolis.
+
+     The return made in the June of one year shall not come into
+     effect till the 1st of January of the succeeding year, and
+     shall be the basis of the contributions for that year.
+
+     16. If any insurance company makes default in making such
+     returns to the Board as are required by this Act, it shall
+     be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every
+     day during which it is so in default.
+
+     17. The secretary or other officer having the custody of the
+     books and papers of any insurance company that is required
+     to pay a contribution to the Board in pursuance of this Act
+     shall allow any officer appointed by the Board to inspect,
+     during the hours of business, any books and papers that will
+     enable him to ascertain the amount of property insured by
+     such company in the metropolis, and the amount for which it
+     is insured, and to make extracts from such books or papers;
+     and any secretary or other such officer as aforesaid of a
+     company failing to comply with the requisitions of this
+     section in respect of such inspections and extracts shall be
+     liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding five
+     pounds for each offence.
+
+     18. The Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury shall pay or
+     cause to be paid to the Board by way of contribution to the
+     expenses of maintaining the fire brigade such sums as
+     Parliament may from time to time grant for that purpose, not
+     exceeding in any one year the sum of ten thousand pounds.
+
+     19. For the purpose of defraying all expenses that may be
+     incurred by the Board in carrying into effect this Act which
+     are not otherwise provided for, the Board may from time to
+     time issue their precepts to the overseers of the poor of
+     every parish or place within the metropolis, requiring the
+     overseers to pay over the amount mentioned in the precepts
+     to the Treasurer of the Board, or into a bank to be named in
+     the precepts, within forty days from the delivery of the
+     precept.
+
+     The overseers shall comply with the requisitions of any such
+     precept by paying the sums mentioned out of any monies in
+     their hands applicable to the relief of the poor, or by
+     levying the amount required as part of the rate for the
+     relief of the poor, but no contribution required to be paid
+     by any parish or place under this section shall exceed in
+     the whole in any one year the rate of one halfpenny in the
+     pound on the full and fair annual value of property rateable
+     to the relief of the poor within the said parish or place,
+     such full and fair annual value to be computed in all parts
+     of the metropolis, exclusive of the city of London,
+     according to the last valuation for the time being acted on
+     in assessing the county rate, or, where there is no county
+     rate, according to a like estimate or basis; and no liberty,
+     precinct, or place, shall be exempt from the rate leviable
+     for the purposes of this Act by reason of its being
+     extra-parochial or otherwise; and in default of proper
+     officers in any liberty, precinct, or place, to assess or
+     levy the said rate, the Board may appoint such officers, and
+     add the amount of any expenses so incurred to the amount to
+     be raised by the next succeeding rate in such liberty,
+     precinct, or place.
+
+     Overseers shall, for the purposes of levying any amount
+     required to be levied by them under this Act, have the same
+     powers and be subject to the same obligations as in levying
+     a rate for the relief of the poor.
+
+     The word "Overseers" shall include any persons or bodies of
+     persons authorized or required to make and collect or cause
+     to be collected rates applicable to the relief of the poor;
+     and such persons or bodies shall pay to the Board the amount
+     so mentioned in the precept out of the said rates.
+
+     20. In case the amount ordered by any such precept as
+     aforesaid to be paid by the overseers of any parish or place
+     be not paid in manner directed by such precept and within
+     the time therein specified for that purpose, it shall be
+     lawful for any justice of the peace, upon the complaint by
+     the Board or by any person authorized by the Board, to issue
+     his warrant for levying the amount or so much thereof as may
+     be in arrear by distress and sale of the goods of all or any
+     of the said overseers, and in case the goods of all the
+     overseers be not sufficient to pay the same, the arrears
+     thereof shall be added to the amount of the next levy which
+     is directed to be made in such parish or place for the
+     purposes of this Act, and shall be collected by the like
+     methods.
+
+     21. The Board may, with the consent of the Commissioners of
+     Her Majesty's Treasury, borrow any sum not exceeding forty
+     thousand pounds, and apply the same for the purposes of this
+     Act; and all powers contained in the Metropolis Local
+     Management Acts authorizing the Board to borrow money, or
+     any commissioners or persons to lend money to the Board, and
+     all other provisions as to the mode of borrowing, the
+     repayment of principal or interest, or in anywise relating
+     to borrowing by the Board, shall be deemed to apply and to
+     extend to this Act in the same manner as if the monies
+     borrowed in pursuance of this Act were monies borrowed for
+     the purpose of defraying the expenses of the Metropolis
+     Local Management Acts, or one or more of those acts. The
+     Board shall apply the monies received by them under this Act
+     in liquidation of the principal and interest of the monies
+     so borrowed, but no creditor shall be concerned to see to
+     such application, or be liable for any misapplication of the
+     monies received or borrowed by the Board in pursuance of
+     this Act.
+
+
+     MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+     22. Where any chief officer, or other person who has been
+     employed by the Board in any capacity under this Act, and
+     has been discharged therefrom, continues to occupy any house
+     or building that may be provided for his use, or any part
+     thereof, after one week's notice in writing from the Board
+     to deliver up possession thereof, it shall be lawful for any
+     police magistrate, on the oath of one witness, stating such
+     notice to have been given, by warrant under his hand to
+     order any constable to enter into the house or building
+     occupied by such discharged chief officer or other person as
+     aforesaid, and to remove him and his family and servants
+     therefrom, and afterwards to deliver the possession thereof
+     to the Board, as effectually, to all intents and purposes,
+     as the sheriff having jurisdiction within the place where
+     such house or building is situate might lawfully do by
+     virtue of a writ of possession or a judgment at law.
+
+     23. If the chimney of any house or other building within the
+     metropolis is on fire, the occupier of such house or
+     building shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty
+     shillings; but if such occupier proves that he has incurred
+     such penalty by reason of the neglect or wilful default of
+     any other person, he may recover summarily from such person
+     the whole or any part of the penalty he may have incurred as
+     occupier.
+
+     24. All penalties imposed by this Act, or by any byelaw made
+     in pursuance thereof, and all expenses and other sums due to
+     the Board in pursuance of this Act, in respect of which no
+     mode of recovery is prescribed, may be recovered summarily
+     before two justices in manner directed by the Act of the
+     session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the
+     reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, or any
+     Act amending the same, and when so recovered shall be paid
+     to the treasurer of the Board, notwithstanding any police
+     act or other act of parliament directing a different
+     appropriation of such monies.
+
+     25. Any dispute or other matter which is by this Act
+     directed to be determined summarily by two justices shall be
+     deemed to be a matter in respect of which a complaint is
+     made upon which they have authority by law to make an order
+     for payment of money within the meaning of the said Act of
+     the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the
+     reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, or any
+     Act amending the same.
+
+     26. Any act, power, or jurisdiction hereby authorized to be
+     done or exercised by two justices may be done or exercised
+     by the following magistrates within their respective
+     jurisdictions; that is to say, by any metropolitan police
+     magistrate sitting alone at a police court or other
+     appointed place, or by the Lord Mayor of the City of London,
+     or any alderman of the said City, sitting alone or with
+     others at the Mansion House or Guildhall.
+
+     27. The accounts of the Board in respect of expenses
+     incurred by them under this Act shall be audited in the same
+     manner as if they were expenses incurred under the said
+     Metropolis Local Management Acts, and the Board shall in
+     each year make a report to one of her Majesty's principal
+     Secretaries of State of all acts done and expenditure
+     incurred by them in pursuance of this Act, and that report
+     shall be laid before Parliament within one month after the
+     commencement of the session.
+
+     28. The Board may delegate any powers conferred on them by
+     this Act to a committee of their body; and such committee
+     shall, to the extent to which such powers are delegated, be
+     deemed to be the Board within the meaning of this Act.
+
+     29. If the companies insuring property within the
+     metropolis, or any such number of them as may in the opinion
+     of the said Board be sufficient, establish a force of men
+     charged with the duty of attending at fires and saving
+     insured property, it shall be the duty of the Fire Brigade,
+     with the sanction of the Board, and subject to any
+     regulations that may be made by the Board, to afford the
+     necessary assistance to that force in the performance of
+     their duties, and, upon the application of any officer of
+     that force, to hand over to their custody property that may
+     be saved from fire; and no charge shall be made by the said
+     Board for the services thus rendered by the fire brigade.
+
+     30. It shall be lawful for the Board, when occasion
+     requires, to permit any part of the fire brigade
+     establishment, with their engines, escapes, and other
+     implements, to proceed beyond the limits of the metropolis
+     for the purpose of extinguishing fires. In such case the
+     owner and occupier of the property where the fire has
+     occurred shall be jointly and severally liable to defray all
+     the expenses that may be incurred by the Fire Brigade in
+     attending the fire, and shall pay to the Board a reasonable
+     charge for the attendance of the Fire Brigade, and the use
+     of their engines, escapes, and other implements. In case of
+     difference between the Board and the owner and occupier of
+     such property, or either of them, the amount of the
+     expenses, as well as the propriety of the Fire Brigade
+     attending such fire (if the propriety thereof be disputed),
+     shall be summarily determined by two justices. In default of
+     payment, any expenses under this section may be recovered by
+     the Board in a summary manner.
+
+     The Board may also permit any part of the Fire Brigade
+     Establishment to be employed on special services upon such
+     terms of remuneration as the said Board may think just.
+
+     31. The Metropolitan Fire Brigade shall in the morning of
+     each day, with the exception of Sundays, send information,
+     by post or otherwise, to all the insurance offices
+     contributing for the purposes of this Act, of all fires
+     which have taken place within the metropolis since the
+     preceding return, in such form as may be agreed upon between
+     the Board and the said companies.
+
+     32. All the powers now exercised by any local body or
+     officer within the metropolis as respects fireplugs shall
+     henceforth be exercised by the Board, and the Board shall be
+     entitled to receive copies or extracts of all plans kept by
+     any water company under the provision of the Act of the
+     session of the fifteenth and sixteenth years of her Majesty,
+     chapter eighty-four; and every such water company shall
+     provide at the expense of the Board in any mains or pipes
+     within the metropolis plugs for the supply of water in case
+     of fire at such places, of such dimensions, and in such form
+     as the Board may require, and the Fire Brigade shall be at
+     liberty to make such use thereof as they may deem necessary
+     for the purpose of extinguishing any fire; and every such
+     company shall deposit keys of all their fireplugs at such
+     places as may be appointed by the Board, and the Board may
+     put up on any house or building a public notice in some
+     conspicuous place in each street in which a fireplug is
+     situated, showing its situation.
+
+     33. "Owner" in this Act shall mean the person for the time
+     being receiving the rackrent of the premises in connexion
+     with which the word is used, either on his own account or as
+     agent or trustee for some other person, or who would receive
+     the same if the premises were let at rackrent.
+
+
+     _Repeal._
+
+     34. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, there shall be repealed so much
+     as is unrepealed of an Act passed in the fourteenth year of
+     his late Majesty King George the Third, chapter
+     seventy-eight, and intituled an Act for the further and
+     better regulation of buildings and party walls, and for the
+     more effectually preventing mischief by fire, within the
+     Cities of London and Westminster and the liberties thereof,
+     and other the parishes, precincts, and places within the
+     weekly bills of mortality, the parishes of St. Marylebone,
+     Paddington, St. Pancras, and St. Luke, at Chelsea, in the
+     County of Middlesex, and for indemnifying, under certain
+     conditions, builders and other persons against the penalties
+     to which they are or may be liable for erecting buildings
+     within the limits aforesaid contrary to law, with the
+     exception of sections eighty-three and eighty-six which
+     shall remain in full force, but such repeal shall not affect
+     any penalty or liability incurred under the repealed
+     sections.
+
+     35. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, section forty-four of an Act
+     passed in the session holden in the third and fourth years
+     of the reign of King William the Fourth, chapter ninety,
+     shall be repealed so far as respects any parish or place
+     within the limits of the metropolis as defined by this Act;
+     provided that the repeal of the said section shall not
+     affect the power of the churchwardens and overseers of any
+     parish or place to contribute to the funds of any society
+     that at the time of the passing of this Act maintains fire
+     escapes in such parish or place, unless and until the Board
+     purchase the property of such society, or otherwise provide
+     fire escapes in such parish or place.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In accordance with the provisions of the above recited Act of
+Parliament, the London Fire Brigade of the Insurance Offices is now
+being extended to meet the requirements of the whole of London, under
+the title of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, with Captain E. M. Shaw,
+Mr. Braidwood's successor, as chief officer.
+
+
+
+
+LONDON:
+
+SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET,
+COVENT GARDEN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Variations in spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, and punctuation
+have been retained from the original book. The Table of Contents and
+List of Illustrations do not exactly match the chapter, section, and
+illustration titles in the text.
+
+The following changes have been made:
+
+Page 70: Missing word "of" added (avail themselves of the means).
+
+Page 183: Typo estalishment changed to establishment (establishment of
+telegraphic communication).
+
+Tables in the Appendix have been modified in format, but not in
+content, to fit the plain-text spacing constraints.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by 
+James Braidwood
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26440-8.txt or 26440-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/4/4/26440/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/26440-8.zip b/26440-8.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d6a3e24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-8.zip
diff --git a/26440-h.zip b/26440-h.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c8060f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h.zip
diff --git a/26440-h/26440-h.htm b/26440-h/26440-h.htm
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15d9627
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/26440-h.htm
@@ -0,0 +1,7489 @@
+<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
+    "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
+
+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en">
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+/*<![CDATA[  XML blockout */
+<!--
+body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; }
+
+p { margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em; }
+
+h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6
+{
+    text-align: center; /* all headings centered */
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+hr
+{
+    width: 33%;
+    margin-top: 2em;
+    margin-bottom: 2em;
+    margin-left: auto;
+    margin-right: auto;
+    clear: both;
+}
+
+table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;}
+
+.pagenum
+{ /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */
+    /*  visibility: hidden;  */
+    position: absolute;
+    left: 92%;
+    font-size: smaller;
+    text-align: right;
+} /* page numbers */
+
+.blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;}
+
+.author   {text-align: right; margin-right: 5%;}
+
+.bb       {border-bottom: solid 2px;}
+.bl       {border-left: solid 2px;}
+.bt       {border-top: solid 2px;}
+.br       {border-right: solid 2px;}
+.bbox     {border: solid 2px;}
+
+.center   {text-align: center;}
+.smcap    {font-variant: small-caps;}
+.u        {text-decoration: underline;}
+
+ul  {list-style-type: none;
+     margin-left: 5%;}
+
+
+.caption  {font-weight: bold;}
+
+/* Images */
+.figcenter   {margin: auto; text-align: center;}
+
+.figleft
+{
+    float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center;
+}
+
+.figright
+{
+    float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;
+    margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center;
+}
+
+/* Footnotes */
+.footnotes        {border: dashed 1px;}
+.footnote         {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;}
+.footnote .label  {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;}
+.fnanchor
+{
+    vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;
+}
+
+/* Poetry */
+.poem             {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;}
+
+.poem br          {display: none;}
+
+.poem .stanza     {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;}
+
+.poem span.i0
+{
+    display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.poem span.i2
+{
+    display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+.poem span.i4
+{
+    display: block; margin-left: 4em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;
+}
+
+// -->
+/* XML end  ]]>*/
+    </style>
+  </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction
+
+Author: James Braidwood
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26440]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 485px;">
+<a name="frontispiece" id="frontispiece"></a>
+<img src="images/image001.jpg" width="485" height="600" alt="Jas. Braidwood" title="Jas. Braidwood" />
+<span class="caption">Jas. Braidwood</span>
+</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+
+
+<h1>FIRE PREVENTION</h1>
+
+<h4>AND</h4>
+
+<h1>FIRE EXTINCTION.<br /><br /></h1>
+
+<h3>BY</h3>
+
+<h2>JAMES BRAIDWOOD,</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF THE LONDON FIRE-BRIGADE, AND ASSOCIATE OF<br />
+THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.<br /><br /><br />
+<br />
+INCLUDING<br />
+<br />
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES, FIRE-PROOF SAFES, PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES, PRIVATE<br />
+MEANS FOR SUPPRESSING FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, FIRE ANNIHILATORS,<br />
+PORTABLE FIRE-ESCAPES, WATER SUPPLY<br />
+<br /></p>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+<h4>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, MEMOIR, AND PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR.</h4>
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<h3>LONDON:<br />
+BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET.<br />
+1866.<br />
+<br /></h3>
+<p class="center">[<i>The right of Translation is reserved</i>.]</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="toc">
+<tr><td align='center'><big>MEMOIR.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Introductory, Early Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Braidwood's birth and education</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Great Fire of Edinburgh, and appointment as head of Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Award of Silver Medal of Society of Arts, London; publication of work on Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Formation of London Fire Brigade; appointment as Superintendent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Testimonials received upon leaving Edinburgh</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>London residence and routine of duty</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Valuable services of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Statistics of Fires; improvement of Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Introduction of ladders, hose reel, and hand pump</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Floating Fire Engines, hand worked and steam; Land Steam Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inspection of Government Dockyards and Public Buildings; establishment of a standard hose coupling</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Admitted an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers; award of Telford Medal; endeavours to restrain the erection of immoderate-sized warehouses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>His opinion as to the inadequacy of London Fire Brigade; Great Tooley Street Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Death of Mr. Braidwood</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Public funeral</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Public and private character</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>World-wide esteem in which he was held</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Poem&mdash;A True Hero</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE PREVENTION, INCLUDING FIREPROOF STRUCTURES&mdash;CAUSES OF FIRES.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inattention in the use of fires and lights</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Advantages of a legal inquiry into the cause of Fires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Improper construction of buildings</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Acts of Parliament for buildings in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Results of improper construction of warehouses in Liverpool</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Arrangements for the safety of the audience in theatres</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Danger from furnaces and close fires</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Danger from pipes conveying products of combustion</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Spontaneous ignition; use of gas</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Incendiarism; monomania</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>FIREPROOF STRUCTURES.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>What is fireproof construction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Use of cast and wrought-iron</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mr. Fairbairn's experiments</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Danger to life from use of cast-iron columns</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Report on warehouses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Covering timber with iron</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fireproof dwelling-houses</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fireproof safes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES, AND WATER SUPPLY&mdash;FIRE BRIGADES.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Individual exertions for Fire Extinction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire Brigades on the Continent of Europe, in England, in America</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Necessity for the control of arrangements by one individual</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Proposal for a national system</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire Engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Training and discipline of Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General instructions for Firemen, and for the use of Fire Engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Necessity for the water striking the burning materials</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Inventions for elevating branch pipes considered</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General description of men and engines</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Division of London into districts</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General regulations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Conditions of entrance into the establishment</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Outline of general duty</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duties of Superintendent</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Foremen</span></td><td align='right'>  <a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Engineers</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Sub-Engineers and Firemen</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Description of men selected</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mode of communicating with Firemen at a Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Dress and drill of Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Gymnastic exercises</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>General regulations</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Duties of Police</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Superintendent of Brigade</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Head Enginemen</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Firemen, and High Constables</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">"&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Magistrates, and Gas-Light Companies</span></td><td align='right'> <a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Special regulations for Firemen</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Means of escape from Fire</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>FIRE ENGINES.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>The application of manual power</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Engines used by the British Government</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_124">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Description of Brigade Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hand Pump; keeping Fire Engines in order</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Selection of Engine House</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Apparatus provided with London Brigade Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Leather hose</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Hose couplings</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Suction pipes</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Jet pipes, proper shape</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire annihilator</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_149">149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>WATER SUPPLY.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>By pressure, from surface of ground, and by sunk tanks</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_150">150</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Experiments with jets under a constant pressure</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug used in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Canvas cistern and stand-cock used with fire plug</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used in the Government Dockyards</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Double hollow key fire-cock used in the British Museum</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Supply by Water Companies in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Supplying Fire Engines from fire-cocks, &amp;c.</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'><big>APPENDIX.</big></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Steam Fire Engines, progress in construction</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trials before the Jury of the International Exhibition, 1862</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Trials at the International Competition, London, 1863</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Steam Fire Engines in use by Metropolitan Brigade, May, 1866</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Act of Parliament for Metropolitan Fire Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Establishment of Metropolitan Fire Brigade</td><td align='right'><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ILLUSTRATIONS" id="ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="loi">
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='right'>PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Portrait of Mr. Braidwood on steel by Jeens, from a photograph by Williams</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#frontispiece">Frontispiece</a>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Longitudinal section of Brigade Fire Engine</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_1">124</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Transverse section of ditto</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_2">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Old coupling for hose</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_3">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>New ditto, ditto</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_4">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Branch and jet pipe</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_5">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Opening in sunk tank for suction pipe</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_6">151</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug used in London</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_7">155</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug with canvas cistern</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_8">156</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Fire plug with stand-cock</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_9">157</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Single fire-cock</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_10">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used at dockyards</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_11">158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Double fire-cock used at British Museum</td><td align='right'><a href="#fig_12">159</a></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="EDITORS_PREFACE" id="EDITORS_PREFACE"></a>EDITOR'S PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The appearance at the beginning of last year, in the Annual
+Report of the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861 and
+1862, of a short memoir of Mr. Braidwood, suggested the
+publication of a more extended account of the life of the
+late head of the London Fire Brigade, combined with his
+opinions upon the subject of his profession.</p>
+
+<p>These opinions are comprised in a work on "Fire Engines,
+and the Training of Firemen," published in Edinburgh in
+1830; two papers upon cognate subjects read before the
+Institution of Civil Engineers, two similar papers read before
+the Society of Arts, and in a variety of reports upon public
+buildings, warehouses, &amp;c. While regretting the great loss
+that the public has sustained, in being deprived by Mr.
+Braidwood's sudden death of a complete record of his long
+and varied London experience, it has been considered advisable
+to republish the above materials arranged in a
+systematic form, omitting only such parts as the Author's
+more matured experience rendered desirable, but confining
+the whole to his own words.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">London</span>,</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;"><i>June, 1866.</i></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="AUTHORS_PREFACE" id="AUTHORS_PREFACE"></a>AUTHOR'S PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p><i>To his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines and
+Apparatus; the Training of Firemen; and the Method
+of Proceeding in cases of Fire," published in Edinburgh,
+in 1830.</i></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 15%;' />
+
+<p>Not having been able to find any work on Fire-Engines in
+the English language, I have been led to publish the following
+remarks, in the hope of inducing others to give further
+information on the subject.</p>
+
+<p>For the style of the work I make no apology; and as I
+presume no one will read it except for the purpose of gaining
+information, my aim will be obtained if I shall have
+succeeded in imparting it, or in directing the public attention
+to the advantage which may be derived from the
+systematic training of Firemen.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="MEMOIR" id="MEMOIR"></a>MEMOIR</h2>
+
+<h4>OF</h4>
+
+<h2>JAMES BRAIDWOOD.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The history of mankind, from the earliest times, has been
+one of alternate peace and war with fire. The immeasurable
+value of its obedience, and the fearful consequences of its
+insubordination, have, in all ages, made its due subjection
+one of the most important conditions of even human existence
+itself. As camps and trading stations grew into populous
+cities, the dangers of fire were both multiplied and
+aggravated. Its ravages in the ancient capitals of the world
+are matters of history; and it is established that something
+like organization was extended to the means then employed
+for suppressing conflagrations. Even the fire-engine itself,
+in a practicable, although imperfect form, was described and
+illustrated by a sectional working drawing, by Hero of
+Alexandria, in a book written by him more than one hundred
+years before the Christian era. In its many translations,
+from the original Greek into Latin and into modern
+tongues, Hero's book, with its remarkable series of drawings,
+still occupies a place in the mechanical literature of our
+own time. But, although the construction of the fire-engine
+was thus known two thousand years ago, we have no
+actual evidence of its use until within the last two centuries;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+and within the whole compass of English history, at
+least, we know that nothing like discipline and organization,
+in the modern sense of the terms, were introduced into the
+management of fire apparatus until a time quite within the
+recollection of the middle-aged men of our own day. If
+there be anything apparently improbable in this fact, we
+need only recollect that many of the grandest triumphs of
+human genius, with which we are already so familiar, are not
+yet forty years old. The modern system of English fire brigades
+belongs wholly to the period of railways, steam navigation,
+and electric telegraphs, and it owes nearly all to the genius
+and disciplined heroism of a single individual, James Braidwood,
+who, but little more than four years ago, fell&mdash;as
+nobly for himself as sadly for others&mdash;at his chosen post of
+duty. What, when he first gave his energies&mdash;indeed, his
+whole heart to it, was but the rough and unskilful employment
+of the fireman, became under Mr. Braidwood's command
+and his infusing spirit of order and intelligence, as
+distinguished from reckless daring, a noble pursuit, almost
+rising in dignity to a profession, and indeed acknowledged
+as such by many, and significantly, although indirectly, by
+Royalty itself.</p>
+
+<p>Until the year 1833, not only the parish engines of the
+metropolis, numbering, as they did, about three hundred, but
+the engines also of the Fire Insurance Companies, were comparatively
+inefficient and often out of order, while they were
+also under the most diverse, if not irresponsible management.
+There were no really trained firemen, and those who controlled
+and worked the engines were oftener in antagonism
+with each other than acting in concert. The parish engines
+were in the care of the beadles, and in one case a beadle's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+widow, Mrs. Smith, for some years commanded one of the
+city engines. The energies of each band of firemen were
+commonly reserved for the protection of property only in
+which their own insurance company or parish was immediately
+interested. As a rule, whatever water was thrown
+upon a burning building was dashed against the walls, windows,
+and roof from the outside only, very little if any
+really reaching the actual seat of the fire within. As a consequence,
+fires, which are now quickly "got under," were
+then left to burn themselves out, the spreading of the fire
+being prevented either by deluging the contiguous buildings
+with water, or by pulling them down altogether.</p>
+
+<p>James Braidwood was born in Edinburgh in the year
+1800. His father was a well-known upholsterer and builder,
+who appears to have chosen for his son the profession of a surveyor.
+To this end he was entered at the High School, then
+under the rectorship of Mr. (afterwards Professor) Pillans, and
+here, and subsequently under private masters, the youth
+received a sound education in the branches most appropriate
+to his intended pursuit in life. He was for some time engaged
+in his father's business, and thereby gained an amount
+of practical knowledge, which was of, perhaps, as much service
+to him in his subsequent career as a fireman, as it would
+have been had he adopted the profession originally chosen
+for him. Young Braidwood was an apt student, a fact, perhaps,
+sufficiently attested afterwards by his successful authorship,
+at the age of thirty, of the only English work then
+extant upon the fire-engine and its proper management. He
+read much, wrote well, was a good draughtsman, and had a
+sound knowledge of mechanics. But whether his powers
+required wider scope than a surveyor's practice could offer,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+or whether, more than forty years ago, and in Edinburgh,
+the chances of professional success were very much less than
+now, James Braidwood soon turned his mind to what
+became the great work of his life. He was becoming known
+for activity and a high order of personal courage, and there
+were those in place and power who saw in him the other
+elements of character which go to make a successful leader
+of men. He was soon, and when but twenty-three years of
+age, made the superintendent of the Edinburgh fire engines,
+and he almost as soon began to reform their inefficient and
+vicious system of management. He had held his post but
+three weeks, however, when the series of fires broke forth
+which still bear the name of the Great Fire of Edinburgh.
+Many of the old and lofty houses in the High Street were
+destroyed, between four and five hundred families were
+made houseless, ten persons were either killed outright or
+fatally injured, and for several days nearly the whole of the
+High Street, if not the larger part of the old town, was
+threatened with destruction. Never were the consequences
+of want of organization more conspicuous. There was no
+real command, for there were none to obey; and while those
+who might have stopped the flames at the outset, wasted
+their own energies in random efforts, or, perhaps, fell to
+quarrelling among themselves, the fearful devastation rolled
+on. The occasion was sufficient to induce the authorities
+and insurance companies to listen to and profit by Mr.
+Braidwood's recommendations. They consented to bear in
+common the expenses necessary to organize and maintain an
+efficient brigade. This was soon formed of picked men,
+who, although daily engaged in their former ordinary occupations,
+were regularly inspected, trained, and exercised early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+in one morning of every week. Fires were becoming more
+and more numerous year by year; but the influence of the
+improved system was soon felt. The men were taught to
+improve to the utmost the first few minutes after an alarm
+was given, and by constant emulation and discipline, a spirit
+of wonderful readiness was cultivated in them. They were
+trained to seek out and follow up the source of a fire before
+it had had time to spread, and to throw the water from the
+engines directly upon it, instead of wastefully, if not injuriously
+about. The result was, that while out of forty-eight
+fires which happened in the first year of the history of the
+brigade, eleven proved total losses, and twelve "considerable"
+losses, the number of total losses decreased rapidly, year
+by year, while the whole number of "calls" was almost
+as rapidly increasing. Thus in the second year of the
+brigade there were eighty "calls," of which seven were
+total, and eighteen considerable losses. In the next
+three years, with from ninety-four to one hundred and
+ninety-four "calls" yearly, there was but one total loss
+in each year, and but from nine to eighteen "considerable"
+losses.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Braidwood was meanwhile improving the fire-escapes,
+and when new engines were added to the force, he procured
+better workmanship. By his personal influence, also, more
+than by the mere advantage of official position, Mr. Braidwood
+secured the constant co-operation of the police in
+giving the earliest alarms of fire, and in facilitating the
+labours of the firemen when actually on duty. As has just
+been shown, the results of method, applied skill, and of a
+personal devotion cultivated under the high impulse of immediate
+public observation and approval, were soon manifest.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+To this vast improvement the <i>Edinburgh Mercury</i>, as representing
+the opinion of the citizens of the Scottish capital,
+bore public testimony in its issue of August 14, 1828, when
+the Fire Brigade of that city had been tested by nearly
+five years of constant trial, and with conspicuous success.
+Referring to the excellent organization of the establishment,
+it was remarked that there were then but few, if any, serious
+fires in Edinburgh, for when a fire broke out&mdash;and the
+alarms were as frequent as ever&mdash;it was speedily checked.
+Said the writer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Not only is the apparatus constructed on the best
+possible principles, but the whole system of operations has
+been changed. The public, however, do not see the same
+bustle, or hear the same noise as formerly; and hence they
+seem erroneously to conclude that there is nothing done.
+The fact is, the spectator sees the preparation for action
+made, but he sees no more. Where the strength of the men
+and the supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown
+against windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out
+the spot where the danger lies, and creeping on hands and
+feet into a chamber full of flame, or smoke, often at the
+hazard of suffocation, discover the exact seat of danger;
+and, by bringing the water in contact with it, obtain immediate
+mastery over the powerful element with which they
+have to contend. In this daring and dangerous work men
+have occasionally fainted from heat, or dropped down from
+want of respiration, in which cases the next person at hand
+is always ready to assist his companion, and to release him
+from his service of danger."</p></div>
+
+<p>In a fire which happened while Mr. Braidwood was at the
+head of the Edinburgh Brigade, he won great admiration by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+bringing out from the burning building a quantity of gunpowder
+which was known to be stored there. He would
+not ask any of his men to undertake this dangerous feat,
+but, amidst the breathless suspense of thousands of spectators,
+he coolly searched for and safely carried out, first one,
+and then a second, cask of this explosive material. Had
+the fire reached the powder, it was known that the worst
+consequences of the conflagration would have been immensely
+increased.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of the Edinburgh Brigade rapidly spread
+throughout the kingdom, and it gradually became regarded as
+a model to which all other organizations for the suppression
+of fires would ultimately be made to conform. As a response
+to constant inquiries from a distance, Mr. Braidwood, in
+1829, forwarded to the Society of Arts, London, a description
+of his chain-ladder fire-escape. For this invaluable
+apparatus, which had already effected a considerable saving
+of life, the Society's Silver Medal was awarded, and, accompanying
+the award, the Council of the Society extended an
+invitation to the author to "give a complete account of his
+mode of drilling firemen, and combining the use of fire-escapes
+with the ordinary fire-engine service." Responding
+to this invitation, Mr. Braidwood in the following year
+published his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines
+and Apparatus, the Training of Firemen, and the Method
+of Proceeding in Cases of Fire." From this work, which
+may still be regarded as an authority, extensive extracts
+have been made in the subsequent chapters of the present
+volume, and it need not, therefore, be further referred to
+here than to say that it formed a thoroughly original
+account of an original system, and that its illustrations,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+which were especially clear, were drawn by the author's
+own hand. This work attracted much attention from
+municipal bodies and insurance companies throughout the
+kingdom, and more than one official deputation visited
+Edinburgh to learn from Mr. Braidwood himself the details
+of a system which was already working such important
+results. In London, especially, three West India warehouses
+had been burnt in the year 1829, with a loss of
+300,000<i>l</i>.; and with the extending use of gas, the increasing
+frequency of fires, and the conspicuous inefficiency of the
+parish engines, and the want of unity of action among the
+insurance companies, it was felt that what had answered so
+well in Edinburgh would prove still more valuable in the
+metropolis. The general estimation in which Mr. Braidwood's
+services were then held may be considered as expressed
+in the following, among other contemporary reviews
+of his book:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The Edinburgh Fire-engine Establishment is now all
+but perfect. A unity of system has been accomplished, and
+a corps of firemen mustered, who, in point of physical vigour
+and moral intrepidity, are all entitled to be denominated
+chosen men. At the head of this band stands Mr. Braidwood,
+an individual who has on several occasions given
+abundant evidence of promptitude in extremity, and a noble
+contempt of personal danger, and whose enthusiasm, in what
+we may call his profession, could not have been more
+strikingly exemplified than by his illustrating it in the
+manner we now see before us. It is the only book we are
+acquainted with that treats of the systematic training of
+firemen; and from the perspicuity of its details, it must
+necessarily become the manual of all such institutions, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+ought to find a place in every insurance office in the United
+Kingdom."</p></div>
+
+<p>It had been from time to time attempted to bring the
+fire apparatus of the London Insurance Companies under a
+single management; but it was nearly ten years after the
+establishment of the Edinburgh Fire Brigade, and only when
+Mr. Braidwood himself had been invited to come to London,
+that this was at last effected. As for the parish engines,
+they were wholly neglected under this arrangement, and,
+indeed, a great number of them had been already allowed to
+fall into disuse, as far as could be permitted without incurring
+the penalties of the Statutes of 1774. On the
+1st January, 1833, at the instance of Mr. Ford, of the Sun
+Fire-office, eight of the insurance companies formed an association
+of fire-engines and firemen, each company withholding
+its own distinctive name and badges from the united
+force. This was known as the London Fire-engine Establishment.
+It was supported by the companies in common,
+each in proportion to the premiums received from its business
+in London, a minimum rate being fixed. Each company
+contributing to the support of the establishment nominated
+one member of the committee of management. This association
+existed for thirty-three years, when on the 1st of
+January, 1866, the Metropolitan Board of Works took
+charge of the fire-engines and the general fire establishment
+of the metropolis. Mr. Braidwood took the command of
+the London Brigade thus formed at the onset. The Edinburgh
+Fire-engine Committee, on accepting his resignation,
+presented him with a gold watch, and a vote of thanks,
+"for the singularly indefatigable manner in which he had
+discharged the duties of his important office, not merely by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+his extraordinary exertions on occasions of emergency, but
+for the care and attention he had bestowed on the training
+of the firemen, whereby the establishment had been
+brought to its present high state of efficiency." He had
+previously received from the men under him a handsome
+silver cup, bearing the following inscription:&mdash;"Presented
+to Mr. James Braidwood, by the City of Edinburgh Firemen,
+as a token of their admiration of him as their leader,
+and of deep respect for him as a gentleman."</p>
+
+<p>As in Edinburgh, the London Fire Brigade under Mr.
+Braidwood's superintendence became a new force, and in
+every respect a remarkable organization. Where the inefficiency
+of the old firemen could not at once be made to yield
+to discipline, they were pensioned off; and within a short
+time a select band of active, hardy, and thoroughly trained
+men was formed. In 1834, the second year of Mr. Braidwood's
+superintendence, the Houses of Parliament were
+burnt; and a most destructive fire occurred also at Mile-end.
+The first-named fire created general consternation, and there
+are many persons who can still recollect that also at Mile-end.
+These great fires stimulated Mr. Braidwood to increased
+exertions, and the result was soon visible in the lessened proportion
+of totally destroyed premises to the whole number
+of fires. The brigade had, of course, no power of prevention,
+and alarms of fire were becoming more numerous than ever.
+The use of friction matches and of gas was increasing enormously;
+manufactures, and the steam-engines and machinery
+for conducting them, were being rapidly multiplied; and with
+the vast progress making in the production of cotton goods,
+the use of cotton curtains and bed-furniture was becoming
+common in dwellings forming a large proportion of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+metropolis, but in which, not long before, such articles were
+either regarded as luxuries or were altogether unknown.
+The total number of fires attended by the brigade in the
+year 1833, exclusive of chimneys on fire, was 458, while in
+1851 the number had risen to 928; and although London had
+been growing all this time, it had not doubled in size to
+correspond with the increased number of fires. But while the
+total yearly number of fires, since the formation of the
+brigade, has shown a large and hardly interrupted increase,
+the number of cases of total destruction has almost as steadily
+diminished. Thus, "totally destroyed" was reported of 31
+fires in the year 1833, whereas in 1839 there were but 17
+cases, and the average for twenty-one years, from 1833 to
+1853 inclusive, was but 25-1/2 yearly, while at the present
+time, with all the vast growth of London, the average, under
+the continuance of Mr. Braidwood's system, is hardly if at all
+greater.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Braidwood from the first exhibited excellent judgment
+in his choice of men to serve under him. He chose sailors,
+as a rule, as being accustomed to obedience, and to irregular
+and prolonged duty, while also they were especially hardy
+and active; and where there was especial danger which must
+be met, he was always ready to lead, and his men had soon
+learned to confide in his quick and sound judgment in emergency,
+knowing that he would never permit them to incur
+needless risk. His own iron constitution, and his habits of
+constant vigilance, served as a high standard and incentive to
+those about him; and thus it was, by selection, discipline,
+and example, resting upon a foundation of even paternal
+kindness, that the men of the London Fire Brigade became
+conspicuous for their courage, energy, hardihood, and unalterable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+devotion to duty. The brigade, too, was most popular
+with the public, and could always count upon any necessary
+assistance in their labours. The system of rewards given to
+whoever was the first to bring a call of fire, the liberal gratuity
+to the policeman who first reached the burning premises,
+there preventing undue confusion, and by keeping the street-door
+closed, shutting off a strong draught of air from the
+flames, and the handsome pay to the ready throng of strong-armed
+men who worked the engines, secured every co-operation
+from the public, beyond that naturally springing from
+a general admiration of so brave and well-trained a body of
+men.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Braidwood's residence was at the principal station of
+the Fire-engine Establishment in Watling-street. To this
+station came all alarms of fire. He attended in person all calls
+from leading thoroughfares, public buildings, or localities
+where a serious conflagration might be expected. In the
+night a call was announced to him through a speaking-tube
+reaching to his bedside. The gas in his room was always
+burning, and he would quickly decide, from the known locality
+of the fire, and from the report given, whether he need
+go himself. In any case, his men were awake and quickly
+away. Rapidity in dressing, and in horseing and mounting
+the engines, was but a detail of daily drill. The moment the
+scene of action was reached, nothing was allowed to stand in
+the way of access to the actual seat of the fire, and nothing
+either in securing a supply of water. The inmates of the
+premises, if any, were quickly got out, and wherever an unhappy
+creature was cut off by the flames, there were always
+one or more firemen ready, if necessary, to brave an apparently
+certain death in a heroic attempt at rescue&mdash;an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+attempt, indeed, which but seldom failed. It is but just to
+say here that the firemen were always nobly seconded, if not
+indeed anticipated, in these attempts by the officers and men
+of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire&mdash;a
+body which has long rendered priceless services to humanity
+under most appalling circumstances. The men of the Fire
+Brigade were taught to prevent, as much as possible, the
+access of air to the burning materials. What the open door
+of the ash pit is to the furnace of a steam-boiler the open
+street door is to the house on fire. In both cases the door gives
+vital air to the flames. The men of the Brigade were trained
+to pursue a fire, not yet under full headway, up-stairs and
+down, in at windows and out through the roof, anywhere, so
+it could be reached directly by the water from the engines.
+They were made to regard it as worse than a waste to throw
+even a gallon of water upon a dead wall or upon a surface of
+slate or plaster, so long as by any means the branch pipe
+could be got to bear upon the seat of the fire itself. The
+statistics of the operations of the London Fire-engine Establishment
+from 1833 to the present time, show with what
+success the system originated and so admirably carried out
+by Mr Braidwood has been pursued. Of the whole number
+of fires not one in fifty now proceeds to the extent of total
+destruction of the premises.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to the organization of the Fire-engine Establishment
+there were no official annual reports of the fires in the
+metropolis. No one person by himself was indeed in a position
+to know all of the fires that happened, any more than,
+but for Lloyds', could we know of all the wrecks which take
+place around and upon our coasts. It was impossible, under
+such a state of things, that either the value of insurance to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+the insured or its risk to the insurer could be rightly known.
+The general public could only know that, like fevers and
+certain other classes of disease, fires were always breaking
+out, but no one could know, even approximately, how great
+or how little was the real general risk. When, however, a
+fire establishment was formed, the engines were called to all
+fires, whether of insured or uninsured property. It was not
+now difficult to tabulate the number and localities of fires; but
+Mr. Braidwood went further, and extended his yearly tables
+to include the various causes of fires, and the classification of
+the premises, whether residences, shops, warehouses, manufactories,
+&amp;c., where they occurred, the subdivision of these
+classes being extended to every variety of occupation and
+business. Even the hours at which the various fires broke
+out were carefully tabulated, and thus the particulars of
+London fires soon became an important branch of statistics,
+from which the operations of insurance have derived increased
+certainty, with greater economy to the insured.</p>
+
+<p>Although regarding the training and discipline of firemen
+as of the first importance in the organization of a fire
+brigade, Mr. Braidwood gave a large share of attention to
+the improvement of fire-engines and their kindred appliances.
+While in Edinburgh, where the steepness of many
+of the streets, and the roughness of the pavements in the
+older parts of the town prevented the rapid and easy movement
+of heavy engines, he recommended and adopted a
+lighter description, but in London he recognised the necessity
+for greater power. Mr. Tilley, then a fire-engine maker
+in the Blackfriars'-road, ably seconded his efforts, and at
+length the distinctive type known as the London Fire
+Brigade Engine was produced, and which, weighing about<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+eighteen cwt. when ready for service, would throw eighty-eight
+gallons of water per minute, and, in short trials, as
+much as 120 gallons in the same time. This engine was
+mounted upon springs, and in strength and ease of working
+presented a marked improvement upon those which had
+preceded it. Its ordinary working complement of men
+was twenty-eight, and larger engines, upon the same general
+design, have since been made, to be worked by from forty-five
+to sixty men. The steam fire-engine has already,
+to a certain extent, superseded the brigade engine, but
+the latter is still likely, for some time at least, to be preferred
+for a large class of fires, both in London and in the
+provinces.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Braidwood at an early date adopted the ordinary military
+scaling ladders to the purposes of his brigade, two being
+placed on each engine, and at his recommendation ladders
+were also placed on a two-wheeled carriage as a convenient
+fire-escape. He also induced the Admiralty, in 1841,
+to adopt hose-reels in the various dockyards, these implements
+having been previously in successful use in New
+York. In 1848 he was induced, in consequence of the
+large number of small fires to which his engines were
+called out, to adopt a small hand-pump as an auxiliary to
+the fire-engine. This could be rapidly brought to bear,
+and although worked by but one man, the value of a small
+quantity of water thrown directly upon the seat of a small
+fire was found to be greater than that of perhaps twenty
+times as much when thrown about in the ordinary manner.
+It was of great importance also in warehouses stored with
+valuable goods, to throw the least necessary quantity of
+water upon a fire. These hand-pumps still form an important<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+part of the present apparatus of the brigade, and
+they have been widely adopted elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>London, unlike Edinburgh, has a vast water-side property,
+always exposed to danger from fire. Almost immediately,
+therefore, after having taken the command of the London
+Brigade, Mr. Braidwood directed his attention to the construction
+of improved floating fire-engines, to be moored in
+the river, where they would be always available for the
+protection of wharf property. Two were constructed, one
+being a machine of great power, with pumps made to be
+worked by 120 men. These machines proved of great
+value. In 1852, shortly after the memorable fire at
+Humphrey's warehouses, he persuaded the Fire-engine
+Committee to allow one of these engines to be altered so
+as to work by steam, and in 1855 a large self-propelling
+floating steam fire-engine was made upon a novel construction,
+and which, having already rendered great service at
+fires on the river side, still ranks as the most powerful
+machine in the service of the brigade. With locomotive
+boilers and large double steam engines, this float can steam
+nine miles an hour, and when in place at a fire it can throw
+four streams of water, each from a jet-pipe of 1-1/2 inch in
+diameter, to a great distance. In the great fire of 1861,
+this floating engine was worked with but little intermission
+for upwards of a fortnight. In 1860 Mr. Braidwood obtained
+the sanction of the Fire-engine Committee for the introduction
+of a land steam fire-engine, and although he did not
+live to witness the present remarkable development of these
+machines, he was enabled to employ the first one in the
+brigade with much advantage.</p>
+
+<p>We may quote here from a brief but excellent memoir of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+Mr. Braidwood, which appeared in the annual report of the
+Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"As early as 1841, the Government began to profit by
+his experience, the Lords of the Admiralty having in that
+year consulted him on the subject of floating fire-engines
+for the various dockyards. These were eventually constructed
+from his designs and under his superintendence.
+In the following year he inspected all the dockyards, and
+reported fully on each, with regard to both floating and land
+fire-engines, the supply of water, the alterations of buildings
+to prevent spread of fire, and the proper care required
+in dangerous trades. From this time, although not holding
+any appointment, he acted as Government consulting engineer
+on all questions relating to fire prevention and extinction,
+and he advised from time to time the precautions to
+be taken for the protection of the royal palaces and various
+other public buildings. This position enabled him, not without
+a great deal of opposition, to induce the Government to
+adopt in all its departments a uniform size of hose-coupling.
+This is the one which he introduced in Edinburgh, and
+known as the London Fire Brigade coupling, is now in
+almost universal use; its application has been found comparatively
+of as much utility for fire-brigade purposes, as
+the adoption of the Whitworth gauges of screw-bolts for
+mechanical engineering.</p>
+
+<p>"Although so fully occupied, he never refused advice on
+professional matters to all who sought it. The various dock
+companies, public institutions, country fire brigades,
+private firms, &amp;c., benefited largely by his experience. The
+numerous inquiries from foreign countries and the colonies
+with regard to the best means of extinguishing fires, also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+made great inroads on his time. In 1833 he became an
+Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to which, in
+1844, he contributed a valuable paper 'On the means of
+rendering large supplies of Water available in case of Fire,
+&amp;c.,' for which he was awarded a Telford Medal; and in
+1849 a second paper 'On Fire-Proof Buildings.' In 1856,
+a paper on 'Fires: the best means of preventing and
+arresting them; with a few words on Fire-Proof Structures,'
+was read by him before the Society of Arts.</p>
+
+<p>"He took great interest in the passing of Acts of Parliament
+for regulating buildings in the metropolis, was consulted
+by the framers of these Acts, and used his utmost
+influence to prevent the endangering a whole neighbourhood
+by the erection of monster warehouses for private profit.
+He strongly contended for the principle of dividing buildings
+by party-walls carried through the roof, and restricting
+these divisions to a moderate cubic content. Writing to
+Lord Seymour, Commissioner of Woods and Forests, on the
+28th June, 1851, he said 'that no preparations for contending
+with such fires will give anything like the security that
+judicious arrangements in the size and construction of
+buildings will do.' The wise provisions introduced through
+his instrumentality into these Acts of Parliament were
+continually being evaded, and clusters of warehouses quickly
+rose which he saw would, if on fire, defy all his means of
+extinction. In a letter to Sir W. Molesworth, First Commissioner
+of Public Works, dated 10th February, 1854, on
+the subject of a proposed warehouse in Tooley-street, he
+wrote 'The whole building, if once fairly on fire in one
+floor, will become such a mass of fire that there is now no
+power in London capable of extinguishing it, or even of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+restraining its ravages on every side, and on three sides it
+will be surrounded by property of immense value.' How
+literally this was realized, and at what cost, was shown by
+the great warehouse fire in Tooley-street, on the 22nd June,
+1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life."</p></div>
+
+<p>The great fire at Cotton's Wharf; Tooley-street, broke
+out on Saturday, June 22nd, 1861, and continued to burn
+for more than a fortnight, consuming Scovell's, and other
+large warehouses, and, in all, upwards of two millions'
+worth of property. The fire is believed to have originated
+in the spontaneous combustion of hemp, of which upwards
+of 1000 tons were consumed, together with 3000 tons
+of sugar, 500 tons of saltpetre, nearly 5000 tons of rice,
+18,000 bales of cotton, 10,000 casks of tallow, 1100
+tons of jute, and an immense quantity of tea, spices, &amp;c.,
+besides many other descriptions of goods. Although discovered
+in broad daylight, and before the flames had
+made any considerable headway, the want of a ready
+supply of water, and the fact that the iron doors in the
+division walls between the several warehouses had been
+left open, taken in connexion with the extremely combustible
+nature of the materials, soon rendered hopeless
+all chance of saving the buildings and property. Mr.
+Braidwood was upon the spot very soon after the alarm
+had been given, and nearly the whole available force of the
+Fire-engine Establishment was summoned at his command.
+He appears to have at once foreseen that the fire would be
+one of no ordinary magnitude, and that the utmost that
+could be done would be to prevent its extending widely over
+adjoining property. The floating fire-engines had been got
+to bear upon the flames, and the men in charge of the branch<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+pipes were, after two hours' work, already suffering greatly
+from the intense heat, when their chief went to them to give
+them a word of encouragement. Several minor explosions,
+as of casks of tallow or of oil, had been heard, but as it was
+understood that the saltpetre stored at the wharf was in
+buildings not yet alight, no alarm was then felt as to the
+walls falling in. At the moment, however, while Mr.
+Braidwood was discharging this his last act of kindness to
+his men, a loud report was heard, and the lofty wall behind
+him toppled and fell, burying him in the ruins. Those of his
+men who were near him had barely time to escape, and one
+person at his side, not a fireman, was overwhelmed with him.
+From the moment when the wall was seen to fall, it was
+known that whoever was beneath it had been instantly
+crushed to death. It is needless, and it would, indeed, be
+out of place, to describe here the further progress of the fire,
+which had then but fairly begun, and which was still burning
+more than a fortnight afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Great as was the general consternation at so terrible a conflagration,
+it is doubtful if the public were not still more
+impressed by the dreadful death of Mr. Braidwood, and by a
+feeling that his loss was a public misfortune. Her Majesty
+the Queen, with that ready sympathy which she has ever
+shown for crushed or suffering heroism, commanded the Earl
+of Stamford to inquire on the spot, on Monday, whether the
+body had yet been recovered by the firemen, and Her
+Majesty's sympathies were also conveyed to Mrs. Braidwood.
+It was not, however, until the following morning, that after
+almost constant exertions, under the greatest difficulties, the
+crushed remains were rescued. An inquest was necessary,
+not merely to ascertain what was already well known, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+death had been instantly caused by accident, but to know
+whether culpable carelessness of any kind had indirectly led
+to the sorrowful event. None, however, appeared. The
+remains of the fallen chief were afterwards borne to his late
+residence in Watling-street. The members of the committee
+of the London Fire-engine Establishment, formed of representatives
+from all of the twenty-five insurance companies of
+London, had already met to express, by a formal resolution,
+their sincere condolence with Mrs. Braidwood and her family.
+It was known that the funeral would take place on Saturday,
+June 29th, and it was widely felt that a general
+expression of sorrow and respect should be made, in view of
+the common loss of so valued a public servant, as well as for
+the noble qualities for which he had been so long and so well
+known. On the occasion of the funeral this was shown not
+more by the great length and marked character of the
+<i>cort&eacute;ge</i> itself than by the general suspension of business in
+the leading thoroughfares of the city through which it
+passed, and by the hushed demeanour of the countless multitude
+who pressed closely upon the procession throughout
+its entire course. Among the thousands who sadly led
+the way to the grave were the London Rifle Brigade, about
+700 strong (and of which Mr. Braidwood's three sons
+were members), the Seventh Tower-Hamlets, and other
+rifle corps, upwards of 1000 constables of the metropolitan
+police force, besides nearly 400 members of the
+city police, the superintendents and men of the various
+water companies, the secretary and conductors and the
+band of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from
+Fire, a large number of private and local fire-brigades,
+and the members of the London Fire-engine Establishment.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+The pall-bearers were six of Mr. Braidwood's engineers and
+foremen, some of whom were at his side when he fell, and
+who had barely escaped with their own lives. Following the
+chief mourners were the Duke of Sutherland, the Earl of
+Caithness, the Rev. Dr. Cumming, and a large number of
+relatives and friends of the deceased, and the committee of
+the London Fire-engine establishment. The procession was
+nearly one mile and a-half in length, and was about three
+hours in its progress from Watling-street to Abney Park
+Cemetery, where the solemn service of the dead was conducted
+by the Rev. Dr. Cumming, of whose congregation the
+deceased had long been a member. With the exception of
+the great bell of St. Paul's, which tolls only on the occasion
+of the death of a member of the royal family or of a lord-mayor
+in office, the bells of all the churches in the city were
+booming slowly through the day, and so evident was the
+general sorrow that it could be truly said that the heart of
+the nation mourned.</p>
+
+<p>On Thursday, July 4th, a public meeting was held at the
+Mansion House, when resolutions were passed for the collection
+of subscriptions towards a memorial to Mr. Braidwood's
+long and arduous public services. This memorial, it was felt,
+should take the form of a permanent provision for his family,
+for the post of Fire Brigade Superintendent had never been a
+lucrative one. Before, however, the collection of subscriptions
+had extended beyond a few hundred pounds, it was
+made known that the insurance companies had promptly
+settled upon Mrs. Braidwood the full "value"&mdash;speaking in
+an insurable sense&mdash;of her husband's life. Mr. Braidwood
+had for many years supported two maiden sisters, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+public subscription was applied, therefore, to the purchase of
+small annuities for each of them.</p>
+
+<p>It will be remembered that the London Fire-engine
+Establishment was from the first controlled only by the
+insurance companies, upon whom of course, fell the whole
+cost of its maintenance. Their interest in the suppression
+of fires, although direct and unmistakeable, was not the same
+as that of the public. Thus, it would be to the public
+advantage that no fires should happen, whereas such a result
+would be fatal to the insurance companies, since no one in
+that case would insure. Although the protection of the
+Establishment was in practice extended alike to both
+insured and uninsured property, the real object for which it
+was formed and maintained was undoubtedly that of protecting
+insured property only. It was the interest of the
+companies to incur as little expense as would, on the whole,
+fairly effect this purpose, and it was not their interest to
+effectually protect the whole of the metropolis from fire. Thus
+it was that, with all the excellence of the organization and
+discipline of the Fire-engine Establishment, it was greatly
+inferior in extent to what was requisite for the proper
+security of the first city in the world. Mr. Braidwood had long
+felt this truth, but, acting for a private association, he could
+only go to the extent of the limited resources at his disposal.
+It was, more than anything else, the great fire at Cotton's
+Wharf that first directed public attention to the necessary
+insufficiency of any private establishment for the general
+suppression of fires, and that has led to the legislation under
+which the Fire-engine Establishment was, on the 1st of
+January last, taken over and extended by the Metropolitan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+Board of Works. London will now, it is hoped, be better
+protected from fire, because of the increased extent of the
+means of protection; but it can hardly be expected that the
+discipline of the brigade will be improved.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the public value of Mr. Braidwood's career
+in increasing the common security against a common foe,
+there was much in his personal, intellectual, and moral qualities
+worthy of admiration. He was a man of strong and
+commanding frame, of inexhaustible energy, and of enduring
+vitality. The constitutions of but few men could have withstood
+such long continued wear and tear as fell to his. He
+braved all weathers, all extremes of heat and cold, could
+sleep or wake at will, and could work on long after others
+would have given way. He was always at his post, and in
+no moment of difficulty or danger did his cool judgment or
+his steady courage forsake him. It was this, together with
+his considerate bearing, and on occasions of special trial his
+almost womanly kindness to his men, that inspired them with
+unlimited confidence in him and in his plans. Beyond this,
+he was a man of superior mind, with strong comprehensive
+and generalising faculties. His various published papers,
+and a correspondence of which but few could know the extent
+and importance, as well as his ready, clear, and exact
+manner in stating his views before committees and before
+those in authority, who so often consulted him, all attest an
+order of mind which, in a different sphere, would alone have
+won distinction for its possessor. His profession was one in
+which it happens that almost every person thinks himself
+competent to give advice; yet, without any assumption of
+authority, Mr. Braidwood could make it felt wherever he
+pleased that he was a master in the art of extinguishing fire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+But he was not on this account the less ready to listen to
+suggestions, and there are numbers who can bear testimony
+to the patient, honest, and appreciative manner in which
+he considered the many and diverse propositions submitted
+to him as the head of the Fire Brigade of the first city
+in the world. The soundness of his views and opinions
+is sufficiently attested by the success of his practice&mdash;a
+success which, but for the Government tax upon fire
+policies, would have long since made fire insurance in
+London almost the cheapest of all the forms of protection
+of property from danger. The London Brigade was
+insignificant in numbers and tame in display when compared
+with the eight hundred <i>sapeurs pompiers</i> of Paris,
+with their parade and all their accessories of effect&mdash;insignificant
+and tame, too, after the glittering apparatus, imposing
+paraphernalia, and deafening clatter of the "Fire
+Department" of New York; but Mr. Braidwood's chosen
+men knew how to do their duty, and considering the
+differences in the mode of building and of heating, and in
+the extent of lighting in the three great metropoli just
+named, it is an easy matter, on reference to statistics, to
+prove that none others have done better.</p>
+
+<p>Above all, Mr. Braidwood was a gentleman of deep
+Christian feeling; and those who knew him best had never
+doubted that, had it been his lot to linger long in pain,
+knowing the end that was to come, his calm but unwavering
+faith in a better future would have sustained him through
+all. Brought up from childhood in the faith of the Scotch
+church, he was a regular attendant upon the ministrations of
+the Rev. Dr. Cumming. In his own quiet way he did much
+good in the poorer districts of London, and he took a special<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+interest in the ragged schools of the metropolis. What he
+was in his own home may be best inferred from the crushing
+force with which his dreadful yet noble fate fell upon those
+who were dearest to him. His family had already too much
+reason to know the dangers which had always attended his
+career. A step-son had fallen, five years before, in nearly the
+same manner, and now lies buried in the same grave. Eleven
+members, in all, of the brigade, had perished in the discharge
+of their duty during the time Mr. Braidwood had commanded
+it: a fact which, taken with daily experience,
+pointed to other victims to follow. Such consolation, then,
+as a stricken widow and a mourning family could have,
+next to an abiding faith in the goodness of God, was in the
+recollection of the virtues and noble qualities of the husband
+and father, and in the spontaneous sorrow with which a
+great people testified their sense of his worth and of their
+common loss.</p>
+
+<p>To show the universal as well as national esteem in which
+Mr. Braidwood was held, two extracts are here given from
+the numerous letters of condolence addressed to his bereaved
+family, from all parts of the world. Mr. G. H. Allen,
+Secretary to the Boston (America) Fire Department, writes:
+"It gives me pleasure to unite with the Board in testimony
+to the extreme kindness of Mr. Braidwood in the conduct of
+our correspondence, whereby we have been greatly benefited
+and received extensive information. Allow me also to extend
+our sympathy to those who have lost one who will ever be
+remembered as standing at the head of the most valued arm
+of the Government, and one that you can hardly expect to
+be replaced, except by years of experience and great natural
+ability." Mr. T. J. Bown, Superintendent of the Sydney<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+(Australia) Fire Brigade, in a letter dated 22nd August
+1861, says, "On receipt of the sad news, our large fire-bell
+was tolled, the British ensign hoisted half-mast high, and
+crape attached to the firemen's uniform, as a token of respect
+for one of the noblest and most self-denying men that ever
+lived, who spent and lost his life in the service of his fellow-creatures."</p>
+
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="A_TRUE_HERO" id="A_TRUE_HERO"></a>A TRUE HERO.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">James Braidwood.</span>&mdash;<i>Died, June 22nd, 1861.</i></h4>
+
+<h4>By the Author of<br />
+"<span class="smcap">John Halifax, Gentleman.</span>"</h4>
+
+
+<div class="poem"><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Not at the battle front,&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Writ of in story;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not on the blazing wreck,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Steering to glory;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Not while in martyr pangs<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Soul and flesh sever,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Died he&mdash;this Hero new&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Hero for ever.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">No pomp poetic crown'd,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">No forms enchained him,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No friends applauding watched,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">No foes arraigned him:<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Death found him there, without<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Grandeur or beauty,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Only an honest man<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Doing his duty:<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Just a God-fearing man,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Simple and lowly,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Constant at kirk and hearth,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Kindly and holy:<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Death found&mdash;and touched him with<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Finger in flying:&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">So he rose up complete&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Hero undying.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Now, all mourn for him,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Lovingly raise him<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Up from his life obscure,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Chronicle, praise him;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Tell his last act, done midst<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Peril appalling,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the last word of cheer<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">From his lips falling;<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Follow in multitudes<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">To his grave's portal;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Leave him there, buried<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">In honour immortal.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">So many a Hero walks<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Daily beside us,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till comes the supreme stroke<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Sent to divide us.<br /></span>
+</div><div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Then the Lord calls His own,&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Like this man, even,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Carried, Elijah-like,<br /></span>
+<span class="i2">Fire-winged, to heaven.<br /></span>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><i>Macmillan's Magazine</i>, Vol. IV., page 294.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="FIRE_PREVENTION" id="FIRE_PREVENTION"></a>FIRE PREVENTION</h2>
+
+<h4>INCLUDING</h4>
+
+<h2>FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>To prevent fires it is necessary to consider what are the
+principal causes of such calamities. These may be classed
+under several heads:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights.</p>
+
+<p>2. Improper construction of buildings, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>3. Furnaces or close fires for heating buildings, or for mechanical
+purposes.</p>
+
+<p>4. Spontaneous ignition.</p>
+
+<p>5. Incendiarism.</p></div>
+
+<p>As almost all fires arise from inattention in one shape or
+another, it is of the utmost importance that every master of
+a house or other establishment should persevere in rigidly
+enjoining and enforcing on those under him, the necessity of
+observing the utmost possible care in preventing such calamities,
+which, in nineteen cases out of twenty, are the result
+of remissness or inattention. Indeed, if any one will for a
+moment consider the fearful risk of life and property, which
+is often incurred from a very slight inattention, the necessity
+of vigilance and care will at once be apparent. Immense
+hazard is frequently incurred for the most trifling indulgences,
+and much property is annually destroyed, and valuable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+lives often lost, because a few thoughtless individuals cannot
+deny themselves the gratification of reading in bed with a
+candle beside them.</p>
+
+<p>Some years ago, upwards of 100,000<i>l.</i> were lost, through
+the partner of a large establishment lighting gas with a piece
+of paper, which he threw away, and thus set fire to the premises,
+although it was a strict rule in the place that gas
+should only be lighted with tapers, which were provided for
+that purpose. In one department of a great public institution,
+it was, and is still, a rule that only covered lights
+should be carried about, and for that purpose four lanterns
+were provided; yet, on inquiry some time back, it was found
+that only one was entire, the other three being broken&mdash;one
+having lost two sides and the top; still they were all used as
+covered lights.</p>
+
+<p>The opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are
+so various, that it is impossible to notice the whole.</p>
+
+<p>One of the prevailing causes of fire is to be traced to persons
+locking their doors, and leaving their houses to the care
+of children. I believe one-half of the children whose deaths
+are occasioned by accident suffer from this cause alone: indeed,
+almost every week the newspapers contain some melancholy
+confirmation of what I have here stated. Intoxication
+is also a disgraceful and frequent cause of fire. The number
+of persons burned to death in this way is really incredible.
+It is true that it does not always happen that a fire takes
+place in the house, in either of the above cases, although the
+unfortunate beings whose clothes take fire, rarely escape with
+their lives; but the danger to the neighbourhood is at all
+times considerable, if persons in a state of inebriety are left
+in a house alone. When there is reason to apprehend that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+any member of a family will come home at night in that
+state, some one should always be appointed to receive him,
+and on no account to leave him till he is put to bed, and the
+light extinguished.</p>
+
+<p>I do not mean to say that people must be actually drunk
+before danger is to be apprehended from them. Indeed, a
+very slight degree of inebriety is dangerous, as it always tends
+to blunt the perception, and to make a person careless and
+indifferent. I may also add, that no inconsiderable number
+of fires are occasioned by the thoughtless practice of throwing
+spirits into the fire. The dresses of females taking fire adds
+very much to the list of lives lost by fire, if it does not exceed
+all the other causes put together.</p>
+
+<p>Another very general cause of fire is that of approaching
+with lighted candles too near bed or window curtains; these,
+being generally quite dry, are, from the way in which they
+are hung, easily set on fire, and, as the flames ascend rapidly,
+when once touched, they are in a blaze in a moment.</p>
+
+<p>It is really astonishing to find that, with daily examples
+before their eyes, people should persist (whether insured or
+not seems to make little difference) in practices which, there
+is a hundred chances to one, may involve both themselves and
+the neighbourhood in one common ruin. Of this sort are
+the practices of looking under a bed with a lighted candle,
+and placing a screen full of clothes too near the fire.</p>
+
+<p>Houses not unfrequently take fire from cinders falling
+between the joints of the outer and inner hearths. When
+smoke is observed to arise from the floor, the cause should be
+immediately ascertained, and the inmates ought on no
+account to retire to rest while there is the slightest smell of
+fire, or any grounds to suspect danger from that cause.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Occasional fires are caused by a very absurd method of
+extinguishing at night the fires kept in grates during the
+day. Instead of arranging the embers in the grate in such a
+way as to prevent their falling off, and thus allowing the fire
+to die out in its proper place, they are frequently taken off
+and laid on the hearth, where, should there be wood-work
+underneath, it becomes scorched, and the slightest spark
+falling through a joint in the stones sets it on fire.</p>
+
+<p>A very frequent cause of fire in shops and warehouses
+arises from the carelessness of the person intrusted to lock
+them up. It is no uncommon practice with those to whom
+this duty is intrusted, to light themselves out, or to search for
+any little article which may have been mislaid, with a lighted
+paper, and then to throw it carelessly on the floor, imagining
+they have taken every necessary precaution, merely by setting
+their foot upon it, forgetting that the current of air occasioned
+by shutting the door frequently rekindles it, and produces
+the most serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p>In warehouses and manufactories, fires are not unfrequently
+caused by the workmen being occasionally kept late
+at work. By the time their task is finished, the men are so
+tired and sleepy, that the extinguishing of fires and lights is
+done in a very careless manner. I recollect an instance of
+this sort, in which the flames were issuing from three upper
+windows, and observed by the neighbours, while the workmen
+engaged at their employment in the lower floors knew
+nothing of the destruction that was going on above.</p>
+
+<p>A very serious annual loss is also caused by want of
+due care in handing up or removing the goods in linen-drapers'
+shop windows when the gas is burning. Flues
+taking fire often result in mischief and it is believed that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+many serious fires have arisen from this cause, which can
+hardly be called accidental, as, if flues are properly constructed,
+kept moderately clean, and fairly used, they cannot
+take fire.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said, it will be seen that care and
+attention may do a very great deal towards the prevention
+of fire, and consequent loss of life. It is very easy to make
+good rules, and keep them for a time, after having been
+alarmed by some serious loss of property or life, but the
+difficulty is to maintain constant attention to the subject.
+The most evident plan for effecting this seems to be, for the
+masters thoroughly to examine and consider the subject at
+certain stated periods, not too far apart, and to constantly
+warn their domestics, workmen, or others, of the danger of
+the improper use of fires and lights.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest preventives of carelessness in the
+use of fires and lights would be a legal inquiry in every
+case, as it would not only show the faults that had been
+committed, and thus warn others, but the idea of being exposed
+in the newspapers would be another motive for
+increased care. This plan has been adopted in New York,
+and the reports of the proceedings of Mr. Baker, the "Fire
+Marshal," show that the inquiries there made have led to
+most useful results. Mr. Payne, the coroner, held inquests
+on fires in the City of London some years ago, but the
+authorities would not allow his expenses, and therefore they
+were given up, although believed to be highly advantageous
+in explaining accidental and others causes of fire.</p>
+
+<p><i>The improper construction of buildings</i> more generally
+assists the spread than is the original cause of fires, although
+laying hearths on timber, and placing timber too near flues,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+are constant causes of fire, and it is believed that many
+melancholy occurrences have arisen from these and similar
+sources.</p>
+
+<p>One cause of danger from chimneys arises from the communication
+which they often have with each other in one
+gable. The divisions or partitions, being very often found
+in an imperfect state, the fire communicates to the adjoining
+chimney, and in this way sometimes wraps a whole tenement
+in flames. I know a division of a principal street in Edinburgh,
+in which there is scarcely a single chimney-head that
+is not more or less in this condition; and I have no doubt
+that this is not an uncommon case. There is also great
+danger from the ends of joists, safe-lintels, or other pieces of
+timber, being allowed to protrude into chimneys. In one
+instance which came under my notice, a flue passing under
+the recess of a window had on the upper side no other
+covering than the wood of the floor; of course, when the
+chimney took fire the floor was immediately in a blaze: but
+there are many instances of such carelessness. It is a
+common practice amongst carpenters to drive small pieces of
+wood into walls for the purpose of fixing their work, not
+paying the least attention as to whether the points run into
+the flues or not.</p>
+
+<p>In the repairs and alterations of old buildings, house-carpenters
+are, if possible, even more careless in this particular,
+than in the construction of new.</p>
+
+<p>I know of two different buildings which underwent some
+alterations. In both of these, safe-lintels had been run into
+flues, and both of them, after the alterations, took fire; the
+one in consequence of a foul chimney, which set fire to the
+lintel; and although the other did not take fire from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+same cause, the lintel was nevertheless very much scorched,
+and obliged to be removed.</p>
+
+<p>Great carelessness is frequently exhibited by builders,
+when erecting at one time two or three houses connected by
+mutual gables, by not carrying up the gables, or party-walls,
+so as to divide the roofs. I have seen more than one instance
+where the adjoining house would have been quite safe, but
+for this culpable neglect. It is no uncommon thing, too, to
+find houses divided only by lath and standard partitions,
+without a single brick in them. When a fire occurs in
+houses divided in this manner, the vacuities in the middle
+of the partitions act like so many funnels to conduct the
+flame, thereby greatly adding to the danger from the fire,
+and infinitely increasing the difficulty of extinguishing it.</p>
+
+<p>In London the Building Act forbids all such proceedings,
+but the District Surveyors do not seem to have sufficient
+power, or be able to pay sufficient attention to such matters,
+as they are constantly met with at fires. A very flagrant
+case of laying a hearth on timber was lately exposed by a
+fire in the City. Due notice was given of the circumstance,
+but no farther attention was paid to the matter than to
+make the proprietor construct the floor properly, although
+the Act gave power to fine for such neglect. The omission
+is to be regretted, as there could not have been a better case
+for warning others; it occurred in a very large establishment,
+and the work was done by one of the first builders in
+the City. Had this fire taken place in the night and
+gained some head, it would have been very difficult to have
+ascertained the cause. As the premises were situated, a
+serious loss of life might have occurred, the apartment in
+which the fire originated being the only means of retreat<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+which ten or twelve female servants had from their bedrooms.</p>
+
+<p>The Metropolitan Building Acts, up to about the year
+1825, by insisting upon party-walls and other precautions,
+were invaluable for the prevention of the spread of fires. By
+them no warehouse was permitted to exceed a certain area.
