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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nagualism
+       A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2008 [EBook #26426]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAGUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Julia Miller, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by Case Western Reserve University Preservation Department
+Digital Library)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note:
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been maintained
+in this version of this book. Typographical errors have been marked with
+a [TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text. A list of words that have been inconsistently spelled or
+hyphenated is found at the end of the present text.
+
+The less-comon characters that are used in this version of the book. If
+they do not display correctly, please try changing your font.
+
+  †  Dagger
+  ‡ Double dagger
+  œ oe ligature
+  ū u with macron
+  ō o with macron
+  ‖ double vertical lines
+
+
+
+
+                         NAGUALISM.
+
+                          A STUDY
+
+                             IN
+
+                 Native American Folk-lore
+                        and History.
+
+
+                             BY
+
+        DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
+
+  Professor of American Archæology and Linguistics in the
+                University of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+                       PHILADELPHIA:
+      MACCALLA & COMPANY, PRINTERS, 237-9 DOCK STREET.
+                            1894
+
+
+
+
+_Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History._
+
+_By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D._
+
+(_Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan’y 5, 1894._)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+1. The words _Nagual_, _Nagualism_, _Nagualist_. 2. The Earliest
+Reference to Nagualism. 3. The _Naualli_ of the Aztecs; their Classes
+and Pretended Powers. 4. The Sacred Intoxicants; the _Peyotl_, the
+_Ololiuhqui_, the _Teopatli_, the _Yax Ha_, etc. 5. Clairvoyance and
+Telepathy during Intoxication. 6. The _Naualli_ of Modern Mexico. 7. The
+_Tonal_ and the _Tonalpouhque_; the Genethliac System of the Nahuas. 8.
+The Aztec Sodality of “Master Magicians.” 9. The Personal Guardian
+Spirit.
+
+10. Folk-lore of the Mixe Indians. 11. Astrological Divination of the
+Zapotecs. 12. Similar Arts of the Mixtecs. 13. Nagualism in Chiapas, as
+Described by Bishop Nuñez de la Vega. 14. Nagualism Among the Quiches,
+Cakchiquels and Pokonchis of Guatemala. 15. The Metamorphoses of
+Gukumatz. 16. Modern Witchcraft in Yucatan and Central America; the
+Zahoris and Padrinos.
+
+17. Fundamental Principles of Nagualism, Hatred of the Whites and of
+Christianity. 18. Its Organization and Extent; its Priesthood. 19. Its
+Influence in the Native Revolts against the Spanish Power. 20. Exalted
+Position of Woman in Nagualism. 21. This a Survival from Ancient Times.
+22. A Native Joan of Arc. 23. Modern Queens of Nagualism.
+
+24. The Cave-temples and the Cave-gods; Oztoteotl, Tepeyollotl, Votan,
+etc. 25. The Sacred Numbers, 3 and 7. 26. Fire Worship of the
+Nagualists. 27. Fire Rights Connected with the Pulque. 28. Fire
+Ceremonies of the Modern Mayas. 29. Secret Significance of Fire Worship.
+30. The Chalchiuites, or Sacred Green Stones. 31. The Sacred Tree and
+the Tree of Life. 32. The Cross and its Symbolic Meaning. 33. The
+Lascivious Rites of the Nagualists. 34. Their Relation to the Symbols of
+the Serpent and the Phallus.
+
+35. Confusion of Christian and Native Religious Ideas; Prayers of Nagual
+Priests. Their Symbolic Language. 36. The Inquisition and Nagualism. 37.
+Etymology of the Word _Nagual_. 38. The Root _Na_ in the Maya, Zapotec
+and Nahuatl Languages. 39. The Doctrine of Animal Transformation in the
+Old World. 40. The Doctrine of Personal Spirits in the Old World. 41.
+Scientific Explanations of Nagual Magic. 42. Conclusion.
+
+
+  REPRINTED FEB. 23, 1894, FROM PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., VOL. XXXIII.
+
+
+
+
+=1.= The words, a _nagual_, _nagualism_, a _nagualist_, have been current
+in English prose for more than seventy years; they are found during that
+time in a variety of books published in England and the United
+States,[4-*] yet are not to be discovered in any dictionary of the
+English language; nor has _Nagualism_ a place in any of the numerous
+encyclopædias or “Conversation Lexicons,” in English, French, German or
+Spanish.
+
+This is not owing to its lack of importance, since for two hundred years
+past, as I shall show, it has been recognized as a cult, no less
+powerful than mysterious, which united many and diverse tribes of Mexico
+and Central America into organized opposition against the government and
+the religion which had been introduced from Europe; whose members had
+acquired and were bound together by strange faculties and an occult
+learning, which placed them on a par with the famed thaumaturgists and
+theodidacts of the Old World; and which preserved even into our own days
+the thoughts and forms of a long suppressed ritual.
+
+In several previous publications I have referred briefly to this secret
+sodality and its aims,[4-†] and now believe it worth while to collect
+my scattered notes and present all that I have found of value about the
+origin, aims and significance of this Eleusinian Mystery of America. I
+shall trace its geographical extension and endeavor to discover what its
+secret influence really was and is.
+
+
+=2.= The earliest description I find of its particular rites is that which
+the historian Herrera gives, as they prevailed in 1530, in the province
+of Cerquin, in the mountainous parts of Honduras. It is as follows:
+
+     “The Devil was accustomed to deceive these natives by appearing to
+     them in the form of a lion, tiger, coyote, lizard, snake, bird, or
+     other animal. To these appearances they apply the name _Naguales_,
+     which is as much as to say, guardians or companions; and when such
+     an animal dies, so does the Indian to whom it was assigned. The way
+     such an alliance was formed was thus: The Indian repaired to some
+     very retired spot and there appealed to the streams, rocks and
+     trees around him, and weeping, implored for himself the favors they
+     had conferred on his ancestors. He then sacrificed a dog or a fowl,
+     and drew blood from his tongue, or his ears, or other parts of his
+     body, and turned to sleep. Either in his dreams or half awake, he
+     would see some one of those animals or birds above mentioned, who
+     would say to him, ‘On such a day go hunting and the first animal or
+     bird you see will be my form, and I shall remain your companion and
+     _Nagual_ for all time.’ Thus their friendship became so close that
+     when one died so did the other; and without such a _Nagual_ the
+     natives believe no one can become rich or powerful.”[5-*]
+
+This province of Cerquin appears to have been peopled by a tribe which
+belonged to the great Mayan stock, akin to those which occupied most of
+the area of what is now Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala.[5-†]
+I shall say something later about the legendary enchantress whom their
+traditions recalled as the teacher of their ancestors and the founder of
+their nation. What I would now call attention to is the fact that in
+none of the dialects of the specifically Mexican or Aztecan stock of
+languages do we find the word _nagual_ in the sense in which it is
+employed in the above extract, and this is strong evidence that the
+origin of Nagualism is not to be sought in that stock.
