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Brinton. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> +/*<![CDATA[ XML blockout */ +<!-- + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + p.noindent {text-indent: 0em;} + p.titlepage {text-indent: 0em; text-align: center; } + .sectionhead {margin-top: 2em;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + .chapterhead {margin-top: 4em; font-weight: normal;} + + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + .chapbreak {width: 65%; } + .declong {width: 8em; border: solid black 1px;} + .decshort {width: 5em; border: solid black 1px; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + td {padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; vertical-align: top;} + .tdc {text-align: center;} + .tdr {text-align: right;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0em; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{font-size: smaller; } + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .smrom {font-size: smaller;} + ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin dotted gray;} + + .footnotes {border-top: solid 1px; text-indent: 0.5em; font-size: 0.9em; text-align: justify; } + .label {font-size: 80%; vertical-align: 0.2em; } + .fnanchor {vertical-align: 0.3em; font-size: .8em; padding-left: 0.1em;} + + ul.IX {list-style-type: none; font-size: inherit;} + .subhead {padding-left: 1em;} + + .tn {background-color: #EEE; padding: 0.5em 1em 0.5em 1em;} + + /* XML end ]]>*/ + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Nagualism + A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History + +Author: Daniel G. Brinton + +Release Date: August 24, 2008 [EBook #26426] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAGUALISM *** + + + + +Produced by Curtis Weyant, Julia Miller, and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by Case Western Reserve University Preservation Department +Digital Library) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<div class="tn"> +<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber’s Note:</b></p> + +<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been maintained +in this version of this book. Typographical errors have been marked with +a [TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete <a href="#trans_note">list</a> found at the +end of the text. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of words that have been inconsistently spelled or +hyphenated is found at the end of the present text.</p> + +<p class="noindent">The less-comon characters that are used in this version of the book. If +they do not display correctly, please try changing your font.</p> + +<p class="noindent">† Dagger<br /> +‡ Double dagger<br /> +œ oe ligature<br /> +ū u with macron<br /> +ō o with macron<br /> +‖ double vertical lines</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chapbreak" /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<h1 style="margin-top: 3em;">NAGUALISM.</h1> + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 3em;"><span style="font-size: 130%;">A STUDY</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: smaller;">...IN...</span><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: 150%;">Native American Folk-lore<br /> +and History.</span></p> + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 2em;"><span style="font-size: smaller;">....BY....</span><br /> +<br /> +<b>DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.</b><br /> +<br /> +<span style="margin-top: 1em; font-size: smaller;">Professor of American Archæology and Linguistics in the<br /> +University of Pennsylvania.</span></p> + +<hr class="decshort" /> + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: smaller;">PHILADELPHIA:<br /> +<span class="smcap">MacCalla & Company, Printers, 237-9 Dock Street.</span><br /> +...1894...</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr class="chapbreak" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p> + +<h2 class="chapterhead"><i>Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History.</i></h2> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage">(<i>Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan’y 5, 1894.</i>)</p> + + +<h2 class="sectionhead" style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a><span class="smcap">Contents.</span></h2> + + + +<p><a href="#section_1">1.</a> The words <i>Nagual</i>, <i>Nagualism</i>, <i>Nagualist</i>. <a href="#section_2">2.</a> The Earliest +Reference to Nagualism. <a href="#section_3">3.</a> The <i>Naualli</i> of the Aztecs; their Classes +and Pretended Powers. <a href="#section_4">4.</a> The Sacred Intoxicants; the <i>Peyotl</i>, the +<i>Ololiuhqui</i>, the <i>Teopatli</i>, the <i>Yax Ha</i>, etc. <a href="#section_5">5.</a> Clairvoyance and +Telepathy during Intoxication. <a href="#section_6">6.</a> The <i>Naualli</i> of Modern Mexico. <a href="#section_7">7.</a> The +<i>Tonal</i> and the <i>Tonalpouhque</i>; the Genethliac System of the Nahuas. <a href="#section_8">8.</a> +The Aztec Sodality of “Master Magicians.” <a href="#section_9">9.</a> The Personal Guardian +Spirit.</p> + +<p><a href="#section_10">10.</a> Folk-lore of the Mixe Indians. <a href="#section_11">11.</a> Astrological Divination of the +Zapotecs. <a href="#section_12">12.</a> Similar Arts of the Mixtecs. <a href="#section_13">13.</a> Nagualism in Chiapas, as +Described by Bishop Nuñez de la Vega. <a href="#section_14">14.</a> Nagualism Among the Quiches, +Cakchiquels and Pokonchis of Guatemala. <a href="#section_15">15.</a> The Metamorphoses of +Gukumatz. <a href="#section_16">16.</a> Modern Witchcraft in Yucatan and Central America; the +Zahoris and Padrinos.</p> + +<p><a href="#section_17">17.</a> Fundamental Principles of Nagualism, Hatred of the Whites and of +Christianity. <a href="#section_18">18.</a> Its Organization and Extent; its Priesthood. <a href="#section_19">19.</a> Its +Influence in the Native Revolts against the Spanish Power. <a href="#section_20">20.</a> Exalted +Position of Woman in Nagualism. <a href="#section_21">21.</a> This a Survival from Ancient Times. +<a href="#section_22">22.</a> A Native Joan of Arc. <a href="#section_23">23.</a> Modern Queens of Nagualism.</p> + +<p><a href="#section_24">24.</a> The Cave-temples and the Cave-gods; Oztoteotl, Tepeyollotl, Votan, +etc. <a href="#section_25">25.</a> The Sacred Numbers, 3 and 7. <a href="#section_26">26.</a> Fire Worship of the +Nagualists. <a href="#section_27">27.</a> Fire Rights Connected with the Pulque. <a href="#section_28">28.</a> Fire +Ceremonies of the Modern Mayas. <a href="#section_29">29.</a> Secret Significance of Fire Worship. +<a href="#section_30">30.</a> The Chalchiuites, or Sacred Green Stones. <a href="#section_31">31.</a> The Sacred Tree and +the Tree of Life. <a href="#section_32">32.</a> The Cross and its Symbolic Meaning. <a href="#section_33">33.</a> The +Lascivious Rites of the Nagualists. <a href="#section_34">34.</a> Their Relation to the Symbols of +the Serpent and the Phallus.</p> + +<p><a href="#section_35">35.</a> Confusion of Christian and Native Religious Ideas; Prayers of Nagual +Priests. Their Symbolic Language. <a href="#section_36">36.</a> The Inquisition and Nagualism. <a href="#section_37">37.</a> +Etymology of the Word <i>Nagual</i>. <a href="#section_38">38.</a> The Root <i>Na</i> in the Maya, Zapotec +and Nahuatl Languages. <a href="#section_39">39.</a> The Doctrine of Animal Transformation in the +Old World. <a href="#section_40">40.</a> The Doctrine of Personal Spirits in the Old World. <a href="#section_41">41.</a> +Scientific Explanations of Nagual Magic. <a href="#section_42">42.</a> Conclusion.</p> + + +<p class="titlepage">REPRINTED FEB. 23, 1894, FROM PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., VOL. XXXIII.</p> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_1" id="section_1"></a><b>1.</b> The words, a <i>nagual</i>, <i>nagualism</i>, a <i>nagualist</i>, have been current +in English prose for more than seventy years; they are found during that +time in a variety of books published in England and the United +States,<a name="FNanchor_4-1_1" id="FNanchor_4-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_4-1_1" class="fnanchor">4-*</a> yet are not to be discovered in any dictionary of the +English language; nor has <i>Nagualism</i> a place in any of the numerous +encyclopædias or “Conversation Lexicons,” in English, French, German or +Spanish.</p> + +<p>This is not owing to its lack of importance, since for two hundred years +past, as I shall show, it has been recognized as a cult, no less +powerful than mysterious, which united many and diverse tribes of Mexico +and Central America into organized opposition against the government and +the religion which had been introduced from Europe; whose members had +acquired and were bound together by strange faculties and an occult +learning, which placed them on a par with the famed thaumaturgists and +theodidacts of the Old World; and which preserved even into our own days +the thoughts and forms of a long suppressed ritual.</p> + +<p>In several previous publications I have referred briefly to this secret +sodality and its aims,<a name="FNanchor_4-2_2" id="FNanchor_4-2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_4-2_2" class="fnanchor">4-†</a> and now believe it worth while to collect +my scattered notes and present all that I have found of value about the +origin, aims and significance of this Eleusinian Mystery of America. I +shall trace its geographical extension and endeavor to discover what its +secret influence really was and is.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_2" id="section_2"></a><b>2.</b> The earliest description I find of its particular rites is that which +the historian Herrera gives, as they prevailed in 1530, in the province +of Cerquin, in the mountainous parts of Honduras. It is as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Devil was accustomed to deceive these natives by appearing to +them in the form of a lion, tiger, coyote, lizard, snake, bird, or +other animal. To these appearances they apply the name <i>Naguales</i>, +which is as much as to say, guardians or companions; and when such +an animal dies, so does the Indian to whom it was assigned. The way +such an alliance was formed was thus: The Indian repaired to some +very retired spot<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> and there appealed to the streams, rocks and +trees around him, and weeping, implored for himself the favors they +had conferred on his ancestors. He then sacrificed a dog or a fowl, +and drew blood from his tongue, or his ears, or other parts of his +body, and turned to sleep. Either in his dreams or half awake, he +would see some one of those animals or birds above mentioned, who +would say to him, ‘On such a day go hunting and the first animal or +bird you see will be my form, and I shall remain your companion and +<i>Nagual</i> for all time.’ Thus their friendship became so close that +when one died so did the other; and without such a <i>Nagual</i> the +natives believe no one can become rich or powerful.”<a name="FNanchor_5-1_3" id="FNanchor_5-1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_5-1_3" class="fnanchor">5-*</a></p></div> + +<p>This province of Cerquin appears to have been peopled by a tribe which +belonged to the great Mayan stock, akin to those which occupied most of +the area of what is now Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_5-2_4" id="FNanchor_5-2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_5-2_4" class="fnanchor">5-†</a> +I shall say something later about the legendary enchantress whom their +traditions recalled as the teacher of their ancestors and the founder of +their nation. What I would now call attention to is the fact that in +none of the dialects of the specifically Mexican or Aztecan stock of +languages do we find the word <i>nagual</i> in the sense in which it is +employed in the above extract, and this is strong evidence that the +origin of Nagualism is not to be sought in that stock.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_3" id="section_3"></a><b>3.</b> We do find, however, in the Nahuatl language, which is the proper +name of the Aztecan, a number of derivatives from the same root, <i>na</i>, +among them this very word, <i>Nahuatl</i>, all of them containing the idea +“to know,” or “knowledge.” The early missionaries to New Spain often +speak of the <i>naualli</i> (plural, <i>nanahualtin</i>), masters of mystic +knowledge, dealers in the black art, wizards or sorcerers. They were not +always evil-minded persons, though they seem to have been generally +feared. The earliest source of information about them is Father Sahagun, +who, in his invaluable History, has the following paragraph:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The <i>naualli</i>, or magician, is he who frightens men and sucks the +blood of children during the night. He is well skilled in the +practice of this trade, he knows all the arts of sorcery +(<i>nauallotl</i>) and employs them with cunning and ability; but for +the benefit of men only, not for their<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> injury. Those who have +recourse to such arts for evil intents injure the bodies of their +victims, cause them to lose their reason and smother them. These +are wicked men and necromancers.”<a name="FNanchor_6-1_5" id="FNanchor_6-1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-1_5" class="fnanchor">6-*</a></p></div> + +<p>It is evident on examining the later works of the Roman clergy in Mexico +that the Church did not look with any such lenient eye on the possibly +harmless, or even beneficial, exercise of these magical devices. We find +a further explanation of what they were, preserved in a work of +instruction to confessors, published by Father Juan Bautista, at Mexico, +in the year 1600.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“There are magicians who call themselves <i>teciuhtlazque</i>,<a name="FNanchor_6-2_6" id="FNanchor_6-2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-2_6" class="fnanchor">6-†</a> +and also by the term <i>nanahualtin</i>, who conjure the clouds when +there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They +can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede, +a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of +these <i>nanahualtin</i> will transform themselves to all appearances +(segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog or a weasel. Others again +will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a weasel; and when one is +preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an +owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves +<i>nanahualtin</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_6-3_7" id="FNanchor_6-3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-3_7" class="fnanchor">6-‡</a></p></div> + +<p>There is an evident attempt in this somewhat confused statement to +distinguish between an actual transformation, and one which only appears +such to the observer.</p> + +<p>In another work of similar character, published at Mexico a few years +later, the “Road to Heaven,” of Father Nicolas de Leon, we find a series +of questions which a confessor should put to any of his flock suspected +of these necromantic practices. They reveal to us quite clearly what +these occult practitioners were believed to do. The passage reads as +follows, the questions being put in the mouth of the priest:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Art thou a soothsayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading signs, +or by interpreting dreams, or by water, making circles and figures +on its surface? Dost thou sweep and ornament with flower garlands +the places where idols are preserved? Dost thou know certain words +with which to conjure for success in hunting, or to bring rain?</p> + +<p>“Dost thou suck the blood of others, or dost thou wander about at +night, calling upon the Demon to help thee? Hast thou drunk +<i>peyotl</i>, or hast thou given it to others to drink, in order to +find out secrets, or to discover where stolen or lost articles +were? Dost thou know how to speak to vipers in such words that they +obey thee?”<a name="FNanchor_6-4_8" id="FNanchor_6-4_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-4_8" class="fnanchor">6-§</a></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_4" id="section_4"></a><b>4.</b> This interesting passage lets in considerable light on the claims and +practices of the nagualists. Not the least important item is that of +their use of the intoxicant, <i>peyotl</i>, a decoction of which it appears +played a prominent part in their ceremonies. This is the native Nahuatl +name of a certain plant, having a white, tuberous root, which is the +part employed. It is mentioned as “pellote” or “peyote” in the +<i>Farmacopea Mexicana</i> as a popular remedy, but its botanical name is not +added. According to Paso y Troncoso, it is one of the Compositæ, a +species of the genus <i>Cacalia</i>.<a name="FNanchor_7-1_9" id="FNanchor_7-1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-1_9" class="fnanchor">7-*</a> It is referred to in several +passages by Father Sahagun, who says that it grows in southern Mexico, +and that the Aztecs derived their knowledge of it from the older +“Chichimecs.” It was used as an intoxicant.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Those who eat or drink of this <i>peyotl</i> see visions, which are +sometimes frightful and sometimes ludicrous. The intoxication it +causes lasts several days. The Chichimecs believed that it gave +them courage in time of danger and diminished the pangs of hunger +and thirst.”<a name="FNanchor_7-2_10" id="FNanchor_7-2_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-2_10" class="fnanchor">7-†</a></p></div> + +<p>Its use was continued until a late date, and very probably has not yet +died out. Its composition and method of preparation are given in a list +of beverages prohibited by the Spanish authorities in the year 1784, as +follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“<i>Peyote</i>: Made from a species of vinagrilla, about the size of a +billiard ball, which grows in dry and sterile soil. The natives +chew it, and throw it into a wooden mortar, where it is left to +ferment, some leaves of tobacco being added to give it pungency. +They consume it in this form, sometimes with slices of <i>peyote</i> +itself, in their most solemn festivities, although it dulls the +intellect and induces gloomy and hurtful visions (sombras muy +funestas).”<a name="FNanchor_7-3_11" id="FNanchor_7-3_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-3_11" class="fnanchor">7-‡</a></p></div> + +<p>The <i>peyotl</i> was not the only herb prized as a means of casting the soul +into the condition of hypostatic union with divinity. We have abundant +evidence that long after the conquest the seeds of the plant called in +Nahuatl the <i>ololiuhqui</i> were in high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> esteem for this purpose. In the +Confessionary of Father Bartholomé de Alva the priest is supposed to +inquire and learn as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“<i>Question.</i> Hast thou loved God above all things? Hast thou loved +any created thing, adoring it, looking upon it as God, and +worshiping it?</p> + +<p>“<i>Answer.</i> I have loved God with all my heart; but sometimes I have +believed in dreams, and also I have believed in the sacred herbs, +the <i>peyotl</i>, and the <i>ololiuhqui</i>; and in other such things +(<i>onicneltocac in temictli, in xiuhtzintli, in peyotl, in +ololiuhqui, yhuan in occequitlamantli</i>).”<a name="FNanchor_8-1_12" id="FNanchor_8-1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-1_12" class="fnanchor">8-*</a></p></div> + +<p>The seeds of the <i>ololiuhqui</i> appear to have been employed externally. +They were the efficient element in the mysterious unguent known as “the +divine remedy” (<i>teopatli</i>), about which we find some information in the +works of Father Augustin de Vetancurt, who lived in Mexico in the middle +of the seventeenth century. He writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The pagan priests made use of an ointment composed of insects, +such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and the like, which the +neophytes in the temples prepared. They burned these insects in a +basin, collected the ashes, and rubbed it up with green tobacco +leaves, living worms and insects, and the powdered seeds of a plant +called <i>ololiuhqui</i>, which has the power of inducing visions, and +the effect of which is to destroy the reasoning powers. Under the +influence of this ointment, they conversed with the Devil, and he +with them, practicing his deceptions upon them. They also believed +that it protected them, so they had no fear of going into the woods +at night.</p> + +<p>“This was also employed by them as a remedy in various diseases, +and the soothing influence of the tobacco and the <i>ololiuhqui</i> was +attributed by them to divine agency. There are some in our own day +who make use of this ointment for sorcery, shutting themselves up, +and losing their reason under its influence; especially some old +men and old women, who are prepared to fall an easy prey to the +Devil.”<a name="FNanchor_8-2_13" id="FNanchor_8-2_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-2_13" class="fnanchor">8-†</a></p></div> + +<p>The botanist Hernandez observes that another name for this plant was +<i>coaxihuitl</i>, “serpent plant,” and adds that its seeds contain a +narcotic poison, and that it is allied to the genus <i>Solanum</i>, of which +the deadly night-shade is a familiar species. He speaks of its use in +the sacred rites in these words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Indorum sacrifici, cum videri volebant versari cum superis, ac +responsa accipere ab eis, ea vescebantur planta, ut desiperent, +milleque phantasmata et demonum observatium effigies +circumspectarent.”<a name="FNanchor_8-3_14" id="FNanchor_8-3_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-3_14" class="fnanchor">8-‡</a></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> + +<p>Of the two plants mentioned, the <i>ololiuhqui</i> and the <i>peyotl</i>, the +former was considered the more potent in spiritual virtues. “They hold +it in as much veneration as if it were God,” says a theologian of the +seventeenth century.<a name="FNanchor_9-1_15" id="FNanchor_9-1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_9-1_15" class="fnanchor">9-*</a> One who partook of these herbs was called +<i>payni</i> (from the verb <i>pay</i>, to take medicine); and more especially +<i>tlachixqui</i>, a Seer, referring to the mystic “second sight,” hence a +diviner or prophet (from the verb <i>tlachia</i>, to see).</p> + +<p>Tobacco also held a prominent, though less important, place in these +rites. It was employed in two forms, the one the dried leaf, <i>picietl</i>, +which for sacred uses must be broken and rubbed up either seven or nine +times; and the green leaf mixed with lime, hence called <i>tenextlecietl</i> +(from <i>tenextli</i>, lime).</p> + +<p>Allied in effect to these is an intoxicant in use in southern Mexico and +Yucatan, prepared from the bark of a tree called by the Mayas +<i>baal-che</i>. The whites speak of the drink as <i>pitarilla</i>. It is quite +popular among the natives, and they still attribute to it a sacred +character, calling it <i>yax ha</i>, the first water, the primal fluid. They +say that it was the first liquid created by God, and when He returned to +His heavenly home He left this beverage and its production in charge of +the gods of the rains, the four Pah-Ahtuns.<a name="FNanchor_9-2_16" id="FNanchor_9-2_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_9-2_16" class="fnanchor">9-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_5" id="section_5"></a><b>5.</b> Intoxication of some kind was an essential part of many of these +secret rites. It was regarded as a method of throwing the individual out +of himself and into relation with the supernal powers. What the old +historian, Father Joseph de Acosta, tells us about the clairvoyants and +telepaths of the aborigines might well stand for a description of their +modern representatives:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Some of these sorcerers take any shape they choose, and fly +through the air with wonderful rapidity and for long distances. +They will tell what is taking place in remote localities long +before the news could possibly arrive. The Spaniards have known +them to report mutinies, battles, revolts and deaths, occurring two +hundred or three hundred leagues distant, on the very day they took +place, or the day after.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>“To practice this art the sorcerers, usually old women, shut +themselves in a house, and intoxicate themselves to the degree of +losing their reason. The next day they are ready to reply to +questions.”<a name="FNanchor_10-1_17" id="FNanchor_10-1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-1_17" class="fnanchor">10-*</a></p></div> + +<p>Plants possessing similar powers to excite vivid visions and distort the +imagination, and, therefore, employed in the magical rites, were the +<i>thiuimeezque</i>, in Michoacan, and the <i>chacuaco</i>, in lower +California.<a name="FNanchor_10-2_18" id="FNanchor_10-2_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-2_18" class="fnanchor">10-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_6" id="section_6"></a><b>6.</b> In spite of all effort, the various classes of wonder-workers +continued to thrive in Mexico. We find in a book of sermons published by +the Jesuit Father, Ignacio de Paredes, in the Nahuatl language, in 1757, +that he strenuously warns his hearers against invoking, consulting, or +calling upon “the devilish spell-binders, the nagualists, and those who +conjure with smoke.”<a name="FNanchor_10-3_19" id="FNanchor_10-3_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-3_19" class="fnanchor">10-‡</a></p> + +<p>They have not yet lost their power; we have evidence enough that many +children of a larger growth in that land still listen with respect to +the recitals of the mysterious faculties attributed to the +<i>nanahualtin</i>. An observant German traveler, Carlos von Gagern, informs +us that they are widely believed to be able to cause sicknesses and +other ills, which must be counteracted by appropriate exorcisms, among +which the reading aloud certain passages of the Bible is deemed to be +one of the most potent.<a name="FNanchor_10-4_20" id="FNanchor_10-4_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-4_20" class="fnanchor">10-§</a></p> + +<p>The learned historian, Orozco y Berra, speaks of the powers attributed +at the present day to the <i>nahual</i> in Mexico among the lower classes, in +these words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The <i>nahual</i> is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows +how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black and ugly. The female +witch can convert herself into a ball of fire; she has the power of +flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of +little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or +of clay, then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place +them in some secret place; you can<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> be sure that the person against +whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where +the thorn is inserted. There still exist among them the +medicine-men, who treat the sick by means of strange contortions, +call upon the spirits, pronounce magical incantations, blow upon +the part where the pain is, and draw forth from the patient thorns, +worms, or pieces of stone. They know how to prepare drinks which +will bring on sickness, and if the patients are cured by others the +convalescents are particular to throw something of their own away, +as a lock of hair, or a part of their clothing. Those who possess +the evil eye can, by merely looking at children, deprive them of +beauty and health, and even cause their death.”<a name="FNanchor_11-1_21" id="FNanchor_11-1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-1_21" class="fnanchor">11-*</a></p></div> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_7" id="section_7"></a><b>7.</b> As I have said, nowhere in the records of purely Mexican, that is, +Aztecan, Nagualism do we find the word <i>nagual</i> employed in the sense +given in the passage quoted from Herrera, that is as a personal guardian +spirit or tutelary genius. These tribes had, indeed, a belief in some +such protecting power, and held that it was connected with the day on +which each person is born. They called it the <i>tonalli</i> of a person, a +word translated to mean that which is peculiar to him, which makes his +individuality, his self. The radical from which it is derived is <i>tona</i>, +to warm, or to be warm, from which are also derived <i>tonatiuh</i>, the sun. +<i>Tonalli</i>, which in composition loses its last syllable, is likewise the +word for heat, summer, soul, spirit and day, and also for the share or +portion which belongs to one. Thus, <i>to-tonal</i> is spirit or soul in +general; <i>no-tonal</i>, my spirit; <i>no-tonal in ipan no-tlacat</i>, “the sign +under which I was born,” <i>i. e.</i>, the astrological day-sign. From this +came the verb <i>tonalpoa</i>, to count or estimate the signs, that is, to +cast the horoscope of a person; and <i>tonalpouhque</i>, the diviners whose +business it was to practice this art.<a name="FNanchor_11-2_22" id="FNanchor_11-2_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-2_22" class="fnanchor">11-†</a></p> + +<p>These <i>tonalpouhque</i> are referred to at length by Father +Sahagun.<a name="FNanchor_11-3_23" id="FNanchor_11-3_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-3_23" class="fnanchor">11-‡</a> He distinguishes them from the <i>naualli</i>, though it is +clear that they corresponded in functions to the nagualistic priests of +the southern tribes. From the number and name of the day of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> birth they +forecast the destiny of the child, and stated the power or spiritual +influence which should govern its career.</p> + +<p>The <i>tonal</i> was by no means an indefeasible possession. It was a sort of +independent <i>mascotte</i>. So long as it remained with a person he enjoyed +health and prosperity; but it could depart, go astray, become lost; and +then sickness and misfortune arrived. This is signified in the Nahuatl +language by the verbs <i>tonalcaualtia</i>, to check, stop or suspend the +<i>tonal</i>, hence, to shock or frighten one; and <i>tonalitlacoa</i>, to hurt or +injure the <i>tonal</i>, hence, to cast a spell on one, to bewitch him.