+From the year 1842, the area has been exchanged for a
+specified number of cubic feet. But since 1825, a class of
+buildings has arisen of which there are now considerable
+numbers in the City, called Manchester or piece goods warehouses,
+which somehow have been exempted from the law
+restricting the extent of warehouses, on the plea that
+they are <i>not</i> warehouses, because "bulk is broken" in
+them, although it is thoroughly understood that the legislature
+intended by the Act to restrict the amassing such
+a quantity of goods under one roof as would be dangerous
+to the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>Manchester and piece goods warehouses have for some
+time past been built in London of unlimited size, sometimes
+equal to twenty average houses. This is pretty nearly the
+same as if that number of houses were built without party-walls,
+only that it is much worse, for the whole mass generally
+communicates by well holes and open staircases, and
+thus takes fire with great rapidity, and, from the quantity of
+fresh air within the building, the fire makes much greater
+progress before it is discovered. By this means the risk of
+fire in the City has been greatly increased, not only to such
+warehouses themselves, but to the surrounding neighbourhood,
+for it is impossible to say how far fires of such magnitude
+may extend their ravages under untoward circumstances,
+there being at present no preventive power in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+London capable of controlling them. To provide such a
+power would be a very costly business.</p>
+
+<p>Such buildings are also against the generally received rule,
+that a man may burn himself and his own property, but he
+shall not unduly risk the lives and property of his
+neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>The new Building Act is likely to repress, to a certain
+extent, this great evil, unless its meaning be subverted by
+some such subterfuge as destroyed the efficiency of the last
+one. But what is to be done with those which are already
+built? It may seem tedious to dwell so much on this subject,
+but it appears to be a risk which is not generally much
+thought of, though it is of the most vital importance to the
+safety of London. It is very desirable that the metropolis
+should take warning by the experience of Liverpool,
+without going through the fiery ordeal which the latter city
+did.</p>
+
+<p>From 1838 to 1843, 776,762<i>l.</i> were lost in Liverpool by
+fire, almost entirely in the warehouse risks. The consequence
+was, that the mercantile rates of insurance gradually rose
+from about 8<i>s.</i> per cent. to 30<i>s.</i>, 40<i>s.</i>, and, it is said, in some
+cases, to 45<i>s.</i> per cent. Such premiums could not be paid
+on wholesale transactions, therefore the Liverpool people
+themselves obtained an Act of Parliament, 6 and 7 Vic.,
+cap. 109, by which the size and height of warehouses were
+restricted, party walls were made imperative, and warehouses
+were not allowed to be erected within thirty-six feet of any
+other warehouse, unless the whole of the doors and window-shutters
+were made of <i>wrought iron</i>, with many similar
+restrictions. This Act applied to warehouses already built as
+well as to those to be built, and any tenant was at liberty,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+after notice to his landlord, to alter his warehouse according
+to the Act, and to stop his rent till the expense was paid.
+Another Act, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 75, was also obtained, for
+bringing water into Liverpool for the purpose of extinguishing
+fires and watering the streets <i>only</i>. It is supposed that
+the works directed, or permitted, by these two Acts, cost
+the people of Liverpool from 200,000<i>l.</i> to 300,000<i>l.</i> Shortly
+after these alterations had been made, the mercantile premiums
+again fell to about 8<i>s.</i> per cent.</p>
+
+<p>There is another very common cause of fire, which seems
+to come under the head of construction&mdash;viz., covering up
+a fireplace when not in use with wood or paper and canvas,
+&amp;c. The soot falls into the fireplace, either from the flue
+itself, or from an adjoining one which communicates with it.
+A neighbouring chimney takes fire; a spark falls down the
+blocked-up flue, sets fire to the soot in the fireplace, which
+smoulders till the covering is burned through, and thus sets
+fire to the premises.</p>
+
+<p>In theatres, that part of the house which includes the
+stage and scenery should be carefully divided from that
+where the spectators assemble by a solid wall carried up
+to, and through the roof. The opening in this wall for the
+stage should be arched over, and the other communications
+secured with iron doors, which would be kept shut while the
+audience was in the house. By this plan, there would be
+abundance of time for the spectators to retire, before
+fire could reach that part of the theatre which they
+occupy.</p>
+
+<p><i>The danger from furnaces</i> or close fires, whether for
+heating, cooking, or manufacturing purposes, is very great,
+and no flue should be permitted to be so used, unless it is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+prepared for the purpose. The reason is, that in a close fire
+the whole of the draught must pass through the fire. It
+thus becomes so heated that, unless the flue is properly
+built, it is dangerous throughout its whole course. In one
+instance of a heating furnace, the heat in the flue was found
+to be 300&deg;, at a distance of from forty to fifty feet from the
+fire. In open fireplaces, the quantity of cold air carried up
+with the draught keeps the flue at a moderate heat, from the
+fire upwards, and, unless the flue is allowed to become foul,
+and take fire, this is the safest possible mode of heating.</p>
+
+<p>Heating by hot air, steam, and hot water are objectionable.
+First, because there must be a furnace and furnace
+flue, and the flue used is generally that built for an open fire
+only; and second, the pipes are carried in every direction, to
+be as much out of sight as possible. By this means they are
+constantly liable to produce spontaneous ignition, for there
+appears to be some chemical action between heated iron and
+timber, by which fire is generated at a much lower temperature
+than is necessary to ignite timber under ordinary circumstances.
+No satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet
+been given, but there is abundant proof that such is the
+case. In heating by hot-water pipes, those hermetically
+sealed are by far the most dangerous, as the strength of the
+pipes to resist the pressure is the only limit of the heat to
+which the water, and of course the pipes, may be raised. In
+some cases a plug of metal which fuses at 400&deg; is put into
+the pipes, but the heat to which the plug is exposed will
+depend very much on where it is placed, as, however great
+may be the heat of the exit pipe, the return pipe is comparatively
+cool. But even where the pipes are left open, the
+heat of the water at the furnace is not necessarily 212&deg;. It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+is almost needless to say that 212&deg; is the heat of boiling
+water under the pressure of one atmosphere only; but if the
+pipes are carried sixty or seventy feet high, the water in the
+furnace must be under the pressure of nearer three atmospheres
+than one, and therefore the heat will be proportionately
+increased. Fires from pipes for heating by hot
+water have been known to take place within twenty-four
+hours after first heating, and some after ten years of apparent
+safety.</p>
+
+<p>The New Metropolitan Building Act prescribes rules for
+the placing steam, hot-air, and hot-water pipes at a certain
+distance from timber; but as it must be extremely difficult
+for the District Surveyors to watch such minute proceedings,
+it becomes every one who is anxious for safety to see that
+the District Surveyors have due notice of any operation of
+this kind.</p>
+
+<p>Another cause of fire which may come under this head is
+the use of pipes for conveying away the products of combustion.
+Every one is acquainted with the danger of stove
+pipes, but all are not perhaps aware that pipes for conveying
+away the heat and effluvia from gas-burners are also very
+dangerous when placed near timber. It is not an uncommon
+practice to convey such pipes between the ceiling and the
+flooring of the floor above. This is highly dangerous. Gas-burners
+are also dangerous when placed near a ceiling. A
+remarkable instance of this took place lately, where a gas-burner
+set fire to a ceiling 28-1/2 inches from it.</p>
+
+<p>Another evil of furnaces is, that the original fireplace is
+sometimes not large enough to contain the apparatus, and
+the party wall is cut into. Perhaps it may be necessary to
+notice at this point the use of gas, as it is becoming so very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+general. Gas, if carefully laid on, and properly used, is
+safer than any other light, so far as actually setting fire to
+anything goes, but the greater heat given out so dries up
+any combustibles within its reach, that it prepares them for
+burning, and when a fire does take place, the destruction is
+much more rapid than in a building lighted by other means.
+Gas-stoves, also, from the great heat given out, sometimes
+cause serious accidents; in one instance, a gas-stove set fire
+to a beam through a two-and-half inch York landing, well
+bedded in mortar, although the lights were five or six inches
+above the stone. This is mentioned to show that gas-stoves
+require quite as much care as common fires.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spontaneous ignition</i> is believed to be a very fruitful
+cause of fires; but, unless the fire is discovered almost at the
+commencement, it is difficult to ascertain positively that
+this has been the cause. Spontaneous ignition is generally
+accelerated by natural or artificial heat. For instance,
+where substances liable to spontaneous ignition are exposed
+to the heat of the sun, to furnace flues, heated pipes, or are
+placed over apartments lighted by gas, the process of ignition
+proceeds much more rapidly than when in a cooler atmosphere.
+Sawdust in contact with vegetable oil is very likely
+to take fire. Cotton, cotton waste, hemp, and most other
+vegetable substances are alike dangerous. In one case oil
+and sawdust took fire within sixteen hours; in others, the
+same materials have lain for years, until some external heat
+has been applied to them. The greater number of the
+serious fires which have taken place in railroad stations in
+and near London have commenced in the paint stores. In
+a very large fire in an oil warehouse, a quantity of oil was
+spilt the day before and wiped up, the wipings being thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>
+aside. This was believed to have been the cause of the fire,
+but direct proof could not be obtained. Dust-bins also very
+often cause serious accidents. In one instance, 30,000<i>l.</i> to
+40,000<i>l.</i> were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown
+into a dust-bin.</p>
+
+<p>These accidents may in a great measure be avoided by
+constant care and attention to cleanliness, and where paints
+and oils are necessary, by keeping them in some place outside
+the principal buildings. Dust-bins should, as much as possible,
+be placed in the open air, and where that cannot be
+done, they should be emptied once a day. No collection of
+rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed to be made
+in any building of value.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wyatt Papworth, architect, has published some very
+interesting notes on spontaneous ignition, giving several well-authenticated
+instances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incendiarism</i> may be divided into three sorts&mdash;malicious,
+fraudulent, and monomaniac. Of the former there has been
+very little in London for many years. The second, however,
+is rather prevalent. The insurance offices, which are the
+victims, protect themselves as well as they can, but an
+inquest on each fire is the true mode of lessening the evil.
+This is much more the interest of the public than at first
+seems to be the case. In several instances where the criminals
+were brought to punishment by Mr. Payne's inquests, people
+were asleep in the upper parts of the houses set fire to, and
+in one case there were as many as twelve or fifteen persons.
+This, however, is seldom stated in the indictment, as, if it is,
+the punishment is still death by the law, and it is supposed
+that a conviction is more easily obtained, by the capital
+charge being waived. Monomania is a rare cause of incendiarism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>
+but still several well-certified cases have occurred in
+which no possible motive could be given. In one instance a
+youth of fifteen set fire to his father's premises seven times
+within a few hours. In another, a young female on a visit
+set fire to her friend's furniture, &amp;c., ten or eleven times in
+the course of one or two days. In neither case could anything
+like disagreement or harshness be elicited, but the
+reverse. In other instances, it has been strongly suspected
+that this disease was the cause of repeated fires, but there
+was no positive proof. In all these cases, known or suspected,
+the parties were generally from fourteen to twenty
+years of age.</p>
+
+
+<h3>FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.</h3>
+
+<p>What is "Fire-proof Construction?" is a question which
+has given rise to a great deal of discussion, simply, as it
+appears to me, because the size of the buildings, and the
+quantity and description of the contents, have not always
+been taken into account. That which may be perfectly fireproof
+in a dwelling house, may be the weakest in a
+large warehouse. Suppose an average-sized dwelling-house
+20 &times; 40 &times; 50 = 40,000 cubic feet, built with brick partitions,
+stone or slate stairs, wrought-iron joists filled in with concrete,
+and the whole well plastered. Such a house will be
+practically fire-proof, because there is no probability that the
+furniture and flooring in any one room, would make fire
+enough to communicate to another. But suppose a warehouse
+equal to twenty such houses, with floors completely
+open, supported by cast-iron pillars, and each floor communicating
+with the others by open staircases and wells; suppose,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>
+further, that it is half filled with combustible goods, and
+perhaps the walls and ceilings lined with timber. Now, if a
+fire takes place below, the moment it bursts through the
+upper windows or skylights, the whole place becomes an
+immense blast furnace; the iron is melted, and in a comparatively
+short time the building is in ruins, and, it may be,
+the half of the neighbourhood destroyed. The real fire-proof
+construction for such buildings is groined brick arches, supported
+on brick pillars only. This mode of building, however,
+involves so much expense, and occupies so much space,
+that it cannot be used with advantage. The next best plan
+is to build the warehouses in compartments of moderate size,
+divided by party-walls and double wrought-iron doors, so
+that if one of these compartments takes fire, there may be a
+reasonable prospect of confining the fire to that compartment
+only. Again, cast iron gives way from so many different
+causes, that it is impossible to calculate when it will give
+way. The castings may have flaws in them; or they may be
+too weak for the weight they have to support, being sometimes
+within 10 per cent., or less, of the breaking weight.
+The expansion of the girders may thrust out the side walls.
+For instance, in a warehouse 120 feet &times; 75 feet &times; 80 feet,
+there are three continuous rows of girders on each floor, with
+butt joints; the expansion in this case may be twelve inches.
+The tie rods to take the strain of the flat arches must expand
+and become useless, and the whole of the lateral strain be
+thrown on the girders and side walls, perhaps weak enough
+already. Again, throwing cold water on the heated iron may
+cause an immediate fracture. For these and similar reasons,
+the firemen are not permitted to go into warehouses supported
+by iron, <i>when once fairly on fire</i>.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Cast and wrought-iron have been frequently fused at fires
+in large buildings such as warehouses, sugar houses, &amp;c., but
+according to Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on cast iron in a
+heated state, it is not necessary that the fusing point should
+be attained to cause it to give way.<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> He also states, that
+the loss of strength in cold-blast cast iron, in a variation of
+temperature from 26&deg; to 190&deg; = 164&deg; Fahr., is 10 per cent.,
+and in hot-blast at a variation of from 21&deg; to 190&deg; = 169&deg;
+Fahr., is 15 per cent.; now if the loss of strength advances
+in anything like this ratio, the iron will be totally useless as
+a support, long before the fusing point is attained.</p>
+
+<p>Much confidence has been placed in wrought-iron tie or
+tension rods, to take the lateral strain of the arches, and also
+in trusses to support the beams; but it must be evident
+that the expansion of the iron from the heat, would render
+them useless, and under a high temperature, it would be so
+great as to unsettle the brickwork, and accelerate its fall, on
+any part of the iron-work giving way: again, the application
+of cold water to the heated iron, in an endeavour to
+extinguish the fire, is almost certain to cause one or more
+fractures. The brick-arching is also very liable to fall, especially
+if only four and a half inches thick, independently of
+the weight which may be placed upon it, for it is not uncommon
+after a fire in a large building, to find the mortar
+almost completely pulverized to the depth of three inches,
+or four inches, from the face of the wall. When a fire
+occurred under one of the arches of the Blackwall Railway,
+on the 15th July, 1843, a portion of the lower ring fell
+down, and also a few bricks from the next ring.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span></p>
+<p>Another very serious objection to buildings of this description,
+is that, unless scientifically constructed, they are
+very unlikely to be safe, even for the common purposes intended,
+independent of the risk of fire. In the Report of
+Sir Henry De la B&ecirc;che and Mr. Thomas Cubitt on the fall
+of the mill at Oldham, in October, 1844,<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> it is stated that
+the strength of the iron-beams was within ten per cent. of
+the breaking weight. Now according to Mr. Fairbairn's
+experiments on heated iron, already referred to, an increase
+of temperature of only 170&deg; would have destroyed the whole
+building. It is quite clear, therefore, that so long as mill-owners
+and others continue to construct such buildings without
+proper advice, they must be liable to these accidents.
+In timber-floors there can be no such risk, as the strains are
+all direct, and any journeyman carpenter, by following good
+examples, can ascertain the size required; and even if he
+makes a mistake, the evil is comparatively trivial, as the
+timber will give notice before yielding, and may be propped
+up for the time, until it can be properly secured. In the
+case of fire-proof buildings, an ignorant person may make
+many mistakes without being aware that he has done so,
+and the slightest failure is probably fatal to every one within
+the walls. This also increases the difficulty and danger of
+extinguishing fires in a large building, as the only method of
+doing so is for the firemen to enter it with their branches,
+and in case of the floors falling, there is no chance of escape.
+On the other hand, timber-floors have repeatedly fallen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+while the firemen were inside the building, and they have
+made their escape uninjured.</p>
+
+<p>In a pamphlet published by Mr. S. Holme, of Liverpool,
+in 1844,<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> and which contains a report from Mr. Fairbairn on
+fire-proof buildings, it is stated, that many people, especially
+in the manufacturing districts, are their own architects; that
+the warehouses in Liverpool may be loaded to one ton per
+yard of flooring; and that unless great care and knowledge
+are used in the construction of fire-proof buildings, they are
+of all others the most dangerous.<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a></p>
+
+<p>The following are the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn
+proposes to build fire-proof warehouses:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible
+materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident or
+spontaneous combustion, every opening, or crevice, communicating
+with the external atmosphere to be closed.</p>
+
+<p>An isolated staircase, of stone, or iron, well protected on
+every side by brick, or stone walls, to be attached to
+every story, and be furnished with a line of water-pipes,
+communicating with the mains in the street, and
+ascending to the top of the building.</p>
+
+<p>In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+divided by strong partition-walls, in no case less than
+eighteen inches thick, and no more openings to be made
+than are absolutely necessary for the admission of goods
+and light.</p>
+
+<p>That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches be of
+strength sufficient, not only to support a continuous
+dead pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which
+they are subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the
+floors.</p>
+
+<p>That in order to prevent accident from the columns being
+melted by intense heat in the event of fire in any of
+the rooms, a current of cold air should be introduced
+into the hollow of the columns, from an arched tunnel
+under the floors.</p></div>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that if the second principle could be
+carried out, namely, the total exclusion of air, the fire would
+go out of itself; but it seems, to say the least of it, very
+doubtful indeed if this can be accomplished, and if it could,
+the carelessness of a porter leaving open one of the doors or
+windows, would make the whole useless. The fifth principle
+shows that Mr. Fairbairn has omitted to allow for the loss of
+strength the iron may sustain from the increase of temperature.
+The last principle would not be likely to answer its
+purpose, even if it was possible to keep these tunnels and
+hollow columns clear for a number of years, which is scarcely
+to be expected. A piece of cast-iron pipe, one-and-a-half
+inch in diameter, was heated for four minutes in a common
+forge, both ends being carefully kept open to the atmosphere,
+when, on one end being fixed in a vice, and the other pulled
+aside by the hand, it gave way.</p>
+
+<p>One of the principal objections to the kind of fire-proof<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+buildings above described, is, that absolute perfection in their
+construction is indispensable to their safety; whereas buildings
+of a more common description are comparatively safe,
+although there may be some errors or omissions in their
+construction. Indeed, Mr. Fairbairn states in the same
+Report, that "it is true that negligence of construction on
+the one hand, and want of care in management on the other,
+might entail risk and loss to an enormous extent."</p>
+
+<p>The following is a very clear proof of the inability of cast
+iron to resist the effects of fire:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"A chapel in Liverpool-road, Islington, seventy feet in
+length and fifty-two feet in breadth, took fire in the cellar,
+on the 2nd October, 1848, and was completely burned down.
+After the fire, it was ascertained that of thirteen cast-iron
+pillars used to support the galleries, only two remained perfect;
+the greater part of the others were broken into small
+pieces, the metal appearing to have lost all power of cohesion,
+and some parts were melted. It should be observed,
+that these pillars were of ample strength to support the galleries
+when filled by the congregation, but when the fire
+reached them, they crumbled under the weight of the timber
+only, lightened as it must have been by the progress of the
+fire."</p>
+
+<p>In this case it mattered little whether the pillars stood or
+fell, but it would be very different with some of the large
+wholesale warehouses in the City, where numbers of young
+men sleep in the upper floors; in several of those warehouses
+the cast-iron pillars are much less in proportion to the
+weight to be carried than those referred to, and would be
+completely in the draught of a fire. If a fire should unfortunately
+take place under such circumstances, the loss of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+human life might be very great, as the chance of fifty,
+eighty, or one hundred people escaping in the confusion of a
+sudden night alarm, by one or two ladders, to the roof,
+could scarcely be calculated on, and the time such escape
+must necessarily occupy, independent of all chance of accidents,
+would be considerable.</p>
+
+<p>For the reasons here stated, I submit that large buildings,
+containing considerable quantities of combustible goods, with
+floors of brick-arches, supported by cast-iron beams and
+columns, are not, practically speaking, fire-proof; and that
+the only construction which would render large buildings
+fire-proof; where considerable quantities of combustible goods
+are deposited, would be groined brick-arches, supported by
+pillars of the same material, laid in proper cement. I am
+fully convinced, from a lengthened experience, that the intensity
+of a fire,&mdash;the risk of its ravages extending to adjoining
+premises, and also the difficulty of extinguishing it,
+depend, <i>c&aelig;teris paribus</i>, on the cubic contents of the building
+which takes fire, and it appears to me that the amount
+of loss would be very much reduced, if, instead of building
+immense warehouses, which give the fire a fortified position,
+warehouses were made of a moderate size, with access on two
+sides at least, completely separated from each other by party-walls,
+and protected by iron-doors and window-shutters. In
+the latter case, the probability is, that not more than one
+warehouse would be lost at a time, and perhaps that one
+would be only partially injured.</p>
+
+<p>It is sincerely to be hoped that the clause in the last
+Metropolitan Building Act, restricting the size of warehouses,
+may be more successful than its predecessor, for it is not only
+property that is at stake, but human life. In many of these<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+"Manchester warehouses," there are fifty or one hundred and
+upwards of warehousemen and servants sleeping in the upper
+floors, whose escape, in case of fire, would be very doubtful,
+to say the least of it.<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a></p>
+
+<p>Covering timber with sheet-iron is very often resorted to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+as a protection against fire. I have never found it succeed;
+but Dr. Faraday, Professor Brande, Dr. D. B. Reid, and Mr.
+W. Tite, M.P., are of opinion that it may be useful against a
+sudden burst of flame, but that it is worse than useless
+against a continued heat.</p>
+
+<p>In wadding manufactories the drying-rooms were frequently
+lined with iron-plates, and when a fire arose there,
+the part covered with iron was generally found more damaged
+than the rest; the heat got through the sheet-iron, and
+burnt the materials behind it, and there was no means of
+touching them with water until the iron was torn down;
+sheet iron should not, therefore, be used for protecting wood.</p>
+
+<p>Even cast iron, one inch thick, laid on tiles and cement
+three inches thick, has allowed fire to pass through both, to
+the boarding and joisting below, merely from the fire in an
+open fire-place being taken off and laid on the hearth. This
+arises from iron being so good a conductor that, when heat
+is applied to it, it becomes in a very short time nearly as hot
+on the one side as the other. If the smoke escapes up a
+chimney, or in any other way, there may be a serious amount
+of fire before it is noticed.</p>
+
+<p>In a fire at the Bank of England, the hearth on which the
+stove was placed was cast iron an inch thick, with two-and-a-half<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+inches of concrete underneath it; but the timber below
+that was fired.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the subject of fire-proof dwelling-houses of
+average size, I consider that such houses when built of brick
+or stone, with party-walls carried through the roof; the partitions
+of brick, the stairs of slate or stone, the joists of
+wrought iron filled in with concrete, and the whole well
+plastered, are practically fire-proof because, as stated at the
+opening of this chapter, there is no probability that the furniture
+and flooring in any one room would make fire enough
+to communicate to another. The safest manner of heating
+such houses is with open fire-places, the hearths not being
+laid upon timber. Stone staircases, when much heated, will
+fracture from cold water coming suddenly in contact with
+them; but in a dwelling-house built as described above, there
+is very little chance of such a circumstance endangering
+human life, even with wooden steps carried upon brick walls,
+and rendered incombustible by a ceiling of an inch and a
+quarter of good hair mortar and well pugged, all the purposes
+of safety to human life would be attained.</p>
+
+<p>There is a particular description of floor, which, although
+not altogether fire-proof, is certainly (at least so far as I can
+judge), almost practically so for dwelling-houses. It is composed
+simply of plank two and a-half or three inches thick,
+so closely joined, and so nicely fitted to the walls, as to be
+completely air-tight. Its thickness and its property of being
+air-tight, will be easily observed to be its only causes of
+safety. Although the apartment be on fire, yet the time required
+to burn through the floor above or below, will be so
+great, that the property may be removed from the other
+floors, or, more probably, if the means of extinguishing fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+be at hand, it may be subdued before it can spread to any
+other apartment. The doors must of course be made in
+proportion, and the partitions of brick or stone.</p>
+
+<p>Before closing the subject of fire-proof structures, I will
+add a few words upon fire-proof safes. These are all constructed
+with double casings of wrought iron, the interstices
+being in some filled with non-combustible substances, such as
+pumice stone and Stourbridge clay, and in others with metal
+tubes, that melt at a low temperature, and allow a liquid
+contained in them to escape, and form steam round the box,
+with the intention of preventing the heat from injuring the
+contents. Such safes I have never found destroyed; and in
+some cases, after large fires, the whole of the contents have
+been found uninjured, while the papers in common safes,
+merely made strong enough to prevent their being broken
+into, were generally found consumed.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Seventh Report of the British Association, 1837, vol. vi.
+page 409.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Report on the Fall of the Cotton Mill, at Oldham, and part of
+the Prison at Northleach, page 4. Folio. London: Clowes and Sons,
+1845.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> <i>Vide</i> Report of W. Fairbairn, Esq., on the Construction of Fire-proof
+Buildings. With introductory Remarks by Samuel Holme, page 11, <i>et
+seq.</i> Tract, 8vo. Liverpool: T. Baines, 1844.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> The Author has been informed by Mr. Farey, M. Inst. C.E.,
+that a fire took place, in 1827, in a mill belonging to Mr. Marshall, of
+Leeds, the whole of which, with the exception of the roof, was fire-proof.
+The upper floor was filled with flax, which took fire; the roof fell in,
+and the heat so affected the iron beams of the floor, as to cause them to
+give way.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> In the year 1858, when reporting to the Insurance Offices upon the
+Warehouses in the Metropolitan Docks, Mr. Braidwood made the following
+suggestions which are applicable to all large buildings. That all the
+party-walls where the roofs do not rise above the wall, should be 3 feet
+6 inches above such roof. That all the party-walls in the valleys of the
+roofs should be raised to the level of the highest ridge on either side, all
+openings in such walls being closed by wrought-iron doors on each side
+of the walls, at least a quarter of an inch thick in the panels, and such
+openings not to exceed 42 superficial feet in the clear. That all windows
+which look upon other windows, or loop-hole doors in other warehouses or
+compartments, within 100 feet, should be bricked up, or have wrought-iron
+shutters at least 3/16th of an inch thick in the panels.
+</p><p>
+That all loop-hole doors similarly situated should be made entirely of
+wrought iron, frames included, or bricked up. That all shafts for lifts or
+other purposes, should be of brick, with wrought-iron doors where necessary
+to receive or deliver goods, and that all openings whatever for
+machinery should be included in such shaft. That every hatchway
+or opening in the floors for "shooting" goods from floor to floor should
+have a strong flap <i>hinged on</i> to the floor, to be closed when not in use,
+especially at night.
+</p><p>
+That there should be direct access to every room, of every compartment,
+of every warehouse, from a fire-proof staircase, by iron doors, and that all
+such staircases should enter from the open air, as well as from under any
+warehouse on the quay; in the latter case the doors must be of iron
+only.
+</p><p>
+All the windows in the entresol and ground floors to be bricked up, or
+have iron shutters, and the doors and frames to be of iron.
+</p><p>
+Wherever the warehouses face each other within 100 feet, the front
+parapet walls to be carried up to the level of the ridge of the roof.
+</p><p>
+When it is stated in this report that the windows or loop-hole doors
+should be bricked up, it is not meant to exclude the use of thick glass,
+three or four pieces being built into each door or window space, not exceeding
+6 inches in diameter or square, in the clear, and set in the mortar or
+cement at least 3/4 of an inch all round, the glass to be not less than 1-1/2 inches
+thick, flat on both sides, and so placed that no goods can be stored within
+18 inches of the inner surface.
+</p><p>
+There should be a tank on the top of each staircase, with a tap from
+it on each landing, with six fire buckets hung near it, and three small
+hand pumps in every staircase; the officers and workpeople seeing these
+every day would be certain to run to them in case of fire, and by having
+a constant supply of water on every floor small accidents might be extinguished
+at once, and the iron doors and roofs kept cool in case of one
+room taking fire.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="FIRE_EXTINCTION" id="FIRE_EXTINCTION"></a>FIRE EXTINCTION,</h2>
+
+<h4>INCLUDING</h4>
+
+<h2>FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES,</h2>
+
+<h4>AND</h4>
+
+<h2>WATER SUPPLY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>Before entering upon the subject of Public Fire Brigades,
+I will call attention to the course to be pursued by inmates
+of the house on fire, and their neighbours.</p>
+
+<p>When all available means of fire prevention have been
+adopted, the next thing to be considered is a supply of water.
+In the country, or where there are no water-pipes or engines,
+this ought to be particularly attended to, and a hand-pump
+should be provided. Where no water is kept solely for the
+purpose of extinguishing fire, such vessels as can be spared
+should be regularly filled every night, and placed in such situations
+as may be most convenient in case of danger; and no
+master of a family ought to retire to rest, without being
+satisfied that this has been attended to. If it had no other
+advantage than merely that of directing the inmates of a
+house to the possibility of such an occurrence as fire, it
+would be worth much more than the trouble such an
+arrangement would cost; but, in addition to that, a supply of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+water would be at hand, in most cases more than sufficient
+to extinguish the fire immediately on its being discovered,
+and before it had become either alarming or dangerous. But
+when no such precaution has been adopted, when even the
+bare possibility of fire has not been considered, when no
+attention has even been paid to the subject, and no provision
+made for it; the inhabitants are generally so alarmed
+and confused, that the danger is probably over, by their property
+being burned to the ground, before they can sufficiently
+recollect themselves to lend any effective assistance.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases of fire, the people in whose premises it occurs
+are thrown into what may be called a state of temporary derangement,
+and seem to be actuated only by a desire of
+muscular movement, no matter to what purpose their exertions
+are directed. Persons may often be seen toiling like
+galley-slaves, at operations which a moment's reflection would
+show were utterly useless. I have seen tables, chairs, and
+every article of furniture that would pass through a window,
+three or four stories high, dashed into the street, even when
+the fire had hardly touched the tenement. On one occasion
+I saw crockery-ware thrown from a window on the third
+floor.<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a></p>
+
+<p>Most of these extravagances take place on the first alarm.
+When the engines have got fairly into play, people begin to
+recollect themselves, and it is at this time that most of those
+"who go to see a fire" arrive. By the exertions of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+police there is then generally a considerable degree of order
+restored, and the most interesting part of the scene is over.</p>
+
+<p>What remains, however, may, from its novelty or grandeur,
+if the fire is extensive, be still worth looking at for a little,
+but much of the excitement is banished with the confusion;
+and if the fire and firemen seem to be well matched, the chief
+interest which is excited in the spectators is to ascertain
+which of the parties is likely to be victorious. Few people,
+comparatively, have thus an opportunity of witnessing the
+terror and distraction occasioned by the first alarm of fire,
+and this may probably account for the apathy and indifference
+with which people who have not seen this regard it.</p>
+
+<p>When a fire actually takes place, every one should endeavour
+to be as cool and collected as possible; screams, cries,
+and other exhibitions of terror, while utterly useless in
+themselves, have generally the effect of alarming those whose
+services might otherwise be of the utmost advantage, and of
+rendering them unfit for useful exertion. It is unhappily,
+too, at the commencement of fires, that this tendency to confusion
+and terror is the strongest, when a bucket of water,
+properly applied, is generally of more value than a hundred
+will be half an hour afterwards. It is the feeling of total
+surprise, on the breaking out of a fire, which thus unhinges
+the faculties of many individuals. They have never made
+the case their own, nay, one would almost imagine they had
+scarcely thought such an occurrence possible, till, coming on
+them almost like a thunderbolt, they are lost in perplexity
+and terror. The only preventive against this is to think the
+matter over frequently and carefully before it occurs.</p>
+
+<p>The moment it is ascertained that fire has actually taken
+place, notice should be sent to the nearest station where<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+there is a fire-engine. No matter whether the inmates are
+likely to be able to extinguish the fire themselves&mdash;this
+should never be trusted to if more efficient help can be
+had.</p>
+
+<p>It is much better that an engine should be turned out
+twenty times when it is not wanted, than be once too late.
+This may cause a trifling expense; but even that expense is
+not altogether lost, as it teaches the firemen steadiness and
+coolness.</p>
+
+<p>The person in the house best qualified for such duty
+should endeavour to ascertain, with as much precision as possible,
+the extent and position of the fire, while the others
+collect as much water as they can. If the fire be in an
+upper floor, the inmates should be got out immediately,
+although the lower part of the house may generally be entered
+with safety for some time. If in the lower part of
+the house, after the inmates have been removed, great care
+should be observed in going into any of the upper floors, as
+the flames very often reach the stair before being observed
+by those above. The upper floors are, besides, generally
+filled with smoke, and, in that case, there is great danger of
+suffocation to those who may enter.</p>
+
+<p>This, indeed, is the principal danger attending fires, and
+should be particularly guarded against, as a person, when
+being suffocated, is unable to call for assistance. In a case
+of this kind the fire took place in the third floor from the
+street, and all the inmates immediately left the premises
+except one old woman. In about fifteen minutes after the
+arrival of the engines, the firemen made their way upstairs,
+and the poor woman was found dead beside a basket partly
+filled with clothes, which it was supposed she had been packing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+up for removal; had she made any noise, or even broke
+a pane of glass, she would, in all probability, have been
+saved; as the fire never touched the floor in which she was
+found, she must have died entirely from suffocation, which a
+little fresh air would have prevented. Had the slightest
+suspicion existed that any one was in the upper floors, they
+would have been entered by the windows or the roof; but
+as the fire took place in daylight, and none of the neighbours
+spoke of any one being in the house, it was thought
+unnecessary to damage the property, or risk the lives of the
+firemen, without some adequate cause. This, however,
+shows how little dependence can be placed on information
+received from the inmates of the premises on fire. Some of
+the people who lived on the same floor with this poor
+woman, and who had seen her immediately before they left
+the house, never mentioned her. I do not suppose that this
+negligence arose from apathy, or any feeling of that sort;
+but the people were in such a state of utter confusion, that
+they were unable to think of anything. But to return.</p>
+
+<p>On the first discovery of a fire, it is of the utmost consequence
+to shut, and keep shut, all doors, windows, or other
+openings. It may often be observed, after a house has been
+on fire, that one floor is comparatively untouched, while
+those above and below are nearly burned out. This arises
+from the door on that particular floor having been shut, and
+the draught directed elsewhere. If the person who has
+examined the fire finds a risk of its gaining ground upon
+him, he should, if within reach of fire-engines, keep everything
+close, and await their arrival, instead of admitting air
+to the fire by ineffectual efforts to oppose it with inadequate
+means. In the meantime, however, he should examine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+where a supply of water is most likely to be obtained, and
+communicate that, and any other local information, to the
+firemen on their coming forward. If there be no fire-engine
+within reach, the person who has examined the fire should
+keep the place where it is situated as close as possible, till as
+many buckets of water as can be easily collected are placed
+within his reach.</p>
+
+<p>Taking care always that there is some one ready to assist
+him, he should then open the door, and creep forward on his
+hands and knees till he gets as near the fire as possible; holding
+his breath, and standing up for a moment to give the
+water a proper direction, he should throw it with force, using
+a hand pump if available, and instantly get down to his
+former position, where he will be again able to breathe. The
+people behind handing forward another bucket of water, he
+repeats the operation till the fire is quenched, or until he
+feels exhausted; in which case some one should take his
+place. If there be enough of water, however, two, three, or
+any convenient number of people may be employed in throwing
+it; on the contrary, if the supply of water be insufficient
+to employ even one person, the door should be kept shut
+while the water is being brought, and the air excluded as
+much as possible, as the fire burns exactly in proportion to
+the quantity of air which it receives.</p>
+
+<p>One great evil, and which ought to be strictly guarded
+against by people not accustomed to fire, is, that on the first
+alarm they exert themselves to the very utmost of their
+strength. This, of course, can last but a short time; and
+when they feel tired, which in that case soon happens, they
+very often give up altogether. Now this is the reverse of
+what it ought to be. In extinguishing fires, like most other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+things, a cool judgment and steady perseverance are far more
+effective than any desultory exertions which can be made.</p>
+
+<p>The heat generally increases in a considerable degree when
+water is first thrown upon a fire, from the conversion of a
+portion of it into steam. This is sometimes very annoying;
+so much so, that the persons engaged in throwing the water,
+frequently feel themselves obliged to give back a little. They
+should on no account, however, abate or discontinue their
+exertions in throwing the water with as much force as
+possible in the direction of the fire; it will in a short time
+cool the air and materials, and the steam will, in consequence,
+be generated more slowly, while a steady perseverance on the
+part of those employed can alone effect the object in view.</p>
+
+<p>When water is scarce, mud, cow or horse dung, damp
+earth, &amp;c., may be used as substitutes; but if there seems no
+chance of succeeding by any of these, and the fire is likely
+to extend to other buildings, the communication should be
+immediately cut off by pulling down the building next to
+that on fire. Any operation of this sort, however, should be
+begun at a sufficient distance from the fire to allow the communication
+to be completely cut off, before it gains upon the
+workmen. If this operation be attempted so near the fire as
+to be interrupted by it, it must be begun again at a greater
+distance; and, in that case, there is a greater destruction of
+property than might have been necessary.</p>
+
+<p>If a fire occur in a stable or cow-house, surrounded with
+other buildings of the same description, or with the produce
+of a farm, there is much danger. The cattle and horses
+should be immediately removed; and, in doing so, if any of
+them become restive, they should be blindfolded, taking care
+that it is done thoroughly, as any attempt to blindfold them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+partially, only increases the evil. They should be handled
+as much as possible in the ordinary manner, and with great
+coolness; the violent gestures and excited appearance of the
+persons removing them tending greatly to startle the animals,
+and render them unmanageable.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES AND THE DUTIES OF FIREMEN.</h3>
+
+<p>The best public means of arresting fires is a very wide
+question, as the only limit to the means is the expense.
+Different nations have different ways of doing the same
+thing. On the Continent generally, the whole is managed
+by Government, and the firemen are placed under martial
+law, the inhabitants being compelled to work the engines.
+In London, the principal means of arresting fires is a voluntary
+association of the insurance companies, without legal
+authority of any sort, the legal protection by parish
+engines being, with a few praiseworthy exceptions, a dead
+letter.</p>
+
+<p>In Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction
+of fires by the pressure of water only, without the use of
+fire-engines, is very much practised. The advantages of this
+system are very great; but, to enable us to follow this
+system in London, the whole water supply would require to
+be remodelled.</p>
+
+<p>In America, the firemen are generally volunteers, enrolled
+by the local Governments. They are exempt from other
+duties, or are entitled to privileges, which appear to satisfy
+them, as the situation of fireman is eagerly sought in most
+of the American cities.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Which is the best of these different modes it is difficult
+to say; perhaps each is best suited for the place where it
+exists.</p>
+
+<p>It is now generally admitted, that the whole force brought
+together to extinguish a fire ought to be under the direction
+and control of one individual. By this means, all quarrelling
+among the firemen about the supply of water, the
+interest of particular insurance companies, and other matters
+of detail, is avoided. By having the whole force under
+the command of one person, he is enabled to form one
+general plan of operations, to which the whole body is subservient;
+and although he may not, in the hurry of the
+moment, at all times adopt what will afterwards appear to
+be the best plan, yet it is better to have some general
+arrangement, than to allow the firemen of each engine to
+work according to their own fancy, and that, too, very
+often in utter disregard as to whether their exertions
+may aid or retard those of their neighbours. The individual
+appointed to such a situation ought not to be
+interfered with, or have his attention distracted, except by
+the chief authority on the spot, or the owner of the premises
+on fire. Much valuable information is frequently obtained
+from the latter, as to the division of the premises, the party-walls,
+and other matters connected with its locality. But,
+generally speaking, the less interference and advice the
+better, as it occupies time which may generally be better
+employed.</p>
+
+<p>I need scarcely add, that on no account whatever should
+directions be given to the firemen by any other individual
+while the superintendent of brigade is present; and that
+there may be no quarrelling about superiority, the men<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+should be aware on whom the command is to devolve in his
+absence.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been to me a matter of surprise, that so small
+a portion of the public attention should be directed to the
+matter of extinguishing fires. It is only when roused by
+some great calamity that people bestir themselves; and then
+there is such a variety of plans proposed to avert similar
+cases of distress, that to attempt to concoct a rational plan
+out of such a crude, ill-digested, and contradictory mass of
+opinion, requires more labour and attention than most people
+are inclined to give it, unless a regular business was made
+of it. In Paris the corps of military firemen are so well
+trained, that although their apparatus is not so good as it
+should be, the amount of the losses by fire is comparatively
+trifling. If the head-quarters of such an establishment were
+to be in London, a store of apparatus, constructed on one
+uniform plan, could be kept there, to be forwarded to any
+other part of the kingdom where it might be required. This
+uniformity of the structure and design of the apparatus could
+extend to the most minute particulars; a screw or a nut of
+any one engine would fit every other engine in the kingdom.
+A dep&ocirc;t could also be kept at head-quarters, where recruits
+would be regularly drilled and instructed in the business,
+and a regular system of communication kept up with all the
+provincial corps. Any particular circumstances occurring
+at a fire would thus be immediately reported, and the advantages
+of any knowledge or experience thus gained, would
+be disseminated over the whole kingdom. As the matter at
+present stands one town may have an excellent fire-engine
+establishment, and another within a few miles a very indifferent
+one, and when the one is called to assist the other,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+they can neither act in concert, nor can the apparatus of the
+one in case of accident be of the smallest service in replacing
+that of the other. The best might (if a proper communication
+were kept up) be under frequent obligations to the
+worst, and here, as in other matters, it is chiefly by communication
+that knowledge is increased. If the whole experience
+of the country were brought together, and maturely
+considered and digested by persons competent to judge, I
+have no doubt that a system might be introduced suitable to
+the nation and to the age in which we live. Instead of hearing
+of the "<i>dreadful losses by fire</i>," and the "<i>great exertions</i>"
+made to extinguish it, all the notice would be, such a place
+took fire, the engines arrived, and it was extinguished.</p>
+
+<p>It would be useless for me to enter into the details of a plan
+which I have little hope of ever seeing realized. I may state,
+however, that a premium might be offered for the best engine
+of a size previously agreed upon, which, when finished,
+should be kept as a model.</p>
+
+<p>Specifications could then be made out, and estimates advertised
+for, for all the different parts, such as wheels, axles,
+levers, cisterns, barrels, air-vessels, &amp;c., separately. When
+any particular part of an engine was damaged, it could be
+immediately replaced, and the engine again rendered fit for
+service; and upon emergency any number of engines could
+be set up, merely by putting the different parts together.
+The work would also be better done; at least it would be
+much more easy to detect faults in the materials or workmanship
+than if the engines were bought ready for use. These
+remarks apply to all the rest of the apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>It could be provided that firemen might be enlisted for a
+term of years. When enlisted, they would be sent to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+dep&ocirc;t at head-quarters, drilled to the use of the engines, and
+carefully instructed in separating and cleaning the different
+parts. Here also they could be practised in gymnastic exercises,
+and generally instructed in everything tending to promote
+their usefulness as firemen. They could then be sent
+off to some large towns, and, after having seen a little active
+service, distributed over the country in such parties as might
+be deemed necessary for the places they were intended to
+protect.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of keeping fire-engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's
+residences, and at large manufactories in the country,
+is by no means uncommon, and I have no doubt that many
+more would supply themselves in this way if they knew
+where to apply for information in such matters; but the
+great fault lies in the want of persons of skill and experience
+to work them when fire occurs. In the way I have mentioned,
+proprietors and others could have one or more of their
+workmen instructed in this necessary piece of duty; and I
+have no doubt that many gentlemen would avail themselves
+of the means of instructing some of their servants.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed, I do not propose that the firemen who
+are enlisted, drilled, and instructed in the business, should
+be sent to the different stations in sufficient numbers to work
+the engines; this part of the work can be performed by any
+man accustomed to hard labour, as well as by the most expert
+fireman, and the local authorities could easily provide
+men for this purpose. In small towns, where fires are rare,
+the novelty would draw together plenty of hands; and in
+large towns, where the inhabitants are not sufficiently disinterested
+to work for nothing, there are always plenty who
+could be bound to assist in cases of fire at a certain rate per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+hour, to be paid upon a certificate from the fireman who has
+charge of the engine at which they worked. The trained
+firemen would thus be required only for the direction of the
+engine, attaching the hose, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>I am quite aware that many people object to the training
+of firemen; but it would be just as reasonable to give to a
+mob all the "mat&eacute;riel" of war, and next day expect it to act
+like a regular army, as to expect engines to be managed with
+any general prospect of success, unless the men are properly
+trained and prepared for the duty which is expected from
+them. Fire is both a powerful and an insidious enemy, and
+those whose business it is to attack it will best succeed when
+they have become skilful and experienced in the use of their
+arms.</p>
+
+<p>It is quite obvious that a fire brigade, however complete
+in its apparatus and equipments, must depend for its efficiency
+on the state of training and discipline of the firemen.
+Wherever there is inexperience, want of co-operation, or
+confusion amongst them, the utmost danger is to be apprehended
+in the event of fire. It is amidst the raging of this
+destructive element, the terror and bustle of the inhabitants,
+that organization and discipline triumph, and it is there, too,
+that coolness and promptitude, steadiness and activity, fearlessness
+and caution, are peculiarly required; but, unfortunately,
+it is then also that they are most rarely exhibited.</p>
+
+<p>There should not be less than five or six men attached to
+each engine, who should be properly instructed and drilled,
+to take charge of it, and to guide the people who work at
+the levers.</p>
+
+<p>The person having the principal charge of the engines
+should frequently turn over in his mind what might be the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+best plan, in such and such circumstances, supposing a fire to
+take place. By frequently ruminating on the subject, he
+will find himself, when suddenly turned out of bed at night,
+much more fit for his task than if he had never considered
+the matter at all. Indeed he will frequently be surprised,
+when examining the premises afterwards (<i>which he ought
+always to do, and mark any mistakes he may have committed</i>),
+that he should have adopted the very best mode of extinguishing
+the fire, amid the noise, confusion, and the innumerable
+advices showered down on him, by all those who
+consider themselves qualified or entitled to give advice in
+such matters; a number, by the way, which sometimes includes
+no inconsiderable portion of the spectators. He
+should also make himself well acquainted with the different
+parts of the town in which he may be appointed to act, and
+notice the declivities of the different streets, &amp;c. He will
+find this knowledge of great advantage.</p>
+
+<p>Any buildings, supposed to be particularly dangerous,
+should be carefully examined, and all the different places
+where supplies of water can be obtained for them noticed.</p>
+
+<p>A knowledge of the locality thus obtained will be found of
+great advantage in case of a fire breaking out. Indeed all
+firemen, especially those having the charge of engines, should
+be instructed carefully to examine and make themselves
+acquainted with the localities of their neighbourhood or district.
+Such knowledge will often prove valuable in emergencies;
+the proprietors or tenants of the property on fire
+being sometimes in such a state of alarm, that no distinct
+intelligence can be got from them.</p>
+
+<p>When an engine is brought to a fire, it ought to be placed
+as nearly as possible in a straight line between the supply of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+water and the premises on fire; taking care, however, to
+keep at such a distance from the latter that the men who
+work the pumps may be in no danger from being scorched
+by the heat, or of being annoyed by the falling of water or
+burning materials. Running the engine close upon the fire
+serves no good purpose, except to shorten the quantity of
+hose that would otherwise be required. The addition of
+twenty or thirty feet of hose makes very little difference in
+the working of the engine, and, when compared with the
+disadvantage of the men becoming unsteady from the idea of
+personal danger, is not even to be named. Indeed, if the
+engine be brought too near the fire, there is danger of the
+men quitting the levers altogether. I may also add that,
+both for the safety of the hose and the convenience of the
+inhabitants, the engine should be kept out of the way of
+people removing furniture.</p>
+
+<p>When the hose is attached and the engine filled with
+water, the man who holds the branch-pipe, accompanied by
+another, should get so near the fire, inside the house, <i>that the
+water from the branch may strike the burning materials</i>. If
+he cannot accomplish this standing, he must get down on his
+hands and knees and creep forward, those behind handing up
+the hose. A stratum of fresh air is almost always to be depended
+on from six to twelve inches from the floor, so that if
+the air be not respirable to a person standing upright, he
+should instantly get down. I have often observed this fact,
+which indeed is well known; but I once saw an example of
+it which appeared to me to be so striking, that I shall here
+relate it. A fire had broken out in the third floor of a house,
+and when I reached the top of the stair, the smoke was
+rolling in thick heavy masses, which prevented me from seeing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+six inches before me. I immediately got down on the floor;
+above which, for a space of about eight inches the air seemed
+to be remarkably clear and bright. I could distinctly see
+the feet of the tables and other furniture in the apartment;
+the flames in this space burning as vivid and distinct as the
+flame of a candle, while all above the smoke was so thick that
+the eye could not penetrate it. The fire had already burst
+through three out of five windows in the apartment, yet,
+when lying flat on the floor, no inconvenience was felt except
+from the heat.</p>
+
+<p>When the fire has broken through a floor, the supply of
+air along that floor is not to be depended on&mdash;the fire
+drawing the principal supply of air from the apartments
+below.</p>
+
+<p>When the two first firemen have gained a favourable position,
+they should keep it as long as they are able; and when
+they feel exhausted, the men behind them should take their
+place.</p>
+
+<p>The great point to which everything ought to be made
+subservient is, <i>that the water on its discharge from the branch-pipe
+should actually strike the burning materials</i>. This cannot
+be too often or too anxiously inculcated on every one connected
+with a fire-engine establishment. Every other method
+not having this for its grand object, will, in nine cases out
+of ten, utterly fail; and upon the degree of attention paid to
+this point, depends almost entirely the question as to the
+amount of damage the fire will occasion.</p>
+
+<p>When approaching a fire, it should always be done by the
+door, if possible. When this is attended to, it is much easier
+to shift the hose from one apartment to another; and the
+current of fresh air, entering by the door and proceeding<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+along the passages, makes respiration easier and safer than
+elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>When entrance by the door is impracticable, and access is
+to be gained by a window, the flames frequently burst through
+in such a manner as to render advance in the first instance
+impossible. In that case, the branch should be pointed
+against the window, nearly in a perpendicular direction; the
+water striking the lintel, and falling all round inside the
+window, will soon extinguish the fire at that point sufficiently
+to render an entrance practicable.</p>
+
+<p>The old plan of standing with the branch pipe in the
+street, and throwing the water into the windows is a very
+random way of going to work; and for my own part,
+although I have seen it repeatedly tried, I never saw it
+attended with success. Indeed it is hardly to be expected
+that water, thrown from the street into a room three or four
+storeys high, can have any impression on closets, presses, or
+passages, divided probably with brick partitions in the centre
+of the house. The circumstance of having engines at work
+on both sides of the house does not alter the case. The fire
+very often burns up through the centre, and frequently,
+when the space between the windows is large, along the
+front or back wall, till it arrives at the roof, which the water
+cannot touch on account of the slates or tiles. On the other
+hand, when the firemen enter the house, the fire is almost
+wholly under their command. And when it happens that
+there is any corner which the water cannot directly strike,
+the fire in it may often be extinguished by throwing the
+water against an opposite wall or partition, and trusting to
+the recoil to throw it to the point required.</p>
+
+<p>When the water is thrown from the street, it is impossible<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>
+to say whether it touches the parts on fire or not. No one
+can tell anything about it, except when the flame appears at
+the windows.</p>
+
+<p>On going with the branch inside the house, besides the
+advantage of the water rushing directly from the hose upon
+the fire, there is a great saving in the article of water itself.
+The whole that is thrown by the engine is applied to the
+right purpose. No part of it is lost; that which does not
+strike the burning materials falls within the house; and, by
+soaking those parts on which it falls, prevents their burning
+so rapidly when the flames approach them.</p>
+
+<p>If, on entering an apartment, it be found that the flames
+cover a considerable space, it is of advantage, in some
+instances, to place the point of the thumb in contact with
+the water at the nozzle of the branch. By this means the
+water may be spread to cover any space under twenty or
+thirty feet, according to the pressure applied.</p>
+
+<p>While speaking of the mode of entering houses on fire, I
+may mention that I have tried several inventions for the
+purpose of elevating the branch pipe and hose to the level of
+a second or third story window. But these, although
+exceedingly ingenious, appear to me to rest on a principle
+entirely wrong; I mean that of throwing water on the fire
+from the outside of the building.</p>
+
+<p>Independent altogether of a mistaken principle of usefulness,
+one insuperable objection to all these machines, is
+the difficulty of conveying them with the necessary celerity,
+and the impossibility of packing them on the engine in such
+a manner that it may be worked without their being taken
+off, as it seems to me <i>that every description of apparatus
+which cannot be conveyed along with the engine, is likely to be</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+<i>left behind when most wanted</i>. It is notorious that parish
+fire-ladders are, for this reason, seldom or never made use of.</p>
+
+<p>Many people object to going inside a building on fire on
+account of the danger. It ought never to be forgotten, however,
+that the danger increases with the delay; and that
+although at first there may be no danger, if the opportunity
+is not promptly seized, it may become very considerable.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the firemen have at different times fainted, or
+become stupefied, from the want of fresh air; but as no one
+is ever allowed to enter singly, they have been, in all cases,
+immediately observed by their comrades, and relieved.</p>
+
+<p>Another objection has been raised in the alleged difficulty
+of persuading men to risk their lives in this manner for the
+small consideration which is allowed them. The truth is,
+that any persuasions I have had occasion to use, have been
+generally on the other side.</p>
+
+<p>To hold the branch is considered the post of honour; and
+when two engines are working together, I have sometimes
+difficulty in preventing the men from pressing forward farther
+than is absolutely necessary. This forwardness is not the
+result of pecuniary reward for the increase of risk, but a
+spirit of emulation is at work, and the man entrusted with
+this duty, if found drawing back, would be completely disgraced.</p>
+
+<p>A retreat should in all cases be kept open, to provide
+against any accident that may occur; and as this may be done
+in almost all cases by means so easy and simple, there can be
+no excuse for its omission. At the same time no one but an
+expert fireman should be permitted to enter where there is
+personal danger.</p>
+
+<p>The danger to which firemen are most exposed is catching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+cold, from their being so frequently drenched with water, and
+from their exposure to the sudden alternations of heat and
+cold. A man is turned out of bed at midnight, and in a few
+minutes after quitting it he is exposed to the sharp air,
+perhaps, of a frosty winter night; running to the fire as fast
+as he can, he is, from the exercise, joined to the oppressive
+heat inside the place on fire, in a few minutes in a state of
+the most profuse perspiration; and, while in this state, he is
+almost certain to be soaked with cold water. The smoke is
+sometimes so thick, that he comes under the range of the
+branch of the engine without being aware of it till the
+water strikes him. If he escape this chance, the water
+rushing on some other object, recoils on him, and produces
+the same effect; and if the fire be in the roof of the apartment,
+he must lie down on his back on the floor, and in this
+manner gets completely steeped.</p>
+
+<p>A bath of this sort is neither very safe nor pleasant; and
+the only preventive of injury to the health is to keep the
+men in constant motion. When they are allowed to stand
+still or sit down, the danger is considerable. When the fire
+is extinguished, or in two or three hours after its commencement,
+I make it a rule to give every man a dram of spirits.
+If it be necessary to leave an engine on the spot, those of
+the men who are to remain are sent home to change their
+clothes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.</h3>
+
+<p>The London Fire Brigade now (January, 1861) consists of
+one superintendent, four foremen, each being appointed to a
+district consisting of a fourth part of London, which he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+never leaves except on some very pressing emergency, and
+who, in the absence of the superintendent, has the sole command
+of all engines, or firemen, within, or who may come
+within, his district; twelve engineers, ten sub-engineers,
+forty-seven senior firemen, and forty-three junior firemen:
+in all, one hundred and seventeen individuals. In addition,
+there are fifteen drivers and thirty-seven horses,
+all living at the several stations, and ready when required.
+There is also a supplementary force of four extra
+firemen, four drivers, and eight horses living at the
+stations, pursuing their usual avocations, and only paid
+by the Committee when required. The mechanical appliances
+consist of twenty-seven large engines drawn by
+horses, eight small engines drawn by hand, two floating-engines
+worked by steam, one of forty-horse power, and the
+other of eighty-horse power, one land steam fire-engine, and
+twenty-eight hand-pumps, one of the latter being carried on
+each engine. When an engine is sent to a fire, only four
+firemen and one driver accompany it. The levers are worked
+by the by-standers, who are paid one shilling for the first
+hour, and sixpence for each succeeding hour, besides refreshments.
+Upwards of six hundred assistants have been thus
+employed at one time. The principal protection of London
+against fire is entirely voluntary on the part of the insurance
+companies, to whom the above establishment belongs;
+there being no law in any shape whatever to control or sustain
+the brigade; and with the exception of some fifteen or
+twenty, the parish-engines are comparatively useless at a
+serious fire. It must not be omitted, that the greatest possible
+assistance is given to the firemen by the police, of whom
+there are about 7000, in keeping back the crowd, &amp;c. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+fire-offices look upon the whole as a matter of private
+business, so that the brigade is proportioned quite as must
+to the amount which the offices think it prudent to spend as
+to the size of the place. Paris, which is not half the size of
+London, and the buildings of which are much more substantial,
+has upwards of 800 firemen. It appears to me
+that any success which the brigade may have attained
+depends, in a great measure, on the liberal pay given, by
+which the best men for the purpose can be obtained, the
+favourable view in which the brigade is regarded by the
+public, and the willing and able assistance given by a
+numerous and perhaps the best police in existence.</p>
+
+<p>The firemen in London being constantly employed on
+weekly wages, give their whole time to their employers, and
+are much more under command than where men are only
+occasionally employed. The wages and treatment being
+liberal, although the discipline is severe, there are generally
+a considerable number of candidates for each vacancy. Thus
+good men are obtained, seamen being preferred, as they are
+taught to obey orders, and the night and day watches and
+the uncertainty of the occupation are more similar to their
+former habits, than to those of other men of the same rank
+in life. The large number of fires is, however, the principal
+cause of any advantage the London firemen may possess over
+those of smaller places; and it is hardly fair to compare firemen
+who have only an opportunity of attending one or two
+fires in a week, to those who attend nearly three fires a
+day.</p>
+
+<p>The firemen are drilled first daily, and then two or three
+times a week, for some months; and this, with an average
+of three calls a day, soon makes them acquainted with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+routine of their business; but it takes years of constant
+work to make a thoroughly good fireman.</p>
+
+<p>The management of the London Fire Brigade is confided
+to a Committee, consisting of one of the directors or secretaries
+from each of the fire-offices in London.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent has the command of the whole force.</p>
+
+<p>The town is divided into four districts, in each of which
+there are stationed a sufficient number of engines, under the
+charge of a foreman, with engines and firemen under him.</p>
+
+<p>The districts are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<h4>NORTH SIDE OF RIVER.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>District A. From the eastward to Paul's Chain, St. Paul's
+Churchyard, Aldersgate-street, and Goswell-street-road.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">B. From St. Paul's, &amp;c., to Tottenham-court-road,
+Crown-street, and St. Martin's-lane.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">C. From Tottenham-court-road, &amp;c., westward.</span></p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 3em;">D. South side of River.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>The men are clothed uniformly; are distinguished by
+numbers corresponding with their names in the books; and
+regularly exercised in the use of their engines, and in such
+other duties as the Committee or Superintendent may direct.</p>
+
+<p>The following general regulations do not contain rules
+of conduct applicable to every variety of circumstance that
+may occur to individuals in the performance of their duty, as
+something must always be left for the exercise of intelligence
+and discretion; and, according to the degree in which these
+qualities in members of the Establishment are combined with
+zeal and activity, they become entitled to future promotion
+and reward.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It is strongly impressed upon the minds of all persons
+serving in the Establishment, that one of the greatest advantages
+which the present system possesses above that which
+it superseded, is derived from the embodying the whole force
+under one responsible officer. It is, therefore, incumbent
+upon the men to render prompt and cheerful obedience to
+the commands of their superiors; to execute their duties as
+steadily and quietly as possible; to be careful not to annoy
+the inhabitants of houses they may be called upon to enter,
+and to treat all persons with civility; to take care to preserve
+presence of mind and good temper, and not to allow
+themselves to be distracted from their duty by the advice
+or directions of any persons but their own officers, and
+to observe the strictest sobriety and general regularity of
+behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>As every man wears the uniform of the Establishment,
+which is marked with a number corresponding with his name
+in the books, he must constantly bear in mind that misconduct
+will not only reflect discredit upon the Establishment,
+but be easily brought home to himself and subject him to
+proportional punishment.</p>
+
+<p>The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous
+liquors from any individual without special permission of the
+superintendent, or, in his absence, of the foreman of the
+district; and as intoxication upon the alarming occasion of
+fires is not only disreputable to the Establishment, but in
+the highest degree dangerous, by rendering the men unfit
+for duty, every appearance of it is most rigidly marked, and
+the foremen, engineers, and sub-engineers report immediately,
+for the purpose of being laid before the Committee,
+every instance of insubordination or intoxication, and the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+men are accordingly apprised that the regulations regarding
+the above-mentioned faults will be most strictly enforced.</p>
+
+<p>All the men in the Establishment are liable to be
+punished by fine, suspension, reduction, or dismissal, for
+disobeying or neglecting any of these regulations, or for
+any other misconduct; and the disposal of the fines so
+collected is at the discretion of the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the conditions upon which each man is
+admitted into the Establishment:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>He devotes his whole time to the service.</p>
+
+<p>He serves and resides wherever he is appointed.</p>
+
+<p>He must promptly obey all orders which he may receive
+from those placed in authority over him.</p>
+
+<p>The age of admission does not exceed twenty-five, nor is
+under eighteen.</p>
+
+<p>He conforms himself to all regulations which may be
+made from time to time.</p>
+
+<p>He does not upon any occasion, or under any pretence
+whatever, take money from any person, without the express
+permission of the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>He appears at all times in the dress of the Establishment.</p>
+
+<p>If lodgings be found for him, a deduction of one shilling
+per week is made from his pay, if unmarried; if
+married, and if lodgings be found for him, an agreement
+in each particular case will be made.</p>
+
+<p>He receives his pay weekly on such day as shall be appointed.</p>
+
+<p>The pay of a Junior Fireman is 3<i>s.</i> per day, or 21<i>s.</i> a week.</p>
+
+<p>The pay of a Senior Fireman, 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a day, or 24<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> a
+week.</p>
+
+<p>The pay of a Sub-Engineer is 26<i>s.</i> a week.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The pay of an Engineer, 4<i>s.</i> a day, or 28<i>s.</i> a week.</p>
+
+<p>The Foremen are paid by annual salaries.</p>
+
+<p>Each man contributes towards a Superannuation Fund,
+according to a scale determined by the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>Each man receives annually&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">One short frock coat, marked with a number answering to his name in the books.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">A black neckcloth.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Two pairs of cloth trousers.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">One cloth cap.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">Four pairs of boots in three years, and</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>Once in three years he receives&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;">One great coat.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>He does not quit the service without giving fourteen days'
+previous notice; if he quits without such notice, or is
+dismissed, the whole of his pay then due is forfeited.</p>
+
+<p>Every man who is dismissed from the Establishment, or
+who resigns his situation, delivers up, before he quits
+the service, every article of dress and appointment which
+may have been supplied to him; if any of such articles
+have been, in the opinion of the superintendent, improperly
+used or damaged, the man makes good the
+damage or supplies a new article.</p>
+
+<p>Every man in the service is liable to immediate dismissal
+for unfitness, negligence, or misconduct. The Committee,
+if they see fit, may dismiss a man without
+assigning any reason.</p>
+
+<p>No fireman must allow to be used by any other person,
+nor use himself, except while he belongs to the Establishment,
+the button and badge given with his clothes.</p>
+
+<p>In the event of sickness rendering any man incapable of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>
+performing his duties, the Committee reserves to itself
+the power of making a deduction from his weekly pay.</p>
+
+<p>Each man, on his admission, gives to the Committee, if
+required, a letter of guarantee from some respectable
+person, to an amount not exceeding 50<i>l.</i>, as security.</p></div>
+
+
+<h4>OUTLINE OF GENERAL DUTY.</h4>
+
+<p>One-third of the men are constantly on duty at the
+different engine-houses, night and day; and the whole are
+liable to be called up for attendance at fires, or for any other
+duty. In general, it is arranged as follows, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>If a fire happen in District A, the whole of the men and
+engines of that district immediately repair to the spot;
+two-thirds of the men, and one of the engines, from each of
+the districts B and D, also go to the fire; and one-third of
+the men from the district C.</p>
+
+<p>If the fire happen in B, the whole of the men and engines
+in that district immediately repair to the fire; one engine
+from A, another from C, two-thirds of the men from A and
+C, and one-third of the men from D.</p>
+
+<p>If the fire happen in C, the whole of the men and engines
+in that district, one engine and two-thirds of the men from
+the district B, and one-third of the men from A and D, go
+to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>If the fire happen in D, the whole of the men and engines
+in that district, with one engine and two-thirds of the men
+from the district A, and one-third of the men from B and C,
+shall go to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>If a fire happen on the boundary of a district, and it is
+doubtful in which district it has occurred, the whole of the
+engines and men of the two adjoining districts instantly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+proceed to the spot, and one-third of the men of the two
+remaining districts.</p>
+
+<p>In case of emergency, the superintendent calls in such
+additional force as he may require.</p>
+
+<p>The engines are not taken to alarms of chimneys on fire,
+unless the circumstances of the case should, in the opinion of
+the superintendent, foreman, or engineer, require a deviation
+from this regulation.</p>
+
+<p>When any of the men from another district come to assist
+at a fire, if the engine to which they are attached is not
+in attendance, they instantly go to the foreman's engine of
+the district to which they come.</p>
+
+<p>The engines are conveyed to fires at not less than seven
+miles per hour, and the men who do not accompany the
+engines go at not less than four miles per hour.</p>
+
+<p>Any engineer or fireman who, when at a fire, is absent
+from an engine or a branch pipe, without orders from the
+superintendent or foreman, is liable to a fine.</p>
+
+<p>If any of the men are sick, or absent from any other cause,
+their duties are performed by other men attached to their
+engine-station.</p>
+
+<p>With a view to the men being always at hand, they are
+lodged as near as possible to their respective engine-houses.</p>
+
+<p>The roll is called at each station every morning and
+evening.</p>
+
+<p>No man leaves his own residence or the engine-station to
+which he belongs from 10 <span class="smcap">P.M.</span> to 6 <span class="smcap">A.M.</span> except to go to a
+fire, or by an order from a superior, or with written leave
+from the superintendent, and the senior man on duty is
+answerable if he does not report any departure from this
+rule.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Men on duty not at the engine-stations are allowed one
+hour for breakfast and one for dinner, as follows:&mdash;One-half
+of the men on duty go to breakfast from 8 to 9, and
+the other half from 9 to 10; also one-half go to dinner
+from 1 to 2, and the other half from 2 to 3. The second
+half in no case leave until the whole of the first half have
+returned, neither do the men on duty leave morning or
+evening until the relief has arrived. The engineer or senior
+man on duty is answerable for this regulation being carried
+into effect. And any man being absent from the premises
+he is watching or working in, except at the regular hours, is
+punished.</p>
+
+<p>The men for duty individually assemble at the principal
+engine-house in the district before, or precisely at, the hour
+fixed for that purpose. Their names are called, and an inspection
+made by the foreman of the district, to ascertain
+that they are sober and correctly dressed and appointed.
+The foreman then reads and explains the orders of the day.
+At the hour for relieving the men, no one leaves his engine-house
+until the relief has actually arrived there; when the
+men are relieved, their names are called over, and they are
+inspected by the engineer, that he may ascertain whether
+they are sober, and as correctly dressed and appointed as
+when they went on duty. The engineer enters these inspections
+in a book.</p>
+
+<p>The engineers deliver a written report, according to a
+printed form, twice each day, to the foreman of the district,
+who in his turn reports twice a day to the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the men are, at all times, ready to appear at
+any place required, for exercise or any other purpose, and
+are ready (whether on duty or not) to execute whatever<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+orders they may receive, in relation to the Establishment,
+from the engineers, foremen, or superintendent.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENT.</h4>
+
+<p>The Superintendent resides at the principal engine-station
+in Watling-street.</p>
+
+<p>The moment an alarm of fire is given, wherever it may be,
+he repairs to the spot with all possible expedition, and takes
+the command of the whole force.</p>
+
+<p>He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and
+reports the same to the committee.</p>
+
+<p>He is responsible for the general conduct of the foremen,
+engineers, and firemen under his charge.</p>
+
+<p>He makes himself well acquainted with the character and
+conduct of every man under his orders.</p>
+
+<p>He must be firm and just, and, at the same time, kind
+and conciliating in his behaviour on all occasions.</p>
+
+<p>He takes care that the printed regulations and all others
+given out from time to time, are promptly and strictly
+obeyed; and he gives clear and precise instructions to the
+men under him, and reports every instance of neglect of a
+serious nature to the Committee.</p>
+
+<p>He must feel the importance of visiting some of the
+engine-houses, at uncertain hours, every day and night.</p>
+
+<p>He suspends and reports to the Committee persons who
+are guilty of serious misconduct; and at once punishes by
+fines, according to a scale sanctioned by the Committee, irregularities
+of a lighter character, reporting such fines to them.</p>
+
+<p>He must be at all times prepared to furnish the Committee
+with particulars respecting the state of the Establishment.</p>
+
+<p>When a fire is extinguished, the superintendent retains<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+only such a number of men and engines as he may think
+necessary for watching the premises.</p>
+
+<p>He communicates with the surveyors of stock of the
+offices interested in a fire, and arranges with them, in the
+event of its being necessary, to work out salvage from the
+ruins.</p>
+
+<p>When a fire happens, he causes a report to be made immediately,
+if in office hours (or, if after office hours, before
+ten o'clock next morning), to those offices interested in the
+fire, and also to their surveyors of buildings and stock, as
+soon as possible after the fire is extinguished, and causes a
+daily report to be transmitted to each office of all fires which
+have happened, according to a printed form given to him for
+that purpose, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul><li>Date and hour.</li>
+
+<li>Situation of premises.</li>
+
+<li>Name and occupation of tenant.</li>
+
+<li>Name and residence of landlord.</li>
+
+<li>Supposed cause of fire.</li>
+
+<li>In what offices insured.</li>
+
+<li>No. of Policy.</li>
+
+<li>If there is gas on the premises.</li>
+
+<li>By whom called.</li>
+
+<li>By whom extinguished.</li>
+
+<li>Supply of water, with name of company.</li>
+
+<li>No. of engines attending and of what district, and the order in which they arrive.</li>
+
+<li>No. of men ditto          ditto.</li>
+
+<li>Engines not of the Establishment, and the order in which they arrive.</li>
+
+<li>Description of damage.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span></p>
+<h4>DUTIES OF FOREMAN.</h4>
+
+<p>The Foreman resides at the place appointed for him.</p>
+
+<p>He receives his orders and instructions from, and makes
+his reports to, the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill
+in the discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general
+behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of the superintendent, the foreman of the
+district will take the command of the whole force, both those
+of his own district and of all other engines and men which
+may come to his assistance in cases of fire.</p>
+
+<p>He does not attend fires that happen out of his own district
+unless he receives orders from the superintendent to
+that effect.</p>
+
+<p>He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and
+reports the same to the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>On the alarm of fire being given in his own district, he
+instantly repairs to the spot, and uses his utmost endeavours
+to get the engines into play and supply them with water.