+
+
+=3.= We do find, however, in the Nahuatl language, which is the proper
+name of the Aztecan, a number of derivatives from the same root, _na_,
+among them this very word, _Nahuatl_, all of them containing the idea
+“to know,” or “knowledge.” The early missionaries to New Spain often
+speak of the _naualli_ (plural, _nanahualtin_), masters of mystic
+knowledge, dealers in the black art, wizards or sorcerers. They were not
+always evil-minded persons, though they seem to have been generally
+feared. The earliest source of information about them is Father Sahagun,
+who, in his invaluable History, has the following paragraph:
+
+     “The _naualli_, or magician, is he who frightens men and sucks the
+     blood of children during the night. He is well skilled in the
+     practice of this trade, he knows all the arts of sorcery
+     (_nauallotl_) and employs them with cunning and ability; but for
+     the benefit of men only, not for their injury. Those who have
+     recourse to such arts for evil intents injure the bodies of their
+     victims, cause them to lose their reason and smother them. These
+     are wicked men and necromancers.”[6-*]
+
+It is evident on examining the later works of the Roman clergy in Mexico
+that the Church did not look with any such lenient eye on the possibly
+harmless, or even beneficial, exercise of these magical devices. We find
+a further explanation of what they were, preserved in a work of
+instruction to confessors, published by Father Juan Bautista, at Mexico,
+in the year 1600.
+
+     “There are magicians who call themselves _teciuhtlazque_,[6-†]
+     and also by the term _nanahualtin_, who conjure the clouds when
+     there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They
+     can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede,
+     a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of
+     these _nanahualtin_ will transform themselves to all appearances
+     (segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog or a weasel. Others again
+     will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a weasel; and when one is
+     preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an
+     owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves
+     _nanahualtin_.”[6-‡]
+
+There is an evident attempt in this somewhat confused statement to
+distinguish between an actual transformation, and one which only appears
+such to the observer.
+
+In another work of similar character, published at Mexico a few years
+later, the “Road to Heaven,” of Father Nicolas de Leon, we find a series
+of questions which a confessor should put to any of his flock suspected
+of these necromantic practices. They reveal to us quite clearly what
+these occult practitioners were believed to do. The passage reads as
+follows, the questions being put in the mouth of the priest:
+
+     “Art thou a soothsayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading signs,
+     or by interpreting dreams, or by water, making circles and figures
+     on its surface? Dost thou sweep and ornament with flower garlands
+     the places where idols are preserved? Dost thou know certain words
+     with which to conjure for success in hunting, or to bring rain?
+
+     “Dost thou suck the blood of others, or dost thou wander about at
+     night, calling upon the Demon to help thee? Hast thou drunk
+     _peyotl_, or hast thou given it to others to drink, in order to
+     find out secrets, or to discover where stolen or lost articles
+     were? Dost thou know how to speak to vipers in such words that they
+     obey thee?”[6-§]
+
+
+=4.= This interesting passage lets in considerable light on the claims and
+practices of the nagualists. Not the least important item is that of
+their use of the intoxicant, _peyotl_, a decoction of which it appears
+played a prominent part in their ceremonies. This is the native Nahuatl
+name of a certain plant, having a white, tuberous root, which is the
+part employed. It is mentioned as “pellote” or “peyote” in the
+_Farmacopea Mexicana_ as a popular remedy, but its botanical name is not
+added. According to Paso y Troncoso, it is one of the Compositæ, a
+species of the genus _Cacalia_.[7-*] It is referred to in several
+passages by Father Sahagun, who says that it grows in southern Mexico,
+and that the Aztecs derived their knowledge of it from the older
+“Chichimecs.” It was used as an intoxicant.
+
+     “Those who eat or drink of this _peyotl_ see visions, which are
+     sometimes frightful and sometimes ludicrous. The intoxication it
+     causes lasts several days. The Chichimecs believed that it gave
+     them courage in time of danger and diminished the pangs of hunger
+     and thirst.”[7-†]
+
+Its use was continued until a late date, and very probably has not yet
+died out. Its composition and method of preparation are given in a list
+of beverages prohibited by the Spanish authorities in the year 1784, as
+follows:
+
+     “_Peyote_: Made from a species of vinagrilla, about the size of a
+     billiard ball, which grows in dry and sterile soil. The natives
+     chew it, and throw it into a wooden mortar, where it is left to
+     ferment, some leaves of tobacco being added to give it pungency.
+     They consume it in this form, sometimes with slices of _peyote_
+     itself, in their most solemn festivities, although it dulls the
+     intellect and induces gloomy and hurtful visions (sombras muy
+     funestas).”[7-‡]
+
+The _peyotl_ was not the only herb prized as a means of casting the soul
+into the condition of hypostatic union with divinity. We have abundant
+evidence that long after the conquest the seeds of the plant called in
+Nahuatl the _ololiuhqui_ were in high esteem for this purpose. In the
+Confessionary of Father Bartholomé de Alva the priest is supposed to
+inquire and learn as follows:
+
+     “_Question._ Hast thou loved God above all things? Hast thou loved
+     any created thing, adoring it, looking upon it as God, and
+     worshiping it?
+
+     “_Answer._ I have loved God with all my heart; but sometimes I have
+     believed in dreams, and also I have believed in the sacred herbs,
+     the _peyotl_, and the _ololiuhqui_; and in other such things
+     (_onicneltocac in temictli, in xiuhtzintli, in peyotl, in
+     ololiuhqui, yhuan in occequitlamantli_).”[8-*]
+
+The seeds of the _ololiuhqui_ appear to have been employed externally.
+They were the efficient element in the mysterious unguent known as “the
+divine remedy” (_teopatli_), about which we find some information in the
+works of Father Augustin de Vetancurt, who lived in Mexico in the middle
+of the seventeenth century. He writes:
+
+     “The pagan priests made use of an ointment composed of insects,
+     such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and the like, which the
+     neophytes in the temples prepared. They burned these insects in a
+     basin, collected the ashes, and rubbed it up with green tobacco
+     leaves, living worms and insects, and the powdered seeds of a plant
+     called _ololiuhqui_, which has the power of inducing visions, and
+     the effect of which is to destroy the reasoning powers. Under the
+     influence of this ointment, they conversed with the Devil, and he
+     with them, practicing his deceptions upon them. They also believed
+     that it protected them, so they had no fear of going into the woods
+     at night.