</p> + +<p>This explains the real purpose of the conjuring and incantations which +were carried on by the native doctor when visiting the sick. It was to +recall the <i>tonal</i>, to force or persuade it to return; and, therefore, +the ceremony bore the name “the restitution of the <i>tonal</i>,” and was +more than any other deeply imbued with the superstitions of Nagualism. +The chief officiant was called the <i>tetonaltiani</i>, “he who concerns +himself with the tonal.” On a later page I shall give the formula +recited on such an occasion.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_8" id="section_8"></a><b>8.</b> There is some vague mention in the Aztec records of a semi-priestly +order, who bore the name <i>naualteteuctin</i>, which may be translated +“master magicians.” They were also known as <i>teotlauice</i>, “sacred +companions in arms.” As was the case with most classes of the +<i>teteuctin</i>, or nobles, entrance to the order was by a severe and +prolonged ceremony of initiation, the object of which was not merely to +test the endurance of pain and the powers of self-denial, but especially +to throw the mind into that subjective state in which it is brought into +contact with the divine, in which it can “see visions and dream dreams.” +The order claimed as its patron and founder Quetzalcoatl, the “feathered +serpent,” who, it will be seen on another page, was also the patron of +the later nagualists.<a name="FNanchor_12-1_24" id="FNanchor_12-1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_12-1_24" class="fnanchor">12-*</a></p> + +<p>The word <i>naualli</i> also occurs among the ancient Nahuas in composition +as a part of proper names; always with the signification of “magician,” +as in that of Naualcuauhtla, a chief of the Chalcos, meaning +“wizard-stick,” referring probably to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> rod or wand employed by the +magi in conjuration.<a name="FNanchor_13-1_25" id="FNanchor_13-1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-1_25" class="fnanchor">13-*</a> So also <i>Naualac</i>, the “wizard water,” an +artificial lake not far from the city of Mexico, surrounded by ruined +temples, described by M. Charnay.<a name="FNanchor_13-2_26" id="FNanchor_13-2_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-2_26" class="fnanchor">13-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_9" id="section_9"></a><b>9.</b> The belief in a personal guardian spirit was one of the fundamental +doctrines of Nagualism; but this belief by no means connotes the full +import of the term (as Mr. H. H. Bancroft has erroneously stated). The +calendar system of Mexico and Central America, which I have shown to be +substantially the same throughout many diverse linguistic +stocks,<a name="FNanchor_13-3_27" id="FNanchor_13-3_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-3_27" class="fnanchor">13-‡</a> had as one of its main objects, astrological +divination. By consulting it the appropriate nagual was discovered and +assigned, and this was certainly a prominent feature in the native cult +and has never been abandoned.</p> + +<p>In Mexico to-day, in addition to his special personal guardian, the +native will often choose another for a limited time or for a particular +purpose, and this is quite consistent with the form of Christianity he +has been taught. For instance, as we are informed by an observant +traveler, at New Year or at corn-planting the head of a family will go +to the parish church and among the various saints there displayed will +select one as his guardian for the year. He will address to him his +prayers for rain and sunshine, for an abundant harvest, health and +prosperity, and will not neglect to back these supplications by liberal +gifts. If times are good and harvests ample the Santo is rewarded with +still more gifts, and his aid is sought for another term; but if luck +has been bad the Indian repairs to the church at the end of the year, +bestows on his holy patron a sound cursing, calls him all the bad names +he can think of, and has nothing more to do with him.<a name="FNanchor_13-4_28" id="FNanchor_13-4_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-4_28" class="fnanchor">13-§</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_10" id="section_10"></a><b>10.</b> A Mexican writer, Andres Iglesias, who enjoyed more than common +opportunities to study these practices as they exist in the present +generation, describes them as he saw them in the village of Soteapan, a +remote hamlet in the State of Vera Cruz, the population of which speak +the Mixe language. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> is not related to the Nahuatl tongue, but the +terms of their magical rites are drawn from Nahuatl words, showing their +origin. Every person at birth has assigned to him both a good and a bad +genius, the former aiming at his welfare, the latter at his injury. The +good genius is known by the Nahuatl term <i>tonale</i>, and it is represented +in the first bird or animal of any kind which is seen in or near the +house immediately after the birth of the infant.</p> + +<p>The most powerful person in the village is the high priest of the native +cult. One who died about 1850 was called “the Thunderbolt,” and whenever +he walked abroad he was preceded by a group of chosen disciples, called +by the Nahuatl name <i>tlatoques</i>, speakers or attorneys.<a name="FNanchor_14-1_29" id="FNanchor_14-1_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_14-1_29" class="fnanchor">14-*</a> His +successor, known as “the Greater Thunder,” did not maintain this state, +but nevertheless claimed to be able to control the seasons and to send +or to mitigate destructive storms—claims which, sad to say, brought him +to the stocks, but did not interfere with the regular payment of tribute +to him by the villagers. He was also a medicine man and master of +ceremonies in certain “scandalous orgies, where immodesty shows herself +without a veil.”<a name="corr1" title="corr1"></a><a name="FNanchor_14-2_30" id="FNanchor_14-2_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_14-2_30" class="fnanchor"><ins class="correction" title="inserted based on context">14-†</ins></a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_11" id="section_11"></a><b>11.</b> Turning to the neighboring province of Oaxaca and its inhabitants, +we are instructed on the astrological use of the calendar of the +Zapotecs by Father Juan de Cordova, whose <i>Arte</i> of their language was +published at Mexico in 1578. From what he says its principal, if not its +only purpose, was astrological. Each day had its number and was called +after some animal, as eagle, snake, deer, rabbit, etc. Every child, male +or female, received the name of the day, and also its number, as a +surname; its personal name being taken from a fixed series, which +differed in the masculine and feminine gender, and which seems to have +been derived from the names of the fingers.</p> + +<p>From this it appears that among the Zapotecs the personal spirit or +<i>nagual</i> was fixed by the date of the birth, and not by some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> later +ceremony, although the latter has been asserted by some writers; who, +however, seem to have applied without certain knowledge the rites of the +Nahuas and other surrounding tribes to the Zapotecs.<a name="FNanchor_15-1_31" id="FNanchor_15-1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_15-1_31" class="fnanchor">15-*</a></p> + +<p>Next in importance to the assigning of names, according to Father +Cordova, was the employment of the calendar in deciding the propriety of +marriages. As the recognized object of marriage was to have sons, the +couple appealed to the professional augur to decide this question before +the marriage was fixed. He selected as many beans as was the sum of the +numbers of the two proponents’ names, and, counting them by twos, if one +remained over, it meant a son; then counting by threes any remainder +also meant sons; by fours the remainder meant either sons or daughters; +and by five and six the same; and if there was no remainder by any of +these five divisors the marriage would result in no sons and was +prohibited.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that this method of fortune-telling was most auspicious +for the lovers; for I doubt if there is any combination of two numbers +below fourteen which is divisible by two, three, four, five and six +without remainder in any one instance.<a name="FNanchor_15-2_32" id="FNanchor_15-2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_15-2_32" class="fnanchor">15-†</a></p> + +<p>The Zapotecs were one of those nations who voluntarily submitted +themselves to the Spaniards, not out of love for the Europeans, but +through hatred of the Aztecs, who had conquered them in the preceding +century. Their king, Coyopy, and his subjects accepted Christianity and +were generally baptized; but it was the merest formality, and years +afterwards Coyopy was detected secretly conducting the heathen ritual of +his ancestors with all due pomp. He was arrested, sent to the city of +Mexico, deprived of his power and wealth, and soon died; it is +charitably supposed, from natural causes. There is no question but that +he left successors to the office of pontifex maximus, and that they +continued the native religious ceremonies.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_12" id="section_12"></a><b>12.</b> The sparse notices we have of the astrology of the Mixtecs, +neighbors and some think relatives of the Zapotecs, reveal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> closely +similar rites. The name of their king, who opposed Montezuma the First +some sixty years before the arrival of Cortez, proves that they made use +of the same or a similar calendar in bestowing personal appellations. It +is given as <i>Tres Micos</i>, Three Monkeys.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately, so far as I know, there has not been published, and +perhaps there does not exist, an authentic copy of the Mixtec calendar. +It was nevertheless reduced to writing in the native tongue after the +conquest, and a copy of it was seen by the historian Burgoa in the +Mixtec town of Yanhuitlan.<a name="FNanchor_16-1_33" id="FNanchor_16-1_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_16-1_33" class="fnanchor">16-*</a> Each day was named from a tree, a plant +or an animal, and from them the individual received his names, as Four +Lions, Five Roses, etc. (examples given by Herrera). This latter writer +adds that the name was assigned by the priests when the child was seven +years old (as among the Tzentals), part of the rite being to conduct it +to the temple and bore its ears. He refers also to their auguries +relating to marriage.<a name="FNanchor_16-2_34" id="FNanchor_16-2_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_16-2_34" class="fnanchor">16-†</a> These appear to have been different from +among the Zapotecs. It was necessary that the youth should have a name +bearing a higher number than that of the maiden, and also “that they +should be related;” probably this applied only to certain formal +marriages of the rulers which were obliged to be within the same <i>gens</i>.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_13" id="section_13"></a><b>13.</b> I have referred in some detail to the rites and superstitions +connected with the Calendar because they are all essential parts of +Nagualism, carried on far into Christian times by the priests of this +secret cult, as was fully recognized by the Catholic clergy. Wherever +this calendar was in use, the Freemasonry of Nagualism extended, and its +ritual had constant reference to it. Our fullest information about it +does not come from central Mexico, but further south, in the region +occupied by the various branches of the Mayan stock, by the ancestors of +some one of which, perhaps, this singular calendar, and the symbolism +connected with it, were invented.</p> + +<p>One of the most important older authorities on this subject is Francisco +Nuñez de la Vega, a learned Dominican, who was appointed Bishop of +Chiapas and Soconusco in 1687, and who published at Rome, in 1702, a +stately folio entitled “<i>Constitu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>ciones Diœcesanas del Obispado de +Chiappa</i>,” comprising discussions of the articles of religion and a +series of pastoral letters. The subject of Nagualism is referred to in +many passages, and the ninth Pastoral Letter is devoted to it. As this +book is one of extreme rarity, I shall make rather lengthy extracts from +it, taking the liberty of condensing the scholastic prolixity of the +author, and omitting his professional admonitions to the wicked.</p> + +<p>He begins his references to it in several passages of his Introduction +or <i>Preambulo</i>, in which he makes some interesting statements as to the +use to which the natives put their newly-acquired knowledge of writing, +while at the same time they had evidently not forgotten the ancient +method of recording ideas invented by their ancestors.</p> + +<p>The Bishop writes:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Indians of New Spain retain all the errors of their time of +heathenism preserved in certain writings in their own languages, +explaining by abbreviated characters and by figures painted in a +secret cypher<a name="FNanchor_17-1_35" id="FNanchor_17-1_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-1_35" class="fnanchor">17-*</a> the places, provinces and names of their early +rulers, the animals, stars and elements which they worshiped, the +ceremonies and sacrifices which they observed, and the years, +months and days by which they predicted the fortunes of children at +birth, and assign them that which they call the Naguals. These +writings are known as Repertories or Calendars, and they are also +used to discover articles lost or stolen, and to effect cures of +diseases. Some have a wheel painted in them, like that of +Pythagoras, described by the Venerable Bede; others portray a lake +surrounded by the Naguals in the form of various animals. Some of +the Nagualist Masters claim as their patron and ruler Cuchulchan, +and they possessed a certain formula of prayer to him, written in +the Popoluca tongue (which was called Baha in their time of +heathenism), and which has been translated into Mexican.<a name="FNanchor_17-2_36" id="FNanchor_17-2_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-2_36" class="fnanchor">17-†</a></p> + +<p>“Those who are selected to become the masters of these arts are +taught from early childhood how to draw and paint these characters, +and are obliged to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of +the ancient Nagualists, and whatever else is included in these +written documents, many of which we have held in our hands, and +have heard them explained by such masters whom we had imprisoned +for their guilt, and who had afterwards become converted and +acknowledged their sins.”<a name="FNanchor_17-3_37" id="FNanchor_17-3_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-3_37" class="fnanchor">17-‡</a></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p> + +<p>The Bishop made up his mind that extreme measures should be taken to +eradicate these survivals of the ancient paganism in his diocese, and he +therefore promulgated the following order in the year 1692:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are +Nagualists adore their <i>naguals</i>, and look upon them as gods, and +by their aid believe that they can foretell the future, discover +hidden treasures, and fulfill their dishonest desires: we, +therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an +ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the +church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks (con +grillos y cepos), and we confer authority on every priest and +curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of +disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with +especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism (y con +rigor mayor á los dogmatizantes Nagualistas).”<a name="FNanchor_18-1_38" id="FNanchor_18-1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_18-1_38" class="fnanchor">18-*</a></p></div> + +<p>In spite of these injunctions it is evident that he failed to destroy +the seeds of what he esteemed this dangerous heresy in the parishes of +his diocese; for his ninth Pastoral Letter, in which he exposes at +length the character of Nagualism, is dated from the metropolitan city +of Ciudad Real, on May 24, 1698. As much of it is germane to my theme, I +translate as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“There are certain bad Christians of both sexes who do not hesitate +to follow the school of the Devil, and to occupy themselves with +evil arts, divinations, sorceries, conjuring, enchantments, +fortune-telling, and other means to forecast the future.</p> + +<p>“These are those who in all the provinces of New Spain are known by +the name of <i>Nagualists</i>. They pretend that the birth of men is +regulated by the course and movements of stars and planets, and by +observing the time of day and the months in which a child is born, +they prognosticate its condition and the events, prosperous or +otherwise, of its life; and the worst is that these perverse men +have written down their signs and rules, and thus deceive the +erring and ignorant.</p> + +<p>“These Nagualists practice their arts by means of Repertories and +superstitious Calendars, where are represented under their proper +names all the Naguals of stars, elements, birds, fishes, brute +beasts and dumb animals; with a vain note of days and months, so +that they can announce which corresponds to the day of birth of the +infant. This is preceded by some diabolical ceremonies, after which +they designate the field or other spot, where, after seven years +shall have elapsed, the Nagual will appear to ratify the bargain. +As the time approaches, they instruct the child to<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> deny God and +His Blessed Mother, and warn him to have no fear, and not to make +the sign of the cross. He is told to embrace his Nagual tenderly, +which, by some diabolical art, presents itself in an affectionate +manner even though it be a ferocious beast, like a lion or a tiger. +Thus, with infernal cunning they persuade him that this Nagual is +an angel of God, who will look after him and protect him in his +after life.</p> + +<p>“To such diabolical masters the intelligent Indians apply, to learn +from these superstitious Calendars, dictated by the Devil, their +own fortunes, and the Naguals which will be assigned to their +children, even before they are baptized. In most of the Calendars, +the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which they +call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with +feathers which moves in the water. This sign corresponds with +Mexzichuaut, which means Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds.<a name="FNanchor_19-1_39" id="FNanchor_19-1_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-1_39" class="fnanchor">19-*</a> +The people also consult them in order to work injury on their +enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices, +and committing unspeakable atrocities.</p> + +<p>“Worse even than these are those who wander about as physicians or +healers; who are none such, but magicians, enchanters, and +sorcerers, who, while pretending to cure, kill whom they will. They +apply their medicines by blowing on the patient, and by the use of +infernal words; learned by heart by those who cannot read or write; +and received in writing from their masters by those acquainted with +letters. The Master never imparts this instruction to a single +disciple, but always to three at a time, so that in the practice of +the art it may be difficult to decide which one exerts the magical +power. They blow on feathers, or sticks, or plants, and place them +in the paths where they may be stepped on by those they wish to +injure, thus causing chills, fevers, ugly pustules and other +diseases; or they introduce into the body by such arts toads, +frogs, snakes, centipedes, <a name="corr2" title="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="etc.,">etc,</ins> causing great torments. And +by these same breathings and magic words they can burn down houses, +destroy the growing crops and induce sickness. No one of the three +disciples is permitted to practice any of these arts without +previously informing the other two, and also the Master, by whom +the three have been taught.</p> + +<p>“We have learned by the confession of certain guilty parties how +the Master begins to instruct his disciple. First he tells him to +abjure God, the saints and the Virgin, not to invoke their names, +and to have no fear of them. He then conducts him to the wood, +glen, cave or field where the pact with the Devil is concluded, +which they call ‘the agreement’ or ‘the word given’ (in Tzental +<i>quiz</i>). In some provinces the disciple is laid on an ant-hill, and +the Master standing above him calls forth a snake, colored with +black, white and red, which is known as ‘the ant-mother’ (in +Tzental <i>zmezquiz</i>).<a name="FNanchor_19-2_40" id="FNanchor_19-2_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-2_40" class="fnanchor">19-†</a> This comes accompanied by the ants<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +and other small snakes of the same kind, which enter at the joints +of the fingers, beginning with the left hand, and coming out at the +joints of the right hand, and also by the ears and the nose; while +the great snake enters the body with a leap and emerges at its +posterior vent. Afterwards the disciple meets a dragon vomiting +fire, which swallows him entire and ejects him posteriorly. Then +the Master declares he may be admitted, and asks him to select the +herbs with which he will conjure, the disciple names them, the +Master gathers them and delivers them to him, and then teaches him +the sacred words.</p> + +<p>“These words and ceremonies are substantially the same in all the +provinces. The healer enters the house of the invalid, asks about +the sickness, lays his hand on the suffering part, and then leaves, +promising to return on the day following. At the next visit he +brings with him some herbs which he chews or mashes with a little +water and applies to the part. Then he repeats the <i>Pater Noster</i>, +the <i>Ave</i>, the <i>Credo</i> and the <i>Salve</i> and blows upon the seat of +disease, afterwards pronouncing the magical words taught him by his +master. He continues blowing in this manner, inhaling and exhaling, +repeating under his breath these magical expressions, which are +powerful to kill or to cure as he chooses, through the compact he +has made with the Devil. Finally, so as to deceive the bystanders, +he ends with saying in a loud voice: ‘God the Father, God the Son, +and God the Holy Ghost. Amen.’</p> + +<p>“This physician or healer is called in the towns of some of the +provinces <i>poxta vanegs</i>, and the medicine <i>gspoxil</i>; and +everything relating to healing among the Indians to which they +apply these terms means also to practice sorcery; and all words +derived from <i>pox</i> allude to the Nagual; for this in some provinces +is called <i>poxlon</i>, and in others <i>patzlan</i>, and in many +<i>tzihuizin</i>, which is something very much feared by the Indians. We +have ascertained by the confessions of many who have been +reconciled that the Devil at times appears to them in the shape of +a ball or globe of fire in the air, with a tail like a comet.<a name="FNanchor_20-1_41" id="FNanchor_20-1_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_20-1_41" class="fnanchor">20-*</a></p> + +<p>“According to the most ancient traditions of these Indians this +idol, <i>poxlon</i>, was one of the most important and venerated they +had in the old<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> times, and the Tzentals revered it so much that +they preserved it innumerable years painted on a tablet in the +above figure. Even after they were converted to the faith, they +hung it behind a beam in the church of the town of Oxchuc, +accompanied by an image of their god Hicalahau, having a ferocious +black face with the members of a man,<a name="FNanchor_21-1_42" id="FNanchor_21-1_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-1_42" class="fnanchor">21-*</a> along with five owls +and vultures. By divine interposition, we discovered these on our +second visit there in 1687, and had no little difficulty in getting +them down, we reciting the creed, and the Indians constantly +spitting as they executed our orders. These objects were publicly +burned in the plaza.</p> + +<p>“In other parts they reverence the bones of the earlier Nagualists, +preserving them in caves, where they adorn them with flowers and +burn copal before them. We have discovered some of these and burned +them, hoping to root out and put a stop to such evil ceremonies of +the infernal sect of the Nagualists.</p> + +<p>“At present, all are not so subject to the promptings of the Devil +as formerly, but there are still some so closely allied to him that +they transform themselves into tigers, lions, bulls, flashes of +light and globes of fire. We can say from the declaration and +solemn confession of some penitents that it is proved that the +Devil had carnal relations with them, both as incubus and succubus, +approaching them in the form of their Nagual; and there was one +woman who remained in the forest a week with the demon in the form +of her Nagual, acting toward him as does an infatuated woman toward +her lover (como pudiera con su proprio amigo una muger amancebada). +As a punishment for such horrible crimes our Lord has permitted +that they lose their life as soon as their Nagual is killed; and +that they bear on their own bodies the wound or mark of the blow +which killed it; as the curas of Chamula, Copainala and other +places have assured us.</p> + +<p>“The devilish seed of this Nagualism has rooted itself in the very +flesh and blood of these Indians. It perseveres in their hearts +through the instructions of the masters of the sect, and there is +scarcely a town in these provinces in which it has not been +introduced. It is a superstitious idolatry, full of monstrous +incests, sodomies and detestable bestialities.”</p></div> + +<p>Such are the words of the Bishop of Chiapas. We learn from his +thoroughly instructed and unimpeachable testimony that at the beginning +of the eighteenth century Nagualism was a widespread and active +institution among the Indians of southern Mexico; that it was taught and +practiced by professors who were so much feared and respected that, as +he tells us in another passage, they were called “masters of the +towns;”<a name="FNanchor_21-2_43" id="FNanchor_21-2_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-2_43" class="fnanchor">21-†</a> that they gave systematic instruction to disciples in +classes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> three, all of whom were bound together by pledges of mutual +information and assistance; that a fundamental principle of the +organization and an indispensable step in the initiation into its +mysteries was the abjuration of the Christian religion, and an undying +hatred to its teachers and all others of the race of the white +oppressors; and that when they made use of Christian phrases or +ceremonies it was either in derision or out of hypocrisy, the better to +conceal their real sentiments.</p> + +<p>There are a number of other witnesses from the seventeenth century that +may be summoned to strengthen this testimony, if it needs it.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_14" id="section_14"></a><b>14.</b> In the <i>History of Guatemala</i>, written about 1690 by Francisco +Antonio Fuentes y Guzman, the author gives some information about a +sorcerer of this school, who was arrested in Totonicapan, and with whom +the historian had something to do as <i>corregidor</i>.</p> + +<p>The redoubtable magician was a little old man, <i>viejezuelo</i>, and when +caught had in his possession a document giving the days of the year +according to the European calendar, with the Nagual, which belonged to +each one. That for January is alone given by our writer, but it is +probable that the other months merely repeated the naguals corresponding +to the numbers. It ran as follows:</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Nagual Calendar for January.</i></p> + +<ul style="list-style-type: none; margin-left: 20%;"> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">1. Lion.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">2. Snake.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">3. Stone.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">4. Alligator.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">5. Ceiba tree.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">6. The quetzal (a bird).</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">7. A stick.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">8. Rabbit.</li> + <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">9. A rope.</li> + <li>10. Leaf.</li> + <li>11. Deer.</li> + <li>12. Guacamayo (parrot).</li> + <li>13. Flower.</li> + <li>14. Toad.</li> + <li>15. Caterpillar.</li> + <li>16. A chip.</li> + <li>17. Arrow.</li> + <li>18. Broom.</li> + <li>19. Jaguar.</li> + <li>20. Corn-husk.</li> + <li>21. A flute.</li> + <li>22. Green-stone.</li> + <li>23. Crow.</li> + <li>24. Fire.</li> + <li>25. A pheasant.</li> + <li>26. A reed.</li> + <li>27. Opossum.</li> + <li>28. Huracan (the thunder-storm).</li> + <li>29. The vulture.</li> + <li>30. Hawk.</li> + <li>31. Bat.</li> +</ul> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>When the sorcerer was examined as to the manner of assigning the proper +nagual to a child he gave the following account:</p> + +<p>Having been informed of its day of birth, he in due time called at the +residence of the parents, and told the mother to bring the child into +the field behind the house. Having there invoked the demon, the <i>nagual</i> +of the child would appear under the form of the animal or object set +opposite its birthday in the calendar, a serpent were it born on the 2d +of January, a flower were it on the 13th, fire were it on the 24th, and +so on. The sorcerer then addressed certain prayers to the <i>nagual</i> to +protect the little one, and told the mother to take it daily to the same +spot, where its <i>nagual</i> would appear to it, and would finally accompany +it through all its life. Some, but not all, obtained the power of +transforming themselves into the <i>nagual</i>, and the author declares that, +though he could not cite such a case from his own experience, his father +knew of several, and reliable priests, <i>religiosos de fé</i>, had told him +enough examples to fill volumes.