+The first engine and firemen which arrive at a fire are not
+interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted from
+them, by those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct order
+from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the foreman
+of the district. The same rule applies to each succeeding
+engine which takes up a position.</p>
+
+<p>He is careful to place the engines in such a manner that
+the men who work at the levers may be in no danger from
+the falling of the premises on fire; and also that the engines
+may not be in the way of people carrying out furniture, &amp;c.;
+but, above all things, he endeavours to place the engineers<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+with their branch pipes in such positions <i>that the water from
+the branches may directly strike the burning materials</i>. This
+he cannot too often inculcate on the men placed under him, as
+upon this point, on being properly attended to, depends
+entirely the effect of the engines. To attain this most
+desirable end, it is frequently necessary to enter the premises
+on fire, and the foreman takes care so to place his men that
+they can easily escape. If he has reason to suspect that the
+building is not sufficiently secure, he stations one or two
+competent men to observe the state of the building, and to
+give the alarm when they see any danger.</p>
+
+<p>He never allows any man unaccompanied by another to
+enter a building on fire.</p>
+
+<p>He does not throw more water on the premises than is
+absolutely necessary to extinguish the fire, as all the water
+thrown after the fire is extinguished, only tends to increase
+the damage.</p>
+
+<p>When the inmates of the premises on fire are removed,
+the foreman endeavours to exclude air from the parts on fire,
+by shutting all doors and windows as far as may be practicable.</p>
+
+<p>He is responsible for the conduct of the men placed under
+him, and for the state of the engines, which must at all
+times be kept in first-rate order; he also makes himself well
+acquainted with the talent and general character of each
+individual under him.</p>
+
+<p>He visits every engine-house in his district at least once
+in the twenty-four hours; he sees that the men are on duty,
+the engines ready for service, and everything in proper
+order, and enters his visit in a book kept for that purpose,
+with the date and hour of his visit. If he finds anything<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>
+wrong, he enters it in the book, and immediately sends off a
+report to the superintendent by one of the men not on duty.</p>
+
+<p>He sends a written report twice in every twenty-four
+hours to the superintendent, which contains a particular
+statement of all fires and everything else connected with the
+Establishment which has occurred in his district within the
+preceding twelve hours.</p>
+
+<p>He returns in his report of a fire the names of such men,
+if any, as were not ready to start with the engine to which
+they are attached.</p>
+
+<p>It is expected that he is able and ready to give instructions
+to the engineers and men on all points relating to their
+duty.</p>
+
+<p>He receives and enters, in a book kept for that purpose,
+all complaints which may be made against any person under
+his command, causing the complaining party to sign the
+same and insert his address, and he reports the whole matter
+without delay to the superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>He is responsible for the engines in his district being each
+provided with the articles contained in the following list:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>2 lengths of scaling ladder.</li>
+
+<li>1 canvas sheet, with 10 or 12 handles of rope round the edge of it, used as a portable fire-escape.</li>
+
+<li>2 pieces of 2-1/2-inch rope, one 10 fathoms and one 14 fathoms long.</li>
+
+<li>7 lengths of hose, each 40 feet long.</li>
+
+<li>2 branch pipes, one 4 and the other 1 foot long.</li>
+
+<li>3 nozzles, or jet pipes.</li>
+
+<li>4 lengths of suction-pipe, each about 6 feet long.</li>
+
+<li>1 flat rose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></li>
+
+<li>1 standcock.</li>
+
+<li>1 goose-neck.</li>
+
+<li>2 balls of strips of sheep-skin.</li>
+
+<li>2 balls of small cord.</li>
+
+<li>4 hose wrenches.</li>
+
+<li>1 fire hook.</li>
+
+<li>1 mattock.</li>
+
+<li>1 shovel.</li>
+
+<li>1 saw.</li>
+
+<li>1 screw-wrench.</li>
+
+<li>1 portable cistern.</li>
+
+<li>1 hatchet or pole-axe.</li>
+
+<li>1 iron crow-bar.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<h4>DUTIES OF THE ENGINEER.</h4>
+
+<p>He resides in the engine-house to which he is appointed.</p>
+
+<p>He obeys all orders given to him by the superintendent
+or the foreman of the district.</p>
+
+<p>He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill
+in the discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general
+behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>He is held responsible for the conduct of the men under
+him, and for the state of his engine, and takes care that it
+is provided with the articles contained in the foregoing list.</p>
+
+<p>He reports to his foreman, every morning and evening,
+in writing, whether any of his men have been absent with
+or without leave.</p>
+
+<p>He enters in his book the time when the men go to the
+foreman's station before taking duty, and also when they
+return.</p>
+
+<p>On receiving notice of a fire happening within the prescribed
+limits, he instantly takes his engine and men to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+spot, and places himself and them at the disposal of the
+superintendent, foreman, or senior engineer of the district in
+which the fire happens.</p>
+
+<p>He must make himself acquainted with the character and
+abilities of each man under him.</p>
+
+<p>He is subject to fines at the discretion of the Committee,
+for neglect of duty or misbehaviour.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DUTIES OF SUB-ENGINEERS.</h4>
+
+<p>The sub-engineers being attached to foremen's and double
+stations only, in the absence of the foremen or engineer,
+or when in charge of an engine, the duties of the sub-engineer
+are the same as those described for an engineer;
+when the foreman or engineer is absent, the sub-engineer
+must set an example to the firemen at the station of constant
+attention, implicit obedience and activity, and in so
+far as he exhibits these and similar qualifications he expects
+to rise in the service.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DUTIES OF THE FIREMAN.</h4>
+
+<p>Every fireman in the establishment may expect to rise to
+the superior stations, by activity, intelligence, sobriety, and
+general good conduct.</p>
+
+<p>He must make it his study to recommend himself to
+notice by a diligent discharge of his duties, and strict obedience
+to the commands of his superiors, recollecting that he
+who has been accustomed to obey will be considered best
+qualified to command.</p>
+
+<p>He resides near the engine-house to which he is attached,
+in a situation to be approved of, and devotes the whole of
+his time and abilities to the service.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the alarm of fire, he proceeds with all possible speed
+to the engine-house to which he is attached.</p>
+
+<p>He must at all times appear neat in his person, and correctly
+dressed in the establishment uniform, and be respectful
+in his demeanour towards his superiors.</p>
+
+<p>He must readily and punctually obey the orders of the
+engineers, foremen, and superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>He must not quit his engine-house while on duty, except
+to go to a fire, unless by special order from a superior.</p>
+
+<p>He is subject to fines for neglect of duty or misbehaviour,
+according to the regulations.</p>
+
+
+<h4>BOOKS KEPT AT THE STATIONS.</h4>
+
+<p>There is a book kept in each engine-house, in which are
+entered all fires or alarms of fires; the time the men come
+on duty; the visits made by the foremen, superintendent, or
+any of the Committee, and all complaints against the men.</p>
+
+<p>This book is in charge of the superior on duty at the
+time; and the foreman and engineers are answerable for its
+being correctly kept.</p>
+
+<p>Every entry made in this book is signed by the person
+making it.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent enters, in a book kept for that purpose,
+the particulars of every fire, the attendance of engines,
+supply of water, &amp;c., and lays it before the Committee
+weekly, or oftener, if required.</p>
+
+<p>Any false entry, for the purpose of concealing absence, is
+punished&mdash;for the first offence, by the reduction of one step,
+and for the second by dismissal.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="THE_EDINBURGH_FIRE_BRIGADE" id="THE_EDINBURGH_FIRE_BRIGADE"></a>THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In forming the brigade in Edinburgh, where the firemen
+are only occasionally employed, the description of men, from
+which I made a selection, were slaters, house-carpenters,
+masons, plumbers, and smiths.</p>
+
+<p>Slaters make good firemen, not so much from their superiority
+in climbing, going along roofs, &amp;c., although these are
+great advantages, but from their being in general possessed
+of a handiness and readiness which I have not been able to
+discover in the same degree amongst other classes of workmen.
+It is, perhaps, not necessary that I should account for
+this, but it appears to me to arise from their being more dependent
+on their wits, and more frequently put to their shifts
+in the execution of their ordinary avocations. House-carpenters
+and masons being well acquainted with the construction
+of buildings, and understanding readily from whence
+danger is to be apprehended, can judge with tolerable accuracy,
+from the appearance of a house, where the stair is
+situated, and how the house is divided inside. Plumbers are
+also well accustomed to climbing and going along the roofs
+of houses; they are useful in working fire-cocks, covering
+the gratings of drains with lead, and generally in the management
+of water. Smiths and plumbers can also better
+endure heat and smoke than most other workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Men selected from these five trades are also more robust
+in body, and better able to endure the extremes of heat, cold,
+wet, and fatigue, to which firemen are so frequently exposed,
+than men engaged in more sedentary employments.</p>
+
+<p>I have generally made it a point to select for firemen,
+young men from seventeen or eighteen to twenty-five years<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+of age. At that age they enter more readily into the spirit
+of the business, and are much more easily trained, than
+when farther advanced in life. Men are frequently found
+who, although they excel in the mechanical parts of their
+own professions, are yet so devoid of judgment and resources,
+that when anything occurs which they have not been taught,
+or have not been able to foresee, they are completely at a
+loss. Now it happens not unfrequently that the man who
+arrives first at a fire, notwithstanding any training or instructions
+he may have received, is still, from the circumstances
+of the case, left almost entirely to the direction of
+his own judgment. It is, therefore, of immense importance
+to procure men on whose coolness and judgment you can depend.
+If they are expert tradesmen, so much the better, as
+there is generally a degree of respect shown to first-rate
+tradesmen by their fellows, which inferior hands can seldom
+obtain; and this respect tends greatly to keep up the character
+of the corps to which they belong, which ought never
+to be lost sight of.</p>
+
+<p>Amidst the noise and confusion which more or less attend
+all fires, I have found considerable difficulty in being able to
+convey the necessary orders to the firemen in such a manner
+as not to be liable to misapprehension. I tried a speaking-trumpet;
+but, finding it of no advantage, it was speedily
+abandoned. It appeared to me indeed, that while it increased
+the sound of the voice, by the deep tone which it
+gave, it brought it into greater accordance with the surrounding
+noise. I tried a boatswain's call, which I have
+found to answer much better. Its shrill piercing note is so
+unlike any other sound usually heard at a fire, that it immediately
+attracts the attention of the firemen. By varying<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+the calls, I have now established a mode of communication
+not easily misunderstood, and sufficiently precise for the circumstances
+to which it is adapted, and which I now find to
+be a very great convenience.</p>
+
+<p>The calls are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>1 for red, 2 for blue, 3 for yellow, 4 for grey.<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a></li>
+
+<li>5 to work the engine.</li>
+
+<li>6 to stop working.</li>
+
+<li>7 to attach one length of hose more than the engine has at the time the call is given.</li>
+
+<li>8 to coil up the hose attached to the engine.</li>
+
+<li>9 to coil up the hose attached to the fire-cock.</li>
+
+<li>10 to turn to the left.</li>
+
+<li>11 to turn to the right.</li>
+
+<li>12 the call to work the engine answers also to move forward when the engine is prepared for travelling.</li>
+
+<li>13 the call to stop working answers to stop the engine when moving forward.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>In all there are thirty-six calls when compounded with the
+first four.</p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the drilling of firemen, I shall give a short
+account of the plan followed here, which has been tolerably
+successful.</p>
+
+<p>The present number of firemen in Edinburgh is fifty,
+divided into four companies; three of which consist of
+twelve and one of fourteen men. The bounds of the city
+are divided into four districts; in each of which there is an
+engine-house, containing one or more engines, one of the
+companies being attached to each engine-house. In each<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+company there is one captain, one sergeant, four pioneers, and
+six or eight firemen.</p>
+
+<p>The whole are dressed in blue jackets, canvas trousers, and
+hardened leather helmets, having hollow leather crests over
+the crown to ward off falling materials. The form of this
+helmet was taken from the war-helmet of the New Zealanders,
+with the addition of the hind flap of leather to prevent
+burning matter, melted lead, water, or rubbish getting
+into the neck of the wearer. The captains' helmets have
+three small ornaments, those of the sergeants one&mdash;those of
+the pioneers and firemen being plain.</p>
+
+<p>The jackets of the captains have two small cloth wings on
+the shoulder, similar to those worn by light infantry. Those
+of the sergeants have three stripes on the left arm, and, on
+the left arms of the pioneers and firemen, are their respective
+numbers in the company. Each company has a particular
+colour&mdash;red, blue, yellow, and grey. Each engine is painted
+of one or other of these colours, and the accoutrements of
+the men belonging to it correspond. There is thus no difficulty
+in distinguishing the engines or men from each other by
+their colours and numbers. Each man also wears a broad
+leather waist-belt, with a brass buckle in front. To the
+waist-belts of the captains, sergeants, and pioneers is attached
+eighty feet of cord; the captains having also a small mason's
+hammer, with a crow-head at the end of the handle: the
+sergeants have a clawed hammer, such as is used by house-carpenters,
+with an iron handle, and two openings at the end
+for unscrewing nuts from bolts; the pioneers a small
+hatchet, with a crow-head at the end of the handle; and the
+firemen each carry a canvas water-bucket folded up.</p>
+
+<p>The captains assemble every Tuesday night, to give in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+report of such fires as may have occurred in their respective
+districts, with a list of the men who have turned out, and a
+corresponding list from the sergeant of police of the respective
+districts. They then receive any orders which may
+be necessary; and any vacancies which have occurred in the
+establishment are filled up at these meetings.</p>
+
+<p>For some months after this fire establishment was
+organized, the men were regularly drilled once a week, at
+four o'clock in the morning; but now only once a month at
+the same hour.</p>
+
+<p>Among many other good reasons for preferring this early
+hour, I may mention, that it does not interfere with the
+daily occupation of the firemen. The chance of collecting a
+crowd is also avoided, as there are then comparatively few
+people on the streets; this is a matter of some importance,
+as a crowd of people not only impedes the movements of the
+firemen, but, from small quantities of water spilt on the by-standers,
+quarrels are generated, and a prejudice excited
+against the corps, to avoid which every exertion should be
+used to keep the firemen on good terms with the populace.</p>
+
+<p>The mornings, too, at this early hour, are dark for more
+than half the year, and the firemen are thus accustomed to
+work by torch-light, and sometimes without any light whatever,
+except the few public lamps which are then burning.
+And, as most fires happen in the night, the advantage of
+drilling in the dark must be sufficiently obvious.</p>
+
+<p>The inhabitants have sometimes complained of being disturbed
+with the noise of the engines at so early an hour;
+but when the object has been explained, they have generally
+submitted, with a good grace, to this slight evil. A different
+part of the city being always chosen for each successive drill,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+the annoyance occasioned to any one district is very trifling,
+and of very unfrequent occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>On the Tuesday evening preceding the drill, the captains
+are informed when and where the men are to assemble.
+These orders they communicate to the individual firemen. A
+point of rendezvous being thus given to the whole body,
+every man, who is not on the spot at the hour appointed,
+fully equipped, with his clothes and accoutrements in good
+order, is subjected to a fine. Arrived on the ground, the
+men are divided into two parties, each party consisting of
+two companies, that being the number required to work
+each large engine without any assistance from the populace.
+The whole are then examined as to the condition of their
+clothing and equipments.</p>
+
+<p>The captains, sergeants, and pioneers of each company
+alternately take the duty of directing the engine, attaching
+the hose, &amp;c., while the whole of each party not engaged in
+these duties take the levers as firemen. The call is then
+given to move forward, the men setting off at a quick walking
+pace, and, on the same call being repeated, they get into
+a smart trot. When the call to stop is given, with orders to
+attach one or more lengths of hose to the engine and fire-cock,
+it is done in the following manner:&mdash;No. 1 takes out
+the branch pipe, and runs out as far as he thinks the hose
+ordered to be attached will reach, and there remains; No. 2
+takes a length of hose out of the engine, and uncoils it
+towards No. 1; and No. 3 attaches the hose to the engine.
+If more than one length is required, No. 4 takes out another,
+couples it to the former length, and then uncoils it. If a
+third length is wanted, No. 3 comes up with it, after having
+attached the first length to the engine. If more lengths are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+still wanted, No: 2 goes back to the engine for another;
+Nos. 3 and 4 follow, and so on till the requisite length is obtained;
+No. 1 then screws on the branch-pipe at the farther
+extremity of the last length.<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> While Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4
+are attaching the hose to the engine, No. 5 opens the fire-cock
+door, screws on the distributor, and attaches the length
+of hose, which No. 6 uncoils; Nos. 7 and 8 assist, if more
+than one length of hose be required. Immediately on the
+call being given to attach the hose, the sergeant locks the
+fore-carriage of the engine, and unlocks the levers. The
+fire-cock being opened by No. 5 (who remains by it as long
+as it is being used), the sergeant holds the end of the hose
+which supplies the engine, and at the same time superintends
+the men who work the levers. The call being given to work
+the engine, the whole of the men, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the
+captain and sergeant excepted, work at the levers along with
+the men of the other company.</p>
+
+<p>Although these operations may appear complicated, they
+are all completed, and the engine in full play, with three
+lengths, or 120 feet of hose, in one minute and ten seconds,
+including the time required for the water to fill the engine so
+far as to allow it to work.</p>
+
+<p>In order to excite a spirit of emulation, as well as to teach
+the men dexterity in working the engines, I frequently cause
+a competition amongst them. They are ordered to attach<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+one or more lengths of hose to each of two engines, and to
+work them as quickly as possible, the first engine which
+throws water being considered the winner. They are sometimes
+also placed at an equal distance from each of two
+separate fire-cocks; on the call being given to move forward,
+each party starts for the fire-cock to which it is ordered, and
+the first which gets into play is of course held to have beat
+the other. The call to stop is then given, and both parties
+return to their former station, with their hose coiled up, and
+everything in proper travelling order; the first which arrives
+being understood to have the advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The men are also carefully and regularly practised in
+taking their hose up common-stairs, drawing them up by
+ropes on the outside, and generally in accustoming themselves
+to, and providing against, every circumstance which
+may be anticipated in the case of fire.</p>
+
+<p>When a fire occurs in a common-stair, the advantages
+arising from this branch of training are incalculable. The
+occupants, in some cases amounting to twenty or thirty
+families, hurrying out with their children and furniture,
+regardless of everything except the preservation of their
+lives and property, and the rush of the crowd to the scene of
+alarm, form altogether, notwithstanding the exertions of an
+excellent police, such a scene of confusion as those only who
+have witnessed it can imagine; and here it is that discipline
+and unity of purpose are indispensable; for, unless each man
+has already been taught and accustomed to the particular duty
+expected from him, he only partakes of the general alarm, and
+adds to the confusion. But even when a hose has been
+carried up the interior of a common-stair, the risk of damage
+from the people carrying out their furniture is so great, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+the hose is not unfrequently burst, almost as soon as the
+engine has begun to play. If the hose be carried up to the
+floor on fire by the outside, the risk of damage is comparatively
+small, the hose in that case being only exposed for a
+short distance in crossing the stair.</p>
+
+<p>During a period of four years the only two firemen who
+lost their lives were run down by their own engines; and, in
+order to avoid danger from this cause, they are frequently
+accustomed suddenly to stop the engines when running down
+the steep streets with which this city abounds. It is a
+highly necessary exercise, and is done by wheeling the engine
+smartly round to the right or left, which has the effect of
+immediately stopping its course.</p>
+
+<p>There is a branch of training which I introduced amongst
+the Edinburgh firemen some time ago, which has been
+attended with more important advantages than was at first
+anticipated. I mean the gymnastic exercises. The men
+are practised in these exercises (in a small gymnasium fitted
+up for them in the head engine-house) regularly once a-week,
+and in winter sometimes twice: attendance on their part is
+entirely voluntary; the best gymnasts (if otherwise equally
+qualified) are always promoted in cases of vacancy.</p>
+
+<p>So sensible were the Insurance Companies doing business
+here, of the advantages likely to arise from the practice of
+these exercises, that on one occasion they subscribed upwards
+of 10<i>l.</i>, which was distributed in medals and money among
+the most expert and attentive gymnasts of the corps, at a
+competition in presence of the magistrates, commissioners of
+police, and managers of insurance companies.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the many advantages arising from these exercises
+I shall notice only one or two. The firemen, when at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+their ordinary employments, as masons, house-carpenters, &amp;c.,
+being accustomed to a particular exercise of certain muscles
+only, there is very often a degree of stiffness in their general
+movements, which prevents them from performing their duty
+as firemen with that ease and celerity which are so necessary
+and desirable; but the gymnastic exercises, by bringing all
+the muscles of the body into action, and by aiding the more
+general development of the frame, tend greatly to remove or
+overcome this awkwardness. But its greatest advantage is
+the confidence it gives to the men when placed in certain
+situations of danger. A man, for example, in the third or
+fourth floor of a house on fire, who is uncertain as to his
+means of escape, in the event of his return by the stair being
+cut off, will not render any very efficient service in extinguishing
+the fire; his own safety will be the principal
+object of his attention, and till that is to a certain extent
+secured, his exertions are not much to be relied upon. An
+experienced gymnast, on the other hand, placed in these circumstances,
+finds himself in comparative security. With a
+hatchet and eighty feet of cord at his command, and a
+window near him, he knows there is not much difficulty in
+getting to the street; and this confidence not only enables
+him to go on with his duty with more spirit, but his
+attention not being abstracted by thoughts of personal
+danger, he is able to direct it wholly to the circumstances of
+the fire. He can raise himself on a window sill, or the top
+of a wall, if he can only reach it with his hands; and by his
+hands alone he may sustain himself in situations where
+other means of support are unattainable, till the arrival of
+assistance. These are great advantages; but, as I said
+before, the greatest of all is that feeling of safety with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+which it enables a fireman to proceed with his operations,
+uncertainty or distraction being the greatest of possible
+evils. The cord carried at the waist-belt of the captains,
+sergeants, and pioneers, being fully sufficient to sustain a
+man's weight, and with the assistance of their small hatchets
+easily made fast, and the pioneers always being two together,
+there is thus no difficulty in descending even from a height of
+eighty feet: the cords should be doubled by way of security.</p>
+
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">General Regulations of the Edinburgh Fire
+Brigade.</span></h4>
+
+<p>A list of the engine-houses, and the residences of the
+superintendent and head enginemen in each district shall be
+publicly advertised, that no one may be ignorant where to
+apply in cases of fire; and, in the event of fire breaking out
+in any house, the possessor shall be bound to give instant
+notice of it at the nearest station; and shall take particular
+care to keep all doors and windows shut in the premises
+where the fire happens to be.</p>
+
+<p>"Fire-engine house" shall be painted in large characters on
+one or more prominent places of each engine-house; and the
+residences of the master of engines, head enginemen, inspectors
+of gas companies, and water-officers of the district, shall
+likewise be marked there.</p>
+
+<p>The head enginemen and firemen shall reside as near the
+engine-house as possible.</p>
+
+<p>As, in the case of a fire breaking out, it may be necessary
+to break open the doors of houses and shops in the neighbourhood,
+in order to prevent the fire from spreading, it is
+ordered, that no possessors of houses or shops in the neighbourhood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+shall go away, after the fire has broken out, without
+leaving the key of their house or shop, as otherwise the door
+will be broken open, if necessary; and it is recommended
+that all possessors of shops shall have the place of their residence
+painted upon their shop-doors, that notice may be sent
+them when necessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Police.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Upon any watchman discovering fire, he shall call the
+neighbouring watchmen to his assistance&mdash;shall take the best
+means in his power to put all concerned upon their guard&mdash;and
+shall immediately send off notice to the nearest office
+and engine-house. The watchman, who is despatched to give
+these intimations, shall run as far as he can, and shall then
+send forward any other watchman whom he may meet, he
+himself following at a walk to communicate his information,
+in case of any mistake on the part of the second messenger.</p>
+
+<p>Upon intimation of a fire being received at the main
+office, or a district office, the head officer on duty shall instantly
+give notice thereof to the head engineman of the
+district, to the master of engines, to the water-officers of the
+district, and to the inspectors of the different gas-light companies,
+and shall have power, if his force at the office at the
+time be deficient, to employ the nearest watchmen for these
+purposes; and, on intimation being first received at a district-office,
+the officer on duty in the office shall immediately
+send notice to the main office.</p>
+
+<p>Upon intimation being received at the main office, the
+officer on duty shall also instantly send notice to the superintendent
+of police, and the lieutenants not at the office at the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+time&mdash;to the master of engines; to the head enginemen of
+the various districts; to the superintendent of the water
+company; to the lord provost or chief magistrate for the
+time; to the sheriff of the county; to the bailie residing
+nearest the place; to the dean of guild; to the members of
+fire-engine committee of commissioners of police; to the moderator
+of the high constables; and also to the managers of
+the different gaslight companies.</p>
+
+<p>The officer on duty at the main office shall, with the least
+possible delay, send off to the fire a party of his men, under
+the command of a lieutenant or other officer.</p>
+
+<p>This party, on arriving at the spot, shall clear off the
+crowd, and keep open space and passages for the firemen and
+others employed.</p>
+
+<p>The officer commanding this party of the police shall attend
+to no instructions except such as he shall receive from
+the acting chief magistrate attending; or, in absence of a
+magistrate, from any member of the committee on fire-engines;
+and the men shall attend to the instructions of their
+own officer alone.</p>
+
+<p>Three or more policemen shall be in attendance upon the
+acting chief magistrate and fire-engine committee; two policemen
+shall constantly attend the master of the engines, to
+be at his disposal entirely; and one policeman shall attend
+with the water-officer at each fire-cock that may be opened.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent of police shall always have a list of
+extra policemen hung up in the police-office, who, upon occasions
+of fire, may be called out, if necessary, and twenty of
+these extra men shall always be called out upon notice of
+fire being received at the main office, for the purpose of attending
+at the police-office, and rendering assistance where it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+may be required. The superintendent shall likewise have a
+supply of fire-buckets, flambeaux, and lanterns, at the office,
+to be ready when wanted.</p>
+
+<p>There shall be no ringing of alarm-bells, beating of drums,
+or springing of rattles, except by written order from the
+chief magistrate for the time; but the alarm may be given
+by despatching messengers, with proper badges, through
+different parts of the town, when considered necessary.</p>
+
+
+<h4>III. <span class="smcap">Superintendent of Fire Brigade.</span></h4>
+
+<p>On receiving notice of a fire, the superintendent shall instantly
+equip himself in his uniform, and repair to the spot
+where the fire is.</p>
+
+<p>The necessary operations to be adopted shall be under his
+absolute control, and he will issue his instructions to the
+head enginemen and firemen.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent shall report from time to time to the
+chief magistrate in attendance (through such medium as
+may be at his command, but without his leaving the spot),
+the state of the fire, and whether a greater number of policemen,
+or a party of the military, be required, and anything
+else which may occur to him; and the master shall observe
+the directions of the chief magistrate attending, and those
+of no other person whatever.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent shall frequently inspect the engines,
+and all the apparatus connected therewith; he shall be responsible
+for the whole being at all times in good order and
+condition; and he shall have a general muster and inspection
+at least once every three months, when the engines and all
+the apparatus shall be tried. He shall also instruct the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+enginemen, firemen, and the watchmen, to unlock the
+plates, and screw on the distributors of the fire-cocks, or
+open the fire-plugs.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever any repairs or new apparatus shall appear to be
+necessary, the superintendent shall give notice to the clerk of
+the police, whose duty it shall be instantly to convene the committee
+on fire-engines.</p>
+
+<p>Upon a fire breaking out, the superintendent shall lose as
+little time as possible in stationing chimney-sweepers on the
+roofs of the adjoining houses, to keep them clear of flying
+embers; and also persons in each flat of the adjoining
+houses, to observe their state, and report if any appearances
+of danger should arise; such persons taking as much care as
+possible <i>to keep all doors and windows of said flats shut</i>, and
+the doors and windows of the premises where the fire
+happens to be shall, so far as practicable, be carefully kept
+shut.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent shall forthwith prepare regulations for
+the firemen, &amp;c., under his charge, and report the same to
+the committee on fire-engines for their approval. Every
+fireman shall be furnished with a copy of such regulations,
+and shall be bound to make himself master of its contents;
+and it shall be the duty of the superintendent to see that the
+instructions are duly attended to in training and exercising
+the men.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Head Enginemen.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Each head engineman shall attend to the engines placed
+in his district, and all the apparatus connected therewith,
+and report to the superintendent when any repairs or new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+apparatus seem requisite, and shall be responsible for the
+engines being in proper working condition at all times.</p>
+
+<p>Upon receiving notice of a fire, the head enginemen shall
+call out the firemen in their respective districts; and they
+shall all repair, perfectly equipped, with the utmost expedition,
+to the spot where the fire happens to be, carrying along
+with them the engines and apparatus.</p>
+
+<p>The head enginemen shall have the carts and barrels
+attached to their several districts always in readiness, in
+good order, and the barrels filled with water, which shall
+accompany the engines to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>On arriving at the spot, the head enginemen shall take
+their instructions from the superintendent, or, in his absence,
+from the chief magistrate in attendance on the spot;
+or, in their absence, from a member of the fire-engine committee,
+and from no other person whatever.</p>
+
+
+<h4>V.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Firemen.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The firemen shall attend at all times when required by
+the head enginemen or superintendent, as well as upon the
+days of general inspection. They shall keep their engines
+in good order and condition, and shall be equipped in their
+uniform at all times when called out.</p>
+
+<p>They shall observe the instructions of no person whatever,
+except those of the superintendent or head enginemen.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VI.&mdash;<span class="smcap">High Constables and Commissioners of Police.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Upon occasions of fire, the moderator of the high constables
+shall call out the high constables, and, if necessary, he
+shall also call out the extra constables, and give notice to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+call out the constables of their districts; and it shall be the
+duty of the constables to preserve order and to protect
+property, to keep the crowd away from the engines, and
+those employed about them; and, when authorized by the
+chief magistrate, superintendent of engines, or, in the
+absence of a magistrate, by a member of the committee on
+fire-engines, to provide men for working the engines.</p>
+
+<p>Neither the constables nor the commissioners of police
+shall assume any management, or give any directions whatsoever,
+except in absence of a magistrate and the superintendent
+of engines, in which case any member of the
+committee on fire-engines may give orders to the head
+enginemen.</p>
+
+<p>In cases of protracted fire, when extra men may be
+required to relieve the regular establishment, it shall be the
+duty of the high constables to collect those wanted, from
+amongst the persons on the street who may be willing to lend
+their assistance, mustering them in such parties as may be
+required, taking a note of their names, and furnishing each
+individual with a certificate or ticket, with which the
+moderator of the high constables, or chief constable at the
+time, will be supplied; and no person shall receive any
+remuneration for alleged assistance given at a fire who may
+not produce such certificate or ticket.</p>
+
+<p>The party or parties so mustered shall be placed and continue
+under the care of two high constables, until required
+for service, when they shall be moved forward to the engine.</p>
+
+<p>The men relieved by the party so moved forward, shall
+be taken charge of by two high constables, who shall see
+them properly refreshed and brought back within a reasonable
+time, so that the men employed may thus occasionally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+relieve each other without confusion, and without being too
+much exhausted.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Magistrates, &amp;c.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Upon occasion of fires, the magistrates, sheriff, moderator
+of the high constables, the superintendent of the water company,
+the managers of the different gas-light companies, and
+the fire-engine committee, will give their attendance. They
+will assemble in such house nearest to the place of the fire
+as can be procured, of which notice shall be immediately
+given to the officer commanding the police on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>The orders of the chief magistrate in attendance shall be
+immediately obeyed; and no order, except those issued by
+such magistrate, and the particular directions given as to the
+fire and engine department by the master of engines, or, in
+their absence, by a member of the fire-engine committee on
+the spot, shall be at all attended to.</p>
+
+<p>The magistrates and sheriff further declare, that all
+porters holding badges shall be bound to give their attendance
+at fires when called upon for that purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>VIII.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gas-light Companies.</span></h4>
+
+<p>The managers of the different gas-light companies, on
+receiving notice of a fire, shall instantly take measures for
+turning off the gas from all shops and houses in the immediate
+neighbourhood of the fire.</p>
+
+
+<h4>IX.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Special Regulations for the Firemen.</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>Captains.</i>&mdash;On the alarm of fire being given, an engine
+must be immediately despatched from the main office to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+whatever district the fire may be in; and the captain in
+whose district the fire happens shall bring his engine to the
+spot as quickly as possible, taking care that none of the
+apparatus is awanting. On arriving at the spot, he must
+take every means in his power to supply his engine with
+water, but especially by a service-pipe from a fire-cock, if
+that be found practicable. Great care must be taken to
+place the engine so that it may be in the direction of the
+water, with sufficient room on all sides to work it, but as
+little in the way of persons employed in carrying out furniture,
+&amp;c., as possible. He must also examine the fire while
+the men are fixing the hose, &amp;c., that the water may be
+directed with the best effect.</p>
+
+<p>The captains shall be responsible for any misconduct of
+their men, when they fail to report such misconduct to the
+superintendent.</p>
+
+<p>The engines must be at all times in good working order,
+and the captain shall report to the superintendent when any
+part of the apparatus is in need of repair.</p>
+
+<p>When the fire is in another district, the captain of each
+engine shall get his men and engine ready to proceed at a
+moment's notice, but must not move from his engine-house
+till a special order arrives from a lieutenant of police or the
+superintendent of brigade.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sergeants.</i>&mdash;The sergeant of each engine will take the
+command in absence of the captain. When the captain is
+present, the sergeant will give him all possible assistance in
+conducting the engine to the fire; and it will there be more
+particularly the sergeant's duty to see that the engine is
+supplied with water, and that every man is at his proper
+station, and to remain with his engine while on duty, whether<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+it is working or not, unless he receives special orders to the
+contrary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pioneers.</i>&mdash;Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of each engine will be considered
+pioneers. Nos. 1 and 2 will proceed to the fire
+immediately, without going to their engine-house, in order to
+prepare for the arrival of the first engine, by ascertaining and
+clearing a proper station for it, and by making ready the
+most available supplies of water, as also to examine the state
+of the premises on fire and the neighbouring ones, so as to
+be able to give such information to the captain on his arrival
+as may enable him to apply his force with the greatest effect.
+<i>The pioneers will attend particularly to the excluding of air
+from the parts on fire by every means in their power, and they
+will ascertain whether there are any communications with the
+adjoining house by the roof, gable, or otherwise.</i> When the
+several engines arrive, the pioneers will fall in with their own
+company, and take their farther orders from the captain or
+sergeant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Firemen.</i>&mdash;On the alarm of fire being given, the whole
+company belonging to each engine (Nos. 1 and 2 excepted)
+shall assemble as speedily as possible at their engine-house,
+and act with spirit under the orders of their officers in getting
+everything ready for service. Each man will get a ticket
+with his own number and the colour of his engine marked
+upon it; and on all occasions when he comes on duty he will
+give this ticket into the hands of a policeman, who will be
+appointed by the officer of police on duty to collect them at
+each engine-house, and who will accompany the engine if it
+is ordered to the fire.</p>
+
+<p>If the ticket be not given in, as before provided, within
+half an hour after the alarm is given at their engine-house, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+at all events, within half an hour after the arrival of the
+engine at the fire, the defaulter will forfeit the allowance for
+turning out, and also the first hour's pay.</p>
+
+<p>If not given in within the first hour, he will forfeit all
+claim to pay.</p>
+
+<p>The superintendent, however, may do away the forfeiture
+in any of these cases, on cause being shown to his satisfaction.</p>
+
+<p>On quarter-days and days of exercise, every man must be
+ready equipped at the appointed hour, otherwise he will forfeit
+that day's pay, or such part of it as the superintendent may
+determine.</p>
+
+<p>Any man destroying his equipments, or wearing them when
+off duty, will be punished by fine or dismissal from the service,
+as the superintendent may determine.</p>
+
+<p>Careless conduct, irregular attendance at exercise, or disobedience
+of superior officers, to be punished as above-mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The man who arrives first at the engine-house to which he
+belongs, <i>properly equipped</i>, will receive three shillings over
+and above the pay for turning out.</p>
+
+<p>The first of the Nos. 1 and 2 who arrives at the fire, <i>properly
+equipped</i>, in whatever district it may be, will receive
+three shillings over and above the pay for turning out.</p>
+
+<p>No pay will be allowed for a false alarm, unless the same
+is given by a policeman.</p>
+
+<p>As nothing is so hurtful to the efficiency of an establishment
+for extinguishing fires as unnecessary noise, irregularity,
+or insubordination, it is enjoined on all to observe quietness
+and regularity, to execute readily whatever orders they may
+receive from their officers, and to do nothing without orders.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The first engine and company which arrive at the fire are
+not to be interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted
+from them by those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct
+order from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the
+chief magistrate on the spot. The same rule will apply to
+each succeeding engine which takes up a station.</p>
+
+<p>The men must be careful not to allow their attention to be
+distracted from their duty by listening to directions from any
+persons <i>except their own officers</i>; and they will refer every one
+who applies to them for aid to the superintendent, or to the
+chief magistrate present at the time.</p>
+
+<p>All the firemen must be particularly careful to let the
+policemen on their respective stations know where they live,
+and take notice when the policeman is changed, that they
+may give the new one the requisite information.</p>
+
+<p>The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous
+liquors from any individual without the special permission of
+the captain of their engine, who will see that every proper
+and necessary refreshment be afforded to them; and as intoxication
+upon such alarming occasions is not merely disreputable
+to the corps, but in the highest degree dangerous, by
+rendering the men unfit for their duty, every appearance of
+it will be most rigidly marked; and any man who may be
+discovered in that state shall not only forfeit his whole allowances
+for the turn-out and duty performed, but will be forthwith
+dismissed from the corps.</p>
+
+<p>All concerned are strictly enjoined to preserve their presence
+of mind, not to lose temper, and upon no occasion whatsoever
+to give offence to the inhabitants by making use of
+uncivil language or behaving rudely.</p>
+
+<p>*<sub>*</sub>* Every one belonging to the establishment will be furnished<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+with a printed copy of these Regulations, which they
+are enjoined carefully to preserve and <i>read over at least once
+every week</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE.</h3>
+
+<p>[The following was written in the year 1830, and does
+not refer to Public Fire-Escapes other than those that can
+be carried with a Fire-Engine.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Editor.</span>]</p>
+
+<p>When the lower floors of a house are on fire, and the
+stairs or other ordinary means of retreat destroyed, the
+simplest and easiest mode of removing the inhabitants from
+the upper floors, is by a ladder placed against the wall. In
+order to be able at all times to carry this plan into effect, the
+person having charge of the engines should (as far as possible)
+inform himself where long ladders are to be had, and
+how they can most easily be removed.</p>
+
+<p>But if a ladder of sufficient length is not to be procured,
+or is at too great a distance to render it safe to wait
+for it, recourse must immediately be had to other means.</p>
+
+<p>If it happens that the windows above are all inaccessible,
+on account of the flames bursting through those below, the
+firemen should immediately get on the roof (by means of
+the adjoining houses,) and descend by the hatch. The
+hatch, however, being sometimes directly above the stair, is
+in that case very soon affected by the fire and smoke. If, on
+approaching, it is found to be so much so as to render an
+entrance in that way impracticable, the firemen should
+instantly break through the roof, and, descending into the
+upper floors, extricate those within. If it should happen,
+however, that the persons in danger are not in the upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+floor, and cannot reach it in consequence of the stair being
+on fire, the firemen should continue breaking through floor
+after floor till they reach them. In so desperate a case as
+this the shorter process may probably be to break through
+the party-wall between the house on fire and that adjoining,
+when there is one; and when there is no house immediately
+contiguous, through the gable, taking care in either case to
+break through at the back of a closet, press, chimney, or
+other recess, where the wall is thinnest. If an opening has
+been made from the adjoining house, it should immediately
+(after having served the purpose for which it was made) be
+built up with brick or stone, to prevent the fire spreading.
+All these operations should be performed by slaters, masons,
+or house-carpenters, who, being better acquainted with such
+work, are likely to execute it in a shorter time than others&mdash;time,
+in such a case, being everything, as a few minutes
+lost may cost the lives of the whole party. It is not impossible,
+however, that circumstances may occur to render all or
+either of these plans impracticable; in that case, one or two
+of the lower windows must be darkened, and by this means
+access gained to the upper ones. The plan recommended by
+the Parisian firemen is, for a man to wrap himself up in a
+wet blanket, and thus pass swiftly through the flames. But
+this effort is only to be attempted when the flames from a
+single door are to be passed; in any other case the stair will
+most likely be in flames, and impassable.</p>
+
+<p>A simple means of escape from fire is to have an iron ring
+fastened to the window sill, and inside of the room a cradle,
+with a coil of rope attached to it. The rope is put through
+the ring, and the person wishing to escape gets into the
+cradle, and lowers himself down by passing the rope through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+his hands. The great objection to this plan, which is certainly
+very simple, is the difficulty, or rather impossibility, of
+persuading people to provide themselves with the necessary
+materials. Many men, too, are incapable of the exertion
+upon which the whole plan depends; and if men in a state
+of terror are unfit for such a task, what is to become of
+women and children?</p>
+
+<p>Any fire-escape, to be generally useful, must, in the first
+place, be capable of being carried about without encumbering
+the fire-engine; and, in the next place, must be of instant
+and simple application. The means which appear to me to
+possess these qualifications in the highest degree, is a combination
+of the cradle plan, with Captain Manby's admirable
+invention for saving shipwrecked seamen.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus necessary for this fire-escape is a chain-ladder
+eighty feet long, a single chain or rope of the same
+length as the ladder, a canvas bag, a strong steel cross-bow,
+and a fine cord of the very best workmanship and materials,
+130 feet long, with a lead bullet of three-ounce weight
+attached to one end, and carefully wound upon a wooden
+cone seven inches high and seven inches broad at the base,
+turned with a spiral groove, to prevent the cord slipping
+when wound upon it, also a small pulley with a claw
+attached to it, and a cord reeved through it of sufficient
+strength to bear the weight of the ladder.</p>
+
+<p>In order to prevent the sides of the ladder from collapsing,
+the steps are made of copper or iron tube, fastened
+by a piece of cord passed through the tube and into the links
+of the chain, till the tube is filled. The steps thus fastened
+are tied to the chain with copper-wire, so that, in the event
+of the cord being destroyed, the steps will be retained in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+their places by the wire. The ladder is provided with two
+large hooks at one end, for the purpose of fixing it to a
+roof, window-sill, &amp;c. The bag is of canvas, three feet wide
+and four feet deep, with cords sewed round the bottom, and
+meeting at the top, where they are turned over an iron
+thimble at each side of the mouth of the bag. The steel
+cross-bow is of the ordinary description, of sufficient strength
+to throw the lead bullet with the cord attached, 120 feet
+high.</p>
+
+<p>When the house from which the persons in danger are to
+be extricated is so situated that the firemen can get to the
+roof by passing along the tops of the adjoining houses, they
+will carry up the chain-ladder with them, and drop it over
+the window where the inmates show themselves, fastening the
+hooks at the same time securely in the roof. The firemen
+will descend by the ladder into the window, and putting the
+persons to be removed into the bag, lower them down into
+the street by the single chain. If the flames are issuing
+from the windows below, the bag, when filled, is easily drawn
+aside into the window of the adjoining house, by means of a
+guy or guide-rope.</p>
+
+<p>If the house on fire stands by itself, or if access cannot be
+had to the roof by means of the adjoining houses, the lead
+bullet, with the cord attached, is thrown over the house by
+means of the cross-bow; to this cord a stronger one is
+attached, and drawn over the house by means of the former;
+a single chain is then attached, and drawn over in like
+manner; and to this last is attached the chain-ladder, which,
+on being raised to the roof, the firemen ascend, and proceed
+as before directed.</p>
+
+<p>If the house be so high that the cord cannot be thrown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+over far enough to be taken hold of by those on the opposite
+side, then the persons to be extricated must take hold of the
+cord, as it hangs past the window at which they may have
+placed themselves. By means of it they draw up the small
+pulley, and hook it on the window-sill. The chain-ladder is
+then made fast to the end of the cord, and drawn up by
+those below. When the end of the chain-ladder comes in
+front of the window, the persons inside fasten the hooks
+of the ladder on its sill, or to the post of a bed, the bars of
+a grate, or anything likely to afford a sufficient hold. After
+having ascertained that the ladder is properly fixed, the firemen
+will ascend and proceed as in the former cases.</p>
+
+<p>I must here remark, that before this plan can be properly
+put in execution, the firemen must be regularly trained to
+the exercise. When the firemen here are practised with the
+fire-escape, the man ascending or descending has a strong
+belt round his middle, to which another chain is fastened,
+and held by a man stationed at the window for that purpose;
+if any accident, therefore, were to occur with the chain-ladder,
+the man cannot fall to the ground, but would be
+swung by the chain attached to the belt round his body.
+The men are also frequently practised in ascending and
+descending by single chains. The firemen here are very
+fond of the above exercise; the bagging each other seems to
+amuse them exceedingly.<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a></p>
+
+<p>The last resort, in desperate cases, is to leap from the
+window. When this is to be attempted, mattresses, beds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+straw, or other soft substances, should be collected under the
+window; a piece of carpet or other strong cloth should be
+held up by ten or twelve stout men. The person in the window
+may then leap, as nearly as possible, into the centre of the
+cloth, and if he has sufficient resolution to take a fair leap,
+he may escape with comparatively little injury.<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="FIRE-ENGINES" id="FIRE-ENGINES"></a>FIRE-ENGINES.</h3>
+
+<p>In the application of manual power to the working of
+fire-engines, the principal object is, to apply the greatest
+aggregate power to the lightest and smallest machine; that
+is, suppose two engines of the same size and weight, the one
+with space for 20 men to work throws 60 gallons per
+minute; and the other, with space for 30 men, throws
+80 gallons in the same time; the latter will be the most
+useful engine, although each man is not able to do so much
+work as at the former.</p>
+
+<p>The reciprocating motion is generally preferred to the
+rotary for fire-engines. Independent of its being the most
+advantageous movement, a greater number of men can be
+employed at an engine of the same size and weight; there is
+less liability to accident with people unacquainted with the
+work, and such as are quite ignorant of either mode of
+working, work more freely at the reciprocating than the
+rotary motion. To these reasons may be added, the greater
+simplicity of the machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Various sizes of engines, of different degrees of strength<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+and weight, have been tried, and it is found that a fire-engine
+with two cylinders of 7 inches diameter, and a stroke
+of 8 inches, can be made sufficiently strong at 17-1/2 cwt. If
+4 cwt. be added for the hose and tools, it will be found quite
+as heavy as two fast horses can manage, for a distance under
+six miles, with five firemen and a driver.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig_1" id="fig_1"></a>
+<img src="images/image124.png" width="600" height="372" alt="Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade.
+Longitudinal section,&mdash;with the Levers turned up for travelling." title="Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade.
+Longitudinal section,&mdash;with the Levers turned up for travelling." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade.
+Longitudinal section,&mdash;with the Levers turned up for travelling.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>This size of engine has been adopted by the Board of
+Admiralty and the Board of Ordnance, and its use is
+becoming very general.</p>
+
+<p>When engines are made larger, it is seldom that the
+proper proportions are preserved, and they are generally
+worked with difficulty, and soon fatigue the men at the
+levers.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 538px;">
+<a name="fig_2" id="fig_2"></a>
+<img src="images/image125.png" width="538" height="600" alt="Fig. 2. Transverse section." title="Fig. 2. Transverse section." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2. Transverse section.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>When an engine is large, it not only requires a considerable
+number of men to work it, but it is not easily supplied
+with water; and, above all, <i>it cannot be moved about
+with that celerity on which, in a fire-engine establishment,
+everything depends</i>. When the engine is brought into
+actual operation, the effect to be produced depends less on
+the quantity of water thrown than upon its being made
+actually to strike the burning materials, the force with
+which it does so, and the steadiness with which the engine
+is worked. If the water be steadily directed upon the
+burning materials, the effect even of a small quantity is
+astonishing.</p>
+
+<p>When a large engine is required in London, two with
+7-inches cylinders are worked together by means of a connecting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+screw, thus making a jet very nearly equal (as 98 to
+100) to that of an engine with cylinders 10 inches diameter.</p>
+
+<p>It is also an advantage not unworthy of consideration,
+that two 7-inch engines may be had nearly for the price of
+one 10-inch one; so that if one happens to be rendered
+unserviceable the other may still be available.</p>
+
+<p>The usual rate of working an engine of the size described
+is 40 strokes of each cylinder per minute; this gives 88
+gallons. The number of men required to keep steadily at
+work for three or four hours is 26; upwards of 30 men
+are sometimes put on when a great length of hose is
+necessary. The lever is in the proportion of 4-1/4 to 1. With
+40 feet of leather hose and a 7/8 inch jet, the pressure
+is 30 lb. on the square inch; this gives 10.4 lbs. to each
+man to move a distance of 226 feet in one minute. The
+friction increases the labour 2-1/2 per cent. for every additional
+40 feet of hose, which shows the necessity of having
+the engine, and of course the supply of water, as close to
+the fire as is consistent with the safety of the men at the levers.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the reader may have a distinct idea of such
+a fire-engine, I shall here endeavour to give a description,
+chiefly taken from those made by W. J. Tilley,<a name="FNanchor_K_11" id="FNanchor_K_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_K_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a> fire-engine
+maker, London.</p>
+
+<p>The engravings (figs. 1 and 2) represent a fire-engine of
+7-inch barrels and 8-inch stroke.<a name="FNanchor_L_12" id="FNanchor_L_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_L_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> The cistern marked A
+is made of mahogany or oak. The upper work, B, and
+side-boxes or pockets, C, are of Baltic fir. The sole, D, upon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+which the barrels stand, and which also contains the valves,
+is of cast-iron, with covers of the same material, which
+are screwed down, and the joints made good with leather or
+india-rubber. The pieces E, at each end of the cast-iron
+sole D, are of cast brass, and screwed to the cast-iron sole
+D, with a joint the same as above. In one of these pieces
+is the screwed suction-cap F, and to the other is attached the
+air-vessel G, made of sheet-copper, and attached to the piece
+E by a screw. The exit-pipe H is attached to the under
+side of the casting E by a swivel. The valves at I are
+of brass, ground so as to be completely water-tight. The
+barrels K are of cast brass. The engine is set on four
+grasshopper springs M. The shafts or handles O, of the
+levers P, are of lancewood. The box S, under the driving
+seat, is used for keeping wrenches, cord, &amp;c.; in the fore
+part of the cistern A, and the box B above the cistern, the
+hose is kept; the branch and suction-pipes are carried in
+the side-boxes or pockets C; the rest of the tools and materials
+are kept along with the above-mentioned articles, in such
+situations as not to interfere with the working of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>The cistern is made of oak or mahogany, for strength
+and durability; but, for the sake of lightness, the upper
+work and side-boxes are made of Baltic fir, strength in
+them being of less importance.</p>
+
+<p>As the valve cannot be made without a rise for the lid to
+strike against, there is a small step at each of the valves,
+and the sole is carried through as high as this step, to admit
+of the water running off when the engine is done working.
+If constructed in a different manner, the water will lodge in
+the bottom, and produce much inconvenience in situations
+where the engine is exposed to frost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The valve-covers are of cast-iron, fastened down with
+copper screws, a piece of leather or india-rubber being placed
+between them and the upper edges of the sole.</p>
+
+<p>The pieces at each end of the sole are of cast-brass, instead
+of sheet-copper, with soft-solder joints, which are very apt
+to give way.</p>
+
+<p>The screwed suction cap with iron handle admits the
+water in two different directions, according as it is open
+or closed: the one to supply the engine when water is
+drawn from the cistern, the other for drawing water through
+the suction-pipe.</p>
+
+<p>The valves are brass plates, truly ground to fit the circular
+brass orifice on which they fall. The brass being well ground,
+no leather is used for the purpose of making them tight.
+The longer they are used the better they fit, and by having
+no leather about them they are less liable to the adhesion of
+small stones or gravel. The whole valve is put together
+and then keyed into a groove in the sides and bottom of the
+sole, left for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The barrels are of cast-brass, with a piston made of two
+circular pieces of the same metal, each put into a strong
+leather cup, and bolted to the other. The bottoms of the
+cups being together, when the piston becomes loose in the
+barrels, and there is not sufficient time to replace the cups
+by new ones, they are easily tightened by putting a layer of
+hemp round the piston between the leather and the brass.
+This operation, however, requires to be carefully performed;
+for if more hemp is put into one part than another it is apt
+to injure the barrels. The barrels are fixed to the cast-iron
+sole by copper screws, a little red lead being placed between
+the bottom flange of the barrel and the sole.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>When the engine is likely to be dragged over rough roads
+or causeways, it is of importance to have it set on springs, to
+prevent the jolting from affecting the working part of the
+engine, everything depending on that being right.</p>
+
+<p>The engines used in Paris are mounted on two wheels, the
+carriage and the engine being separate, the latter being dismounted
+from the former before it can be used. In Paris,
+where the engines are managed by a corps of regularly-trained
+firemen, this may answer well enough; but if hastily
+or carelessly dismounted by unskilful persons, the engine may
+be seriously damaged. It is also worthy of remark, that the
+proper quantity of hose, tools, &amp;c., can be more easily attached
+to and carried on a four-wheeled engine.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the men may work more easily at the
+handles, and suffer less fatigue, the engine is not higher than
+to enable them to have the levers easily under their command.
+The shafts of the levers are of lancewood, being best
+calculated to bear the strain to which they are exposed when
+the engine is at work, and they are made to fold up at each
+end for convenience in travelling.</p>
+
+<p>The air-vessel should be placed clear of any other part of
+the engine, excepting only the point where it is attached.</p>
+
+<p>The fore-carriage of the engine is fitted with a pole, and
+is made to suit the harness of coach-horses, these being, in
+large towns, more easily procured than other draught cattle;
+this can be altered, however, to suit such harness as can most
+readily be obtained. Where horses are seldom used to move
+the engines, a drag-handle is attached, by which one or two
+men are able easily to direct the progress of the engine.</p>
+
+<p>Two drag-ropes, each twenty-five feet long, of three-inch
+rope, with ten loops to each, are attached, one to each end of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+the splinter-bar, by means of which the engines are dragged;
+and to prevent the loops collapsing on the hand, they are
+partly lined with sheet-copper.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of the brass work of an engine should be of the
+best gun-metal, composed of copper and tin only. Yellow
+brass should never be used; even at first it is far inferior to
+gun-metal, and after being used for some time it gets brittle.
+The whole of the materials used in the construction of a fire-engine
+should be of the best description.</p>
+
+<p>In London for some years past a hand-pump has been
+carried with each engine. They have been found of the
+greatest service in keeping doors, windows, &amp;c., cool. They
+throw from six to eight gallons per minute, to a height of
+from thirty to forty feet, and can be used in any position.
+The idea of the hand-pumps I took from the old-fashioned
+squirt, or "hand-engine."</p>
+
+<p>When fire-engines are unserviceable it arises more frequently
+from want of care in keeping in order than from
+any damage they may have received in actual service or by
+the wearing out of the materials; so it is quite plain that
+this important part of the duty has not generally had that
+degree of attention paid to it which it deserves.</p>
+
+<p>Although an engine were to be absolutely perfect in its
+construction, if carelessly thrown aside after being brought
+home from a fire, and allowed to remain in that state till the
+next occasion, it would be in vain (especially in small towns,
+where alarms are rare) to expect to find it in a serviceable
+condition; some of the parts must have grown stiff, and if
+brought into action in this state something is likely to give
+way.</p>
+
+<p>When an engine is brought back from a fire, it ought to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>
+be immediately washed, the cistern cleaned out, the barrels
+and journals cleaned and fresh oil put on them, the wheels
+greased, and every part of the engine carefully cleaned and
+examined, and if any repairs are needed they should be
+executed immediately. When all this has been attended to
+clean hose should be put in, and the engine is again fit for
+immediate service. Besides this cleaning and examination
+after use, the engine ought to be examined and the brass part
+cleaned once a week, and worked with water once a month
+whether it has been used or not.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the keeping of the engine always in an
+effective state, this attention has the advantage of reminding
+the men of their duty, and making them familiar with every
+part of the mechanism of the engine; thus teaching them
+effectually how the engines ought to be protected when at
+work, by enabling them to discover those parts most liable to
+be damaged, and to which part damage is the most dangerous.
+It is more troublesome generally to get the engines well kept
+when there are no fires, than when there are many. But the
+only effectual method of inducing the men to keep them in
+good order, in addition to the moral stimulants of censure
+and applause, is to fine those who have the charge of them
+for the slightest neglect.</p>
+
+<p>When the engine has been properly placed, before
+beginning to work the fore-carriage should be locked. This
+is done by putting an iron pin through a piece of wood
+attached to the cistern, into the fore-carriage. This prevents
+the wheels from turning round, and coming under the shafts,
+by which the latter might be damaged, and the hands of the
+men at work injured.</p>
+
+<p>Small stones, gravel, and other obstructions, sometimes find<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>
+their way into the nozzle of the branch-pipe, from having
+dropped into the hose before being attached, or having been
+drawn through the suction-pipe or from the cistern. Whenever
+the engine is found to work stiffly, it should be stopped
+and examined, otherwise the pressure may burst the hose, or
+damage some part of the engine. If anything impedes the
+action of the valves the pistons must be drawn, and if a
+person's hand be then introduced they may easily be cleared&mdash;constant
+care and attention to all the minuti&aelig; of the
+engine and apparatus being absolutely indispensable, if
+effective service be expected from them.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable attention ought to be paid to the selecting a
+proper situation for an engine-house. Generally speaking, it
+ought to be central, and on the highest ground of the district
+it is meant to protect, and care should be taken to observe
+when any of the streets leading from it are impassable.</p>
+
+<p>If, in addition to these advantages, the engine-house can
+be had adjoining to a police watch-house, it may be considered
+nearly perfect, in so far as regards situation. These
+advantages being all attained, the engine can be conveyed to
+any particular spot by a comparatively small number of men,
+while the vicinity of a police watch-house affords a facility of
+communicating the alarm of fire to the firemen not to be
+obtained otherwise. When the engine-house is placed in a
+low situation the men who first arrive must wait till the
+others come forward to assist them to drag the engine up the
+ascent, and many minutes must thus be lost at a time when
+moments are important.</p>
+
+<p>After choosing a proper situation for the engine-house, the
+next care should be directed towards having it properly ventilated,
+as nothing contributes more to the proper keeping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+of the engines and hose than fresh and dry air. For this
+purpose a stove should be fitted up, by which the temperature
+may be kept equal. When engines are exposed to
+violent alternations of heat and cold, they will be found to
+operate very considerably on the account for repairs, besides
+occasioning the danger of the engine being frozen and unserviceable
+when wanted.</p>
+
+<p>There ought to be at least half a dozen keys for each
+engine-house, which should be kept by the firemen, watchmen,
+and those connected with the establishment, that the
+necessity of breaking open the door may not occur.</p>
+
+
+<h4>DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH ENGINE IS
+PROVIDED.</h4>
+
+<p>Having considered the sort of fire-engine which is best
+adapted for general purposes, I shall now notice the different
+articles which, in London, are always attached to, and accompany,
+each engine of this kind:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul>
+<li>7 coils of hose, 40 feet each.</li>
+<li>4 bundles of sheepskin and lay-cord.</li>
+<li>4 lengths of suction-pipe, each between 6 and 7 feet long.</li>
+<li>2 branch pipes.</li>
+<li>3 jet pipes or nozzles and an elbow for jet.</li>
+<li>3 wrenches for coupling-joints.</li>
+<li>2 lamps.</li>
+<li>2 lengths of scaling ladder.</li>
+<li>1 fire-hook.</li>
+<li>60 feet of patent line, and 20 feet of trace line.</li>
+<li>1 mattock.</li>
+<li>1 shovel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span></li>
+<li>1 hatchet or pole-axe.</li>
+<li>1 saw.</li>
+<li>1 iron crow-bar.</li>
+<li>1 portable cistern.</li>
+<li>1 flat suction strainer.</li>
+<li>1 standcock, and hook for street plugs.</li>
+<li>1 screw wrench.</li>
+<li>1 canvas sheet with 10 or 12 rope handles round its edges.</li>
+<li>9 canvas buckets.</li>
+<li>1 hand-pump with 10 feet of hose and jet pipe.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>Of these articles I shall endeavour to give a description as
+they stand in the above list.</p>
+
+<p>The article of hose being first in order, as well as importance,
+merits particular attention.</p>
+
+<p>The sort used is leather, made with copper rivets, and is by
+far the most serviceable and durable hose that I have yet
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>Manufacturers of this article, however, for a very obvious
+reason, are not always careful to select that part of the hide
+which, being firmest, is best adapted for the purpose. Indeed,
+I have known several instances wherein nearly the
+whole hide has been cut up and made into hose, without any
+selection whatever. The effect of this is very prejudicial.
+The loose parts of the hide soon stretch and weaken, and
+while, by stretching, the diameter of the pipe is increased,
+the pressure of the water, in consequence, becomes greater
+on that than on any other part of the hose, which is thereby
+rendered more liable to give way at such places.</p>
+
+<p>Hose are frequently made narrow in the middle, and, in
+order to fit the coupling-joints, wide at the extremities&mdash;a
+practice which lessens their capability of conveying a given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+quantity of water, in proportion to the difference of the
+area of the section of the diameters at the extremity and
+the middle part.</p>
+
+<p>In order to make them fit the coupling-joints, when carelessly
+widened too much, I have frequently seen them stuffed
+up with brown paper, and in that case they almost invariably
+give way, the folds of the paper destroying the hold which
+the leather would otherwise have of the ridges made on the
+ends of the coupling-joints.</p>
+
+<p>In order to avoid all these faults and defects, the riveted
+hose used are made in the following manner:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The leather is nine and five-eighths inches broad (that
+being the breadth required for coupling-joints of two and a
+half inches diameter of clear water-way), and levelled to the
+proper uniform thickness. The leather used is taken from
+hides of the very best description, perfectly free from flesh-cuts,
+warble-holes, or any other blemish, and stuffed as high
+as possible.<a name="FNanchor_M_13" id="FNanchor_M_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_M_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a> Not more than four breadths are taken from
+each hide, and none of the soft parts about the neck,
+shoulders, or belly are used. No piece of leather is less than
+four feet long.</p>
+
+<p>The leather is gauged to the exact breadth, and holes
+punched in it for the rivets. In the operation of punching,
+great care must be taken to make the holes on each side of
+the leather exactly opposite to each other. If this precaution
+be not attended to, the seam when riveted takes a
+spiral direction on the hose, which the heads of the rivets
+are very apt to cut at the folds. Care must also be taken
+that the leather is equally stretched on both sides, otherwise<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+the number of holes on the opposite sides may be unequal.
+The ends are then cut at an angle of thirty-seven degrees;
+if cut at a greater angle, the cross-joint will be too short,
+and if at a smaller, the leather will be wasted. This must,
+however, be regulated in some degree by the number of holes
+in the cross-joint, as the angle must be altered a little if the
+holes at that part do not fit exactly with the holes along the
+side.</p>
+
+<p>The different pieces of leather necessary to form one
+length, or forty feet of hose, are riveted together by the
+ends.</p>
+
+<p>Straps of leather, three inches broad, are then riveted
+across the pipe, ten feet apart, to form loops for the purpose
+of handing or making fast the hose when full of water. The
+leather is then laid along a bench, and a bar of iron, from
+eight to ten feet long, three inches broad, and one inch thick,
+with the corners rounded off, is laid above it. The rivets
+are next put into the holes on one side of the leather, along
+the whole length of the iron bar. The holes on the other
+side are then brought over them, and the washers put on the
+points of the rivets, and struck down with a hollow punch.
+The points of the rivets are then riveted down over the
+washers, and finished with a setting punch. The bar of iron
+is drawn along, and the same operation repeated till the
+length of the hose be finished.</p>
+
+<p>The rivets and washers should be made of the best
+wrought copper, and must be well tinned before being
+used.</p>
+
+<p>Some objections have been made to riveted hose on account
+of the alleged difficulty of repairing them; but this is not
+so serious a matter as may at first view appear. Indeed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+they very seldom require any repairs, and when they do, the
+process is not difficult. If any of the rivets be damaged, as
+many must be taken out as will make room for the free
+admission of the hand. A small flat mandrel being introduced
+into the hose, the new rivets are put into the leather,
+and riveted up the same as new pipe; the mandrel is then
+shaken out at the end.</p>
+
+<p>If the leather be damaged, it may be repaired either by
+cutting out the piece, and making a new joint, or by riveting
+a piece of leather upon the hole.</p>
+
+<p>The manner of attaching the hose to the coupling-joint
+is also a matter of very considerable importance. If a joint
+come off when the engine is in operation, a whole length of
+hose is rendered useless for the time, and a considerable
+delay incurred in getting it detached, and another substituted.</p>
+
+<p>To prevent this, the hose ought to fit as tightly as possible
+to the coupling-joint, without any packing. In riveted
+hose, a piece of leather, thinned down to the proper size,
+should be put on to make up the void which the thick edge
+of the leather next the rivet necessarily leaves; the hose
+should then be tied to the coupling-joint as firmly as possible
+with the best annealed copper wire, No. 16 gauge.</p>
+
+<p>When the hose are completely finished in this manner
+they are proved by a proving-pump, and if they stand a
+pressure of two hundred feet of water they are considered
+fit for service. I may also add, that when any piece of
+hose has been under repair it is proved in the same manner
+before it is deemed trustworthy.</p>
+
+<p>The proving of the hose is of very considerable importance,
+and the method of doing so which I have mentioned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+is greatly superior to the old plan of proving them on an
+engine or fire-cock. By the latter method, no certain measure
+can be obtained by which the pressure can be calculated.
+In the first place it must depend on the relative height of
+the reservoir from whence the water is obtained and that of
+the fire-cock where the experiment is made; and as the
+supply of water drawn from the pipes by the inhabitants
+may be different on different days of the week and even in
+different hours of the day, it is quite evident that by this
+method no certain rule can be formed for the purpose required,
+the pressure being affected by the quantity of water
+drawn at the time.</p>
+
+<p>The method of proving by an engine is considerably better
+than this; but when a proving-pump can be obtained it is
+infinitely better than either. One disadvantage of an engine
+is, that it requires a considerable number of men; but even
+the proof, that of throwing the water to a given height on
+the gable of a house or other height, is not always a test of
+the sufficiency of the hose. As the temperature is low or
+high, the wind fresh or light, the degree of pressure on the
+hose in throwing the water to the required height will be
+greater or less. Indeed, in high winds it is a matter of extreme
+difficulty to throw the water to any considerable
+height.</p>
+
+<p>With an engine of 7-inch barrels and 7-inch stroke, fitted
+with eighty feet of 2-3/8-inch hose, I have found from several
+experiments that when the water is thrown seventy-five feet
+high, the pressure on the hose is equal to one hundred feet.
+The same engine, with 160 feet of hose, and the branch-pipe
+raised fifty feet above the level of the engine, when the water
+was thrown fifty-six feet from the branch, occasioned a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+pressure equal to 130 feet on the hose. From these experiments,
+I am convinced that the pressure will not be equal
+to 200 feet, except in very extreme cases, or when some
+obstacle gets into the jet pipe.</p>
+
+<p>I tried the extreme strength of a piece of riveted hose
+4 feet long and 2-3/8 inches diameter, and found that it did
+not burst till the pressure increased to 500 feet; and when
+it gave way the leather was fairly torn along the rivet-holes.</p>
+
+<p>Every possible care should be taken to keep the hose soft
+and pliable, and to prevent its being affected by mildew.
+After being used, in order to dry them equally they should
+be hung up by the centre, with the two ends hanging down,
+until half dry. They should then be taken down and
+rubbed over with a composition of bees'-wax, tallow, and
+neats-foot oil,<a name="FNanchor_N_14" id="FNanchor_N_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_N_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> and again hung up to allow the grease to sink
+into the leather. When the hose appear to be dry they should
+be a second time rubbed with the composition, and then
+coiled up for use. In order that the hose undergoing the
+operation of greasing may not be disturbed or used till in a
+fit state, it is better to have a double set, and in this way,
+while one set is in grease the other is in the engine ready
+and fit for service. More time can also be taken for any
+repairs which may be necessary, and they will in consequence
+be more carefully done, and at fires where a great
+length of hose is required the spare set will always be
+available. When the weather is damp, and the hose cannot
+be dried so as to be fit for greasing in two or three days, a
+stove should be put into the room in order to facilitate the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>
+process. The greatest care, however, must be taken in the
+use of artificial heat. The whole apartment should be kept
+of one equal temperature, which ought never to be higher
+than is requisite to dry the hose for greasing in about forty
+hours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coupling-joints.</i><a name="FNanchor_O_15" id="FNanchor_O_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_O_15" class="fnanchor">[O]</a>&mdash;So much of the efficiency and duration
+of the hose depend on the proper form given to the brass
+coupling-joints, that I deem it useful to give a detailed
+description, both of those generally made use of and of those
+adopted by the Edinburgh fire-establishment, and also to
+point out their various defects and advantages.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig_3" id="fig_3"></a>
+<img src="images/image140.png" width="600" height="350" alt="Fig. 3. Old Coupling" title="Fig. 3. Old Coupling" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3. Old Coupling</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 3 is the construction commonly made by engine-makers.
+Its defects are as follows:&mdash;From the form of the
+furrows and ridges where the leather is tied it does not hold
+on well against a force tending to pull the hose off end-ways;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+screw-nails are therefore often employed, as at A, to
+secure the hose on the brass. The points of these nails
+always protrude more or less into the inside of the joint,
+and materially impede the current of water. The mouths
+of the joints are also turned outwards, and form a shoulder,
+as at B. The intention of this is probably to assist in
+securing the leather in its place, and to prevent the lapping
+from slipping. The effects of it are as follows:&mdash;First, from
+the leather being strained over this projection, it becomes
+liable to be cut by every accidental injury, and very soon
+cracks and gives way, when a portion must be cut off and a
+fresh fixing made; second, the leather being stretched over
+the projection, does not fit the other part of the joint, and
+must be loose or filled up with pieces of leather, or, as is
+sometimes done, with brown paper; third, the irregularity
+of the calibre of the conduit which this shoulder occasions
+diminishes the performance of the engine.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig_4" id="fig_4"></a>
+<img src="images/image141.png" width="600" height="303" alt="Fig. 4. New Coupling" title="Fig. 4. New Coupling" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4. New Coupling</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 4 is the coupling-joint adopted in Edinburgh. The
+furrows at the tying place are shallow, but their edges<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+present a powerful obstacle to the slipping of the leather.
+No screw-nails are employed, nor is there any shoulder, as at
+B; there is therefore no impediment to or variation in the
+velocity of the current, as the calibres of the coupling joints
+and of the hose are so nearly uniform. It will be seen also
+that as the lapping projects above the leather this latter can
+never be injured by falls or rubbing on the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Another great advantage attending the joints used here
+is the manner in which their screws are finished. On
+examining the figure minutely, it will be observed that the
+male-screw ends in a cylinder of the diameter of the <i>bottom</i>
+of its thread, consequently of the diameter of the top of the
+thread of the female-screw. The effect of this is, that, when
+the screws are brought together, the cylindric portion serves
+as a guide to the threads, and the most inexperienced person
+cannot fail to make them catch fair at the first trial. The
+advantage of this in the circumstances attending fires is
+obvious.</p>
+
+<p>These joints, although requiring three or four turns to
+close them up, yet as it is only the ring D which requires to
+be turned, it can easily be done with the hand alone without
+the use of wrenches. Although, when the whole length of
+hose has been jointed, it may be as well to send a man with
+a pair of wrenches to set the joints firm; this, however, is
+by no means absolutely necessary; if the joints are kept
+in proper order a man can secure them sufficiently with
+the hand.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a facility in taking turns out of the hose,
+which no other but a swivel joint affords. By slackening a
+single turn any twist may be taken out, without undoing
+the joint or stopping the engine, while, from the number of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+turns required to close the joints, there is no chance of the
+screw being by any accident undone. In order to prevent
+the threads from being easily damaged, they should be of a
+pretty large size, not more than five or six to the inch. For
+the same reason also the thread should be a little rounded.</p>
+
+<p>As it sometimes happens that the screws are damaged by
+falling on the street, or by heavy bodies striking them,
+whenever the hose have been used the joints should be tried
+by a steel gauge-screw, to be kept for that purpose. This
+ought to be particularly attended to, as, on arriving at a
+fire, it is rather an awkward time to discover that a joint
+has been damaged, while the delay thus occasioned may be
+attended with very serious consequences.</p>
+
+<p><i>Four Bundles of Sheepskin and Lay-cord.</i>&mdash;These are simply
+four or five stripes of sheepskin, each about three or four
+inches broad. When a leak occurs in a length of hose
+which cannot be easily replaced at the time, one or more
+pieces of sheepskin are wrapt tightly over the leak and tied
+firmly with a piece of cord. This is but an indifferent
+method of mending, but I do not know of any other which
+can be so readily applied with the same effect. If another
+length of hose can be substituted for the leaky one it is
+better to do so; but that is not always at hand, nor does it
+always happen that time can be spared for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Four Lengths of Suction-pipe.</i>&mdash;These are generally made
+of leather, riveted tightly over a spiral worm of hoop-iron,
+about three-quarters of an inch broad, a piece of tarred
+canvas being placed between the worm and the leather.
+They are usually made from six to eight feet long, with a
+copper strainer screwed on the farther end, to prevent as
+much as possible any mud or dirt from getting into the engine<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+with the water. It is of advantage to carry four lengths of
+suction-pipe, as they can be joined to reach the water; if
+one is damaged the others will still be serviceable.</p>
+
+<p>The suction-pipes are more troublesome to rivet than the
+common hose, and are done in the following manner:&mdash;After
+the joints are fixed on the spiral worm, and it is
+covered with the tarred canvas, an iron mandrel longer than
+the worm is put through it, the edge being rounded to the
+circle of the inside of the worm. The projecting ends of the
+mandrel are supported to allow the worm to lie quite clear.