+
+     “This was also employed by them as a remedy in various diseases,
+     and the soothing influence of the tobacco and the _ololiuhqui_ was
+     attributed by them to divine agency. There are some in our own day
+     who make use of this ointment for sorcery, shutting themselves up,
+     and losing their reason under its influence; especially some old
+     men and old women, who are prepared to fall an easy prey to the
+     Devil.”[8-†]
+
+The botanist Hernandez observes that another name for this plant was
+_coaxihuitl_, “serpent plant,” and adds that its seeds contain a
+narcotic poison, and that it is allied to the genus _Solanum_, of which
+the deadly night-shade is a familiar species. He speaks of its use in
+the sacred rites in these words:
+
+     “Indorum sacrifici, cum videri volebant versari cum superis, ac
+     responsa accipere ab eis, ea vescebantur planta, ut desiperent,
+     milleque phantasmata et demonum observatium effigies
+     circumspectarent.”[8-‡]
+
+Of the two plants mentioned, the _ololiuhqui_ and the _peyotl_, the
+former was considered the more potent in spiritual virtues. “They hold
+it in as much veneration as if it were God,” says a theologian of the
+seventeenth century.[9-*] One who partook of these herbs was called
+_payni_ (from the verb _pay_, to take medicine); and more especially
+_tlachixqui_, a Seer, referring to the mystic “second sight,” hence a
+diviner or prophet (from the verb _tlachia_, to see).
+
+Tobacco also held a prominent, though less important, place in these
+rites. It was employed in two forms, the one the dried leaf, _picietl_,
+which for sacred uses must be broken and rubbed up either seven or nine
+times; and the green leaf mixed with lime, hence called _tenextlecietl_
+(from _tenextli_, lime).
+
+Allied in effect to these is an intoxicant in use in southern Mexico and
+Yucatan, prepared from the bark of a tree called by the Mayas
+_baal-che_. The whites speak of the drink as _pitarilla_. It is quite
+popular among the natives, and they still attribute to it a sacred
+character, calling it _yax ha_, the first water, the primal fluid. They
+say that it was the first liquid created by God, and when He returned to
+His heavenly home He left this beverage and its production in charge of
+the gods of the rains, the four Pah-Ahtuns.[9-†]
+
+
+=5.= Intoxication of some kind was an essential part of many of these
+secret rites. It was regarded as a method of throwing the individual out
+of himself and into relation with the supernal powers. What the old
+historian, Father Joseph de Acosta, tells us about the clairvoyants and
+telepaths of the aborigines might well stand for a description of their
+modern representatives:
+
+     “Some of these sorcerers take any shape they choose, and fly
+     through the air with wonderful rapidity and for long distances.
+     They will tell what is taking place in remote localities long
+     before the news could possibly arrive. The Spaniards have known
+     them to report mutinies, battles, revolts and deaths, occurring two
+     hundred or three hundred leagues distant, on the very day they took
+     place, or the day after.
+
+     “To practice this art the sorcerers, usually old women, shut
+     themselves in a house, and intoxicate themselves to the degree of
+     losing their reason. The next day they are ready to reply to
+     questions.”[10-*]
+
+Plants possessing similar powers to excite vivid visions and distort the
+imagination, and, therefore, employed in the magical rites, were the
+_thiuimeezque_, in Michoacan, and the _chacuaco_, in lower
+California.[10-†]
+
+
+=6.= In spite of all effort, the various classes of wonder-workers
+continued to thrive in Mexico. We find in a book of sermons published by
+the Jesuit Father, Ignacio de Paredes, in the Nahuatl language, in 1757,
+that he strenuously warns his hearers against invoking, consulting, or
+calling upon “the devilish spell-binders, the nagualists, and those who
+conjure with smoke.”[10-‡]
+
+They have not yet lost their power; we have evidence enough that many
+children of a larger growth in that land still listen with respect to
+the recitals of the mysterious faculties attributed to the
+_nanahualtin_. An observant German traveler, Carlos von Gagern, informs
+us that they are widely believed to be able to cause sicknesses and
+other ills, which must be counteracted by appropriate exorcisms, among
+which the reading aloud certain passages of the Bible is deemed to be
+one of the most potent.[10-§]
+
+The learned historian, Orozco y Berra, speaks of the powers attributed
+at the present day to the _nahual_ in Mexico among the lower classes, in
+these words:
+
+     “The _nahual_ is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows
+     how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black and ugly. The female
+     witch can convert herself into a ball of fire; she has the power of
+     flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of
+     little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or
+     of clay, then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place
+     them in some secret place; you can be sure that the person against
+     whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where
+     the thorn is inserted. There still exist among them the
+     medicine-men, who treat the sick by means of strange contortions,
+     call upon the spirits, pronounce magical incantations, blow upon
+     the part where the pain is, and draw forth from the patient thorns,
+     worms, or pieces of stone. They know how to prepare drinks which
+     will bring on sickness, and if the patients are cured by others the
+     convalescents are particular to throw something of their own away,
+     as a lock of hair, or a part of their clothing. Those who possess
+     the evil eye can, by merely looking at children, deprive them of
+     beauty and health, and even cause their death.”[11-*]
+
+
+=7.= As I have said, nowhere in the records of purely Mexican, that is,
+Aztecan, Nagualism do we find the word _nagual_ employed in the sense
+given in the passage quoted from Herrera, that is as a personal guardian
+spirit or tutelary genius. These tribes had, indeed, a belief in some
+such protecting power, and held that it was connected with the day on
+which each person is born. They called it the _tonalli_ of a person, a
+word translated to mean that which is peculiar to him, which makes his
+individuality, his self. The radical from which it is derived is _tona_,
+to warm, or to be warm, from which are also derived _tonatiuh_, the sun.
+_Tonalli_, which in composition loses its last syllable, is likewise the
+word for heat, summer, soul, spirit and day, and also for the share or
+portion which belongs to one. Thus, _to-tonal_ is spirit or soul in
+general; _no-tonal_, my spirit; _no-tonal in ipan no-tlacat_, “the sign
+under which I was born,” _i. e._, the astrological day-sign. From this
+came the verb _tonalpoa_, to count or estimate the signs, that is, to
+cast the horoscope of a person; and _tonalpouhque_, the diviners whose
+business it was to practice this art.[11-†]
+
+These _tonalpouhque_ are referred to at length by Father Sahagun.[11-‡]
+He distinguishes them from the _naualli_, though it is clear that they
+corresponded in functions to the nagualistic priests of the southern
+tribes. From the number and name of the day of birth they forecast the
+destiny of the child, and stated the power or spiritual influence which
+should govern its career.