<a name="FNanchor_23-1_44" id="FNanchor_23-1_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_23-1_44" class="fnanchor">23-*</a></p> + +<p>The tribes to which this author refers were the Cakchiquels and Quiches, +who spoke practically the same tongue. An examination of some of the old +dictionaries prepared by the early missionaries furnishes further and +interesting information about this obscure subject.</p> + +<p>In the Cakchiquel language of Guatemala, the word <i>naual</i> was applied +both to the magician himself, to his necromantic art, and to the demonic +agency which taught and protected him. This is shown by the following +explanation, which I quote from Father Coto’s <i>Vocabulario de la Lengua +Cakchiquel</i>, 1651, a manuscript in the library of the American +Philosophical Society:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“<i>Magic</i> or <i>Necromancy</i>: <i>puz</i> or <i>naual</i>; and they were +accustomed to call their magicians or sorcerers by the same terms. +It was a kind of magic which they invoked in order to transform +themselves into eagles, lions, tigers, etc. Thus, they said, <i>ru +puz</i>, <i>ru naual</i>, <i>pedro læ cot</i>, <i>balam</i>, ‘Peter’s power, his +<i>naual</i>, is a lion, a tiger.’ They also applied the words <i>puz</i> and +<i>naual</i> to certain trees, rocks and other inanimate objects, whence +the Devil used to speak to them, and likewise to the idols which +they worshiped, as <i>gazlic che</i>, <i>gazlic abah</i>, <i>huyu</i>, <i>k’o ru +naual</i>, ‘The life of the tree, the life of the stone, of the hill, +is its <i>naual</i>,’ etc.; because they believed there was life in +these objects. They used to have armies and<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> soldiery to guard +their lands, and the captains, as well as many who were not +captains, had their <i>nauales</i>. They called the captain <i>ru g’ +alache; rohobachi, ti ru gaah, ru pocob, ru gh’ amay a ghay ti be +chi naualil</i> [he works magic with his shield, his lance, and his +arrows].</p> + +<p>“To practice such magical arts: <i>tin naualih</i> (‘I practice magic’), +an active verb. They use it, for instance, when a man asks his wife +for something to eat or drink, and she has nothing, owing to his +negligence, she will say: ‘Where do you suppose I can get what you +want? Do you expect me to perform miracles—<i>xa pe ri tin +naualih</i>—that they shall come to my hands?’ So when one is asked +to lend or give something which he has not, he will exclaim: <i>Tin +naualih pe ri puvak</i>, etc. (‘Can I perform miracles,’ etc.)</p> + +<p>“It also signifies to pretend something, concealing the truth, as +<i>xa ru naualim ara neh chu g’ ux ri tzih tan tu bijh pedro</i>, ‘Peter +is feigning this which he is saying.’ They are also accustomed to +apply this word to the power which the priests exert (in the +sacraments, etc.).”</p></div> + +<p>A long and foolish account of the witchcraft supposed to be practiced +among the Pokonchis of Guatemala, also a tribe of Mayan stock, is given +by the Englishman, Thomas Gage, who was cura of a parish among them +about 1630, and afterwards returned to England and Protestantism. He +described, at wearisome length, the supposed metamorphosis of two chiefs +of neighboring tribes, the one into a lion, the other into a tiger, and +the mortal combat in which they engaged, resulting in the death of one +to whom Gage administered absolution. No doubt he had been worsted in a +personal encounter with his old enemy, and, being a man of eighty years, +had not the vigor to recover. The account is of interest only as proving +that the same superstitions at that time prevailed among the Pokonchis +as in other portions of Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_24-1_45" id="FNanchor_24-1_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_24-1_45" class="fnanchor">24-*</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_15" id="section_15"></a><b>15.</b> A really mighty nagualist was not confined to a single +transformation. He could take on many and varied figures. One such is +described in the sacred books of the Quiches of Guatemala, that document +known by the name of the Popol Vuh, or National Book. The passage is in +reference to one of their great kings and powerful magicians, Gucumatz +by name. It says:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Truly he was a wonderful king. Every seven days he ascended to the +sky, and every seven days he followed the path to the abode of the<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +dead; every seven days he put on the nature of a serpent, and then +he became truly a serpent; every seven days he assumed the nature +of an eagle, and then he became truly an eagle; then of a tiger and +he became truly a tiger; then of coagulated blood, and he was +nothing else than coagulated blood.”<a name="FNanchor_25-1_46" id="FNanchor_25-1_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_25-1_46" class="fnanchor">25-*</a></p></div> + +<p>It may be said that such passages refer metaphorically to the +versatility of his character, but even if this is so, the metaphors are +drawn from the universal belief in Nagualism which then prevailed, and +they do not express it too strongly.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_16" id="section_16"></a><b>16.</b> Among the Maya tribes of Yucatan and Guatemala we have testimony to +the continuance to this day of these beliefs. Father Bartolomé de Baeza, +cura of Yaxcaba in the first half of this century, reports that an old +man, in his dying confession, declared that by diabolical art he had +transformed himself into an animal, doubtless his <i>nagual</i>; and a young +girl of some twelve years confessed that she had been transformed into a +bird by the witches, and in one of her nocturnal flights had rested on +the roof of the very house in which the good priest resided, which was +some two leagues from her home. He wisely suggests that, perhaps, +listening to some tale of sorcery, she had had a vivid dream, in which +she seemed to take this flight. It is obvious, however, from his +account, as well as from other sources, that the belief of the +transformation into lower animals was and is one familiar to the +superstitions of the Mayas.<a name="FNanchor_25-2_47" id="FNanchor_25-2_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_25-2_47" class="fnanchor">25-†</a> The natives still continue to +propitiate the ancient gods of the harvest, at the beginning of the +season assembling at a ceremony called by the Spaniards the <i>misa +milpera</i>, or “field mass,” and by themselves <i>ti’ch</i>, “the stretching +out of the hands.”</p> + +<p>The German traveler, Dr. Scherzer, when he visited, in 1854, the remote +hamlet of Istlavacan, in Guatemala, peopled by Quiché Indians, +discovered that they had preserved in this respect the usages of their +ancestors almost wholly unaffected by the teachings of their various +Christian curates. The “Master” still assigned the <i>naguals</i> to the +new-born infants, copal was burned to their ancient gods in remote +caves, and formulas of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> invocation were taught by the veteran nagualists +to their neophytes.<a name="FNanchor_26-1_48" id="FNanchor_26-1_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-1_48" class="fnanchor">26-*</a></p> + +<p>These <i>Zahoris</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26-2_49" id="FNanchor_26-2_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-2_49" class="fnanchor">26-†</a> as they are generally called in the Spanish of +Central America, possessed many other mysterious arts besides that of +such metamorphoses and of forecasting the future. They could make +themselves invisible, and walk unseen among their enemies; they could in +a moment transport themselves to distant places, and, as quickly +returning, report what they had witnessed; they could create before the +eyes of the spectator a river, a tree, a house, or an animal, where none +such existed; they could cut open their own stomach, or lop a limb from +another person, and immediately heal the wound or restore the severed +member to its place; they could pierce themselves with knives and not +bleed, or handle venomous serpents and not be bitten; they could cause +mysterious sounds in the air, and fascinate animals and persons by their +steady gaze; they could call visible and invisible spirits, and the +spirits would come.</p> + +<p>Among the native population of the State of Vera Cruz and elsewhere in +southern Mexico these mysterious personages go by the name <i>padrinos</i>, +godfathers, and are looked upon with a mixture of fear and respect. They +are believed by the Indians to be able to cause sickness and domestic +calamities, and are pronounced by intelligent whites to present “a +combination of rascality, duplicity and trickery.”<a name="FNanchor_26-3_50" id="FNanchor_26-3_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-3_50" class="fnanchor">26-‡</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_17" id="section_17"></a><b>17.</b> The details of the ceremonies and doctrines of Nagualism have never +been fully revealed; but from isolated occurrences and partial +confessions it is clear that its adherents formed a coherent association +extending over most of southern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> Mexico and Guatemala, which everywhere +was inspired by two ruling sentiments—detestation of the Spaniards and +hatred of the Christian religion.</p> + +<p>In their eyes the latter was but a cloak for the exactions, massacres +and oppressions exerted by the former. To them the sacraments of the +Church were the outward signs of their own subjugation and misery. They +revolted against these rites in open hatred, or received them with +secret repugnance and contempt. In the Mexican figurative manuscripts +composed after the conquest the rite of baptism is constantly depicted +as the symbol of religious persecution. Says a sympathetic student of +this subject:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The act of baptism is always inserted in their records of battles +and massacres. Everywhere it conveys the same idea,—making evident +to the reader that the pretext for all the military expeditions of +the Spaniards was the enforced conversion to Christianity of the +natives; a pretext on which the Spaniards seized in order to +possess themselves of the land and its treasure, to rob the Indians +of their wives and daughters, to enslave them, and to spill their +blood without remorse or remission. One of these documents, dated +in 1526, adds a trait of savage irony. A Spanish soldier is +represented dragging a fugitive Indian from a lake by a lasso +around his neck; while on the shore stands a monk ready to baptize +the recreant on his arrival!”<a name="FNanchor_27-1_51" id="FNanchor_27-1_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_27-1_51" class="fnanchor">27-*</a></p></div> + +<p>No wonder that the priests of the dark ritual of Nagualism for centuries +after the conquest sought to annul the effects of the hated Christian +sacraments by counteracting ceremonies of their own, as we are told they +did by the historian Torquemada, writing from his own point of view in +these words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Father of Lies had his ministers who aided him, magicians and +sorcerers, who went about from town to town, persuading the simple +people to that which the Enemy of Light desired. Those who believed +their deceits, and had been baptized, were washed on the head and +breast by these sorcerers, who assured them that this would remove +the effects of the chrism and the holy oils. I myself knew an +instance where a person of prominence, who resided not far from the +City of Mexico, was dying, and had received extreme unction; and +when the priest had departed one of these diabolical ceremonialists +entered, and washed all the parts which had been anointed by the +holy oil with the intention to destroy its power.”<a name="FNanchor_27-2_52" id="FNanchor_27-2_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_27-2_52" class="fnanchor">27-†</a></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> + +<p>Similar instances are recorded by Jacinto de la Serna. He adds that not +only did the Masters prescribe sacrifices to the Fire in order to annul +the effects of extreme unction, but they delighted to caricature the +Eucharist, dividing among their congregation a narcotic yellow mushroom +for the bread, and the inebriating pulque for the wine. Sometimes they +adroitly concealed in the pyx, alongside the holy wafer, some little +idol of their own, so that they really followed their own superstitions +while seemingly adoring the Host. They assigned a purely pagan sense to +the sacred formula, “Father, Son and Holy Ghost,” understanding it to be +“Fire, Earth and Air,” or the like.<a name="FNanchor_28-1_53" id="FNanchor_28-1_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-1_53" class="fnanchor">28-*</a></p> + +<p>Whoever or whatever was an enemy to that religion so brutally forced upon +these miserable creatures was to them an ally and a friend. Nuñez de la +Vega tells us that he found written formulas among them reading: “O +Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, come to our +aid!”—pathetic and desperate appeal of a wretched race, ground to earth +under the iron heels of a religious and military despotism.<a name="FNanchor_28-2_54" id="FNanchor_28-2_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-2_54" class="fnanchor">28-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_18" id="section_18"></a><b>18.</b> The association embraced various tribes and its members were +classified under different degrees. The initiation into these was by +solemn and often painful ceremonies. Local sodalities or brotherhoods +were organized after the manner of those usual in the Roman Church; but +instead of being named after St. John or the Virgin Mary they were +dedicated to Judas Iscariot or Pontius Pilate out of derision and hatred +of the teachings of the priests; or to the Devil or Antichrist, who were +looked upon as powerful divinities in opposition to the Church.<a name="FNanchor_28-3_55" id="FNanchor_28-3_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-3_55" class="fnanchor">28-‡</a></p> + +<p>There were certain recognized centres of the association, near which its +most important dignitaries resided, and where their secret councils and +most imposing ceremonies were held. One of these was Zamayac, in the +province of Suchiltepec; a second near Huehuetan, Soconusco; a third at +Totonicapan, Guate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>mala; a fourth at Cancuc, Chiapas; a fifth at +Teozapotlan, Oaxaca; and a few others may be surmised.</p> + +<p>The high priest who resided at each of these centres exercised control +over all the nagualistic teachers and practitioners in an extensive +district. On the occasion of an official inquiry by the Spanish +authorities it was ascertained that the high priest of Zamayac included +under his rule nearly one thousand sub-priests,<a name="FNanchor_29-1_56" id="FNanchor_29-1_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-1_56" class="fnanchor">29-*</a> and no doubt +others of his rank were not less potent.</p> + +<p>The unity between the members of the association over an indefinitely +wide area was perfectly well known to the Spanish priests and civil +authorities. The ceremonies, formulas and methods of procedure were +everywhere identical or alike. This itself was justly regarded as a +proof of the secret intelligence which existed among the members of this +cabalistic guild.<a name="FNanchor_29-2_57" id="FNanchor_29-2_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-2_57" class="fnanchor">29-†</a></p> + +<p>To a certain extent, and at least in some localities, as Chiapas and +Guatemala, the priesthood of Nagualism was hereditary in particular +families. This is especially stated by the historian Ordoñez y Aguiar, +who had exceptional opportunities for acquainting himself with the +facts.<a name="FNanchor_29-3_58" id="FNanchor_29-3_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-3_58" class="fnanchor">29-‡</a></p> + +<p>A traveler of the first decade of this century, who has left us a number +of curious details of the superstitions of the Christianized Indians in +Mexico of that day, Benito Maria de Moxò, informs us that he had +discovered the existence of different grades in the native soothsayers +and medicine men, and that all in a given locality recognized the +supremacy of one whom they referred to as “the little old man,” <i>El +Viejito</i>. But he was unable to ascertain by what superior traits or +rights he obtained this distinction.<a name="FNanchor_29-4_59" id="FNanchor_29-4_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-4_59" class="fnanchor">29-§</a></p> + +<p>According to some authorities, the highest grade of these native +hierophants bore among the Nahuas the symbolic name<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> of “flower +weavers,” <i>Xochimilca</i>, probably from the skill they had to deceive the +senses by strange and pleasant visions.<a name="FNanchor_30-1_60" id="FNanchor_30-1_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-1_60" class="fnanchor">30-*</a> In the south they were +spoken of as “guardians,” which may have been derived from the classes +of priests so-called in the Zapotec religion.<a name="FNanchor_30-2_61" id="FNanchor_30-2_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-2_61" class="fnanchor">30-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_19" id="section_19"></a><b>19.</b> It will be seen from the above, that Nagualism, beginning in an +ancient superstition dating back to the time of primitive barbarism, +became after the Conquest a potent factor in the political and social +development of the peoples among whom it existed; that it was the source +from which was drawn and the means by which was sustained the +race-hatred of the native American towards his foreign conquerors, +smouldering for centuries, now and then breaking out in furious revolt +and civil war.</p> + +<p>There is strong reason to suspect its power where, for obvious reasons, +it has not been demonstrated. It has always been a mystery and a matter +of surprise to the historians of Yucatan how rapidly spread the plans of +the insurrection which secured lasting independence for the natives, +after these plans had been agreed upon by the two chiefs, Antonio Ay and +Cecilio Chi, at the remote rancho of Xihum, in July, 1847. Such +unanimity of action could only have been possible through the aid of a +powerful, well-disciplined and widespread secret organization. There can +scarcely be a doubt they were the chiefs or masters of the redoubtable +order of Nagualism in the Peninsula.<a name="FNanchor_30-3_62" id="FNanchor_30-3_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-3_62" class="fnanchor">30-‡</a></p> + +<p>There is no question that such was the case with the brief and bloody +revolt of the Mayas in 1761. It suddenly broke out in a number of +villages near Valladolid, Yucatan, headed by a full-blood native, +Jacinto Can-Ek; but some of the participants afterwards confessed that +it was the outcome of a conspiracy which had been preparing for a year.</p> + +<p>When the appointed day arrived, Jacinto boldly announced himself as the +high priest of the fraternity of sorcerers, a master and teacher of +magic, and the lineal successor of the famous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> ancient prophet, Chilan +Balam, “whose words cannot fail.” In a stirring appeal he urged his +fellow-countrymen to attack the Spaniards without fear of consequences.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“‘Be not afraid,’ he exclaimed, ‘of their cannons and their forts; +for among the many to whom I have taught the arts of magic (el arte +de brujeria) there are fifteen chosen ones, marvelous experts, who +by their mystic power will enter the fortress, slay the sentinels, +and throw open the gates to our warriors. I shall take the leaves +of the sacred tree, and folding them into trumpets, I shall call to +the four winds of heaven, and a multitude of fighting men will +hasten to our aid.’”<a name="FNanchor_31-1_63" id="FNanchor_31-1_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_31-1_63" class="fnanchor">31-*</a></p></div> + +<p>Saying this, he took a sheet of paper, held it up to show that it was +blank, folded it for a moment, and then spread it out covered with +writing! This deft trick convinced his simple-minded hearers of the +truth of his claims and they rushed to arms. He led them, clothed in the +robe of the Virgin and with her crown on his head. But neither their +enthusiasm nor their leader’s art magic availed, and soon Jacinto and +his followers fell victims to the stake and the gallows. After their +death the dance of “the tiger,” or of Chac-Mool—the “ghost dance” of +the Mayas—was prohibited; and the use of the sacred drum—the favorite +instrument of the native priests—was forbidden.<a name="FNanchor_31-2_64" id="FNanchor_31-2_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_31-2_64" class="fnanchor">31-†</a></p> + +<p>In fact, wherever we have any full accounts of the revolts against the +Spanish domination during the three centuries of its existence in New +Spain, we can manifestly trace the guiding fingers of the powerful +though hidden hand of Nagualism. An earlier revolt of the Mayas in +Yucatan occurred in 1585. It was led by Andres Chi, a full-blood Indian, +and a descendant of the ancient royal house of the Cocomes. He also +announced himself as a priest of the ancient faith, a prophet and a +worker of miracles, sent to instruct his own people in a new religion +and to give them an independent political existence. Seized by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> the +Spaniards, he was charged with idolatry, sorcery and disturbing the +peace, and was ignominiously hanged.<a name="FNanchor_32-1_65" id="FNanchor_32-1_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-1_65" class="fnanchor">32-*</a></p> + +<p>Not less definitely inspired by the same ideas was the Mixe Indian, +known as “Don Pascual,” who led the revolt of the Tehuantepec tribes in +1661. He sent out his summons to the “thirteen governors of the Zapotecs +and Chontales” to come to his aid, and the insurrection threatened to +assume formidable proportions, prevented only by bringing to bear upon +the natives the whole power of the Roman Church through the Bishop of +Oaxaca, Cuevas Davalos.<a name="FNanchor_32-2_66" id="FNanchor_32-2_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-2_66" class="fnanchor">32-†</a></p> + +<p>Nearly the same locality had been the scene of the revolt of the +Zapotecs in 1550, when they were led by a native priest who claimed to +be an incarnation of the old god Quetzalcoatl, the patron deity of the +nagualists.<a name="FNanchor_32-3_67" id="FNanchor_32-3_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-3_67" class="fnanchor">32-‡</a></p> + +<p>In the city of Mexico itself, in the year 1692, there was a violent +outbreak of the natives, when they destroyed three million dollars worth +of property. Doubtless this was partly attributable to the scarcity of +food which prevailed; but that the authorities traced it also to some +secret ceremonials is evident from the law which was immediately passed +forbidding the Indians to wear the <i>piochtli</i>, or scalp-lock, a portion +of the hair preserved from birth as part of the genethliac +rituals,<a name="FNanchor_32-4_68" id="FNanchor_32-4_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-4_68" class="fnanchor">32-§</a> and the especial enactments against the <i>octli</i>.</p> + +<p>As for the revolt of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1712, it was clearly +and confessedly under the leadership of the nagualistic priesthood, as I +shall indicate on a later page.</p> + +<p>The history of the native American race under the Spanish power in North +America has never yet been written with the slightest approach to +thoroughness. He who properly qualifies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> himself for that task will +certainly reach the conclusion expressed a number of years ago by the +eminent American antiquary and historian, Mr. E. G. Squier, in these +words:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Among the ruling and priestly classes of the semi-civilized +nations of America, there has always existed a mysterious bond, a +secret organization, which all the disasters to which they have +been subjected have not destroyed. It is to its present existence +that we may attribute those simultaneous movements of the +aborigines of Mexico and Central America, which have more than once +threatened the complete subversion of the Spanish power.”<a name="FNanchor_33-1_69" id="FNanchor_33-1_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-1_69" class="fnanchor">33-*</a></p></div> + +<p>That mysterious bond, that secret organization, is <i>Nagualism</i>.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_20" id="section_20"></a><b>20.</b> A remarkable feature in this mysterious society was the exalted +position it assigned to Women. Not only were they admitted to the most +esoteric degrees, but in repeated instances they occupied the very +highest posts in the organization. According to the traditions of the +Tzentals and Pipils of Chiapas, when their national hero, Votan, +constructed by the breath of his mouth his darkened shrine at +Tlazoaloyan, in Soconusco, he deposited in it the sacred books and holy +relics, and constituted a college of venerable sages to be its +guardians; but placed them all in subjection to a high priestess, whose +powers were absolute.<a name="FNanchor_33-2_70" id="FNanchor_33-2_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-2_70" class="fnanchor">33-†</a></p> + +<p>The veracious Pascual de Andagoya asserts from his own knowledge that +some of these female adepts had attained the rare and peculiar power of +being in two places at once, as much as a league and a half +apart;<a name="FNanchor_33-3_71" id="FNanchor_33-3_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-3_71" class="fnanchor">33-‡</a> and the repeated references to them in the Spanish +writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries confirm the dread in +which they were held and the extensive influence they were known to +control. In the sacraments of Nagualism, Woman was the primate and +hierophant.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_21" id="section_21"></a><b>21.</b> This was a lineal inheritance from pre-Columbian times. In many +native American legends, as in others from the old world, some powerful +enchantress is remembered as the founder of the State, mistress of men +through the potency of her magic powers.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>Such, among the Aztecs, was the sorceress who built the city of +Mallinalco, on the road from Mexico to Michoacan, famous even after the +conquest for the skill of its magicians, who claimed descent from +her.<a name="FNanchor_34-1_72" id="FNanchor_34-1_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-1_72" class="fnanchor">34-*</a> Such, in Honduras, was Coamizagual, queen of Cerquin, versed +in all occult science, who died not, but at the close of her earthly +career rose to heaven in the form of a beautiful bird, amid the roll of +thunder and the flash of lightning.<a name="FNanchor_34-2_73" id="FNanchor_34-2_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-2_73" class="fnanchor">34-†</a></p> + +<p>According to an author intimately familiar with the Mexican nagualists, +the art they claimed to possess of transforming themselves into the +lower animals was taught their predecessors by a woman, a native Circe, +a mighty enchantress, whose usual name was Quilaztli (the etymology of +which is unknown), but who bore also four others, representing her four +metamorphoses, Cohuacihuatl, the Serpent Woman; Quauhcihuatl, the Eagle +Woman; Yaocihuatl, the Warrior Woman; and Tzitzimecihuatl, the Specter +Woman.<a name="FNanchor_34-3_74" id="FNanchor_34-3_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-3_74" class="fnanchor">34-‡</a></p> + +<p>The powers of these queens of magic extended widely among their sex. We +read in the chronicles of ancient Mexico that when Nezahualpilli, the +king, oppressed the tribes of the coast, the <i>tierra caliente</i>, they +sent against him, not their warriors, but their witches. These cast upon +him their fatal spells, so that when he walked forth from his palace, +blood burst from his mouth, and he fell prone and dead.<a name="FNanchor_34-4_75" id="FNanchor_34-4_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-4_75" class="fnanchor">34-§</a></p> + +<p>In Guatemala, as in ancient Delphos, the gods were believed to speak +through the mouths of these inspired seeresses, and at the celebration +of victories they enjoyed a privilege so strange and horrible that I +quote it from the old manuscript before me without venturing a +translation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“... Despues de sacrificar los antiguos algun hombre, +despedaçandolo, si era de los que avian cogido en guerra, dicen que +guardaban el<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> miembro genital y los testiculos del tal sacrificado, +y se los daban à una vieja que tenian por profeta, para que los +comiese, y le pedian rogasse à su idolo les diesse mas +captivos.”<a name="FNanchor_35-1_76" id="FNanchor_35-1_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-1_76" class="fnanchor">35-*</a></p></div> + +<p>When Captain Pedro de Alvarado, in the year 1524, was marching upon +Quetzaltanango, in Guatemala, just such a fearful old witch took her +stand at the summit of the pass, with her familiar in the shape of a +dog, and “by spells and nagualistic incantations” undertook to prevent +his approach.<a name="FNanchor_35-2_77" id="FNanchor_35-2_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-2_77" class="fnanchor">35-†</a></p> + +<p>As in the earliest, so in the latest accounts. The last revolt of the +Indians of Chiapas occurred among the Zotzils in 1869. The cause of it +was the seizure and imprisonment by the Spanish authorities of a +“mystical woman,” known to the whites as Santa Rosa, who, together with +one of their <i>ahaus</i> or chieftains, had been suspected of fomenting +sedition. The natives marched thousands strong against the city of San +Cristobal, where the prisoners were, and secured their liberation; but +their leader, Ignacio Galindo, was entrapped and shot by the Spaniards, +and the mutiny was soon quelled.<a name="FNanchor_35-3_78" id="FNanchor_35-3_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-3_78" class="fnanchor">35-‡</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_22" id="section_22"></a><b>22.