+One end of the mandrel has a check, that the brass joint
+may not prevent the worm from lying flat on the mandrel.
+The leather is then put over the worm, and the rivets being
+put into one side, a small thin mandrel is laid over the
+canvas and the rivets struck down upon it. If the small
+mandrel be not used the heads of the rivets are apt to lie
+unequally on the worm.</p>
+
+<p><i>Three Wrenches for Coupling-joints.</i>&mdash;These are for tightening
+the coupling-joints, when that cannot be sufficiently
+done by hand. When the hose are all put together a man
+is sent along the whole line with a pair of wrenches to
+tighten such of the coupling-joints as require it. The
+wrenches are generally made with a hole to fit the knob on
+the coupling-joint, and, when used, are placed, one on the
+nob of the male and another on the nob of the female-screw,
+so as to pull them in opposite directions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Two Branch Pipes.</i>&mdash;These are taper copper tubes, having
+a female-screw at one end to fit the coupling-joints of the
+hose, and a male-screw at the other to receive the jet pipes,
+one is 4 feet long to use from the outside of a house on fire,
+the other 12 inches for inside work.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><i>Three Jet-pipes</i> or nozzles of various sizes made to screw
+on the end of the branch pipe.</p>
+
+<p>A great many different shapes of jet have been tried, and
+that shown in Fig. 5, I found to answer best when tried
+with other forms. The old jet was a continuation in a
+straight line of the taper of the branch, from the size of the
+hose-screw, to the end of the jet-pipe; this had many inconveniences;
+the size of the jet could not be increased
+without making the jet-pipe nearly parallel. As the
+branches were sometimes 7 feet or 8 feet long, in some
+instances the orifice at the end of the jet-pipe was larger
+than that at the end of the branch. The present form of
+the jet completely obviates this difficulty, as the end of the
+branch is always 1-1/2 inches diameter.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig_5" id="fig_5"></a>
+<img src="images/image145.png" width="600" height="208" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>The curve of the nozzle of the present jet is determined
+by its own size; five times one-half of the difference between
+the jet to be made and the end of the branch, is set up on
+each side of the diameter of the upper end of the branch, a
+straight line is then drawn across, and an arc of a circle
+described on this line, from the extremity of each end of
+the diameter of the jet, until it meets the top of the branch;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+the jet is then continued parallel, the length of its own
+diameter; the metal is continued one-eighth of an inch
+above this, to allow of a hollow being turned out to protect
+the edge: The rule for determining the size of the jet for
+inside work is, to "make the diameter of the jet one-eighth
+of an inch for every inch in the diameter of the cylinder,
+for each 8 inches of stroke." The branch used in this case
+is the same size as shown in Fig. 5. When it is necessary
+to throw the water to a greater height, or distance, a jet
+one-seventh less in area is used, with a branch from 4 feet to
+5 feet long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Two Lengths of Scaling Ladders.</i>&mdash;These are 6-1/2 feet long,
+and are fitted with sockets so that any number up to 7 or
+8 may be joined together to form one ladder varying in
+length according to circumstances from 6-1/2 to upwards of
+40 feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Fire-hook.</i>&mdash;This is similar to a common boat-hook,
+of such length as may be most convenient to strap on the
+handles of the engine. It is used for pulling down ceilings,
+and taking out deafening-boards when the fire happens to
+be between the ceiling and the floor above. It is
+also used when a strong door is to be broken open.
+It is placed with the point upon the door, one or two
+men bearing upon it, while another striking the door, the
+whole force of the blows is made to fall upon the lock
+or other fastening, which generally yields without much
+difficulty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixty Feet of Patent Line and Twenty Feet of Trace
+Line.</i>&mdash;These are generally used for hoisting the hose into
+the windows of the house, in which there is a fire, the stairs
+being sometimes so crowded with people and furniture, that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+it is difficult to force a passage, and when the pipe is laid
+in the stair, it is liable to be damaged by people treading
+on it.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Mattock and Shovel.</i>&mdash;These are useful in damming
+any running water or gutter, uncovering drains, &amp;c., from
+which the engine may be supplied with water. The mattock
+should be short and strong, and the shovel of the sort called
+diamond-pointed.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Hatchet.</i>&mdash;The most serviceable hatchet for a fire-engine,
+is similar to that used as a felling axe by wood-cutters.
+The back part is made large that it may be conveniently
+used as a hammer.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Saw.</i>&mdash;This should be a stout cross-cut saw, very
+widely set. It is useful in cutting off the communication
+between one house and another, which, when water is scarce,
+is sometimes necessary.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Iron Crow-bar.</i>&mdash;This should be about two feet
+long. It is used in opening doors, breaking through
+walls, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Portable Cistern.</i><a name="FNanchor_P_16" id="FNanchor_P_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_P_16" class="fnanchor">[P]</a>&mdash;This is made of canvas on a folding
+iron frame, and is used in London placed over the street-fire
+plugs, a hole is left in the bottom through which the
+water enters and fills the cistern, the escape between the
+canvas and the plug box being trifling. Two and sometimes
+three engines are worked by suction-pipe from one plug in
+this manner. The portable cistern is also used when the
+engine is supplied by suction, from water conveyed in carts
+or buckets, and is greatly preferable to any plan of emptying
+the water directly into the engine. By this latter method<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+there is always a considerable waste of water, arising both from
+the height of the engine, and the working of the handles;
+and, in addition to these objections only one person can pour
+in water at a time. When the water is poured into the
+engine from carts, it must stop working till the cart is
+emptied. All these objections, are in a great measure removed
+by placing the portable cistern clear of the engine;
+when used in this manner there must of course be no hole
+in the bottom.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Flat Suction Strainer</i>, made to screw on to the suction
+pipe, to prevent anything being drawn in that would not
+pass through the jet-pipe, and made flat, with no holes in the
+upper surface, for use in the portable cistern.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Standcock</i>, with stem to insert direct in the fire-plug,
+and used principally with hose to throw a jet for cooling
+ruins.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Canvas Sheet.</i>&mdash;This, when stretched out and held
+securely by several men, may be jumped into from the
+window of a house on fire with comparative safety.</p>
+
+<p><i>One Hand-pump</i>, as described at page <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, and used with
+the canvas buckets.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>FIRE ANNIHILATOR</h3>
+
+<p>With regard to the Fire Annihilator, I have seen several
+experiments with this machine, and heard of more which
+were not successful; and if an invention fails when experiments
+are tried, it is open to the impression that it might
+fail when brought into active operation. There have also
+been many cases where these machines have met with accidents,
+one at Drury Lane Theatre amongst the number.</p>
+
+<p>Water, properly applied, will do whatever the Annihilator
+can accomplish, and also many things which the latter cannot
+do. As it is, there are some forty or fifty different articles
+to carry with each fire-engine, and to add to them such unwieldy
+things as Fire Annihilators, would be to encumber
+the men more than they are at present, with a very doubtful
+prospect of advantage.</p>
+
+
+
+<h3><a name="WATER_SUPPLY" id="WATER_SUPPLY"></a>WATER SUPPLY.</h3>
+
+<p>The supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions
+towards extinguishing fire. Where the pressure is
+sufficient, and the mains large enough, by far the most
+efficient and economical mode of using the water is to attach
+the hose directly to the mains.</p>
+
+<p>In London, however, this can rarely be done, for several
+reasons. The greatest number of plugs are on the service
+pipes, that is, the pipes for supplying water for domestic
+and other purposes, which are only open a short time
+every day. If the cisterns are nearly empty, the pressure
+cannot be obtained till they are filled. Then, again, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>
+plugs being some distance apart, it is difficult to obtain
+a sufficient number of jets. But when the plugs are full
+open 1-3/4 diameter, a sufficient quantity of water is obtained
+from each to supply three engines, each of which
+will give a jet equal to the plug if confined to one jet.
+The pressure also in the mains in London seldom exceeds
+120 feet at the utmost. For these reasons the pressure
+from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked,
+when the ruins are cooled by the "dummies," as the jets
+from the mains are named by the firemen.</p>
+
+<p>If water can be obtained at an elevation, pipes with
+plugs or firecocks on them, are preferable to any other
+mode at present in use for the supply of fire-engines.
+The size of the pipes will depend on the distance and
+elevation of the head, and also on the size of the buildings
+to be protected. It may be assumed as a general rule,
+that the intensity of a fire depends, in a great measure,
+on the cubic content of the building; distinction being
+made as to the nature and contents of such building. If
+no natural elevation of water can be made available, and
+the premises are of much value, it may be found advisable
+to erect elevated tanks; where this is done, the
+quantity of water to be kept ready, and the rate at which
+it is delivered, must depend on the means possessed of
+making use of the water.</p>
+
+<p>The average size of fire-engines may be taken at two
+cylinders of 7 inches diameter, with a length of stroke of
+8 inches, making forty strokes each per minute. This sized
+engine will throw 141 tons of water in six hours, and
+allowing one-fourth for waste, 176 tons would be a fair
+provision in the tanks for six hours' work; this quantity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+multiplied by the number of engines within reach, will give
+an idea of what is likely to be required at a large fire. If,
+however, there are steam-engines to keep up the supply
+through the mains, the quantity of water kept in readiness
+may be reduced to two hours' consumption, as it is likely
+that the steam-engines would be at work before that
+quantity was exhausted. This is what may be supposed to
+be required, in cases of serious fires in dockyards, in large
+stacks of warehouses, or in large manufactories.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 404px;">
+<a name="fig_6" id="fig_6"></a>
+<img src="images/image151.jpg" width="404" height="500" alt="Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe." title="Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe." />
+<span class="caption">Fig 6. Opening for Suction-pipe.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>Where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises,
+such as from rivers, canals, &amp;c., if it is not thought
+prudent to erect elevated tanks, the water may be conducted
+under the surface by large cast-iron pipes, with openings at
+such distances as may seem advisable for introducing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+suction-pipes (Fig. 6). This plan should not be adopted
+where the level of the water is more than 12 feet below the
+surface of the ground, as although a fire-engine will, if perfectly
+tight, draw from a much greater depth than 14 feet
+(2 feet being allowed for the height of the engine), still a
+very trifling leakage will render it useless for the time, at
+such a depth.</p>
+
+<p>The worst mode of supplying engines with water is by
+covered sunk tanks; they are generally too small, and unless
+very numerous, confine the engines to one or two particular
+spots, obliging the firemen to increase the length of the hose
+which materially diminishes the effect of the fire-engine. If
+the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir, it would be
+much better to save the expense of the tank, and to place
+plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe. Another evil in sunk
+tanks is, that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity
+of water they may depend upon, and they may thus be
+induced to attempt to stop a fire, at a point they would not
+have thought of if they had known correctly the quantity
+of water in store.</p>
+
+<p>Where sunk tanks are already constructed, they may be
+rendered more available by a partial use of the method shown
+in Fig. 6.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Memoranda of Experiments tried on the mains and service
+pipes of the Southwark Water Company, between 4 and 9</i>
+<span class="smcap">A.M.</span> <i>of the 31st January, 1844. The wind blowing fresh
+from N.N.W.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>The pressure at the water-works at Battersea was kept at
+120 feet during the experiments, and every service pipe or
+other outlet was kept shut.</p>
+
+<p><i>1st Experiment.</i>&mdash;Six standcocks, with one length of 2-1/2
+inches riveted leather hose 40 feet long, and one copper
+branch 4 feet to 5 feet long, with a jet 7/8 inch in diameter on
+each, were placed in six plugs on a main 7 inches diameter,
+in Union-street, between High-Street, Borough, and Gravel-lane,
+Southwark, at distances of about 120 yards apart. The
+water was brought from the head at Battersea, by 4250
+yards of iron pipes 20 inches diameter, 550 yards of 15 inches
+diameter, and 500 yards of 9 inches diameter.</p>
+
+<p>1st. One standcock was opened, which gave a jet of 50
+feet in height, and delivered 100 gallons per minute.</p>
+
+<p>With four lengths of hose the jet was 40 feet high, and
+the delivery 92 gallons per minute. When the branch and
+jet were taken off with one length of hose the delivery was
+260 gallons per minute.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the jet
+from the first was 45 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. The third standcock was opened, and the jet from the
+first 40 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>4th. The fourth standcock being opened, the first gave a
+jet of 35 feet high.</p>
+
+<p>5th. The fifth being opened, the first gave a jet of 30 feet
+high.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>6th. All the six being opened, the first gave a jet of 27
+feet in height.</p>
+
+<p><i>2nd Experiment.</i>&mdash;Six standcocks were then put into
+plugs, on a main 9 inches diameter in Tooley-Street, the
+extreme distance being 450 yards, with hose and jets as in
+the first experiment. The water was brought from the head
+at Battersea by 4250 yards of iron pipes of 20 inches
+diameter, 1000 yards of 15 inches diameter, 1400 yards of 9
+inches diameter. The weather was nearly the same, but the
+place of experiment was more protected from the wind than
+in Union-street.</p>
+
+<p>1st. With one standcock open, a jet 60 feet in height
+was produced, and 107 gallons per minute were delivered.</p>
+
+<p>2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the
+difference in the first jet was barely perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. Other two standcocks being opened, the first jet was
+reduced to 45 feet in height, and the delivery to 92 gallons
+per minute.</p>
+
+<p>4th. All the six standcocks being opened, the first jet was
+further reduced to 40 feet high, and the delivery to 76 gallons
+per minute.</p>
+
+<p><i>3rd Experiment.</i>&mdash;Two standcocks, with hose, &amp;c., as in
+the first experiment, were then put into a service-pipe, 4
+inches diameter and 200 yards long, in Tooley-street, the
+service-pipe was connected with 200 yards of main 5 inches
+diameter, branching from the main of 9 inches diameter.
+The weather was still the same as at first, but the wind did
+not appear to affect the jets, owing to the buildings all round
+being so much higher than the jet.</p>
+
+<p>1st. The standcock nearest the larger main was opened,
+and a jet of 40 feet high was produced, delivering 82 gallons
+per minute.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2nd. Both standcocks being opened, the first gave a jet
+of 31 feet, and delivered 68 gallons per minute.</p>
+
+<p>3rd. The standcock farthest from the large main only
+being opened, gave a jet of 34 feet, and delivered 74 gallons
+per minute.</p>
+
+<p>4th. Both standcocks being opened, the farthest one gave
+a jet of 23 feet, and delivered 58 gallons per minute.</p>
+
+<p>When both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without
+hose, the water from that nearest the large main, rose
+about 18 inches, and the farther one about 1 inch above
+the plug-box.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 518px;">
+<a name="fig_7" id="fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/image155.jpg" width="518" height="500" alt="Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug." title="Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7. Common Fire-plug.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>These and other experiments prove the necessity of
+placing the plugs on the mains, and not on the service pipes,
+where there are mains in the street.</p>
+
+<p>The different modes of obtaining water from the mains or
+pipes are shown in the accompanying drawings.</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 7) is a section of a common plug when not in use.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 537px;">
+<a name="fig_8" id="fig_8"></a>
+<img src="images/image156.png" width="537" height="500" alt="Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern." title="Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 8) is a section of the common plug, with a canvas
+dam or cistern over it, as used in London. The cistern is
+made of No. 1 canvas, 15 inches deep, extended at top and
+bottom by 5/8-inch round iron frames, a double stay is hinged
+on the top frame at each end. When the cistern is used
+the top frame is lifted up, and the stays put into the notches,
+in two pieces of hoop iron, fixed to the bottom frame.
+There is a circular opening 9 inches diameter in the canvas
+bottom, two circular rings of wash-leather, about 2 inches
+broad, are attached to the edges of the opening in the canvas,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+so as to contract it to 4 inches or 5 inches diameter; the
+plug being opened, the cistern is placed over it; the wash-leather
+is pressed down to the surface of the road by the
+water, and a tolerably water-tight cistern, with about 12
+inches or 14 inches of water in it, is immediately obtained.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 318px;">
+<a name="fig_9" id="fig_9"></a>
+<img src="images/image157.png" width="318" height="500" alt="Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock." title="Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9. Plug, with Standcock.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 9) is a plug with a standcock in it, to which hose
+may be attached.</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 10) is a common single firecock with a round water-way
+2-1/2 inches diameter.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig_10" id="fig_10"></a>
+<img src="images/image158a.png" width="500" height="389" alt="Fig. 10. Single Firecock." title="Fig. 10. Single Firecock." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10. Single Firecock.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 11) is a double firecock, as laid down in Her
+Majesty's Dockyards.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig_11" id="fig_11"></a>
+<img src="images/image158b.png" width="500" height="311" alt="Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards." title="Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards.</span>
+</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>It will be observed, that the short piece of pipe between
+the main and this firecock is not curved to the
+current of the water, but merely opened a little; this is
+done with a view of increasing the supply by steam power,
+and as the steam engines are, in most cases, situated in a
+different direction from the tanks or reservoirs, therefore
+the curve that would have assisted the current in one
+direction would have retarded it in the other. It has been
+objected to these firecocks, that the opening does not run
+through the centre of the key, therefore only one side of the
+key covers the opening in the barrel, while in the common
+firecock both sides are covered.</p>
+
+<p class="figcenter" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig_12" id="fig_12"></a>
+<img src="images/image159.png" width="600" height="388" alt="Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum." title="Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum.</span>
+</p>
+
+<p>(Fig. 12) is a double firecock, as laid down at the British
+Museum.</p>
+
+<p>This has a very good delivery, and is certain to be always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+tight, if well made, as the pressure of the water forces the
+key into the barrel; this also renders the cock somewhat
+difficult to be opened and shut, if the pressure be great; but
+as a lever of any length may be used, and the key, from its
+perpendicular position, may be loosened by a blow, this objection
+is in a great measure obviated.</p>
+
+<p>In Figs. 10 and 11 the openings in the street are large
+enough to admit of the levers for opening the cock to be
+fixed, that no mistake may occur from the lever being mislaid;
+but with those at the British Museum, it was not
+thought necessary to have fixed levers, as a crow-bar, or
+anything that could be introduced into the eye of the
+spanner, would open them.</p>
+
+<p>The plug and firecock have both certain advantages and
+disadvantages, which are now described.</p>
+
+<p>The plug, with a canvas cistern, is the easiest mode of
+obtaining water; the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone,
+is no annoyance in the street, and the water has
+only one angle to turn before it is delivered.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, where the supply of water is limited,
+the plugs give but little command of it; there is, however,
+comparatively very small loss at a large fire in London from
+this cause, as it is very seldom that all the fire-engines can
+be supplied direct from the plugs, and those that arrive late
+must pick up the waste water as they best can, by using
+another description of canvas dam, or opening the street;
+but in enclosed premises, especially where the water is kept
+for the purpose of extinguishing fires, firecocks are much
+to be preferred. It is very difficult to insert the standcock
+into a plug if there is a considerable force of water, and if
+the paving has moved, it cannot be done without raising the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>
+plug-box; but this is, however, the easiest mode of using
+firecocks, and where there is a considerable pressure of
+water, if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a
+hose-reel and branch-pipe, they can, in enclosed premises,
+direct a jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared,
+and if they cannot reach the fire, they will have water
+ready for the engine when it arrives.</p>
+
+<p>Inclosed premises are particularly mentioned, because the
+principal duty of the watchmen, in these cases, is to guard
+against fire, and their other duties being comparatively few,
+the men are not often changed, and they can be instructed
+thoroughly in the matter. With the general police of the
+metropolis it is quite different, their duties are so numerous
+and varied, that to add that of firemen to them would only
+be to confuse them.</p>
+
+<p>Firecocks, if kept at 9 inches to 12 inches below the surface,
+are easily protected from frost, by stuffing the opening
+with straw.</p>
+
+<p>The advantage which the double firecocks have over the
+single ones, is merely the increased water-way, as a firecock
+3-1/2 inches diameter could not be so easily opened or shut, as
+two cocks of 2-1/2 inches diameter.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest objections to firecocks, is the very
+large openings required in the streets, the first cost and the
+repair of which are both considerable, besides their liability
+to accident. To take them to the footpath, increases the
+expenses and diminishes the supply of water, as it is generally
+done with a small pipe, and the number of angles is increased.
+In some instances, where firecocks have been put
+down on one side of the street, no less than four right angles
+have been made in the course of the water; and if the fire<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the
+firecock, the thoroughfare must be stopped. The expense
+also is no slight consideration, for if laid along with the
+water-pipes, each firecock, if properly laid, and the pit built
+round with cement, will cost eight or ten times as much as a
+plug.</p>
+
+<p>London is, upon the whole (except in the warehouse districts),
+fairly supplied with water for the average description
+of fires, that is, where not more than five or six engines are
+required. When, however, it is necessary to work ten or
+twelve engines, there is very often a deficiency. In many of
+the warehouse districts the supply is very limited indeed,
+although it is there that the largest fires take place.</p>
+
+<p>The water companies are generally willing to give any
+quantity of water, but they object to lay down large mains
+without any prospect of remuneration. The warehouse
+keepers decline to be at the expense of laying the pipes, and
+there the matter seems to rest. In most other places of importance,
+the water is under the management of the civic
+authorities, and they, of course, endeavour to obtain a good
+supply of water at fires in warehouse as well as in other
+districts.</p>
+
+<p>In supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks, one
+or more lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock; the
+extreme end being put into the engine, the firecock is then
+opened and the water rushes in. When the water-pipes are
+large and the pressure considerable, two or even three engines
+may be supplied from the same firecock.</p>
+
+<p>If the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the
+place on fire, to be reached by the supply of hose brought
+with the engine, the next resource is, to open the nearest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>
+firecock above the level of the place where the water is required.
+By covering the eyes of drains, and stopping up
+any cross-water channels, the water may in this manner be
+conveyed along the street, from a very considerable distance.
+From the nature of the ground it does not always happen
+that the water will run directly from the nearest firecock,
+to the spot where it is required; acclivities, buildings, and
+many other causes, may prevent this; but in some of these
+cases a few lengths of the hose, attached to the firecock,
+may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to
+the required point. Upon the arrival of the water, it ought
+to be dammed up, and the engine will lift it by suction out
+of the pool so formed.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, from the nature of the ground, from the
+want of hose, or from other causes, it is found impracticable
+to convey the water by either of the above methods, the
+next best is, to conduct the water in hose as far as can be
+accomplished, and carry it the remainder of the distance in
+carts, buckets, or whatever else may be most convenient.</p>
+
+<p>When carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line
+of men from the water to the engine, each man covering five
+or six feet of ground. The buckets are then handed from
+one man to another, till they reach the two or three men
+who are stationed round the suction-tub or fire-engine to receive
+them. The buckets when emptied are returned by a
+different line of men (women or boys) stationed in the same
+manner as the former. If a sufficient number of hands
+cannot be had to return the buckets in this manner, any
+convenient number may be employed to carry them to the
+firecock, that they may be again filled. When a fire occurs
+where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+plugs, the ground should be immediately opened, and the
+water-pipe cut. If it be of cast-iron, a large hammer may
+effect the purpose: on the water-pipe being broken, the
+suction-pipe of the engine is placed in the opening so made.
+If the pipe be of lead, the opening in the street should be
+made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it, when
+cut, being turned into the engine. If the supply of water
+by this means be so great as to occasion waste, it may be regulated
+by the nearest stopcock on the water-pipe, by driving
+a wooden plug into the end of a cast-iron pipe, or
+compressing the end of a leaden one.</p>
+
+<p>The next plan I shall notice of supplying fire-engines is
+from drains, gutters, &amp;c. In particular situations and wet
+weather considerable supplies of water from these and
+similar sources may be obtained. In the gutters all that is
+required is to dam them up; and, if there be no materials
+at hand for this purpose, the causeway must be dug up, till
+there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of
+the engine.</p>
+
+<p>When the water is to be drawn from drains or common
+sewers, great care should be taken not to damage them
+farther than is absolutely necessary.</p>
+
+<p>If enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to
+enter easily, it will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes.
+When the man inside the drain or common sewer
+has collected a proper supply of water by damming up the
+channel, the suction-pipe should be handed down to him,
+and the engine set to work.</p>
+
+<p>Although it be true that foul water quenches fire, I will
+here observe, that the water from a common sewer should
+never be used, except when it is impossible to procure it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>
+from a purer source. For the purpose of procuring water to
+extinguish a fire, I had at one time occasion to open a common
+sewer, in which, with the usual impurities, the waste
+from a gas manufactory was intermixed, and the stench in
+the premises where the fire had been extinguished by this
+water, was for some time after very disagreeable.</p>
+
+<p>If the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little
+distance, one engine may be stationed close to it, and that
+engine made to pump the water into another at work. If
+the water be conveyed in carts, an engine may be kept at
+the pond or river for the purpose of filling them. Of course
+this can only be done where there is a proper supply of
+engines.</p>
+
+<p>In working from an open water, such as a gutter, drain,
+river, or pond, it is proper, in order to prevent sand or
+gravel being drawn into the engine, to sink an iron or
+wooden bucket, into which the suction-pipe of the engine
+should be placed. If nothing better can be had, a good
+wicker basket will be found useful.</p>
+
+<p>It is of great advantage to have a number of carts, with
+butts upon them full of water, as it ensures a small supply
+to the engines the moment they arrive at the fire. This
+plan, however, entails a very considerable expense, as carters
+must be paid for taking them out on every alarm, besides
+giving prizes to the owners of the first and second horses, to
+ensure their coming in time.</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> At a fire which took place in one of the best streets in Edinburgh,
+and which began in the roof, the persons who rushed into the house on
+the first alarm being given, threw the greater part of the contents of the
+drawing-room and library, with several basketsful of china and glass, out
+of the windows; the fire injured nothing below the uppermost story.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> The engines and their crews are distinguished by these colours.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> The hose are made up in flat coils, with the male coupling-screw in
+the centre, and the female on the outside. When a length is to be laid
+out in any direction, it is set on its edge, and then run out in the required
+direction,&mdash;in this way no turns or twists can ever occur. When the
+hose is to be taken up, it is uncoupled, and then wound up, beginning at
+the end farthest from the engine or from the fire-cock (as the case may
+be): by this method all the water is pressed out.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> In practising this exercise the men are in the habit of descending
+by the chains from the parapet of the North Bridge, Edinburgh, to the
+ground below: a height of 75 feet.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> Mr. Braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this principle with
+hand holes for a dozen men, in the ordinary service of the London Fire
+Brigade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_K_11" id="Footnote_K_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_K_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Now Shand, Mason, and Co.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_L_12" id="Footnote_L_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_L_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> This description applies to the most recently constructed fire-engines
+belonging to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_M_13" id="Footnote_M_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_M_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> "Stuffing," a technical term need by leather-dressers or curriers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_N_14" id="Footnote_N_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_N_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> The proportions are, 1 gallon neats-foot oil, 2 lbs. tallow, 1/4 lb. bees-wax,
+melted together, and laid while warm on the leather.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_O_15" id="Footnote_O_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_O_15"><span class="label">[O]</span></a> This description of the Edinburgh coupling-joints was written in
+1830, and is inserted here to show how the present form of the well-known
+London Brigade hose-coupling was arrived at. The internal
+diameter was originally 2-3/8 inches, but Mr. Braidwood, when in London,
+found that he could increase it to 2-1/2 inches.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_P_16" id="Footnote_P_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_P_16"><span class="label">[P]</span></a> See engraving of portable cistern, page <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p></div></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p>
+<h2>APPENDIX.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The following, on Steam Fire-engines and the Metropolitan
+Fire Brigade, is added as a supplement to Mr.
+Braidwood's account of the London Fire Brigade, and brings
+the information upon these subjects up to the present date
+(May, 1866):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The steam fire-engine was first constructed in London, in
+1830, before the formation of the London Fire Brigade, by
+Braithwaite, who made several engines, and exhibited them
+at various public trials, also at several fires, but without
+being able to bring them into general use.</p>
+
+<p>The matter remained in abeyance till 1852, when the
+London Fire Brigade caused their large hand-worked floating
+fire-engine to be altered so as to be worked by steam.
+This engine having been originally made by Tilley, of
+London, the alterations were entrusted to Shand and Mason,
+his successors. In the same year the first American steam
+fire-engine was constructed in New York.</p>
+
+<p>In 1855 the London Fire Brigade, stimulated by their first
+experiment, caused an entirely new self-propelling, floating
+steam fire-engine to be constructed. The experience gained
+by their first attempt at steam fire-engine making, enabled
+Shand and Mason to compete successfully in this matter, as
+their design was adopted after receiving the approval of
+the late Mr. Walker, Engineer, of Great George Street,
+London.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into London
+was accomplished by Shand and Mason, who, in 1858, constructed
+their first; this engine, after several public trials,
+was in the same year sent to St. Petersburgh.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859 the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines,
+which they offered to the London Fire Brigade for
+hire or purchase, and in the following year (1860) the Fire
+Brigade took one on hire for one year. This experiment
+proved so successful, that in 1861 the committee purchased,
+from Shand and Mason, the fourth steam engine of their
+construction. This, with one of the two made in 1859, were
+the only land steam engines that were at work at the Great
+Tooley Street Fire of 1861.</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of 1862, Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and
+Larned, of New York, brought over a land steam fire-engine
+to be placed in the International Exhibition. This
+was worked in public at Hodges' Distillery on the
+24th of March previous to the opening of the Exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>Shand and Mason supplied the London Fire Brigade in
+April, 1862, with the eighth land steam fire-engine of their
+construction. Messrs. Merryweather and Sons, of London,
+placed their first land steam fire-engine in the International
+Exhibition of 1862, but this, like the ninth by Shand and
+Mason, was not in time for the opening, and consequently
+could not compete for a prize medal, which was awarded to
+Lee and Larned, of New York.</p>
+
+<p>A public trial, however, took place before the jury of the
+Exhibition, of which the following is an account extracted
+verbatim from the jurors' published reports:&mdash;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862.</h3>
+
+<h4>SPECIAL JURY FOR FIRE-ENGINES.</h4>
+
+
+<p>
+<span class="smcap">J. F. Bateman, F.R.S.</span>, <i>London</i>; Civil Engineer.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Capt. Bent</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of Fire Arrangements in the Exhibition.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">W. M. Brown</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of Westminster Fire Brigade.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Earl of Caithness</span>, <i>London</i>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">J. Hawkshaw</span>, <i>London</i>; Civil Engineer.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">C. Jenny</span>, <i>Austria</i>; Councillor of Mines in the Imperial Royal Academy of Mines at Schemnitz.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">P. Luuyt</span>, <i>France</i>; Engineer to the Imperial Commissioners of Mines.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">J. E. McConnell</span>, <i>Wolverton</i>; late Locomotive Superintendent of the London and North Western Railway.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">O. Pihl</span>, <i>Norway</i>; Civil Engineer.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">W. M. Rankine</span>, <i>Glasgow</i>; Professor of Mechanics in the University of Glasgow.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Capt. Shaw</span>, <i>London</i>; Superintendent of the London Fire Brigade.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Duke of Sutherland</span>, <i>London</i>.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">F. B. Taylor</span>, <i>United States</i>; Mechanical Engineer.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">H. Thomas</span>, <i>Zollverein</i>; Manufacturer.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">H. Tresca</span>, <i>France</i>; Professor of Mechanics, President of the French Institute of Civil Engineers.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Report of the Special Committee of Class VIII. on Fire-Engines.</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>After detailing the Trials of Hand-worked Fire-Engines, the
+Report states that</i>,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>The Committee next proceeded to take the necessary steps
+for trying the steam fire-engines on the 1st of July, and, as
+before, invited the engine builders to a preliminary meeting,
+that they might receive full information as to the rules and
+regulations to be observed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In compliance with this invitation, the following engine-makers
+attended a meeting on the 28th of June, viz:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, Novelty Iron-works, New York.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason.</p></div>
+
+<p>Mr. Lee declined to produce his steam fire-engine for
+trial, alleging various reasons for so doing, and though
+strongly urged, persisted in his resolution, and declined the
+contest.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son expressed themselves
+ready to produce their steam fire-engine on the appointed
+day.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason informed the Committee that
+the engine which they had intended to work would not be
+ready owing to an accident, but requested permission to
+produce for trial two steam-engines made by them for the
+London Fire-Engine Establishment, although they were not
+in the Exhibition. All the arrangements having been
+made for trying several engines together, the Committee
+granted this request, as otherwise only one engine would
+have been present, and a complete table of results could
+therefore not have been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>The Committee assembled in the appointed place at eight
+o'clock on the morning of the 1st of July, and found three
+engines present, viz., one of Messrs. Merryweather and Son
+and two of Messrs. Shand and Mason.</p>
+
+<p>After the Committee had examined the boilers and machinery
+generally, the engine-makers filled their respective
+boilers with cold water from the river, and fires having been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>
+laid, the three were lighted at the same moment, and the
+makers were ordered to commence working into a tank at
+sixty feet distance as soon as they had attained a steam
+pressure of 100 lbs. to the square inch.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Merryweather's engine attained the pressure
+named in 12 minutes 10 seconds, Messrs. Shand and Mason's
+large engine in 18 minutes 30 seconds, the small engine in
+about 30 minutes, some mismanagement having occurred
+which compelled them to draw the fire in the latter and
+light it a second time. Messrs. Merryweather's engine commenced
+working as arranged when the steam-gauge indicated
+a pressure of 100 lbs., and was 2 minutes and 50 seconds at
+work before water passed through the nose-pipe. Notwithstanding
+this very serious defect, this engine had poured 500
+gallons of water into a tank 60 feet distant in 17 minutes
+and 15 seconds from the time at which the fire was lighted.
+After the difficulty of drawing the water had been surmounted,
+this engine worked well, and threw an admirable
+jet, losing 15 lbs. steam-pressure during the first trial. After
+three trials this engine became disabled; it was, however,
+repaired on the ground in about an hour and a half, and resumed
+work at the ninth trial, continuing to work well
+until the thirteenth, when it became again disabled, and was
+withdrawn by the maker, to the great regret of the Committee,
+who were thus left to continue the experiments with
+only two engines, both made by one firm.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine was 18 minutes
+30 seconds getting up steam to 100 lbs., and when started
+drew water instantly, losing during the first trial 5 lbs. of
+steam-pressure.</p>
+
+<p>This engine was severely tested, and worked without accident<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>
+throughout the day, the seventeenth trial lasting no
+less than 63 minutes, during which the steam and water
+were both kept to a pressure of 90 lbs. on the square inch
+throughout, working through a 1-3/8 inch nose-pipe.</p>
+
+<p>At the eighteenth and last trial this engine threw a good
+vertical jet.</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason's small engine did not raise the
+steam to 100 lbs. in less than 30 minutes, owing, of course,
+partly to the mismanagement already mentioned, and partly
+to the nature of the boiler and fire-box, which, according to
+the makers' account, are not adapted for raising steam in the
+shortest possible time. After the engine got to work the
+steam-pressure was well sustained, and the engine continued
+working the entire day without accident, concluding in the
+evening by throwing a good vertical jet.</p>
+
+<p>During the time occupied by the trials the direction of
+the wind was W.N.W. to W. by N., pressure 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 lbs.
+on the square foot. The barometer stood at 29.97 inches.</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Summary.</i></h5>
+
+<p>On the whole the Committee find as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Merryweather and Son have produced, at a price
+of 700<i>l.</i>, a steam fire-engine, weighing, according to the
+makers' account, 65 cwt., with jets and lamps, but without
+water, coal, suction-pipes, hose, or other gear, and capable, if
+no accidents occur, of throwing in an available stream the
+following average quantities of water per minute:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="mws">
+<tr><td align='center'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>61 feet.</td><td align='center'>10&deg;</td><td align='left'>230 gallons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>85 &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td><td align='center'>21&deg;</td><td align='left'>124&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason have produced an engine, at a
+cost of 650<i>l.</i>, weighing, according to their statement, 55
+cwt., with jets and lamps, but without water, coals, suction-pipes,
+hose, or other gear, and capable of throwing in an
+available stream the following average quantities of water
+per minute:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm650">
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>61 feet.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>10&deg;</td><td align='left'> 250 gallons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>63&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> 18&deg;</td><td align='left'> 165&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>82&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>14&deg;</td><td align='left'> 172&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>85&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>21&deg;</td><td align='left'> 137&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>102&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>11&deg;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;94&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>104&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>17&deg;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;&nbsp;19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Messrs. Shand and Mason have also produced, at a price
+of 370<i>l.</i>, an engine which, under the same conditions, weighs
+35 cwt., and is capable of throwing in an available stream
+the following average quantities per minute:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm370">
+<tr><td align='left'>Distance.</td><td align='center'>Angle.</td><td align='center'>Quantity.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>61 feet.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>10&deg;</td><td align='left'> 142 gallons.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>63&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> 18&deg;</td><td align='left'> 133&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>82&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>14&deg;</td><td align='left'> &nbsp;&nbsp;56&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='right'>85&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>21&deg;</td><td align='left'> &nbsp;&nbsp;27&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>The best performance during the five trials from which
+this last average was taken being forty-six gallons, and the
+lowest five gallons per minute.</p>
+
+<p>At greater distances, in consequence of the wind, this engine
+could not deliver a stream, but continued working without<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+accident throughout the day, and concluded in the
+evening by throwing a good vertical jet.</p>
+
+<p class="author">
+SUTHERLAND, <span class="smcap">Chairman.</span><br />
+E. M. SHAW, <span class="smcap">Hon. Sec.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Shand and Mason's tenth land steam fire-engine was supplied
+to the London Brigade in June, 1862, and their
+twelfth, in February, 1863, upon orders given on the 4th
+January, 1862. But as the Committee of the London Fire
+Brigade were now negotiating with Government to take the
+duty of extinguishing fires off their hands, no orders for
+steam-engines were given out by them after the above
+date.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<h3>STEAM FIRE-ENGINE COMPETITION,</h3>
+
+<h4>CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON, 1863.</h4>
+
+<p>Towards the close of 1862, several engineers and other
+gentlemen interested in the improvement of steam fire-engines,
+offered prizes to be awarded at competitive trials to
+take place in London. The following is the Committee's
+published account of these trials which were held in the
+grounds of the Crystal Palace Company on the 1st, 2nd, and
+3rd July, 1863.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Committee consisted of the following gentlemen, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>Chairman.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">His Grace the Duke of Sutherland.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>Members.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">
+<span class="smcap">The Right Hon. the Earl Of Caithness.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Lord Richard Grosvenor, M.P.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. G. Appold, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. T. Bateman, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">W. M'Browne, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">T. R. Crampton, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">W. M. Crossland, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">W. Fairbairn, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">T. Hawksley, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. E. McConnell, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Henry Maudslay, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. Mathews, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. Nasmyth, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">J. Penn, Esq.</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">William Smith, Esq.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><i>Hon. Sec.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Captain E. M. Shaw.</span></p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>The engines were divided into two classes, the large class
+consisting of those weighing over 30 cwts., and not exceeding
+60 cwts. and the small class of those not exceeding 30 cwts.</p>
+
+<p>The prizes offered were 250<i>l.</i> for the best engine, and 100<i>l</i>.
+for the second best, in each class.</p>
+
+<p>The chief points to which the Committee directed their
+attention, in addition to the consideration of cost and
+weight, were those relating to the general efficiency of the
+machines as fire-engines, combining among other points of
+excellence&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Rapidity in raising and generating steam.</p>
+
+<p>Facility of drawing water.</p>
+
+<p>Volume thrown.</p>
+
+<p>Distance to which it can be projected with the least
+amount of loss.</p>
+
+<p>Simplicity, accessibility, and durability of parts.</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h4>LARGE CLASS.</h4>
+
+
+<h5>FIRST TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 67
+feet, and 27&deg; from the horizon. Depth from which water
+was drawn, 4 feet 6 inches. The water in the boiler being
+cold when the signal was given to commence, each engine
+commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of
+100lb. to the square inch.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg1">
+<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> <span class="smcap">Maker</span>.</td><td align='center'> Weight.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />raising<br />Steam to<br />100lbs.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td><td align='center'> Total<br /> Time.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> T.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; q.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; lbs.</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Easton &amp; Amos,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;London</td><td align='left'> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 12</td><td align='center'> 13&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 14</td><td align='center'> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 16</td><td align='center'> 19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 30</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Merryweather &amp;<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; Son, London<br /></td><td align='left'> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 8</td><td align='center'> 10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 25</td><td align='center'> 9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 42</td><td align='center'> 20&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Shand &amp; Mason,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;London<br /></td><td align='left'> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 51</td><td align='center'> 12&nbsp;&nbsp; 19</td><td align='center'> 23&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 10</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Butt and Co.,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;United States<br /></td><td align='left'> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 14&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4</td><td align='center'> 16&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 30</td><td align='center'> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 48</td><td align='center'> 23&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 18</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 5</td><td align='left'> Roberts, London<br /></td><td align='left'> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 19&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4</td><td align='center'> 11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 40</td><td align='center'> 20&nbsp;&nbsp; 24</td><td align='center'> 32&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> Nichols (Manhattan)<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;United States<br /></td><td align='left'> 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4</td><td align='left'> } Did not work.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> Gray &amp; Son,<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;London<br /></td><td align='left'> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 18&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4</td><td align='left'> } Did not work. </td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span> began to work at 100 lbs., fell
+directly to 40 lbs., and continued so throughout; stopped
+and steam rose to 130 lbs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>&mdash;Suction-pipe choked; left off working
+about 2 minutes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>SECOND TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance commencing
+with full steam.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg2">
+<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'><span class="smcap">Name.</span></td><td align='center'>Steam at<br />Beginning.</td><td align='center'> Steam<br />during<br />Work.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>1</td><td align='left'>Shand &amp; Mason</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>2</td><td align='left'>Butt &amp; Co.</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>3</td><td align='left'>Merryweather &amp; Son</td><td align='right'>145</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> 3&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 7</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>4</td><td align='left'>Roberts</td><td align='right'>80</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> 12&nbsp;&nbsp; 30</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+<p class="center">Roberts did not fill the tank.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h5>THIRD TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering into large tank at a horizontal distance of 40 feet,
+a vertical height of 40 feet, a true distance of 56 feet, and
+at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizon, the depth from
+which water was drawn being 16 feet 4 inches.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Key:<br />
+A &mdash; No. of Deliveries Open.<br />
+B &mdash; Length of Hose.<br />
+C &mdash; Average Steam Pressure.<br />
+D &mdash; Average Water Pressure.<br />
+E &mdash; No. of Gallons Delivered.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg3">
+<tr><td align='center'>No.</td><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'> Time.</td><td align='center'> A</td><td align='center'> B</td><td align='center'>Size of<br />Nozzle.</td><td align='center'> C</td><td align='center'> D</td><td align='center'> E</td><td align='left'> Time of<br />Raising<br />Steam.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>&nbsp;hr.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; m.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; s.</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Merryweather<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; &amp; Son</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 24&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 55</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='left'> 91</td><td align='left'> 89</td><td align='right'> 16,086</td><td align='center'> 10'&nbsp;&nbsp; 32"<br /> to<br />80lbs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Shand<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; &amp; Mason</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2 &amp;<br />1-3/8</td><td align='left'> 96</td><td align='left'> 62</td><td align='right'> 12,917</td><td align='center'> 11'&nbsp;&nbsp; 21"<br /> to<br />120lbs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Roberts</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> 420</td><td align='left'> 1-1/4</td><td align='left'> 75</td><td align='left'> 75</td><td align='right'> 9,936</td><td align='center'> 11'&nbsp;&nbsp; 20"<br /> to<br />80lbs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Butt &amp; Co.</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 46&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 50</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='left'> 78</td><td align='left'> 78</td><td align='right'> 8,280</td><td align='center'> 14'&nbsp;&nbsp; 10"<br /> to<br />45lbs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 5</td><td align='left'> Easton &amp;<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; &amp; Amos</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 32&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 35</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 440</td><td align='left'> 1-3/8</td><td align='left'> 98</td><td align='left'> 41</td><td align='right'> 3,036</td><td align='center'> 12'&nbsp;&nbsp; 30"<br /> to<br />90lbs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 6</td><td align='left'> Nichols<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; (Manhattan)</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 4&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 55</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> 420</td><td align='left'> 1-1/2</td><td align='center'> &mdash;</td><td align='center'> &mdash;</td><td align='center'> None.</td><td align='center'> 13'&nbsp;&nbsp; 09"<br /> to<br />45lbs.</td></tr>
+
+</table></div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span>&mdash;Fire lighted at 4h. 1m. 55s.;
+gauge moved at 4h. 8m. 20s.; engine started at 4h. 12m.
+27s.; water drawn in about 10 revolutions; pumps not
+primed, valve box leaked slightly, and engine worked
+satisfactorily in every respect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>&mdash;Fire lighted at 11h. 25m. 46s.; gauge
+moved at 11h. 32m. 53s.; engine started at 11h. 37m. 7s.;
+pump primed at 11h. 45m. 48s.; drew water at 11h. 47m.;
+water first through the nozzle at 11h. 48m. 59s.; in hood
+at 11h. 49m. 19s.; shifted nozzle (3-1/4m. delay); high
+wind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Roberts</span>&mdash;Fire lighted at 11h. 17m.; engine, started at
+11h. 28m. 20s.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Butt and Co.</span>&mdash;Fire lighted at 5h. 55m. 10s.; started
+engine at 6h. 9m. 20s.; repeatedly stopped from slide
+valves not acting, and stopped entirely at 6h. 46m., from
+cylinder cover breaking.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Easton and Amos</span>&mdash;Fire lighted at 2h. 2m. 35s.; gauge
+moved 2h. 10m.; started engine at 2h. 15m. 5s.; pumps
+primed, worked till 2h. 54m. 5s.; stopped to shift
+plungers; went to work again, and stopped entirely at
+3h. 35m. 10s., from two fire bars falling out.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Nichols</span> (Manhattan)&mdash;Fire lighted at 10h. 51m. 14s.;
+gauge moved at 10h. 59m. 20s.; drew water directly;
+steam up to 140lbs. at 11h. 8m. 45s.; stopped two
+minutes; started again; made a few revolutions, and fly-wheel
+broke.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>FOURTH TRIAL</h5>
+
+<p class="center">Vertical Jet against Tower.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="lg4">
+<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Name.</td><td align='center'> Size<br /> of Jet.</td><td align='center'> Greatest Height<br /> Thrown.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Shand &amp; Mason</td><td align='center'> 22/16</td><td align='center'> 180 ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Merryweather &amp; Son</td><td align='center'> 26/16</td><td align='center'> 180 ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Roberts</td><td align='center'> 14/16</td><td align='center'> 150 ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 4</td><td align='left'> Lee &amp; Co</td><td align='center'> 21/16</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;&nbsp; 55 ft.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Gray's</span> engine lighted fire at 7h. 7m. 40s.; steam 9lbs. at
+7h. 17m. 0s.; got to work at 7h. 23m. 40s. to blow fires;
+at 7h. 27m. 0s. water through hose. Owing to some of the
+pipe connected with the steam gauge breaking, no further
+experiments could be made.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SMALL CLASS.</h4>
+
+<h5>FIRST TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of
+50ft. and 37&deg; from the horizon. Depth from which water
+was drawn, 4ft. 6in. The water in the boilers being cold
+when the signal was given to commence, each engine commencing
+to work on attaining steam pressure of 100lbs.
+to the square inch.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm1">
+<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Name.</td><td align='center'> Weight.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />raising<br />Steam to<br />100lbs.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td><td align='center'> Total<br /> Time.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'> T.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; c.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; q.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; lbs.</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'> Shand &amp; Mason,</td><td align='left'> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 9&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 2&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 36</td><td align='center'> 5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 24</td><td align='center'> 17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'> Lee &amp; Co.<br /></td><td align='left'> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 11&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 55</td><td align='center'> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 3</td><td align='center'>17&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 58</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'> Merryweather &amp; Son.</td><td align='left'> 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 10&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 12</td><td align='center'> 12&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 15</td><td align='center'> 9&nbsp;&nbsp; 14</td><td align='center'> 21&nbsp;&nbsp; 29</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p>Owing to a broken bolt, there was great leakage in water
+cylinder of Lee and Co's. engine.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h5>SECOND TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance, commencing
+with full steam.</p>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm2">
+<tr><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'>Steam at<br />Beginning.</td><td align='center'> Steam<br />during<br />Work.</td><td align='center'> Time of<br />filling<br />Tank.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> '&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>1</td><td align='left'>Shand &amp; Mason</td><td align='right'>85</td><td align='center'>&mdash;</td><td align='center'> 5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>2</td><td align='left'>Lee &amp; Co.</td><td align='right'>125</td><td align='center'>&mdash;</td><td align='center'> 5&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='center'>3</td><td align='left'>Merryweather &amp; Son</td><td align='right'>100</td><td align='center'>&mdash;</td><td align='center'> 6&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 17</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">The leakage in Lee and Co's. engine was remedied.<br />
+</p>
+
+
+<h5>THIRD TRIAL.</h5>
+
+<p>Delivering into large tank, commencing with Full Steam.
+At a horizontal distance of 40ft., a vertical height of 40ft.,
+a true distance of 56ft., and at an angle of 45&deg; from the
+horizon; the depth from which water was drawn being
+16ft. 4in.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+Key<br />
+A &mdash; Number of Deliveries open.<br />
+B &mdash; Average Steam Pressure.<br />
+C &mdash; Average Water Pressure.<br />
+D &mdash; No. of Gallons Delivered.<br />
+</p></div>
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="sm3">
+<tr><td align='center'>Name.</td><td align='center'> No.</td><td align='center'> Time.</td><td align='center'> &nbsp;A&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> Length<br />of<br />Hose</td><td align='center'>Size of<br />Nozzle.</td><td align='center'> &nbsp;B&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> &nbsp;C&nbsp;</td><td align='center'> D</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;</td><td align='left'>&nbsp;h.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; m.&nbsp;&nbsp; s.</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>in.</td><td align='right'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;</td><td align='center'>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Shand<br />&nbsp;&nbsp; &amp; Mason </td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 1 &amp;<br />1-1/4</td><td align='right'> 146</td><td align='center'> 80</td><td align='center'> 8142</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'> Merryweather<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&amp; Son</td><td align='center'> 2</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 7/8</td><td align='right'> 86</td><td align='center'> 45</td><td align='center'> 4885</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align='left'> Lee &amp; Co.</td><td align='center'> 3</td><td align='left'>&nbsp; 1&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; 0</td><td align='center'> 1</td><td align='center'> 420</td><td align='center'> 3/4</td><td align='right'> 80</td><td align='center'> 60</td><td align='center'> 4278</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Shand and Mason</span>&mdash;Steam ready at 150 lbs.; started at
+7h. 3m. 32s.; stopped at 7h. 12m. 5s. to put on an additional
+length of hose; worked well throughout.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Merryweather and Son</span>&mdash;Steam ready at 110 lbs.; commenced
+work at 3h. 43m. 30s.; pumps primed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Lee and Co.</span>&mdash;Steam ready, started at 2h. 1m. 0s.; worked
+well, without any stoppage.</p>
+
+
+<h4>AWARDS.</h4>
+
+<p>At a meeting of the Committee held on the 8th July,
+1863, his Grace the Duke of Sutherland in the Chair, the
+following prizes were awarded:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">LARGE CLASS.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="awardslg">
+<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Merryweather &amp; Sons,</td><td align='right'>1st Prize, 250<i>l.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Shand &amp; Mason</td><td align='right'>2nd Prize, 100<i>l.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Mr. W. Roberts, highly commended.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">SMALL CLASS.</p>
+
+
+<div class='center'>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="awardssm">
+<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. Shand &amp; Mason</td><td align='right'>1st Prize, 250<i>l.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align='left'>Messrs. W. Lee &amp; Co.</td><td align='right'>2nd Prize, 100<i>l.</i></td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<p class="center">(Signed) On behalf of the Committee,</p>
+
+<p class="author">SUTHERLAND, <span class="smcap">Chairman.</span><br />
+E. M. SHAW, <span class="smcap">Hon. Sec.</span><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>From the above trials it was found that the first prize
+large-class engine weighed 6504 lbs., and delivered in one
+hour 11,366 gallons, being at the rate of 196 gallons for
+each hundred-weight of the engine; while the first prize
+small-class engine delivered in the same time 8142 gallons,
+or 276 for each hundred-weight of the engine, showing that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+the latter engine delivered nearly one-half more water in
+proportion to its weight, than was delivered by the large one,
+the conditions of the two trials being the same.</p>
+
+<p>As the greatest amount of power in the smallest possible
+bulk and weight, was considered most available for use at
+London fires, the Committee of the London Fire Brigade,
+although not in a position, for the reasons already stated, to
+purchase additional steam fire-engines, commenced hiring
+Shand, Mason, and Co.'s prize engines, and at the close of
+1865 had four such in use in this manner.</p>
+
+<p>The Metropolitan Fire Brigade, an extension of the late
+London Fire Brigade, has now (May, 1866) the following
+steam fire-engines in use:&mdash;The Floating Steam Fire-engine,
+by Shand and Mason, in 1855; a Land Steam Fire-engine by
+Easton and Amos, which was worked at the Crystal Palace
+trials, and is now used in a barge as a floating engine; one
+by Roberts, which was also worked at the Crystal Palace;
+three by Merryweather and Sons; and fifteen of Shand,
+Mason, and Co.'s Land Steam Fire-engines.</p>
+
+
+<h3>METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE.</h3>
+
+<p>The disastrous results of the great fire at Tooley-street, in
+1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life, fully demonstrated
+the inadequacy (in men and appliances) of the
+fire brigade supported by the insurance offices, and as these
+bodies declined extending their establishment so as to meet
+the wants of the whole of the metropolis, a Parliamentary
+inquiry was instituted, which resulted in the passing of the
+following Act:&mdash;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>ANNO VICESIMO OCTAVO &amp; VICESIMO NONO</h4>
+
+<h3>VICTORI&AElig; REGIN&AElig;.</h3>
+
+<h4>CAP. XC.</h4>
+
+<h4>An Act for the Establishment of a Fire Brigade
+within the Metropolis. [5th July, 1865.]</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="smcap">Whereas</span> it is expedient to make further provision for the
+protection of life and property from fire within the
+metropolis: Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent
+Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
+Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
+Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as
+follows:</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Preliminary.</i></h5>
+
+<p>1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the "Metropolitan
+Fire Brigade Act, 1865."</p>
+
+<p>2. For the purposes of this Act the "Metropolis" shall
+mean the City of <i>London</i> and all other parishes and places
+for the time being within the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan
+Board of Works:</p>
+
+<p>"Insurance Company" shall include any persons corporate
+or unincorporate, or any person carrying on the business
+of fire insurance.</p>
+
+<p>3. The expression "Metropolis Local Management Acts"
+shall mean the Acts following; that is to say, "The Metropolis
+Management Act, 1855," "The Metropolis Management<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>
+Amendment Act, 1856," and "The Metropolis
+Management Amendment Act, 1862."</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Establishment and Duties of Fire Brigade.</i></h5>
+
+<p>4. On and after the first day of <i>January</i> one thousand
+eight hundred and sixty-six the duty of extinguishing fires
+and protecting life and property in case of fire shall
+within the metropolis be deemed for the purposes of this
+Act to be entrusted to the Metropolitan Board of Works;
+and with a view to the performance of that duty it shall
+be lawful for them to provide and maintain an efficient
+force of firemen, and to furnish them with all such fire
+engines, horses, accoutrements, tools, and implements
+as may be necessary for the complete equipment of the
+force, or conducive to the efficient performance of their
+duties.</p>
+
+<p>5. The said Board, hereinafter referred to as the Board,
+may take on lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire stations
+for engines, stables, houses for firemen, and such other
+houses, buildings, or land as they may think requisite for
+carrying into effect the purposes of this Act, and may from
+time to time sell any property acquired by or vested in them
+for the purposes of this Act:</p>
+
+<p>The Board may also contract with any company or persons
+authorized to establish the same for the establishment
+of telegraphic communication between the several stations
+in which their fire engines or firemen are placed, and
+between any of such stations and other parts of the
+metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>6. On and after the said first day of January one thousand<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+eight hundred and sixty-six, all stations, fire-engines,
+fire escapes, plant, and other property belonging to or used
+by the fire engine establishment of the insurance companies
+in the metropolis shall vest in or be conveyed or
+assigned to the Board for all the estate and interest of the
+said companies therein, upon trust to be applied by the
+Board to the purposes of this Act, but subject to all legal
+liabilities and obligations attaching thereto, including the
+payment of all pensions that have been granted to the members
+of the said Fire Engine Establishment, according to a
+list that has been furnished to the chairman of the said
+Board by the chief officer of the said fire-engine establishment,
+and all trustees for the same shall be indemnified
+against such liabilities and obligations. The Board may
+also, if they think fit, purchase the stations, fire-engines,
+and plant belonging to any parish, place, or body of persons
+within their jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p>7. The force of firemen established under this Act, hereinafter
+called the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, shall be under
+the command of an officer, to be called the chief officer of
+the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.</p>
+
+<p>The chief officer and men composing the said fire
+brigade shall be appointed and removed at the pleasure of
+the Board.</p>
+
+<p>8. The Board shall pay such salaries as they think expedient
+to the said fire brigade. They may also make such
+regulations as they think fit with respect to the compensation
+to be made to them in case of accident, or to their
+wives or families in case of their death; also with respect
+to the pensions or allowances to be paid to them in case of
+retirement; also with respect to the gratuities to be paid<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span>
+to persons giving notices of fires; also with respect to
+gratuities by way of a gross sum or annual payment to be
+from time to time awarded to any member of the said
+force, or to any other person, for extraordinary services
+performed in cases of fire; also with respect to gratuities to
+turncocks belonging to waterworks from which a supply of
+water is quickly derived.</p>
+
+<p>9. The Board may by byelaws make regulations for the
+training, discipline, and good conduct of the men belonging
+to the said fire brigade, for their speedy attendance with
+engines, fire escapes, and all necessary implements on the
+occasion of any alarm of fire, and generally for the maintenance
+in a due state of efficiency of the said brigade, and
+may annex to any breach of such regulations penalties not
+exceeding in amount forty shillings, but no byelaw under
+this section shall be of any validity unless it is made and
+confirmed in manner directed by the Metropolis Local
+Management Acts; and all the provisions of the said Acts
+relating to byelaws shall, with the necessary variations,
+apply to any byelaws made in pursuance of this Act.</p>
+
+<p>10. The vestry of any parish or place in the metropolis
+may allow such compensation as they think just to any engine
+keeper or other person employed in the service of fire
+engines who has hitherto been paid out of any rate raiseable
+in such parish or place, and who is deprived of his employment
+by or in consequence of the passing of this Act, and
+any compensation so allowed shall be paid out of the rate
+out of which the salary of the officer so compensated was
+payable.</p>
+
+<p>11. The Board may make such arrangements as they
+think fit as to establishing fire escapes throughout the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+metropolis. They may for that purpose contribute to the
+funds of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from
+Fire, or of any existing society that provides fire escapes,
+or may purchase or take by agreement the property of any
+existing society in their stations and fire escapes, and
+generally may maintain such fire escapes and do such things
+as they think expedient towards aiding persons to escape
+from fire; and any expenses incurred by them in pursuance
+of this section shall be deemed to be expenses incurred
+in carrying into effect this Act.</p>
+
+<p>12. On the occasion of a fire, the chief or other officer
+in charge of the fire brigade may, in his discretion, take
+the command of any volunteer fire brigade or other persons
+who voluntarily place their services at his disposal, and may
+remove, or order any fireman to remove, any persons who
+interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire
+brigade, and generally he may take any measures that appear
+expedient for the protection of life and property, with
+power by himself or his men to break into or through, or
+take possession of, or pull down any premises for the purpose
+of putting an end to a fire, doing as little damage as possible;
+he may also on any such occasion cause the water to be shut
+off from the mains and pipes of any district, in order to give
+a greater supply and pressure of water in the district in
+which the fire has occurred; and no water company shall
+be liable to any penalty or claim by reason of any interruption
+of the supply of water occasioned only by compliance
+with the provisions of this section.</p>
+
+<p>All police constables shall be authorized to aid the fire
+brigade in the execution of their duties. They may close
+any street in or near which a fire is burning, and they may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+of their own motion, or on the request of the chief or other
+officer of the fire brigade, remove any persons who interfere
+by their presence with the operations of the fire brigade.</p>
+
+<p>Any damage occasioned by the fire brigade in the due
+execution of their duties shall be deemed to be damage by
+fire within the meaning of any policy of insurance against
+fire.</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Expenses.</i></h5>
+
+<p>13. Every insurance company that insures from fire any
+property in the metropolis shall pay annually to the Metropolitan
+Board of Works, by way of contribution toward the
+expenses of carrying this Act into effect, a sum after the rate
+of thirty-five pounds in the one million pounds on the
+gross amounts insured by it, except by way of reassurance,
+in respect of property in the metropolis for a year, and at a
+like rate for any fractional part of a million, and for any
+fractional part of a year as well as for any number of years
+for which the insurance may be made, renewed, or continued.</p>
+
+<p>The said payments by insurance companies shall be made
+quarterly in advance, on the 1st of January, 1st of April,
+1st of July, and 1st of October in every year; the first of
+such payments to be made on the 1st of January one
+thousand eight hundred and sixty-six, and such first payment
+and the other payments for the year one thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-six to be based upon the amounts insured
+by the several companies in respect of property in the
+metropolis in the year ending the twenty-fourth of December
+one thousand eight hundred and sixty-four: provided
+that any insurance company which at the time of the passing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+of this Act contributes to the expenses of the said fire
+engine establishment may, in respect of all payments to be
+made by it in the years one thousand eight hundred and
+sixty-six and one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven,
+but not afterwards, contribute after the yearly rate of thirty-five
+pounds in one million pounds of the business in
+respect of which it contributes to the said fire engine
+establishment for the present year, according to a return
+which has been furnished to the chairman of the said Metropolitan
+Board, instead of in the manner in this Act provided.</p>
+
+<p>14. All contributions due from an insurance company to
+the Board in pursuance of this Act shall be deemed to be
+specialty debts due from the company to the Board, and be
+recovered accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>15. For the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be contributed
+by every such insurance company as aforesaid,
+every insurance company insuring property from fire in the
+metropolis shall, on the thirtieth day of December one
+thousand eight hundred and sixty-five, with respect to the
+amounts insured in the year one thousand eight hundred
+and sixty-four, and on the 1st of June one thousand eight
+hundred and sixty-six, and on every succeeding 1st of June,
+or on such other days as the Metropolitan Board of Works
+may appoint, make a return to the said Board, in such form
+as they may require, of the gross amount insured by it in
+respect of property in the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>There shall be annexed to the return so made a declaration
+made by the secretary or other officer performing the
+duties of secretary of the company by whom it is made,
+stating that he has examined the return with the books of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+the company, and that to the best of his knowledge, information,
+and belief, it contains a true and faithful account of the
+gross amount of the sums insured by the company to which
+he belongs in respect of property in the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>The return made in the June of one year shall not come
+into effect till the 1st of January of the succeeding year,
+and shall be the basis of the contributions for that year.</p>
+
+<p>16. If any insurance company makes default in making
+such returns to the Board as are required by this Act, it shall
+be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every
+day during which it is so in default.</p>
+
+<p>17. The secretary or other officer having the custody of
+the books and papers of any insurance company that is
+required to pay a contribution to the Board in pursuance of
+this Act shall allow any officer appointed by the Board to
+inspect, during the hours of business, any books and papers
+that will enable him to ascertain the amount of property
+insured by such company in the metropolis, and the amount
+for which it is insured, and to make extracts from such books
+or papers; and any secretary or other such officer as aforesaid
+of a company failing to comply with the requisitions of
+this section in respect of such inspections and extracts shall
+be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding
+five pounds for each offence.</p>
+
+<p>18. The Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury shall
+pay or cause to be paid to the Board by way of contribution
+to the expenses of maintaining the fire brigade such sums
+as Parliament may from time to time grant for that purpose,
+not exceeding in any one year the sum of ten thousand
+pounds.</p>
+
+<p>19. For the purpose of defraying all expenses that may<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+be incurred by the Board in carrying into effect this Act
+which are not otherwise provided for, the Board may from
+time to time issue their precepts to the overseers of the
+poor of every parish or place within the metropolis, requiring
+the overseers to pay over the amount mentioned in the
+precepts to the Treasurer of the Board, or into a bank to be
+named in the precepts, within forty days from the delivery of
+the precept.</p>
+
+<p>The overseers shall comply with the requisitions of any
+such precept by paying the sums mentioned out of any
+monies in their hands applicable to the relief of the poor, or
+by levying the amount required as part of the rate for the
+relief of the poor, but no contribution required to be paid
+by any parish or place under this section shall exceed in the
+whole in any one year the rate of one halfpenny in the
+pound on the full and fair annual value of property rateable
+to the relief of the poor within the said parish or place, such
+full and fair annual value to be computed in all parts of the
+metropolis, exclusive of the city of London, according to the
+last valuation for the time being acted on in assessing the
+county rate, or, where there is no county rate, according to a
+like estimate or basis; and no liberty, precinct, or place,
+shall be exempt from the rate leviable for the purposes of
+this Act by reason of its being extra-parochial or otherwise;
+and in default of proper officers in any liberty, precinct, or
+place, to assess or levy the said rate, the Board may appoint
+such officers, and add the amount of any expenses so incurred
+to the amount to be raised by the next succeeding rate in
+such liberty, precinct, or place.</p>
+
+<p>Overseers shall, for the purposes of levying any amount
+required to be levied by them under this Act, have the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+powers and be subject to the same obligations as in levying
+a rate for the relief of the poor.</p>
+
+<p>The word "Overseers" shall include any persons or bodies
+of persons authorized or required to make and collect or
+cause to be collected rates applicable to the relief of the
+poor; and such persons or bodies shall pay to the Board the
+amount so mentioned in the precept out of the said rates.</p>
+
+<p>20. In case the amount ordered by any such precept as
+aforesaid to be paid by the overseers of any parish or place
+be not paid in manner directed by such precept and within
+the time therein specified for that purpose, it shall be lawful
+for any justice of the peace, upon the complaint by the
+Board or by any person authorized by the Board, to issue his
+warrant for levying the amount or so much thereof as may
+be in arrear by distress and sale of the goods of all or any
+of the said overseers, and in case the goods of all the overseers
+be not sufficient to pay the same, the arrears thereof
+shall be added to the amount of the next levy which is
+directed to be made in such parish or place for the purposes
+of this Act, and shall be collected by the like methods.</p>
+
+<p>21. The Board may, with the consent of the Commissioners
+of Her Majesty's Treasury, borrow any sum not exceeding
+forty thousand pounds, and apply the same for the purposes
+of this Act; and all powers contained in the Metropolis
+Local Management Acts authorizing the Board to borrow
+money, or any commissioners or persons to lend money to
+the Board, and all other provisions as to the mode of borrowing,
+the repayment of principal or interest, or in anywise
+relating to borrowing by the Board, shall be deemed to apply
+and to extend to this Act in the same manner as if the
+monies borrowed in pursuance of this Act were monies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+borrowed for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the
+Metropolis Local Management Acts, or one or more of those
+acts. The Board shall apply the monies received by them
+under this Act in liquidation of the principal and interest of
+the monies so borrowed, but no creditor shall be concerned
+to see to such application, or be liable for any misapplication
+of the monies received or borrowed by the Board in pursuance
+of this Act.</p>
+
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Miscellaneous.</span></h5>
+
+<p>22. Where any chief officer, or other person who has been
+employed by the Board in any capacity under this Act, and
+has been discharged therefrom, continues to occupy any
+house or building that may be provided for his use, or any
+part thereof, after one week's notice in writing from the
+Board to deliver up possession thereof, it shall be lawful for
+any police magistrate, on the oath of one witness, stating
+such notice to have been given, by warrant under his hand
+to order any constable to enter into the house or building
+occupied by such discharged chief officer or other person as
+aforesaid, and to remove him and his family and servants
+therefrom, and afterwards to deliver the possession thereof
+to the Board, as effectually, to all intents and purposes, as
+the sheriff having jurisdiction within the place where such
+house or building is situate might lawfully do by virtue of a
+writ of possession or a judgment at law.</p>
+
+<p>23. If the chimney of any house or other building within
+the metropolis is on fire, the occupier of such house or building
+shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty shillings;
+but if such occupier proves that he has incurred such
+penalty by reason of the neglect or wilful default of any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+other person, he may recover summarily from such person
+the whole or any part of the penalty he may have incurred
+as occupier.</p>
+
+<p>24. All penalties imposed by this Act, or by any byelaw
+made in pursuance thereof, and all expenses and other sums
+due to the Board in pursuance of this Act, in respect of
+which no mode of recovery is prescribed, may be recovered
+summarily before two justices in manner directed by the
+Act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth
+years of the reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three,
+or any Act amending the same, and when so recovered
+shall be paid to the treasurer of the Board, notwithstanding
+any police act or other act of parliament directing a different
+appropriation of such monies.</p>
+
+<p>25. Any dispute or other matter which is by this Act
+directed to be determined summarily by two justices shall
+be deemed to be a matter in respect of which a complaint is
+made upon which they have authority by law to make an
+order for payment of money within the meaning of the said
+Act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years
+of the reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three,
+or any Act amending the same.</p>
+
+<p>26. Any act, power, or jurisdiction hereby authorized to
+be done or exercised by two justices may be done or exercised
+by the following magistrates within their respective
+jurisdictions; that is to say, by any metropolitan police
+magistrate sitting alone at a police court or other appointed
+place, or by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, or any
+alderman of the said City, sitting alone or with others at the
+Mansion House or Guildhall.</p>
+
+<p>27. The accounts of the Board in respect of expenses incurred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+by them under this Act shall be audited in the same
+manner as if they were expenses incurred under the said
+Metropolis Local Management Acts, and the Board shall in
+each year make a report to one of her Majesty's principal
+Secretaries of State of all acts done and expenditure incurred
+by them in pursuance of this Act, and that report shall be
+laid before Parliament within one month after the commencement
+of the session.</p>
+
+<p>28. The Board may delegate any powers conferred on
+them by this Act to a committee of their body; and such
+committee shall, to the extent to which such powers are
+delegated, be deemed to be the Board within the meaning of
+this Act.</p>
+
+<p>29. If the companies insuring property within the metropolis,
+or any such number of them as may in the opinion
+of the said Board be sufficient, establish a force of men
+charged with the duty of attending at fires and saving insured
+property, it shall be the duty of the Fire Brigade,
+with the sanction of the Board, and subject to any regulations
+that may be made by the Board, to afford the necessary
+assistance to that force in the performance of their duties,
+and, upon the application of any officer of that force, to hand
+over to their custody property that may be saved from fire;
+and no charge shall be made by the said Board for the services
+thus rendered by the fire brigade.</p>
+
+<p>30. It shall be lawful for the Board, when occasion requires,
+to permit any part of the fire brigade establishment,
+with their engines, escapes, and other implements, to proceed
+beyond the limits of the metropolis for the purpose of
+extinguishing fires. In such case the owner and occupier
+of the property where the fire has occurred shall be jointly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+and severally liable to defray all the expenses that may be
+incurred by the Fire Brigade in attending the fire, and
+shall pay to the Board a reasonable charge for the attendance
+of the Fire Brigade, and the use of their engines, escapes,
+and other implements. In case of difference between the
+Board and the owner and occupier of such property, or
+either of them, the amount of the expenses, as well as the
+propriety of the Fire Brigade attending such fire (if the
+propriety thereof be disputed), shall be summarily determined
+by two justices. In default of payment, any expenses under
+this section may be recovered by the Board in a summary
+manner.</p>
+
+<p>The Board may also permit any part of the Fire Brigade
+Establishment to be employed on special services upon such
+terms of remuneration as the said Board may think just.</p>
+
+<p>31. The Metropolitan Fire Brigade shall in the morning
+of each day, with the exception of Sundays, send information,
+by post or otherwise, to all the insurance offices contributing
+for the purposes of this Act, of all fires which have
+taken place within the metropolis since the preceding return,
+in such form as may be agreed upon between the Board
+and the said companies.</p>
+
+<p>32. All the powers now exercised by any local body or
+officer within the metropolis as respects fireplugs shall
+henceforth be exercised by the Board, and the Board shall be
+entitled to receive copies or extracts of all plans kept by any
+water company under the provision of the Act of the session
+of the fifteenth and sixteenth years of her Majesty,
+chapter eighty-four; and every such water company shall
+provide at the expense of the Board in any mains or pipes
+within the metropolis plugs for the supply of water in case<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+of fire at such places, of such dimensions, and in such form
+as the Board may require, and the Fire Brigade shall be at
+liberty to make such use thereof as they may deem necessary
+for the purpose of extinguishing any fire; and every such
+company shall deposit keys of all their fireplugs at such
+places as may be appointed by the Board, and the Board may
+put up on any house or building a public notice in some conspicuous
+place in each street in which a fireplug is situated,
+showing its situation.</p>
+
+<p>33. "Owner" in this Act shall mean the person for the
+time being receiving the rackrent of the premises in connexion
+with which the word is used, either on his own
+account or as agent or trustee for some other person, or who
+would receive the same if the premises were let at rackrent.</p>
+
+
+<h5><i>Repeal.</i></h5>
+
+<p>34. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+eight hundred and sixty-six, there shall be repealed so much
+as is unrepealed of an Act passed in the fourteenth year of
+his late Majesty King George the Third, chapter seventy-eight,
+and intituled an Act for the further and better regulation
+of buildings and party walls, and for the more
+effectually preventing mischief by fire, within the Cities of
+London and Westminster and the liberties thereof, and
+other the parishes, precincts, and places within the weekly
+bills of mortality, the parishes of St. Marylebone, Paddington,
+St. Pancras, and St. Luke, at Chelsea, in the
+County of Middlesex, and for indemnifying, under certain
+conditions, builders and other persons against the penalties
+to which they are or may be liable for erecting buildings
+within the limits aforesaid contrary to law, with the exception<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+of sections eighty-three and eighty-six which
+shall remain in full force, but such repeal shall not affect
+any penalty or liability incurred under the repealed
+sections.</p>
+
+<p>35. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+eight hundred and sixty-six, section forty-four of an Act
+passed in the session holden in the third and fourth years of
+the reign of King William the Fourth, chapter ninety,
+shall be repealed so far as respects any parish or place
+within the limits of the metropolis as defined by this Act;
+provided that the repeal of the said section shall not affect the
+power of the churchwardens and overseers of any parish or
+place to contribute to the funds of any society that at the
+time of the passing of this Act maintains fire escapes in
+such parish or place, unless and until the Board purchase
+the property of such society, or otherwise provide fire
+escapes in such parish or place.</p></div>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>In accordance with the provisions of the above recited
+Act of Parliament, the London Fire Brigade of the Insurance
+Offices is now being extended to meet the requirements
+of the whole of London, under the title of the
+Metropolitan Fire Brigade, with Captain E. M. Shaw, Mr.