+
+The _tonal_ was by no means an indefeasible possession. It was a sort of
+independent _mascotte_. So long as it remained with a person he enjoyed
+health and prosperity; but it could depart, go astray, become lost; and
+then sickness and misfortune arrived. This is signified in the Nahuatl
+language by the verbs _tonalcaualtia_, to check, stop or suspend the
+_tonal_, hence, to shock or frighten one; and _tonalitlacoa_, to hurt or
+injure the _tonal_, hence, to cast a spell on one, to bewitch him.
+
+This explains the real purpose of the conjuring and incantations which
+were carried on by the native doctor when visiting the sick. It was to
+recall the _tonal_, to force or persuade it to return; and, therefore,
+the ceremony bore the name “the restitution of the _tonal_,” and was
+more than any other deeply imbued with the superstitions of Nagualism.
+The chief officiant was called the _tetonaltiani_, “he who concerns
+himself with the tonal.” On a later page I shall give the formula
+recited on such an occasion.
+
+
+=8.= There is some vague mention in the Aztec records of a semi-priestly
+order, who bore the name _naualteteuctin_, which may be translated
+“master magicians.” They were also known as _teotlauice_, “sacred
+companions in arms.” As was the case with most classes of the
+_teteuctin_, or nobles, entrance to the order was by a severe and
+prolonged ceremony of initiation, the object of which was not merely to
+test the endurance of pain and the powers of self-denial, but especially
+to throw the mind into that subjective state in which it is brought into
+contact with the divine, in which it can “see visions and dream dreams.”
+The order claimed as its patron and founder Quetzalcoatl, the “feathered
+serpent,” who, it will be seen on another page, was also the patron of
+the later nagualists.[12-*]
+
+The word _naualli_ also occurs among the ancient Nahuas in composition
+as a part of proper names; always with the signification of “magician,”
+as in that of Naualcuauhtla, a chief of the Chalcos, meaning
+“wizard-stick,” referring probably to the rod or wand employed by the
+magi in conjuration.[13-*] So also _Naualac_, the “wizard water,” an
+artificial lake not far from the city of Mexico, surrounded by ruined
+temples, described by M. Charnay.[13-†]
+
+
+=9.= The belief in a personal guardian spirit was one of the fundamental
+doctrines of Nagualism; but this belief by no means connotes the full
+import of the term (as Mr. H. H. Bancroft has erroneously stated). The
+calendar system of Mexico and Central America, which I have shown to be
+substantially the same throughout many diverse linguistic
+stocks,[13-‡] had as one of its main objects, astrological
+divination. By consulting it the appropriate nagual was discovered and
+assigned, and this was certainly a prominent feature in the native cult
+and has never been abandoned.
+
+In Mexico to-day, in addition to his special personal guardian, the
+native will often choose another for a limited time or for a particular
+purpose, and this is quite consistent with the form of Christianity he
+has been taught. For instance, as we are informed by an observant
+traveler, at New Year or at corn-planting the head of a family will go
+to the parish church and among the various saints there displayed will
+select one as his guardian for the year. He will address to him his
+prayers for rain and sunshine, for an abundant harvest, health and
+prosperity, and will not neglect to back these supplications by liberal
+gifts. If times are good and harvests ample the Santo is rewarded with
+still more gifts, and his aid is sought for another term; but if luck
+has been bad the Indian repairs to the church at the end of the year,
+bestows on his holy patron a sound cursing, calls him all the bad names
+he can think of, and has nothing more to do with him.[13-§]
+
+
+=10.= A Mexican writer, Andres Iglesias, who enjoyed more than common
+opportunities to study these practices as they exist in the present
+generation, describes them as he saw them in the village of Soteapan, a
+remote hamlet in the State of Vera Cruz, the population of which speak
+the Mixe language. This is not related to the Nahuatl tongue, but the
+terms of their magical rites are drawn from Nahuatl words, showing their
+origin. Every person at birth has assigned to him both a good and a bad
+genius, the former aiming at his welfare, the latter at his injury. The
+good genius is known by the Nahuatl term _tonale_, and it is represented
+in the first bird or animal of any kind which is seen in or near the
+house immediately after the birth of the infant.
+
+The most powerful person in the village is the high priest of the native
+cult. One who died about 1850 was called “the Thunderbolt,” and whenever
+he walked abroad he was preceded by a group of chosen disciples, called
+by the Nahuatl name _tlatoques_, speakers or attorneys.[14-*] His
+successor, known as “the Greater Thunder,” did not maintain this state,
+but nevertheless claimed to be able to control the seasons and to send
+or to mitigate destructive storms--claims which, sad to say, brought him
+to the stocks, but did not interfere with the regular payment of tribute
+to him by the villagers. He was also a medicine man and master of
+ceremonies in certain “scandalous orgies, where immodesty shows herself
+without a veil.”[14-†][TN-1]
+
+
+=11.= Turning to the neighboring province of Oaxaca and its inhabitants,
+we are instructed on the astrological use of the calendar of the
+Zapotecs by Father Juan de Cordova, whose _Arte_ of their language was
+published at Mexico in 1578. From what he says its principal, if not its
+only purpose, was astrological. Each day had its number and was called
+after some animal, as eagle, snake, deer, rabbit, etc. Every child, male
+or female, received the name of the day, and also its number, as a
+surname; its personal name being taken from a fixed series, which
+differed in the masculine and feminine gender, and which seems to have
+been derived from the names of the fingers.
+
+From this it appears that among the Zapotecs the personal spirit or
+_nagual_ was fixed by the date of the birth, and not by some later
+ceremony, although the latter has been asserted by some writers; who,
+however, seem to have applied without certain knowledge the rites of the
+Nahuas and other surrounding tribes to the Zapotecs.[15-*]
+
+Next in importance to the assigning of names, according to Father
+Cordova, was the employment of the calendar in deciding the propriety of
+marriages. As the recognized object of marriage was to have sons, the
+couple appealed to the professional augur to decide this question before
+the marriage was fixed. He selected as many beans as was the sum of the
+numbers of the two proponents’ names, and, counting them by twos, if one
+remained over, it meant a son; then counting by threes any remainder
+also meant sons; by fours the remainder meant either sons or daughters;
+and by five and six the same; and if there was no remainder by any of
+these five divisors the marriage would result in no sons and was
+prohibited.
+
+It is obvious that this method of fortune-telling was most auspicious
+for the lovers; for I doubt if there is any combination of two numbers
+below fourteen which is divisible by two, three, four, five and six
+without remainder in any one instance.[15-†]
+
+The Zapotecs were one of those nations who voluntarily submitted
+themselves to the Spaniards, not out of love for the Europeans, but
+through hatred of the Aztecs, who had conquered them in the preceding
+century. Their king, Coyopy, and his subjects accepted Christianity and
+were generally baptized; but it was the merest formality, and years
+afterwards Coyopy was detected secretly conducting the heathen ritual of
+his ancestors with all due pomp. He was arrested, sent to the city of
+Mexico, deprived of his power and wealth, and soon died; it is
+charitably supposed, from natural causes. There is no question but that
+he left successors to the office of pontifex maximus, and that they
+continued the native religious ceremonies.