</b> But perhaps the most striking instance is that recorded in the +history of the insurrection of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1713. They +were led by an Indian girl, a native Joan of Arc, fired by like +enthusiasm to drive from her country the hated foreign oppressors, and +to destroy every vestige of their presence. She was scarcely twenty +years old, and was known to the Spaniards as Maria Candelaria. She was +the leader of what most historians call a religious sect, but what +Ordoñez y Aguiar, himself a native of Chiapas, recognizes as the +powerful secret association of Nagualism, determined on the extirpation +of the white race. He estimates that in Chiapas alone there were nearly +seventy thousand natives under her orders—doubtless an +exaggeration—and asserts that the conspiracy extended far into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> the +neighboring tribes, who had been ordered to await the result of the +effort in Chiapas.</p> + +<p>Her authority was absolute, and she was merciless in requiring obedience +to it. The disobedient were flayed alive or roasted over a slow fire. +She and all her followers took particular pleasure in manifesting their +hatred and contempt for the religion of their oppressors. They defiled +the sacred vessels of the churches, imitated with buffoonery the +ceremonies of the mass, which she herself performed, and stoned to death +the priests whom they caught.</p> + +<p>Of course, her attempt against the power of Spain was hopeless. It +failed after a bitter and protracted conquest, characterized by the +utmost inhumanity on both sides. But when her followers were scattered +and killed, when the victorious whites had again in their hands all the +power and resources of the country, not their most diligent search, nor +the temptation of any reward, enabled them to capture Maria Candelaria, +the heroine of the bloody drama. With a few trusty followers she escaped +to the forest, and was never again heard of.<a name="FNanchor_36-1_79" id="FNanchor_36-1_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-1_79" class="fnanchor">36-*</a></p> + +<p>More unfortunate were her friends and lieutenants, the priestesses of +Guistiupan and Yajalon, who had valiantly seconded Maria in her +patriotic endeavors. Seized by the Spaniards, they met the fate which we +can easily imagine, though the historian has mercifully thrown a veil on +its details.<a name="FNanchor_36-2_80" id="FNanchor_36-2_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-2_80" class="fnanchor">36-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_23" id="section_23"></a><b>23.</b> Of just such a youthful prophetess did Mr. E. G. Squier hear during +his travels in Central America, a “<i>sukia</i> woman,” as she was called by +the coast Indians, one who lived alone mid the ruins of an old Mayan +temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and +life in her hands.<a name="FNanchor_36-3_81" id="FNanchor_36-3_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-3_81" class="fnanchor">36-‡</a> Per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>haps his account is somewhat fanciful; +it is so, indeed; but it is grounded on the unshaken beliefs and ancient +traditions of the natives of those climes, and on customs well known to +those who reside there.</p> + +<p>The late distinguished Americanist, the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg, +during his long travels in Mexico and Central America, had occasion more +than once to come in contact with this trait of the ancient faith of the +Nagualists, still alive in their descendants. Among the Zapotecs of the +Isthmus of Tehuantepec he saw one of the queens of the mystic +fraternity, and he describes her with a warmth which proves that he had +not lost his eye for the beautiful.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“She wore a piece of light-green stuff loosely folded around her +form at the hips, and falling to a little distance above the ankle; +a jacket of red silk gauze with short sleeves and embroidered with +gold, clothed the upper part of her person, veiling her bosom, upon +which lay a chain of heavy gold pieces, pierced and strung on a +cord. Her rich black hair was divided on the forehead, and drawn +back in two splendid tresses fastened with blue ribbons, while a +white muslin kerchief encircled her head like the calantica of the +ancient Egyptians. Never in my life have I seen a more striking +figure of an Isis or a Cleopatra.</p> + +<p>“There was something strange in her expression. Her eyes were the +blackest and the brightest in the world; but there were moments +when she suddenly paused, leaned against the billiard table or the +wall, and they became fixed and dead like those of a corpse. Then a +fiery glance would shoot from beneath her dark lashes, sending a +chill to the heart of the one to whom it was directed. Was it +madness, or was it, as those around her believed, a momentary +absence of soul, an absorption of her spirit into its <i>nagual</i>, a +transportation into an unknown world? Who shall decide?”<a name="FNanchor_37-1_82" id="FNanchor_37-1_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_37-1_82" class="fnanchor">37-*</a></p></div> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_24" id="section_24"></a><b>24.</b> It would be a mistake to suppose that Nagualism was an incoherent +medley of superstitions, a mass of jumbled fragments derived from the +ancient paganism. My study of it has led me to a widely different +conclusion. It was a perpetuation of a well-defined portion of the +native cult, whose sources we are able to trace long anterior to the +period of the conquest, and which had no connection with the elaborate +and bloody ritual of the Aztecs. The evidence to this effect is cogent.</p> + +<p>Wherever in later days the Catholic priests found out the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> holy places +and sacred objects of the nagualists, they were in-caves or deep +rock-recesses, not in artificial structures. The myths they gleaned, and +the names of the gods they heard, also point to this as a distinguishing +peculiarity. An early instance is recorded among the Nahuas of Mexico. +In 1537 Father Perea discovered a cavern in a deep ravine at Chalma, +near Mallinalco (a town famous for its magicians), which was the +sanctuary of the deity called <i>Oztoteotl</i>, the Cave God (<i>oztotl</i>, cave; +<i>teotl</i>, god), “venerated throughout the whole empire of +Montezuma.”<a name="FNanchor_38-1_83" id="FNanchor_38-1_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_38-1_83" class="fnanchor">38-*</a> He destroyed the image of the god, and converted the +cavern into a chapel.</p> + +<p>We cannot err in regarding Oztoteotl as merely another name of the +Nahuatl divinity, Tepeyollotl, the Heart, or Inside, of the Mountain, +who in the Codex Borgia and the Codex Vaticanus is represented seated +upon or in a cavern. His name may equally well be translated “the Heart +of the Place,” or “of the Town.”</p> + +<p>Dr. Eduard Seler has shown beyond reasonable question that this divinity +did not originally belong to the Aztec Pantheon, but was introduced from +the South, either from the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, or the Mayan tribes, +beyond these.<a name="FNanchor_38-2_84" id="FNanchor_38-2_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_38-2_84" class="fnanchor">38-†</a> The Cave God of the Aztecs is identical with the +Votan of the Tzentals of Chiapas, and with the U-q’ux Uleuh of the +Quiches of Guatemala, and probably with the Cozaana of the Zapotecs.</p> + +<p>The rites of all of these were conducted in caverns, and there have been +preserved several interesting descriptions of the contents of these +sacred places. That relating to the “dark house of Votan” is given thus +in the work of the Bishop of Chiapas:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Votan is the third hero who is named in the calendar, and some of +his descendants still reside in the town of Teopisca, where they +are known as Votans. He is sometimes referred to as Lord of the +Sacred Drum, and he is said to have seen the great wall (which must +have been the Tower of Babel), and to have divided this land among +the Indians, and given to each tribe its language.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>“They say further that he once dwelt in Huehuetan, a town in the +province of Soconusco. Near there, at the place called Tlazoaloyan, +he constructed, by blowing with his breath, a dark house, and put +tapirs in the river, and in the house a great treasure, and left +all in charge of a noble lady, assisted by guardians (<i>tlapiane</i>) +to preserve. This treasure consisted of earthenware vases with +covers of the same material; a stone, on which were inscribed the +figures of the ancient native heroes as found in the calendar; +<i>chalchiuites</i>, which are green stones; and other superstitious +objects.</p> + +<p>“All of these were taken from the cave, and publicly burned in the +plaza of Huehuetan on the occasion of our first diocesan visit +there in 1691, having been delivered to us by the lady in charge +and the guardians. All the Indians have great respect for this +Votan, and in some places they call him ‘the Heart of the +Towns.’”<a name="FNanchor_39-1_85" id="FNanchor_39-1_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-1_85" class="fnanchor">39-*</a></p></div> + +<p>The English priest, Thomas Gage, who was curate of a parish among the +Pokonchi Indians of Guatemala about 1630, relates his discovery of such +a cave, in which the idol was preserved, and gives this description of +it:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“We found the Idol standing upon a low stool covered with a linen +cloth. The substance of it was wood, black shining like jet, as if +it had been painted or smoked; the form was of a man’s head unto +the shoulders, without either Beard or Mustachoes; his look was +grim, with a wrinkled forehead, and broad staring eyes.</p> + +<p>“They boasted of this their god, saying that he had plainly told +them they should not believe anything I preached of Christ, but +follow the old ways of their forefathers.”<a name="FNanchor_39-2_86" id="FNanchor_39-2_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-2_86" class="fnanchor">39-†</a></p></div> + +<p>The black color here mentioned was a relic of ancient symbolism, +referring to the night, darkness, and the obscurity of the holy cavern. +Vetancurt informs us that the priests of the ancient paganism were +accustomed to rub their faces and bodies with an ointment of fat and +pine soot when they went to sacrifice in the forests, so that they +looked as black as <a name="corr3" title="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="negroes.">negroes</ins><a name="FNanchor_39-3_87" id="FNanchor_39-3_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-3_87" class="fnanchor">39-‡</a> In the extract from Nuñez de +la Vega already given, <i>Ical Ahau</i>, the “Black King,” is named as one of +the divinities of the nagualists.</p> + +<p>In some parts the principal idol found in the caves was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> mummied or +exsiccated body of some former distinguished priest or chieftain. One +such is recorded by Bartholomé de Pisa, which was found among the +Zapotecs of Coatlan. It bore a name taken from the calendar, that of the +tenth day, and was alleged to be the preserved cadaver of a celebrated +ruler.<a name="FNanchor_40-1_88" id="FNanchor_40-1_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-1_88" class="fnanchor">40-*</a> Another interesting example is narrated by Villa Señor y +Sanchez,<a name="FNanchor_40-2_89" id="FNanchor_40-2_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-2_89" class="fnanchor">40-†</a> who describes it as an eye-witness. It was discovered +in a spacious cave located some distance to the west of the city of +Mexico, in Nahuatl territory, on the side of what was known as “the Sun +mountain”—<i>la Mesa de Tonati</i>. He speaks of it as remarkably well +preserved, “both the muscles and the bones.”</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“It was seated in an armchair which served for a throne, and was +clothed in a mantle, which fell from the shoulders to the feet. +This was richly adorned with precious stones, which, according to +the native custom, were sewed into the texture of the cloth. The +figure also wore shoulder straps, collars, bracelets and fastenings +of silver. From its forehead rose a crown of beautiful feathers of +different colors arranged so that one color should alternate with +another. The left hand was resting on the arm of the chair, while +in the right was a sharp cutlass with silver mountings. At its feet +were several vases of fine stone, as marble and alabaster, in which +were offerings of blood and meat, obtained from the sacrifices.”</p></div> + +<p>The same writer refers to other examples of these sacred caves which he +had seen in his journeys. One was near the town of Teremendo, where the +sides and roof had been artificially dressed into the shape of huge +arches. A natural altar had been provided in a similar manner, and on +it, at the time of his visit, were numerous idols in the figures of men +and animals, and before them fresh offerings of copal and food. +Elsewhere he refers to many such caverns still in use as places resorted +to by the natives in <i>la gran Sierra de Tlascala</i>.<a name="FNanchor_40-3_90" id="FNanchor_40-3_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-3_90" class="fnanchor">40-‡</a></p> + +<p>These extracts prove the extent of this peculiar worship and the number +of these subterranean temples in recent generations. The fame of some of +the greater ones of the past still survives, as the vast grotto of +Chalcatongo, near Achiutla, which was the sepulchral vault of its +ancient kings; that of Totomachiapa, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> solemn scene of sacrifice for +the ancient priests; that of Justlahuaca, near Sola (Oaxaca), which was +a place of worship of the Zapotecs long after the Conquest; and that in +the Cerro de Monopostiac, near San Francisco del Mar.<a name="FNanchor_41-1_91" id="FNanchor_41-1_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-1_91" class="fnanchor">41-*</a></p> + +<p>The intimate meaning of this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The +Cave God, the Heart of the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil, +from whose dark recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender +shoots of the food-plants, as well as the great trees. To the native +Mexican, the Earth was the provider of food and drink, the common Father +of All; so that to this day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops +to the earth, touches it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula: +<i>Cuix amo nechitla in toteotzin?</i> “Does not our Great God see me?”</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_25" id="section_25"></a><b>25.</b> The identity of the Tepeyollotl of the Nahuas and the Votan of the +Tzentals is shown not only in the oneness of meaning of the names, but +in the fact that both represent the <i>third</i> day in the ritual calendar. +For this reason I take it, we find the number <i>three</i> so generally a +sacred number in the symbolism of the nagualists. We have already +learned in the extract from Nuñez de la Vega that the neophytes were +instructed in classes of three. To this day in Soteapan the fasts and +festivals appointed by the native ministrants are three days in +duration.<a name="FNanchor_41-2_92" id="FNanchor_41-2_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-2_92" class="fnanchor">41-†</a> The semi-Christianized inhabitants of the Sierra of +Nayerit, the Nahuatl-speaking Chotas, continued in the last century to +venerate three divinities, the Dawn, the Stone and the Serpent;<a name="FNanchor_41-3_93" id="FNanchor_41-3_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-3_93" class="fnanchor">41-‡</a> +analogous to a similar “trinity” noted by Father Duran among the ancient +Aztecs.<a name="FNanchor_41-4_94" id="FNanchor_41-4_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-4_94" class="fnanchor">41-§</a></p> + +<p>The number <i>nine</i>, that is, 3 x 3, recurs so frequently in the +conjuration formulas of the Mexican sorcerers that de la Serna exclaims: +“It was the Devil himself who inculcated into them this superstition +about the number nine.”<a name="FNanchor_41-5_95" id="FNanchor_41-5_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-5_95" class="fnanchor">41-‖</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>The other number sacred to the nagualists was <i>seven</i>. I have, in a +former essay, given various reasons for believing that this was not +derived from the seven days of the Christian week, but directly from the +native calendar.<a name="FNanchor_42-1_96" id="FNanchor_42-1_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-1_96" class="fnanchor">42-*</a> Nuñez de la Vega tells us that the patron of the +seventh day was <i>Cuculcan</i>, “the Feathered Serpent,” and that many +nagualists chose him as their special protector. As already seen, in +Guatemala the child finally accepted its <i>naual</i> when seven years old; +and among some of the Nahuatl tribes of Mexico the <i>tonal</i> and the +calendar name was formally assigned on the seventh day after +birth.<a name="FNanchor_42-2_97" id="FNanchor_42-2_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-2_97" class="fnanchor">42-†</a> From similar impressions the Cakchiquels of Guatemala +maintained that when the lightning strikes the earth the “thunder stone” +sinks into the soil, but rises to the surface after seven +years.<a name="FNanchor_42-3_98" id="FNanchor_42-3_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-3_98" class="fnanchor">42-‡</a></p> + +<p>The three and the seven were the ruling numbers in the genealogical +trees of the Pipiles of San Salvador. The “tree” was painted with +<i>seven</i> branches representing degrees of relationship within which +marriage was forbidden unless a man had performed some distinguished +exploit in war, when he could marry beyond the nearest <i>three</i> degrees +of relationship.<a name="FNanchor_42-4_99" id="FNanchor_42-4_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-4_99" class="fnanchor">42-§</a> Another combination of 3 and 7, by +multiplication, explains the customs among the Mixes of deserting for 21 +days a house in which a death has occurred.<a name="FNanchor_42-5_100" id="FNanchor_42-5_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-5_100" class="fnanchor">42-‖</a></p> + +<p>The indications are that the nagualists derived these numbers from the +third and seventh days of the calendar “month” of twenty days. +Tepeololtec, the Cave God, was patron of the third day and also “Lord of +Animals,” the transformation into which was the test of nagualistic +power.<a name="FNanchor_42-6_101" id="FNanchor_42-6_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-6_101" class="fnanchor">42-¶</a> Tlaloc, god of the mountains and the rains, to whom the +seventh day was hallowed, was represented by the nagualistic symbol of a +snake doubled and twisted on itself, and was generally portrayed in +connection with the “Feathered Serpent” (Quetzalcoatl, Cuculchan, +Gukumatz, all names meaning this), represented as carrying his medicine +bag, <i>xiquipilli</i>, and incensory, the apparatus of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> native +illuminati, his robe marked with the sign of the cross to show that he +was Lord of the Four Winds and of Life.<a name="FNanchor_43-1_102" id="FNanchor_43-1_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-1_102" class="fnanchor">43-*</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_26" id="section_26"></a><b>26.</b> The nagualistic rites were highly symbolic, and the symbols used had +clearly defined meanings, which enable us to analyze the religious ideas +underlying this mysterious cult.</p> + +<p>The most important symbol was Fire. It was regarded as the primal +element and the immediate source of life. Father Nicolas de Leon has the +following suggestive passage in this connection:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“If any of their old superstitions has remained more deeply rooted +than another in the hearts of these Indians, both men and women, it +is this about fire and its worship, and about making new fire and +preserving it for a year in secret places. We should be on the +watch for this, and when in their confessions they speak of what +the Fire said and how the Fire wept, expressions which we are apt +to pass by as unintelligible, we must lay our hands on them for +reprehension. We should also be on the watch for their baptism by +Fire, a ceremony called the <i>yiahuiltoca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_43-2_103" id="FNanchor_43-2_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-2_103" class="fnanchor">43-†</a> shortly after +the birth of a child when they bestow on it the surnames; nor must +the lying-in women and their assistants be permitted to speak of +Fire as the father and mother of all things and the author of +nature; because it is a common saying with them that Fire is +present at the birth and death of every creature.”</p></div> + +<p>This curious ceremony derived its name from the <i>yiahuitli</i>, a plant not +unlike the absinthe, the powdered leaves of which, according to Father +Sahagun, the natives were accustomed to throw into the flames as an +offering to the fire.<a name="FNanchor_43-3_104" id="FNanchor_43-3_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-3_104" class="fnanchor">43-‡</a> Long after the conquest, and probably to +this day, the same custom prevails in Mexico, the fumes and odor of the +burning leaves being considered very salubrious and purifying to the air +of the sick <a name="corr4" title="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="room.">room</ins><a name="FNanchor_43-4_105" id="FNanchor_43-4_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-4_105" class="fnanchor">43-§</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>The word <i>yiahuiltoca</i> means “the throwing of the <i>yiauhtli</i>” (from +<i>toca</i>, to throw upon with the hands). Another name for the ceremony, +according to Father Vetancurt, who wrote a century later than Leon, was +<i>apehualco</i>, which has substantially the same meaning, “a throwing upon” +or “a throwing away.”<a name="FNanchor_44-1_106" id="FNanchor_44-1_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_44-1_106" class="fnanchor">44-*</a> He adds the interesting particulars that it +was celebrated on the fourth day after the birth of the child, during +which time it was deemed essential to keep the fire burning in the +house, but not to permit any of it to be carried out, as that would +bring bad luck to the child.</p> + +<p>Jacinto de la Serna also describes this ceremony, to which he gives the +name <i>tlecuixtliliztli</i>, “which means that they pass the infant over the +fire;” and elsewhere he adds: “The worship of fire is the greatest +stumbling-block to these wretched idolaters.”<a name="FNanchor_44-2_107" id="FNanchor_44-2_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_44-2_107" class="fnanchor">44-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_27" id="section_27"></a><b>27.</b> Other ceremonies connected with fire worship took place in +connection with the manufacture of the pulque, or <i>octli</i>, the fermented +liquor obtained from the sap of the maguey plant. The writer just +quoted, de Vetancurt, states that the natives in his day, when they had +brewed the new pulque and it was ready to be drunk, first built a fire, +walked in procession around it and threw some of the new liquor into the +flames, chanting the while an invocation to the god of inebriation, +Tezcatzoncatl, to descend and be present with them.</p> + +<p>This was distinctly a survival of an ancient doctrine which connected +the God of Fire with the Gods of Drunkenness, as we may gather from the +following quotation from the history composed by Father Diego Duran:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“The <i>octli</i> was a favorite offering to the gods, and especially to +the God of Fire. Sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases, +sometimes<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> it was scattered upon the flames with a brush, at other +times it was poured out around the fireplace.”<a name="FNanchor_45-1_108" id="FNanchor_45-1_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-1_108" class="fnanchor">45-*</a></p></div> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_28" id="section_28"></a><b>28.</b> The high importance of the fire ceremonies in the secret rituals of +the modern Mayas is plainly evident from the native Calendars, although +their signification has eluded the researches of students, even of the +laborious Pio Perez, who was so intimately acquainted with their +language and customs. In these Calendars the fire-priest is constantly +referred to as <i>ah-toc</i>, literally “the fire-master.” The rites he +celebrates recur at regular intervals of twenty days (the length of one +native month) apart. They are four in number. On the first he takes the +fire; on the second he kindles the fire; on the third he gives it free +play, and on the fourth he extinguishes it. A period of five days is +then allowed to elapse, when these ceremonies are recommenced in the +same order. Whatever their meaning, they are so important that in the +<i>Buk Xoc</i>, or General Computation of the Calendar, preserved in the +mystic “Books of Chilan Balam,” there are special directions for these +fire-masters to reckon the proper periods for the exercise of their +strange functions.<a name="FNanchor_45-2_109" id="FNanchor_45-2_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-2_109" class="fnanchor">45-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_29" id="section_29"></a><b>29.</b> What, now, was the sentiment which underlay this worship of fire? I +think that the facts quoted, and especially the words of Father de Leon, +leave no doubt about it. Fire was worshiped as the life-giver, the +active generator, of animate existence. This idea was by no means +peculiar to them. It repeatedly recurs in Sanskrit, in Greek and in +Teutonic mythology, as has been ably pointed out by Dr. Hermann +Cohen.<a name="FNanchor_45-3_110" id="FNanchor_45-3_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-3_110" class="fnanchor">45-‡</a> The fire-god Agni (<i>ignis</i>) is in the Vedas the Maker of +men; Prometheus steals the fire from heaven that he may with it animate +the human forms he has moulded of clay; even the connection of the +pulque with the fire is paralleled in Greek mythos, where Dionysos is +called <i>Pyrigenes</i>, the “fire-born.”</p> + +<p>Among the ancient Aztecs the god of fire was called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> oldest of gods, +<i>Huehueteotl</i>, and also “Our Father,” <i>Tota</i>, as it was believed from +him all things were derived.<a name="FNanchor_46-1_111" id="FNanchor_46-1_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-1_111" class="fnanchor">46-*</a> Both among them and the Mayas, as I +have pointed out in a previous work, he was supposed to govern the +generative proclivities and the sexual relations.<a name="FNanchor_46-2_112" id="FNanchor_46-2_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-2_112" class="fnanchor">46-†</a> Another of his +names was <i>Xiuhtecutli</i>, which can be translated “God of the Green +Leaf,” that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.<a name="FNanchor_46-3_113" id="FNanchor_46-3_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-3_113" class="fnanchor">46-‡</a></p> + +<p>To transform themselves into a globe or ball of fire was, as we have +seen (antè, p. 21), a power claimed by expert nagualists, and to handle +it with impunity, or to blow it from the mouth, was one of their +commonest exhibitions. Nothing so much proved their superiority as thus +to master this potent element.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_30" id="section_30"></a><b>30.</b> The same name above referred to, “the Heart of the Town,” or “of the +Hills,” was that which at a comparatively late date was applied to an +idol of green stone preserved with religious care in a cavern in the +Cerro de Monopostiac, not far from San Francisco del Mar. The spot is +still believed by the natives to be enchanted ground and protected by +superhuman powers.<a name="FNanchor_46-4_114" id="FNanchor_46-4_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-4_114" class="fnanchor">46-§</a></p> + +<p>These green stones, called <i>chalchiuitl</i>, of jadeite, nephrite, green +quartz, or the like, were accounted of peculiar religious significance +throughout southern Mexico, and probably to this day many are preserved +among the indigenous population as amulets and charms. They were often +carved into images, either in human form or representing a frog, the +latter apparently the symbol of the waters and of fertility. Bartholomè +de Alva refers to them in a passage of his Confessionary. The priest +asks the penitent:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>“Dost thou possess at this very time little idols of green stone, +or frogs made of it (<i>in chalchiuh coconeme, chalchiuh +tamazoltin</i>)?</p> + +<p>“Dost thou put them out in the sun to be warmed? Dost thou keep +them wrapped in cotton coverings, with great respect and +veneration?</p> + +<p>“Dost thou believe, and hold for very truth, that these green +stones give thee food and drink, even as thy ancestors believed, +who died in their idolatry? Dost thou believe that they give thee +success and prosperity<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> and good things, and all that them hast or +wishest? Because we know very well that many of you so believe at +this very time.”<a name="FNanchor_47-1_115" id="FNanchor_47-1_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-1_115" class="fnanchor">47-*</a></p></div> + +<p>Down to quite a recent date, and perhaps still, these green stones are +employed in certain ceremonies in vogue among the Indians of Oaxaca in +order to ensure a plenteous maize harvest. The largest ear of corn in +the field is selected and wrapped up in a cloth with some of these +chalchiuite. At the next corn-planting it is taken to the field and +buried in the soil. This is believed to be a relic of the worship of the +ancient Zapotec divinity, Quiegolani, who presided over cultivated +fields.