+Braidwood's successor, as chief officer.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h6>LONDON:<br />
+SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET,<br />
+COVENT GARDEN.</h6>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h3><a name="Transcribers_Notes" id="Transcribers_Notes"></a>Transcriber's Notes</h3>
+
+<p>Variations in spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, and punctuation
+have been retained from the original book. The Table of Contents
+and List of Illustrations do not exactly match the chapter, section, and
+illustration titles in the text.</p>
+
+<p>The following changes have been made:</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_70">70</a>: Missing word "of" added (avail themselves of the means).</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_183">183</a>: Typo estalishment changed to establishment (establishment
+of telegraphic communication).</p>
+
+<p>Tables in the Appendix have been modified in format, but not in
+content, to fit the plain-text spacing constraints.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by 
+James Braidwood
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26440-h.htm or 26440-h.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/4/4/26440/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
+
+
+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image001.jpg b/26440-h/images/image001.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d14bea
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image001.jpg
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image124.png b/26440-h/images/image124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..eaf4f2e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image124.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image125.png b/26440-h/images/image125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..714af19
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image125.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image140.png b/26440-h/images/image140.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..513c8e7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image140.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image141.png b/26440-h/images/image141.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9c1ffd2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image141.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image145.png b/26440-h/images/image145.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e537a70
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image145.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image151.jpg b/26440-h/images/image151.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..06f356e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image151.jpg
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image155.jpg b/26440-h/images/image155.jpg
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1294391
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image155.jpg
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image156.png b/26440-h/images/image156.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bb56e63
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image156.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image157.png b/26440-h/images/image157.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e31fa1e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image157.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image158a.png b/26440-h/images/image158a.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..410c86a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image158a.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image158b.png b/26440-h/images/image158b.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d46a7bd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image158b.png
diff --git a/26440-h/images/image159.png b/26440-h/images/image159.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8494320
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-h/images/image159.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0000-image1.png b/26440-page-images/f0000-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c3148d1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0000-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0001.png b/26440-page-images/f0001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da754db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0001.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0003.png b/26440-page-images/f0003.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f91b7a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0003.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0004.png b/26440-page-images/f0004.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ffa3cec
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0004.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0005.png b/26440-page-images/f0005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1d8c52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0005.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0006.png b/26440-page-images/f0006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c329702
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0006.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0007.png b/26440-page-images/f0007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a49bc47
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0007.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0009.png b/26440-page-images/f0009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd91725
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0009.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/f0011.png b/26440-page-images/f0011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3141791
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/f0011.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0005.png b/26440-page-images/p0005.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..10de605
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0005.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0006.png b/26440-page-images/p0006.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d6468d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0006.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0007.png b/26440-page-images/p0007.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4d90d40
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0007.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0008.png b/26440-page-images/p0008.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f6db639
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0008.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0009.png b/26440-page-images/p0009.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dfe8a24
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0009.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0010.png b/26440-page-images/p0010.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..90a4e0f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0010.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0011.png b/26440-page-images/p0011.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1f58d8b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0011.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0012.png b/26440-page-images/p0012.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b80b0b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0012.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0013.png b/26440-page-images/p0013.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f05d7a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0013.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0014.png b/26440-page-images/p0014.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..cd71df4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0014.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0015.png b/26440-page-images/p0015.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e88938e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0015.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0016.png b/26440-page-images/p0016.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7d533a3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0016.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0017.png b/26440-page-images/p0017.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6f6eb20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0017.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0018.png b/26440-page-images/p0018.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bf539b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0018.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0019.png b/26440-page-images/p0019.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edba6e0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0019.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0020.png b/26440-page-images/p0020.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a78be2a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0020.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0021.png b/26440-page-images/p0021.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..440993e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0021.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0022.png b/26440-page-images/p0022.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2619d55
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0022.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0023.png b/26440-page-images/p0023.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d5ee27
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0023.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0024.png b/26440-page-images/p0024.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a0645ae
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0024.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0025.png b/26440-page-images/p0025.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3d0fabe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0025.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0026.png b/26440-page-images/p0026.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5df5cb7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0026.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0027.png b/26440-page-images/p0027.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..966e521
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0027.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0028.png b/26440-page-images/p0028.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df77378
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0028.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0029.png b/26440-page-images/p0029.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b9b53b7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0029.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0030.png b/26440-page-images/p0030.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6dbcb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0030.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0031.png b/26440-page-images/p0031.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2db420b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0031.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0032.png b/26440-page-images/p0032.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da61d49
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0032.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0033.png b/26440-page-images/p0033.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fd4311f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0033.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0034.png b/26440-page-images/p0034.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e41566
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0034.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0035.png b/26440-page-images/p0035.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f352771
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0035.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0036.png b/26440-page-images/p0036.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5b756d3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0036.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0037.png b/26440-page-images/p0037.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5aa5b73
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0037.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0038.png b/26440-page-images/p0038.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..862e95e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0038.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0039.png b/26440-page-images/p0039.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b373a13
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0039.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0040.png b/26440-page-images/p0040.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..43ba4fd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0040.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0041.png b/26440-page-images/p0041.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31ae495
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0041.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0042.png b/26440-page-images/p0042.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a08ed4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0042.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0043.png b/26440-page-images/p0043.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0154d23
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0043.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0044.png b/26440-page-images/p0044.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af8cebe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0044.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0045.png b/26440-page-images/p0045.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a93a02
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0045.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0046.png b/26440-page-images/p0046.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..71b4f58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0046.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0047.png b/26440-page-images/p0047.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a25f8db
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0047.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0048.png b/26440-page-images/p0048.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e6ccae0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0048.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0049.png b/26440-page-images/p0049.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2092e6d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0049.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0050.png b/26440-page-images/p0050.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..33e276e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0050.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0051.png b/26440-page-images/p0051.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3050b4a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0051.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0052.png b/26440-page-images/p0052.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ca9f12c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0052.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0053.png b/26440-page-images/p0053.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4f2a916
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0053.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0054.png b/26440-page-images/p0054.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbff079
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0054.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0055.png b/26440-page-images/p0055.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..37a6ad7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0055.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0056.png b/26440-page-images/p0056.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..54dc40e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0056.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0057.png b/26440-page-images/p0057.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..76ee1be
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0057.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0058.png b/26440-page-images/p0058.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5565983
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0058.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0059.png b/26440-page-images/p0059.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..351cef5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0059.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0060.png b/26440-page-images/p0060.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d190728
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0060.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0061.png b/26440-page-images/p0061.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cd2204
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0061.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0062.png b/26440-page-images/p0062.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4614ab6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0062.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0063.png b/26440-page-images/p0063.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..360e42f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0063.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0064.png b/26440-page-images/p0064.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f21df84
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0064.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0065.png b/26440-page-images/p0065.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60e3941
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0065.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0066.png b/26440-page-images/p0066.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..93fa86d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0066.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0067.png b/26440-page-images/p0067.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5f27c03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0067.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0068.png b/26440-page-images/p0068.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ad3d7ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0068.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0069.png b/26440-page-images/p0069.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ef221f6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0069.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0070.png b/26440-page-images/p0070.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f19e996
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0070.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0071.png b/26440-page-images/p0071.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2152cc3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0071.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0072.png b/26440-page-images/p0072.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4e5a5f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0072.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0073.png b/26440-page-images/p0073.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab59bac
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0073.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0074.png b/26440-page-images/p0074.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e397e75
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0074.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0075.png b/26440-page-images/p0075.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..15174a7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0075.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0076.png b/26440-page-images/p0076.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..149ba17
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0076.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0077.png b/26440-page-images/p0077.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..437fba3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0077.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0078.png b/26440-page-images/p0078.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..301e815
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0078.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0079.png b/26440-page-images/p0079.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5a4a609
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0079.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0080.png b/26440-page-images/p0080.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d44014a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0080.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0081.png b/26440-page-images/p0081.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..543b62d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0081.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0082.png b/26440-page-images/p0082.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6b70242
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0082.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0083.png b/26440-page-images/p0083.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..52ae893
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0083.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0084.png b/26440-page-images/p0084.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..330ee6e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0084.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0085.png b/26440-page-images/p0085.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4229592
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0085.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0086.png b/26440-page-images/p0086.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6af04d0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0086.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0087.png b/26440-page-images/p0087.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..63edea4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0087.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0088.png b/26440-page-images/p0088.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..09a500f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0088.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0089.png b/26440-page-images/p0089.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..116a37a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0089.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0090.png b/26440-page-images/p0090.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..085dae5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0090.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0091.png b/26440-page-images/p0091.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9d2ecf7
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0091.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0092.png b/26440-page-images/p0092.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..60e1c46
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0092.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0093.png b/26440-page-images/p0093.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..92ca0e2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0093.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0094.png b/26440-page-images/p0094.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b26d2f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0094.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0095.png b/26440-page-images/p0095.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bdb66c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0095.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0096.png b/26440-page-images/p0096.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1c4ac0d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0096.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0097.png b/26440-page-images/p0097.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e07def4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0097.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0098.png b/26440-page-images/p0098.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7a68688
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0098.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0099.png b/26440-page-images/p0099.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3358f22
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0099.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0100.png b/26440-page-images/p0100.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d0d9046
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0100.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0101.png b/26440-page-images/p0101.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bbe8499
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0101.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0102.png b/26440-page-images/p0102.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..85b634f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0102.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0103.png b/26440-page-images/p0103.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..205bae0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0103.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0104.png b/26440-page-images/p0104.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c588749
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0104.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0105.png b/26440-page-images/p0105.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e3e9102
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0105.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0106.png b/26440-page-images/p0106.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ff7e39
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0106.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0107.png b/26440-page-images/p0107.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3e922df
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0107.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0108.png b/26440-page-images/p0108.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a7ef820
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0108.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0109.png b/26440-page-images/p0109.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8579ca8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0109.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0110.png b/26440-page-images/p0110.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f4c91f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0110.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0111.png b/26440-page-images/p0111.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bedd581
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0111.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0112.png b/26440-page-images/p0112.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..df20607
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0112.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0113.png b/26440-page-images/p0113.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a1b6353
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0113.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0114.png b/26440-page-images/p0114.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..599b707
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0114.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0115.png b/26440-page-images/p0115.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5357877
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0115.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0116.png b/26440-page-images/p0116.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b66c832
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0116.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0117.png b/26440-page-images/p0117.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ff6e4b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0117.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0118.png b/26440-page-images/p0118.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc630ef
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0118.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0119.png b/26440-page-images/p0119.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..da2735e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0119.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0120.png b/26440-page-images/p0120.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c39508d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0120.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0121.png b/26440-page-images/p0121.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a4a66a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0121.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0122.png b/26440-page-images/p0122.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d223bcf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0122.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0123.png b/26440-page-images/p0123.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7ea8f33
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0123.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0124-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0124-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ce9822
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0124-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0124.png b/26440-page-images/p0124.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f1e4948
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0124.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0125-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0125-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82f1443
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0125-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0125.png b/26440-page-images/p0125.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..27cf134
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0125.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0126-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0126-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e410d03
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0126-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0126.png b/26440-page-images/p0126.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dc23707
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0126.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0127.png b/26440-page-images/p0127.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c43ca53
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0127.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0128.png b/26440-page-images/p0128.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..bc95381
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0128.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0129.png b/26440-page-images/p0129.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0a2620c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0129.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0130.png b/26440-page-images/p0130.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0c90069
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0130.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0131.png b/26440-page-images/p0131.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3f1ea52
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0131.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0132.png b/26440-page-images/p0132.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6ea6737
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0132.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0133.png b/26440-page-images/p0133.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9ede24c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0133.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0134.png b/26440-page-images/p0134.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1b67530
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0134.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0135.png b/26440-page-images/p0135.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5de2c87
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0135.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0136.png b/26440-page-images/p0136.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..af69605
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0136.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0137.png b/26440-page-images/p0137.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9519757
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0137.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0138.png b/26440-page-images/p0138.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35ae7a2
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0138.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0139.png b/26440-page-images/p0139.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9cacb71
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0139.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0140-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0140-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..089dc20
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0140-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0140.png b/26440-page-images/p0140.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..77f884c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0140.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0141.png b/26440-page-images/p0141.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1a8d6c3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0141.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0142.png b/26440-page-images/p0142.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f295963
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0142.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0143.png b/26440-page-images/p0143.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d9adfa8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0143.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0144.png b/26440-page-images/p0144.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..488e2d4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0144.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0145-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0145-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e72dd97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0145-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0145.png b/26440-page-images/p0145.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..31bdd4c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0145.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0146.png b/26440-page-images/p0146.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b0d9c6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0146.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0147.png b/26440-page-images/p0147.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..596047e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0147.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0148.png b/26440-page-images/p0148.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4fd3a28
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0148.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0149.png b/26440-page-images/p0149.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..97b1d41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0149.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0150.png b/26440-page-images/p0150.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..ab6b442
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0150.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0151-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0151-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4450627
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0151-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0151.png b/26440-page-images/p0151.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6daa7bb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0151.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0152.png b/26440-page-images/p0152.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9932e68
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0152.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0153.png b/26440-page-images/p0153.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b439f8e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0153.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0154.png b/26440-page-images/p0154.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..955bcdf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0154.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0155-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0155-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..241fc30
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0155-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0155.png b/26440-page-images/p0155.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..625fd10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0155.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0156-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0156-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8c62f9e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0156-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0156.png b/26440-page-images/p0156.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f5b4cbb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0156.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0157-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0157-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b48131b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0157-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0157.png b/26440-page-images/p0157.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0b3bebb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0157.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0158-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0158-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..074c0aa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0158-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0158.png b/26440-page-images/p0158.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3b812a5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0158.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0159-image1.png b/26440-page-images/p0159-image1.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f08b028
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0159-image1.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0159.png b/26440-page-images/p0159.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..469a1fe
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0159.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0160.png b/26440-page-images/p0160.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1fb1c41
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0160.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0161.png b/26440-page-images/p0161.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f96d4fc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0161.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0162.png b/26440-page-images/p0162.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d708654
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0162.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0163.png b/26440-page-images/p0163.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..791746e
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0163.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0164.png b/26440-page-images/p0164.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..25741fa
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0164.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0165.png b/26440-page-images/p0165.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fcd2352
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0165.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0166.png b/26440-page-images/p0166.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..35afedf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0166.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0167.png b/26440-page-images/p0167.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..c579be1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0167.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0168.png b/26440-page-images/p0168.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a02038f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0168.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0169.png b/26440-page-images/p0169.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f80d53d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0169.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0170.png b/26440-page-images/p0170.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..b67f518
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0170.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0171.png b/26440-page-images/p0171.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8849eaf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0171.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0172.png b/26440-page-images/p0172.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..26e0c97
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0172.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0173.png b/26440-page-images/p0173.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2928824
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0173.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0174.png b/26440-page-images/p0174.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..0f5b903
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0174.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0175.png b/26440-page-images/p0175.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..a6f93f9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0175.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0176.png b/26440-page-images/p0176.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..3a9c489
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0176.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0177.png b/26440-page-images/p0177.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..88432cf
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0177.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0178.png b/26440-page-images/p0178.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2d4b742
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0178.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0179.png b/26440-page-images/p0179.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..8ede70c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0179.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0180.png b/26440-page-images/p0180.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..74846f3
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0180.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0181.png b/26440-page-images/p0181.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..1747f32
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0181.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0182.png b/26440-page-images/p0182.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..59c1c10
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0182.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0183.png b/26440-page-images/p0183.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..2cddbda
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0183.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0184.png b/26440-page-images/p0184.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fa98cb9
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0184.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0185.png b/26440-page-images/p0185.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6dd72b8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0185.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0186.png b/26440-page-images/p0186.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..dd513d5
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0186.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0187.png b/26440-page-images/p0187.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..68f1db0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0187.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0188.png b/26440-page-images/p0188.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9bf0002
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0188.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0189.png b/26440-page-images/p0189.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..edc8cf8
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0189.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0190.png b/26440-page-images/p0190.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..5ed605d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0190.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0191.png b/26440-page-images/p0191.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6887cfb
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0191.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0192.png b/26440-page-images/p0192.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..82a035f
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0192.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0193.png b/26440-page-images/p0193.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..9649432
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0193.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0194.png b/26440-page-images/p0194.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4283132
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0194.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0195.png b/26440-page-images/p0195.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4ad43c0
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0195.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0196.png b/26440-page-images/p0196.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..45cd646
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0196.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/p0197.png b/26440-page-images/p0197.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..48d50af
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/p0197.png
diff --git a/26440-page-images/q0001.png b/26440-page-images/q0001.png
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..7570bcc
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440-page-images/q0001.png
diff --git a/26440.txt b/26440.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e578b58
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,6816 @@
+Project Gutenberg's Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by James Braidwood
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction
+
+Author: James Braidwood
+
+Release Date: August 27, 2008 [EBook #26440]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Jas. Braidwood]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION
+
+AND
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION.
+
+
+BY
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD,
+
+FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF THE LONDON FIRE-BRIGADE, AND ASSOCIATE OF
+THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
+
+
+INCLUDING
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES, FIRE-PROOF SAFES, PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES, PRIVATE
+MEANS FOR SUPPRESSING FIRES, FIRE-ENGINES, FIRE ANNIHILATORS,
+PORTABLE FIRE-ESCAPES, WATER SUPPLY
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, MEMOIR, AND PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR.
+
+
+LONDON:
+BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET.
+1866.
+
+[_The right of Translation is reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+MEMOIR.
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+Introductory, Early Fires, Fire Engines, and Fire Brigades           5
+
+Mr. Braidwood's birth and education                                  7
+
+Great Fire of Edinburgh, and appointment as head of Brigade          8
+
+Award of Silver Medal of Society of Arts, London; publication
+of work on Fire Engines                                             11
+
+Formation of London Fire Brigade; appointment as Superintendent     13
+
+Testimonials received upon leaving Edinburgh                        14
+
+London residence and routine of duty                                16
+
+Valuable services of the Royal Society for the Protection of
+Life from Fire                                                      17
+
+Statistics of Fires; improvement of Fire Engines                    18
+
+Introduction of ladders, hose reel, and hand pump                   19
+
+Floating Fire Engines, hand worked and steam; Land Steam
+Fire Engine                                                         20
+
+Inspection of Government Dockyards and Public Buildings;
+establishment of a standard hose coupling                           21
+
+Admitted an Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers;
+award of Telford Medal; endeavours to restrain the erection
+of immoderate-sized warehouses                                      22
+
+His opinion as to the inadequacy of London Fire Brigade;
+Great Tooley Street Fire                                            23
+
+Death of Mr. Braidwood                                              24
+
+Public funeral                                                      25
+
+Public and private character                                        28
+
+World-wide esteem in which he was held                              30
+
+Poem--A True Hero                                                   32
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION, INCLUDING FIREPROOF STRUCTURES--CAUSES OF FIRES.
+
+
+Inattention in the use of fires and lights                          33
+
+Advantages of a legal inquiry into the cause of Fires               37
+
+Improper construction of buildings                                  37
+
+Acts of Parliament for buildings in London                          39
+
+Results of improper construction of warehouses in Liverpool         41
+
+Arrangements for the safety of the audience in theatres             42
+
+Danger from furnaces and close fires                                43
+
+Danger from pipes conveying products of combustion                  44
+
+Spontaneous ignition; use of gas                                    45
+
+Incendiarism; monomania                                             46
+
+
+FIREPROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+What is fireproof construction                                      47
+
+Use of cast and wrought-iron                                        49
+
+Mr. Fairbairn's experiments                                         50
+
+Danger to life from use of cast-iron columns                        54
+
+Report on warehouses                                                55
+
+Covering timber with iron                                           56
+
+Fireproof dwelling-houses                                           57
+
+Fireproof safes                                                     58
+
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE
+ENGINES, AND WATER SUPPLY--FIRE BRIGADES.
+
+
+Individual exertions for Fire Extinction                            59
+
+Fire Brigades on the Continent of Europe, in England, in America    66
+
+Necessity for the control of arrangements by one individual         67
+
+Proposal for a national system                                      68
+
+Fire Engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences               70
+
+Training and discipline of Firemen                                  71
+
+General instructions for Firemen, and for the use of Fire Engines   72
+
+Necessity for the water striking the burning materials              74
+
+Inventions for elevating branch pipes considered                    76
+
+
+LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+General description of men and engines                              79
+
+Division of London into districts                                   81
+
+General regulations                                                 82
+
+Conditions of entrance into the establishment                       83
+
+Outline of general duty                                             85
+
+Duties of Superintendent                                            88
+
+   "      Foremen                                                   90
+
+   "      Engineers                                                 93
+
+   "      Sub-Engineers and Firemen                                 94
+
+
+EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+Description of men selected                                         96
+
+Mode of communicating with Firemen at a Fire                        97
+
+Dress and drill of Firemen                                          99
+
+Gymnastic exercises                                                104
+
+General regulations                                                106
+
+Duties of Police                                                   107
+
+   "      Superintendent of Brigade                                109
+
+   "      Head Enginemen                                           110
+
+   "      Firemen, and High Constables                             111
+
+   "      Magistrates, and Gas-Light Companies                     113
+
+Special regulations for Firemen                                    114
+
+Means of escape from Fire                                          118
+
+
+FIRE ENGINES.
+
+
+The application of manual power                                    123
+
+Engines used by the British Government                             124
+
+Description of Brigade Fire Engine                                 126
+
+Hand Pump; keeping Fire Engines in order                           130
+
+Selection of Engine House                                          132
+
+Apparatus provided with London Brigade Engine                      133
+
+Leather hose                                                       134
+
+Hose couplings                                                     140
+
+Suction pipes                                                      143
+
+Jet pipes, proper shape                                            145
+
+Fire annihilator                                                   149
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY.
+
+
+By pressure, from surface of ground, and by sunk tanks             150
+
+Experiments with jets under a constant pressure                    153
+
+Fire plug used in London                                           155
+
+Canvas cistern and stand-cock used with fire plug                  156
+
+Double fire-cock used in the Government Dockyards                  158
+
+Double hollow key fire-cock used in the British Museum             159
+
+Supply by Water Companies in London                                162
+
+Supplying Fire Engines from fire-cocks, &c.                        163
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+Steam Fire Engines, progress in construction                       166
+
+Trials before the Jury of the International Exhibition, 1862       168
+
+Trials at the International Competition, London, 1863              173
+
+Steam Fire Engines in use by Metropolitan Brigade, May, 1866       181
+
+Act of Parliament for Metropolitan Fire Brigade                    182
+
+Establishment of Metropolitan Fire Brigade                         197
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+
+Portrait of Mr. Braidwood on steel by Jeens,
+from a photograph by Williams                            Frontispiece.
+
+Longitudinal section of Brigade Fire Engine                        124
+
+Transverse section of ditto                                        125
+
+Old coupling for hose                                              140
+
+New ditto, ditto                                                   141
+
+Branch and jet pipe                                                145
+
+Opening in sunk tank for suction pipe                              151
+
+Fire plug used in London                                           155
+
+Fire plug with canvas cistern                                      156
+
+Fire plug with stand-cock                                          157
+
+Single fire-cock                                                   158
+
+Double fire-cock used at dockyards                                 158
+
+Double fire-cock used at British Museum                            159
+
+
+
+
+EDITOR'S PREFACE.
+
+
+The appearance at the beginning of last year, in the Annual Report of
+the Institution of Civil Engineers for 1861 and 1862, of a short
+memoir of Mr. Braidwood, suggested the publication of a more extended
+account of the life of the late head of the London Fire Brigade,
+combined with his opinions upon the subject of his profession.
+
+These opinions are comprised in a work on "Fire Engines, and the
+Training of Firemen," published in Edinburgh in 1830; two papers upon
+cognate subjects read before the Institution of Civil Engineers, two
+similar papers read before the Society of Arts, and in a variety of
+reports upon public buildings, warehouses, &c. While regretting the
+great loss that the public has sustained, in being deprived by Mr.
+Braidwood's sudden death of a complete record of his long and varied
+London experience, it has been considered advisable to republish the
+above materials arranged in a systematic form, omitting only such
+parts as the Author's more matured experience rendered desirable, but
+confining the whole to his own words.
+
+LONDON,
+
+  _June, 1866._
+
+
+
+
+AUTHOR'S PREFACE
+
+_To his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines and Apparatus; the
+Training of Firemen; and the Method of Proceeding in cases of Fire,"
+published in Edinburgh, in 1830._
+
+
+Not having been able to find any work on Fire-Engines in the English
+language, I have been led to publish the following remarks, in the
+hope of inducing others to give further information on the subject.
+
+For the style of the work I make no apology; and as I presume no one
+will read it except for the purpose of gaining information, my aim
+will be obtained if I shall have succeeded in imparting it, or in
+directing the public attention to the advantage which may be derived
+from the systematic training of Firemen.
+
+
+
+
+MEMOIR
+
+OF
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD.
+
+
+The history of mankind, from the earliest times, has been one of
+alternate peace and war with fire. The immeasurable value of its
+obedience, and the fearful consequences of its insubordination, have,
+in all ages, made its due subjection one of the most important
+conditions of even human existence itself. As camps and trading
+stations grew into populous cities, the dangers of fire were both
+multiplied and aggravated. Its ravages in the ancient capitals of the
+world are matters of history; and it is established that something
+like organization was extended to the means then employed for
+suppressing conflagrations. Even the fire-engine itself, in a
+practicable, although imperfect form, was described and illustrated by
+a sectional working drawing, by Hero of Alexandria, in a book written
+by him more than one hundred years before the Christian era. In its
+many translations, from the original Greek into Latin and into modern
+tongues, Hero's book, with its remarkable series of drawings, still
+occupies a place in the mechanical literature of our own time. But,
+although the construction of the fire-engine was thus known two
+thousand years ago, we have no actual evidence of its use until within
+the last two centuries; and within the whole compass of English
+history, at least, we know that nothing like discipline and
+organization, in the modern sense of the terms, were introduced into
+the management of fire apparatus until a time quite within the
+recollection of the middle-aged men of our own day. If there be
+anything apparently improbable in this fact, we need only recollect
+that many of the grandest triumphs of human genius, with which we are
+already so familiar, are not yet forty years old. The modern system of
+English fire brigades belongs wholly to the period of railways, steam
+navigation, and electric telegraphs, and it owes nearly all to the
+genius and disciplined heroism of a single individual, James
+Braidwood, who, but little more than four years ago, fell--as nobly
+for himself as sadly for others--at his chosen post of duty. What,
+when he first gave his energies--indeed, his whole heart to it, was
+but the rough and unskilful employment of the fireman, became under
+Mr. Braidwood's command and his infusing spirit of order and
+intelligence, as distinguished from reckless daring, a noble pursuit,
+almost rising in dignity to a profession, and indeed acknowledged as
+such by many, and significantly, although indirectly, by Royalty
+itself.
+
+Until the year 1833, not only the parish engines of the metropolis,
+numbering, as they did, about three hundred, but the engines also of
+the Fire Insurance Companies, were comparatively inefficient and often
+out of order, while they were also under the most diverse, if not
+irresponsible management. There were no really trained firemen, and
+those who controlled and worked the engines were oftener in antagonism
+with each other than acting in concert. The parish engines were in the
+care of the beadles, and in one case a beadle's widow, Mrs. Smith, for
+some years commanded one of the city engines. The energies of each
+band of firemen were commonly reserved for the protection of property
+only in which their own insurance company or parish was immediately
+interested. As a rule, whatever water was thrown upon a burning
+building was dashed against the walls, windows, and roof from the
+outside only, very little if any really reaching the actual seat of
+the fire within. As a consequence, fires, which are now quickly "got
+under," were then left to burn themselves out, the spreading of the
+fire being prevented either by deluging the contiguous buildings with
+water, or by pulling them down altogether.
+
+James Braidwood was born in Edinburgh in the year 1800. His father was
+a well-known upholsterer and builder, who appears to have chosen for
+his son the profession of a surveyor. To this end he was entered at
+the High School, then under the rectorship of Mr. (afterwards
+Professor) Pillans, and here, and subsequently under private masters,
+the youth received a sound education in the branches most appropriate
+to his intended pursuit in life. He was for some time engaged in his
+father's business, and thereby gained an amount of practical
+knowledge, which was of, perhaps, as much service to him in his
+subsequent career as a fireman, as it would have been had he adopted
+the profession originally chosen for him. Young Braidwood was an apt
+student, a fact, perhaps, sufficiently attested afterwards by his
+successful authorship, at the age of thirty, of the only English work
+then extant upon the fire-engine and its proper management. He read
+much, wrote well, was a good draughtsman, and had a sound knowledge of
+mechanics. But whether his powers required wider scope than a
+surveyor's practice could offer, or whether, more than forty years
+ago, and in Edinburgh, the chances of professional success were very
+much less than now, James Braidwood soon turned his mind to what
+became the great work of his life. He was becoming known for activity
+and a high order of personal courage, and there were those in place
+and power who saw in him the other elements of character which go to
+make a successful leader of men. He was soon, and when but
+twenty-three years of age, made the superintendent of the Edinburgh
+fire engines, and he almost as soon began to reform their inefficient
+and vicious system of management. He had held his post but three
+weeks, however, when the series of fires broke forth which still bear
+the name of the Great Fire of Edinburgh. Many of the old and lofty
+houses in the High Street were destroyed, between four and five
+hundred families were made houseless, ten persons were either killed
+outright or fatally injured, and for several days nearly the whole of
+the High Street, if not the larger part of the old town, was
+threatened with destruction. Never were the consequences of want of
+organization more conspicuous. There was no real command, for there
+were none to obey; and while those who might have stopped the flames
+at the outset, wasted their own energies in random efforts, or,
+perhaps, fell to quarrelling among themselves, the fearful devastation
+rolled on. The occasion was sufficient to induce the authorities and
+insurance companies to listen to and profit by Mr. Braidwood's
+recommendations. They consented to bear in common the expenses
+necessary to organize and maintain an efficient brigade. This was soon
+formed of picked men, who, although daily engaged in their former
+ordinary occupations, were regularly inspected, trained, and exercised
+early in one morning of every week. Fires were becoming more and more
+numerous year by year; but the influence of the improved system was
+soon felt. The men were taught to improve to the utmost the first few
+minutes after an alarm was given, and by constant emulation and
+discipline, a spirit of wonderful readiness was cultivated in them.
+They were trained to seek out and follow up the source of a fire
+before it had had time to spread, and to throw the water from the
+engines directly upon it, instead of wastefully, if not injuriously
+about. The result was, that while out of forty-eight fires which
+happened in the first year of the history of the brigade, eleven
+proved total losses, and twelve "considerable" losses, the number of
+total losses decreased rapidly, year by year, while the whole number
+of "calls" was almost as rapidly increasing. Thus in the second year
+of the brigade there were eighty "calls," of which seven were total,
+and eighteen considerable losses. In the next three years, with from
+ninety-four to one hundred and ninety-four "calls" yearly, there was
+but one total loss in each year, and but from nine to eighteen
+"considerable" losses.
+
+Mr. Braidwood was meanwhile improving the fire-escapes, and when new
+engines were added to the force, he procured better workmanship. By
+his personal influence, also, more than by the mere advantage of
+official position, Mr. Braidwood secured the constant co-operation of
+the police in giving the earliest alarms of fire, and in facilitating
+the labours of the firemen when actually on duty. As has just been
+shown, the results of method, applied skill, and of a personal
+devotion cultivated under the high impulse of immediate public
+observation and approval, were soon manifest. To this vast improvement
+the _Edinburgh Mercury_, as representing the opinion of the citizens
+of the Scottish capital, bore public testimony in its issue of August
+14, 1828, when the Fire Brigade of that city had been tested by nearly
+five years of constant trial, and with conspicuous success. Referring
+to the excellent organization of the establishment, it was remarked
+that there were then but few, if any, serious fires in Edinburgh, for
+when a fire broke out--and the alarms were as frequent as ever--it was
+speedily checked. Said the writer:--
+
+     "Not only is the apparatus constructed on the best possible
+     principles, but the whole system of operations has been
+     changed. The public, however, do not see the same bustle, or
+     hear the same noise as formerly; and hence they seem
+     erroneously to conclude that there is nothing done. The fact
+     is, the spectator sees the preparation for action made, but
+     he sees no more. Where the strength of the men and the
+     supply of water used to be wasted, by being thrown against
+     windows, walls, and roofs, the firemen now seek out the spot
+     where the danger lies, and creeping on hands and feet into a
+     chamber full of flame, or smoke, often at the hazard of
+     suffocation, discover the exact seat of danger; and, by
+     bringing the water in contact with it, obtain immediate
+     mastery over the powerful element with which they have to
+     contend. In this daring and dangerous work men have
+     occasionally fainted from heat, or dropped down from want of
+     respiration, in which cases the next person at hand is
+     always ready to assist his companion, and to release him
+     from his service of danger."
+
+In a fire which happened while Mr. Braidwood was at the head of the
+Edinburgh Brigade, he won great admiration by bringing out from the
+burning building a quantity of gunpowder which was known to be stored
+there. He would not ask any of his men to undertake this dangerous
+feat, but, amidst the breathless suspense of thousands of spectators,
+he coolly searched for and safely carried out, first one, and then a
+second, cask of this explosive material. Had the fire reached the
+powder, it was known that the worst consequences of the conflagration
+would have been immensely increased.
+
+The fame of the Edinburgh Brigade rapidly spread throughout the
+kingdom, and it gradually became regarded as a model to which all
+other organizations for the suppression of fires would ultimately be
+made to conform. As a response to constant inquiries from a distance,
+Mr. Braidwood, in 1829, forwarded to the Society of Arts, London, a
+description of his chain-ladder fire-escape. For this invaluable
+apparatus, which had already effected a considerable saving of life,
+the Society's Silver Medal was awarded, and, accompanying the award,
+the Council of the Society extended an invitation to the author to
+"give a complete account of his mode of drilling firemen, and
+combining the use of fire-escapes with the ordinary fire-engine
+service." Responding to this invitation, Mr. Braidwood in the
+following year published his work "On the Construction of Fire-Engines
+and Apparatus, the Training of Firemen, and the Method of Proceeding
+in Cases of Fire." From this work, which may still be regarded as an
+authority, extensive extracts have been made in the subsequent
+chapters of the present volume, and it need not, therefore, be further
+referred to here than to say that it formed a thoroughly original
+account of an original system, and that its illustrations, which were
+especially clear, were drawn by the author's own hand. This work
+attracted much attention from municipal bodies and insurance companies
+throughout the kingdom, and more than one official deputation visited
+Edinburgh to learn from Mr. Braidwood himself the details of a system
+which was already working such important results. In London,
+especially, three West India warehouses had been burnt in the year
+1829, with a loss of 300,000_l._; and with the extending use of gas,
+the increasing frequency of fires, and the conspicuous inefficiency of
+the parish engines, and the want of unity of action among the
+insurance companies, it was felt that what had answered so well in
+Edinburgh would prove still more valuable in the metropolis. The
+general estimation in which Mr. Braidwood's services were then held
+may be considered as expressed in the following, among other
+contemporary reviews of his book:--
+
+     "The Edinburgh Fire-engine Establishment is now all but
+     perfect. A unity of system has been accomplished, and a
+     corps of firemen mustered, who, in point of physical vigour
+     and moral intrepidity, are all entitled to be denominated
+     chosen men. At the head of this band stands Mr. Braidwood,
+     an individual who has on several occasions given abundant
+     evidence of promptitude in extremity, and a noble contempt
+     of personal danger, and whose enthusiasm, in what we may
+     call his profession, could not have been more strikingly
+     exemplified than by his illustrating it in the manner we now
+     see before us. It is the only book we are acquainted with
+     that treats of the systematic training of firemen; and from
+     the perspicuity of its details, it must necessarily become
+     the manual of all such institutions, and ought to find a
+     place in every insurance office in the United Kingdom."
+
+It had been from time to time attempted to bring the fire apparatus of
+the London Insurance Companies under a single management; but it was
+nearly ten years after the establishment of the Edinburgh Fire
+Brigade, and only when Mr. Braidwood himself had been invited to come
+to London, that this was at last effected. As for the parish engines,
+they were wholly neglected under this arrangement, and, indeed, a
+great number of them had been already allowed to fall into disuse, as
+far as could be permitted without incurring the penalties of the
+Statutes of 1774. On the 1st January, 1833, at the instance of Mr.
+Ford, of the Sun Fire-office, eight of the insurance companies formed
+an association of fire-engines and firemen, each company withholding
+its own distinctive name and badges from the united force. This was
+known as the London Fire-engine Establishment. It was supported by the
+companies in common, each in proportion to the premiums received from
+its business in London, a minimum rate being fixed. Each company
+contributing to the support of the establishment nominated one member
+of the committee of management. This association existed for
+thirty-three years, when on the 1st of January, 1866, the Metropolitan
+Board of Works took charge of the fire-engines and the general fire
+establishment of the metropolis. Mr. Braidwood took the command of the
+London Brigade thus formed at the onset. The Edinburgh Fire-engine
+Committee, on accepting his resignation, presented him with a gold
+watch, and a vote of thanks, "for the singularly indefatigable manner
+in which he had discharged the duties of his important office, not
+merely by his extraordinary exertions on occasions of emergency, but
+for the care and attention he had bestowed on the training of the
+firemen, whereby the establishment had been brought to its present
+high state of efficiency." He had previously received from the men
+under him a handsome silver cup, bearing the following
+inscription:--"Presented to Mr. James Braidwood, by the City of
+Edinburgh Firemen, as a token of their admiration of him as their
+leader, and of deep respect for him as a gentleman."
+
+As in Edinburgh, the London Fire Brigade under Mr. Braidwood's
+superintendence became a new force, and in every respect a remarkable
+organization. Where the inefficiency of the old firemen could not at
+once be made to yield to discipline, they were pensioned off; and
+within a short time a select band of active, hardy, and thoroughly
+trained men was formed. In 1834, the second year of Mr. Braidwood's
+superintendence, the Houses of Parliament were burnt; and a most
+destructive fire occurred also at Mile-end. The first-named fire
+created general consternation, and there are many persons who can
+still recollect that also at Mile-end. These great fires stimulated
+Mr. Braidwood to increased exertions, and the result was soon visible
+in the lessened proportion of totally destroyed premises to the whole
+number of fires. The brigade had, of course, no power of prevention,
+and alarms of fire were becoming more numerous than ever. The use of
+friction matches and of gas was increasing enormously; manufactures,
+and the steam-engines and machinery for conducting them, were being
+rapidly multiplied; and with the vast progress making in the
+production of cotton goods, the use of cotton curtains and
+bed-furniture was becoming common in dwellings forming a large
+proportion of the metropolis, but in which, not long before, such
+articles were either regarded as luxuries or were altogether unknown.
+The total number of fires attended by the brigade in the year 1833,
+exclusive of chimneys on fire, was 458, while in 1851 the number had
+risen to 928; and although London had been growing all this time, it
+had not doubled in size to correspond with the increased number of
+fires. But while the total yearly number of fires, since the formation
+of the brigade, has shown a large and hardly interrupted increase, the
+number of cases of total destruction has almost as steadily
+diminished. Thus, "totally destroyed" was reported of 31 fires in the
+year 1833, whereas in 1839 there were but 17 cases, and the average
+for twenty-one years, from 1833 to 1853 inclusive, was but 25-1/2
+yearly, while at the present time, with all the vast growth of London,
+the average, under the continuance of Mr. Braidwood's system, is
+hardly if at all greater.
+
+Mr. Braidwood from the first exhibited excellent judgment in his
+choice of men to serve under him. He chose sailors, as a rule, as
+being accustomed to obedience, and to irregular and prolonged duty,
+while also they were especially hardy and active; and where there was
+especial danger which must be met, he was always ready to lead, and
+his men had soon learned to confide in his quick and sound judgment in
+emergency, knowing that he would never permit them to incur needless
+risk. His own iron constitution, and his habits of constant vigilance,
+served as a high standard and incentive to those about him; and thus
+it was, by selection, discipline, and example, resting upon a
+foundation of even paternal kindness, that the men of the London Fire
+Brigade became conspicuous for their courage, energy, hardihood, and
+unalterable devotion to duty. The brigade, too, was most popular with
+the public, and could always count upon any necessary assistance in
+their labours. The system of rewards given to whoever was the first to
+bring a call of fire, the liberal gratuity to the policeman who first
+reached the burning premises, there preventing undue confusion, and by
+keeping the street-door closed, shutting off a strong draught of air
+from the flames, and the handsome pay to the ready throng of
+strong-armed men who worked the engines, secured every co-operation
+from the public, beyond that naturally springing from a general
+admiration of so brave and well-trained a body of men.
+
+Mr. Braidwood's residence was at the principal station of the
+Fire-engine Establishment in Watling-street. To this station came all
+alarms of fire. He attended in person all calls from leading
+thoroughfares, public buildings, or localities where a serious
+conflagration might be expected. In the night a call was announced to
+him through a speaking-tube reaching to his bedside. The gas in his
+room was always burning, and he would quickly decide, from the known
+locality of the fire, and from the report given, whether he need go
+himself. In any case, his men were awake and quickly away. Rapidity in
+dressing, and in horseing and mounting the engines, was but a detail
+of daily drill. The moment the scene of action was reached, nothing
+was allowed to stand in the way of access to the actual seat of the
+fire, and nothing either in securing a supply of water. The inmates of
+the premises, if any, were quickly got out, and wherever an unhappy
+creature was cut off by the flames, there were always one or more
+firemen ready, if necessary, to brave an apparently certain death in a
+heroic attempt at rescue--an attempt, indeed, which but seldom failed.
+It is but just to say here that the firemen were always nobly
+seconded, if not indeed anticipated, in these attempts by the officers
+and men of the Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire--a
+body which has long rendered priceless services to humanity under most
+appalling circumstances. The men of the Fire Brigade were taught to
+prevent, as much as possible, the access of air to the burning
+materials. What the open door of the ash pit is to the furnace of a
+steam-boiler the open street door is to the house on fire. In both
+cases the door gives vital air to the flames. The men of the Brigade
+were trained to pursue a fire, not yet under full headway, up-stairs
+and down, in at windows and out through the roof, anywhere, so it
+could be reached directly by the water from the engines. They were
+made to regard it as worse than a waste to throw even a gallon of
+water upon a dead wall or upon a surface of slate or plaster, so long
+as by any means the branch pipe could be got to bear upon the seat of
+the fire itself. The statistics of the operations of the London
+Fire-engine Establishment from 1833 to the present time, show with
+what success the system originated and so admirably carried out by Mr
+Braidwood has been pursued. Of the whole number of fires not one in
+fifty now proceeds to the extent of total destruction of the premises.
+
+Previous to the organization of the Fire-engine Establishment there
+were no official annual reports of the fires in the metropolis. No one
+person by himself was indeed in a position to know all of the fires
+that happened, any more than, but for Lloyds', could we know of all
+the wrecks which take place around and upon our coasts. It was
+impossible, under such a state of things, that either the value of
+insurance to the insured or its risk to the insurer could be rightly
+known. The general public could only know that, like fevers and
+certain other classes of disease, fires were always breaking out, but
+no one could know, even approximately, how great or how little was the
+real general risk. When, however, a fire establishment was formed, the
+engines were called to all fires, whether of insured or uninsured
+property. It was not now difficult to tabulate the number and
+localities of fires; but Mr. Braidwood went further, and extended his
+yearly tables to include the various causes of fires, and the
+classification of the premises, whether residences, shops, warehouses,
+manufactories, &c., where they occurred, the subdivision of these
+classes being extended to every variety of occupation and business.
+Even the hours at which the various fires broke out were carefully
+tabulated, and thus the particulars of London fires soon became an
+important branch of statistics, from which the operations of insurance
+have derived increased certainty, with greater economy to the insured.
+
+Although regarding the training and discipline of firemen as of the
+first importance in the organization of a fire brigade, Mr. Braidwood
+gave a large share of attention to the improvement of fire-engines and
+their kindred appliances. While in Edinburgh, where the steepness of
+many of the streets, and the roughness of the pavements in the older
+parts of the town prevented the rapid and easy movement of heavy
+engines, he recommended and adopted a lighter description, but in
+London he recognised the necessity for greater power. Mr. Tilley, then
+a fire-engine maker in the Blackfriars'-road, ably seconded his
+efforts, and at length the distinctive type known as the London Fire
+Brigade Engine was produced, and which, weighing about eighteen cwt.
+when ready for service, would throw eighty-eight gallons of water per
+minute, and, in short trials, as much as 120 gallons in the same time.
+This engine was mounted upon springs, and in strength and ease of
+working presented a marked improvement upon those which had preceded
+it. Its ordinary working complement of men was twenty-eight, and
+larger engines, upon the same general design, have since been made, to
+be worked by from forty-five to sixty men. The steam fire-engine has
+already, to a certain extent, superseded the brigade engine, but the
+latter is still likely, for some time at least, to be preferred for a
+large class of fires, both in London and in the provinces.
+
+Mr. Braidwood at an early date adopted the ordinary military scaling
+ladders to the purposes of his brigade, two being placed on each
+engine, and at his recommendation ladders were also placed on a
+two-wheeled carriage as a convenient fire-escape. He also induced the
+Admiralty, in 1841, to adopt hose-reels in the various dockyards,
+these implements having been previously in successful use in New York.
+In 1848 he was induced, in consequence of the large number of small
+fires to which his engines were called out, to adopt a small hand-pump
+as an auxiliary to the fire-engine. This could be rapidly brought to
+bear, and although worked by but one man, the value of a small
+quantity of water thrown directly upon the seat of a small fire was
+found to be greater than that of perhaps twenty times as much when
+thrown about in the ordinary manner. It was of great importance also
+in warehouses stored with valuable goods, to throw the least necessary
+quantity of water upon a fire. These hand-pumps still form an
+important part of the present apparatus of the brigade, and they have
+been widely adopted elsewhere.
+
+London, unlike Edinburgh, has a vast water-side property, always
+exposed to danger from fire. Almost immediately, therefore, after
+having taken the command of the London Brigade, Mr. Braidwood directed
+his attention to the construction of improved floating fire-engines,
+to be moored in the river, where they would be always available for
+the protection of wharf property. Two were constructed, one being a
+machine of great power, with pumps made to be worked by 120 men. These
+machines proved of great value. In 1852, shortly after the memorable
+fire at Humphrey's warehouses, he persuaded the Fire-engine Committee
+to allow one of these engines to be altered so as to work by steam,
+and in 1855 a large self-propelling floating steam fire-engine was
+made upon a novel construction, and which, having already rendered
+great service at fires on the river side, still ranks as the most
+powerful machine in the service of the brigade. With locomotive
+boilers and large double steam engines, this float can steam nine
+miles an hour, and when in place at a fire it can throw four streams
+of water, each from a jet-pipe of 1-1/2 inch in diameter, to a great
+distance. In the great fire of 1861, this floating engine was worked
+with but little intermission for upwards of a fortnight. In 1860 Mr.
+Braidwood obtained the sanction of the Fire-engine Committee for the
+introduction of a land steam fire-engine, and although he did not live
+to witness the present remarkable development of these machines, he
+was enabled to employ the first one in the brigade with much
+advantage.
+
+We may quote here from a brief but excellent memoir of Mr. Braidwood,
+which appeared in the annual report of the Institution of Civil
+Engineers for 1861:
+
+     "As early as 1841, the Government began to profit by his
+     experience, the Lords of the Admiralty having in that year
+     consulted him on the subject of floating fire-engines for
+     the various dockyards. These were eventually constructed
+     from his designs and under his superintendence. In the
+     following year he inspected all the dockyards, and reported
+     fully on each, with regard to both floating and land
+     fire-engines, the supply of water, the alterations of
+     buildings to prevent spread of fire, and the proper care
+     required in dangerous trades. From this time, although not
+     holding any appointment, he acted as Government consulting
+     engineer on all questions relating to fire prevention and
+     extinction, and he advised from time to time the precautions
+     to be taken for the protection of the royal palaces and
+     various other public buildings. This position enabled him,
+     not without a great deal of opposition, to induce the
+     Government to adopt in all its departments a uniform size of
+     hose-coupling. This is the one which he introduced in
+     Edinburgh, and known as the London Fire Brigade coupling, is
+     now in almost universal use; its application has been found
+     comparatively of as much utility for fire-brigade purposes,
+     as the adoption of the Whitworth gauges of screw-bolts for
+     mechanical engineering.
+
+     "Although so fully occupied, he never refused advice on
+     professional matters to all who sought it. The various dock
+     companies, public institutions, country fire brigades,
+     private firms, &c., benefited largely by his experience. The
+     numerous inquiries from foreign countries and the colonies
+     with regard to the best means of extinguishing fires, also
+     made great inroads on his time. In 1833 he became an
+     Associate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to which,
+     in 1844, he contributed a valuable paper 'On the means of
+     rendering large supplies of Water available in case of Fire,
+     &c.,' for which he was awarded a Telford Medal; and in 1849
+     a second paper 'On Fire-Proof Buildings.' In 1856, a paper
+     on 'Fires: the best means of preventing and arresting them;
+     with a few words on Fire-Proof Structures,' was read by him
+     before the Society of Arts.
+
+     "He took great interest in the passing of Acts of Parliament
+     for regulating buildings in the metropolis, was consulted by
+     the framers of these Acts, and used his utmost influence to
+     prevent the endangering a whole neighbourhood by the
+     erection of monster warehouses for private profit. He
+     strongly contended for the principle of dividing buildings
+     by party-walls carried through the roof, and restricting
+     these divisions to a moderate cubic content. Writing to Lord
+     Seymour, Commissioner of Woods and Forests, on the 28th
+     June, 1851, he said 'that no preparations for contending
+     with such fires will give anything like the security that
+     judicious arrangements in the size and construction of
+     buildings will do.' The wise provisions introduced through
+     his instrumentality into these Acts of Parliament were
+     continually being evaded, and clusters of warehouses quickly
+     rose which he saw would, if on fire, defy all his means of
+     extinction. In a letter to Sir W. Molesworth, First
+     Commissioner of Public Works, dated 10th February, 1854, on
+     the subject of a proposed warehouse in Tooley-street, he
+     wrote 'The whole building, if once fairly on fire in one
+     floor, will become such a mass of fire that there is now no
+     power in London capable of extinguishing it, or even of
+     restraining its ravages on every side, and on three sides it
+     will be surrounded by property of immense value.' How
+     literally this was realized, and at what cost, was shown by
+     the great warehouse fire in Tooley-street, on the 22nd June,
+     1861, at which Mr. Braidwood lost his life."
+
+The great fire at Cotton's Wharf; Tooley-street, broke out on
+Saturday, June 22nd, 1861, and continued to burn for more than a
+fortnight, consuming Scovell's, and other large warehouses, and, in
+all, upwards of two millions' worth of property. The fire is believed
+to have originated in the spontaneous combustion of hemp, of which
+upwards of 1000 tons were consumed, together with 3000 tons of sugar,
+500 tons of saltpetre, nearly 5000 tons of rice, 18,000 bales of
+cotton, 10,000 casks of tallow, 1100 tons of jute, and an immense
+quantity of tea, spices, &c., besides many other descriptions of
+goods. Although discovered in broad daylight, and before the flames
+had made any considerable headway, the want of a ready supply of
+water, and the fact that the iron doors in the division walls between
+the several warehouses had been left open, taken in connexion with the
+extremely combustible nature of the materials, soon rendered hopeless
+all chance of saving the buildings and property. Mr. Braidwood was
+upon the spot very soon after the alarm had been given, and nearly the
+whole available force of the Fire-engine Establishment was summoned at
+his command. He appears to have at once foreseen that the fire would
+be one of no ordinary magnitude, and that the utmost that could be
+done would be to prevent its extending widely over adjoining property.
+The floating fire-engines had been got to bear upon the flames, and
+the men in charge of the branch pipes were, after two hours' work,
+already suffering greatly from the intense heat, when their chief went
+to them to give them a word of encouragement. Several minor
+explosions, as of casks of tallow or of oil, had been heard, but as it
+was understood that the saltpetre stored at the wharf was in buildings
+not yet alight, no alarm was then felt as to the walls falling in. At
+the moment, however, while Mr. Braidwood was discharging this his last
+act of kindness to his men, a loud report was heard, and the lofty
+wall behind him toppled and fell, burying him in the ruins. Those of
+his men who were near him had barely time to escape, and one person at
+his side, not a fireman, was overwhelmed with him. From the moment
+when the wall was seen to fall, it was known that whoever was beneath
+it had been instantly crushed to death. It is needless, and it would,
+indeed, be out of place, to describe here the further progress of the
+fire, which had then but fairly begun, and which was still burning
+more than a fortnight afterwards.
+
+Great as was the general consternation at so terrible a conflagration,
+it is doubtful if the public were not still more impressed by the
+dreadful death of Mr. Braidwood, and by a feeling that his loss was a
+public misfortune. Her Majesty the Queen, with that ready sympathy
+which she has ever shown for crushed or suffering heroism, commanded
+the Earl of Stamford to inquire on the spot, on Monday, whether the
+body had yet been recovered by the firemen, and Her Majesty's
+sympathies were also conveyed to Mrs. Braidwood. It was not, however,
+until the following morning, that after almost constant exertions,
+under the greatest difficulties, the crushed remains were rescued. An
+inquest was necessary, not merely to ascertain what was already well
+known, that death had been instantly caused by accident, but to know
+whether culpable carelessness of any kind had indirectly led to the
+sorrowful event. None, however, appeared. The remains of the fallen
+chief were afterwards borne to his late residence in Watling-street.
+The members of the committee of the London Fire-engine Establishment,
+formed of representatives from all of the twenty-five insurance
+companies of London, had already met to express, by a formal
+resolution, their sincere condolence with Mrs. Braidwood and her
+family. It was known that the funeral would take place on Saturday,
+June 29th, and it was widely felt that a general expression of sorrow
+and respect should be made, in view of the common loss of so valued a
+public servant, as well as for the noble qualities for which he had
+been so long and so well known. On the occasion of the funeral this
+was shown not more by the great length and marked character of the
+_cortege_ itself than by the general suspension of business in the
+leading thoroughfares of the city through which it passed, and by the
+hushed demeanour of the countless multitude who pressed closely upon
+the procession throughout its entire course. Among the thousands who
+sadly led the way to the grave were the London Rifle Brigade, about
+700 strong (and of which Mr. Braidwood's three sons were members), the
+Seventh Tower-Hamlets, and other rifle corps, upwards of 1000
+constables of the metropolitan police force, besides nearly 400
+members of the city police, the superintendents and men of the various
+water companies, the secretary and conductors and the band of the
+Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, a large number of
+private and local fire-brigades, and the members of the London
+Fire-engine Establishment. The pall-bearers were six of Mr.
+Braidwood's engineers and foremen, some of whom were at his side when
+he fell, and who had barely escaped with their own lives. Following
+the chief mourners were the Duke of Sutherland, the Earl of Caithness,
+the Rev. Dr. Cumming, and a large number of relatives and friends of
+the deceased, and the committee of the London Fire-engine
+establishment. The procession was nearly one mile and a-half in
+length, and was about three hours in its progress from Watling-street
+to Abney Park Cemetery, where the solemn service of the dead was
+conducted by the Rev. Dr. Cumming, of whose congregation the deceased
+had long been a member. With the exception of the great bell of St.
+Paul's, which tolls only on the occasion of the death of a member of
+the royal family or of a lord-mayor in office, the bells of all the
+churches in the city were booming slowly through the day, and so
+evident was the general sorrow that it could be truly said that the
+heart of the nation mourned.
+
+On Thursday, July 4th, a public meeting was held at the Mansion House,
+when resolutions were passed for the collection of subscriptions
+towards a memorial to Mr. Braidwood's long and arduous public
+services. This memorial, it was felt, should take the form of a
+permanent provision for his family, for the post of Fire Brigade
+Superintendent had never been a lucrative one. Before, however, the
+collection of subscriptions had extended beyond a few hundred pounds,
+it was made known that the insurance companies had promptly settled
+upon Mrs. Braidwood the full "value"--speaking in an insurable
+sense--of her husband's life. Mr. Braidwood had for many years
+supported two maiden sisters, and the public subscription was applied,
+therefore, to the purchase of small annuities for each of them.
+
+It will be remembered that the London Fire-engine Establishment was
+from the first controlled only by the insurance companies, upon whom
+of course, fell the whole cost of its maintenance. Their interest in
+the suppression of fires, although direct and unmistakeable, was not
+the same as that of the public. Thus, it would be to the public
+advantage that no fires should happen, whereas such a result would be
+fatal to the insurance companies, since no one in that case would
+insure. Although the protection of the Establishment was in practice
+extended alike to both insured and uninsured property, the real object
+for which it was formed and maintained was undoubtedly that of
+protecting insured property only. It was the interest of the companies
+to incur as little expense as would, on the whole, fairly effect this
+purpose, and it was not their interest to effectually protect the
+whole of the metropolis from fire. Thus it was that, with all the
+excellence of the organization and discipline of the Fire-engine
+Establishment, it was greatly inferior in extent to what was requisite
+for the proper security of the first city in the world. Mr. Braidwood
+had long felt this truth, but, acting for a private association, he
+could only go to the extent of the limited resources at his disposal.
+It was, more than anything else, the great fire at Cotton's Wharf that
+first directed public attention to the necessary insufficiency of any
+private establishment for the general suppression of fires, and that
+has led to the legislation under which the Fire-engine Establishment
+was, on the 1st of January last, taken over and extended by the
+Metropolitan Board of Works. London will now, it is hoped, be better
+protected from fire, because of the increased extent of the means of
+protection; but it can hardly be expected that the discipline of the
+brigade will be improved.
+
+Apart from the public value of Mr. Braidwood's career in increasing
+the common security against a common foe, there was much in his
+personal, intellectual, and moral qualities worthy of admiration. He
+was a man of strong and commanding frame, of inexhaustible energy, and
+of enduring vitality. The constitutions of but few men could have
+withstood such long continued wear and tear as fell to his. He braved
+all weathers, all extremes of heat and cold, could sleep or wake at
+will, and could work on long after others would have given way. He was
+always at his post, and in no moment of difficulty or danger did his
+cool judgment or his steady courage forsake him. It was this, together
+with his considerate bearing, and on occasions of special trial his
+almost womanly kindness to his men, that inspired them with unlimited
+confidence in him and in his plans. Beyond this, he was a man of
+superior mind, with strong comprehensive and generalising faculties.
+His various published papers, and a correspondence of which but few
+could know the extent and importance, as well as his ready, clear, and
+exact manner in stating his views before committees and before those
+in authority, who so often consulted him, all attest an order of mind
+which, in a different sphere, would alone have won distinction for its
+possessor. His profession was one in which it happens that almost
+every person thinks himself competent to give advice; yet, without any
+assumption of authority, Mr. Braidwood could make it felt wherever he
+pleased that he was a master in the art of extinguishing fire. But he
+was not on this account the less ready to listen to suggestions, and
+there are numbers who can bear testimony to the patient, honest, and
+appreciative manner in which he considered the many and diverse
+propositions submitted to him as the head of the Fire Brigade of the
+first city in the world. The soundness of his views and opinions is
+sufficiently attested by the success of his practice--a success which,
+but for the Government tax upon fire policies, would have long since
+made fire insurance in London almost the cheapest of all the forms of
+protection of property from danger. The London Brigade was
+insignificant in numbers and tame in display when compared with the
+eight hundred _sapeurs pompiers_ of Paris, with their parade and all
+their accessories of effect--insignificant and tame, too, after the
+glittering apparatus, imposing paraphernalia, and deafening clatter of
+the "Fire Department" of New York; but Mr. Braidwood's chosen men knew
+how to do their duty, and considering the differences in the mode of
+building and of heating, and in the extent of lighting in the three
+great metropoli just named, it is an easy matter, on reference to
+statistics, to prove that none others have done better.
+
+Above all, Mr. Braidwood was a gentleman of deep Christian feeling;
+and those who knew him best had never doubted that, had it been his
+lot to linger long in pain, knowing the end that was to come, his calm
+but unwavering faith in a better future would have sustained him
+through all. Brought up from childhood in the faith of the Scotch
+church, he was a regular attendant upon the ministrations of the Rev.
+Dr. Cumming. In his own quiet way he did much good in the poorer
+districts of London, and he took a special interest in the ragged
+schools of the metropolis. What he was in his own home may be best
+inferred from the crushing force with which his dreadful yet noble
+fate fell upon those who were dearest to him. His family had already
+too much reason to know the dangers which had always attended his
+career. A step-son had fallen, five years before, in nearly the same
+manner, and now lies buried in the same grave. Eleven members, in all,
+of the brigade, had perished in the discharge of their duty during the
+time Mr. Braidwood had commanded it: a fact which, taken with daily
+experience, pointed to other victims to follow. Such consolation,
+then, as a stricken widow and a mourning family could have, next to an
+abiding faith in the goodness of God, was in the recollection of the
+virtues and noble qualities of the husband and father, and in the
+spontaneous sorrow with which a great people testified their sense of
+his worth and of their common loss.
+
+To show the universal as well as national esteem in which Mr.
+Braidwood was held, two extracts are here given from the numerous
+letters of condolence addressed to his bereaved family, from all parts
+of the world. Mr. G. H. Allen, Secretary to the Boston (America) Fire
+Department, writes: "It gives me pleasure to unite with the Board in
+testimony to the extreme kindness of Mr. Braidwood in the conduct of
+our correspondence, whereby we have been greatly benefited and
+received extensive information. Allow me also to extend our sympathy
+to those who have lost one who will ever be remembered as standing at
+the head of the most valued arm of the Government, and one that you
+can hardly expect to be replaced, except by years of experience and
+great natural ability." Mr. T. J. Bown, Superintendent of the Sydney
+(Australia) Fire Brigade, in a letter dated 22nd August 1861, says,
+"On receipt of the sad news, our large fire-bell was tolled, the
+British ensign hoisted half-mast high, and crape attached to the
+firemen's uniform, as a token of respect for one of the noblest and
+most self-denying men that ever lived, who spent and lost his life in
+the service of his fellow-creatures."
+
+
+
+
+A TRUE HERO.
+
+JAMES BRAIDWOOD.--_Died, June 22nd, 1861._
+
+By the Author of
+
+"JOHN HALIFAX, GENTLEMAN."
+
+
+    Not at the battle front,--
+      Writ of in story;
+    Not on the blazing wreck,
+      Steering to glory;
+
+    Not while in martyr pangs
+      Soul and flesh sever,
+    Died he--this Hero new--
+      Hero for ever.
+
+    No pomp poetic crown'd,
+      No forms enchained him,
+    No friends applauding watched,
+      No foes arraigned him:
+
+    Death found him there, without
+      Grandeur or beauty,
+    Only an honest man
+      Doing his duty:
+
+    Just a God-fearing man,
+      Simple and lowly,
+    Constant at kirk and hearth,
+      Kindly and holy:
+
+    Death found--and touched him with
+      Finger in flying:--
+    So he rose up complete--
+      Hero undying.
+
+    Now, all mourn for him,
+      Lovingly raise him
+    Up from his life obscure,
+      Chronicle, praise him;
+
+    Tell his last act, done midst
+      Peril appalling,
+    And the last word of cheer
+      From his lips falling;
+
+    Follow in multitudes
+      To his grave's portal;
+    Leave him there, buried
+      In honour immortal.
+
+    So many a Hero walks
+      Daily beside us,
+    Till comes the supreme stroke
+      Sent to divide us.
+
+    Then the Lord calls His own,--
+      Like this man, even,
+    Carried, Elijah-like,
+      Fire-winged, to heaven.
+
+    _Macmillan's Magazine_, Vol. IV., page 294.
+
+
+
+
+FIRE PREVENTION
+
+INCLUDING
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+
+To prevent fires it is necessary to consider what are the principal
+causes of such calamities. These may be classed under several heads:--
+
+     1. Inattention in the use of fires and lights.
+
+     2. Improper construction of buildings, &c.
+
+     3. Furnaces or close fires for heating buildings, or for
+     mechanical purposes.
+
+     4. Spontaneous ignition.
+
+     5. Incendiarism.
+
+As almost all fires arise from inattention in one shape or another, it
+is of the utmost importance that every master of a house or other
+establishment should persevere in rigidly enjoining and enforcing on
+those under him, the necessity of observing the utmost possible care
+in preventing such calamities, which, in nineteen cases out of twenty,
+are the result of remissness or inattention. Indeed, if any one will
+for a moment consider the fearful risk of life and property, which is
+often incurred from a very slight inattention, the necessity of
+vigilance and care will at once be apparent. Immense hazard is
+frequently incurred for the most trifling indulgences, and much
+property is annually destroyed, and valuable lives often lost, because
+a few thoughtless individuals cannot deny themselves the gratification
+of reading in bed with a candle beside them.
+
+Some years ago, upwards of 100,000_l._ were lost, through the partner
+of a large establishment lighting gas with a piece of paper, which he
+threw away, and thus set fire to the premises, although it was a
+strict rule in the place that gas should only be lighted with tapers,
+which were provided for that purpose. In one department of a great
+public institution, it was, and is still, a rule that only covered
+lights should be carried about, and for that purpose four lanterns
+were provided; yet, on inquiry some time back, it was found that only
+one was entire, the other three being broken--one having lost two
+sides and the top; still they were all used as covered lights.
+
+The opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are so various,
+that it is impossible to notice the whole.
+
+One of the prevailing causes of fire is to be traced to persons
+locking their doors, and leaving their houses to the care of children.
+I believe one-half of the children whose deaths are occasioned by
+accident suffer from this cause alone: indeed, almost every week the
+newspapers contain some melancholy confirmation of what I have here
+stated. Intoxication is also a disgraceful and frequent cause of fire.
+The number of persons burned to death in this way is really
+incredible. It is true that it does not always happen that a fire
+takes place in the house, in either of the above cases, although the
+unfortunate beings whose clothes take fire, rarely escape with their
+lives; but the danger to the neighbourhood is at all times
+considerable, if persons in a state of inebriety are left in a house
+alone. When there is reason to apprehend that any member of a family
+will come home at night in that state, some one should always be
+appointed to receive him, and on no account to leave him till he is
+put to bed, and the light extinguished.
+
+I do not mean to say that people must be actually drunk before danger
+is to be apprehended from them. Indeed, a very slight degree of
+inebriety is dangerous, as it always tends to blunt the perception,
+and to make a person careless and indifferent. I may also add, that no
+inconsiderable number of fires are occasioned by the thoughtless
+practice of throwing spirits into the fire. The dresses of females
+taking fire adds very much to the list of lives lost by fire, if it
+does not exceed all the other causes put together.
+
+Another very general cause of fire is that of approaching with lighted
+candles too near bed or window curtains; these, being generally quite
+dry, are, from the way in which they are hung, easily set on fire,
+and, as the flames ascend rapidly, when once touched, they are in a
+blaze in a moment.
+
+It is really astonishing to find that, with daily examples before
+their eyes, people should persist (whether insured or not seems to
+make little difference) in practices which, there is a hundred chances
+to one, may involve both themselves and the neighbourhood in one
+common ruin. Of this sort are the practices of looking under a bed
+with a lighted candle, and placing a screen full of clothes too near
+the fire.
+
+Houses not unfrequently take fire from cinders falling between the
+joints of the outer and inner hearths. When smoke is observed to arise
+from the floor, the cause should be immediately ascertained, and the
+inmates ought on no account to retire to rest while there is the
+slightest smell of fire, or any grounds to suspect danger from that
+cause.
+
+Occasional fires are caused by a very absurd method of extinguishing
+at night the fires kept in grates during the day. Instead of arranging
+the embers in the grate in such a way as to prevent their falling off,
+and thus allowing the fire to die out in its proper place, they are
+frequently taken off and laid on the hearth, where, should there be
+wood-work underneath, it becomes scorched, and the slightest spark
+falling through a joint in the stones sets it on fire.
+
+A very frequent cause of fire in shops and warehouses arises from the
+carelessness of the person intrusted to lock them up. It is no
+uncommon practice with those to whom this duty is intrusted, to light
+themselves out, or to search for any little article which may have
+been mislaid, with a lighted paper, and then to throw it carelessly on
+the floor, imagining they have taken every necessary precaution,
+merely by setting their foot upon it, forgetting that the current of
+air occasioned by shutting the door frequently rekindles it, and
+produces the most serious consequences.
+
+In warehouses and manufactories, fires are not unfrequently caused by
+the workmen being occasionally kept late at work. By the time their
+task is finished, the men are so tired and sleepy, that the
+extinguishing of fires and lights is done in a very careless manner. I
+recollect an instance of this sort, in which the flames were issuing
+from three upper windows, and observed by the neighbours, while the
+workmen engaged at their employment in the lower floors knew nothing
+of the destruction that was going on above.
+
+A very serious annual loss is also caused by want of due care in
+handing up or removing the goods in linen-drapers' shop windows when
+the gas is burning. Flues taking fire often result in mischief and it
+is believed that many serious fires have arisen from this cause, which
+can hardly be called accidental, as, if flues are properly
+constructed, kept moderately clean, and fairly used, they cannot take
+fire.
+
+From what has been said, it will be seen that care and attention may
+do a very great deal towards the prevention of fire, and consequent
+loss of life. It is very easy to make good rules, and keep them for a
+time, after having been alarmed by some serious loss of property or
+life, but the difficulty is to maintain constant attention to the
+subject. The most evident plan for effecting this seems to be, for the
+masters thoroughly to examine and consider the subject at certain
+stated periods, not too far apart, and to constantly warn their
+domestics, workmen, or others, of the danger of the improper use of
+fires and lights.
+
+One of the greatest preventives of carelessness in the use of fires
+and lights would be a legal inquiry in every case, as it would not
+only show the faults that had been committed, and thus warn others,
+but the idea of being exposed in the newspapers would be another
+motive for increased care. This plan has been adopted in New York, and
+the reports of the proceedings of Mr. Baker, the "Fire Marshal," show
+that the inquiries there made have led to most useful results. Mr.
+Payne, the coroner, held inquests on fires in the City of London some
+years ago, but the authorities would not allow his expenses, and
+therefore they were given up, although believed to be highly
+advantageous in explaining accidental and others causes of fire.