+
+
+=12.= The sparse notices we have of the astrology of the Mixtecs,
+neighbors and some think relatives of the Zapotecs, reveal closely
+similar rites. The name of their king, who opposed Montezuma the First
+some sixty years before the arrival of Cortez, proves that they made use
+of the same or a similar calendar in bestowing personal appellations. It
+is given as _Tres Micos_, Three Monkeys.
+
+Unfortunately, so far as I know, there has not been published, and
+perhaps there does not exist, an authentic copy of the Mixtec calendar.
+It was nevertheless reduced to writing in the native tongue after the
+conquest, and a copy of it was seen by the historian Burgoa in the
+Mixtec town of Yanhuitlan.[16-*] Each day was named from a tree, a plant
+or an animal, and from them the individual received his names, as Four
+Lions, Five Roses, etc. (examples given by Herrera). This latter writer
+adds that the name was assigned by the priests when the child was seven
+years old (as among the Tzentals), part of the rite being to conduct it
+to the temple and bore its ears. He refers also to their auguries
+relating to marriage.[16-†] These appear to have been different from
+among the Zapotecs. It was necessary that the youth should have a name
+bearing a higher number than that of the maiden, and also “that they
+should be related;” probably this applied only to certain formal
+marriages of the rulers which were obliged to be within the same _gens_.
+
+
+=13.= I have referred in some detail to the rites and superstitions
+connected with the Calendar because they are all essential parts of
+Nagualism, carried on far into Christian times by the priests of this
+secret cult, as was fully recognized by the Catholic clergy. Wherever
+this calendar was in use, the Freemasonry of Nagualism extended, and its
+ritual had constant reference to it. Our fullest information about it
+does not come from central Mexico, but further south, in the region
+occupied by the various branches of the Mayan stock, by the ancestors of
+some one of which, perhaps, this singular calendar, and the symbolism
+connected with it, were invented.
+
+One of the most important older authorities on this subject is Francisco
+Nuñez de la Vega, a learned Dominican, who was appointed Bishop of
+Chiapas and Soconusco in 1687, and who published at Rome, in 1702, a
+stately folio entitled “_Constituciones Diœcesanas del Obispado de
+Chiappa_,” comprising discussions of the articles of religion and a
+series of pastoral letters. The subject of Nagualism is referred to in
+many passages, and the ninth Pastoral Letter is devoted to it. As this
+book is one of extreme rarity, I shall make rather lengthy extracts from
+it, taking the liberty of condensing the scholastic prolixity of the
+author, and omitting his professional admonitions to the wicked.
+
+He begins his references to it in several passages of his Introduction
+or _Preambulo_, in which he makes some interesting statements as to the
+use to which the natives put their newly-acquired knowledge of writing,
+while at the same time they had evidently not forgotten the ancient
+method of recording ideas invented by their ancestors.
+
+The Bishop writes:
+
+     “The Indians of New Spain retain all the errors of their time of
+     heathenism preserved in certain writings in their own languages,
+     explaining by abbreviated characters and by figures painted in a
+     secret cypher[17-*] the places, provinces and names of their early
+     rulers, the animals, stars and elements which they worshiped, the
+     ceremonies and sacrifices which they observed, and the years,
+     months and days by which they predicted the fortunes of children at
+     birth, and assign them that which they call the Naguals. These
+     writings are known as Repertories or Calendars, and they are also
+     used to discover articles lost or stolen, and to effect cures of
+     diseases. Some have a wheel painted in them, like that of
+     Pythagoras, described by the Venerable Bede; others portray a lake
+     surrounded by the Naguals in the form of various animals. Some of
+     the Nagualist Masters claim as their patron and ruler Cuchulchan,
+     and they possessed a certain formula of prayer to him, written in
+     the Popoluca tongue (which was called Baha in their time of
+     heathenism), and which has been translated into Mexican.[17-†]
+
+     “Those who are selected to become the masters of these arts are
+     taught from early childhood how to draw and paint these characters,
+     and are obliged to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of
+     the ancient Nagualists, and whatever else is included in these
+     written documents, many of which we have held in our hands, and
+     have heard them explained by such masters whom we had imprisoned
+     for their guilt, and who had afterwards become converted and
+     acknowledged their sins.”[17-‡]
+
+The Bishop made up his mind that extreme measures should be taken to
+eradicate these survivals of the ancient paganism in his diocese, and he
+therefore promulgated the following order in the year 1692:
+
+     “And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are
+     Nagualists adore their _naguals_, and look upon them as gods, and
+     by their aid believe that they can foretell the future, discover
+     hidden treasures, and fulfill their dishonest desires: we,
+     therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an
+     ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the
+     church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks (con
+     grillos y cepos), and we confer authority on every priest and
+     curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of
+     disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with
+     especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism (y con
+     rigor mayor á los dogmatizantes Nagualistas).”[18-*]
+
+In spite of these injunctions it is evident that he failed to destroy
+the seeds of what he esteemed this dangerous heresy in the parishes of
+his diocese; for his ninth Pastoral Letter, in which he exposes at
+length the character of Nagualism, is dated from the metropolitan city
+of Ciudad Real, on May 24, 1698. As much of it is germane to my theme, I
+translate as follows:
+
+     “There are certain bad Christians of both sexes who do not hesitate
+     to follow the school of the Devil, and to occupy themselves with
+     evil arts, divinations, sorceries, conjuring, enchantments,
+     fortune-telling, and other means to forecast the future.
+
+     “These are those who in all the provinces of New Spain are known by
+     the name of _Nagualists_. They pretend that the birth of men is
+     regulated by the course and movements of stars and planets, and by
+     observing the time of day and the months in which a child is born,
+     they prognosticate its condition and the events, prosperous or
+     otherwise, of its life; and the worst is that these perverse men
+     have written down their signs and rules, and thus deceive the
+     erring and ignorant.
+
+     “These Nagualists practice their arts by means of Repertories and
+     superstitious Calendars, where are represented under their proper
+     names all the Naguals of stars, elements, birds, fishes, brute
+     beasts and dumb animals; with a vain note of days and months, so
+     that they can announce which corresponds to the day of birth of the
+     infant. This is preceded by some diabolical ceremonies, after which
+     they designate the field or other spot, where, after seven years
+     shall have elapsed, the Nagual will appear to ratify the bargain.