<a name="FNanchor_47-2_116" id="FNanchor_47-2_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-2_116" class="fnanchor">47-†</a></p> + +<p>They are still in use among the natives as lucky stones or amulets. In +the Zotzil insurrection of 1869, already referred to, one was found +suspended to the neck of one of the slain Indians. It came into the +possession of M. Maler, who has described and figured it.<a name="FNanchor_47-3_117" id="FNanchor_47-3_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-3_117" class="fnanchor">47-‡</a> It +represents a human head with a curious expression and a singular +headdress.</p> + +<p>From specimens of these amulets preserved in museums it is seen that any +greenish stone was selected, preferably those yielding a high, vitreous +polish, as jadeite, turquoise, emerald, chlormelanite or precious +serpentine. The color gave the sacred character, and this, it seems to +me, was distinctly meant to be symbolic of water and its effects, the +green of growing plants, and hence of fertility, abundance and +prosperity.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_31" id="section_31"></a><b>31.</b> There is another symbol, still venerated among the present +indigenous population, which belongs to Nagualism, and is a survival +from the ancient cult; this is the Tree. The species held in especial +respect is the ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, the <i>ytzamatl</i> (knife-leaved +paper tree) of the Nahuas, the <i>yax che</i> (green, or first tree) of the +Mayas, the <i>Bombax ceiba</i> of the botanists. It is of great size and +rapid growth. In Southern Mexico and Central America one is to be seen +near many of the native villages, and is regarded as in some way the +protecting genius of the town.</p> + +<p>Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mexican cult, and, what is +curious, the same name was applied to such as to the fire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> <i>Tota</i>, Our +Father. They are said to have represented the gods of woods and +waters.<a name="FNanchor_48-1_118" id="FNanchor_48-1_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-1_118" class="fnanchor">48-*</a> In the ancient mythology we often hear of the “tree of +life,” represented to have four branches, each sacred to one of the four +cardinal points and the divinities associated therewith.</p> + +<p>The conventionalized form of this tree in the Mexican figurative +paintings strongly resembles a cross. Examples of it are numerous and +unmistakable, as, for instance, the cruciform tree of life rising from a +head with a protruding tongue, in the Vienna Codex.<a name="FNanchor_48-2_119" id="FNanchor_48-2_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-2_119" class="fnanchor">48-†</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_32" id="section_32"></a><b>32.</b> Thus, the sign of the cross, either the form with equal arms known +as the cross of St. Andrew, which is the oldest Christian form, or the +Latin cross, with its arms of unequal length, came to be the ideogram +for “life” in the Mexican hieroglyphic writing; and as such, with more +or less variants, was employed to signify the <i>tonalli</i> or <i>nagual</i>, the +sign of nativity, the natal day, the personal spirit.<a name="FNanchor_48-3_120" id="FNanchor_48-3_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-3_120" class="fnanchor">48-‡</a> The +ancient document called the Mappe Quinatzin offers examples, and its +meaning is explained by various early writers. The peculiar character of +the Mexican ritual calendar, by which nativities were calculated, +favored a plan of representing them in the shape of a cross; as we see +in the singular <i>Codex Cruciformis</i> of the Boturini-Goupil collection.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_33" id="section_33"></a><b>33.</b> But the doctrines of Nagualism had a phase even more detestable to +the missionaries than any of these, an esoteric phase, which brought it +into relation to the libidinous cults of Babylon and the orgies of the +“Witches’ Sabbaths” of the Dark Ages. Of these occult practices we of +course have no detailed descriptions, but there are hints and +half-glances which leave us in no doubt.</p> + +<p>When the mysterious metamorphosis of the individual into his or her +<i>nagual</i> was about to take place, the person must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> strip to absolute +nudity;<a name="FNanchor_49-1_121" id="FNanchor_49-1_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-1_121" class="fnanchor">49-*</a> and the lascivious fury of bands of naked Nagualists, +meeting in remote glades by starlight or in the dark recesses of caves, +dancing before the statues of the ancient gods, were scenes that stirred +the fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries to its highest pitch. Bishop +Landa informs us that in Yucatan the dance there known as the <i>naual</i> +was one of the few in which both men and women took part, and that it +“was not very decent.” It was afterwards prohibited by the priests. We +have excellent authority that such wild rites continued well into the +present century, close to the leading cities of the State,<a name="FNanchor_49-2_122" id="FNanchor_49-2_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-2_122" class="fnanchor">49-†</a> and +it is highly likely that they are not unknown to-day.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_34" id="section_34"></a><b>34.</b> Moreover, it is certain that among the Nagualists, one of their most +revered symbols was the <i>serpent</i>; in Chiapas, one of their highest +orders of the initiated was that of the <i>chanes</i>, or serpents. Not only +is this in Christian symbolism the form and sign of the Prince of Evil +and the enemy of God, but the missionaries were aware that in the +astrological symbols of ancient Mexico the serpent represented the +<i>phallus</i>; that it was regarded as the most potent of all the +signs;<a name="FNanchor_49-3_123" id="FNanchor_49-3_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-3_123" class="fnanchor">49-‡</a> and modern research has shown, contrary to the opinion +long held, that there was among these nations an extraordinary and +extensive worship of the reciprocal principle of nature, associated with +numerous phallic emblems.<a name="FNanchor_49-4_124" id="FNanchor_49-4_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-4_124" class="fnanchor">49-§</a></p> + +<p>Huge phalli of stone have been discovered, one, for instance, on the +Cerro de las Navajas, not far from the city of Mexico,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> and another in +the State of Hidalgo.<a name="FNanchor_50-1_125" id="FNanchor_50-1_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-1_125" class="fnanchor">50-*</a> Probably they were used in some such +ceremonies as Oviedo describes among the Nahuas of Nicaragua, where the +same symbol was represented by conical mounds of earth, around which at +certain seasons the women danced with libidinous actions. Although as a +general rule the pottery of ancient Mexico avoids obscenity, Brasseur +stated that he had seen many specimens of a contrary character from +certain regions,<a name="FNanchor_50-2_126" id="FNanchor_50-2_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-2_126" class="fnanchor">50-†</a> and Dr. Berendt has copied several striking +examples, showing curious <i>yoni</i> symbols, which are now in my +possession.</p> + +<p>We may explain these as in some way connected with the worship of +Pantecatl, the male divinity who presided over profligate love, and of +Tlazolteotl, the <i>Venus Impudica</i> of the Aztec pantheon; and it is not +without significance that the cave-temple of Votan, whose contents were +destroyed by the Bishop of Chiapas, in 1691 (see above, <a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>), was +located at <i>Tlazoaloyan</i>, both names being derived from a root +signifying sexual action.<a name="FNanchor_50-3_127" id="FNanchor_50-3_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-3_127" class="fnanchor">50-‡</a> The other name of the divinity, +called “the Heart of the Hills,” is in Quiche, Alom, “he who begets,” +and the Zapotec Cozaana, another analogue of the same deity, is +translated by Seler, “the Begetter.” Such facts indicate how intimately +the esoteric doctrines of Nagualism were related to the worship of the +reproductive powers of nature.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_35" id="section_35"></a><b>35.</b> It will readily be understood from what has been said that Nagualism +was neither a pure descendant of the ancient cults, nor yet a derivative +from Christian doctrines and European superstitions. It was a strange +commingling of both, often in grotesque and absurd forms. In fact, the +pretended Christianity of the native population of Mexico to-day is +little more than a figment, according to the testimony of the most +competent observers.<a name="FNanchor_50-4_128" id="FNanchor_50-4_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-4_128" class="fnanchor">50-§</a></p> + +<p>The rituals and prayers of the nagualists bear witness to this. It is +very visible in those I have quoted from Nuñez de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> la Vega, and I can +add an interesting example of it which has not heretofore been +published. I take it from the MSS. of Father Vicente Hernandez Spina, +cura of Ixtlavacan, in Guatemala, a remote village of the Quiches. He +wrote it down in the native tongue about forty years ago, as recited by +an <i>ah-kih</i>, “reader of days,” a native master of the genethliac art, +who had composed it in favor of a client who had asked his intercession.</p> + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Prayer of an Ah-Kih.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“O Jesus Christ my God: thou God the Son, with the Father and the +Holy Spirit, art my only God. Today, on this day, at this hour, on +this day Tihax, I call upon the holy souls which accompany the +sun-rising and the sun-setting of the day: with these holy souls I +call upon thee, O chief of the genii, thou who dwellest in this +mountain of Siba Raxquin; come, ye holy spirits of Juan Vachiac, of +Don Domingo Vachiac, of Juan Ixquiaptap, the holy souls of +Francisco Excoquieh, of Diego Soom, of Juan Fay, of Alonzo Tzep; I +call the holy souls of Diego Tziquin and of Don Pedro Noh: you, O +priests, to whom all things are revealed, and thou, chief of the +genii, you, lords of the mountains, lords of the plains, thou, Don +Purupeto Martin, come, accept this incense, accept to-day this +candle.<a name="FNanchor_51-1_129" id="FNanchor_51-1_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_51-1_129" class="fnanchor">51-*</a></p> + +<p>“Come also, my mother Holy Mary, the Lord of Esquipulas, the Lord +of Capetagua, the beloved Mary of Chiantla, with her who dwells at +San Lorenzo, and also Mary of Sorrows, Mary Saint Anna, Mary +Tibureia, Mary of Carmen, with Saint Michael the Archangel, the +captain St. James, St. Christoval, St. Sebastian, St. Nicolas, St. +Bonaventura, St. Bernardin, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St. +Bartholomew, and thou my beloved mother St. Catherine, thou beloved +Mary of the Conception, Mary of the Rosary, thou lord and king +Pascual, be here present.</p> + +<p>“And thou, Frost, and thou, excellent Wind, thou, God of the plain, +thou, God of Quiac-Basulup, thou, God of Retal-Uleu, thou, lord of +San Gregorio, thou, lord of Chii-Masa. [These are mountains and +localities, and in the original there follow the names of more than +a hundred others. The prayer concludes as follows:]</p> + +<p>“... I who appoint myself godfather and godmother, I who ask, I the +witness and brother of this man who asks, of this man who makes +himself, your son, O holy souls, I ask, do not let any evil happen +unto him, nor let him be unhappy for any cause.</p> + +<p>“I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light +this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my +protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with +facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall +ill of fever; I ask that he shall<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> not become paralytic; that he +may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a +serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do +not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck +by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not +killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by +an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O +thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal +Father.</p> + +<p>“And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you +that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his +enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order +it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices +of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O +holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the +Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus.”</p></div> + +<p>Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and +symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of +Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the +peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I +shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of “calling +back the <i>tonal</i>,” referred to on a previous page. I append an +explanation of its obscure metaphors.</p> + + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>“Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious +stones!<a name="anchor_note_1" id="anchor_note_1"></a><a href="#note_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?<a name="anchor_note_2" id="anchor_note_2"></a><a href="#note_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Is the +obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow +enchantment and the white enchantment.<a name="anchor_note_3" id="anchor_note_3"></a><a href="#note_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p> + +<p>“I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who +formed thee and gave thee life.<a name="anchor_note_4" id="anchor_note_4"></a><a href="#note_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Thou, mother mine of the starry +skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou +turned against this one?<a name="anchor_note_5" id="anchor_note_5"></a><a href="#note_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p> + +<p>“Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth +and depth of the waters.<a name="anchor_note_6" id="anchor_note_6"></a><a href="#note_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> I, master of spells, speak to +<a name="corr5" title="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="thee.">thee</ins> Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems, +come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of +light,<a name="anchor_note_7" id="anchor_note_7"></a><a href="#note_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys +and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit +of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.</p> + +<p>“Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over +mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him +whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine +times smitten, see that thou fail me not.<a name="anchor_note_8" id="anchor_note_8"></a><a href="#note_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Come hither, mother +mine, whose robe is of precious<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> gems; one water, two waters; one +rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two +alligators.<a name="anchor_note_9" id="anchor_note_9"></a><a href="#note_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p> + +<p>“Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise +of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me. +What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and +goddesses?<a name="anchor_note_10" id="anchor_note_10"></a><a href="#note_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> I have come to seek and call back the <i>tonal</i> of +this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it +nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine +unions.<a name="anchor_note_11" id="anchor_note_11"></a><a href="#note_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to +return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head.”</p></div> + + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Explanations.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><a name="note_1" id="note_1"></a><a href="#anchor_note_1">1.</a> The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The +“skirt of precious stones” refers to the green of the precious +green stones, a color sacred to water.</p> + +<p><a name="note_2" id="note_2"></a><a href="#anchor_note_2">2.</a> The question is addressed to the <i>tonal</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="note_3" id="note_3"></a><a href="#anchor_note_3">3.</a> The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.</p> + +<p><a name="note_4" id="note_4"></a><a href="#anchor_note_4">4.</a> That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick +man.</p> + +<p><a name="note_5" id="note_5"></a><a href="#anchor_note_5">5.</a> This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.</p> + +<p><a name="note_6" id="note_6"></a><a href="#anchor_note_6">6.</a> The threat is addressed to the <i>tonal</i>, to frighten it into +returning.</p> + +<p><a name="note_7" id="note_7"></a><a href="#anchor_note_7">7.</a> The “shining spirit” is the Fire-god.</p> + +<p><a name="note_8" id="note_8"></a><a href="#anchor_note_8">8.</a> The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner +indicated.</p> + +<p><a name="note_9" id="note_9"></a><a href="#anchor_note_9">9.</a> These are names of days in the native calendar which are +invoked.</p> + +<p><a name="note_10" id="note_10"></a><a href="#anchor_note_10">10.</a> The priest speaks in the person of his god.</p> + +<p><a name="note_11" id="note_11"></a><a href="#anchor_note_11">11.</a> Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and +nine under worlds.</p></div> + +<p>From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of +symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be +sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around +their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of +coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.</p> + + +<p class="titlepage"><i>Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>Blood.</i>—“The red woman with snakes on her gown” (referring to the +veins).</p> + +<p><i>Copal Gum.</i>—“The white woman” (from the whitish color of the +fresh gum).</p> + +<p><i>Cords</i> (for carrying burdens).—“The snake that does woman’s work” +(because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself +is carried).</p> + +<p><i>Drunkenness.</i>—“My resting time,” or “when I am getting my +breath.”</p> + +<p><i>The Earth.</i>—“The mirror that smokes” (because of the mists that +rise<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> from it); “the rabbit with its mouth upward” (the rabbit, in +opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward, +because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled +from the mouth); “the flower which contains everything” (as all +fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed +from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); “the +flower which bites the mouths” (a flower, for the reason given; it +eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and +are swallowed by it).</p> + +<p><i>Fingers.</i>—“The five fates,” or “the five works,” or “the five +fields” (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own +destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the +god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words +mean “hand”).</p> + +<p><i>Fire.</i>—“Our Father of the Four Reeds” (because the ceremony of +making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); “the +shining rose;” “the yellow flyer;” “the red-haired one;” “the +yellow spirit.”</p> + +<p><i>A Knife of Copper.</i>—“The yellow Chichimec” (because the +Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).</p> + +<p><i>The Maguey Plant.</i>—“My sister, the eight in a row” (because it +was planted in this manner).</p> + +<p><i>A Road.</i>—“That which is divided in two, and yet has neither +beginning, middle nor end” (because it always lies in two +directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and +thus never end).</p> + +<p><i>Sickness.</i>—“The red woman;” “the breath of the flame;” “our +mother the comet” (all referring to the fever); “the Chichimec” +(because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); “the +spider” (because of its venomous nature).</p> + +<p><i>Smoke.</i>—“The old wife” (<i>i. e.</i>, of the fire).</p> + +<p><i>The Sun.</i>—“Our holy and pockified Uncle” (referring to the myth +of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a +fire rose as the sun).</p> + +<p><i>Tobacco.</i>—“The nine (or seven) times beaten” (because for sacred +purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); “the enchanted +gray one” (from its color and use in conjuring).</p> + +<p><i>Water.</i>—“The Green Woman” (from the greenness which follows +moisture); “our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones” (from the +green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade, +etc.).</p></div> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_36" id="section_36"></a><b>36.</b> It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the +Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy +Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is, +that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who +at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the +Indies, “to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their +stupidity and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy +Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy, +sorcery, incantations, superstitions,” etc.</p> + +<p>Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption. +In the imposing <i>auto de fé</i> celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659, +a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian +mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office +by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the +precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood +brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.<a name="FNanchor_55-1_130" id="FNanchor_55-1_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-1_130" class="fnanchor">55-*</a> +Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an +<i>auto de fé</i> held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which +eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess +Pinopiaa.<a name="FNanchor_55-2_131" id="FNanchor_55-2_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-2_131" class="fnanchor">55-†</a> Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied +extensively the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in +none of the trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism, +although many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting +Indian sorcerers.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_37" id="section_37"></a><b>37.</b> It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism +extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It +becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock +this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is +reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their +origin.</p> + +<p>The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most +writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while +an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a +radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects, +and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_55-3_132" id="FNanchor_55-3_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-3_132" class="fnanchor">55-‡</a> Perhaps both these +positions are erroneous, and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> must look elsewhere for the true +etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become +domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think +they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable, +civilization than either of these nations could claim.</p> + +<p>To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from +the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series, +three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though +geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and +the Nahuatl.</p> + + +<p class="titlepage"><i>From the Maya, of Yucatan.</i></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li><i>Naual</i>, or <i>nautal</i>, a native dance, forbidden by the +missionaries.</li> + <li><i>Naatil</i>, talent, skill, ability.</li> + <li><i>Naat</i>, intelligence, wisdom.</li> + <li><i>Naatah</i>, to understand, to divine.</li> + <li><i>Nanaol</i>, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with +oneself, to enter into oneself.</li> + <li><i>Noh</i>, great, skillful; as <i>noh ahceh</i>, a skillful hunter.</li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From Maya Dialects.</i></p> + +<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">Quiche-Cakchiquel.</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li><i>Naual</i>, a witch or sorcerer.</li> + <li><i>Naualin</i>, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.</li> + <li><i>Qui naualin</i>, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.</li> + <li><i>Na</i>, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one’s heart.</li> + <li><i>Nao</i>, to know, to be alert or expert in something.</li> + <li><i>Naol</i>, a skillful person, a rhetorician.</li> + <li><i>Naotizan</i>, to make another intelligent or astute.</li> + <li><i>Natal</i>, the memory.</li> + <li><i>Natub</i>, the soul or shadow of a man.</li> + <li><i>Noh</i>, the god of reason (“Genius der Vernunft,” Scherzer).</li> + <li><i>Noh</i>, to fecundate, to impregnate (<i>Popol Vuh</i>).</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Tzental.</span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li><i>X-qna</i>, to know.</li> + <li><i>X-qnaulai</i>, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).</li> + <li><i>Naom</i>, wise, astute (<i>naom vinic</i>, hombre sabio).</li> + <li><i>Naoghi</i>, art, science.</li> + <li><i>Naoghibal</i>, memory.</li> + <li><i>Ghnaoghel</i>, a wise man.</li> + <li><i>Alaghom naom</i>, the Goddess of Wisdom.</li> +</ul> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p> + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li><i>Nana</i>, <i>gana</i>, <i>gona</i>, to know.</li> + <li><i>Nona</i>, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.</li> + <li><i>Nana ticha</i>, or <i>nona lii</i>, a wise man.</li> + <li><i>Guela nana</i>, or <i>guela nona</i>, wisdom, knowledge.</li> + <li><i>Hue gona</i>, or <i>ro gona</i>, a teacher, a master.</li> + <li><i>Na lii</i>, truth; <i>ni na lii</i>, that which is true.</li> + <li><i>Naciña</i>, or <i>naciina</i>, skill, dexterity.</li> + <li><i>Hui naa</i>, a medicine man, a “nagualist.”</li> + <li><i>Nahaa</i>, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.</li> + <li><i>Nayaa</i>, or <i>nayapi</i>, to speak easily or fluently.</li> + <li><i>Rigoo gona</i>, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.</li> + <li><i>Ni nana</i>, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.</li> + <li><i>Nayanii</i>, the superior reason of man.</li> + <li><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0;" summary=""> + <tr><td style="padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;"><i>Nayaa</i>,<br /><i>Naguii</i>,</td><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 0;"> superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).</td></tr> + </table></li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From the Nahuatl, of Mexico</i>.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li><i>Naua</i>, to dance, holding each other by the hands.</li> + <li><i>Naualli</i>, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.</li> + <li><i>Nauallotl</i>, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.</li> + <li><i>Nauatl</i>, or <i>nahuatl</i>, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior; +applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the +name of the tongue.</li> + <li><i>Nauati</i>, to speak clearly and distinctly.</li> + <li><i>Nauatlato</i>, an interpreter.</li> +</ul> +</div> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_38" id="section_38"></a><b>38.</b> I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words, +all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and +writing when they still retained their original purity, without +acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and +further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this +radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize +the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya +linguistic stocks.</p> + +<p>The root <i>na</i>, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we +trace all of them. <i>Nahual</i> means knowledge, especially mystic +knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of +nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and +magic.<a name="FNanchor_57-1_133" id="FNanchor_57-1_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_57-1_133" class="fnanchor">57-*</a></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>It is very significant that neither the radical <i>na</i> nor any of its +derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which +was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock. +The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.</p> + +<p>Nor in the Nahuatl language—although its very name is derived from +it<a name="FNanchor_58-1_134" id="FNanchor_58-1_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-1_134" class="fnanchor">58-*</a>—does the radical <i>na</i> appear in its simplicity and true +significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.</p> + +<p>It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican <i>naualli</i>, a sorcerer, +from the verb <i>nahualtia</i>, to mask or disguise oneself, “because a +<i>naualli</i> is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some +lower animal, which is his <i>nagual</i>;”<a name="FNanchor_58-2_135" id="FNanchor_58-2_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-2_135" class="fnanchor">58-†</a> but it is altogether +likely that <i>nahualtia</i> derived its meaning from the custom of the +medicine men to wear masks during their ceremonies.