+
+_The improper construction of buildings_ more generally assists the
+spread than is the original cause of fires, although laying hearths on
+timber, and placing timber too near flues, are constant causes of
+fire, and it is believed that many melancholy occurrences have arisen
+from these and similar sources.
+
+One cause of danger from chimneys arises from the communication which
+they often have with each other in one gable. The divisions or
+partitions, being very often found in an imperfect state, the fire
+communicates to the adjoining chimney, and in this way sometimes wraps
+a whole tenement in flames. I know a division of a principal street in
+Edinburgh, in which there is scarcely a single chimney-head that is
+not more or less in this condition; and I have no doubt that this is
+not an uncommon case. There is also great danger from the ends of
+joists, safe-lintels, or other pieces of timber, being allowed to
+protrude into chimneys. In one instance which came under my notice, a
+flue passing under the recess of a window had on the upper side no
+other covering than the wood of the floor; of course, when the chimney
+took fire the floor was immediately in a blaze: but there are many
+instances of such carelessness. It is a common practice amongst
+carpenters to drive small pieces of wood into walls for the purpose of
+fixing their work, not paying the least attention as to whether the
+points run into the flues or not.
+
+In the repairs and alterations of old buildings, house-carpenters are,
+if possible, even more careless in this particular, than in the
+construction of new.
+
+I know of two different buildings which underwent some alterations. In
+both of these, safe-lintels had been run into flues, and both of them,
+after the alterations, took fire; the one in consequence of a foul
+chimney, which set fire to the lintel; and although the other did not
+take fire from the same cause, the lintel was nevertheless very much
+scorched, and obliged to be removed.
+
+Great carelessness is frequently exhibited by builders, when erecting
+at one time two or three houses connected by mutual gables, by not
+carrying up the gables, or party-walls, so as to divide the roofs. I
+have seen more than one instance where the adjoining house would have
+been quite safe, but for this culpable neglect. It is no uncommon
+thing, too, to find houses divided only by lath and standard
+partitions, without a single brick in them. When a fire occurs in
+houses divided in this manner, the vacuities in the middle of the
+partitions act like so many funnels to conduct the flame, thereby
+greatly adding to the danger from the fire, and infinitely increasing
+the difficulty of extinguishing it.
+
+In London the Building Act forbids all such proceedings, but the
+District Surveyors do not seem to have sufficient power, or be able to
+pay sufficient attention to such matters, as they are constantly met
+with at fires. A very flagrant case of laying a hearth on timber was
+lately exposed by a fire in the City. Due notice was given of the
+circumstance, but no farther attention was paid to the matter than to
+make the proprietor construct the floor properly, although the Act
+gave power to fine for such neglect. The omission is to be regretted,
+as there could not have been a better case for warning others; it
+occurred in a very large establishment, and the work was done by one
+of the first builders in the City. Had this fire taken place in the
+night and gained some head, it would have been very difficult to have
+ascertained the cause. As the premises were situated, a serious loss
+of life might have occurred, the apartment in which the fire
+originated being the only means of retreat which ten or twelve female
+servants had from their bedrooms.
+
+The Metropolitan Building Acts, up to about the year 1825, by
+insisting upon party-walls and other precautions, were invaluable for
+the prevention of the spread of fires. By them no warehouse was
+permitted to exceed a certain area. From the year 1842, the area has
+been exchanged for a specified number of cubic feet. But since 1825, a
+class of buildings has arisen of which there are now considerable
+numbers in the City, called Manchester or piece goods warehouses,
+which somehow have been exempted from the law restricting the extent
+of warehouses, on the plea that they are _not_ warehouses, because
+"bulk is broken" in them, although it is thoroughly understood that
+the legislature intended by the Act to restrict the amassing such a
+quantity of goods under one roof as would be dangerous to the
+neighbourhood.
+
+Manchester and piece goods warehouses have for some time past been
+built in London of unlimited size, sometimes equal to twenty average
+houses. This is pretty nearly the same as if that number of houses
+were built without party-walls, only that it is much worse, for the
+whole mass generally communicates by well holes and open staircases,
+and thus takes fire with great rapidity, and, from the quantity of
+fresh air within the building, the fire makes much greater progress
+before it is discovered. By this means the risk of fire in the City
+has been greatly increased, not only to such warehouses themselves,
+but to the surrounding neighbourhood, for it is impossible to say how
+far fires of such magnitude may extend their ravages under untoward
+circumstances, there being at present no preventive power in London
+capable of controlling them. To provide such a power would be a very
+costly business.
+
+Such buildings are also against the generally received rule, that a
+man may burn himself and his own property, but he shall not unduly
+risk the lives and property of his neighbours.
+
+The new Building Act is likely to repress, to a certain extent, this
+great evil, unless its meaning be subverted by some such subterfuge as
+destroyed the efficiency of the last one. But what is to be done with
+those which are already built? It may seem tedious to dwell so much on
+this subject, but it appears to be a risk which is not generally much
+thought of, though it is of the most vital importance to the safety of
+London. It is very desirable that the metropolis should take warning
+by the experience of Liverpool, without going through the fiery ordeal
+which the latter city did.
+
+From 1838 to 1843, 776,762_l._ were lost in Liverpool by fire, almost
+entirely in the warehouse risks. The consequence was, that the
+mercantile rates of insurance gradually rose from about 8_s._ per
+cent. to 30_s._, 40_s._, and, it is said, in some cases, to 45_s._ per
+cent. Such premiums could not be paid on wholesale transactions,
+therefore the Liverpool people themselves obtained an Act of
+Parliament, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 109, by which the size and height of
+warehouses were restricted, party walls were made imperative, and
+warehouses were not allowed to be erected within thirty-six feet of
+any other warehouse, unless the whole of the doors and window-shutters
+were made of _wrought iron_, with many similar restrictions. This Act
+applied to warehouses already built as well as to those to be built,
+and any tenant was at liberty, after notice to his landlord, to alter
+his warehouse according to the Act, and to stop his rent till the
+expense was paid. Another Act, 6 and 7 Vic., cap. 75, was also
+obtained, for bringing water into Liverpool for the purpose of
+extinguishing fires and watering the streets _only_. It is supposed
+that the works directed, or permitted, by these two Acts, cost the
+people of Liverpool from 200,000_l._ to 300,000_l._ Shortly after
+these alterations had been made, the mercantile premiums again fell to
+about 8_s._ per cent.
+
+There is another very common cause of fire, which seems to come under
+the head of construction--viz., covering up a fireplace when not in
+use with wood or paper and canvas, &c. The soot falls into the
+fireplace, either from the flue itself, or from an adjoining one which
+communicates with it. A neighbouring chimney takes fire; a spark falls
+down the blocked-up flue, sets fire to the soot in the fireplace,
+which smoulders till the covering is burned through, and thus sets
+fire to the premises.
+
+In theatres, that part of the house which includes the stage and
+scenery should be carefully divided from that where the spectators
+assemble by a solid wall carried up to, and through the roof. The
+opening in this wall for the stage should be arched over, and the
+other communications secured with iron doors, which would be kept shut
+while the audience was in the house. By this plan, there would be
+abundance of time for the spectators to retire, before fire could
+reach that part of the theatre which they occupy.
+
+_The danger from furnaces_ or close fires, whether for heating,
+cooking, or manufacturing purposes, is very great, and no flue should
+be permitted to be so used, unless it is prepared for the purpose. The
+reason is, that in a close fire the whole of the draught must pass
+through the fire. It thus becomes so heated that, unless the flue is
+properly built, it is dangerous throughout its whole course. In one
+instance of a heating furnace, the heat in the flue was found to be
+300 deg., at a distance of from forty to fifty feet from the fire. In open
+fireplaces, the quantity of cold air carried up with the draught keeps
+the flue at a moderate heat, from the fire upwards, and, unless the
+flue is allowed to become foul, and take fire, this is the safest
+possible mode of heating.
+
+Heating by hot air, steam, and hot water are objectionable. First,
+because there must be a furnace and furnace flue, and the flue used is
+generally that built for an open fire only; and second, the pipes are
+carried in every direction, to be as much out of sight as possible. By
+this means they are constantly liable to produce spontaneous ignition,
+for there appears to be some chemical action between heated iron and
+timber, by which fire is generated at a much lower temperature than is
+necessary to ignite timber under ordinary circumstances. No
+satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been given, but there is
+abundant proof that such is the case. In heating by hot-water pipes,
+those hermetically sealed are by far the most dangerous, as the
+strength of the pipes to resist the pressure is the only limit of the
+heat to which the water, and of course the pipes, may be raised. In
+some cases a plug of metal which fuses at 400 deg. is put into the pipes,
+but the heat to which the plug is exposed will depend very much on
+where it is placed, as, however great may be the heat of the exit
+pipe, the return pipe is comparatively cool. But even where the pipes
+are left open, the heat of the water at the furnace is not necessarily
+212 deg.. It is almost needless to say that 212 deg. is the heat of boiling
+water under the pressure of one atmosphere only; but if the pipes are
+carried sixty or seventy feet high, the water in the furnace must be
+under the pressure of nearer three atmospheres than one, and therefore
+the heat will be proportionately increased. Fires from pipes for
+heating by hot water have been known to take place within twenty-four
+hours after first heating, and some after ten years of apparent
+safety.
+
+The New Metropolitan Building Act prescribes rules for the placing
+steam, hot-air, and hot-water pipes at a certain distance from timber;
+but as it must be extremely difficult for the District Surveyors to
+watch such minute proceedings, it becomes every one who is anxious for
+safety to see that the District Surveyors have due notice of any
+operation of this kind.
+
+Another cause of fire which may come under this head is the use of
+pipes for conveying away the products of combustion. Every one is
+acquainted with the danger of stove pipes, but all are not perhaps
+aware that pipes for conveying away the heat and effluvia from
+gas-burners are also very dangerous when placed near timber. It is not
+an uncommon practice to convey such pipes between the ceiling and the
+flooring of the floor above. This is highly dangerous. Gas-burners are
+also dangerous when placed near a ceiling. A remarkable instance of
+this took place lately, where a gas-burner set fire to a ceiling
+28-1/2 inches from it.
+
+Another evil of furnaces is, that the original fireplace is sometimes
+not large enough to contain the apparatus, and the party wall is cut
+into. Perhaps it may be necessary to notice at this point the use of
+gas, as it is becoming so very general. Gas, if carefully laid on, and
+properly used, is safer than any other light, so far as actually
+setting fire to anything goes, but the greater heat given out so dries
+up any combustibles within its reach, that it prepares them for
+burning, and when a fire does take place, the destruction is much more
+rapid than in a building lighted by other means. Gas-stoves, also,
+from the great heat given out, sometimes cause serious accidents; in
+one instance, a gas-stove set fire to a beam through a two-and-half
+inch York landing, well bedded in mortar, although the lights were
+five or six inches above the stone. This is mentioned to show that
+gas-stoves require quite as much care as common fires.
+
+_Spontaneous ignition_ is believed to be a very fruitful cause of
+fires; but, unless the fire is discovered almost at the commencement,
+it is difficult to ascertain positively that this has been the cause.
+Spontaneous ignition is generally accelerated by natural or artificial
+heat. For instance, where substances liable to spontaneous ignition
+are exposed to the heat of the sun, to furnace flues, heated pipes, or
+are placed over apartments lighted by gas, the process of ignition
+proceeds much more rapidly than when in a cooler atmosphere. Sawdust
+in contact with vegetable oil is very likely to take fire. Cotton,
+cotton waste, hemp, and most other vegetable substances are alike
+dangerous. In one case oil and sawdust took fire within sixteen hours;
+in others, the same materials have lain for years, until some external
+heat has been applied to them. The greater number of the serious fires
+which have taken place in railroad stations in and near London have
+commenced in the paint stores. In a very large fire in an oil
+warehouse, a quantity of oil was spilt the day before and wiped up,
+the wipings being thrown aside. This was believed to have been the
+cause of the fire, but direct proof could not be obtained. Dust-bins
+also very often cause serious accidents. In one instance, 30,000_l._
+to 40,000_l._ were lost, apparently from hot ashes being thrown into a
+dust-bin.
+
+These accidents may in a great measure be avoided by constant care and
+attention to cleanliness, and where paints and oils are necessary, by
+keeping them in some place outside the principal buildings. Dust-bins
+should, as much as possible, be placed in the open air, and where that
+cannot be done, they should be emptied once a day. No collection of
+rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed to be made in any
+building of value.
+
+Mr. Wyatt Papworth, architect, has published some very interesting
+notes on spontaneous ignition, giving several well-authenticated
+instances.
+
+_Incendiarism_ may be divided into three sorts--malicious, fraudulent,
+and monomaniac. Of the former there has been very little in London for
+many years. The second, however, is rather prevalent. The insurance
+offices, which are the victims, protect themselves as well as they
+can, but an inquest on each fire is the true mode of lessening the
+evil. This is much more the interest of the public than at first seems
+to be the case. In several instances where the criminals were brought
+to punishment by Mr. Payne's inquests, people were asleep in the upper
+parts of the houses set fire to, and in one case there were as many as
+twelve or fifteen persons. This, however, is seldom stated in the
+indictment, as, if it is, the punishment is still death by the law,
+and it is supposed that a conviction is more easily obtained, by the
+capital charge being waived. Monomania is a rare cause of
+incendiarism, but still several well-certified cases have occurred in
+which no possible motive could be given. In one instance a youth of
+fifteen set fire to his father's premises seven times within a few
+hours. In another, a young female on a visit set fire to her friend's
+furniture, &c., ten or eleven times in the course of one or two days.
+In neither case could anything like disagreement or harshness be
+elicited, but the reverse. In other instances, it has been strongly
+suspected that this disease was the cause of repeated fires, but there
+was no positive proof. In all these cases, known or suspected, the
+parties were generally from fourteen to twenty years of age.
+
+
+FIRE-PROOF STRUCTURES.
+
+What is "Fire-proof Construction?" is a question which has given rise
+to a great deal of discussion, simply, as it appears to me, because
+the size of the buildings, and the quantity and description of the
+contents, have not always been taken into account. That which may be
+perfectly fireproof in a dwelling house, may be the weakest in a large
+warehouse. Suppose an average-sized dwelling-house 20 x 40 x 50 =
+40,000 cubic feet, built with brick partitions, stone or slate stairs,
+wrought-iron joists filled in with concrete, and the whole well
+plastered. Such a house will be practically fire-proof, because there
+is no probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room,
+would make fire enough to communicate to another. But suppose a
+warehouse equal to twenty such houses, with floors completely open,
+supported by cast-iron pillars, and each floor communicating with the
+others by open staircases and wells; suppose, further, that it is half
+filled with combustible goods, and perhaps the walls and ceilings
+lined with timber. Now, if a fire takes place below, the moment it
+bursts through the upper windows or skylights, the whole place becomes
+an immense blast furnace; the iron is melted, and in a comparatively
+short time the building is in ruins, and, it may be, the half of the
+neighbourhood destroyed. The real fire-proof construction for such
+buildings is groined brick arches, supported on brick pillars only.
+This mode of building, however, involves so much expense, and occupies
+so much space, that it cannot be used with advantage. The next best
+plan is to build the warehouses in compartments of moderate size,
+divided by party-walls and double wrought-iron doors, so that if one
+of these compartments takes fire, there may be a reasonable prospect
+of confining the fire to that compartment only. Again, cast iron gives
+way from so many different causes, that it is impossible to calculate
+when it will give way. The castings may have flaws in them; or they
+may be too weak for the weight they have to support, being sometimes
+within 10 per cent., or less, of the breaking weight. The expansion of
+the girders may thrust out the side walls. For instance, in a
+warehouse 120 feet x 75 feet x 80 feet, there are three continuous
+rows of girders on each floor, with butt joints; the expansion in this
+case may be twelve inches. The tie rods to take the strain of the flat
+arches must expand and become useless, and the whole of the lateral
+strain be thrown on the girders and side walls, perhaps weak enough
+already. Again, throwing cold water on the heated iron may cause an
+immediate fracture. For these and similar reasons, the firemen are not
+permitted to go into warehouses supported by iron, _when once fairly
+on fire_.
+
+Cast and wrought-iron have been frequently fused at fires in large
+buildings such as warehouses, sugar houses, &c., but according to Mr.
+Fairbairn's experiments on cast iron in a heated state, it is not
+necessary that the fusing point should be attained to cause it to give
+way.[A] He also states, that the loss of strength in cold-blast cast
+iron, in a variation of temperature from 26 deg. to 190 deg. = 164 deg. Fahr., is
+10 per cent., and in hot-blast at a variation of from 21 deg. to 190 deg. =
+169 deg. Fahr., is 15 per cent.; now if the loss of strength advances in
+anything like this ratio, the iron will be totally useless as a
+support, long before the fusing point is attained.
+
+Much confidence has been placed in wrought-iron tie or tension rods,
+to take the lateral strain of the arches, and also in trusses to
+support the beams; but it must be evident that the expansion of the
+iron from the heat, would render them useless, and under a high
+temperature, it would be so great as to unsettle the brickwork, and
+accelerate its fall, on any part of the iron-work giving way: again,
+the application of cold water to the heated iron, in an endeavour to
+extinguish the fire, is almost certain to cause one or more fractures.
+The brick-arching is also very liable to fall, especially if only four
+and a half inches thick, independently of the weight which may be
+placed upon it, for it is not uncommon after a fire in a large
+building, to find the mortar almost completely pulverized to the depth
+of three inches, or four inches, from the face of the wall. When a
+fire occurred under one of the arches of the Blackwall Railway, on the
+15th July, 1843, a portion of the lower ring fell down, and also a few
+bricks from the next ring.
+
+Another very serious objection to buildings of this description, is
+that, unless scientifically constructed, they are very unlikely to be
+safe, even for the common purposes intended, independent of the risk
+of fire. In the Report of Sir Henry De la Beche and Mr. Thomas Cubitt
+on the fall of the mill at Oldham, in October, 1844,[B] it is stated
+that the strength of the iron-beams was within ten per cent. of the
+breaking weight. Now according to Mr. Fairbairn's experiments on
+heated iron, already referred to, an increase of temperature of only
+170 deg. would have destroyed the whole building. It is quite clear,
+therefore, that so long as mill-owners and others continue to
+construct such buildings without proper advice, they must be liable to
+these accidents. In timber-floors there can be no such risk, as the
+strains are all direct, and any journeyman carpenter, by following
+good examples, can ascertain the size required; and even if he makes a
+mistake, the evil is comparatively trivial, as the timber will give
+notice before yielding, and may be propped up for the time, until it
+can be properly secured. In the case of fire-proof buildings, an
+ignorant person may make many mistakes without being aware that he has
+done so, and the slightest failure is probably fatal to every one
+within the walls. This also increases the difficulty and danger of
+extinguishing fires in a large building, as the only method of doing
+so is for the firemen to enter it with their branches, and in case of
+the floors falling, there is no chance of escape. On the other hand,
+timber-floors have repeatedly fallen while the firemen were inside the
+building, and they have made their escape uninjured.
+
+In a pamphlet published by Mr. S. Holme, of Liverpool, in 1844,[C] and
+which contains a report from Mr. Fairbairn on fire-proof buildings, it
+is stated, that many people, especially in the manufacturing
+districts, are their own architects; that the warehouses in Liverpool
+may be loaded to one ton per yard of flooring; and that unless great
+care and knowledge are used in the construction of fire-proof
+buildings, they are of all others the most dangerous.[D]
+
+The following are the principles on which Mr. Fairbairn proposes to
+build fire-proof warehouses:--
+
+     The whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible
+     materials, such as iron, stone, or bricks.
+
+     In order to prevent fire, whether arising from accident or
+     spontaneous combustion, every opening, or crevice,
+     communicating with the external atmosphere to be closed.
+
+     An isolated staircase, of stone, or iron, well protected on
+     every side by brick, or stone walls, to be attached to every
+     story, and be furnished with a line of water-pipes,
+     communicating with the mains in the street, and ascending to
+     the top of the building.
+
+     In a range of stores, the different warehouses to be divided
+     by strong partition-walls, in no case less than eighteen
+     inches thick, and no more openings to be made than are
+     absolutely necessary for the admission of goods and light.
+
+     That the iron columns, beams, and brick arches be of
+     strength sufficient, not only to support a continuous dead
+     pressure, but to resist the force of impact to which they
+     are subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors.
+
+     That in order to prevent accident from the columns being
+     melted by intense heat in the event of fire in any of the
+     rooms, a current of cold air should be introduced into the
+     hollow of the columns, from an arched tunnel under the
+     floors.
+
+There is no doubt that if the second principle could be carried out,
+namely, the total exclusion of air, the fire would go out of itself;
+but it seems, to say the least of it, very doubtful indeed if this can
+be accomplished, and if it could, the carelessness of a porter leaving
+open one of the doors or windows, would make the whole useless. The
+fifth principle shows that Mr. Fairbairn has omitted to allow for the
+loss of strength the iron may sustain from the increase of
+temperature. The last principle would not be likely to answer its
+purpose, even if it was possible to keep these tunnels and hollow
+columns clear for a number of years, which is scarcely to be expected.
+A piece of cast-iron pipe, one-and-a-half inch in diameter, was heated
+for four minutes in a common forge, both ends being carefully kept
+open to the atmosphere, when, on one end being fixed in a vice, and
+the other pulled aside by the hand, it gave way.
+
+One of the principal objections to the kind of fire-proof buildings
+above described, is, that absolute perfection in their construction is
+indispensable to their safety; whereas buildings of a more common
+description are comparatively safe, although there may be some errors
+or omissions in their construction. Indeed, Mr. Fairbairn states in
+the same Report, that "it is true that negligence of construction on
+the one hand, and want of care in management on the other, might
+entail risk and loss to an enormous extent."
+
+The following is a very clear proof of the inability of cast iron to
+resist the effects of fire:--
+
+"A chapel in Liverpool-road, Islington, seventy feet in length and
+fifty-two feet in breadth, took fire in the cellar, on the 2nd
+October, 1848, and was completely burned down. After the fire, it was
+ascertained that of thirteen cast-iron pillars used to support the
+galleries, only two remained perfect; the greater part of the others
+were broken into small pieces, the metal appearing to have lost all
+power of cohesion, and some parts were melted. It should be observed,
+that these pillars were of ample strength to support the galleries
+when filled by the congregation, but when the fire reached them, they
+crumbled under the weight of the timber only, lightened as it must
+have been by the progress of the fire."
+
+In this case it mattered little whether the pillars stood or fell, but
+it would be very different with some of the large wholesale warehouses
+in the City, where numbers of young men sleep in the upper floors; in
+several of those warehouses the cast-iron pillars are much less in
+proportion to the weight to be carried than those referred to, and
+would be completely in the draught of a fire. If a fire should
+unfortunately take place under such circumstances, the loss of human
+life might be very great, as the chance of fifty, eighty, or one
+hundred people escaping in the confusion of a sudden night alarm, by
+one or two ladders, to the roof, could scarcely be calculated on, and
+the time such escape must necessarily occupy, independent of all
+chance of accidents, would be considerable.
+
+For the reasons here stated, I submit that large buildings, containing
+considerable quantities of combustible goods, with floors of
+brick-arches, supported by cast-iron beams and columns, are not,
+practically speaking, fire-proof; and that the only construction which
+would render large buildings fire-proof; where considerable quantities
+of combustible goods are deposited, would be groined brick-arches,
+supported by pillars of the same material, laid in proper cement. I am
+fully convinced, from a lengthened experience, that the intensity of a
+fire,--the risk of its ravages extending to adjoining premises, and
+also the difficulty of extinguishing it, depend, _caeteris paribus_, on
+the cubic contents of the building which takes fire, and it appears to
+me that the amount of loss would be very much reduced, if, instead of
+building immense warehouses, which give the fire a fortified position,
+warehouses were made of a moderate size, with access on two sides at
+least, completely separated from each other by party-walls, and
+protected by iron-doors and window-shutters. In the latter case, the
+probability is, that not more than one warehouse would be lost at a
+time, and perhaps that one would be only partially injured.
+
+It is sincerely to be hoped that the clause in the last Metropolitan
+Building Act, restricting the size of warehouses, may be more
+successful than its predecessor, for it is not only property that is
+at stake, but human life. In many of these "Manchester warehouses,"
+there are fifty or one hundred and upwards of warehousemen and
+servants sleeping in the upper floors, whose escape, in case of fire,
+would be very doubtful, to say the least of it.[E]
+
+Covering timber with sheet-iron is very often resorted to as a
+protection against fire. I have never found it succeed; but Dr.
+Faraday, Professor Brande, Dr. D. B. Reid, and Mr. W. Tite, M.P., are
+of opinion that it may be useful against a sudden burst of flame, but
+that it is worse than useless against a continued heat.
+
+In wadding manufactories the drying-rooms were frequently lined with
+iron-plates, and when a fire arose there, the part covered with iron
+was generally found more damaged than the rest; the heat got through
+the sheet-iron, and burnt the materials behind it, and there was no
+means of touching them with water until the iron was torn down; sheet
+iron should not, therefore, be used for protecting wood.
+
+Even cast iron, one inch thick, laid on tiles and cement three inches
+thick, has allowed fire to pass through both, to the boarding and
+joisting below, merely from the fire in an open fire-place being taken
+off and laid on the hearth. This arises from iron being so good a
+conductor that, when heat is applied to it, it becomes in a very short
+time nearly as hot on the one side as the other. If the smoke escapes
+up a chimney, or in any other way, there may be a serious amount of
+fire before it is noticed.
+
+In a fire at the Bank of England, the hearth on which the stove was
+placed was cast iron an inch thick, with two-and-a-half inches of
+concrete underneath it; but the timber below that was fired.
+
+With regard to the subject of fire-proof dwelling-houses of average
+size, I consider that such houses when built of brick or stone, with
+party-walls carried through the roof; the partitions of brick, the
+stairs of slate or stone, the joists of wrought iron filled in with
+concrete, and the whole well plastered, are practically fire-proof
+because, as stated at the opening of this chapter, there is no
+probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room would make
+fire enough to communicate to another. The safest manner of heating
+such houses is with open fire-places, the hearths not being laid upon
+timber. Stone staircases, when much heated, will fracture from cold
+water coming suddenly in contact with them; but in a dwelling-house
+built as described above, there is very little chance of such a
+circumstance endangering human life, even with wooden steps carried
+upon brick walls, and rendered incombustible by a ceiling of an inch
+and a quarter of good hair mortar and well pugged, all the purposes of
+safety to human life would be attained.
+
+There is a particular description of floor, which, although not
+altogether fire-proof, is certainly (at least so far as I can judge),
+almost practically so for dwelling-houses. It is composed simply of
+plank two and a-half or three inches thick, so closely joined, and so
+nicely fitted to the walls, as to be completely air-tight. Its
+thickness and its property of being air-tight, will be easily observed
+to be its only causes of safety. Although the apartment be on fire,
+yet the time required to burn through the floor above or below, will
+be so great, that the property may be removed from the other floors,
+or, more probably, if the means of extinguishing fire be at hand, it
+may be subdued before it can spread to any other apartment. The doors
+must of course be made in proportion, and the partitions of brick or
+stone.
+
+Before closing the subject of fire-proof structures, I will add a few
+words upon fire-proof safes. These are all constructed with double
+casings of wrought iron, the interstices being in some filled with
+non-combustible substances, such as pumice stone and Stourbridge clay,
+and in others with metal tubes, that melt at a low temperature, and
+allow a liquid contained in them to escape, and form steam round the
+box, with the intention of preventing the heat from injuring the
+contents. Such safes I have never found destroyed; and in some cases,
+after large fires, the whole of the contents have been found
+uninjured, while the papers in common safes, merely made strong enough
+to prevent their being broken into, were generally found consumed.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote A: _Vide_ Seventh Report of the British Association, 1837,
+vol. vi. page 409.]
+
+[Footnote B: _Vide_ Report on the Fall of the Cotton Mill, at Oldham,
+and part of the Prison at Northleach, page 4. Folio. London: Clowes
+and Sons, 1845.]
+
+[Footnote C: _Vide_ Report of W. Fairbairn, Esq., on the Construction
+of Fire-proof Buildings. With introductory Remarks by Samuel Holme,
+page 11, _et seq._ Tract, 8vo. Liverpool: T. Baines, 1844.]
+
+[Footnote D: The Author has been informed by Mr. Farey, M. Inst. C.E.,
+that a fire took place, in 1827, in a mill belonging to Mr. Marshall,
+of Leeds, the whole of which, with the exception of the roof, was
+fire-proof. The upper floor was filled with flax, which took fire; the
+roof fell in, and the heat so affected the iron beams of the floor, as
+to cause them to give way.]
+
+[Footnote E: In the year 1858, when reporting to the Insurance Offices
+upon the Warehouses in the Metropolitan Docks, Mr. Braidwood made the
+following suggestions which are applicable to all large buildings.
+That all the party-walls where the roofs do not rise above the wall,
+should be 3 feet 6 inches above such roof. That all the party-walls in
+the valleys of the roofs should be raised to the level of the highest
+ridge on either side, all openings in such walls being closed by
+wrought-iron doors on each side of the walls, at least a quarter of an
+inch thick in the panels, and such openings not to exceed 42
+superficial feet in the clear. That all windows which look upon other
+windows, or loop-hole doors in other warehouses or compartments,
+within 100 feet, should be bricked up, or have wrought-iron shutters
+at least 3/16th of an inch thick in the panels.
+
+That all loop-hole doors similarly situated should be made entirely of
+wrought iron, frames included, or bricked up. That all shafts for
+lifts or other purposes, should be of brick, with wrought-iron doors
+where necessary to receive or deliver goods, and that all openings
+whatever for machinery should be included in such shaft. That every
+hatchway or opening in the floors for "shooting" goods from floor to
+floor should have a strong flap _hinged on_ to the floor, to be closed
+when not in use, especially at night.
+
+That there should be direct access to every room, of every
+compartment, of every warehouse, from a fire-proof staircase, by iron
+doors, and that all such staircases should enter from the open air, as
+well as from under any warehouse on the quay; in the latter case the
+doors must be of iron only.
+
+All the windows in the entresol and ground floors to be bricked up, or
+have iron shutters, and the doors and frames to be of iron.
+
+Wherever the warehouses face each other within 100 feet, the front
+parapet walls to be carried up to the level of the ridge of the roof.
+
+When it is stated in this report that the windows or loop-hole doors
+should be bricked up, it is not meant to exclude the use of thick
+glass, three or four pieces being built into each door or window
+space, not exceeding 6 inches in diameter or square, in the clear, and
+set in the mortar or cement at least 3/4 of an inch all round, the
+glass to be not less than 1-1/2 inches thick, flat on both sides, and
+so placed that no goods can be stored within 18 inches of the inner
+surface.
+
+There should be a tank on the top of each staircase, with a tap from
+it on each landing, with six fire buckets hung near it, and three
+small hand pumps in every staircase; the officers and workpeople
+seeing these every day would be certain to run to them in case of
+fire, and by having a constant supply of water on every floor small
+accidents might be extinguished at once, and the iron doors and roofs
+kept cool in case of one room taking fire.]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE EXTINCTION, INCLUDING FIRE BRIGADES, FIRE ENGINES, AND WATER
+SUPPLY.
+
+
+Before entering upon the subject of Public Fire Brigades, I will call
+attention to the course to be pursued by inmates of the house on fire,
+and their neighbours.
+
+When all available means of fire prevention have been adopted, the
+next thing to be considered is a supply of water. In the country, or
+where there are no water-pipes or engines, this ought to be
+particularly attended to, and a hand-pump should be provided. Where no
+water is kept solely for the purpose of extinguishing fire, such
+vessels as can be spared should be regularly filled every night, and
+placed in such situations as may be most convenient in case of danger;
+and no master of a family ought to retire to rest, without being
+satisfied that this has been attended to. If it had no other advantage
+than merely that of directing the inmates of a house to the
+possibility of such an occurrence as fire, it would be worth much more
+than the trouble such an arrangement would cost; but, in addition to
+that, a supply of water would be at hand, in most cases more than
+sufficient to extinguish the fire immediately on its being discovered,
+and before it had become either alarming or dangerous. But when no
+such precaution has been adopted, when even the bare possibility of
+fire has not been considered, when no attention has even been paid to
+the subject, and no provision made for it; the inhabitants are
+generally so alarmed and confused, that the danger is probably over,
+by their property being burned to the ground, before they can
+sufficiently recollect themselves to lend any effective assistance.
+
+In most cases of fire, the people in whose premises it occurs are
+thrown into what may be called a state of temporary derangement, and
+seem to be actuated only by a desire of muscular movement, no matter
+to what purpose their exertions are directed. Persons may often be
+seen toiling like galley-slaves, at operations which a moment's
+reflection would show were utterly useless. I have seen tables,
+chairs, and every article of furniture that would pass through a
+window, three or four stories high, dashed into the street, even when
+the fire had hardly touched the tenement. On one occasion I saw
+crockery-ware thrown from a window on the third floor.[F]
+
+Most of these extravagances take place on the first alarm. When the
+engines have got fairly into play, people begin to recollect
+themselves, and it is at this time that most of those "who go to see a
+fire" arrive. By the exertions of the police there is then generally a
+considerable degree of order restored, and the most interesting part
+of the scene is over.
+
+What remains, however, may, from its novelty or grandeur, if the fire
+is extensive, be still worth looking at for a little, but much of the
+excitement is banished with the confusion; and if the fire and firemen
+seem to be well matched, the chief interest which is excited in the
+spectators is to ascertain which of the parties is likely to be
+victorious. Few people, comparatively, have thus an opportunity of
+witnessing the terror and distraction occasioned by the first alarm of
+fire, and this may probably account for the apathy and indifference
+with which people who have not seen this regard it.
+
+When a fire actually takes place, every one should endeavour to be as
+cool and collected as possible; screams, cries, and other exhibitions
+of terror, while utterly useless in themselves, have generally the
+effect of alarming those whose services might otherwise be of the
+utmost advantage, and of rendering them unfit for useful exertion. It
+is unhappily, too, at the commencement of fires, that this tendency to
+confusion and terror is the strongest, when a bucket of water,
+properly applied, is generally of more value than a hundred will be
+half an hour afterwards. It is the feeling of total surprise, on the
+breaking out of a fire, which thus unhinges the faculties of many
+individuals. They have never made the case their own, nay, one would
+almost imagine they had scarcely thought such an occurrence possible,
+till, coming on them almost like a thunderbolt, they are lost in
+perplexity and terror. The only preventive against this is to think
+the matter over frequently and carefully before it occurs.
+
+The moment it is ascertained that fire has actually taken place,
+notice should be sent to the nearest station where there is a
+fire-engine. No matter whether the inmates are likely to be able to
+extinguish the fire themselves--this should never be trusted to if
+more efficient help can be had.
+
+It is much better that an engine should be turned out twenty times
+when it is not wanted, than be once too late. This may cause a
+trifling expense; but even that expense is not altogether lost, as it
+teaches the firemen steadiness and coolness.
+
+The person in the house best qualified for such duty should endeavour
+to ascertain, with as much precision as possible, the extent and
+position of the fire, while the others collect as much water as they
+can. If the fire be in an upper floor, the inmates should be got out
+immediately, although the lower part of the house may generally be
+entered with safety for some time. If in the lower part of the house,
+after the inmates have been removed, great care should be observed in
+going into any of the upper floors, as the flames very often reach the
+stair before being observed by those above. The upper floors are,
+besides, generally filled with smoke, and, in that case, there is
+great danger of suffocation to those who may enter.
+
+This, indeed, is the principal danger attending fires, and should be
+particularly guarded against, as a person, when being suffocated, is
+unable to call for assistance. In a case of this kind the fire took
+place in the third floor from the street, and all the inmates
+immediately left the premises except one old woman. In about fifteen
+minutes after the arrival of the engines, the firemen made their way
+upstairs, and the poor woman was found dead beside a basket partly
+filled with clothes, which it was supposed she had been packing up for
+removal; had she made any noise, or even broke a pane of glass, she
+would, in all probability, have been saved; as the fire never touched
+the floor in which she was found, she must have died entirely from
+suffocation, which a little fresh air would have prevented. Had the
+slightest suspicion existed that any one was in the upper floors, they
+would have been entered by the windows or the roof; but as the fire
+took place in daylight, and none of the neighbours spoke of any one
+being in the house, it was thought unnecessary to damage the property,
+or risk the lives of the firemen, without some adequate cause. This,
+however, shows how little dependence can be placed on information
+received from the inmates of the premises on fire. Some of the people
+who lived on the same floor with this poor woman, and who had seen her
+immediately before they left the house, never mentioned her. I do not
+suppose that this negligence arose from apathy, or any feeling of that
+sort; but the people were in such a state of utter confusion, that
+they were unable to think of anything. But to return.
+
+On the first discovery of a fire, it is of the utmost consequence to
+shut, and keep shut, all doors, windows, or other openings. It may
+often be observed, after a house has been on fire, that one floor is
+comparatively untouched, while those above and below are nearly burned
+out. This arises from the door on that particular floor having been
+shut, and the draught directed elsewhere. If the person who has
+examined the fire finds a risk of its gaining ground upon him, he
+should, if within reach of fire-engines, keep everything close, and
+await their arrival, instead of admitting air to the fire by
+ineffectual efforts to oppose it with inadequate means. In the
+meantime, however, he should examine where a supply of water is most
+likely to be obtained, and communicate that, and any other local
+information, to the firemen on their coming forward. If there be no
+fire-engine within reach, the person who has examined the fire should
+keep the place where it is situated as close as possible, till as many
+buckets of water as can be easily collected are placed within his
+reach.
+
+Taking care always that there is some one ready to assist him, he
+should then open the door, and creep forward on his hands and knees
+till he gets as near the fire as possible; holding his breath, and
+standing up for a moment to give the water a proper direction, he
+should throw it with force, using a hand pump if available, and
+instantly get down to his former position, where he will be again able
+to breathe. The people behind handing forward another bucket of water,
+he repeats the operation till the fire is quenched, or until he feels
+exhausted; in which case some one should take his place. If there be
+enough of water, however, two, three, or any convenient number of
+people may be employed in throwing it; on the contrary, if the supply
+of water be insufficient to employ even one person, the door should be
+kept shut while the water is being brought, and the air excluded as
+much as possible, as the fire burns exactly in proportion to the
+quantity of air which it receives.
+
+One great evil, and which ought to be strictly guarded against by
+people not accustomed to fire, is, that on the first alarm they exert
+themselves to the very utmost of their strength. This, of course, can
+last but a short time; and when they feel tired, which in that case
+soon happens, they very often give up altogether. Now this is the
+reverse of what it ought to be. In extinguishing fires, like most
+other things, a cool judgment and steady perseverance are far more
+effective than any desultory exertions which can be made.
+
+The heat generally increases in a considerable degree when water is
+first thrown upon a fire, from the conversion of a portion of it into
+steam. This is sometimes very annoying; so much so, that the persons
+engaged in throwing the water, frequently feel themselves obliged to
+give back a little. They should on no account, however, abate or
+discontinue their exertions in throwing the water with as much force
+as possible in the direction of the fire; it will in a short time cool
+the air and materials, and the steam will, in consequence, be
+generated more slowly, while a steady perseverance on the part of
+those employed can alone effect the object in view.
+
+When water is scarce, mud, cow or horse dung, damp earth, &c., may be
+used as substitutes; but if there seems no chance of succeeding by any
+of these, and the fire is likely to extend to other buildings, the
+communication should be immediately cut off by pulling down the
+building next to that on fire. Any operation of this sort, however,
+should be begun at a sufficient distance from the fire to allow the
+communication to be completely cut off, before it gains upon the
+workmen. If this operation be attempted so near the fire as to be
+interrupted by it, it must be begun again at a greater distance; and,
+in that case, there is a greater destruction of property than might
+have been necessary.
+
+If a fire occur in a stable or cow-house, surrounded with other
+buildings of the same description, or with the produce of a farm,
+there is much danger. The cattle and horses should be immediately
+removed; and, in doing so, if any of them become restive, they should
+be blindfolded, taking care that it is done thoroughly, as any attempt
+to blindfold them partially, only increases the evil. They should be
+handled as much as possible in the ordinary manner, and with great
+coolness; the violent gestures and excited appearance of the persons
+removing them tending greatly to startle the animals, and render them
+unmanageable.
+
+
+PUBLIC FIRE BRIGADES AND THE DUTIES OF FIREMEN.
+
+The best public means of arresting fires is a very wide question, as
+the only limit to the means is the expense. Different nations have
+different ways of doing the same thing. On the Continent generally,
+the whole is managed by Government, and the firemen are placed under
+martial law, the inhabitants being compelled to work the engines. In
+London, the principal means of arresting fires is a voluntary
+association of the insurance companies, without legal authority of any
+sort, the legal protection by parish engines being, with a few
+praiseworthy exceptions, a dead letter.
+
+In Liverpool, Manchester, and other towns, the extinction of fires by
+the pressure of water only, without the use of fire-engines, is very
+much practised. The advantages of this system are very great; but, to
+enable us to follow this system in London, the whole water supply
+would require to be remodelled.
+
+In America, the firemen are generally volunteers, enrolled by the
+local Governments. They are exempt from other duties, or are entitled
+to privileges, which appear to satisfy them, as the situation of
+fireman is eagerly sought in most of the American cities.
+
+Which is the best of these different modes it is difficult to say;
+perhaps each is best suited for the place where it exists.
+
+It is now generally admitted, that the whole force brought together to
+extinguish a fire ought to be under the direction and control of one
+individual. By this means, all quarrelling among the firemen about the
+supply of water, the interest of particular insurance companies, and
+other matters of detail, is avoided. By having the whole force under
+the command of one person, he is enabled to form one general plan of
+operations, to which the whole body is subservient; and although he
+may not, in the hurry of the moment, at all times adopt what will
+afterwards appear to be the best plan, yet it is better to have some
+general arrangement, than to allow the firemen of each engine to work
+according to their own fancy, and that, too, very often in utter
+disregard as to whether their exertions may aid or retard those of
+their neighbours. The individual appointed to such a situation ought
+not to be interfered with, or have his attention distracted, except by
+the chief authority on the spot, or the owner of the premises on fire.
+Much valuable information is frequently obtained from the latter, as
+to the division of the premises, the party-walls, and other matters
+connected with its locality. But, generally speaking, the less
+interference and advice the better, as it occupies time which may
+generally be better employed.
+
+I need scarcely add, that on no account whatever should directions be
+given to the firemen by any other individual while the superintendent
+of brigade is present; and that there may be no quarrelling about
+superiority, the men should be aware on whom the command is to devolve
+in his absence.
+
+It has often been to me a matter of surprise, that so small a portion
+of the public attention should be directed to the matter of
+extinguishing fires. It is only when roused by some great calamity
+that people bestir themselves; and then there is such a variety of
+plans proposed to avert similar cases of distress, that to attempt to
+concoct a rational plan out of such a crude, ill-digested, and
+contradictory mass of opinion, requires more labour and attention than
+most people are inclined to give it, unless a regular business was
+made of it. In Paris the corps of military firemen are so well
+trained, that although their apparatus is not so good as it should be,
+the amount of the losses by fire is comparatively trifling. If the
+head-quarters of such an establishment were to be in London, a store
+of apparatus, constructed on one uniform plan, could be kept there, to
+be forwarded to any other part of the kingdom where it might be
+required. This uniformity of the structure and design of the apparatus
+could extend to the most minute particulars; a screw or a nut of any
+one engine would fit every other engine in the kingdom. A depot could
+also be kept at head-quarters, where recruits would be regularly
+drilled and instructed in the business, and a regular system of
+communication kept up with all the provincial corps. Any particular
+circumstances occurring at a fire would thus be immediately reported,
+and the advantages of any knowledge or experience thus gained, would
+be disseminated over the whole kingdom. As the matter at present
+stands one town may have an excellent fire-engine establishment, and
+another within a few miles a very indifferent one, and when the one is
+called to assist the other, they can neither act in concert, nor can
+the apparatus of the one in case of accident be of the smallest
+service in replacing that of the other. The best might (if a proper
+communication were kept up) be under frequent obligations to the
+worst, and here, as in other matters, it is chiefly by communication
+that knowledge is increased. If the whole experience of the country
+were brought together, and maturely considered and digested by persons
+competent to judge, I have no doubt that a system might be introduced
+suitable to the nation and to the age in which we live. Instead of
+hearing of the "_dreadful losses by fire_," and the "_great
+exertions_" made to extinguish it, all the notice would be, such a
+place took fire, the engines arrived, and it was extinguished.
+
+It would be useless for me to enter into the details of a plan which I
+have little hope of ever seeing realized. I may state, however, that a
+premium might be offered for the best engine of a size previously
+agreed upon, which, when finished, should be kept as a model.
+
+Specifications could then be made out, and estimates advertised for,
+for all the different parts, such as wheels, axles, levers, cisterns,
+barrels, air-vessels, &c., separately. When any particular part of an
+engine was damaged, it could be immediately replaced, and the engine
+again rendered fit for service; and upon emergency any number of
+engines could be set up, merely by putting the different parts
+together. The work would also be better done; at least it would be
+much more easy to detect faults in the materials or workmanship than
+if the engines were bought ready for use. These remarks apply to all
+the rest of the apparatus.
+
+It could be provided that firemen might be enlisted for a term of
+years. When enlisted, they would be sent to the depot at
+head-quarters, drilled to the use of the engines, and carefully
+instructed in separating and cleaning the different parts. Here also
+they could be practised in gymnastic exercises, and generally
+instructed in everything tending to promote their usefulness as
+firemen. They could then be sent off to some large towns, and, after
+having seen a little active service, distributed over the country in
+such parties as might be deemed necessary for the places they were
+intended to protect.
+
+The practice of keeping fire-engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's
+residences, and at large manufactories in the country, is by no means
+uncommon, and I have no doubt that many more would supply themselves
+in this way if they knew where to apply for information in such
+matters; but the great fault lies in the want of persons of skill and
+experience to work them when fire occurs. In the way I have mentioned,
+proprietors and others could have one or more of their workmen
+instructed in this necessary piece of duty; and I have no doubt that
+many gentlemen would avail themselves of the means of instructing some
+of their servants.
+
+It will be observed, I do not propose that the firemen who are
+enlisted, drilled, and instructed in the business, should be sent to
+the different stations in sufficient numbers to work the engines; this
+part of the work can be performed by any man accustomed to hard
+labour, as well as by the most expert fireman, and the local
+authorities could easily provide men for this purpose. In small towns,
+where fires are rare, the novelty would draw together plenty of hands;
+and in large towns, where the inhabitants are not sufficiently
+disinterested to work for nothing, there are always plenty who could
+be bound to assist in cases of fire at a certain rate per hour, to be
+paid upon a certificate from the fireman who has charge of the engine
+at which they worked. The trained firemen would thus be required only
+for the direction of the engine, attaching the hose, &c.
+
+I am quite aware that many people object to the training of firemen;
+but it would be just as reasonable to give to a mob all the "materiel"
+of war, and next day expect it to act like a regular army, as to
+expect engines to be managed with any general prospect of success,
+unless the men are properly trained and prepared for the duty which is
+expected from them. Fire is both a powerful and an insidious enemy,
+and those whose business it is to attack it will best succeed when
+they have become skilful and experienced in the use of their arms.
+
+It is quite obvious that a fire brigade, however complete in its
+apparatus and equipments, must depend for its efficiency on the state
+of training and discipline of the firemen. Wherever there is
+inexperience, want of co-operation, or confusion amongst them, the
+utmost danger is to be apprehended in the event of fire. It is amidst
+the raging of this destructive element, the terror and bustle of the
+inhabitants, that organization and discipline triumph, and it is
+there, too, that coolness and promptitude, steadiness and activity,
+fearlessness and caution, are peculiarly required; but, unfortunately,
+it is then also that they are most rarely exhibited.
+
+There should not be less than five or six men attached to each engine,
+who should be properly instructed and drilled, to take charge of it,
+and to guide the people who work at the levers.
+
+The person having the principal charge of the engines should
+frequently turn over in his mind what might be the best plan, in such
+and such circumstances, supposing a fire to take place. By frequently
+ruminating on the subject, he will find himself, when suddenly turned
+out of bed at night, much more fit for his task than if he had never
+considered the matter at all. Indeed he will frequently be surprised,
+when examining the premises afterwards (_which he ought always to do,
+and mark any mistakes he may have committed_), that he should have
+adopted the very best mode of extinguishing the fire, amid the noise,
+confusion, and the innumerable advices showered down on him, by all
+those who consider themselves qualified or entitled to give advice in
+such matters; a number, by the way, which sometimes includes no
+inconsiderable portion of the spectators. He should also make himself
+well acquainted with the different parts of the town in which he may
+be appointed to act, and notice the declivities of the different
+streets, &c. He will find this knowledge of great advantage.
+
+Any buildings, supposed to be particularly dangerous, should be
+carefully examined, and all the different places where supplies of
+water can be obtained for them noticed.
+
+A knowledge of the locality thus obtained will be found of great
+advantage in case of a fire breaking out. Indeed all firemen,
+especially those having the charge of engines, should be instructed
+carefully to examine and make themselves acquainted with the
+localities of their neighbourhood or district. Such knowledge will
+often prove valuable in emergencies; the proprietors or tenants of the
+property on fire being sometimes in such a state of alarm, that no
+distinct intelligence can be got from them.
+
+When an engine is brought to a fire, it ought to be placed as nearly
+as possible in a straight line between the supply of water and the
+premises on fire; taking care, however, to keep at such a distance
+from the latter that the men who work the pumps may be in no danger
+from being scorched by the heat, or of being annoyed by the falling of
+water or burning materials. Running the engine close upon the fire
+serves no good purpose, except to shorten the quantity of hose that
+would otherwise be required. The addition of twenty or thirty feet of
+hose makes very little difference in the working of the engine, and,
+when compared with the disadvantage of the men becoming unsteady from
+the idea of personal danger, is not even to be named. Indeed, if the
+engine be brought too near the fire, there is danger of the men
+quitting the levers altogether. I may also add that, both for the
+safety of the hose and the convenience of the inhabitants, the engine
+should be kept out of the way of people removing furniture.
+
+When the hose is attached and the engine filled with water, the man
+who holds the branch-pipe, accompanied by another, should get so near
+the fire, inside the house, _that the water from the branch may strike
+the burning materials_. If he cannot accomplish this standing, he must
+get down on his hands and knees and creep forward, those behind
+handing up the hose. A stratum of fresh air is almost always to be
+depended on from six to twelve inches from the floor, so that if the
+air be not respirable to a person standing upright, he should
+instantly get down. I have often observed this fact, which indeed is
+well known; but I once saw an example of it which appeared to me to be
+so striking, that I shall here relate it. A fire had broken out in the
+third floor of a house, and when I reached the top of the stair, the
+smoke was rolling in thick heavy masses, which prevented me from
+seeing six inches before me. I immediately got down on the floor;
+above which, for a space of about eight inches the air seemed to be
+remarkably clear and bright. I could distinctly see the feet of the
+tables and other furniture in the apartment; the flames in this space
+burning as vivid and distinct as the flame of a candle, while all
+above the smoke was so thick that the eye could not penetrate it. The
+fire had already burst through three out of five windows in the
+apartment, yet, when lying flat on the floor, no inconvenience was
+felt except from the heat.
+
+When the fire has broken through a floor, the supply of air along that
+floor is not to be depended on--the fire drawing the principal supply
+of air from the apartments below.
+
+When the two first firemen have gained a favourable position, they
+should keep it as long as they are able; and when they feel exhausted,
+the men behind them should take their place.
+
+The great point to which everything ought to be made subservient is,
+_that the water on its discharge from the branch-pipe should actually
+strike the burning materials_. This cannot be too often or too
+anxiously inculcated on every one connected with a fire-engine
+establishment. Every other method not having this for its grand
+object, will, in nine cases out of ten, utterly fail; and upon the
+degree of attention paid to this point, depends almost entirely the
+question as to the amount of damage the fire will occasion.
+
+When approaching a fire, it should always be done by the door, if
+possible. When this is attended to, it is much easier to shift the
+hose from one apartment to another; and the current of fresh air,
+entering by the door and proceeding along the passages, makes
+respiration easier and safer than elsewhere.
+
+When entrance by the door is impracticable, and access is to be gained
+by a window, the flames frequently burst through in such a manner as
+to render advance in the first instance impossible. In that case, the
+branch should be pointed against the window, nearly in a perpendicular
+direction; the water striking the lintel, and falling all round inside
+the window, will soon extinguish the fire at that point sufficiently
+to render an entrance practicable.
+
+The old plan of standing with the branch pipe in the street, and
+throwing the water into the windows is a very random way of going to
+work; and for my own part, although I have seen it repeatedly tried, I
+never saw it attended with success. Indeed it is hardly to be expected
+that water, thrown from the street into a room three or four storeys
+high, can have any impression on closets, presses, or passages,
+divided probably with brick partitions in the centre of the house. The
+circumstance of having engines at work on both sides of the house does
+not alter the case. The fire very often burns up through the centre,
+and frequently, when the space between the windows is large, along the
+front or back wall, till it arrives at the roof, which the water
+cannot touch on account of the slates or tiles. On the other hand,
+when the firemen enter the house, the fire is almost wholly under
+their command. And when it happens that there is any corner which the
+water cannot directly strike, the fire in it may often be extinguished
+by throwing the water against an opposite wall or partition, and
+trusting to the recoil to throw it to the point required.
+
+When the water is thrown from the street, it is impossible to say
+whether it touches the parts on fire or not. No one can tell anything
+about it, except when the flame appears at the windows.
+
+On going with the branch inside the house, besides the advantage of
+the water rushing directly from the hose upon the fire, there is a
+great saving in the article of water itself. The whole that is thrown
+by the engine is applied to the right purpose. No part of it is lost;
+that which does not strike the burning materials falls within the
+house; and, by soaking those parts on which it falls, prevents their
+burning so rapidly when the flames approach them.
+
+If, on entering an apartment, it be found that the flames cover a
+considerable space, it is of advantage, in some instances, to place
+the point of the thumb in contact with the water at the nozzle of the
+branch. By this means the water may be spread to cover any space under
+twenty or thirty feet, according to the pressure applied.
+
+While speaking of the mode of entering houses on fire, I may mention
+that I have tried several inventions for the purpose of elevating the
+branch pipe and hose to the level of a second or third story window.
+But these, although exceedingly ingenious, appear to me to rest on a
+principle entirely wrong; I mean that of throwing water on the fire
+from the outside of the building.
+
+Independent altogether of a mistaken principle of usefulness, one
+insuperable objection to all these machines, is the difficulty of
+conveying them with the necessary celerity, and the impossibility of
+packing them on the engine in such a manner that it may be worked
+without their being taken off, as it seems to me _that every
+description of apparatus which cannot be conveyed along with the
+engine, is likely to be left behind when most wanted_. It is notorious
+that parish fire-ladders are, for this reason, seldom or never made
+use of.
+
+Many people object to going inside a building on fire on account of
+the danger. It ought never to be forgotten, however, that the danger
+increases with the delay; and that although at first there may be no
+danger, if the opportunity is not promptly seized, it may become very
+considerable.
+
+Several of the firemen have at different times fainted, or become
+stupefied, from the want of fresh air; but as no one is ever allowed
+to enter singly, they have been, in all cases, immediately observed by
+their comrades, and relieved.
+
+Another objection has been raised in the alleged difficulty of
+persuading men to risk their lives in this manner for the small
+consideration which is allowed them. The truth is, that any
+persuasions I have had occasion to use, have been generally on the
+other side.
+
+To hold the branch is considered the post of honour; and when two
+engines are working together, I have sometimes difficulty in
+preventing the men from pressing forward farther than is absolutely
+necessary. This forwardness is not the result of pecuniary reward for
+the increase of risk, but a spirit of emulation is at work, and the
+man entrusted with this duty, if found drawing back, would be
+completely disgraced.
+
+A retreat should in all cases be kept open, to provide against any
+accident that may occur; and as this may be done in almost all cases
+by means so easy and simple, there can be no excuse for its omission.
+At the same time no one but an expert fireman should be permitted to
+enter where there is personal danger.
+
+The danger to which firemen are most exposed is catching cold, from
+their being so frequently drenched with water, and from their exposure
+to the sudden alternations of heat and cold. A man is turned out of
+bed at midnight, and in a few minutes after quitting it he is exposed
+to the sharp air, perhaps, of a frosty winter night; running to the
+fire as fast as he can, he is, from the exercise, joined to the
+oppressive heat inside the place on fire, in a few minutes in a state
+of the most profuse perspiration; and, while in this state, he is
+almost certain to be soaked with cold water. The smoke is sometimes so
+thick, that he comes under the range of the branch of the engine
+without being aware of it till the water strikes him. If he escape
+this chance, the water rushing on some other object, recoils on him,
+and produces the same effect; and if the fire be in the roof of the
+apartment, he must lie down on his back on the floor, and in this
+manner gets completely steeped.
+
+A bath of this sort is neither very safe nor pleasant; and the only
+preventive of injury to the health is to keep the men in constant
+motion. When they are allowed to stand still or sit down, the danger
+is considerable. When the fire is extinguished, or in two or three
+hours after its commencement, I make it a rule to give every man a
+dram of spirits. If it be necessary to leave an engine on the spot,
+those of the men who are to remain are sent home to change their
+clothes.
+
+
+THE LONDON FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+The London Fire Brigade now (January, 1861) consists of one
+superintendent, four foremen, each being appointed to a district
+consisting of a fourth part of London, which he never leaves except on
+some very pressing emergency, and who, in the absence of the
+superintendent, has the sole command of all engines, or firemen,
+within, or who may come within, his district; twelve engineers, ten
+sub-engineers, forty-seven senior firemen, and forty-three junior
+firemen: in all, one hundred and seventeen individuals. In addition,
+there are fifteen drivers and thirty-seven horses, all living at the
+several stations, and ready when required. There is also a
+supplementary force of four extra firemen, four drivers, and eight
+horses living at the stations, pursuing their usual avocations, and
+only paid by the Committee when required. The mechanical appliances
+consist of twenty-seven large engines drawn by horses, eight small
+engines drawn by hand, two floating-engines worked by steam, one of
+forty-horse power, and the other of eighty-horse power, one land steam
+fire-engine, and twenty-eight hand-pumps, one of the latter being
+carried on each engine. When an engine is sent to a fire, only four
+firemen and one driver accompany it. The levers are worked by the
+by-standers, who are paid one shilling for the first hour, and
+sixpence for each succeeding hour, besides refreshments. Upwards of
+six hundred assistants have been thus employed at one time. The
+principal protection of London against fire is entirely voluntary on
+the part of the insurance companies, to whom the above establishment
+belongs; there being no law in any shape whatever to control or
+sustain the brigade; and with the exception of some fifteen or twenty,
+the parish-engines are comparatively useless at a serious fire. It
+must not be omitted, that the greatest possible assistance is given to
+the firemen by the police, of whom there are about 7000, in keeping
+back the crowd, &c. The fire-offices look upon the whole as a matter
+of private business, so that the brigade is proportioned quite as must
+to the amount which the offices think it prudent to spend as to the
+size of the place. Paris, which is not half the size of London, and
+the buildings of which are much more substantial, has upwards of 800
+firemen. It appears to me that any success which the brigade may have
+attained depends, in a great measure, on the liberal pay given, by
+which the best men for the purpose can be obtained, the favourable
+view in which the brigade is regarded by the public, and the willing
+and able assistance given by a numerous and perhaps the best police in
+existence.
+
+The firemen in London being constantly employed on weekly wages, give
+their whole time to their employers, and are much more under command
+than where men are only occasionally employed. The wages and treatment
+being liberal, although the discipline is severe, there are generally
+a considerable number of candidates for each vacancy. Thus good men
+are obtained, seamen being preferred, as they are taught to obey
+orders, and the night and day watches and the uncertainty of the
+occupation are more similar to their former habits, than to those of
+other men of the same rank in life. The large number of fires is,
+however, the principal cause of any advantage the London firemen may
+possess over those of smaller places; and it is hardly fair to compare
+firemen who have only an opportunity of attending one or two fires in
+a week, to those who attend nearly three fires a day.
+
+The firemen are drilled first daily, and then two or three times a
+week, for some months; and this, with an average of three calls a day,
+soon makes them acquainted with the routine of their business; but it
+takes years of constant work to make a thoroughly good fireman.
+
+The management of the London Fire Brigade is confided to a Committee,
+consisting of one of the directors or secretaries from each of the
+fire-offices in London.
+
+The superintendent has the command of the whole force.
+
+The town is divided into four districts, in each of which there are
+stationed a sufficient number of engines, under the charge of a
+foreman, with engines and firemen under him.
+
+The districts are as follows:--
+
+NORTH SIDE OF RIVER.
+
+     District A. From the eastward to Paul's Chain, St. Paul's
+     Churchyard, Aldersgate-street, and Goswell-street-road.
+
+     B. From St. Paul's, &c., to Tottenham-court-road,
+     Crown-street, and St. Martin's-lane.
+
+     C. From Tottenham-court-road, &c., westward.
+
+     D. South side of River.
+
+The men are clothed uniformly; are distinguished by numbers
+corresponding with their names in the books; and regularly exercised
+in the use of their engines, and in such other duties as the Committee
+or Superintendent may direct.
+
+The following general regulations do not contain rules of conduct
+applicable to every variety of circumstance that may occur to
+individuals in the performance of their duty, as something must always
+be left for the exercise of intelligence and discretion; and,
+according to the degree in which these qualities in members of the
+Establishment are combined with zeal and activity, they become
+entitled to future promotion and reward.
+
+It is strongly impressed upon the minds of all persons serving in the
+Establishment, that one of the greatest advantages which the present
+system possesses above that which it superseded, is derived from the
+embodying the whole force under one responsible officer. It is,
+therefore, incumbent upon the men to render prompt and cheerful
+obedience to the commands of their superiors; to execute their duties
+as steadily and quietly as possible; to be careful not to annoy the
+inhabitants of houses they may be called upon to enter, and to treat
+all persons with civility; to take care to preserve presence of mind
+and good temper, and not to allow themselves to be distracted from
+their duty by the advice or directions of any persons but their own
+officers, and to observe the strictest sobriety and general regularity
+of behaviour.
+
+As every man wears the uniform of the Establishment, which is marked
+with a number corresponding with his name in the books, he must
+constantly bear in mind that misconduct will not only reflect
+discredit upon the Establishment, but be easily brought home to
+himself and subject him to proportional punishment.
+
+The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from
+any individual without special permission of the superintendent, or,
+in his absence, of the foreman of the district; and as intoxication
+upon the alarming occasion of fires is not only disreputable to the
+Establishment, but in the highest degree dangerous, by rendering the
+men unfit for duty, every appearance of it is most rigidly marked, and
+the foremen, engineers, and sub-engineers report immediately, for the
+purpose of being laid before the Committee, every instance of
+insubordination or intoxication, and the men are accordingly apprised
+that the regulations regarding the above-mentioned faults will be most
+strictly enforced.
+
+All the men in the Establishment are liable to be punished by fine,
+suspension, reduction, or dismissal, for disobeying or neglecting any
+of these regulations, or for any other misconduct; and the disposal of
+the fines so collected is at the discretion of the Committee.
+
+The following are the conditions upon which each man is admitted into
+the Establishment:--
+
+     He devotes his whole time to the service.
+
+     He serves and resides wherever he is appointed.
+
+     He must promptly obey all orders which he may receive from
+     those placed in authority over him.
+
+     The age of admission does not exceed twenty-five, nor is
+     under eighteen.
+
+     He conforms himself to all regulations which may be made
+     from time to time.
+
+     He does not upon any occasion, or under any pretence
+     whatever, take money from any person, without the express
+     permission of the Committee.
+
+     He appears at all times in the dress of the Establishment.
+
+     If lodgings be found for him, a deduction of one shilling
+     per week is made from his pay, if unmarried; if married, and
+     if lodgings be found for him, an agreement in each
+     particular case will be made.
+
+     He receives his pay weekly on such day as shall be
+     appointed.
+
+     The pay of a Junior Fireman is 3_s._ per day, or 21_s._ a
+     week.
+
+     The pay of a Senior Fireman, 3_s._ 6_d._ a day, or 24_s._
+     6_d._ a week.
+
+     The pay of a Sub-Engineer is 26_s._ a week.
+
+     The pay of an Engineer, 4_s._ a day, or 28_s._ a week.
+
+     The Foremen are paid by annual salaries.
+
+     Each man contributes towards a Superannuation Fund,
+     according to a scale determined by the Committee.
+
+     Each man receives  annually--
+
+      One short frock coat, marked with a number answering to his name
+        in the books.
+
+      A black neckcloth.
+
+      Two pairs of cloth trousers.
+
+      One cloth cap.
+
+      Four pairs of boots in three years, and
+
+     Once in three years he receives--
+
+      One great coat.
+
+     He does not quit the service without giving fourteen days'
+     previous notice; if he quits without such notice, or is
+     dismissed, the whole of his pay then due is forfeited.
+
+     Every man who is dismissed from the Establishment, or who
+     resigns his situation, delivers up, before he quits the
+     service, every article of dress and appointment which may
+     have been supplied to him; if any of such articles have
+     been, in the opinion of the superintendent, improperly used
+     or damaged, the man makes good the damage or supplies a new
+     article.
+
+     Every man in the service is liable to immediate dismissal
+     for unfitness, negligence, or misconduct. The Committee, if
+     they see fit, may dismiss a man without assigning any
+     reason.
+
+     No fireman must allow to be used by any other person, nor
+     use himself, except while he belongs to the Establishment,
+     the button and badge given with his clothes.
+
+     In the event of sickness rendering any man incapable of
+     performing his duties, the Committee reserves to itself the
+     power of making a deduction from his weekly pay.
+
+     Each man, on his admission, gives to the Committee, if
+     required, a letter of guarantee from some respectable
+     person, to an amount not exceeding 50_l._, as security.
+
+
+OUTLINE OF GENERAL DUTY.
+
+One-third of the men are constantly on duty at the different
+engine-houses, night and day; and the whole are liable to be called up
+for attendance at fires, or for any other duty. In general, it is
+arranged as follows, viz.:--
+
+If a fire happen in District A, the whole of the men and engines of
+that district immediately repair to the spot; two-thirds of the men,
+and one of the engines, from each of the districts B and D, also go to
+the fire; and one-third of the men from the district C.
+
+If the fire happen in B, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district immediately repair to the fire; one engine from A, another
+from C, two-thirds of the men from A and C, and one-third of the men
+from D.
+
+If the fire happen in C, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district, one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district B,
+and one-third of the men from A and D, go to the fire.
+
+If the fire happen in D, the whole of the men and engines in that
+district, with one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district
+A, and one-third of the men from B and C, shall go to the fire.
+
+If a fire happen on the boundary of a district, and it is doubtful in
+which district it has occurred, the whole of the engines and men of
+the two adjoining districts instantly proceed to the spot, and
+one-third of the men of the two remaining districts.
+
+In case of emergency, the superintendent calls in such additional
+force as he may require.
+
+The engines are not taken to alarms of chimneys on fire, unless the
+circumstances of the case should, in the opinion of the
+superintendent, foreman, or engineer, require a deviation from this
+regulation.
+
+When any of the men from another district come to assist at a fire, if
+the engine to which they are attached is not in attendance, they
+instantly go to the foreman's engine of the district to which they
+come.
+
+The engines are conveyed to fires at not less than seven miles per
+hour, and the men who do not accompany the engines go at not less than
+four miles per hour.
+
+Any engineer or fireman who, when at a fire, is absent from an engine
+or a branch pipe, without orders from the superintendent or foreman,
+is liable to a fine.
+
+If any of the men are sick, or absent from any other cause, their
+duties are performed by other men attached to their engine-station.
+
+With a view to the men being always at hand, they are lodged as near
+as possible to their respective engine-houses.
+
+The roll is called at each station every morning and evening.
+
+No man leaves his own residence or the engine-station to which he
+belongs from 10 P.M. to 6 A.M. except to go to a fire, or by an order
+from a superior, or with written leave from the superintendent, and
+the senior man on duty is answerable if he does not report any
+departure from this rule.
+
+Men on duty not at the engine-stations are allowed one hour for
+breakfast and one for dinner, as follows:--One-half of the men on duty
+go to breakfast from 8 to 9, and the other half from 9 to 10; also
+one-half go to dinner from 1 to 2, and the other half from 2 to 3. The
+second half in no case leave until the whole of the first half have
+returned, neither do the men on duty leave morning or evening until
+the relief has arrived. The engineer or senior man on duty is
+answerable for this regulation being carried into effect. And any man
+being absent from the premises he is watching or working in, except at
+the regular hours, is punished.
+
+The men for duty individually assemble at the principal engine-house
+in the district before, or precisely at, the hour fixed for that
+purpose. Their names are called, and an inspection made by the foreman
+of the district, to ascertain that they are sober and correctly
+dressed and appointed. The foreman then reads and explains the orders
+of the day. At the hour for relieving the men, no one leaves his
+engine-house until the relief has actually arrived there; when the men
+are relieved, their names are called over, and they are inspected by
+the engineer, that he may ascertain whether they are sober, and as
+correctly dressed and appointed as when they went on duty. The
+engineer enters these inspections in a book.
+
+The engineers deliver a written report, according to a printed form,
+twice each day, to the foreman of the district, who in his turn
+reports twice a day to the superintendent.
+
+The whole of the men are, at all times, ready to appear at any place
+required, for exercise or any other purpose, and are ready (whether on
+duty or not) to execute whatever orders they may receive, in relation
+to the Establishment, from the engineers, foremen, or superintendent.
+
+
+DUTIES OF SUPERINTENDENT.
+
+The Superintendent resides at the principal engine-station in
+Watling-street.
+
+The moment an alarm of fire is given, wherever it may be, he repairs
+to the spot with all possible expedition, and takes the command of the
+whole force.
+
+He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and reports the same
+to the committee.
+
+He is responsible for the general conduct of the foremen, engineers,
+and firemen under his charge.
+
+He makes himself well acquainted with the character and conduct of
+every man under his orders.
+
+He must be firm and just, and, at the same time, kind and conciliating
+in his behaviour on all occasions.
+
+He takes care that the printed regulations and all others given out
+from time to time, are promptly and strictly obeyed; and he gives
+clear and precise instructions to the men under him, and reports every
+instance of neglect of a serious nature to the Committee.
+
+He must feel the importance of visiting some of the engine-houses, at
+uncertain hours, every day and night.
+
+He suspends and reports to the Committee persons who are guilty of
+serious misconduct; and at once punishes by fines, according to a
+scale sanctioned by the Committee, irregularities of a lighter
+character, reporting such fines to them.
+
+He must be at all times prepared to furnish the Committee with
+particulars respecting the state of the Establishment.
+
+When a fire is extinguished, the superintendent retains only such a
+number of men and engines as he may think necessary for watching the
+premises.
+
+He communicates with the surveyors of stock of the offices interested
+in a fire, and arranges with them, in the event of its being
+necessary, to work out salvage from the ruins.
+
+When a fire happens, he causes a report to be made immediately, if in
+office hours (or, if after office hours, before ten o'clock next
+morning), to those offices interested in the fire, and also to their
+surveyors of buildings and stock, as soon as possible after the fire
+is extinguished, and causes a daily report to be transmitted to each
+office of all fires which have happened, according to a printed form
+given to him for that purpose, as follows:--
+
+     Date and hour.
+
+     Situation of premises.
+
+     Name and occupation of tenant.
+
+     Name and residence of landlord.
+
+     Supposed cause of fire.
+
+     In what offices insured.
+
+     No. of Policy.
+
+     If there is gas on the premises.
+
+     By whom called.
+
+     By whom extinguished.
+
+     Supply of water, with name of company.
+
+     No. of engines attending and of what district, and the order
+     in which they arrive.
+
+     No. of men ditto ditto.
+
+     Engines not of the Establishment, and the order in which
+     they arrive.
+
+     Description of damage.
+
+
+DUTIES OF FOREMAN.
+
+The Foreman resides at the place appointed for him.
+
+He receives his orders and instructions from, and makes his reports
+to, the superintendent.
+
+He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the
+discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general behaviour.
+
+In the absence of the superintendent, the foreman of the district will
+take the command of the whole force, both those of his own district
+and of all other engines and men which may come to his assistance in
+cases of fire.
+
+He does not attend fires that happen out of his own district unless he
+receives orders from the superintendent to that effect.
+
+He endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire, and reports the same
+to the superintendent.