+     As the time approaches, they instruct the child to deny God and
+     His Blessed Mother, and warn him to have no fear, and not to make
+     the sign of the cross. He is told to embrace his Nagual tenderly,
+     which, by some diabolical art, presents itself in an affectionate
+     manner even though it be a ferocious beast, like a lion or a tiger.
+     Thus, with infernal cunning they persuade him that this Nagual is
+     an angel of God, who will look after him and protect him in his
+     after life.
+
+     “To such diabolical masters the intelligent Indians apply, to learn
+     from these superstitious Calendars, dictated by the Devil, their
+     own fortunes, and the Naguals which will be assigned to their
+     children, even before they are baptized. In most of the Calendars,
+     the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which they
+     call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with
+     feathers which moves in the water. This sign corresponds with
+     Mexzichuaut, which means Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds.[19-*]
+     The people also consult them in order to work injury on their
+     enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices,
+     and committing unspeakable atrocities.
+
+     “Worse even than these are those who wander about as physicians or
+     healers; who are none such, but magicians, enchanters, and
+     sorcerers, who, while pretending to cure, kill whom they will. They
+     apply their medicines by blowing on the patient, and by the use of
+     infernal words; learned by heart by those who cannot read or write;
+     and received in writing from their masters by those acquainted with
+     letters. The Master never imparts this instruction to a single
+     disciple, but always to three at a time, so that in the practice of
+     the art it may be difficult to decide which one exerts the magical
+     power. They blow on feathers, or sticks, or plants, and place them
+     in the paths where they may be stepped on by those they wish to
+     injure, thus causing chills, fevers, ugly pustules and other
+     diseases; or they introduce into the body by such arts toads,
+     frogs, snakes, centipedes, etc,[TN-2] causing great torments. And
+     by these same breathings and magic words they can burn down houses,
+     destroy the growing crops and induce sickness. No one of the three
+     disciples is permitted to practice any of these arts without
+     previously informing the other two, and also the Master, by whom
+     the three have been taught.
+
+     “We have learned by the confession of certain guilty parties how
+     the Master begins to instruct his disciple. First he tells him to
+     abjure God, the saints and the Virgin, not to invoke their names,
+     and to have no fear of them. He then conducts him to the wood,
+     glen, cave or field where the pact with the Devil is concluded,
+     which they call ‘the agreement’ or ‘the word given’ (in Tzental
+     _quiz_). In some provinces the disciple is laid on an ant-hill, and
+     the Master standing above him calls forth a snake, colored with
+     black, white and red, which is known as ‘the ant-mother’ (in
+     Tzental _zmezquiz_).[19-†] This comes accompanied by the ants
+     and other small snakes of the same kind, which enter at the joints
+     of the fingers, beginning with the left hand, and coming out at the
+     joints of the right hand, and also by the ears and the nose; while
+     the great snake enters the body with a leap and emerges at its
+     posterior vent. Afterwards the disciple meets a dragon vomiting
+     fire, which swallows him entire and ejects him posteriorly. Then
+     the Master declares he may be admitted, and asks him to select the
+     herbs with which he will conjure, the disciple names them, the
+     Master gathers them and delivers them to him, and then teaches him
+     the sacred words.
+
+     “These words and ceremonies are substantially the same in all the
+     provinces. The healer enters the house of the invalid, asks about
+     the sickness, lays his hand on the suffering part, and then leaves,
+     promising to return on the day following. At the next visit he
+     brings with him some herbs which he chews or mashes with a little
+     water and applies to the part. Then he repeats the _Pater Noster_,
+     the _Ave_, the _Credo_ and the _Salve_ and blows upon the seat of
+     disease, afterwards pronouncing the magical words taught him by his
+     master. He continues blowing in this manner, inhaling and exhaling,
+     repeating under his breath these magical expressions, which are
+     powerful to kill or to cure as he chooses, through the compact he
+     has made with the Devil. Finally, so as to deceive the bystanders,
+     he ends with saying in a loud voice: ‘God the Father, God the Son,
+     and God the Holy Ghost. Amen.’
+
+     “This physician or healer is called in the towns of some of the
+     provinces _poxta vanegs_, and the medicine _gspoxil_; and
+     everything relating to healing among the Indians to which they
+     apply these terms means also to practice sorcery; and all words
+     derived from _pox_ allude to the Nagual; for this in some provinces
+     is called _poxlon_, and in others _patzlan_, and in many
+     _tzihuizin_, which is something very much feared by the Indians. We
+     have ascertained by the confessions of many who have been
+     reconciled that the Devil at times appears to them in the shape of
+     a ball or globe of fire in the air, with a tail like a comet.[20-*]
+
+     “According to the most ancient traditions of these Indians this
+     idol, _poxlon_, was one of the most important and venerated they
+     had in the old times, and the Tzentals revered it so much that
+     they preserved it innumerable years painted on a tablet in the
+     above figure. Even after they were converted to the faith, they
+     hung it behind a beam in the church of the town of Oxchuc,
+     accompanied by an image of their god Hicalahau, having a ferocious
+     black face with the members of a man,[21-*] along with five owls
+     and vultures. By divine interposition, we discovered these on our
+     second visit there in 1687, and had no little difficulty in getting
+     them down, we reciting the creed, and the Indians constantly
+     spitting as they executed our orders. These objects were publicly
+     burned in the plaza.
+
+     “In other parts they reverence the bones of the earlier Nagualists,
+     preserving them in caves, where they adorn them with flowers and
+     burn copal before them. We have discovered some of these and burned
+     them, hoping to root out and put a stop to such evil ceremonies of
+     the infernal sect of the Nagualists.
+
+     “At present, all are not so subject to the promptings of the Devil
+     as formerly, but there are still some so closely allied to him that
+     they transform themselves into tigers, lions, bulls, flashes of
+     light and globes of fire. We can say from the declaration and
+     solemn confession of some penitents that it is proved that the
+     Devil had carnal relations with them, both as incubus and succubus,
+     approaching them in the form of their Nagual; and there was one
+     woman who remained in the forest a week with the demon in the form
+     of her Nagual, acting toward him as does an infatuated woman toward
+     her lover (como pudiera con su proprio amigo una muger amancebada).
+     As a punishment for such horrible crimes our Lord has permitted
+     that they lose their life as soon as their Nagual is killed; and
+     that they bear on their own bodies the wound or mark of the blow
+     which killed it; as the curas of Chamula, Copainala and other
+     places have assured us.