</p> + +<p>Therefore, if the term <i>nagual</i>, and many of its associates and +derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a +necessary <a name="corr6" title="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="corollary">corrollary</ins> of this conclusion is, that along with these +terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they +allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such +superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.</p> + +<p>Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them, +and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were +employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the +name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to +Nicaragua and beyond.</p> + +<p>The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient +significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico <i>nagual</i> +is defined as “a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them +behave,”<a name="FNanchor_58-3_136" id="FNanchor_58-3_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-3_136" class="fnanchor">58-‡</a> while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl +population has left so many traces of its presence in the language of +to-day, the word <i>nagual</i> no longer means an actor in the black art, or +a knowledge of it, but his or her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> armamentarium, or the box, jar or +case in which are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and +charms, which constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the +necromancer.<a name="FNanchor_59-1_137" id="FNanchor_59-1_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-1_137" class="fnanchor">59-*</a></p> + +<p>Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the +upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term +<i>naguate</i> or <i>nagutlat</i> is said to be applied to any one “who is +entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;”<a name="FNanchor_59-2_138" id="FNanchor_59-2_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-2_138" class="fnanchor">59-†</a> but in all +probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult +knowledge.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_39" id="section_39"></a><b>39.</b> All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are +aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change +themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than +history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of +ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the +peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the +were-wolf of Germany, the <i>loup-garou</i> of France and the <i>lupo mannaro</i> +of Italy. Dr. Richard Andrée well says in his interesting study of the +subject: “He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition +must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one +universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but +of the species and its psychology at large.”<a name="FNanchor_59-3_139" id="FNanchor_59-3_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-3_139" class="fnanchor">59-‡</a></p> + +<p>Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person +with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between +the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany. +As in Mexico the <i>nagual</i> was assigned to the infant by a form of +baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the +godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant +will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the +name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been +changed will restore him to human shape.<a name="FNanchor_59-4_140" id="FNanchor_59-4_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-4_140" class="fnanchor">59-§</a></p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_40" id="section_40"></a><b>40.</b> I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not +especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> general, and +can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient +Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that +each individual has a particular spirit, or <i>daimōn</i>, in whom is +enshrined his or her moral personality. To this <i>daimōn</i> he should +address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior +promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent +monitor.<a name="FNanchor_60-1_141" id="FNanchor_60-1_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_60-1_141" class="fnanchor">60-*</a></p> + +<p>Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the <i>daimōn</i> of +the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has +chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did +not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian +priest selecting the <i>nagual</i> of the child a hideous and diabolical +caricature of the holy rites.</p> + +<p>But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded +so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal +sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign +which represents the natal day, the <i>tonal</i>, by which the individual +demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have +seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole +business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic +powers of its professors.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_41" id="section_41"></a><b>41.</b> How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to +take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The +evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful +jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations. +They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not +surpass them.</p> + +<p>Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators? +Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which +the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel +and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken +glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the +sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have +to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of +thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>ance, of spiritual +rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the +nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of +nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are +recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and +Rome.<a name="FNanchor_61-1_142" id="FNanchor_61-1_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_61-1_142" class="fnanchor">61-*</a> So long as many intelligent and sensible people among +ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and +unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those +of a greater antiquity.</p> + + +<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_42" id="section_42"></a><b>42.</b> The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it +was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have +asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism, +more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained; +but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization, +extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and +varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers +and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion—hatred +of the whites—and by one unalterable purpose—that of their +destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and +religion which they had introduced.</p> + + +<div class="footnotes"> +<p><a name="Footnote_4-1_1" id="Footnote_4-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4-1_1"><span class="label">4-*</span></a> These words occur a number of times in the English +translation, published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera’s +<i>Teatro Critico Americano</i>. The form <i>nagual</i> instead of <i>nahual</i>, or +<i>naual</i>, or <i>nawal</i> has been generally adopted and should be preferred.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4-2_2" id="Footnote_4-2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4-2_2"><span class="label">4-†</span></a> For instance, in “The Names of the Gods in the Kiche +Myths,” pp. 21, 22, in <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical +Society</i>, 1881; <i>Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>, Introduction, p. 46; +<i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, p. 170, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5-1_3" id="Footnote_5-1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5-1_3"><span class="label">5-*</span></a> <i>Historia de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec. iv, Lib. +viii, cap. 4.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5-2_4" id="Footnote_5-2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4"><span class="label">5-†</span></a> More especially it is the territory of the Chorti +dialect, spoken to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city +of Copan, Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of +this celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, <i>Zur Ethnographie der +Republik Guatemala</i>, pp. 106-9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6-1_5" id="Footnote_6-1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-1_5"><span class="label">6-*</span></a> Bernardino de Sahagun, <i>Historia de la Nueva España</i>, +Lib. x, cap. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6-2_6" id="Footnote_6-2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-2_6"><span class="label">6-†</span></a> Derived from <i>teciuhtlaza</i>, to conjure against hail, +itself from <i>teciuh</i>, hail. Alonso de Molina, <i>Vocabulario Mexicano</i>, +sub voce.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6-3_7" id="Footnote_6-3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-3_7"><span class="label">6-‡</span></a> Bautista, <i>Advertencias para los Confesores</i>, fol. 112 +(Mexico, 1600).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6-4_8" id="Footnote_6-4_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-4_8"><span class="label">6-§</span></a> Nicolas de Leon, <i>Camino del Cielo</i>, fol. 111 (Mexico, +1611).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7-1_9" id="Footnote_7-1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-1_9"><span class="label">7-*</span></a> Paso y Troncoso, in <i>Anales del Museo <a name="corr7" title="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="Nacional">Nacionàl</ins> de +Mexico</i>, Tom. iii, p. 180.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7-2_10" id="Footnote_7-2_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-2_10"><span class="label">7-†</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva España</i>, Lib. x, cap. 29, +and Lib. xi, cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious +properties of this plant: “Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo +fides sit vulgatissimæ inter eos rei habendæ), devorantes illam +quodlibet prsæsagire prædicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint +impetum in eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis +supellectilem, aut aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum +alia, quibus Chichimecæ hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis.” Franciscus +Hernandus, <i>Historia Plantarum Novæ Hispaniæ</i>, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed., +Madrid, 1790).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7-3_11" id="Footnote_7-3_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-3_11"><span class="label">7-‡</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360 +(Mexico, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8-1_12" id="Footnote_8-1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-1_12"><span class="label">8-*</span></a> <i>Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana</i>, fol. +8, verso (Mexico, 1634).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8-2_13" id="Footnote_8-2_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-2_13"><span class="label">8-†</span></a> Vetancurt, <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Trat. iii, cap. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8-3_14" id="Footnote_8-3_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-3_14"><span class="label">8-‡</span></a> Hernandez, <i>Historia Plantarum Novæ Hispaniæ</i>, Tom. +iii, p. 32.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9-1_15" id="Footnote_9-1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9-1_15"><span class="label">9-*</span></a> Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, <i>Manual de <a name="corr8" title="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="Ministros">Min stros</ins> de +Indios para el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas</i>, +p. 163. This interesting work was composed about the middle of the +seventeenth century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was +first printed at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon, +under the editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9-2_16" id="Footnote_9-2_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9-2_16"><span class="label">9-†</span></a> MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and <i>Informe</i> of Father +Baeza in <i>Registro Yucateco</i>, Tom. i.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10-1_17" id="Footnote_10-1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-1_17"><span class="label">10-*</span></a> Acosta, <i>De la Historia Moral de Indias</i>, Lib. v, cap. +26.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10-2_18" id="Footnote_10-2_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-2_18"><span class="label">10-†</span></a> Of the <i>thiuimeezque</i> Hernandez writes: “Aiunt radicis +cortice unius unciæ pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos +observare phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum +figuras, detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit.” +<i>Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan.</i>, Tom. iii, p. 272. The <i>chacuaco</i> and its +effects are described by Father Venegas in his <i>History of California</i>, +etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10-3_19" id="Footnote_10-3_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19"><span class="label">10-‡</span></a> “In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in +Tlahuipuchtin.” Paredes, <i>Promptuario Manual Mexicano</i>, p. 128 (Mexico, +1757). The <i>tlahuipuchtin</i>, “those who work with smoke,” were probably +diviners who foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising +in the air. This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they +were called <i>Uirapircos</i> (Balboa, <i>Hist. du Perou</i>, p. 28-30).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10-4_20" id="Footnote_10-4_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-4_20"><span class="label">10-§</span></a> Von Gagern, <i>Charakteristik der Indianischer Bevölkerung +Mexikos</i>, s. 125.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11-1_21" id="Footnote_11-1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-1_21"><span class="label">11-*</span></a> <i>Historia Antigua de Mexico</i>, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco +Pimentel, in his thoughtful work, <i>Memoria sobre las Causas que han +originado la Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico</i> (Mexico, +1864), recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith +in this nagualism. “Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la +antigüedad, siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los <i>nahuales</i>,” etc., p. 200, +and comp. p. 145.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11-2_22" id="Footnote_11-2_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-2_22"><span class="label">11-†</span></a> On these terms consult the extensive <i>Dictionnaire de +la Langue Nahuatl</i>, by Rémi <a name="corr9" title="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="Siméon,">Simeon,</ins> published at Paris, 1887. It +is not impossible that <i>tona</i> is itself a compound root, including the +monosyllabic radical <i>na</i>, which is at the basis of <i>nagual</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11-3_23" id="Footnote_11-3_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-3_23"><span class="label">11-‡</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva España</i>, Lib. iv, +<i>passim</i>, and Lib. x, cap. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12-1_24" id="Footnote_12-1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12-1_24"><span class="label">12-*</span></a> See Ch. de Labarthe, <i>Révue Américaine</i>, Serie ii, Tom. +ii, pp. 222-225. His translation of <i>naualteteuctin</i> by “Seigneurs du +gènie” must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for +assigning this meaning to <i>naualli</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13-1_25" id="Footnote_13-1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-1_25"><span class="label">13-*</span></a> <i>Anales de Cuauhtitlan</i>, p. 31. The translator renders +it “palo brujo.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13-2_26" id="Footnote_13-2_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-2_26"><span class="label">13-†</span></a> <i>Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i>, pp. 146-148, +figured on p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, <i>Decades +Americanæ</i>, pp. 74-81.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13-3_27" id="Footnote_13-3_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-3_27"><span class="label">13-‡</span></a> <i>The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico</i> +(Philadelphia, 1893).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13-4_28" id="Footnote_13-4_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-4_28"><span class="label">13-§</span></a> Eduard Mühlenpfordt, <i>Mexico</i>, Bd. i, s. 255.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14-1_29" id="Footnote_14-1_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14-1_29"><span class="label">14-*</span></a> The word is derived from <i>tlatoa</i>, to speak for another, +and its usual translation was “chief,” as the head man spoke for, and in +the name of the gens or tribe.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14-2_30" id="Footnote_14-2_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14-2_30"><span class="label">14-†</span></a> The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the +Appendix to the <i>Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia</i> +(Mexico, 1856). Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the +Mixes cling to their ancient beliefs. Señor Moro says they continue to +be “notorious idolaters,” and their actual religion to be “an absurd +jumble of their old superstitions with Christian doctrines” (in Orozco y +Berra, <i>Geografia de las Lenguas de <a name="corr10" title="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="Mexico">exico</ins></i>, p. 176).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15-1_31" id="Footnote_15-1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15-1_31"><span class="label">15-*</span></a> For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his <i>Estudios +Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueño</i> (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the +<i>nahualt</i> was a ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the +infant was bled from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a +certain day, and a guardian angel or <i>tona</i>. These words are pure +Nahuatl, and Carriedo, who does not give his authority, probably had +none which referred these rites to the Zapotecs.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15-2_32" id="Footnote_15-2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15-2_32"><span class="label">15-†</span></a> Juan de Cordova, <i>Arte en Lengua Zapoteca</i>, pp. 16, +202, 203, 213, 216.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16-1_33" id="Footnote_16-1_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16-1_33"><span class="label">16-*</span></a> Quoted in Carriedo, ubi suprá, p. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16-2_34" id="Footnote_16-2_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16-2_34"><span class="label">16-†</span></a> <i>Hist. de las Indias Oc.</i>, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. +12.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17-1_35" id="Footnote_17-1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-1_35"><span class="label">17-*</span></a> So I understand the phrase, “figuras pintadas con zifras +<a name="corr11" title="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="enigmaticas.”">enigmaticas”</ins></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17-2_36" id="Footnote_17-2_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-2_36"><span class="label">17-†</span></a> <i>Popoluca</i> was a term applied to various languages. I +suspect the one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me, +entitled “Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography,” in +the <i>Compte Rendu</i> of the Eighth Session of the Congress of +Americanists, p. 566, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17-3_37" id="Footnote_17-3_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-3_37"><span class="label">17-‡</span></a> <i>Constit. Diocesan</i>, p. 19.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18-1_38" id="Footnote_18-1_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18-1_38"><span class="label">18-*</span></a> <i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19-1_39" id="Footnote_19-1_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-1_39"><span class="label">19-*</span></a> Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the +Gucumatz of the Quiches, both of which names mean “Feathered Serpent.” +Mixcohuatl, the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the +Thunder-storm.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19-2_40" id="Footnote_19-2_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-2_40"><span class="label">19-†</span></a> In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give +this exact form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father +Ximenes has <i>quikeho</i>, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement; +the prefix <i>zme</i> is the Tzental word for “mother.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20-1_41" id="Footnote_20-1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20-1_41"><span class="label">20-*</span></a> Father Lara, in his <i>Vocabulario Tzendal MS.</i> (in my +possession), gives for medical (medico), <i>ghpoxil</i>, for medicine +(medicinal cosa), <i>pox</i>, <i>xpoxtacoghbil</i>; for physician (medico), +<i>ghpoxta vinic</i> (the form <i>vanegh</i>, person, is also correct). The +Tzendal <i>pox</i> (pronounced <i>pōsh</i>) is another form of the +Quiche-Cakchiquel <i>pūz</i>, a word which Father Ximenes, in his +<i>Vocabulario Cakchiquel</i> MS (in my possession), gives in the compound +<i>puz naual</i>, with the meaning, enchanter, wizard. Both these, I take it, +are derived from the Maya <i>puz</i>, which means to blow the dust, etc., off +of something (soplar el polvo de la ropa ó otra cosa. <i>Dicc. de la +Lengua Maya del Convento de Motul</i>, MS. The dictionary edited by Pio +Perez does not give this meaning). The act of blowing was the essential +feature in the treatment of these medicine men. It symbolized the +transfer and exercise of spiritual power. When Votan built his +underground shrine he did it <i>à soplos</i>, by blowing (Nuñez de la Vega, +<i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, p. 10). The natives did not regard the comet’s +tail as behind it but in front of it, blown from its mouth. The Nahuatl +word in the text, <i>tzihuizin</i>, is the Pipil form of <i>xihuitzin</i>, the +reverential of <i>xihuitl</i>, which means a leaf, a season, a year, or a +comet. Apparently it refers to the Nahuatl divinity <i>Xiuhté cutli</i>, +described by Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva España</i>, Lib. i, cap. 13, as +god of fire, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21-1_42" id="Footnote_21-1_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-1_42"><span class="label">21-*</span></a> <i>Hicalahau</i>, for <i>ical ahau</i>, Black King, one of the +Tzental divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21-2_43" id="Footnote_21-2_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-2_43"><span class="label">21-†</span></a> “Mæstros de los pueblos,” <i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, i, p. +106.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23-1_44" id="Footnote_23-1_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23-1_44"><span class="label">23-*</span></a> <i>Historia de Guatemala, ò, Recordacion Florida</i>, Tom. +ii, p. 44, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24-1_45" id="Footnote_24-1_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24-1_45"><span class="label">24-*</span></a> Gage, <i>A New Survey of the West Indies</i>, p. 388, <i>seq.</i> +(4th Ed.).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25-1_46" id="Footnote_25-1_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25-1_46"><span class="label">25-*</span></a> <i>Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacré des Quichés</i>, p. 315 (Ed. +Brasseur, Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of +Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, “Feathered +Serpent.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25-2_47" id="Footnote_25-2_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25-2_47"><span class="label">25-†</span></a> Baeza’s article is printed in the <i>Registro Yucateco</i>, +Vol. i, p. 165, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26-1_48" id="Footnote_26-1_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-1_48"><span class="label">26-*</span></a> “Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erhält der +heidnische Götzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der +katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltbürger durch den Aj-quig +das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt, +Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein +Lieblingsgötze angerufen, und noche viele andere aberglaübische +Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur +christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach +seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gewöhnlich auch +als sein Schutzgeist (<i>nagual</i>) fürs ganze Leben.” Dr. Karl Scherzer, +<i>Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan</i>, p. 11, Wien, 1856.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26-2_49" id="Footnote_26-2_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-2_49"><span class="label">26-†</span></a> The word <i>zahori</i>, of Arabic origin, is thus explained +in the Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): “So +they call in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of +the earth, through stone walls, or into a man’s body.” Dr. Stoll says +the Guatemala Indians speak of their diviners, the <i>Ah Kih</i>, as +<i>zahorin</i>. <i>Guatemala</i>, s. 229.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26-3_50" id="Footnote_26-3_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-3_50"><span class="label">26-‡</span></a> Emetorio Pineda, <i>Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y +Soconusco</i>, p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27-1_51" id="Footnote_27-1_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27-1_51"><span class="label">27-*</span></a> Madier de Montjau, “Manuscrits Figuratifs de l’ Ancien +Mexique,” in <i>Archives de la Sociétè <a name="corr12" title="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="Américaine">Americaine</ins> de France</i>, 1875, +p. 245.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27-2_52" id="Footnote_27-2_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27-2_52"><span class="label">27-†</span></a> Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. xv, cap. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28-1_53" id="Footnote_28-1_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-1_53"><span class="label">28-*</span></a> De la Serna, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162. +The mushroom referred to was the <i>quauhnanacatl</i>, probably the same as +the <i>teyhuinti</i> of Hernandez, <i>Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan.</i>, Tom. ii, p. +358, who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind, +inciting to laughter and intoxication.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28-2_54" id="Footnote_28-2_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-2_54"><span class="label">28-†</span></a> Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as +late as the middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, <i>Tres Siglos de +Mexico</i>, etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28-3_55" id="Footnote_28-3_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-3_55"><span class="label">28-‡</span></a> Brasseur, <i>Hist. des Nations Civilisées de Mexique</i>, +Tom. iv, p. 822.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29-1_56" id="Footnote_29-1_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-1_56"><span class="label">29-*</span></a> <i>Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba +Figueroa, corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque</i>, quoted by +Brasseur.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29-2_57" id="Footnote_29-2_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-2_57"><span class="label">29-†</span></a> Jacinto de la Serna says: “Los mæstros de estas +ceremonias son todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas +sucede.” <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the +nagualists of Chiapas, Bishop Nuñez de la Vega writes: “Concuerdan los +mas modernos con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico.” +<i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, p. 134.