+
+On the alarm of fire being given in his own district, he instantly
+repairs to the spot, and uses his utmost endeavours to get the engines
+into play and supply them with water. The first engine and firemen
+which arrive at a fire are not interfered with, nor their supplies of
+water diverted from them, by those coming afterwards, unless by a
+distinct order from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the
+foreman of the district. The same rule applies to each succeeding
+engine which takes up a position.
+
+He is careful to place the engines in such a manner that the men who
+work at the levers may be in no danger from the falling of the
+premises on fire; and also that the engines may not be in the way of
+people carrying out furniture, &c.; but, above all things, he
+endeavours to place the engineers with their branch pipes in such
+positions _that the water from the branches may directly strike the
+burning materials_. This he cannot too often inculcate on the men
+placed under him, as upon this point, on being properly attended to,
+depends entirely the effect of the engines. To attain this most
+desirable end, it is frequently necessary to enter the premises on
+fire, and the foreman takes care so to place his men that they can
+easily escape. If he has reason to suspect that the building is not
+sufficiently secure, he stations one or two competent men to observe
+the state of the building, and to give the alarm when they see any
+danger.
+
+He never allows any man unaccompanied by another to enter a building
+on fire.
+
+He does not throw more water on the premises than is absolutely
+necessary to extinguish the fire, as all the water thrown after the
+fire is extinguished, only tends to increase the damage.
+
+When the inmates of the premises on fire are removed, the foreman
+endeavours to exclude air from the parts on fire, by shutting all
+doors and windows as far as may be practicable.
+
+He is responsible for the conduct of the men placed under him, and for
+the state of the engines, which must at all times be kept in
+first-rate order; he also makes himself well acquainted with the
+talent and general character of each individual under him.
+
+He visits every engine-house in his district at least once in the
+twenty-four hours; he sees that the men are on duty, the engines ready
+for service, and everything in proper order, and enters his visit in a
+book kept for that purpose, with the date and hour of his visit. If he
+finds anything wrong, he enters it in the book, and immediately sends
+off a report to the superintendent by one of the men not on duty.
+
+He sends a written report twice in every twenty-four hours to the
+superintendent, which contains a particular statement of all fires and
+everything else connected with the Establishment which has occurred in
+his district within the preceding twelve hours.
+
+He returns in his report of a fire the names of such men, if any, as
+were not ready to start with the engine to which they are attached.
+
+It is expected that he is able and ready to give instructions to the
+engineers and men on all points relating to their duty.
+
+He receives and enters, in a book kept for that purpose, all
+complaints which may be made against any person under his command,
+causing the complaining party to sign the same and insert his address,
+and he reports the whole matter without delay to the superintendent.
+
+He is responsible for the engines in his district being each provided
+with the articles contained in the following list:--
+
+     2 lengths of scaling ladder.
+
+     1 canvas sheet, with 10 or 12 handles of rope round the edge
+     of it, used as a portable fire-escape.
+
+     2 pieces of 2-1/2-inch rope, one 10 fathoms and one 14
+     fathoms long.
+
+     7 lengths of hose, each 40 feet long.
+
+     2 branch pipes, one 4 and the other 1 foot long.
+
+     3 nozzles, or jet pipes.
+
+     4 lengths of suction-pipe, each about 6 feet long.
+
+     1 flat rose.
+
+     1 standcock.
+
+     1 goose-neck.
+
+     2 balls of strips of sheep-skin.
+
+     2 balls of small cord.
+
+     4 hose wrenches.
+
+     1 fire hook.
+
+     1 mattock.
+
+     1 shovel.
+
+     1 saw.
+
+     1 screw-wrench.
+
+     1 portable cistern.
+
+     1 hatchet or pole-axe.
+
+     1 iron crow-bar.
+
+
+DUTIES OF THE ENGINEER.
+
+He resides in the engine-house to which he is appointed.
+
+He obeys all orders given to him by the superintendent or the foreman
+of the district.
+
+He must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the
+discharge of his duty, and of regularity in his general behaviour.
+
+He is held responsible for the conduct of the men under him, and for
+the state of his engine, and takes care that it is provided with the
+articles contained in the foregoing list.
+
+He reports to his foreman, every morning and evening, in writing,
+whether any of his men have been absent with or without leave.
+
+He enters in his book the time when the men go to the foreman's
+station before taking duty, and also when they return.
+
+On receiving notice of a fire happening within the prescribed limits,
+he instantly takes his engine and men to the spot, and places himself
+and them at the disposal of the superintendent, foreman, or senior
+engineer of the district in which the fire happens.
+
+He must make himself acquainted with the character and abilities of
+each man under him.
+
+He is subject to fines at the discretion of the Committee, for neglect
+of duty or misbehaviour.
+
+
+DUTIES OF SUB-ENGINEERS.
+
+The sub-engineers being attached to foremen's and double stations
+only, in the absence of the foremen or engineer, or when in charge of
+an engine, the duties of the sub-engineer are the same as those
+described for an engineer; when the foreman or engineer is absent, the
+sub-engineer must set an example to the firemen at the station of
+constant attention, implicit obedience and activity, and in so far as
+he exhibits these and similar qualifications he expects to rise in the
+service.
+
+
+DUTIES OF THE FIREMAN.
+
+Every fireman in the establishment may expect to rise to the superior
+stations, by activity, intelligence, sobriety, and general good
+conduct.
+
+He must make it his study to recommend himself to notice by a diligent
+discharge of his duties, and strict obedience to the commands of his
+superiors, recollecting that he who has been accustomed to obey will
+be considered best qualified to command.
+
+He resides near the engine-house to which he is attached, in a
+situation to be approved of, and devotes the whole of his time and
+abilities to the service.
+
+On the alarm of fire, he proceeds with all possible speed to the
+engine-house to which he is attached.
+
+He must at all times appear neat in his person, and correctly dressed
+in the establishment uniform, and be respectful in his demeanour
+towards his superiors.
+
+He must readily and punctually obey the orders of the engineers,
+foremen, and superintendent.
+
+He must not quit his engine-house while on duty, except to go to a
+fire, unless by special order from a superior.
+
+He is subject to fines for neglect of duty or misbehaviour, according
+to the regulations.
+
+
+BOOKS KEPT AT THE STATIONS.
+
+There is a book kept in each engine-house, in which are entered all
+fires or alarms of fires; the time the men come on duty; the visits
+made by the foremen, superintendent, or any of the Committee, and all
+complaints against the men.
+
+This book is in charge of the superior on duty at the time; and the
+foreman and engineers are answerable for its being correctly kept.
+
+Every entry made in this book is signed by the person making it.
+
+The superintendent enters, in a book kept for that purpose, the
+particulars of every fire, the attendance of engines, supply of water,
+&c., and lays it before the Committee weekly, or oftener, if required.
+
+Any false entry, for the purpose of concealing absence, is
+punished--for the first offence, by the reduction of one step, and for
+the second by dismissal.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote F: At a fire which took place in one of the best streets in
+Edinburgh, and which began in the roof, the persons who rushed into
+the house on the first alarm being given, threw the greater part of
+the contents of the drawing-room and library, with several basketsful
+of china and glass, out of the windows; the fire injured nothing below
+the uppermost story.]
+
+
+
+
+THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+
+In forming the brigade in Edinburgh, where the firemen are only
+occasionally employed, the description of men, from which I made a
+selection, were slaters, house-carpenters, masons, plumbers, and
+smiths.
+
+Slaters make good firemen, not so much from their superiority in
+climbing, going along roofs, &c., although these are great advantages,
+but from their being in general possessed of a handiness and readiness
+which I have not been able to discover in the same degree amongst
+other classes of workmen. It is, perhaps, not necessary that I should
+account for this, but it appears to me to arise from their being more
+dependent on their wits, and more frequently put to their shifts in
+the execution of their ordinary avocations. House-carpenters and
+masons being well acquainted with the construction of buildings, and
+understanding readily from whence danger is to be apprehended, can
+judge with tolerable accuracy, from the appearance of a house, where
+the stair is situated, and how the house is divided inside. Plumbers
+are also well accustomed to climbing and going along the roofs of
+houses; they are useful in working fire-cocks, covering the gratings
+of drains with lead, and generally in the management of water. Smiths
+and plumbers can also better endure heat and smoke than most other
+workmen.
+
+Men selected from these five trades are also more robust in body, and
+better able to endure the extremes of heat, cold, wet, and fatigue, to
+which firemen are so frequently exposed, than men engaged in more
+sedentary employments.
+
+I have generally made it a point to select for firemen, young men from
+seventeen or eighteen to twenty-five years of age. At that age they
+enter more readily into the spirit of the business, and are much more
+easily trained, than when farther advanced in life. Men are frequently
+found who, although they excel in the mechanical parts of their own
+professions, are yet so devoid of judgment and resources, that when
+anything occurs which they have not been taught, or have not been able
+to foresee, they are completely at a loss. Now it happens not
+unfrequently that the man who arrives first at a fire, notwithstanding
+any training or instructions he may have received, is still, from the
+circumstances of the case, left almost entirely to the direction of
+his own judgment. It is, therefore, of immense importance to procure
+men on whose coolness and judgment you can depend. If they are expert
+tradesmen, so much the better, as there is generally a degree of
+respect shown to first-rate tradesmen by their fellows, which inferior
+hands can seldom obtain; and this respect tends greatly to keep up the
+character of the corps to which they belong, which ought never to be
+lost sight of.
+
+Amidst the noise and confusion which more or less attend all fires, I
+have found considerable difficulty in being able to convey the
+necessary orders to the firemen in such a manner as not to be liable
+to misapprehension. I tried a speaking-trumpet; but, finding it of no
+advantage, it was speedily abandoned. It appeared to me indeed, that
+while it increased the sound of the voice, by the deep tone which it
+gave, it brought it into greater accordance with the surrounding
+noise. I tried a boatswain's call, which I have found to answer much
+better. Its shrill piercing note is so unlike any other sound usually
+heard at a fire, that it immediately attracts the attention of the
+firemen. By varying the calls, I have now established a mode of
+communication not easily misunderstood, and sufficiently precise for
+the circumstances to which it is adapted, and which I now find to be a
+very great convenience.
+
+The calls are as follows:--
+
+     1 for red, 2 for blue, 3 for yellow, 4 for grey.[G]
+
+     5 to work the engine.
+
+     6 to stop working.
+
+     7 to attach one length of hose more than the engine has at
+     the time the call is given.
+
+     8 to coil up the hose attached to the engine.
+
+     9 to coil up the hose attached to the fire-cock.
+
+     10 to turn to the left.
+
+     11 to turn to the right.
+
+     12 the call to work the engine answers also to move forward
+     when the engine is prepared for travelling.
+
+     13 the call to stop working answers to stop the engine when
+     moving forward.
+
+In all there are thirty-six calls when compounded with the first four.
+
+In speaking of the drilling of firemen, I shall give a short account
+of the plan followed here, which has been tolerably successful.
+
+The present number of firemen in Edinburgh is fifty, divided into four
+companies; three of which consist of twelve and one of fourteen men.
+The bounds of the city are divided into four districts; in each of
+which there is an engine-house, containing one or more engines, one of
+the companies being attached to each engine-house. In each company
+there is one captain, one sergeant, four pioneers, and six or eight
+firemen.
+
+The whole are dressed in blue jackets, canvas trousers, and hardened
+leather helmets, having hollow leather crests over the crown to ward
+off falling materials. The form of this helmet was taken from the
+war-helmet of the New Zealanders, with the addition of the hind flap
+of leather to prevent burning matter, melted lead, water, or rubbish
+getting into the neck of the wearer. The captains' helmets have three
+small ornaments, those of the sergeants one--those of the pioneers and
+firemen being plain.
+
+The jackets of the captains have two small cloth wings on the
+shoulder, similar to those worn by light infantry. Those of the
+sergeants have three stripes on the left arm, and, on the left arms of
+the pioneers and firemen, are their respective numbers in the company.
+Each company has a particular colour--red, blue, yellow, and grey.
+Each engine is painted of one or other of these colours, and the
+accoutrements of the men belonging to it correspond. There is thus no
+difficulty in distinguishing the engines or men from each other by
+their colours and numbers. Each man also wears a broad leather
+waist-belt, with a brass buckle in front. To the waist-belts of the
+captains, sergeants, and pioneers is attached eighty feet of cord; the
+captains having also a small mason's hammer, with a crow-head at the
+end of the handle: the sergeants have a clawed hammer, such as is used
+by house-carpenters, with an iron handle, and two openings at the end
+for unscrewing nuts from bolts; the pioneers a small hatchet, with a
+crow-head at the end of the handle; and the firemen each carry a
+canvas water-bucket folded up.
+
+The captains assemble every Tuesday night, to give in a report of such
+fires as may have occurred in their respective districts, with a list
+of the men who have turned out, and a corresponding list from the
+sergeant of police of the respective districts. They then receive any
+orders which may be necessary; and any vacancies which have occurred
+in the establishment are filled up at these meetings.
+
+For some months after this fire establishment was organized, the men
+were regularly drilled once a week, at four o'clock in the morning;
+but now only once a month at the same hour.
+
+Among many other good reasons for preferring this early hour, I may
+mention, that it does not interfere with the daily occupation of the
+firemen. The chance of collecting a crowd is also avoided, as there
+are then comparatively few people on the streets; this is a matter of
+some importance, as a crowd of people not only impedes the movements
+of the firemen, but, from small quantities of water spilt on the
+by-standers, quarrels are generated, and a prejudice excited against
+the corps, to avoid which every exertion should be used to keep the
+firemen on good terms with the populace.
+
+The mornings, too, at this early hour, are dark for more than half the
+year, and the firemen are thus accustomed to work by torch-light, and
+sometimes without any light whatever, except the few public lamps
+which are then burning. And, as most fires happen in the night, the
+advantage of drilling in the dark must be sufficiently obvious.
+
+The inhabitants have sometimes complained of being disturbed with the
+noise of the engines at so early an hour; but when the object has been
+explained, they have generally submitted, with a good grace, to this
+slight evil. A different part of the city being always chosen for each
+successive drill, the annoyance occasioned to any one district is very
+trifling, and of very unfrequent occurrence.
+
+On the Tuesday evening preceding the drill, the captains are informed
+when and where the men are to assemble. These orders they communicate
+to the individual firemen. A point of rendezvous being thus given to
+the whole body, every man, who is not on the spot at the hour
+appointed, fully equipped, with his clothes and accoutrements in good
+order, is subjected to a fine. Arrived on the ground, the men are
+divided into two parties, each party consisting of two companies, that
+being the number required to work each large engine without any
+assistance from the populace. The whole are then examined as to the
+condition of their clothing and equipments.
+
+The captains, sergeants, and pioneers of each company alternately take
+the duty of directing the engine, attaching the hose, &c., while the
+whole of each party not engaged in these duties take the levers as
+firemen. The call is then given to move forward, the men setting off
+at a quick walking pace, and, on the same call being repeated, they
+get into a smart trot. When the call to stop is given, with orders to
+attach one or more lengths of hose to the engine and fire-cock, it is
+done in the following manner:--No. 1 takes out the branch pipe, and
+runs out as far as he thinks the hose ordered to be attached will
+reach, and there remains; No. 2 takes a length of hose out of the
+engine, and uncoils it towards No. 1; and No. 3 attaches the hose to
+the engine. If more than one length is required, No. 4 takes out
+another, couples it to the former length, and then uncoils it. If a
+third length is wanted, No. 3 comes up with it, after having attached
+the first length to the engine. If more lengths are still wanted, No:
+2 goes back to the engine for another; Nos. 3 and 4 follow, and so on
+till the requisite length is obtained; No. 1 then screws on the
+branch-pipe at the farther extremity of the last length.[H] While Nos.
+1, 2, 3, and 4 are attaching the hose to the engine, No. 5 opens the
+fire-cock door, screws on the distributor, and attaches the length of
+hose, which No. 6 uncoils; Nos. 7 and 8 assist, if more than one
+length of hose be required. Immediately on the call being given to
+attach the hose, the sergeant locks the fore-carriage of the engine,
+and unlocks the levers. The fire-cock being opened by No. 5 (who
+remains by it as long as it is being used), the sergeant holds the end
+of the hose which supplies the engine, and at the same time
+superintends the men who work the levers. The call being given to work
+the engine, the whole of the men, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, the captain
+and sergeant excepted, work at the levers along with the men of the
+other company.
+
+Although these operations may appear complicated, they are all
+completed, and the engine in full play, with three lengths, or 120
+feet of hose, in one minute and ten seconds, including the time
+required for the water to fill the engine so far as to allow it to
+work.
+
+In order to excite a spirit of emulation, as well as to teach the men
+dexterity in working the engines, I frequently cause a competition
+amongst them. They are ordered to attach one or more lengths of hose
+to each of two engines, and to work them as quickly as possible, the
+first engine which throws water being considered the winner. They are
+sometimes also placed at an equal distance from each of two separate
+fire-cocks; on the call being given to move forward, each party starts
+for the fire-cock to which it is ordered, and the first which gets
+into play is of course held to have beat the other. The call to stop
+is then given, and both parties return to their former station, with
+their hose coiled up, and everything in proper travelling order; the
+first which arrives being understood to have the advantage.
+
+The men are also carefully and regularly practised in taking their
+hose up common-stairs, drawing them up by ropes on the outside, and
+generally in accustoming themselves to, and providing against, every
+circumstance which may be anticipated in the case of fire.
+
+When a fire occurs in a common-stair, the advantages arising from this
+branch of training are incalculable. The occupants, in some cases
+amounting to twenty or thirty families, hurrying out with their
+children and furniture, regardless of everything except the
+preservation of their lives and property, and the rush of the crowd to
+the scene of alarm, form altogether, notwithstanding the exertions of
+an excellent police, such a scene of confusion as those only who have
+witnessed it can imagine; and here it is that discipline and unity of
+purpose are indispensable; for, unless each man has already been
+taught and accustomed to the particular duty expected from him, he
+only partakes of the general alarm, and adds to the confusion. But
+even when a hose has been carried up the interior of a common-stair,
+the risk of damage from the people carrying out their furniture is so
+great, that the hose is not unfrequently burst, almost as soon as the
+engine has begun to play. If the hose be carried up to the floor on
+fire by the outside, the risk of damage is comparatively small, the
+hose in that case being only exposed for a short distance in crossing
+the stair.
+
+During a period of four years the only two firemen who lost their
+lives were run down by their own engines; and, in order to avoid
+danger from this cause, they are frequently accustomed suddenly to
+stop the engines when running down the steep streets with which this
+city abounds. It is a highly necessary exercise, and is done by
+wheeling the engine smartly round to the right or left, which has the
+effect of immediately stopping its course.
+
+There is a branch of training which I introduced amongst the Edinburgh
+firemen some time ago, which has been attended with more important
+advantages than was at first anticipated. I mean the gymnastic
+exercises. The men are practised in these exercises (in a small
+gymnasium fitted up for them in the head engine-house) regularly once
+a-week, and in winter sometimes twice: attendance on their part is
+entirely voluntary; the best gymnasts (if otherwise equally qualified)
+are always promoted in cases of vacancy.
+
+So sensible were the Insurance Companies doing business here, of the
+advantages likely to arise from the practice of these exercises, that
+on one occasion they subscribed upwards of 10_l._, which was
+distributed in medals and money among the most expert and attentive
+gymnasts of the corps, at a competition in presence of the
+magistrates, commissioners of police, and managers of insurance
+companies.
+
+Amongst the many advantages arising from these exercises I shall
+notice only one or two. The firemen, when at their ordinary
+employments, as masons, house-carpenters, &c., being accustomed to a
+particular exercise of certain muscles only, there is very often a
+degree of stiffness in their general movements, which prevents them
+from performing their duty as firemen with that ease and celerity
+which are so necessary and desirable; but the gymnastic exercises, by
+bringing all the muscles of the body into action, and by aiding the
+more general development of the frame, tend greatly to remove or
+overcome this awkwardness. But its greatest advantage is the
+confidence it gives to the men when placed in certain situations of
+danger. A man, for example, in the third or fourth floor of a house on
+fire, who is uncertain as to his means of escape, in the event of his
+return by the stair being cut off, will not render any very efficient
+service in extinguishing the fire; his own safety will be the
+principal object of his attention, and till that is to a certain
+extent secured, his exertions are not much to be relied upon. An
+experienced gymnast, on the other hand, placed in these circumstances,
+finds himself in comparative security. With a hatchet and eighty feet
+of cord at his command, and a window near him, he knows there is not
+much difficulty in getting to the street; and this confidence not only
+enables him to go on with his duty with more spirit, but his attention
+not being abstracted by thoughts of personal danger, he is able to
+direct it wholly to the circumstances of the fire. He can raise
+himself on a window sill, or the top of a wall, if he can only reach
+it with his hands; and by his hands alone he may sustain himself in
+situations where other means of support are unattainable, till the
+arrival of assistance. These are great advantages; but, as I said
+before, the greatest of all is that feeling of safety with which it
+enables a fireman to proceed with his operations, uncertainty or
+distraction being the greatest of possible evils. The cord carried at
+the waist-belt of the captains, sergeants, and pioneers, being fully
+sufficient to sustain a man's weight, and with the assistance of their
+small hatchets easily made fast, and the pioneers always being two
+together, there is thus no difficulty in descending even from a height
+of eighty feet: the cords should be doubled by way of security.
+
+
+I.--GENERAL REGULATIONS OF THE EDINBURGH FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+A list of the engine-houses, and the residences of the superintendent
+and head enginemen in each district shall be publicly advertised, that
+no one may be ignorant where to apply in cases of fire; and, in the
+event of fire breaking out in any house, the possessor shall be bound
+to give instant notice of it at the nearest station; and shall take
+particular care to keep all doors and windows shut in the premises
+where the fire happens to be.
+
+"Fire-engine house" shall be painted in large characters on one or
+more prominent places of each engine-house; and the residences of the
+master of engines, head enginemen, inspectors of gas companies, and
+water-officers of the district, shall likewise be marked there.
+
+The head enginemen and firemen shall reside as near the engine-house
+as possible.
+
+As, in the case of a fire breaking out, it may be necessary to break
+open the doors of houses and shops in the neighbourhood, in order to
+prevent the fire from spreading, it is ordered, that no possessors of
+houses or shops in the neighbourhood shall go away, after the fire has
+broken out, without leaving the key of their house or shop, as
+otherwise the door will be broken open, if necessary; and it is
+recommended that all possessors of shops shall have the place of their
+residence painted upon their shop-doors, that notice may be sent them
+when necessary.
+
+
+II.--POLICE.
+
+Upon any watchman discovering fire, he shall call the neighbouring
+watchmen to his assistance--shall take the best means in his power to
+put all concerned upon their guard--and shall immediately send off
+notice to the nearest office and engine-house. The watchman, who is
+despatched to give these intimations, shall run as far as he can, and
+shall then send forward any other watchman whom he may meet, he
+himself following at a walk to communicate his information, in case of
+any mistake on the part of the second messenger.
+
+Upon intimation of a fire being received at the main office, or a
+district office, the head officer on duty shall instantly give notice
+thereof to the head engineman of the district, to the master of
+engines, to the water-officers of the district, and to the inspectors
+of the different gas-light companies, and shall have power, if his
+force at the office at the time be deficient, to employ the nearest
+watchmen for these purposes; and, on intimation being first received
+at a district-office, the officer on duty in the office shall
+immediately send notice to the main office.
+
+Upon intimation being received at the main office, the officer on duty
+shall also instantly send notice to the superintendent of police, and
+the lieutenants not at the office at the time--to the master of
+engines; to the head enginemen of the various districts; to the
+superintendent of the water company; to the lord provost or chief
+magistrate for the time; to the sheriff of the county; to the bailie
+residing nearest the place; to the dean of guild; to the members of
+fire-engine committee of commissioners of police; to the moderator of
+the high constables; and also to the managers of the different
+gaslight companies.
+
+The officer on duty at the main office shall, with the least possible
+delay, send off to the fire a party of his men, under the command of a
+lieutenant or other officer.
+
+This party, on arriving at the spot, shall clear off the crowd, and
+keep open space and passages for the firemen and others employed.
+
+The officer commanding this party of the police shall attend to no
+instructions except such as he shall receive from the acting chief
+magistrate attending; or, in absence of a magistrate, from any member
+of the committee on fire-engines; and the men shall attend to the
+instructions of their own officer alone.
+
+Three or more policemen shall be in attendance upon the acting chief
+magistrate and fire-engine committee; two policemen shall constantly
+attend the master of the engines, to be at his disposal entirely; and
+one policeman shall attend with the water-officer at each fire-cock
+that may be opened.
+
+The superintendent of police shall always have a list of extra
+policemen hung up in the police-office, who, upon occasions of fire,
+may be called out, if necessary, and twenty of these extra men shall
+always be called out upon notice of fire being received at the main
+office, for the purpose of attending at the police-office, and
+rendering assistance where it may be required. The superintendent
+shall likewise have a supply of fire-buckets, flambeaux, and lanterns,
+at the office, to be ready when wanted.
+
+There shall be no ringing of alarm-bells, beating of drums, or
+springing of rattles, except by written order from the chief
+magistrate for the time; but the alarm may be given by despatching
+messengers, with proper badges, through different parts of the town,
+when considered necessary.
+
+
+III. SUPERINTENDENT OF FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+On receiving notice of a fire, the superintendent shall instantly
+equip himself in his uniform, and repair to the spot where the fire
+is.
+
+The necessary operations to be adopted shall be under his absolute
+control, and he will issue his instructions to the head enginemen and
+firemen.
+
+The superintendent shall report from time to time to the chief
+magistrate in attendance (through such medium as may be at his
+command, but without his leaving the spot), the state of the fire, and
+whether a greater number of policemen, or a party of the military, be
+required, and anything else which may occur to him; and the master
+shall observe the directions of the chief magistrate attending, and
+those of no other person whatever.
+
+The superintendent shall frequently inspect the engines, and all the
+apparatus connected therewith; he shall be responsible for the whole
+being at all times in good order and condition; and he shall have a
+general muster and inspection at least once every three months, when
+the engines and all the apparatus shall be tried. He shall also
+instruct the enginemen, firemen, and the watchmen, to unlock the
+plates, and screw on the distributors of the fire-cocks, or open the
+fire-plugs.
+
+Whenever any repairs or new apparatus shall appear to be necessary,
+the superintendent shall give notice to the clerk of the police, whose
+duty it shall be instantly to convene the committee on fire-engines.
+
+Upon a fire breaking out, the superintendent shall lose as little time
+as possible in stationing chimney-sweepers on the roofs of the
+adjoining houses, to keep them clear of flying embers; and also
+persons in each flat of the adjoining houses, to observe their state,
+and report if any appearances of danger should arise; such persons
+taking as much care as possible _to keep all doors and windows of said
+flats shut_, and the doors and windows of the premises where the fire
+happens to be shall, so far as practicable, be carefully kept shut.
+
+The superintendent shall forthwith prepare regulations for the
+firemen, &c., under his charge, and report the same to the committee
+on fire-engines for their approval. Every fireman shall be furnished
+with a copy of such regulations, and shall be bound to make himself
+master of its contents; and it shall be the duty of the superintendent
+to see that the instructions are duly attended to in training and
+exercising the men.
+
+
+IV.--HEAD ENGINEMEN.
+
+Each head engineman shall attend to the engines placed in his
+district, and all the apparatus connected therewith, and report to the
+superintendent when any repairs or new apparatus seem requisite, and
+shall be responsible for the engines being in proper working condition
+at all times.
+
+Upon receiving notice of a fire, the head enginemen shall call out the
+firemen in their respective districts; and they shall all repair,
+perfectly equipped, with the utmost expedition, to the spot where the
+fire happens to be, carrying along with them the engines and
+apparatus.
+
+The head enginemen shall have the carts and barrels attached to their
+several districts always in readiness, in good order, and the barrels
+filled with water, which shall accompany the engines to the fire.
+
+On arriving at the spot, the head enginemen shall take their
+instructions from the superintendent, or, in his absence, from the
+chief magistrate in attendance on the spot; or, in their absence, from
+a member of the fire-engine committee, and from no other person
+whatever.
+
+
+V.--FIREMEN.
+
+The firemen shall attend at all times when required by the head
+enginemen or superintendent, as well as upon the days of general
+inspection. They shall keep their engines in good order and condition,
+and shall be equipped in their uniform at all times when called out.
+
+They shall observe the instructions of no person whatever, except
+those of the superintendent or head enginemen.
+
+
+VI.--HIGH CONSTABLES AND COMMISSIONERS OF POLICE.
+
+Upon occasions of fire, the moderator of the high constables shall
+call out the high constables, and, if necessary, he shall also call
+out the extra constables, and give notice to call out the constables
+of their districts; and it shall be the duty of the constables to
+preserve order and to protect property, to keep the crowd away from
+the engines, and those employed about them; and, when authorized by
+the chief magistrate, superintendent of engines, or, in the absence of
+a magistrate, by a member of the committee on fire-engines, to provide
+men for working the engines.
+
+Neither the constables nor the commissioners of police shall assume
+any management, or give any directions whatsoever, except in absence
+of a magistrate and the superintendent of engines, in which case any
+member of the committee on fire-engines may give orders to the head
+enginemen.
+
+In cases of protracted fire, when extra men may be required to relieve
+the regular establishment, it shall be the duty of the high constables
+to collect those wanted, from amongst the persons on the street who
+may be willing to lend their assistance, mustering them in such
+parties as may be required, taking a note of their names, and
+furnishing each individual with a certificate or ticket, with which
+the moderator of the high constables, or chief constable at the time,
+will be supplied; and no person shall receive any remuneration for
+alleged assistance given at a fire who may not produce such
+certificate or ticket.
+
+The party or parties so mustered shall be placed and continue under
+the care of two high constables, until required for service, when they
+shall be moved forward to the engine.
+
+The men relieved by the party so moved forward, shall be taken charge
+of by two high constables, who shall see them properly refreshed and
+brought back within a reasonable time, so that the men employed may
+thus occasionally relieve each other without confusion, and without
+being too much exhausted.
+
+
+VII.--MAGISTRATES, &c.
+
+Upon occasion of fires, the magistrates, sheriff, moderator of the
+high constables, the superintendent of the water company, the managers
+of the different gas-light companies, and the fire-engine committee,
+will give their attendance. They will assemble in such house nearest
+to the place of the fire as can be procured, of which notice shall be
+immediately given to the officer commanding the police on the spot.
+
+The orders of the chief magistrate in attendance shall be immediately
+obeyed; and no order, except those issued by such magistrate, and the
+particular directions given as to the fire and engine department by
+the master of engines, or, in their absence, by a member of the
+fire-engine committee on the spot, shall be at all attended to.
+
+The magistrates and sheriff further declare, that all porters holding
+badges shall be bound to give their attendance at fires when called
+upon for that purpose.
+
+
+VIII.--GAS-LIGHT COMPANIES.
+
+The managers of the different gas-light companies, on receiving notice
+of a fire, shall instantly take measures for turning off the gas from
+all shops and houses in the immediate neighbourhood of the fire.
+
+
+IX.--SPECIAL REGULATIONS FOR THE FIREMEN.
+
+_Captains._--On the alarm of fire being given, an engine must be
+immediately despatched from the main office to whatever district the
+fire may be in; and the captain in whose district the fire happens
+shall bring his engine to the spot as quickly as possible, taking care
+that none of the apparatus is awanting. On arriving at the spot, he
+must take every means in his power to supply his engine with water,
+but especially by a service-pipe from a fire-cock, if that be found
+practicable. Great care must be taken to place the engine so that it
+may be in the direction of the water, with sufficient room on all
+sides to work it, but as little in the way of persons employed in
+carrying out furniture, &c., as possible. He must also examine the
+fire while the men are fixing the hose, &c., that the water may be
+directed with the best effect.
+
+The captains shall be responsible for any misconduct of their men,
+when they fail to report such misconduct to the superintendent.
+
+The engines must be at all times in good working order, and the
+captain shall report to the superintendent when any part of the
+apparatus is in need of repair.
+
+When the fire is in another district, the captain of each engine shall
+get his men and engine ready to proceed at a moment's notice, but must
+not move from his engine-house till a special order arrives from a
+lieutenant of police or the superintendent of brigade.
+
+_Sergeants._--The sergeant of each engine will take the command in
+absence of the captain. When the captain is present, the sergeant will
+give him all possible assistance in conducting the engine to the fire;
+and it will there be more particularly the sergeant's duty to see that
+the engine is supplied with water, and that every man is at his proper
+station, and to remain with his engine while on duty, whether it is
+working or not, unless he receives special orders to the contrary.
+
+_Pioneers._--Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of each engine will be considered
+pioneers. Nos. 1 and 2 will proceed to the fire immediately, without
+going to their engine-house, in order to prepare for the arrival of
+the first engine, by ascertaining and clearing a proper station for
+it, and by making ready the most available supplies of water, as also
+to examine the state of the premises on fire and the neighbouring
+ones, so as to be able to give such information to the captain on his
+arrival as may enable him to apply his force with the greatest effect.
+_The pioneers will attend particularly to the excluding of air from
+the parts on fire by every means in their power, and they will
+ascertain whether there are any communications with the adjoining
+house by the roof, gable, or otherwise._ When the several engines
+arrive, the pioneers will fall in with their own company, and take
+their farther orders from the captain or sergeant.
+
+_Firemen._--On the alarm of fire being given, the whole company
+belonging to each engine (Nos. 1 and 2 excepted) shall assemble as
+speedily as possible at their engine-house, and act with spirit under
+the orders of their officers in getting everything ready for service.
+Each man will get a ticket with his own number and the colour of his
+engine marked upon it; and on all occasions when he comes on duty he
+will give this ticket into the hands of a policeman, who will be
+appointed by the officer of police on duty to collect them at each
+engine-house, and who will accompany the engine if it is ordered to
+the fire.
+
+If the ticket be not given in, as before provided, within half an hour
+after the alarm is given at their engine-house, or at all events,
+within half an hour after the arrival of the engine at the fire, the
+defaulter will forfeit the allowance for turning out, and also the
+first hour's pay.
+
+If not given in within the first hour, he will forfeit all claim to
+pay.
+
+The superintendent, however, may do away the forfeiture in any of
+these cases, on cause being shown to his satisfaction.
+
+On quarter-days and days of exercise, every man must be ready equipped
+at the appointed hour, otherwise he will forfeit that day's pay, or
+such part of it as the superintendent may determine.
+
+Any man destroying his equipments, or wearing them when off duty, will
+be punished by fine or dismissal from the service, as the
+superintendent may determine.
+
+Careless conduct, irregular attendance at exercise, or disobedience of
+superior officers, to be punished as above-mentioned.
+
+The man who arrives first at the engine-house to which he belongs,
+_properly equipped_, will receive three shillings over and above the
+pay for turning out.
+
+The first of the Nos. 1 and 2 who arrives at the fire, _properly
+equipped_, in whatever district it may be, will receive three
+shillings over and above the pay for turning out.
+
+No pay will be allowed for a false alarm, unless the same is given by
+a policeman.
+
+As nothing is so hurtful to the efficiency of an establishment for
+extinguishing fires as unnecessary noise, irregularity, or
+insubordination, it is enjoined on all to observe quietness and
+regularity, to execute readily whatever orders they may receive from
+their officers, and to do nothing without orders.
+
+The first engine and company which arrive at the fire are not to be
+interfered with, nor their supplies of water diverted from them by
+those coming afterwards, unless by a distinct order from the
+superintendent, or, in his absence, from the chief magistrate on the
+spot. The same rule will apply to each succeeding engine which takes
+up a station.
+
+The men must be careful not to allow their attention to be distracted
+from their duty by listening to directions from any persons _except
+their own officers_; and they will refer every one who applies to them
+for aid to the superintendent, or to the chief magistrate present at
+the time.
+
+All the firemen must be particularly careful to let the policemen on
+their respective stations know where they live, and take notice when
+the policeman is changed, that they may give the new one the requisite
+information.
+
+The men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from
+any individual without the special permission of the captain of their
+engine, who will see that every proper and necessary refreshment be
+afforded to them; and as intoxication upon such alarming occasions is
+not merely disreputable to the corps, but in the highest degree
+dangerous, by rendering the men unfit for their duty, every appearance
+of it will be most rigidly marked; and any man who may be discovered
+in that state shall not only forfeit his whole allowances for the
+turn-out and duty performed, but will be forthwith dismissed from the
+corps.
+
+All concerned are strictly enjoined to preserve their presence of
+mind, not to lose temper, and upon no occasion whatsoever to give
+offence to the inhabitants by making use of uncivil language or
+behaving rudely.
+
+*** Every one belonging to the establishment will be furnished with a
+printed copy of these Regulations, which they are enjoined carefully
+to preserve and _read over at least once every week_.
+
+
+MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM FIRE.
+
+[The following was written in the year 1830, and does not refer to
+Public Fire-Escapes other than those that can be carried with a
+Fire-Engine.--EDITOR.]
+
+When the lower floors of a house are on fire, and the stairs or other
+ordinary means of retreat destroyed, the simplest and easiest mode of
+removing the inhabitants from the upper floors, is by a ladder placed
+against the wall. In order to be able at all times to carry this plan
+into effect, the person having charge of the engines should (as far as
+possible) inform himself where long ladders are to be had, and how
+they can most easily be removed.
+
+But if a ladder of sufficient length is not to be procured, or is at
+too great a distance to render it safe to wait for it, recourse must
+immediately be had to other means.
+
+If it happens that the windows above are all inaccessible, on account
+of the flames bursting through those below, the firemen should
+immediately get on the roof (by means of the adjoining houses,) and
+descend by the hatch. The hatch, however, being sometimes directly
+above the stair, is in that case very soon affected by the fire and
+smoke. If, on approaching, it is found to be so much so as to render
+an entrance in that way impracticable, the firemen should instantly
+break through the roof, and, descending into the upper floors,
+extricate those within. If it should happen, however, that the persons
+in danger are not in the upper floor, and cannot reach it in
+consequence of the stair being on fire, the firemen should continue
+breaking through floor after floor till they reach them. In so
+desperate a case as this the shorter process may probably be to break
+through the party-wall between the house on fire and that adjoining,
+when there is one; and when there is no house immediately contiguous,
+through the gable, taking care in either case to break through at the
+back of a closet, press, chimney, or other recess, where the wall is
+thinnest. If an opening has been made from the adjoining house, it
+should immediately (after having served the purpose for which it was
+made) be built up with brick or stone, to prevent the fire spreading.
+All these operations should be performed by slaters, masons, or
+house-carpenters, who, being better acquainted with such work, are
+likely to execute it in a shorter time than others--time, in such a
+case, being everything, as a few minutes lost may cost the lives of
+the whole party. It is not impossible, however, that circumstances may
+occur to render all or either of these plans impracticable; in that
+case, one or two of the lower windows must be darkened, and by this
+means access gained to the upper ones. The plan recommended by the
+Parisian firemen is, for a man to wrap himself up in a wet blanket,
+and thus pass swiftly through the flames. But this effort is only to
+be attempted when the flames from a single door are to be passed; in
+any other case the stair will most likely be in flames, and
+impassable.
+
+A simple means of escape from fire is to have an iron ring fastened to
+the window sill, and inside of the room a cradle, with a coil of rope
+attached to it. The rope is put through the ring, and the person
+wishing to escape gets into the cradle, and lowers himself down by
+passing the rope through his hands. The great objection to this plan,
+which is certainly very simple, is the difficulty, or rather
+impossibility, of persuading people to provide themselves with the
+necessary materials. Many men, too, are incapable of the exertion upon
+which the whole plan depends; and if men in a state of terror are
+unfit for such a task, what is to become of women and children?
+
+Any fire-escape, to be generally useful, must, in the first place, be
+capable of being carried about without encumbering the fire-engine;
+and, in the next place, must be of instant and simple application. The
+means which appear to me to possess these qualifications in the
+highest degree, is a combination of the cradle plan, with Captain
+Manby's admirable invention for saving shipwrecked seamen.
+
+The apparatus necessary for this fire-escape is a chain-ladder eighty
+feet long, a single chain or rope of the same length as the ladder, a
+canvas bag, a strong steel cross-bow, and a fine cord of the very best
+workmanship and materials, 130 feet long, with a lead bullet of
+three-ounce weight attached to one end, and carefully wound upon a
+wooden cone seven inches high and seven inches broad at the base,
+turned with a spiral groove, to prevent the cord slipping when wound
+upon it, also a small pulley with a claw attached to it, and a cord
+reeved through it of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the
+ladder.
+
+In order to prevent the sides of the ladder from collapsing, the steps
+are made of copper or iron tube, fastened by a piece of cord passed
+through the tube and into the links of the chain, till the tube is
+filled. The steps thus fastened are tied to the chain with
+copper-wire, so that, in the event of the cord being destroyed, the
+steps will be retained in their places by the wire. The ladder is
+provided with two large hooks at one end, for the purpose of fixing it
+to a roof, window-sill, &c. The bag is of canvas, three feet wide and
+four feet deep, with cords sewed round the bottom, and meeting at the
+top, where they are turned over an iron thimble at each side of the
+mouth of the bag. The steel cross-bow is of the ordinary description,
+of sufficient strength to throw the lead bullet with the cord
+attached, 120 feet high.
+
+When the house from which the persons in danger are to be extricated
+is so situated that the firemen can get to the roof by passing along
+the tops of the adjoining houses, they will carry up the chain-ladder
+with them, and drop it over the window where the inmates show
+themselves, fastening the hooks at the same time securely in the roof.
+The firemen will descend by the ladder into the window, and putting
+the persons to be removed into the bag, lower them down into the
+street by the single chain. If the flames are issuing from the windows
+below, the bag, when filled, is easily drawn aside into the window of
+the adjoining house, by means of a guy or guide-rope.
+
+If the house on fire stands by itself, or if access cannot be had to
+the roof by means of the adjoining houses, the lead bullet, with the
+cord attached, is thrown over the house by means of the cross-bow; to
+this cord a stronger one is attached, and drawn over the house by
+means of the former; a single chain is then attached, and drawn over
+in like manner; and to this last is attached the chain-ladder, which,
+on being raised to the roof, the firemen ascend, and proceed as before
+directed.
+
+If the house be so high that the cord cannot be thrown over far enough
+to be taken hold of by those on the opposite side, then the persons to
+be extricated must take hold of the cord, as it hangs past the window
+at which they may have placed themselves. By means of it they draw up
+the small pulley, and hook it on the window-sill. The chain-ladder is
+then made fast to the end of the cord, and drawn up by those below.
+When the end of the chain-ladder comes in front of the window, the
+persons inside fasten the hooks of the ladder on its sill, or to the
+post of a bed, the bars of a grate, or anything likely to afford a
+sufficient hold. After having ascertained that the ladder is properly
+fixed, the firemen will ascend and proceed as in the former cases.
+
+I must here remark, that before this plan can be properly put in
+execution, the firemen must be regularly trained to the exercise. When
+the firemen here are practised with the fire-escape, the man ascending
+or descending has a strong belt round his middle, to which another
+chain is fastened, and held by a man stationed at the window for that
+purpose; if any accident, therefore, were to occur with the
+chain-ladder, the man cannot fall to the ground, but would be swung by
+the chain attached to the belt round his body. The men are also
+frequently practised in ascending and descending by single chains. The
+firemen here are very fond of the above exercise; the bagging each
+other seems to amuse them exceedingly.[I]
+
+The last resort, in desperate cases, is to leap from the window. When
+this is to be attempted, mattresses, beds, straw, or other soft
+substances, should be collected under the window; a piece of carpet or
+other strong cloth should be held up by ten or twelve stout men. The
+person in the window may then leap, as nearly as possible, into the
+centre of the cloth, and if he has sufficient resolution to take a
+fair leap, he may escape with comparatively little injury.[J]
+
+
+FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+In the application of manual power to the working of fire-engines, the
+principal object is, to apply the greatest aggregate power to the
+lightest and smallest machine; that is, suppose two engines of the
+same size and weight, the one with space for 20 men to work throws 60
+gallons per minute; and the other, with space for 30 men, throws 80
+gallons in the same time; the latter will be the most useful engine,
+although each man is not able to do so much work as at the former.
+
+The reciprocating motion is generally preferred to the rotary for
+fire-engines. Independent of its being the most advantageous movement,
+a greater number of men can be employed at an engine of the same size
+and weight; there is less liability to accident with people
+unacquainted with the work, and such as are quite ignorant of either
+mode of working, work more freely at the reciprocating than the rotary
+motion. To these reasons may be added, the greater simplicity of the
+machinery.
+
+Various sizes of engines, of different degrees of strength and weight,
+have been tried, and it is found that a fire-engine with two cylinders
+of 7 inches diameter, and a stroke of 8 inches, can be made
+sufficiently strong at 17-1/2 cwt. If 4 cwt. be added for the hose and
+tools, it will be found quite as heavy as two fast horses can manage,
+for a distance under six miles, with five firemen and a driver.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. Fire-Engine used by the London Fire Brigade.
+Longitudinal section,--with the Levers turned up for travelling.]
+
+This size of engine has been adopted by the Board of Admiralty and the
+Board of Ordnance, and its use is becoming very general.
+
+When engines are made larger, it is seldom that the proper proportions
+are preserved, and they are generally worked with difficulty, and soon
+fatigue the men at the levers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Transverse section.]
+
+When an engine is large, it not only requires a considerable number of
+men to work it, but it is not easily supplied with water; and, above
+all, _it cannot be moved about with that celerity on which, in a
+fire-engine establishment, everything depends_. When the engine is
+brought into actual operation, the effect to be produced depends less
+on the quantity of water thrown than upon its being made actually to
+strike the burning materials, the force with which it does so, and the
+steadiness with which the engine is worked. If the water be steadily
+directed upon the burning materials, the effect even of a small
+quantity is astonishing.
+
+When a large engine is required in London, two with 7-inches cylinders
+are worked together by means of a connecting screw, thus making a jet
+very nearly equal (as 98 to 100) to that of an engine with cylinders
+10 inches diameter.
+
+It is also an advantage not unworthy of consideration, that two 7-inch
+engines may be had nearly for the price of one 10-inch one; so that if
+one happens to be rendered unserviceable the other may still be
+available.
+
+The usual rate of working an engine of the size described is 40
+strokes of each cylinder per minute; this gives 88 gallons. The number
+of men required to keep steadily at work for three or four hours is
+26; upwards of 30 men are sometimes put on when a great length of hose
+is necessary. The lever is in the proportion of 4-1/4 to 1. With 40
+feet of leather hose and a 7/8 inch jet, the pressure is 30 lb. on the
+square inch; this gives 10.4 lbs. to each man to move a distance of
+226 feet in one minute. The friction increases the labour 2-1/2 per
+cent. for every additional 40 feet of hose, which shows the necessity
+of having the engine, and of course the supply of water, as close to
+the fire as is consistent with the safety of the men at the levers.
+
+In order that the reader may have a distinct idea of such a
+fire-engine, I shall here endeavour to give a description, chiefly
+taken from those made by W. J. Tilley,[K] fire-engine maker, London.
+
+The engravings (figs. 1 and 2) represent a fire-engine of 7-inch
+barrels and 8-inch stroke.[L] The cistern marked A is made of mahogany
+or oak. The upper work, B, and side-boxes or pockets, C, are of Baltic
+fir. The sole, D, upon which the barrels stand, and which also
+contains the valves, is of cast-iron, with covers of the same
+material, which are screwed down, and the joints made good with
+leather or india-rubber. The pieces E, at each end of the cast-iron
+sole D, are of cast brass, and screwed to the cast-iron sole D, with a
+joint the same as above. In one of these pieces is the screwed
+suction-cap F, and to the other is attached the air-vessel G, made of
+sheet-copper, and attached to the piece E by a screw. The exit-pipe H
+is attached to the under side of the casting E by a swivel. The valves
+at I are of brass, ground so as to be completely water-tight. The
+barrels K are of cast brass. The engine is set on four grasshopper
+springs M. The shafts or handles O, of the levers P, are of lancewood.
+The box S, under the driving seat, is used for keeping wrenches, cord,
+&c.; in the fore part of the cistern A, and the box B above the
+cistern, the hose is kept; the branch and suction-pipes are carried in
+the side-boxes or pockets C; the rest of the tools and materials are
+kept along with the above-mentioned articles, in such situations as
+not to interfere with the working of the engine.
+
+The cistern is made of oak or mahogany, for strength and durability;
+but, for the sake of lightness, the upper work and side-boxes are made
+of Baltic fir, strength in them being of less importance.
+
+As the valve cannot be made without a rise for the lid to strike
+against, there is a small step at each of the valves, and the sole is
+carried through as high as this step, to admit of the water running
+off when the engine is done working. If constructed in a different
+manner, the water will lodge in the bottom, and produce much
+inconvenience in situations where the engine is exposed to frost.
+
+The valve-covers are of cast-iron, fastened down with copper screws, a
+piece of leather or india-rubber being placed between them and the
+upper edges of the sole.
+
+The pieces at each end of the sole are of cast-brass, instead of
+sheet-copper, with soft-solder joints, which are very apt to give way.
+
+The screwed suction cap with iron handle admits the water in two
+different directions, according as it is open or closed: the one to
+supply the engine when water is drawn from the cistern, the other for
+drawing water through the suction-pipe.
+
+The valves are brass plates, truly ground to fit the circular brass
+orifice on which they fall. The brass being well ground, no leather is
+used for the purpose of making them tight. The longer they are used
+the better they fit, and by having no leather about them they are less
+liable to the adhesion of small stones or gravel. The whole valve is
+put together and then keyed into a groove in the sides and bottom of
+the sole, left for that purpose.
+
+The barrels are of cast-brass, with a piston made of two circular
+pieces of the same metal, each put into a strong leather cup, and
+bolted to the other. The bottoms of the cups being together, when the
+piston becomes loose in the barrels, and there is not sufficient time
+to replace the cups by new ones, they are easily tightened by putting
+a layer of hemp round the piston between the leather and the brass.
+This operation, however, requires to be carefully performed; for if
+more hemp is put into one part than another it is apt to injure the
+barrels. The barrels are fixed to the cast-iron sole by copper screws,
+a little red lead being placed between the bottom flange of the barrel
+and the sole.
+
+When the engine is likely to be dragged over rough roads or causeways,
+it is of importance to have it set on springs, to prevent the jolting
+from affecting the working part of the engine, everything depending on
+that being right.
+
+The engines used in Paris are mounted on two wheels, the carriage and
+the engine being separate, the latter being dismounted from the former
+before it can be used. In Paris, where the engines are managed by a
+corps of regularly-trained firemen, this may answer well enough; but
+if hastily or carelessly dismounted by unskilful persons, the engine
+may be seriously damaged. It is also worthy of remark, that the proper
+quantity of hose, tools, &c., can be more easily attached to and
+carried on a four-wheeled engine.
+
+In order that the men may work more easily at the handles, and suffer
+less fatigue, the engine is not higher than to enable them to have the
+levers easily under their command. The shafts of the levers are of
+lancewood, being best calculated to bear the strain to which they are
+exposed when the engine is at work, and they are made to fold up at
+each end for convenience in travelling.
+
+The air-vessel should be placed clear of any other part of the engine,
+excepting only the point where it is attached.
+
+The fore-carriage of the engine is fitted with a pole, and is made to
+suit the harness of coach-horses, these being, in large towns, more
+easily procured than other draught cattle; this can be altered,
+however, to suit such harness as can most readily be obtained. Where
+horses are seldom used to move the engines, a drag-handle is attached,
+by which one or two men are able easily to direct the progress of the
+engine.
+
+Two drag-ropes, each twenty-five feet long, of three-inch rope, with
+ten loops to each, are attached, one to each end of the splinter-bar,
+by means of which the engines are dragged; and to prevent the loops
+collapsing on the hand, they are partly lined with sheet-copper.
+
+The whole of the brass work of an engine should be of the best
+gun-metal, composed of copper and tin only. Yellow brass should never
+be used; even at first it is far inferior to gun-metal, and after
+being used for some time it gets brittle. The whole of the materials
+used in the construction of a fire-engine should be of the best
+description.
+
+In London for some years past a hand-pump has been carried with each
+engine. They have been found of the greatest service in keeping doors,
+windows, &c., cool. They throw from six to eight gallons per minute,
+to a height of from thirty to forty feet, and can be used in any
+position. The idea of the hand-pumps I took from the old-fashioned
+squirt, or "hand-engine."
+
+When fire-engines are unserviceable it arises more frequently from
+want of care in keeping in order than from any damage they may have
+received in actual service or by the wearing out of the materials; so
+it is quite plain that this important part of the duty has not
+generally had that degree of attention paid to it which it deserves.
+
+Although an engine were to be absolutely perfect in its construction,
+if carelessly thrown aside after being brought home from a fire, and
+allowed to remain in that state till the next occasion, it would be in
+vain (especially in small towns, where alarms are rare) to expect to
+find it in a serviceable condition; some of the parts must have grown
+stiff, and if brought into action in this state something is likely to
+give way.
+
+When an engine is brought back from a fire, it ought to be immediately
+washed, the cistern cleaned out, the barrels and journals cleaned and
+fresh oil put on them, the wheels greased, and every part of the
+engine carefully cleaned and examined, and if any repairs are needed
+they should be executed immediately. When all this has been attended
+to clean hose should be put in, and the engine is again fit for
+immediate service. Besides this cleaning and examination after use,
+the engine ought to be examined and the brass part cleaned once a
+week, and worked with water once a month whether it has been used or
+not.
+
+In addition to the keeping of the engine always in an effective state,
+this attention has the advantage of reminding the men of their duty,
+and making them familiar with every part of the mechanism of the
+engine; thus teaching them effectually how the engines ought to be
+protected when at work, by enabling them to discover those parts most
+liable to be damaged, and to which part damage is the most dangerous.
+It is more troublesome generally to get the engines well kept when
+there are no fires, than when there are many. But the only effectual
+method of inducing the men to keep them in good order, in addition to
+the moral stimulants of censure and applause, is to fine those who
+have the charge of them for the slightest neglect.
+
+When the engine has been properly placed, before beginning to work the
+fore-carriage should be locked. This is done by putting an iron pin
+through a piece of wood attached to the cistern, into the
+fore-carriage. This prevents the wheels from turning round, and coming
+under the shafts, by which the latter might be damaged, and the hands
+of the men at work injured.
+
+Small stones, gravel, and other obstructions, sometimes find their way
+into the nozzle of the branch-pipe, from having dropped into the hose
+before being attached, or having been drawn through the suction-pipe
+or from the cistern. Whenever the engine is found to work stiffly, it
+should be stopped and examined, otherwise the pressure may burst the
+hose, or damage some part of the engine. If anything impedes the
+action of the valves the pistons must be drawn, and if a person's hand
+be then introduced they may easily be cleared--constant care and
+attention to all the minutiae of the engine and apparatus being
+absolutely indispensable, if effective service be expected from them.
+
+Considerable attention ought to be paid to the selecting a proper
+situation for an engine-house. Generally speaking, it ought to be
+central, and on the highest ground of the district it is meant to
+protect, and care should be taken to observe when any of the streets
+leading from it are impassable.
+
+If, in addition to these advantages, the engine-house can be had
+adjoining to a police watch-house, it may be considered nearly
+perfect, in so far as regards situation. These advantages being all
+attained, the engine can be conveyed to any particular spot by a
+comparatively small number of men, while the vicinity of a police
+watch-house affords a facility of communicating the alarm of fire to
+the firemen not to be obtained otherwise. When the engine-house is
+placed in a low situation the men who first arrive must wait till the
+others come forward to assist them to drag the engine up the ascent,
+and many minutes must thus be lost at a time when moments are
+important.
+
+After choosing a proper situation for the engine-house, the next care
+should be directed towards having it properly ventilated, as nothing
+contributes more to the proper keeping of the engines and hose than
+fresh and dry air. For this purpose a stove should be fitted up, by
+which the temperature may be kept equal. When engines are exposed to
+violent alternations of heat and cold, they will be found to operate
+very considerably on the account for repairs, besides occasioning the
+danger of the engine being frozen and unserviceable when wanted.
+
+There ought to be at least half a dozen keys for each engine-house,
+which should be kept by the firemen, watchmen, and those connected
+with the establishment, that the necessity of breaking open the door
+may not occur.
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH ENGINE IS PROVIDED.
+
+Having considered the sort of fire-engine which is best adapted for
+general purposes, I shall now notice the different articles which, in
+London, are always attached to, and accompany, each engine of this
+kind:--
+
+     7 coils of hose, 40 feet each.
+     4 bundles of sheepskin and lay-cord.
+     4 lengths of suction-pipe, each between 6 and 7 feet long.
+     2 branch pipes.
+     3 jet pipes or nozzles and an elbow for jet.
+     3 wrenches for coupling-joints.
+     2 lamps.
+     2 lengths of scaling ladder.
+     1 fire-hook.
+     60 feet of patent line, and 20 feet of trace line.
+     1 mattock.
+     1 shovel.
+     1 hatchet or pole-axe.
+     1 saw.
+     1 iron crow-bar.
+     1 portable cistern.
+     1 flat suction strainer.
+     1 standcock, and hook for street plugs.
+     1 screw wrench.
+     1 canvas sheet with 10 or 12 rope handles round its edges.
+     9 canvas buckets.
+     1 hand-pump with 10 feet of hose and jet pipe.
+
+Of these articles I shall endeavour to give a description as they
+stand in the above list.
+
+The article of hose being first in order, as well as importance,
+merits particular attention.
+
+The sort used is leather, made with copper rivets, and is by far the
+most serviceable and durable hose that I have yet seen.
+
+Manufacturers of this article, however, for a very obvious reason, are
+not always careful to select that part of the hide which, being
+firmest, is best adapted for the purpose. Indeed, I have known several
+instances wherein nearly the whole hide has been cut up and made into
+hose, without any selection whatever. The effect of this is very
+prejudicial. The loose parts of the hide soon stretch and weaken, and
+while, by stretching, the diameter of the pipe is increased, the
+pressure of the water, in consequence, becomes greater on that than on
+any other part of the hose, which is thereby rendered more liable to
+give way at such places.
+
+Hose are frequently made narrow in the middle, and, in order to fit
+the coupling-joints, wide at the extremities--a practice which lessens
+their capability of conveying a given quantity of water, in proportion
+to the difference of the area of the section of the diameters at the
+extremity and the middle part.
+
+In order to make them fit the coupling-joints, when carelessly widened
+too much, I have frequently seen them stuffed up with brown paper, and
+in that case they almost invariably give way, the folds of the paper
+destroying the hold which the leather would otherwise have of the
+ridges made on the ends of the coupling-joints.
+
+In order to avoid all these faults and defects, the riveted hose used
+are made in the following manner:--
+
+The leather is nine and five-eighths inches broad (that being the
+breadth required for coupling-joints of two and a half inches diameter
+of clear water-way), and levelled to the proper uniform thickness. The
+leather used is taken from hides of the very best description,
+perfectly free from flesh-cuts, warble-holes, or any other blemish,
+and stuffed as high as possible.[M] Not more than four breadths are
+taken from each hide, and none of the soft parts about the neck,
+shoulders, or belly are used. No piece of leather is less than four
+feet long.
+
+The leather is gauged to the exact breadth, and holes punched in it
+for the rivets. In the operation of punching, great care must be taken
+to make the holes on each side of the leather exactly opposite to each
+other. If this precaution be not attended to, the seam when riveted
+takes a spiral direction on the hose, which the heads of the rivets
+are very apt to cut at the folds. Care must also be taken that the
+leather is equally stretched on both sides, otherwise the number of
+holes on the opposite sides may be unequal. The ends are then cut at
+an angle of thirty-seven degrees; if cut at a greater angle, the
+cross-joint will be too short, and if at a smaller, the leather will
+be wasted. This must, however, be regulated in some degree by the
+number of holes in the cross-joint, as the angle must be altered a
+little if the holes at that part do not fit exactly with the holes
+along the side.
+
+The different pieces of leather necessary to form one length, or forty
+feet of hose, are riveted together by the ends.
+
+Straps of leather, three inches broad, are then riveted across the
+pipe, ten feet apart, to form loops for the purpose of handing or
+making fast the hose when full of water. The leather is then laid
+along a bench, and a bar of iron, from eight to ten feet long, three
+inches broad, and one inch thick, with the corners rounded off, is
+laid above it. The rivets are next put into the holes on one side of
+the leather, along the whole length of the iron bar. The holes on the
+other side are then brought over them, and the washers put on the
+points of the rivets, and struck down with a hollow punch. The points
+of the rivets are then riveted down over the washers, and finished
+with a setting punch. The bar of iron is drawn along, and the same
+operation repeated till the length of the hose be finished.
+
+The rivets and washers should be made of the best wrought copper, and
+must be well tinned before being used.
+
+Some objections have been made to riveted hose on account of the
+alleged difficulty of repairing them; but this is not so serious a
+matter as may at first view appear. Indeed, they very seldom require
+any repairs, and when they do, the process is not difficult. If any of
+the rivets be damaged, as many must be taken out as will make room for
+the free admission of the hand. A small flat mandrel being introduced
+into the hose, the new rivets are put into the leather, and riveted up
+the same as new pipe; the mandrel is then shaken out at the end.
+
+If the leather be damaged, it may be repaired either by cutting out
+the piece, and making a new joint, or by riveting a piece of leather
+upon the hole.
+
+The manner of attaching the hose to the coupling-joint is also a
+matter of very considerable importance. If a joint come off when the
+engine is in operation, a whole length of hose is rendered useless for
+the time, and a considerable delay incurred in getting it detached,
+and another substituted.
+
+To prevent this, the hose ought to fit as tightly as possible to the
+coupling-joint, without any packing. In riveted hose, a piece of
+leather, thinned down to the proper size, should be put on to make up
+the void which the thick edge of the leather next the rivet
+necessarily leaves; the hose should then be tied to the coupling-joint
+as firmly as possible with the best annealed copper wire, No. 16
+gauge.
+
+When the hose are completely finished in this manner they are proved
+by a proving-pump, and if they stand a pressure of two hundred feet of
+water they are considered fit for service. I may also add, that when
+any piece of hose has been under repair it is proved in the same
+manner before it is deemed trustworthy.
+
+The proving of the hose is of very considerable importance, and the
+method of doing so which I have mentioned is greatly superior to the
+old plan of proving them on an engine or fire-cock. By the latter
+method, no certain measure can be obtained by which the pressure can
+be calculated. In the first place it must depend on the relative
+height of the reservoir from whence the water is obtained and that of
+the fire-cock where the experiment is made; and as the supply of water
+drawn from the pipes by the inhabitants may be different on different
+days of the week and even in different hours of the day, it is quite
+evident that by this method no certain rule can be formed for the
+purpose required, the pressure being affected by the quantity of water
+drawn at the time.
+
+The method of proving by an engine is considerably better than this;
+but when a proving-pump can be obtained it is infinitely better than
+either. One disadvantage of an engine is, that it requires a
+considerable number of men; but even the proof, that of throwing the
+water to a given height on the gable of a house or other height, is
+not always a test of the sufficiency of the hose. As the temperature
+is low or high, the wind fresh or light, the degree of pressure on the
+hose in throwing the water to the required height will be greater or
+less. Indeed, in high winds it is a matter of extreme difficulty to
+throw the water to any considerable height.
+
+With an engine of 7-inch barrels and 7-inch stroke, fitted with eighty
+feet of 2-3/8-inch hose, I have found from several experiments that
+when the water is thrown seventy-five feet high, the pressure on the
+hose is equal to one hundred feet. The same engine, with 160 feet of
+hose, and the branch-pipe raised fifty feet above the level of the
+engine, when the water was thrown fifty-six feet from the branch,
+occasioned a pressure equal to 130 feet on the hose. From these
+experiments, I am convinced that the pressure will not be equal to 200
+feet, except in very extreme cases, or when some obstacle gets into
+the jet pipe.
+
+I tried the extreme strength of a piece of riveted hose 4 feet long
+and 2-3/8 inches diameter, and found that it did not burst till the
+pressure increased to 500 feet; and when it gave way the leather was
+fairly torn along the rivet-holes.
+
+Every possible care should be taken to keep the hose soft and pliable,
+and to prevent its being affected by mildew. After being used, in
+order to dry them equally they should be hung up by the centre, with
+the two ends hanging down, until half dry. They should then be taken
+down and rubbed over with a composition of bees'-wax, tallow, and
+neats-foot oil,[N] and again hung up to allow the grease to sink into
+the leather. When the hose appear to be dry they should be a second
+time rubbed with the composition, and then coiled up for use. In order
+that the hose undergoing the operation of greasing may not be
+disturbed or used till in a fit state, it is better to have a double
+set, and in this way, while one set is in grease the other is in the
+engine ready and fit for service. More time can also be taken for any
+repairs which may be necessary, and they will in consequence be more
+carefully done, and at fires where a great length of hose is required
+the spare set will always be available. When the weather is damp, and
+the hose cannot be dried so as to be fit for greasing in two or three
+days, a stove should be put into the room in order to facilitate the
+process. The greatest care, however, must be taken in the use of
+artificial heat. The whole apartment should be kept of one equal
+temperature, which ought never to be higher than is requisite to dry
+the hose for greasing in about forty hours.
+
+_Coupling-joints._[O]--So much of the efficiency and duration of the
+hose depend on the proper form given to the brass coupling-joints,
+that I deem it useful to give a detailed description, both of those
+generally made use of and of those adopted by the Edinburgh
+fire-establishment, and also to point out their various defects and
+advantages.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. Old Coupling]
+
+Fig. 3 is the construction commonly made by engine-makers. Its defects
+are as follows:--From the form of the furrows and ridges where the
+leather is tied it does not hold on well against a force tending to
+pull the hose off end-ways; screw-nails are therefore often employed,
+as at A, to secure the hose on the brass. The points of these nails
+always protrude more or less into the inside of the joint, and
+materially impede the current of water. The mouths of the joints are
+also turned outwards, and form a shoulder, as at B. The intention of
+this is probably to assist in securing the leather in its place, and
+to prevent the lapping from slipping. The effects of it are as
+follows:--First, from the leather being strained over this projection,
+it becomes liable to be cut by every accidental injury, and very soon
+cracks and gives way, when a portion must be cut off and a fresh
+fixing made; second, the leather being stretched over the projection,
+does not fit the other part of the joint, and must be loose or filled
+up with pieces of leather, or, as is sometimes done, with brown paper;
+third, the irregularity of the calibre of the conduit which this
+shoulder occasions diminishes the performance of the engine.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. New Coupling]
+
+Fig. 4 is the coupling-joint adopted in Edinburgh. The furrows at the
+tying place are shallow, but their edges present a powerful obstacle
+to the slipping of the leather. No screw-nails are employed, nor is
+there any shoulder, as at B; there is therefore no impediment to or
+variation in the velocity of the current, as the calibres of the
+coupling joints and of the hose are so nearly uniform. It will be seen
+also that as the lapping projects above the leather this latter can
+never be injured by falls or rubbing on the ground.
+
+Another great advantage attending the joints used here is the manner
+in which their screws are finished. On examining the figure minutely,
+it will be observed that the male-screw ends in a cylinder of the
+diameter of the _bottom_ of its thread, consequently of the diameter
+of the top of the thread of the female-screw. The effect of this is,
+that, when the screws are brought together, the cylindric portion
+serves as a guide to the threads, and the most inexperienced person
+cannot fail to make them catch fair at the first trial. The advantage
+of this in the circumstances attending fires is obvious.
+
+These joints, although requiring three or four turns to close them up,
+yet as it is only the ring D which requires to be turned, it can
+easily be done with the hand alone without the use of wrenches.
+Although, when the whole length of hose has been jointed, it may be as
+well to send a man with a pair of wrenches to set the joints firm;
+this, however, is by no means absolutely necessary; if the joints are
+kept in proper order a man can secure them sufficiently with the hand.
+
+There is also a facility in taking turns out of the hose, which no
+other but a swivel joint affords. By slackening a single turn any
+twist may be taken out, without undoing the joint or stopping the
+engine, while, from the number of turns required to close the joints,
+there is no chance of the screw being by any accident undone. In order
+to prevent the threads from being easily damaged, they should be of a
+pretty large size, not more than five or six to the inch. For the same
+reason also the thread should be a little rounded.
+
+As it sometimes happens that the screws are damaged by falling on the
+street, or by heavy bodies striking them, whenever the hose have been
+used the joints should be tried by a steel gauge-screw, to be kept for
+that purpose. This ought to be particularly attended to, as, on
+arriving at a fire, it is rather an awkward time to discover that a
+joint has been damaged, while the delay thus occasioned may be
+attended with very serious consequences.
+
+_Four Bundles of Sheepskin and Lay-cord._--These are simply four or
+five stripes of sheepskin, each about three or four inches broad. When
+a leak occurs in a length of hose which cannot be easily replaced at
+the time, one or more pieces of sheepskin are wrapt tightly over the
+leak and tied firmly with a piece of cord. This is but an indifferent
+method of mending, but I do not know of any other which can be so
+readily applied with the same effect. If another length of hose can be
+substituted for the leaky one it is better to do so; but that is not
+always at hand, nor does it always happen that time can be spared for
+the purpose.
+
+_Four Lengths of Suction-pipe._--These are generally made of leather,
+riveted tightly over a spiral worm of hoop-iron, about three-quarters
+of an inch broad, a piece of tarred canvas being placed between the
+worm and the leather. They are usually made from six to eight feet
+long, with a copper strainer screwed on the farther end, to prevent as
+much as possible any mud or dirt from getting into the engine with the
+water. It is of advantage to carry four lengths of suction-pipe, as
+they can be joined to reach the water; if one is damaged the others
+will still be serviceable.
+
+The suction-pipes are more troublesome to rivet than the common hose,
+and are done in the following manner:--After the joints are fixed on
+the spiral worm, and it is covered with the tarred canvas, an iron
+mandrel longer than the worm is put through it, the edge being rounded
+to the circle of the inside of the worm. The projecting ends of the
+mandrel are supported to allow the worm to lie quite clear. One end of
+the mandrel has a check, that the brass joint may not prevent the worm
+from lying flat on the mandrel. The leather is then put over the worm,
+and the rivets being put into one side, a small thin mandrel is laid
+over the canvas and the rivets struck down upon it. If the small
+mandrel be not used the heads of the rivets are apt to lie unequally
+on the worm.
+
+_Three Wrenches for Coupling-joints._--These are for tightening the
+coupling-joints, when that cannot be sufficiently done by hand. When
+the hose are all put together a man is sent along the whole line with
+a pair of wrenches to tighten such of the coupling-joints as require
+it. The wrenches are generally made with a hole to fit the knob on the
+coupling-joint, and, when used, are placed, one on the nob of the male
+and another on the nob of the female-screw, so as to pull them in
+opposite directions.
+
+_Two Branch Pipes._--These are taper copper tubes, having a
+female-screw at one end to fit the coupling-joints of the hose, and a
+male-screw at the other to receive the jet pipes, one is 4 feet long
+to use from the outside of a house on fire, the other 12 inches for
+inside work.
+
+_Three Jet-pipes_ or nozzles of various sizes made to screw on the end
+of the branch pipe.
+
+A great many different shapes of jet have been tried, and that shown
+in Fig. 5, I found to answer best when tried with other forms. The old
+jet was a continuation in a straight line of the taper of the branch,
+from the size of the hose-screw, to the end of the jet-pipe; this had
+many inconveniences; the size of the jet could not be increased
+without making the jet-pipe nearly parallel. As the branches were
+sometimes 7 feet or 8 feet long, in some instances the orifice at the
+end of the jet-pipe was larger than that at the end of the branch. The
+present form of the jet completely obviates this difficulty, as the
+end of the branch is always 1-1/2 inches diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.]
+
+The curve of the nozzle of the present jet is determined by its own
+size; five times one-half of the difference between the jet to be made
+and the end of the branch, is set up on each side of the diameter of
+the upper end of the branch, a straight line is then drawn across, and
+an arc of a circle described on this line, from the extremity of each
+end of the diameter of the jet, until it meets the top of the branch;
+the jet is then continued parallel, the length of its own diameter;
+the metal is continued one-eighth of an inch above this, to allow of a
+hollow being turned out to protect the edge: The rule for determining
+the size of the jet for inside work is, to "make the diameter of the
+jet one-eighth of an inch for every inch in the diameter of the
+cylinder, for each 8 inches of stroke." The branch used in this case
+is the same size as shown in Fig. 5. When it is necessary to throw the
+water to a greater height, or distance, a jet one-seventh less in area
+is used, with a branch from 4 feet to 5 feet long.
+
+_Two Lengths of Scaling Ladders._--These are 6-1/2 feet long, and are
+fitted with sockets so that any number up to 7 or 8 may be joined
+together to form one ladder varying in length according to
+circumstances from 6-1/2 to upwards of 40 feet.