+
+     “The devilish seed of this Nagualism has rooted itself in the very
+     flesh and blood of these Indians. It perseveres in their hearts
+     through the instructions of the masters of the sect, and there is
+     scarcely a town in these provinces in which it has not been
+     introduced. It is a superstitious idolatry, full of monstrous
+     incests, sodomies and detestable bestialities.”
+
+Such are the words of the Bishop of Chiapas. We learn from his
+thoroughly instructed and unimpeachable testimony that at the beginning
+of the eighteenth century Nagualism was a widespread and active
+institution among the Indians of southern Mexico; that it was taught and
+practiced by professors who were so much feared and respected that, as
+he tells us in another passage, they were called “masters of the
+towns;”[21-†] that they gave systematic instruction to disciples in
+classes of three, all of whom were bound together by pledges of mutual
+information and assistance; that a fundamental principle of the
+organization and an indispensable step in the initiation into its
+mysteries was the abjuration of the Christian religion, and an undying
+hatred to its teachers and all others of the race of the white
+oppressors; and that when they made use of Christian phrases or
+ceremonies it was either in derision or out of hypocrisy, the better to
+conceal their real sentiments.
+
+There are a number of other witnesses from the seventeenth century that
+may be summoned to strengthen this testimony, if it needs it.
+
+
+=14.= In the _History of Guatemala_, written about 1690 by Francisco
+Antonio Fuentes y Guzman, the author gives some information about a
+sorcerer of this school, who was arrested in Totonicapan, and with whom
+the historian had something to do as _corregidor_.
+
+The redoubtable magician was a little old man, _viejezuelo_, and when
+caught had in his possession a document giving the days of the year
+according to the European calendar, with the Nagual, which belonged to
+each one. That for January is alone given by our writer, but it is
+probable that the other months merely repeated the naguals corresponding
+to the numbers. It ran as follows:
+
+  _Nagual Calendar for January._
+
+  1. Lion.
+  2. Snake.
+  3. Stone.
+  4. Alligator.
+  5. Ceiba tree.
+  6. The quetzal (a bird).
+  7. A stick.
+  8. Rabbit.
+  9. A rope.
+  10. Leaf.
+  11. Deer.
+  12. Guacamayo (parrot).
+  13. Flower.
+  14. Toad.
+  15. Caterpillar.
+  16. A chip.
+  17. Arrow.
+  18. Broom.
+  19. Jaguar.
+  20. Corn-husk.
+  21. A flute.
+  22. Green-stone.
+  23. Crow.
+  24. Fire.
+  25. A pheasant.
+  26. A reed.
+  27. Opossum.
+  28. Huracan (the thunder-storm).
+  29. The vulture.
+  30. Hawk.
+  31. Bat.
+
+When the sorcerer was examined as to the manner of assigning the proper
+nagual to a child he gave the following account:
+
+Having been informed of its day of birth, he in due time called at the
+residence of the parents, and told the mother to bring the child into
+the field behind the house. Having there invoked the demon, the _nagual_
+of the child would appear under the form of the animal or object set
+opposite its birthday in the calendar, a serpent were it born on the 2d
+of January, a flower were it on the 13th, fire were it on the 24th, and
+so on. The sorcerer then addressed certain prayers to the _nagual_ to
+protect the little one, and told the mother to take it daily to the same
+spot, where its _nagual_ would appear to it, and would finally accompany
+it through all its life. Some, but not all, obtained the power of
+transforming themselves into the _nagual_, and the author declares that,
+though he could not cite such a case from his own experience, his father
+knew of several, and reliable priests, _religiosos de fé_, had told him
+enough examples to fill volumes.[23-*]
+
+The tribes to which this author refers were the Cakchiquels and Quiches,
+who spoke practically the same tongue. An examination of some of the old
+dictionaries prepared by the early missionaries furnishes further and
+interesting information about this obscure subject.
+
+In the Cakchiquel language of Guatemala, the word _naual_ was applied
+both to the magician himself, to his necromantic art, and to the demonic
+agency which taught and protected him. This is shown by the following
+explanation, which I quote from Father Coto’s _Vocabulario de la Lengua
+Cakchiquel_, 1651, a manuscript in the library of the American
+Philosophical Society:
+
+     “_Magic_ or _Necromancy_: _puz_ or _naual_; and they were
+     accustomed to call their magicians or sorcerers by the same terms.
+     It was a kind of magic which they invoked in order to transform
+     themselves into eagles, lions, tigers, etc. Thus, they said, _ru
+     puz_, _ru naual_, _pedro læ cot_, _balam_, ‘Peter’s power, his
+     _naual_, is a lion, a tiger.’ They also applied the words _puz_ and
+     _naual_ to certain trees, rocks and other inanimate objects, whence
+     the Devil used to speak to them, and likewise to the idols which
+     they worshiped, as _gazlic che_, _gazlic abah_, _huyu_, _k’o ru
+     naual_, ‘The life of the tree, the life of the stone, of the hill,
+     is its _naual_,’ etc.; because they believed there was life in
+     these objects. They used to have armies and soldiery to guard
+     their lands, and the captains, as well as many who were not
+     captains, had their _nauales_. They called the captain _ru g’
+     alache; rohobachi, ti ru gaah, ru pocob, ru gh’ amay a ghay ti be
+     chi naualil_ [he works magic with his shield, his lance, and his
+     arrows].
+
+     “To practice such magical arts: _tin naualih_ (‘I practice magic’),
+     an active verb. They use it, for instance, when a man asks his wife
+     for something to eat or drink, and she has nothing, owing to his
+     negligence, she will say: ‘Where do you suppose I can get what you
+     want? Do you expect me to perform miracles--_xa pe ri tin
+     naualih_--that they shall come to my hands?’ So when one is asked
+     to lend or give something which he has not, he will exclaim: _Tin
+     naualih pe ri puvak_, etc. (‘Can I perform miracles,’ etc.)
+
+     “It also signifies to pretend something, concealing the truth, as
+     _xa ru naualim ara neh chu g’ ux ri tzih tan tu bijh pedro_, ‘Peter
+     is feigning this which he is saying.’ They are also accustomed to
+     apply this word to the power which the priests exert (in the
+     sacraments, etc.).”