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29-3_58" id="Footnote_29-3_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-3_58"><span class="label">29-‡</span></a> He observes that there were “familias de los tales +sabios en las quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo +los hijos á los padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de +Nagualismo.” <i>Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra</i>, MS., p. 7. Ordoñez +advances various erudite reasons for believing that Nagualism is a +religious belief whose theory and rites were brought from Carthage by +Punic navigators in ancient times.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29-4_59" id="Footnote_29-4_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-4_59"><span class="label">29-§</span></a> Maria de Moxó, <i>Cartas Mejicanas</i>, p. 270, (Genova, n. +d.).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30-1_60" id="Footnote_30-1_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-1_60"><span class="label">30-*</span></a> “<i>Xochimilca</i>, que asi llamavan à los mui sabios +encantadores.” Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. xv, cap. 16.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30-2_61" id="Footnote_30-2_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-2_61"><span class="label">30-†</span></a> In Nahuatl, <i>tlapiani</i>, a guardian or watchman. The +Zapotec priesthood was divided into the <i>huijatoos</i>, “greater +guardians,” and their inferiors, the <i>copavitoos</i>, “guardians of the +gods.” Carriedo, <i>Estudios <a name="corr13" title="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="Historicos">Historicòs</ins></i>, p. 93.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30-3_62" id="Footnote_30-3_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-3_62"><span class="label">30-‡</span></a> See Eligio Ancona. <i>Historia de Yucatan</i>, Tom. iv, +cap. 1 (Mérida, 1880).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31-1_63" id="Footnote_31-1_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31-1_63"><span class="label">31-*</span></a> The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples +indicates that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in +Yucatan as in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named, +but presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address +of Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by +the Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his <i>Relacion hecho al Cabildo +Eclesiastico por el preposito de la Compañia de Jesus, acerca de la +muerte de Jacinto Can-Ek y socios</i>, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with +other documents relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the +<i>Diccionario Universal</i>, edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the +prophecies of Chilan Balam, see my <i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, pp. +255-273 (Philadelphia, 1890).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31-2_64" id="Footnote_31-2_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31-2_64"><span class="label">31-†</span></a> Eligio Ancona, <i>Hist. de Yucatan</i>, Tom. ii, p. 452.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32-1_65" id="Footnote_32-1_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-1_65"><span class="label">32-*</span></a> See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, <i>Informe contra Idolum +Cultores en Yucathan</i> (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, <i>Historia de +Yucatan</i>, Tom. ii, pp. 128, 129.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32-2_66" id="Footnote_32-2_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-2_66"><span class="label">32-†</span></a> The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres +Castillo, <i>Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex +y Villa Alta</i> (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos de Mexico +durante el Gobierno Español</i>, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by +Christoval Manso de Contreras, <i>Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que +sucedio en esta Provincia de Tehuantepec</i>, etc. (printed at Mexico, +1661), which I know only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H. +Bancroft, in his very meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists +that it took place in 1660. <i>History of Mexico</i>, Vol. iii, p. 164.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32-3_67" id="Footnote_32-3_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-3_67"><span class="label">32-‡</span></a> See Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire des Nations +Civilisées de la Mexique</i>, Tom. iv, 824.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32-4_68" id="Footnote_32-4_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-4_68"><span class="label">32-§</span></a> Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos</i>, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the +use and significance of the <i>piochtli</i> we have some information in +Vetancurt, <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, <i>Manual +de Ministros</i>, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the +native priesthood.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33-1_69" id="Footnote_33-1_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-1_69"><span class="label">33-*</span></a> <i>Adventures on the Musquito Shore</i>, by S. A. Ward, +pseudonym of Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33-2_70" id="Footnote_33-2_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-2_70"><span class="label">33-†</span></a> Nuñez de la Vega, <i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, p. 10, +and comp. Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique</i>, Tom. +i, p. 74.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33-3_71" id="Footnote_33-3_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-3_71"><span class="label">33-‡</span></a> Herrera, <i>Hist. de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec. ii, +Lib. iii, cap. 5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34-1_72" id="Footnote_34-1_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-1_72"><span class="label">34-*</span></a> Acosta, <i>Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias</i>, Lib. vii, +cap. 5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34-2_73" id="Footnote_34-2_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-2_73"><span class="label">34-†</span></a> The story is given in Herrera, <i>Hist. de las Indias</i>, +Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the +account as “Flying Tigress.” I cannot assign it this sense in any +dialect.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34-3_74" id="Footnote_34-3_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-3_74"><span class="label">34-‡</span></a> Jacinto de la Serna, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>. p. 138. +Sahagun identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of +mankind and goddess of child-birth (<i>Hist. de Nueva España</i>, Lib. i, +cap. 6, Lib. vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by +Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The <i>tzitzime</i> were +mysterious elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined +finally to destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8). +The word means “flying haired” (Serna).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34-4_75" id="Footnote_34-4_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-4_75"><span class="label">34-§</span></a> Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 62.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35-1_76" id="Footnote_35-1_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-1_76"><span class="label">35-*</span></a> Fr. Tomas Coto, <i>Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel</i>, +MS., s. v. <i>Sacrificar</i>; in the Library of the American Philosophical +Society at Philadelphia.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35-2_77" id="Footnote_35-2_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-2_77"><span class="label">35-†</span></a> “Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y +<i>naguales</i>” are the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his +<i>Recordacion Florida</i>, Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it +reads as if this witch and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes +is clear in his statement, and had other documents at hand.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35-3_78" id="Footnote_35-3_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-3_78"><span class="label">35-‡</span></a> Teobert Maler, “Mémoire sur l’Etat de Chiapas,” in +the <i>Révue d’ Ethnographie</i>, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also +gives some valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de +Alicia, in 1873.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36-1_79" id="Footnote_36-1_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-1_79"><span class="label">36-*</span></a> The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this +insurrection is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly +prejudiced Spanish sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the +motives which prompted the native actors. See his <i>History of the +Pacific States</i>, Vol ii, p. 696 <i>sqq.</i> Ordoñez y Aguiar, who lived on +the spot within a generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria +Candelaria (whose true name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the +rebellion, “quien ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que +principalmente trataban las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que +no quedase rastro alguno de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo.” +His account is in his unpublished work, <i>Historia del Cielo y de la +Tierra</i>, written at Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their +rites, says of them: “Apostando de la fé, profanando los vasos sagrados, +y ofreciendo sacrilegos cultos á una indizuela.” <i>Historia de la Ciudad +de Guatemala</i>, Tom. i, p. 17.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36-2_80" id="Footnote_36-2_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-2_80"><span class="label">36-†</span></a> Bancroft, ubi suprà, p. 705, note. One was hanged, +whom Garcia Pelaez calls “una india bruja.” <i>Memorias para la Historia +de Guatemala</i>, Tom. ii, p. 153.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36-3_81" id="Footnote_36-3_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-3_81"><span class="label">36-‡</span></a> Squier, ubi suprà, passim.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37-1_82" id="Footnote_37-1_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37-1_82"><span class="label">37-*</span></a> <i>Voyage á l’ Isthmus de Tehuantepec</i>, p. 164. He adds a +number of particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38-1_83" id="Footnote_38-1_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38-1_83"><span class="label">38-*</span></a> “Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma.” See +<i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_38-2_84" id="Footnote_38-2_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38-2_84"><span class="label">38-†</span></a> “Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und +weiter südwärts seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen +Olymp fremd ist, darüber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten.” See Dr. +Seler’s able discussion of the subject in the <i>Compte-Rendu</i> of the +Seventh International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, <i>seq.</i> The +adoption of subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait. +“Notandose principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan +los mas de ellos cubiertos, ò en subterraneos espaciosos y lòbregos.” +Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos</i>, Tom. i, p. 26.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39-1_85" id="Footnote_39-1_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-1_85"><span class="label">39-*</span></a> <i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, pp. 9, 10.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39-2_86" id="Footnote_39-2_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-2_86"><span class="label">39-†</span></a> Gage, <i>A New Survey of the West Indies</i>, pp. 389, +393.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_39-3_87" id="Footnote_39-3_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-3_87"><span class="label">39-‡</span></a> <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr. +Bandelier has called attention to the naming of one of the principal +chiefs among the Aztecs, <i>Tlilancalqui</i>, “Man of the Dark House,” and +thinks it related to the Votan myth. <i>Twelfth Annual Report of the +Peabody Museum</i>, p. 689.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40-1_88" id="Footnote_40-1_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-1_88"><span class="label">40-*</span></a> Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec. +iii, Lib. iii, cap. 14.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40-2_89" id="Footnote_40-2_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-2_89"><span class="label">40-†</span></a> Villa Señor, <i>Teatro Americano</i>, Lib. v, cap. 38 +(Mexico, 1747). Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human +sacrifices present, but of this I can find no evidence in the earlier +reports. Comp. Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno +<a name="corr14" title="corr14"></a><ins class="correction" title="Español">Españal</ins></i>, Tom. ii, p. 128.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_40-3_90" id="Footnote_40-3_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-3_90"><span class="label">40-‡</span></a> <i>Teatro Americano</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap. +13.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41-1_91" id="Footnote_41-1_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-1_91"><span class="label">41-*</span></a> See Mühlenpfordt, <i>Mexico</i>, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266; +Brasseur, <i>Hist. des Nations Civ. de la Mexique</i>, Vol. iv, p. 821; +Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41-2_92" id="Footnote_41-2_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-2_92"><span class="label">41-†</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, s. v.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41-3_93" id="Footnote_41-3_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-3_93"><span class="label">41-‡</span></a> Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father +Stone; Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. <i>Dicc. Univ.</i>, App., Tom. +iii, p. 11.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41-4_94" id="Footnote_41-4_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-4_94"><span class="label">41-§</span></a> Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios</i>, Tom. ii, p. 140. They +were Tota, Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably +pulque); and Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom +this epithet was often applied).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_41-5_95" id="Footnote_41-5_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-5_95"><span class="label">41-‖</span></a> “Fue el Demonio que les dió la superstición del +numero nueve.” <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 197.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-1_96" id="Footnote_42-1_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-1_96"><span class="label">42-*</span></a> <i>The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico</i>, p. +12.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-2_97" id="Footnote_42-2_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-2_97"><span class="label">42-†</span></a> Motolinia, <i>Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias +de los Indios de la Nueva España</i>, p. 340 (in <i>Coleccion de Documentos +ineditos para la Historia de España</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-3_98" id="Footnote_42-3_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-3_98"><span class="label">42-‡</span></a> Thomas Coto, <i>Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel</i>, +MS., sub voce, <i>Rayo</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-4_99" id="Footnote_42-4_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-4_99"><span class="label">42-§</span></a> Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, Dec. IV, Lib. viii, +cap. 10.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-5_100" id="Footnote_42-5_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-5_100"><span class="label">42-‖</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, ubi suprá.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_42-6_101" id="Footnote_42-6_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-6_101"><span class="label">42-¶</span></a> <a name="corr15" title="corr15"></a><ins class="correction" title="“Señor">‘Señor</ins> de los Animales.” <i>Codex +Telleriano-Remensis</i>, Parte ii, Lam. iv.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43-1_102" id="Footnote_43-1_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-1_102"><span class="label">43-*</span></a> See Dr. Seler’s minute description in the <i>Compte Rendu</i> +of the Eighth Session of the Congrés International des Américanistes, +pp. 588, 589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna +(<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 212) the priest says: “Yo soy el sacerdote, +el dios <i>Quetzalcoatl</i>, que se bajará al infierno, y subiré á lo +superior, y hasta los nueve infiernos.” This writer, who was very +competent in the Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by “culebra +con cresta” (<i>id.</i>, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct +rendering.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43-2_103" id="Footnote_43-2_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-2_103"><span class="label">43-†</span></a> His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, “El +baptismo de fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman +<i>yahuiltoca</i>, quando nacen.” This may be translated, “The baptism of +fire in which they confer the names which they call <i>yahuiltoca</i>.” The +obscurity is in the Nahuatl, as the word <i>toca</i> may be a plural of +<i>tocaitl</i>, name, as well as the verb <i>toca</i>, to throw upon. The passage +is from the <i>Camino del Cielo</i>, fol. 100, verso.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43-3_104" id="Footnote_43-3_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-3_104"><span class="label">43-‡</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de la Nueva España</i>, Lib. iv, cap. +25.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_43-4_105" id="Footnote_43-4_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-4_105"><span class="label">43-§</span></a> It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early +physicians, Francisco Ximenes, <i>Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza</i>, p. 144; +Hernandez, <i>Hist. Plant. Novæ Hispaniæ</i>, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke, +in his recent article on “The Medicine Men of the Apaches” (in <i>Ninth +Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, p. 521), suggests that the +<i>yiahuitli</i> of the Aztecs is the same as the “hoddentin,” the pollen of +a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw +into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the +<i>yiahuitli</i> as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and +hill-sides—no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the +anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the +“yellow spirit” (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire +(<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 197).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44-1_106" id="Footnote_44-1_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44-1_106"><span class="label">44-*</span></a> From the verb <i>apeua</i>. Vetancurt’s description is in his +<i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_44-2_107" id="Footnote_44-2_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44-2_107"><span class="label">44-†</span></a> His frequent references to it show this. See his +<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc. +The word <i>tlecuixtliliztli</i> is compounded of <i>tlecuilli</i>, the hearth or +fireplace, and <i>ixtliluia</i>, to darken with smoke.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45-1_108" id="Footnote_45-1_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-1_108"><span class="label">45-*</span></a> Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España</i>, Tom. +ii, p. 240. Sahagun adds that the <i>octli</i> was poured on the hearth at +four separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. <i>Historia de +Nueva España</i>, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony +as current in his day, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 35. The invocation +ran:—“Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart +before the God.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45-2_109" id="Footnote_45-2_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-2_109"><span class="label">45-†</span></a> A copy of these strange “Books of Chilan Balam” is in +my possession. I have described them in my <i>Essays of an Americanist</i> +(Philadelphia, 1890).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_45-3_110" id="Footnote_45-3_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-3_110"><span class="label">45-‡</span></a> See his remarks on “Apperception der Menschenzeugung +als Feuerbereitung,” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. vi, +s. 113, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46-1_111" id="Footnote_46-1_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-1_111"><span class="label">46-*</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva España</i>, Lib. i, cap. 13. +The Nahuatl text is more definite than the Spanish translation.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46-2_112" id="Footnote_46-2_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-2_112"><span class="label">46-†</span></a> See my <i>Myths of the New World</i>, p. 154, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46-3_113" id="Footnote_46-3_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-3_113"><span class="label">46-‡</span></a> In the Nahuatl language the word <i>xihuitl</i> (<i>xiuitl</i>) +has four meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_46-4_114" id="Footnote_46-4_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-4_114"><span class="label">46-§</span></a> J. B. Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos del Estado +Oaxaqueño</i>, Tom. i, p. 82, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47-1_115" id="Footnote_47-1_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-1_115"><span class="label">47-*</span></a> Alva, <i>Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana</i>, fol. 9.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47-2_116" id="Footnote_47-2_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-2_116"><span class="label">47-†</span></a> Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos</i>, pp. 6, 7.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_47-3_117" id="Footnote_47-3_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-3_117"><span class="label">47-‡</span></a> In the <i><a name="corr16" title="corr16"></a><ins class="correction" title="Révue">Revue</ins> d’ Ethnographie</i>, Tom. iii, p. +313. Some very fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier, +in his “Observations on the Chalchihuitl,” in the <i>Annals of the Lyceum +of Natural History</i>, Vol. i (New York, 1869).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48-1_118" id="Footnote_48-1_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-1_118"><span class="label">48-*</span></a> Diego Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios de Nueva España</i>, +Tom. ii, p. 140.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48-2_119" id="Footnote_48-2_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-2_119"><span class="label">48-†</span></a> In Kingsborough, <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>, Vol. ii, Pl. +180. On the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of +W. H. Holmes, in the <i>Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, +pp. 270, 271.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_48-3_120" id="Footnote_48-3_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-3_120"><span class="label">48-‡</span></a> “Au Mexique, le cadre croisé, la croix en sautoir, +comme celle de St. André, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe +de nativité, <i>tonalli</i>, la fête, le jour natal.” M. Aubin, in Boban, +<i>Catalogue Raisonnée de la Collection Goupil</i>, Tom. i, p. 227. Both +Gomara and Herrera may be quoted to this effect.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49-1_121" id="Footnote_49-1_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-1_121"><span class="label">49-*</span></a> See a curious story from native sources in my <i>Essays of +an Americanist</i>, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented +by casting salt upon the person.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49-2_122" id="Footnote_49-2_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-2_122"><span class="label">49-†</span></a> Benito Maria de Moxo, <i>Cartas Mejicanas</i>, p. 257; +Landa, <i>Cosas de Yucatan</i>, p. 193.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49-3_123" id="Footnote_49-3_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-3_123"><span class="label">49-‡</span></a> Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex +Vaticanus, published in Kingsborough’s great work, assigns the sign, +<i>cohuatl</i>, the serpent, to “il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti +gli altri.” It is distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De +la Serna states that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a +wand, around which was fastened a living serpent. <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, +p. 37.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_49-4_124" id="Footnote_49-4_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-4_124"><span class="label">49-§</span></a> There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of +the Codex Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex +Mexicanus of the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said +as far back as 1841—“le culte du lingam on du phallus n’etait pas +etranger aux Mexicains, ce qu’ etablissent plusieurs documents peu +connus et des sculptures découvertes depuis un petit nombre d’années.” +His letter is in Boban, <i>Catalogue Raisonné la Collection Goupil</i>, Tom. +ii, p. 207. On the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with +the phallus in classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele’s article, “Der +Schlangen-Cultus,” in the <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Band +xvii, p. 285, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50-1_125" id="Footnote_50-1_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-1_125"><span class="label">50-*</span></a> Cf. G. Tarayre, <i>Exploration Mineralogique des Regions +Mexicaines</i>, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and <i>Bulletin de la Sociétè +d’Anthropologie de Paris</i>, Juin, 1893.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50-2_126" id="Footnote_50-2_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-2_126"><span class="label">50-†</span></a> <i>Sources de l’ Histoire Primitive de Mexique</i>, p. 81.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50-3_127" id="Footnote_50-3_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-3_127"><span class="label">50-‡</span></a> From <i>zo</i>, to join together. Compare my <i>Essays of an +Americanist</i>, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_50-4_128" id="Footnote_50-4_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-4_128"><span class="label">50-§</span></a> “El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra.” F. Pimentel, +<i>La Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico</i>, p. 197.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_51-1_129" id="Footnote_51-1_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51-1_129"><span class="label">51-*</span></a> The “holy souls” who are here appealed to by name are +those of deceased <i>ah-kih</i>, or priests of the native cult.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55-1_130" id="Footnote_55-1_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-1_130"><span class="label">55-*</span></a> See the <i>Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, año de +1659</i> (Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55-2_131" id="Footnote_55-2_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-2_131"><span class="label">55-†</span></a> J. B. Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos del Estado +<a name="corr17" title="corr17"></a><ins class="correction" title="Oaxaqueño">Oaxaqueno</ins></i>, Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of +Indians in the province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried +enchanted ashes beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, <i>Manual de +Ministros</i>, p. 52.)</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_55-3_132" id="Footnote_55-3_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-3_132"><span class="label">55-‡</span></a> “Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form <i>naoal</i> ein +echtes Quiché-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme <i>naó</i>, +wissen, erkennen. <i>Naoal</i> ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in +diesem Falle das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem +mexikanischen <i>nahualli</i> (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung +bringen möchte, nichts zu schaffen.” <i>Guatemala</i>, s. 238.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_57-1_133" id="Footnote_57-1_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57-1_133"><span class="label">57-*</span></a> The Abbé Brasseur observes: “Le mot <i>nahual</i>, qui vet +dire toute science, ou science de tout, est fréquemment employé pour +exprimer la sorcellerie chez ces populations.” <i>Bulletin de la Sociétè +de Géographie</i>, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the +speculative Abbé translates <i>naual</i> by the English “know all,” and is +not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the +former.