+
+_One Fire-hook._--This is similar to a common boat-hook, of such
+length as may be most convenient to strap on the handles of the
+engine. It is used for pulling down ceilings, and taking out
+deafening-boards when the fire happens to be between the ceiling and
+the floor above. It is also used when a strong door is to be broken
+open. It is placed with the point upon the door, one or two men
+bearing upon it, while another striking the door, the whole force of
+the blows is made to fall upon the lock or other fastening, which
+generally yields without much difficulty.
+
+_Sixty Feet of Patent Line and Twenty Feet of Trace Line._--These are
+generally used for hoisting the hose into the windows of the house, in
+which there is a fire, the stairs being sometimes so crowded with
+people and furniture, that it is difficult to force a passage, and
+when the pipe is laid in the stair, it is liable to be damaged by
+people treading on it.
+
+_One Mattock and Shovel._--These are useful in damming any running
+water or gutter, uncovering drains, &c., from which the engine may be
+supplied with water. The mattock should be short and strong, and the
+shovel of the sort called diamond-pointed.
+
+_One Hatchet._--The most serviceable hatchet for a fire-engine, is
+similar to that used as a felling axe by wood-cutters. The back part
+is made large that it may be conveniently used as a hammer.
+
+_One Saw._--This should be a stout cross-cut saw, very widely set. It
+is useful in cutting off the communication between one house and
+another, which, when water is scarce, is sometimes necessary.
+
+_One Iron Crow-bar._--This should be about two feet long. It is used
+in opening doors, breaking through walls, &c.
+
+_One Portable Cistern._[P]--This is made of canvas on a folding iron
+frame, and is used in London placed over the street-fire plugs, a hole
+is left in the bottom through which the water enters and fills the
+cistern, the escape between the canvas and the plug box being
+trifling. Two and sometimes three engines are worked by suction-pipe
+from one plug in this manner. The portable cistern is also used when
+the engine is supplied by suction, from water conveyed in carts or
+buckets, and is greatly preferable to any plan of emptying the water
+directly into the engine. By this latter method there is always a
+considerable waste of water, arising both from the height of the
+engine, and the working of the handles; and, in addition to these
+objections only one person can pour in water at a time. When the water
+is poured into the engine from carts, it must stop working till the
+cart is emptied. All these objections, are in a great measure removed
+by placing the portable cistern clear of the engine; when used in this
+manner there must of course be no hole in the bottom.
+
+_One Flat Suction Strainer_, made to screw on to the suction pipe, to
+prevent anything being drawn in that would not pass through the
+jet-pipe, and made flat, with no holes in the upper surface, for use
+in the portable cistern.
+
+_One Standcock_, with stem to insert direct in the fire-plug, and used
+principally with hose to throw a jet for cooling ruins.
+
+_One Canvas Sheet._--This, when stretched out and held securely by
+several men, may be jumped into from the window of a house on fire
+with comparative safety.
+
+_One Hand-pump_, as described at page 130, and used with the canvas
+buckets.
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[Footnote G: The engines and their crews are distinguished by these
+colours.]
+
+[Footnote H: The hose are made up in flat coils, with the male
+coupling-screw in the centre, and the female on the outside. When a
+length is to be laid out in any direction, it is set on its edge, and
+then run out in the required direction,--in this way no turns or
+twists can ever occur. When the hose is to be taken up, it is
+uncoupled, and then wound up, beginning at the end farthest from the
+engine or from the fire-cock (as the case may be): by this method all
+the water is pressed out.]
+
+[Footnote I: In practising this exercise the men are in the habit of
+descending by the chains from the parapet of the North Bridge,
+Edinburgh, to the ground below: a height of 75 feet.]
+
+[Footnote J: Mr. Braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this
+principle with hand holes for a dozen men, in the ordinary service of
+the London Fire Brigade.]
+
+[Footnote K: Now Shand, Mason, and Co.]
+
+[Footnote L: This description applies to the most recently constructed
+fire-engines belonging to the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.]
+
+[Footnote M: "Stuffing," a technical term need by leather-dressers or
+curriers.]
+
+[Footnote N: The proportions are, 1 gallon neats-foot oil, 2 lbs.
+tallow, 1/4 lb. bees-wax, melted together, and laid while warm on the
+leather.]
+
+[Footnote O: This description of the Edinburgh coupling-joints was
+written in 1830, and is inserted here to show how the present form of
+the well-known London Brigade hose-coupling was arrived at. The
+internal diameter was originally 2-3/8 inches, but Mr. Braidwood, when
+in London, found that he could increase it to 2-1/2 inches.]
+
+[Footnote P: See engraving of portable cistern, page 156.]
+
+
+
+
+FIRE ANNIHILATOR
+
+
+With regard to the Fire Annihilator, I have seen several experiments
+with this machine, and heard of more which were not successful; and if
+an invention fails when experiments are tried, it is open to the
+impression that it might fail when brought into active operation.
+There have also been many cases where these machines have met with
+accidents, one at Drury Lane Theatre amongst the number.
+
+Water, properly applied, will do whatever the Annihilator can
+accomplish, and also many things which the latter cannot do. As it is,
+there are some forty or fifty different articles to carry with each
+fire-engine, and to add to them such unwieldy things as Fire
+Annihilators, would be to encumber the men more than they are at
+present, with a very doubtful prospect of advantage.
+
+
+WATER SUPPLY.
+
+The supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions towards
+extinguishing fire. Where the pressure is sufficient, and the mains
+large enough, by far the most efficient and economical mode of using
+the water is to attach the hose directly to the mains.
+
+In London, however, this can rarely be done, for several reasons. The
+greatest number of plugs are on the service pipes, that is, the pipes
+for supplying water for domestic and other purposes, which are only
+open a short time every day. If the cisterns are nearly empty, the
+pressure cannot be obtained till they are filled. Then, again, the
+plugs being some distance apart, it is difficult to obtain a
+sufficient number of jets. But when the plugs are full open 1-3/4
+diameter, a sufficient quantity of water is obtained from each to
+supply three engines, each of which will give a jet equal to the plug
+if confined to one jet. The pressure also in the mains in London
+seldom exceeds 120 feet at the utmost. For these reasons the pressure
+from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked, when the ruins
+are cooled by the "dummies," as the jets from the mains are named by
+the firemen.
+
+If water can be obtained at an elevation, pipes with plugs or
+firecocks on them, are preferable to any other mode at present in use
+for the supply of fire-engines. The size of the pipes will depend on
+the distance and elevation of the head, and also on the size of the
+buildings to be protected. It may be assumed as a general rule, that
+the intensity of a fire depends, in a great measure, on the cubic
+content of the building; distinction being made as to the nature and
+contents of such building. If no natural elevation of water can be
+made available, and the premises are of much value, it may be found
+advisable to erect elevated tanks; where this is done, the quantity of
+water to be kept ready, and the rate at which it is delivered, must
+depend on the means possessed of making use of the water.
+
+The average size of fire-engines may be taken at two cylinders of 7
+inches diameter, with a length of stroke of 8 inches, making forty
+strokes each per minute. This sized engine will throw 141 tons of
+water in six hours, and allowing one-fourth for waste, 176 tons would
+be a fair provision in the tanks for six hours' work; this quantity
+multiplied by the number of engines within reach, will give an idea of
+what is likely to be required at a large fire. If, however, there are
+steam-engines to keep up the supply through the mains, the quantity of
+water kept in readiness may be reduced to two hours' consumption, as
+it is likely that the steam-engines would be at work before that
+quantity was exhausted. This is what may be supposed to be required,
+in cases of serious fires in dockyards, in large stacks of warehouses,
+or in large manufactories.
+
+[Illustration: FIG 6. Opening for Suction-pipe.]
+
+Where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises, such as
+from rivers, canals, &c., if it is not thought prudent to erect
+elevated tanks, the water may be conducted under the surface by large
+cast-iron pipes, with openings at such distances as may seem advisable
+for introducing the suction-pipes (Fig. 6). This plan should not be
+adopted where the level of the water is more than 12 feet below the
+surface of the ground, as although a fire-engine will, if perfectly
+tight, draw from a much greater depth than 14 feet (2 feet being
+allowed for the height of the engine), still a very trifling leakage
+will render it useless for the time, at such a depth.
+
+The worst mode of supplying engines with water is by covered sunk
+tanks; they are generally too small, and unless very numerous, confine
+the engines to one or two particular spots, obliging the firemen to
+increase the length of the hose which materially diminishes the effect
+of the fire-engine. If the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir,
+it would be much better to save the expense of the tank, and to place
+plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe. Another evil in sunk tanks is,
+that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity of water they may
+depend upon, and they may thus be induced to attempt to stop a fire,
+at a point they would not have thought of if they had known correctly
+the quantity of water in store.
+
+Where sunk tanks are already constructed, they may be rendered more
+available by a partial use of the method shown in Fig. 6.
+
+_Memoranda of Experiments tried on the mains and service pipes of the
+Southwark Water Company, between 4 and 9_ A.M. _of the 31st January,
+1844. The wind blowing fresh from N.N.W._
+
+The pressure at the water-works at Battersea was kept at 120 feet
+during the experiments, and every service pipe or other outlet was
+kept shut.
+
+_1st Experiment._--Six standcocks, with one length of 2-1/2 inches
+riveted leather hose 40 feet long, and one copper branch 4 feet to 5
+feet long, with a jet 7/8 inch in diameter on each, were placed in six
+plugs on a main 7 inches diameter, in Union-street, between
+High-Street, Borough, and Gravel-lane, Southwark, at distances of
+about 120 yards apart. The water was brought from the head at
+Battersea, by 4250 yards of iron pipes 20 inches diameter, 550 yards
+of 15 inches diameter, and 500 yards of 9 inches diameter.
+
+1st. One standcock was opened, which gave a jet of 50 feet in height,
+and delivered 100 gallons per minute.
+
+With four lengths of hose the jet was 40 feet high, and the delivery
+92 gallons per minute. When the branch and jet were taken off with one
+length of hose the delivery was 260 gallons per minute.
+
+2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the jet from the first
+was 45 feet high.
+
+3rd. The third standcock was opened, and the jet from the first 40
+feet high.
+
+4th. The fourth standcock being opened, the first gave a jet of 35
+feet high.
+
+5th. The fifth being opened, the first gave a jet of 30 feet high.
+
+6th. All the six being opened, the first gave a jet of 27 feet in
+height.
+
+_2nd Experiment._--Six standcocks were then put into plugs, on a main
+9 inches diameter in Tooley-Street, the extreme distance being 450
+yards, with hose and jets as in the first experiment. The water was
+brought from the head at Battersea by 4250 yards of iron pipes of 20
+inches diameter, 1000 yards of 15 inches diameter, 1400 yards of 9
+inches diameter. The weather was nearly the same, but the place of
+experiment was more protected from the wind than in Union-street.
+
+1st. With one standcock open, a jet 60 feet in height was produced,
+and 107 gallons per minute were delivered.
+
+2nd. The second standcock was then opened, and the difference in the
+first jet was barely perceptible.
+
+3rd. Other two standcocks being opened, the first jet was reduced to
+45 feet in height, and the delivery to 92 gallons per minute.
+
+4th. All the six standcocks being opened, the first jet was further
+reduced to 40 feet high, and the delivery to 76 gallons per minute.
+
+_3rd Experiment._--Two standcocks, with hose, &c., as in the first
+experiment, were then put into a service-pipe, 4 inches diameter and
+200 yards long, in Tooley-street, the service-pipe was connected with
+200 yards of main 5 inches diameter, branching from the main of 9
+inches diameter. The weather was still the same as at first, but the
+wind did not appear to affect the jets, owing to the buildings all
+round being so much higher than the jet.
+
+1st. The standcock nearest the larger main was opened, and a jet of 40
+feet high was produced, delivering 82 gallons per minute.
+
+2nd. Both standcocks being opened, the first gave a jet of 31 feet,
+and delivered 68 gallons per minute.
+
+3rd. The standcock farthest from the large main only being opened,
+gave a jet of 34 feet, and delivered 74 gallons per minute.
+
+4th. Both standcocks being opened, the farthest one gave a jet of 23
+feet, and delivered 58 gallons per minute.
+
+When both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without hose, the
+water from that nearest the large main, rose about 18 inches, and the
+farther one about 1 inch above the plug-box.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Common Fire-plug.]
+
+These and other experiments prove the necessity of placing the plugs
+on the mains, and not on the service pipes, where there are mains in
+the street.
+
+The different modes of obtaining water from the mains or pipes are
+shown in the accompanying drawings.
+
+(Fig. 7) is a section of a common plug when not in use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Fire-plug with canvas cistern.]
+
+(Fig. 8) is a section of the common plug, with a canvas dam or cistern
+over it, as used in London. The cistern is made of No. 1 canvas, 15
+inches deep, extended at top and bottom by 5/8-inch round iron frames,
+a double stay is hinged on the top frame at each end. When the cistern
+is used the top frame is lifted up, and the stays put into the
+notches, in two pieces of hoop iron, fixed to the bottom frame. There
+is a circular opening 9 inches diameter in the canvas bottom, two
+circular rings of wash-leather, about 2 inches broad, are attached to
+the edges of the opening in the canvas, so as to contract it to 4
+inches or 5 inches diameter; the plug being opened, the cistern is
+placed over it; the wash-leather is pressed down to the surface of the
+road by the water, and a tolerably water-tight cistern, with about 12
+inches or 14 inches of water in it, is immediately obtained.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. Plug, with Standcock.]
+
+(Fig. 9) is a plug with a standcock in it, to which hose may be
+attached.
+
+(Fig. 10) is a common single firecock with a round water-way 2-1/2
+inches diameter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Single Firecock.]
+
+(Fig. 11) is a double firecock, as laid down in Her Majesty's
+Dockyards.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. Double Firecock, used at the Royal Dockyards.]
+
+It will be observed, that the short piece of pipe between the main and
+this firecock is not curved to the current of the water, but merely
+opened a little; this is done with a view of increasing the supply by
+steam power, and as the steam engines are, in most cases, situated in
+a different direction from the tanks or reservoirs, therefore the
+curve that would have assisted the current in one direction would have
+retarded it in the other. It has been objected to these firecocks,
+that the opening does not run through the centre of the key, therefore
+only one side of the key covers the opening in the barrel, while in
+the common firecock both sides are covered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Double Firecock, used at the British Museum.]
+
+(Fig. 12) is a double firecock, as laid down at the British Museum.
+
+This has a very good delivery, and is certain to be always tight, if
+well made, as the pressure of the water forces the key into the
+barrel; this also renders the cock somewhat difficult to be opened and
+shut, if the pressure be great; but as a lever of any length may be
+used, and the key, from its perpendicular position, may be loosened by
+a blow, this objection is in a great measure obviated.
+
+In Figs. 10 and 11 the openings in the street are large enough to
+admit of the levers for opening the cock to be fixed, that no mistake
+may occur from the lever being mislaid; but with those at the British
+Museum, it was not thought necessary to have fixed levers, as a
+crow-bar, or anything that could be introduced into the eye of the
+spanner, would open them.
+
+The plug and firecock have both certain advantages and disadvantages,
+which are now described.
+
+The plug, with a canvas cistern, is the easiest mode of obtaining
+water; the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone, is no
+annoyance in the street, and the water has only one angle to turn
+before it is delivered.
+
+On the other hand, where the supply of water is limited, the plugs
+give but little command of it; there is, however, comparatively very
+small loss at a large fire in London from this cause, as it is very
+seldom that all the fire-engines can be supplied direct from the
+plugs, and those that arrive late must pick up the waste water as they
+best can, by using another description of canvas dam, or opening the
+street; but in enclosed premises, especially where the water is kept
+for the purpose of extinguishing fires, firecocks are much to be
+preferred. It is very difficult to insert the standcock into a plug if
+there is a considerable force of water, and if the paving has moved,
+it cannot be done without raising the plug-box; but this is, however,
+the easiest mode of using firecocks, and where there is a considerable
+pressure of water, if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a
+hose-reel and branch-pipe, they can, in enclosed premises, direct a
+jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared, and if they
+cannot reach the fire, they will have water ready for the engine when
+it arrives.
+
+Inclosed premises are particularly mentioned, because the principal
+duty of the watchmen, in these cases, is to guard against fire, and
+their other duties being comparatively few, the men are not often
+changed, and they can be instructed thoroughly in the matter. With the
+general police of the metropolis it is quite different, their duties
+are so numerous and varied, that to add that of firemen to them would
+only be to confuse them.
+
+Firecocks, if kept at 9 inches to 12 inches below the surface, are
+easily protected from frost, by stuffing the opening with straw.
+
+The advantage which the double firecocks have over the single ones, is
+merely the increased water-way, as a firecock 3-1/2 inches diameter
+could not be so easily opened or shut, as two cocks of 2-1/2 inches
+diameter.
+
+One of the greatest objections to firecocks, is the very large
+openings required in the streets, the first cost and the repair of
+which are both considerable, besides their liability to accident. To
+take them to the footpath, increases the expenses and diminishes the
+supply of water, as it is generally done with a small pipe, and the
+number of angles is increased. In some instances, where firecocks have
+been put down on one side of the street, no less than four right
+angles have been made in the course of the water; and if the fire
+happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the firecock,
+the thoroughfare must be stopped. The expense also is no slight
+consideration, for if laid along with the water-pipes, each firecock,
+if properly laid, and the pit built round with cement, will cost eight
+or ten times as much as a plug.
+
+London is, upon the whole (except in the warehouse districts), fairly
+supplied with water for the average description of fires, that is,
+where not more than five or six engines are required. When, however,
+it is necessary to work ten or twelve engines, there is very often a
+deficiency. In many of the warehouse districts the supply is very
+limited indeed, although it is there that the largest fires take
+place.
+
+The water companies are generally willing to give any quantity of
+water, but they object to lay down large mains without any prospect of
+remuneration. The warehouse keepers decline to be at the expense of
+laying the pipes, and there the matter seems to rest. In most other
+places of importance, the water is under the management of the civic
+authorities, and they, of course, endeavour to obtain a good supply of
+water at fires in warehouse as well as in other districts.
+
+In supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks, one or more
+lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock; the extreme end being put
+into the engine, the firecock is then opened and the water rushes in.
+When the water-pipes are large and the pressure considerable, two or
+even three engines may be supplied from the same firecock.
+
+If the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the place on
+fire, to be reached by the supply of hose brought with the engine, the
+next resource is, to open the nearest firecock above the level of the
+place where the water is required. By covering the eyes of drains, and
+stopping up any cross-water channels, the water may in this manner be
+conveyed along the street, from a very considerable distance. From the
+nature of the ground it does not always happen that the water will run
+directly from the nearest firecock, to the spot where it is required;
+acclivities, buildings, and many other causes, may prevent this; but
+in some of these cases a few lengths of the hose, attached to the
+firecock, may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to
+the required point. Upon the arrival of the water, it ought to be
+dammed up, and the engine will lift it by suction out of the pool so
+formed.
+
+If, however, from the nature of the ground, from the want of hose, or
+from other causes, it is found impracticable to convey the water by
+either of the above methods, the next best is, to conduct the water in
+hose as far as can be accomplished, and carry it the remainder of the
+distance in carts, buckets, or whatever else may be most convenient.
+
+When carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line of men from
+the water to the engine, each man covering five or six feet of ground.
+The buckets are then handed from one man to another, till they reach
+the two or three men who are stationed round the suction-tub or
+fire-engine to receive them. The buckets when emptied are returned by
+a different line of men (women or boys) stationed in the same manner
+as the former. If a sufficient number of hands cannot be had to return
+the buckets in this manner, any convenient number may be employed to
+carry them to the firecock, that they may be again filled. When a fire
+occurs where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or plugs,
+the ground should be immediately opened, and the water-pipe cut. If it
+be of cast-iron, a large hammer may effect the purpose: on the
+water-pipe being broken, the suction-pipe of the engine is placed in
+the opening so made. If the pipe be of lead, the opening in the street
+should be made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it, when
+cut, being turned into the engine. If the supply of water by this
+means be so great as to occasion waste, it may be regulated by the
+nearest stopcock on the water-pipe, by driving a wooden plug into the
+end of a cast-iron pipe, or compressing the end of a leaden one.
+
+The next plan I shall notice of supplying fire-engines is from drains,
+gutters, &c. In particular situations and wet weather considerable
+supplies of water from these and similar sources may be obtained. In
+the gutters all that is required is to dam them up; and, if there be
+no materials at hand for this purpose, the causeway must be dug up,
+till there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of the
+engine.
+
+When the water is to be drawn from drains or common sewers, great care
+should be taken not to damage them farther than is absolutely
+necessary.
+
+If enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to enter easily, it
+will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes. When the man
+inside the drain or common sewer has collected a proper supply of
+water by damming up the channel, the suction-pipe should be handed
+down to him, and the engine set to work.
+
+Although it be true that foul water quenches fire, I will here
+observe, that the water from a common sewer should never be used,
+except when it is impossible to procure it from a purer source. For
+the purpose of procuring water to extinguish a fire, I had at one time
+occasion to open a common sewer, in which, with the usual impurities,
+the waste from a gas manufactory was intermixed, and the stench in the
+premises where the fire had been extinguished by this water, was for
+some time after very disagreeable.
+
+If the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little distance,
+one engine may be stationed close to it, and that engine made to pump
+the water into another at work. If the water be conveyed in carts, an
+engine may be kept at the pond or river for the purpose of filling
+them. Of course this can only be done where there is a proper supply
+of engines.
+
+In working from an open water, such as a gutter, drain, river, or
+pond, it is proper, in order to prevent sand or gravel being drawn
+into the engine, to sink an iron or wooden bucket, into which the
+suction-pipe of the engine should be placed. If nothing better can be
+had, a good wicker basket will be found useful.
+
+It is of great advantage to have a number of carts, with butts upon
+them full of water, as it ensures a small supply to the engines the
+moment they arrive at the fire. This plan, however, entails a very
+considerable expense, as carters must be paid for taking them out on
+every alarm, besides giving prizes to the owners of the first and
+second horses, to ensure their coming in time.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+
+The following, on Steam Fire-engines and the Metropolitan Fire
+Brigade, is added as a supplement to Mr. Braidwood's account of the
+London Fire Brigade, and brings the information upon these subjects up
+to the present date (May, 1866):--
+
+The steam fire-engine was first constructed in London, in 1830, before
+the formation of the London Fire Brigade, by Braithwaite, who made
+several engines, and exhibited them at various public trials, also at
+several fires, but without being able to bring them into general use.
+
+The matter remained in abeyance till 1852, when the London Fire
+Brigade caused their large hand-worked floating fire-engine to be
+altered so as to be worked by steam. This engine having been
+originally made by Tilley, of London, the alterations were entrusted
+to Shand and Mason, his successors. In the same year the first
+American steam fire-engine was constructed in New York.
+
+In 1855 the London Fire Brigade, stimulated by their first experiment,
+caused an entirely new self-propelling, floating steam fire-engine to
+be constructed. The experience gained by their first attempt at steam
+fire-engine making, enabled Shand and Mason to compete successfully in
+this matter, as their design was adopted after receiving the approval
+of the late Mr. Walker, Engineer, of Great George Street, London.
+
+The re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into London was
+accomplished by Shand and Mason, who, in 1858, constructed their
+first; this engine, after several public trials, was in the same year
+sent to St. Petersburgh.
+
+In 1859 the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines, which
+they offered to the London Fire Brigade for hire or purchase, and in
+the following year (1860) the Fire Brigade took one on hire for one
+year. This experiment proved so successful, that in 1861 the committee
+purchased, from Shand and Mason, the fourth steam engine of their
+construction. This, with one of the two made in 1859, were the only
+land steam engines that were at work at the Great Tooley Street Fire
+of 1861.
+
+In the beginning of 1862, Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, of
+New York, brought over a land steam fire-engine to be placed in the
+International Exhibition. This was worked in public at Hodges'
+Distillery on the 24th of March previous to the opening of the
+Exhibition.
+
+Shand and Mason supplied the London Fire Brigade in April, 1862, with
+the eighth land steam fire-engine of their construction. Messrs.
+Merryweather and Sons, of London, placed their first land steam
+fire-engine in the International Exhibition of 1862, but this, like
+the ninth by Shand and Mason, was not in time for the opening, and
+consequently could not compete for a prize medal, which was awarded to
+Lee and Larned, of New York.
+
+A public trial, however, took place before the jury of the Exhibition,
+of which the following is an account extracted verbatim from the
+jurors' published reports:--
+
+
+INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862.
+
+SPECIAL JURY FOR FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+
+J. F. BATEMAN, F.R.S., _London_; Civil Engineer.
+
+CAPT. BENT, _London_; Superintendent of Fire Arrangements in the
+Exhibition.
+
+W. M. BROWN, _London_; Superintendent of Westminster Fire Brigade.
+
+EARL OF CAITHNESS, _London_.
+
+J. HAWKSHAW, _London_; Civil Engineer.
+
+C. JENNY, _Austria_; Councillor of Mines in the Imperial Royal Academy
+of Mines at Schemnitz.
+
+P. LUUYT, _France_; Engineer to the Imperial Commissioners of Mines.
+
+J. E. McCONNELL, _Wolverton_; late Locomotive Superintendent of the
+London and North Western Railway.
+
+O. PIHL, _Norway_; Civil Engineer.
+
+W. M. RANKINE, _Glasgow_; Professor of Mechanics in the University of
+Glasgow.
+
+CAPT. SHAW, _London_; Superintendent of the London Fire Brigade.
+
+DUKE OF SUTHERLAND, _London_.
+
+F. B. TAYLOR, _United States_; Mechanical Engineer.
+
+H. THOMAS, _Zollverein_; Manufacturer.
+
+H. TRESCA, _France_; Professor of Mechanics, President of the French
+Institute of Civil Engineers.
+
+
+REPORT OF THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF CLASS VIII. ON FIRE-ENGINES.
+
+_After detailing the Trials of Hand-worked Fire-Engines, the Report
+states that_,--
+
+The Committee next proceeded to take the necessary steps for trying
+the steam fire-engines on the 1st of July, and, as before, invited the
+engine builders to a preliminary meeting, that they might receive full
+information as to the rules and regulations to be observed.
+
+In compliance with this invitation, the following engine-makers
+attended a meeting on the 28th of June, viz:--
+
+     Mr. Lee, of the firm of Lee and Larned, Novelty Iron-works,
+     New York.
+
+     Messrs. Merryweather and Son.
+
+     Messrs. Shand and Mason.
+
+Mr. Lee declined to produce his steam fire-engine for trial, alleging
+various reasons for so doing, and though strongly urged, persisted in
+his resolution, and declined the contest.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather and Son expressed themselves ready to produce
+their steam fire-engine on the appointed day.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason informed the Committee that the engine which
+they had intended to work would not be ready owing to an accident, but
+requested permission to produce for trial two steam-engines made by
+them for the London Fire-Engine Establishment, although they were not
+in the Exhibition. All the arrangements having been made for trying
+several engines together, the Committee granted this request, as
+otherwise only one engine would have been present, and a complete
+table of results could therefore not have been obtained.
+
+The Committee assembled in the appointed place at eight o'clock on the
+morning of the 1st of July, and found three engines present, viz., one
+of Messrs. Merryweather and Son and two of Messrs. Shand and Mason.
+
+After the Committee had examined the boilers and machinery generally,
+the engine-makers filled their respective boilers with cold water from
+the river, and fires having been laid, the three were lighted at the
+same moment, and the makers were ordered to commence working into a
+tank at sixty feet distance as soon as they had attained a steam
+pressure of 100 lbs. to the square inch.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather's engine attained the pressure named in 12
+minutes 10 seconds, Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine in 18
+minutes 30 seconds, the small engine in about 30 minutes, some
+mismanagement having occurred which compelled them to draw the fire in
+the latter and light it a second time. Messrs. Merryweather's engine
+commenced working as arranged when the steam-gauge indicated a
+pressure of 100 lbs., and was 2 minutes and 50 seconds at work before
+water passed through the nose-pipe. Notwithstanding this very serious
+defect, this engine had poured 500 gallons of water into a tank 60
+feet distant in 17 minutes and 15 seconds from the time at which the
+fire was lighted. After the difficulty of drawing the water had been
+surmounted, this engine worked well, and threw an admirable jet,
+losing 15 lbs. steam-pressure during the first trial. After three
+trials this engine became disabled; it was, however, repaired on the
+ground in about an hour and a half, and resumed work at the ninth
+trial, continuing to work well until the thirteenth, when it became
+again disabled, and was withdrawn by the maker, to the great regret of
+the Committee, who were thus left to continue the experiments with
+only two engines, both made by one firm.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason's large engine was 18 minutes 30 seconds
+getting up steam to 100 lbs., and when started drew water instantly,
+losing during the first trial 5 lbs. of steam-pressure.
+
+This engine was severely tested, and worked without accident
+throughout the day, the seventeenth trial lasting no less than 63
+minutes, during which the steam and water were both kept to a pressure
+of 90 lbs. on the square inch throughout, working through a 1-3/8 inch
+nose-pipe.
+
+At the eighteenth and last trial this engine threw a good vertical
+jet.
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason's small engine did not raise the steam to 100
+lbs. in less than 30 minutes, owing, of course, partly to the
+mismanagement already mentioned, and partly to the nature of the
+boiler and fire-box, which, according to the makers' account, are not
+adapted for raising steam in the shortest possible time. After the
+engine got to work the steam-pressure was well sustained, and the
+engine continued working the entire day without accident, concluding
+in the evening by throwing a good vertical jet.
+
+During the time occupied by the trials the direction of the wind was
+W.N.W. to W. by N., pressure 2-1/2 to 4-1/2 lbs. on the square foot.
+The barometer stood at 29.97 inches.
+
+
+_Summary._
+
+On the whole the Committee find as follows:--
+
+Messrs. Merryweather and Son have produced, at a price of 700_l._, a
+steam fire-engine, weighing, according to the makers' account, 65
+cwt., with jets and lamps, but without water, coal, suction-pipes,
+hose, or other gear, and capable, if no accidents occur, of throwing
+in an available stream the following average quantities of water per
+minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+     61 feet.       10 deg.       230 gallons.
+     85   "         21 deg.       124    "
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason have produced an engine, at a cost of 650_l._,
+weighing, according to their statement, 55 cwt., with jets and lamps,
+but without water, coals, suction-pipes, hose, or other gear, and
+capable of throwing in an available stream the following average
+quantities of water per minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+      61 feet.      10 deg.       250 gallons.
+      63   "        18 deg.       165    "
+      82   "        14 deg.       172    "
+      85   "        21 deg.       137    "
+     102   "        11 deg.        94    "
+     104   "        17 deg.        19    "
+
+Messrs. Shand and Mason have also produced, at a price of 370_l._, an
+engine which, under the same conditions, weighs 35 cwt., and is
+capable of throwing in an available stream the following average
+quantities per minute:--
+
+     Distance.     Angle.     Quantity.
+
+     61 feet.       10 deg.       142 gallons.
+     63   "         18 deg.       133    "
+     82   "         14 deg.        56    "
+     85   "         21 deg.        27    "
+
+The best performance during the five trials from which this last
+average was taken being forty-six gallons, and the lowest five gallons
+per minute.
+
+At greater distances, in consequence of the wind, this engine could
+not deliver a stream, but continued working without accident
+throughout the day, and concluded in the evening by throwing a good
+vertical jet.
+
+                    SUTHERLAND, CHAIRMAN.
+                    E. M. SHAW, HON. SEC.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Shand and Mason's tenth land steam fire-engine was supplied to the
+London Brigade in June, 1862, and their twelfth, in February, 1863,
+upon orders given on the 4th January, 1862. But as the Committee of
+the London Fire Brigade were now negotiating with Government to take
+the duty of extinguishing fires off their hands, no orders for
+steam-engines were given out by them after the above date.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+STEAM FIRE-ENGINE COMPETITION,
+
+CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON, 1863.
+
+Towards the close of 1862, several engineers and other gentlemen
+interested in the improvement of steam fire-engines, offered prizes to
+be awarded at competitive trials to take place in London. The
+following is the Committee's published account of these trials which
+were held in the grounds of the Crystal Palace Company on the 1st,
+2nd, and 3rd July, 1863.
+
+The Committee consisted of the following gentlemen, viz.:--
+
+_Chairman._
+
+HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF SUTHERLAND.
+
+
+_Members._
+
+THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CAITHNESS.
+LORD RICHARD GROSVENOR, M.P.
+J. G. APPOLD, ESQ.
+J. T. BATEMAN, ESQ.
+W. M'BROWNE, ESQ.
+T. R. CRAMPTON, ESQ.
+W. M. CROSSLAND, ESQ.
+W. FAIRBAIRN, ESQ.
+T. HAWKSLEY, ESQ.
+J. E. McCONNELL, ESQ.
+HENRY MAUDSLAY, ESQ.
+J. MATHEWS, ESQ.
+J. NASMYTH, ESQ.
+J. PENN, ESQ.
+WILLIAM SMITH, ESQ.
+
+_Hon. Sec._
+
+CAPTAIN E. M. SHAW.
+
+
+The engines were divided into two classes, the large class consisting
+of those weighing over 30 cwts., and not exceeding 60 cwts. and the
+small class of those not exceeding 30 cwts.
+
+The prizes offered were 250_l._ for the best engine, and 100_l._ for
+the second best, in each class.
+
+The chief points to which the Committee directed their attention, in
+addition to the consideration of cost and weight, were those relating
+to the general efficiency of the machines as fire-engines, combining
+among other points of excellence--
+
+  Rapidity in raising and generating steam.
+
+  Facility of drawing water.
+
+  Volume thrown.
+
+  Distance to which it can be projected with the least amount of loss.
+
+  Simplicity, accessibility, and durability of parts.
+
+
+LARGE CLASS.
+
+FIRST TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 67 feet, and
+27 deg. from the horizon. Depth from which water was drawn, 4 feet 6
+inches. The water in the boiler being cold when the signal was given
+to commence, each engine commencing to work on attaining steam
+pressure of 100lb. to the square inch.
+
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+|   |                 |              | Time of  | Time of |        |
+|No.|     MAKER.      |    Weight.   | raising  | filling | Total  |
+|   |                 |              | Steam to | Tank.   | Time.  |
+|   |                 |              | 100lbs.  |         |        |
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+|   |                 | T. c. q. lbs.|  '   "   |  '   "  |  '   " |
+| 1 | Easton & Amos,  | 2 18  3   12 | 13  14   |  6  16  | 19  30 |
+|   |   London        |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 2 | Merryweather &  | 2 18  0    8 | 10  25   |  9  42  | 20   7 |
+|   |   Son, London   |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 3 | Shand & Mason,  | 2 17  1    0 | 10  51   | 12  19  | 23  10 |
+|   |   London        |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 4 | Butt  and  Co., | 2 14  0    4 | 16  30   |  6  48  | 23  18 |
+|   |   United States |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+| 5 | Roberts, London | 1 19  1    4 | 11  40   | 20  24  | 32  4  |
+|   |                 |              |          |         |        |
+|   |                 |              |                             |
+|   | Nichols         | 2 10  1    4 | Did not work.               |
+|   |   (Manhattan)   |              |                             |
+|   |   United States |              |                             |
+|   |                 |              |                             |
+|   | Gray & Son,     | 1 18  1    4 | Did not work.               |
+|   |   London        |              |                             |
++---+-----------------+--------------+----------+---------+--------+
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON began to work at 100 lbs., fell directly to 40
+lbs., and continued so throughout; stopped and steam rose to 130 lbs.
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Suction-pipe choked; left off working about 2
+minutes.
+
+
+SECOND TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance commencing with
+full steam.
+
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    | Steam at   | Steam  | Time of |
+| No. |       NAME.        | Beginning. | during | filling |
+|     |                    |            | Work.  |  Tank.  |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |            |        |  '    " |
+|  1  | Shand & Mason      |    100     |        |  3    0 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  2  | Butt & Co.         |    100     |        |  3    3 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  3  | Merryweather & Son |    145     |        |  3    7 |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+|  4  | Roberts            |     80     |        | 12   30 |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+                Roberts did not fill the tank.
+
+
+THIRD TRIAL.
+
+Delivering into large tank at a horizontal distance of 40 feet, a
+vertical height of 40 feet, a true distance of 56 feet, and at an
+angle of 45 degrees from the horizon, the depth from which water was
+drawn being 16 feet 4 inches.
+
+Key:
+A--No. of Deliveries Open.
+B--Length of Hose.
+C--Average Steam Pressure.
+D--Average Water Pressure.
+E--No. of Gallons Delivered.
+
++-----+-----------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+|   |             |         |   |   |Size of |    |    |       |Time of|
+|No.| Name.       | Time.   | A | B |Nozzle. | C  | D  |   E   |Raising|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |Steam. |
++---+-------------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+|   |             |hr. m. s.|   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 1 | Merryweather| 1 24 55 | 2 |440| 1-1/2  | 91 | 89 |16,086 |10' 32"|
+|   | & Son       |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |  to   |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 80lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 2 | Shand       | 2  0  0 | 2 |440| 1-1/2 &| 96 | 62 |12,917 |11' 21"|
+|   | & Mason     |         |   |   | 1-3/8  |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |120lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 3 | Roberts     | 2  0  0 | 1 |420| 1-1/4  | 75 | 75 | 9,936 |11' 20"|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 80lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 4 | Butt & Co.  | 0 46 50 | 2 |440| 1-1/2  | 78 | 78 | 8,280 |14' 10"|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 45lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 5 | Easton &    | 1 32 35 | 2 |440| 1-3/8  | 98 | 41 | 3,036 |12' 30"|
+|   | & Amos      |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 90lbs.|
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |       |
+| 6 | Nichols     | 0  4 55 | 2 |420| 1-1/2  | -- | -- | None. |13' 09"|
+|   | (Manhattan) |         |   |   |        |    |    |       |   to  |
+|   |             |         |   |   |        |    |    |       | 45lbs.|
++---+-------------+---------+---+---+--------+----+----+-------+-------+
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON--Fire lighted at 4h. 1m. 55s.; gauge moved at 4h.
+8m. 20s.; engine started at 4h. 12m. 27s.; water drawn in about 10
+revolutions; pumps not primed, valve box leaked slightly, and engine
+worked satisfactorily in every respect.
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Fire lighted at 11h. 25m. 46s.; gauge moved at 11h.
+32m. 53s.; engine started at 11h. 37m. 7s.; pump primed at 11h. 45m.
+48s.; drew water at 11h. 47m.; water first through the nozzle at 11h.
+48m. 59s.; in hood at 11h. 49m. 19s.; shifted nozzle (3-1/4m. delay);
+high wind.
+
+ROBERTS--Fire lighted at 11h. 17m.; engine, started at 11h. 28m. 20s.
+
+BUTT AND CO.--Fire lighted at 5h. 55m. 10s.; started engine at 6h. 9m.
+20s.; repeatedly stopped from slide valves not acting, and stopped
+entirely at 6h. 46m., from cylinder cover breaking.
+
+EASTON AND AMOS--Fire lighted at 2h. 2m. 35s.; gauge moved 2h. 10m.;
+started engine at 2h. 15m. 5s.; pumps primed, worked till 2h. 54m.
+5s.; stopped to shift plungers; went to work again, and stopped
+entirely at 3h. 35m. 10s., from two fire bars falling out.
+
+NICHOLS (Manhattan)--Fire lighted at 10h. 51m. 14s.; gauge moved at
+10h. 59m. 20s.; drew water directly; steam up to 140lbs. at 11h. 8m.
+45s.; stopped two minutes; started again; made a few revolutions, and
+fly-wheel broke.
+
+
+FOURTH TRIAL
+
+Vertical Jet against Tower.
+
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+| No. |       Name.        |  Size   | Greatest Height |
+|     |                    | of Jet. |     Thrown.     |
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+|  1  | Shand & Mason      |  22/16  |     180 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  2  | Merryweather & Son |  26/16  |     180 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  3  | Roberts            |  14/16  |     150 ft.     |
+|     |                    |         |                 |
+|  4  | Lee & Co           |  21/16  |      55 ft.     |
++-----+--------------------+---------+-----------------+
+
+GRAY'S engine lighted fire at 7h. 7m. 40s.; steam 9lbs. at 7h. 17m.
+0s.; got to work at 7h. 23m. 40s. to blow fires; at 7h. 27m. 0s. water
+through hose. Owing to some of the pipe connected with the steam gauge
+breaking, no further experiments could be made.
+
+
+SMALL CLASS.
+
+FIRST TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into a tank at a true distance of 50ft. and
+37 deg. from the horizon. Depth from which water was drawn, 4ft. 6in. The
+water in the boilers being cold when the signal was given to commence,
+each engine commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of 100lbs.
+to the square inch.
+
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+|   |               |               | Time of   | Time of |        |
+|No.|     Name.     |    Weight.    | raising   | filling | Total  |
+|   |               |               | Steam     | Tank.   | Time.  |
+|   |               |               | to 100lbs.|         |        |
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+|   |               | T.  c. q. lbs.|  '    "   | '   "   | '    " |
+| 1 | Shand & Mason | 1   9  2   0  |  11  36   | 5  24   | 17   0 |
+|   |               |               |           |         |        |
+| 2 | Lee & Co      | 1  10  0   0  |  11  55   | 6   3   | 17  58 |
+|   |               |               |           |         |        |
+| 3 | Merryweather  | 1  10  1  12  |  12  15   | 9  14   | 21  29 |
+|   |   & Son       |               |           |         |        |
++---+---------------+---------------+-----------+---------+--------+
+
+Owing to a broken bolt, there was great leakage in water cylinder of
+Lee and Co's. engine.
+
+
+SECOND TRIAL.
+
+Delivering 1000 gallons into tank at same distance, commencing with
+full steam.
+
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |   Steam    | Steam  |  Time   |
+| No. |      Name.         |     at     | during | filling |
+|     |                    | Beginning. | Work.  |  Tank.  |
++-----+--------------------+------------+--------+---------+
+|     |                    |            |        |  '  "   |
+| 1   | Shand & Mason      |     85     |   --   |  5 49   |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+| 2   | Lee & Co.          |    125     |   --   |  5 50   |
+|     |                    |            |        |         |
+| 3   | Merryweather & Son |    100     |   --   |  6 17   |
++---------------------------------------+--------+---------+
+     The leakage in Lee and Co's. engine was remedied.
+
+
+THIRD TRIAL.
+
+Delivering into large tank, commencing with Full Steam. At a
+horizontal distance of 40ft., a vertical height of 40ft., a true
+distance of 56ft., and at an angle of 45 deg. from the horizon; the depth
+from which water was drawn being 16ft. 4in.
+
+Key
+A--Number of Deliveries open.
+B--Average Steam Pressure.
+C--Average Water Pressure.
+D--No. of Gallons Delivered.
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+|              |   |         |   | Length | Size of |     |    |      |
+|     Name.    |No.|  Time.  | A |   of   | Nozzle. |  B  | C  |  D   |
+|              |   |         |   |  Hose. |         |     |    |      |
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+|              |   | h. m. s.|   |        |   in.   |     |    |      |
+| Shand &      | 1 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   1 &   | 146 | 80 | 8142 |
+|   Mason      |   |         |   |        |  1-1/4  |     |    |      |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+| Merryweather | 2 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   7/8   |  86 | 45 | 4885 |
+|   & Son      |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
+| Lee & Co.    | 3 | 1  0  0 | 1 |   420  |   3/4   |  80 | 60 | 4278 |
+|              |   |         |   |        |         |     |    |      |
++--------------+---+---------+---+--------+---------+-----+----+------+
+
+SHAND AND MASON--Steam ready at 150 lbs.; started at 7h. 3m. 32s.;
+stopped at 7h. 12m. 5s. to put on an additional length of hose; worked
+well throughout.
+
+MERRYWEATHER AND SON--Steam ready at 110 lbs.; commenced work at 3h.
+43m. 30s.; pumps primed.
+
+LEE AND CO.--Steam ready, started at 2h. 1m. 0s.; worked well, without
+any stoppage.
+
+
+AWARDS.
+
+At a meeting of the Committee held on the 8th July, 1863, his Grace
+the Duke of Sutherland in the Chair, the following prizes were
+awarded:--
+
+LARGE CLASS.
+
+Messrs. Merryweather & Sons,      1st Prize, 250_l._
+Messrs. Shand & Mason             2nd Prize, 100_l._
+Mr. W. Roberts, highly commended.
+
+
+SMALL CLASS.
+
+Messrs. Shand & Mason             1st Prize, 250_l._
+Messrs. W. Lee & Co.              2nd Prize, 100_l._
+
+(Signed) On behalf of the Committee,
+
+                    SUTHERLAND, CHAIRMAN.
+                    E. M. SHAW, HON. SEC.
+
+From the above trials it was found that the first prize large-class
+engine weighed 6504 lbs., and delivered in one hour 11,366 gallons,
+being at the rate of 196 gallons for each hundred-weight of the
+engine; while the first prize small-class engine delivered in the same
+time 8142 gallons, or 276 for each hundred-weight of the engine,
+showing that the latter engine delivered nearly one-half more water in
+proportion to its weight, than was delivered by the large one, the
+conditions of the two trials being the same.
+
+As the greatest amount of power in the smallest possible bulk and
+weight, was considered most available for use at London fires, the
+Committee of the London Fire Brigade, although not in a position, for
+the reasons already stated, to purchase additional steam fire-engines,
+commenced hiring Shand, Mason, and Co.'s prize engines, and at the
+close of 1865 had four such in use in this manner.
+
+The Metropolitan Fire Brigade, an extension of the late London Fire
+Brigade, has now (May, 1866) the following steam fire-engines in
+use:--The Floating Steam Fire-engine, by Shand and Mason, in 1855; a
+Land Steam Fire-engine by Easton and Amos, which was worked at the
+Crystal Palace trials, and is now used in a barge as a floating
+engine; one by Roberts, which was also worked at the Crystal Palace;
+three by Merryweather and Sons; and fifteen of Shand, Mason, and Co.'s
+Land Steam Fire-engines.
+
+
+METROPOLITAN FIRE BRIGADE.
+
+The disastrous results of the great fire at Tooley-street, in 1861, at
+which Mr. Braidwood lost his life, fully demonstrated the inadequacy
+(in men and appliances) of the fire brigade supported by the insurance
+offices, and as these bodies declined extending their establishment so
+as to meet the wants of the whole of the metropolis, a Parliamentary
+inquiry was instituted, which resulted in the passing of the following
+Act:--
+
+     ANNO VICESIMO OCTAVO & VICESIMO NONO
+
+     VICTORIAE REGINAE.
+
+     CAP. XC.
+
+     An Act for the Establishment of a Fire Brigade within the
+     Metropolis. [5th July, 1865.]
+
+     WHEREAS it is expedient to make further provision for the
+     protection of life and property from fire within the
+     metropolis: Be it enacted by the Queen's most Excellent
+     Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords
+     Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present
+     Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as
+     follows:
+
+
+     _Preliminary._
+
+     1. This Act may be cited for all purposes as the
+     "Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865."
+
+     2. For the purposes of this Act the "Metropolis" shall mean
+     the City of _London_ and all other parishes and places for
+     the time being within the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan
+     Board of Works:
+
+     "Insurance Company" shall include any persons corporate or
+     unincorporate, or any person carrying on the business of
+     fire insurance.
+
+     3. The expression "Metropolis Local Management Acts" shall
+     mean the Acts following; that is to say, "The Metropolis
+     Management Act, 1855," "The Metropolis Management Amendment
+     Act, 1856," and "The Metropolis Management Amendment Act,
+     1862."
+
+
+     _Establishment and Duties of Fire Brigade._
+
+     4. On and after the first day of _January_ one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six the duty of extinguishing fires
+     and protecting life and property in case of fire shall
+     within the metropolis be deemed for the purposes of this Act
+     to be entrusted to the Metropolitan Board of Works; and with
+     a view to the performance of that duty it shall be lawful
+     for them to provide and maintain an efficient force of
+     firemen, and to furnish them with all such fire engines,
+     horses, accoutrements, tools, and implements as may be
+     necessary for the complete equipment of the force, or
+     conducive to the efficient performance of their duties.
+
+     5. The said Board, hereinafter referred to as the Board, may
+     take on lease, purchase, or otherwise acquire stations for
+     engines, stables, houses for firemen, and such other houses,
+     buildings, or land as they may think requisite for carrying
+     into effect the purposes of this Act, and may from time to
+     time sell any property acquired by or vested in them for the
+     purposes of this Act:
+
+     The Board may also contract with any company or persons
+     authorized to establish the same for the establishment of
+     telegraphic communication between the several stations in
+     which their fire engines or firemen are placed, and between
+     any of such stations and other parts of the metropolis.
+
+     6. On and after the said first day of January one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, all stations, fire-engines,
+     fire escapes, plant, and other property belonging to or used
+     by the fire engine establishment of the insurance companies
+     in the metropolis shall vest in or be conveyed or assigned
+     to the Board for all the estate and interest of the said
+     companies therein, upon trust to be applied by the Board to
+     the purposes of this Act, but subject to all legal
+     liabilities and obligations attaching thereto, including the
+     payment of all pensions that have been granted to the
+     members of the said Fire Engine Establishment, according to
+     a list that has been furnished to the chairman of the said
+     Board by the chief officer of the said fire-engine
+     establishment, and all trustees for the same shall be
+     indemnified against such liabilities and obligations. The
+     Board may also, if they think fit, purchase the stations,
+     fire-engines, and plant belonging to any parish, place, or
+     body of persons within their jurisdiction.
+
+     7. The force of firemen established under this Act,
+     hereinafter called the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, shall be
+     under the command of an officer, to be called the chief
+     officer of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade.
+
+     The chief officer and men composing the said fire brigade
+     shall be appointed and removed at the pleasure of the Board.
+
+     8. The Board shall pay such salaries as they think expedient
+     to the said fire brigade. They may also make such
+     regulations as they think fit with respect to the
+     compensation to be made to them in case of accident, or to
+     their wives or families in case of their death; also with
+     respect to the pensions or allowances to be paid to them in
+     case of retirement; also with respect to the gratuities to
+     be paid to persons giving notices of fires; also with
+     respect to gratuities by way of a gross sum or annual
+     payment to be from time to time awarded to any member of the
+     said force, or to any other person, for extraordinary
+     services performed in cases of fire; also with respect to
+     gratuities to turncocks belonging to waterworks from which a
+     supply of water is quickly derived.
+
+     9. The Board may by byelaws make regulations for the
+     training, discipline, and good conduct of the men belonging
+     to the said fire brigade, for their speedy attendance with
+     engines, fire escapes, and all necessary implements on the
+     occasion of any alarm of fire, and generally for the
+     maintenance in a due state of efficiency of the said
+     brigade, and may annex to any breach of such regulations
+     penalties not exceeding in amount forty shillings, but no
+     byelaw under this section shall be of any validity unless it
+     is made and confirmed in manner directed by the Metropolis
+     Local Management Acts; and all the provisions of the said
+     Acts relating to byelaws shall, with the necessary
+     variations, apply to any byelaws made in pursuance of this
+     Act.
+
+     10. The vestry of any parish or place in the metropolis may
+     allow such compensation as they think just to any engine
+     keeper or other person employed in the service of fire
+     engines who has hitherto been paid out of any rate raiseable
+     in such parish or place, and who is deprived of his
+     employment by or in consequence of the passing of this Act,
+     and any compensation so allowed shall be paid out of the
+     rate out of which the salary of the officer so compensated
+     was payable.
+
+     11. The Board may make such arrangements as they think fit
+     as to establishing fire escapes throughout the metropolis.
+     They may for that purpose contribute to the funds of the
+     Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire, or of
+     any existing society that provides fire escapes, or may
+     purchase or take by agreement the property of any existing
+     society in their stations and fire escapes, and generally
+     may maintain such fire escapes and do such things as they
+     think expedient towards aiding persons to escape from fire;
+     and any expenses incurred by them in pursuance of this
+     section shall be deemed to be expenses incurred in carrying
+     into effect this Act.
+
+     12. On the occasion of a fire, the chief or other officer in
+     charge of the fire brigade may, in his discretion, take the
+     command of any volunteer fire brigade or other persons who
+     voluntarily place their services at his disposal, and may
+     remove, or order any fireman to remove, any persons who
+     interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire
+     brigade, and generally he may take any measures that appear
+     expedient for the protection of life and property, with
+     power by himself or his men to break into or through, or
+     take possession of, or pull down any premises for the
+     purpose of putting an end to a fire, doing as little damage
+     as possible; he may also on any such occasion cause the
+     water to be shut off from the mains and pipes of any
+     district, in order to give a greater supply and pressure of
+     water in the district in which the fire has occurred; and no
+     water company shall be liable to any penalty or claim by
+     reason of any interruption of the supply of water occasioned
+     only by compliance with the provisions of this section.
+
+     All police constables shall be authorized to aid the fire
+     brigade in the execution of their duties. They may close any
+     street in or near which a fire is burning, and they may of
+     their own motion, or on the request of the chief or other
+     officer of the fire brigade, remove any persons who
+     interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire
+     brigade.
+
+     Any damage occasioned by the fire brigade in the due
+     execution of their duties shall be deemed to be damage by
+     fire within the meaning of any policy of insurance against
+     fire.
+
+
+     _Expenses._
+
+     13. Every insurance company that insures from fire any
+     property in the metropolis shall pay annually to the
+     Metropolitan Board of Works, by way of contribution toward
+     the expenses of carrying this Act into effect, a sum after
+     the rate of thirty-five pounds in the one million pounds on
+     the gross amounts insured by it, except by way of
+     reassurance, in respect of property in the metropolis for a
+     year, and at a like rate for any fractional part of a
+     million, and for any fractional part of a year as well as
+     for any number of years for which the insurance may be made,
+     renewed, or continued.
+
+     The said payments by insurance companies shall be made
+     quarterly in advance, on the 1st of January, 1st of April,
+     1st of July, and 1st of October in every year; the first of
+     such payments to be made on the 1st of January one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, and such first payment and the
+     other payments for the year one thousand eight hundred and
+     sixty-six to be based upon the amounts insured by the
+     several companies in respect of property in the metropolis
+     in the year ending the twenty-fourth of December one
+     thousand eight hundred and sixty-four: provided that any
+     insurance company which at the time of the passing of this
+     Act contributes to the expenses of the said fire engine
+     establishment may, in respect of all payments to be made by
+     it in the years one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six and
+     one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven, but not
+     afterwards, contribute after the yearly rate of thirty-five
+     pounds in one million pounds of the business in respect of
+     which it contributes to the said fire engine establishment
+     for the present year, according to a return which has been
+     furnished to the chairman of the said Metropolitan Board,
+     instead of in the manner in this Act provided.
+
+     14. All contributions due from an insurance company to the
+     Board in pursuance of this Act shall be deemed to be
+     specialty debts due from the company to the Board, and be
+     recovered accordingly.
+
+     15. For the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be
+     contributed by every such insurance company as aforesaid,
+     every insurance company insuring property from fire in the
+     metropolis shall, on the thirtieth day of December one
+     thousand eight hundred and sixty-five, with respect to the
+     amounts insured in the year one thousand eight hundred and
+     sixty-four, and on the 1st of June one thousand eight
+     hundred and sixty-six, and on every succeeding 1st of June,
+     or on such other days as the Metropolitan Board of Works may
+     appoint, make a return to the said Board, in such form as
+     they may require, of the gross amount insured by it in
+     respect of property in the metropolis.
+
+     There shall be annexed to the return so made a declaration
+     made by the secretary or other officer performing the duties
+     of secretary of the company by whom it is made, stating that
+     he has examined the return with the books of the company,
+     and that to the best of his knowledge, information, and
+     belief, it contains a true and faithful account of the gross
+     amount of the sums insured by the company to which he
+     belongs in respect of property in the metropolis.
+
+     The return made in the June of one year shall not come into
+     effect till the 1st of January of the succeeding year, and
+     shall be the basis of the contributions for that year.
+
+     16. If any insurance company makes default in making such
+     returns to the Board as are required by this Act, it shall
+     be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every
+     day during which it is so in default.
+
+     17. The secretary or other officer having the custody of the
+     books and papers of any insurance company that is required
+     to pay a contribution to the Board in pursuance of this Act
+     shall allow any officer appointed by the Board to inspect,
+     during the hours of business, any books and papers that will
+     enable him to ascertain the amount of property insured by
+     such company in the metropolis, and the amount for which it
+     is insured, and to make extracts from such books or papers;
+     and any secretary or other such officer as aforesaid of a
+     company failing to comply with the requisitions of this
+     section in respect of such inspections and extracts shall be
+     liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding five
+     pounds for each offence.
+
+     18. The Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury shall pay or
+     cause to be paid to the Board by way of contribution to the
+     expenses of maintaining the fire brigade such sums as
+     Parliament may from time to time grant for that purpose, not
+     exceeding in any one year the sum of ten thousand pounds.
+
+     19. For the purpose of defraying all expenses that may be
+     incurred by the Board in carrying into effect this Act which
+     are not otherwise provided for, the Board may from time to
+     time issue their precepts to the overseers of the poor of
+     every parish or place within the metropolis, requiring the
+     overseers to pay over the amount mentioned in the precepts
+     to the Treasurer of the Board, or into a bank to be named in
+     the precepts, within forty days from the delivery of the
+     precept.
+
+     The overseers shall comply with the requisitions of any such
+     precept by paying the sums mentioned out of any monies in
+     their hands applicable to the relief of the poor, or by
+     levying the amount required as part of the rate for the
+     relief of the poor, but no contribution required to be paid
+     by any parish or place under this section shall exceed in
+     the whole in any one year the rate of one halfpenny in the
+     pound on the full and fair annual value of property rateable
+     to the relief of the poor within the said parish or place,
+     such full and fair annual value to be computed in all parts
+     of the metropolis, exclusive of the city of London,
+     according to the last valuation for the time being acted on
+     in assessing the county rate, or, where there is no county
+     rate, according to a like estimate or basis; and no liberty,
+     precinct, or place, shall be exempt from the rate leviable
+     for the purposes of this Act by reason of its being
+     extra-parochial or otherwise; and in default of proper
+     officers in any liberty, precinct, or place, to assess or
+     levy the said rate, the Board may appoint such officers, and
+     add the amount of any expenses so incurred to the amount to
+     be raised by the next succeeding rate in such liberty,
+     precinct, or place.
+
+     Overseers shall, for the purposes of levying any amount
+     required to be levied by them under this Act, have the same
+     powers and be subject to the same obligations as in levying
+     a rate for the relief of the poor.
+
+     The word "Overseers" shall include any persons or bodies of
+     persons authorized or required to make and collect or cause
+     to be collected rates applicable to the relief of the poor;
+     and such persons or bodies shall pay to the Board the amount
+     so mentioned in the precept out of the said rates.
+
+     20. In case the amount ordered by any such precept as
+     aforesaid to be paid by the overseers of any parish or place
+     be not paid in manner directed by such precept and within
+     the time therein specified for that purpose, it shall be
+     lawful for any justice of the peace, upon the complaint by
+     the Board or by any person authorized by the Board, to issue
+     his warrant for levying the amount or so much thereof as may
+     be in arrear by distress and sale of the goods of all or any
+     of the said overseers, and in case the goods of all the
+     overseers be not sufficient to pay the same, the arrears
+     thereof shall be added to the amount of the next levy which
+     is directed to be made in such parish or place for the
+     purposes of this Act, and shall be collected by the like
+     methods.
+
+     21. The Board may, with the consent of the Commissioners of
+     Her Majesty's Treasury, borrow any sum not exceeding forty
+     thousand pounds, and apply the same for the purposes of this
+     Act; and all powers contained in the Metropolis Local
+     Management Acts authorizing the Board to borrow money, or
+     any commissioners or persons to lend money to the Board, and
+     all other provisions as to the mode of borrowing, the
+     repayment of principal or interest, or in anywise relating
+     to borrowing by the Board, shall be deemed to apply and to
+     extend to this Act in the same manner as if the monies
+     borrowed in pursuance of this Act were monies borrowed for
+     the purpose of defraying the expenses of the Metropolis
+     Local Management Acts, or one or more of those acts. The
+     Board shall apply the monies received by them under this Act
+     in liquidation of the principal and interest of the monies
+     so borrowed, but no creditor shall be concerned to see to
+     such application, or be liable for any misapplication of the
+     monies received or borrowed by the Board in pursuance of
+     this Act.
+
+
+     MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+     22. Where any chief officer, or other person who has been
+     employed by the Board in any capacity under this Act, and
+     has been discharged therefrom, continues to occupy any house
+     or building that may be provided for his use, or any part
+     thereof, after one week's notice in writing from the Board
+     to deliver up possession thereof, it shall be lawful for any
+     police magistrate, on the oath of one witness, stating such
+     notice to have been given, by warrant under his hand to
+     order any constable to enter into the house or building
+     occupied by such discharged chief officer or other person as
+     aforesaid, and to remove him and his family and servants
+     therefrom, and afterwards to deliver the possession thereof
+     to the Board, as effectually, to all intents and purposes,
+     as the sheriff having jurisdiction within the place where
+     such house or building is situate might lawfully do by
+     virtue of a writ of possession or a judgment at law.
+
+     23. If the chimney of any house or other building within the
+     metropolis is on fire, the occupier of such house or
+     building shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty
+     shillings; but if such occupier proves that he has incurred
+     such penalty by reason of the neglect or wilful default of
+     any other person, he may recover summarily from such person
+     the whole or any part of the penalty he may have incurred as
+     occupier.
+
+     24. All penalties imposed by this Act, or by any byelaw made
+     in pursuance thereof, and all expenses and other sums due to
+     the Board in pursuance of this Act, in respect of which no
+     mode of recovery is prescribed, may be recovered summarily
+     before two justices in manner directed by the Act of the
+     session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the
+     reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, or any
+     Act amending the same, and when so recovered shall be paid
+     to the treasurer of the Board, notwithstanding any police
+     act or other act of parliament directing a different
+     appropriation of such monies.
+
+     25. Any dispute or other matter which is by this Act
+     directed to be determined summarily by two justices shall be
+     deemed to be a matter in respect of which a complaint is
+     made upon which they have authority by law to make an order
+     for payment of money within the meaning of the said Act of
+     the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the
+     reign of her present Majesty, chapter forty-three, or any
+     Act amending the same.
+
+     26. Any act, power, or jurisdiction hereby authorized to be
+     done or exercised by two justices may be done or exercised
+     by the following magistrates within their respective
+     jurisdictions; that is to say, by any metropolitan police
+     magistrate sitting alone at a police court or other
+     appointed place, or by the Lord Mayor of the City of London,
+     or any alderman of the said City, sitting alone or with
+     others at the Mansion House or Guildhall.
+
+     27. The accounts of the Board in respect of expenses
+     incurred by them under this Act shall be audited in the same
+     manner as if they were expenses incurred under the said
+     Metropolis Local Management Acts, and the Board shall in
+     each year make a report to one of her Majesty's principal
+     Secretaries of State of all acts done and expenditure
+     incurred by them in pursuance of this Act, and that report
+     shall be laid before Parliament within one month after the
+     commencement of the session.
+
+     28. The Board may delegate any powers conferred on them by
+     this Act to a committee of their body; and such committee
+     shall, to the extent to which such powers are delegated, be
+     deemed to be the Board within the meaning of this Act.
+
+     29. If the companies insuring property within the
+     metropolis, or any such number of them as may in the opinion
+     of the said Board be sufficient, establish a force of men
+     charged with the duty of attending at fires and saving
+     insured property, it shall be the duty of the Fire Brigade,
+     with the sanction of the Board, and subject to any
+     regulations that may be made by the Board, to afford the
+     necessary assistance to that force in the performance of
+     their duties, and, upon the application of any officer of
+     that force, to hand over to their custody property that may
+     be saved from fire; and no charge shall be made by the said
+     Board for the services thus rendered by the fire brigade.
+
+     30. It shall be lawful for the Board, when occasion
+     requires, to permit any part of the fire brigade
+     establishment, with their engines, escapes, and other
+     implements, to proceed beyond the limits of the metropolis
+     for the purpose of extinguishing fires. In such case the
+     owner and occupier of the property where the fire has
+     occurred shall be jointly and severally liable to defray all
+     the expenses that may be incurred by the Fire Brigade in
+     attending the fire, and shall pay to the Board a reasonable
+     charge for the attendance of the Fire Brigade, and the use
+     of their engines, escapes, and other implements. In case of
+     difference between the Board and the owner and occupier of
+     such property, or either of them, the amount of the
+     expenses, as well as the propriety of the Fire Brigade
+     attending such fire (if the propriety thereof be disputed),
+     shall be summarily determined by two justices. In default of
+     payment, any expenses under this section may be recovered by
+     the Board in a summary manner.
+
+     The Board may also permit any part of the Fire Brigade
+     Establishment to be employed on special services upon such
+     terms of remuneration as the said Board may think just.
+
+     31. The Metropolitan Fire Brigade shall in the morning of
+     each day, with the exception of Sundays, send information,
+     by post or otherwise, to all the insurance offices
+     contributing for the purposes of this Act, of all fires
+     which have taken place within the metropolis since the
+     preceding return, in such form as may be agreed upon between
+     the Board and the said companies.
+
+     32. All the powers now exercised by any local body or
+     officer within the metropolis as respects fireplugs shall
+     henceforth be exercised by the Board, and the Board shall be
+     entitled to receive copies or extracts of all plans kept by
+     any water company under the provision of the Act of the
+     session of the fifteenth and sixteenth years of her Majesty,
+     chapter eighty-four; and every such water company shall
+     provide at the expense of the Board in any mains or pipes
+     within the metropolis plugs for the supply of water in case
+     of fire at such places, of such dimensions, and in such form
+     as the Board may require, and the Fire Brigade shall be at
+     liberty to make such use thereof as they may deem necessary
+     for the purpose of extinguishing any fire; and every such
+     company shall deposit keys of all their fireplugs at such
+     places as may be appointed by the Board, and the Board may
+     put up on any house or building a public notice in some
+     conspicuous place in each street in which a fireplug is
+     situated, showing its situation.
+
+     33. "Owner" in this Act shall mean the person for the time
+     being receiving the rackrent of the premises in connexion
+     with which the word is used, either on his own account or as
+     agent or trustee for some other person, or who would receive
+     the same if the premises were let at rackrent.
+
+
+     _Repeal._
+
+     34. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, there shall be repealed so much
+     as is unrepealed of an Act passed in the fourteenth year of
+     his late Majesty King George the Third, chapter
+     seventy-eight, and intituled an Act for the further and
+     better regulation of buildings and party walls, and for the
+     more effectually preventing mischief by fire, within the
+     Cities of London and Westminster and the liberties thereof,
+     and other the parishes, precincts, and places within the
+     weekly bills of mortality, the parishes of St. Marylebone,
+     Paddington, St. Pancras, and St. Luke, at Chelsea, in the
+     County of Middlesex, and for indemnifying, under certain
+     conditions, builders and other persons against the penalties
+     to which they are or may be liable for erecting buildings
+     within the limits aforesaid contrary to law, with the
+     exception of sections eighty-three and eighty-six which
+     shall remain in full force, but such repeal shall not affect
+     any penalty or liability incurred under the repealed
+     sections.
+
+     35. On and after the first day of January, one thousand
+     eight hundred and sixty-six, section forty-four of an Act
+     passed in the session holden in the third and fourth years
+     of the reign of King William the Fourth, chapter ninety,
+     shall be repealed so far as respects any parish or place
+     within the limits of the metropolis as defined by this Act;
+     provided that the repeal of the said section shall not
+     affect the power of the churchwardens and overseers of any
+     parish or place to contribute to the funds of any society
+     that at the time of the passing of this Act maintains fire
+     escapes in such parish or place, unless and until the Board
+     purchase the property of such society, or otherwise provide
+     fire escapes in such parish or place.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In accordance with the provisions of the above recited Act of
+Parliament, the London Fire Brigade of the Insurance Offices is now
+being extended to meet the requirements of the whole of London, under
+the title of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade, with Captain E. M. Shaw,
+Mr. Braidwood's successor, as chief officer.
+
+
+
+
+LONDON:
+
+SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET,
+COVENT GARDEN.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes
+
+Variations in spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, and punctuation
+have been retained from the original book. The Table of Contents and
+List of Illustrations do not exactly match the chapter, section, and
+illustration titles in the text.
+
+The following changes have been made:
+
+Page 70: Missing word "of" added (avail themselves of the means).
+
+Page 183: Typo estalishment changed to establishment (establishment of
+telegraphic communication).
+
+Tables in the Appendix have been modified in format, but not in
+content, to fit the plain-text spacing constraints.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Fire Prevention and Fire Extinction, by
+James Braidwood
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE ***
+
+***** This file should be named 26440.txt or 26440.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        http://www.gutenberg.org/2/6/4/4/26440/
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Diane Monico, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+book was produced from scanned images of public domain
+material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
+will be renamed.
+
+Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
+one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
+(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
+permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
+set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
+copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
+protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
+Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
+charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
+do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
+rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
+such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
+research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
+practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
+subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
+redistribution.
+
+
+
+*** START: FULL LICENSE ***
+
+THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
+PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
+
+To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
+distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
+(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
+http://gutenberg.org/license).
+
+
+Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic works
+
+1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
+and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
+(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
+the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
+all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
+If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
+terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
+entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
+
+1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
+used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
+agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
+things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
+even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
+paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
+and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.  See paragraph 1.E below.
+
+1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
+or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
+collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
+individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
+located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
+copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
+works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
+are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
+Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
+freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
+this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
+the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
+keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
+Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.
+
+1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
+what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
+a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
+the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
+before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
+creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
+Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
+the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
+States.
+
+1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
+
+1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
+access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
+whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
+phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
+Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
+copied or distributed:
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
+from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
+posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
+and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
+or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
+with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
+work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
+through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
+Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
+1.E.9.
+
+1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
+with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
+must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
+terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
+to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
+permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
+
+1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
+work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.
+
+1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
+electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
+prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
+active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm License.
+
+1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
+compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
+word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
+distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
+"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
+posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
+you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
+copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
+request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
+form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
+
+1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
+performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
+unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
+
+1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
+access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
+that
+
+- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
+     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
+     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
+     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
+     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
+     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
+     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
+     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
+     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
+     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
+     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
+     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."
+
+- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
+     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
+     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
+     License.  You must require such a user to return or
+     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
+     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
+     Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
+     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
+     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
+     of receipt of the work.
+
+- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
+     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.
+
+1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
+electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
+forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
+both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
+Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
+Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
+
+1.F.
+
+1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
+effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
+public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
+collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
+"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
+corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
+property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
+computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
+your equipment.
+
+1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
+of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
+Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
+Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
+liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
+fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
+LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
+PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
+TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
+LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
+INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
+DAMAGE.
+
+1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
+defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
+receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
+written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
+received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
+your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
+the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
+refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
+providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
+receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
+is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
+opportunities to fix the problem.
+
+1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
+in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
+WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
+WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
+
+1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
+warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
+If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
+law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
+interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
+the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
+provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
+
+1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
+trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
+providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
+with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
+promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
+harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
+that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
+or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
+work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
+Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
+
+
+Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
+electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
+including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
+because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
+people in all walks of life.
+
+Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
+assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
+goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
+remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
+Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
+and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
+To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
+and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
+and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.
+
+
+Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
+Foundation
+
+The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
+501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
+state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
+Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
+number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
+http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
+permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.
+
+The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
+Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
+throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
+809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
+business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
+information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
+page at http://pglaf.org
+
+For additional contact information:
+     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
+     Chief Executive and Director
+     gbnewby@pglaf.org
+
+
+Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
+Literary Archive Foundation
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
+spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
+increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
+freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
+array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
+($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
+status with the IRS.
+
+The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
+charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
+States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
+considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
+with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
+where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
+SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
+particular state visit http://pglaf.org
+
+While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
+have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
+against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
+approach us with offers to donate.
+
+International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
+any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
+outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
+
+Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
+methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
+ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
+To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate
+
+
+Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
+works.
+
+Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
+concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
+with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
+Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
+
+
+Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
+editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
+unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
+keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
+
+
+Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:
+
+     http://www.gutenberg.org
+
+This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
+including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
+Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
+subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.
diff --git a/26440.zip b/26440.zip
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..e43a27c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/26440.zip
diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..6312041
--- /dev/null
+++ b/LICENSE.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d711572
--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #26440 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26440)