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58-1_134" id="Footnote_58-1_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-1_134"><span class="label">58-*</span></a> See an article by me, entitled “On the Words ‘Anahuac’ +and ‘Nahuatl,’” in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, for November, 1893.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58-2_135" id="Footnote_58-2_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-2_135"><span class="label">58-†</span></a> <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 50.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_58-3_136" id="Footnote_58-3_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-3_136"><span class="label">58-‡</span></a> Jesus Sanchez, <i>Glosario de Voces Castellanas +derivadas del Idioma Nahuatl</i>, sub voce.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59-1_137" id="Footnote_59-1_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-1_137"><span class="label">59-*</span></a> “<i>Nagual</i>—el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde +guarda sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja.” Berendt, <i>La Lengua +Castellana de Nicaragua</i>, MS.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59-2_138" id="Footnote_59-2_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-2_138"><span class="label">59-†</span></a> Emetorio Pineda, <i>Description Geografica de Chiapas y +Soconusco</i>, p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59-3_139" id="Footnote_59-3_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-3_139"><span class="label">59-‡</span></a> See his article “Wer-wolf,” in his <i>Ethnographische +Parallelen und Vergleiche</i>, p. 62, <i>seq.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_59-4_140" id="Footnote_59-4_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-4_140"><span class="label">59-§</span></a> Richard Andrée, <i>ibid.</i>, ss. 63, 64.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_60-1_141" id="Footnote_60-1_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60-1_141"><span class="label">60-*</span></a> See Alfred Maury, <i>La Magie et l’ Astrologie</i>, pp. 88, +89, 267, etc.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_61-1_142" id="Footnote_61-1_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61-1_142"><span class="label">61-*</span></a> In the <i>Notice Preliminaire</i> to the second part of his +work, <i>La Magie et l’ Astrologie dans l’ Antiquité et au Moyen Age</i>, Mr. +Alfred Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command +for explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying +their reality as actual occurrences.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="declong" /> +<h2 style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="Index" id="Index"></a><span class="smcap">Index.</span></h2> + + +<p class="titlepage">Native words explained, <i>in Italics</i>; names of Authors quoted, in <span class="smrom">SMALL +CAPITALS</span>.</p> + +<hr class="declong" /> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Achiutla, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Acosta, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Aguilar, P. S.</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li><i>Ahau</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li><i>Ah Kih</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + <li><i>Ah-toc</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Aissaoua, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + <li>Alaghom Naom, a goddess, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li><i>Alom</i>, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Alva, B. De</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><i>Anahuac</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Ancona, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Andagoya, P. De</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap"><a name="corr18" title="corr18"></a><ins class="correction" title="Andrée,">Andree,</ins> R.</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>Antichrist, appealed to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li><i>Apehualco</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><span class="smcap">Aubin, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>Ay, Antonio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>Aztecan language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>Aztecs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Baal-che</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Baeza, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Balboa, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bancroft, H. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bandelier, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Baptism, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>Baptism by fire, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Barba Figueroa</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bautista, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Berendt, C. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>“Black King,” the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Blowing, as a rite, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Boban, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>“Books of Chilan Balam”, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Bourke</span>, Capt., <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Brasseur</span> (de Bourbourg), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li><i>Buk xoc</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Burgoa, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Cabrera</span>, Dr. P. F., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> + <li>Cakchiquel language, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> + <li>Calendar, the native, <a href="#Page_13">13-16</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li>California, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Cancuc, town, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>Candelaria, Maria, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>Can Ek, Jacinto, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>Carpio, Bernardo del, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Carriedo, J. B.</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>Cave God, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Cavo, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>Ceiba tree, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>Cerquin, province, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Chac Mool</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li><i>Chacuaco</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Chalcatongo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li><i>Chalchihuitl</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>Chalcos, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>Chalma, place, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li><i>Chanes</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Charnay, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>Chi, Andres, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>Chi, Cecilio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li>Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li><i>Chilan Balam</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Chontales, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>Chorti dialect,<a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4"> 5 n.</a></li> + <li>Chotas, tribe, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Clairvoyance, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Coamizagual</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Coanamoa</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Coatlan, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li><i>Coaxihuitl</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + <li><i>Cohuacihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Cohuatl</i>, sign of, <a href="#FNanchor_49-3_123">49 n.</a></li> + <li>Codex cruciformis, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Cohen, H.</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Copan, ruins of, <a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4">5 n.</a></li> + <li><i>Copavitoos</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Cordova, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Coto, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li>Coyopy, king, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> + <li><i>Cozaana</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li>Cross, as symbol, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Cuculchan, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>“Dark House,” the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Dawn, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Dionysos Pyrigenes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Delpino</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + <li>Drum, the sacred, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li>Drunkenness, god of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Duran, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Earth, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li>“Essays of an Americanist,” <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Ferguson, David</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + <li>“Field mass,” the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li>Fingers, names for, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>Fire worship, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>Four Winds, Lord of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>Frog, symbol, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Fuensanta del Valle</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Fuentes y Guzman</span>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Gage, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Gagern, C.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>Galindo, Ig., <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> + <li>“Ghost dance” of Mayas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>Gnosis, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li>Goupil collection, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Green stones, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><i>Gspoxil</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li>Guatemala, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Gucumatz, king, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Hand, as deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>“Heart of the Hills”, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li>“Heart of the Maguey”, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>“Heart of the Towns”, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Hernandez, F.</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Herrera, A. de</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><i>Hicalahau</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>“Hoddentin”, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Holmes, W. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Honduras, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li>Huasteca dialect, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li>Huehuetan, town, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li><i>Huehueteotl</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><i>Huijatoos</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Ical ahau</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Iglesias, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>Inquisition, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>Intoxicants, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>Istlavacan, town, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Jadeite, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Juarros, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>Justlahuaca, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Kab</i>, the hand, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Kingsborough</span>, Lord, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Labarthe, Ch.</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>Lacandons, tribe, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Landa, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Lara, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Leon</span>, Dr. N., <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Leon, N. de</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Life, ideogram of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Life, tree of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Lingam, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Maguey, Heart of the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><i>Maitl</i>, the Hand, as deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Maler, T.</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>Mallinalco, town, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Manso de Contreras</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>Mappe <a name="corr19" title="corr19"></a><ins class="correction" title="Quinatzin,">Quinantzin,</ins> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Maria de Moxò, B.</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Maury, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> + <li>Mayan stock, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li>Mayas, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Mayas, revolts of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>Mexican language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + <li>Michoacan, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Milky Way, as deity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> + <li><i>Mixcohuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>Mixes, tribe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li>Mixtecs, tribe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Molina, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li>Monopostiac, Cerro de, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Montjau, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Moro</span>, Sr., <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Motolinia, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Mühlenpfordt, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li>Mushrooms, intoxicating, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Na</i>, the root, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a name="corr20" title="corr20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-2_22"><ins class="correction" title="11 n.,">11 n.</ins></a> 57</li> + <li><span class="smcap">Nagele, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>Nagual, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li>Nagualism, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li>Nagualist, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> + <li><i>Nahual</i>. See <i>Naualli</i>.</li> + <li><i>Nahualtia</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li>Nahuatl language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li><i>Nana hualtin</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Nanahuatl, a deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li><i>Naualac</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li><i>Naualcuauhtla</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><i>Naualli</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li><i>Nauallotl</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + <li><i>Naualteteuctin</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li>Navajas, Cerro de las, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>Nayerit, Sierra de, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Nezahualpilli, king, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li>Nine, sacred number, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Noh, god of reason, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span><span class="smcap">Nuñez, de la Vega</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Oaxaca, province, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><i>Octli</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><i>Ololiuhqui</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Ordoñez y Aguiar</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Orozco y Berra</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Oviedo</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li>Oxchuc, town, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> + <li><i>Oztoteotl</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Padrinos, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + <li>Pah-Ahtuns, deities, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li>Pantecatl, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Paredes, Ig.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Pascual, Don, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Paso y Troncoso</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li><i>Patzlan</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><i>Payni</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Pelaez, G.</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li><i>Pellote</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Perez, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> + <li>Personal spirit, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> + <li><i>Peyotl</i>, the, <a href="#Page_6">6-10</a></li> + <li>Phallus, symbol, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li><i>Picietl</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Pimentel, F.</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Pineda, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>Pinopiaa, goddess, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + <li><i>Piochtli</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li>Pipils, tribe, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Pisa, B. de</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>Pokonchis, tribe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li><i>Popol Vuh</i>, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + <li>Popoluca language, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + <li><i>Pox</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><i>Poxlon</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><i>Poxta vanegs</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Puerto, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Quauhcihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Quauhnanacatl</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_28-1_53">28 n.</a></li> + <li>Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_43-1_102">43 n.</a></li> + <li>Quiche language, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>Quiches, tribe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li>Quiegolani, deity, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><i>Quilaztli</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Quiz</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Reason, god of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>“Restitution of the <i>tonal</i>”, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Rios, Pedro de Los</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Sahagun, B.</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Sanchez, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> + <li>San Francisco del Mar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>“Scalp-lock,” the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Scherzer, C.</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Seler, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Serna, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + <li>Serpent of the Clouds, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>Serpent, plant, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + <li>Serpent, feathered, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li>Serpent, which seizes, <a href="#FNanchor_41-3_93">41 n.</a></li> + <li>Serpent, symbol, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> + <li>Seven, sacred number, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Siméon, R.</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li>Slavery of Indians, <a href="#FNanchor_28-2_54">28 n.</a></li> + <li>Smoke, divining by, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li> + <li>Snake, symbol. See Serpent.</li> + <li>Soteapan, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Spina, V. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Squier, E. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Stoll, O.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + <li>Stone, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>“<i>Sukia</i> woman”, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li>“Sun Mountain”, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>Sun, name of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Tapirs, sacred, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Tarayre, G.</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li><i>Ta Te</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><i>Ta Yoapa</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><i>Teciuhtlazque</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li>Telepathy, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Tenextlecietl</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Teopatli</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> + <li><i>Teotlauice</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>Teozapotlan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>Tepeololtec deity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><i>Tepeyollotl</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Teremendo, town, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li><i>Teteuctin</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><i>Tetonaltiani</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><i>Teyhuinti</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>Tezcatzoncatl, deity, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><i>Thiuimeezque</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Three, sacred number, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>“Thunder stone”, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><i>T’ich</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> + <li>Tiger dance, the, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li><i>Tlachixqui</i>, Seer, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Tlahuipuchtin</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li> + <li>Tlaloc, deity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><i>Tlapiani</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Tlascala, Sierra de, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li><i>Tlatoques</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> + <li>Tlazoaloyan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> + <li>Tlazolteotl, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li><i>Tlecuixtliliztli</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><i>Tlilancalqui</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_39-3_87">39 n.</a></li> + <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li><i>Tonal, tonalli</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_15-1_31">15 n.</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> + <li><i>Tonalcaualtia</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><i>Tonalitlacoa</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + <li><i>Tonalpouhque</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> + <li><i>Tonantzin</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Topiltzin</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Torquemada, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Torres Castillo</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + <li><i>To Ta</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Totomachiapa, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>Totonicapan, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + <li>Tree, sacred, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>Tree of the Cross, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li>Tree of Life, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + <li>Tres Micos, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li>Trinity, the native, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Triplets, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + <li>Tzentals, tribe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li><i>Tzihuizin</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><i>Tzitzime</i>, the, <a href="#FNanchor_34-3_74">34 n.</a></li> + <li><i>Tzitzimecihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Uirapircos</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li> + <li><i>U-q’ux-Uleuh</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Venegas, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>Venus Impudica, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li>Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Vetancurt, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Villa Señor y Sanchez</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> + <li>Votan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><span class="smcap">Ward, S. A.</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> + <li>Water, divination by, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + <li>Water, as deity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> + <li>Were-wolf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> + <li>Wisdom, goddess of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> + <li>Witches, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + <li>“Witches’ Sabbaths”, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Xihuitl</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_46-3_113">46 n.</a></li> + <li><i>Xihuitzin</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Ximenes, Francisco</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Ximenes, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + <li><i>Xiquipilli</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + <li><i>Xiuhtecutli</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> + <li><i>Xochimilca</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li><i>Yahuiltoca</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li>Yanhuitlan, town, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> + <li><i>Yaocihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + <li><i>Yax che</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><i>Yax ha</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Yiahuitli</i>, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> + <li><i>Yollometli</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + <li>Yoni symbols, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> + <li><i>Ytzamatl</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li>Yucatan, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> +</ul> + +<ul class="IX"> + <li>Zahoris, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> + <li>Zamayac, town, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> + <li>Zapotecs, tribe, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> + <li><span class="smcap">Zetina</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li> + <li><i>Z me quiz</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + <li>Zotzils, revolt of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> +</ul> + + +<hr class="chapbreak" /> + +<div class="tn"> +<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber’s Note</b></p> + +<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0;" summary="errors"> +<tr> + <td>Page</td> + <td>Error</td> + <td>Correction</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr1">Fn. 14-†</a></td> + <td colspan="2">The footnote marker was missing in the original text. + It has been inserted based on context.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr2">19</a></td> + <td>centipedes, etc,</td> + <td>centipedes, etc.,</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr3">39</a></td> + <td>black as negroes</td> + <td>black as negroes.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr4">43</a></td> + <td>sick room</td> + <td>sick room.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr5">52</a></td> + <td>speak to thee</td> + <td>speak to thee.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr6">58</a></td> + <td>corrollary</td> + <td>corollary</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr7">Fn. 7-*</a></td> + <td>Nacionàl</td> + <td>Nacional</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr8">Fn. 9-*</a></td> + <td>Min stros</td> + <td>Ministros</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr9">Fn. 11-†</a></td> + <td>Simeon</td> + <td>Siméon</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr10">Fn. 14-†</a></td> + <td>exico</td> + <td>Mexico</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr11">Fn. 17-*</a></td> + <td>enigmaticas”</td> + <td>enigmaticas.”</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr12">Fn. 27-*</a></td> + <td>Americaine</td> + <td>Américaine</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr13">Fn. 30-†</a></td> + <td>Historicòs</td> + <td>Historicos</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr14">Fn. 40-†</a></td> + <td>Españal</td> + <td>Español</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr15">Fn. 42-¶</a></td> + <td>‘Señor</td> + <td>“Señor</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr16">Fn. 47-‡</a></td> + <td>Revue</td> + <td>Révue</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr17">Fn. 55-†</a></td> + <td>Oaxaqueno</td> + <td>Oaxaqueño</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr18">61</a></td> + <td>Andree</td> + <td>Andrée</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr19">63</a></td> + <td>Quinantzin</td> + <td>Quinatzin</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#corr20">63</a></td> + <td>11 n.</td> + <td>11 n.,</td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p class="noindent">The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:</p> + +<ul style="list-style-type: none;"> + <li>Bartholomé / Bartholomè</li> + <li>Diœcesanas / Diocesanas / Diocesan</li> + <li>Gucumatz / Gukumatz</li> + <li>Moxò / Moxó / Moxo</li> + <li>Quiché / Quiche</li> + <li>Quichés / Quiches</li> + <li>suprà / suprá</li> +</ul> +</div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. 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