+
+A long and foolish account of the witchcraft supposed to be practiced
+among the Pokonchis of Guatemala, also a tribe of Mayan stock, is given
+by the Englishman, Thomas Gage, who was cura of a parish among them
+about 1630, and afterwards returned to England and Protestantism. He
+described, at wearisome length, the supposed metamorphosis of two chiefs
+of neighboring tribes, the one into a lion, the other into a tiger, and
+the mortal combat in which they engaged, resulting in the death of one
+to whom Gage administered absolution. No doubt he had been worsted in a
+personal encounter with his old enemy, and, being a man of eighty years,
+had not the vigor to recover. The account is of interest only as proving
+that the same superstitions at that time prevailed among the Pokonchis
+as in other portions of Guatemala.[24-*]
+
+
+=15.= A really mighty nagualist was not confined to a single
+transformation. He could take on many and varied figures. One such is
+described in the sacred books of the Quiches of Guatemala, that document
+known by the name of the Popol Vuh, or National Book. The passage is in
+reference to one of their great kings and powerful magicians, Gucumatz
+by name. It says:
+
+     “Truly he was a wonderful king. Every seven days he ascended to the
+     sky, and every seven days he followed the path to the abode of the
+     dead; every seven days he put on the nature of a serpent, and then
+     he became truly a serpent; every seven days he assumed the nature
+     of an eagle, and then he became truly an eagle; then of a tiger and
+     he became truly a tiger; then of coagulated blood, and he was
+     nothing else than coagulated blood.”[25-*]
+
+It may be said that such passages refer metaphorically to the
+versatility of his character, but even if this is so, the metaphors are
+drawn from the universal belief in Nagualism which then prevailed, and
+they do not express it too strongly.
+
+
+=16.= Among the Maya tribes of Yucatan and Guatemala we have testimony to
+the continuance to this day of these beliefs. Father Bartolomé de Baeza,
+cura of Yaxcaba in the first half of this century, reports that an old
+man, in his dying confession, declared that by diabolical art he had
+transformed himself into an animal, doubtless his _nagual_; and a young
+girl of some twelve years confessed that she had been transformed into a
+bird by the witches, and in one of her nocturnal flights had rested on
+the roof of the very house in which the good priest resided, which was
+some two leagues from her home. He wisely suggests that, perhaps,
+listening to some tale of sorcery, she had had a vivid dream, in which
+she seemed to take this flight. It is obvious, however, from his
+account, as well as from other sources, that the belief of the
+transformation into lower animals was and is one familiar to the
+superstitions of the Mayas.[25-†] The natives still continue to
+propitiate the ancient gods of the harvest, at the beginning of the
+season assembling at a ceremony called by the Spaniards the _misa
+milpera_, or “field mass,” and by themselves _ti’ch_, “the stretching
+out of the hands.”
+
+The German traveler, Dr. Scherzer, when he visited, in 1854, the remote
+hamlet of Istlavacan, in Guatemala, peopled by Quiché Indians,
+discovered that they had preserved in this respect the usages of their
+ancestors almost wholly unaffected by the teachings of their various
+Christian curates. The “Master” still assigned the _naguals_ to the
+new-born infants, copal was burned to their ancient gods in remote
+caves, and formulas of invocation were taught by the veteran nagualists
+to their neophytes.[26-*]
+
+These _Zahoris_,[26-†] as they are generally called in the Spanish of
+Central America, possessed many other mysterious arts besides that of
+such metamorphoses and of forecasting the future. They could make
+themselves invisible, and walk unseen among their enemies; they could in
+a moment transport themselves to distant places, and, as quickly
+returning, report what they had witnessed; they could create before the
+eyes of the spectator a river, a tree, a house, or an animal, where none
+such existed; they could cut open their own stomach, or lop a limb from
+another person, and immediately heal the wound or restore the severed
+member to its place; they could pierce themselves with knives and not
+bleed, or handle venomous serpents and not be bitten; they could cause
+mysterious sounds in the air, and fascinate animals and persons by their
+steady gaze; they could call visible and invisible spirits, and the
+spirits would come.
+
+Among the native population of the State of Vera Cruz and elsewhere in
+southern Mexico these mysterious personages go by the name _padrinos_,
+godfathers, and are looked upon with a mixture of fear and respect. They
+are believed by the Indians to be able to cause sickness and domestic
+calamities, and are pronounced by intelligent whites to present “a
+combination of rascality, duplicity and trickery.”[26-‡]
+
+
+=17.= The details of the ceremonies and doctrines of Nagualism have never
+been fully revealed; but from isolated occurrences and partial
+confessions it is clear that its adherents formed a coherent association
+extending over most of southern Mexico and Guatemala, which everywhere
+was inspired by two ruling sentiments--detestation of the Spaniards and
+hatred of the Christian religion.
+
+In their eyes the latter was but a cloak for the exactions, massacres
+and oppressions exerted by the former. To them the sacraments of the
+Church were the outward signs of their own subjugation and misery. They
+revolted against these rites in open hatred, or received them with
+secret repugnance and contempt. In the Mexican figurative manuscripts
+composed after the conquest the rite of baptism is constantly depicted
+as the symbol of religious persecution. Says a sympathetic student of
+this subject:
+
+     “The act of baptism is always inserted in their records of battles
+     and massacres. Everywhere it conveys the same idea,--making evident
+     to the reader that the pretext for all the military expeditions of
+     the Spaniards was the enforced conversion to Christianity of the
+     natives; a pretext on which the Spaniards seized in order to
+     possess themselves of the land and its treasure, to rob the Indians
+     of their wives and daughters, to enslave them, and to spill their
+     blood without remorse or remission. One of these documents, dated
+     in 1526, adds a trait of savage irony. A Spanish soldier is
+     represented dragging a fugitive Indian from a lake by a lasso
+     around his neck; while on the shore stands a monk ready to baptize
+     the recreant on his arrival!”[27-*]
+
+No wonder that the priests of the dark ritual of Nagualism for centuries
+after the conquest sought to annul the effects of the hated Christian
+sacraments by counteracting ceremonies of their own, as we are told they
+did by the historian Torquemada, writing from his own point of view in
+these words:
+
+     “The Father of Lies had his ministers who aided him, magicians and
+     sorcerers, who went about from town to town, persuading the simple
+     people to that which the Enemy of Light desired. Those who believed
+     their deceits, and had been baptized, were washed on the head and
+     breast by these sorcerers, who assured them that this would remove
+     the effects of the chrism and the holy oils. I myself knew an
+     instance where a person of prominence, who resided not far from the
+     City of Mexico, was dying, and had received extreme unction; and
+     when the priest had departed one of these diabolical ceremonialists
+     entered, and washed all the parts which had been anointed by the
+     holy oil with the intention to destroy its power.”[27-†]
+
+Similar instances are recorded by Jacinto de la Serna. He adds that not
+only did the Masters prescribe sacrifices to the Fire in order to annul
+the effects of extreme unction, but they delighted to caricature the
+Eucharist, dividing among their congregation a narcotic yellow mushroom
+for the bread, and the inebriating pulque for the wine. Sometimes they
+adroitly concealed in the pyx, alongside the holy wafer, some little
+idol of their own, so that they really followed their own superstitions
+while seemingly adoring the Host. They assigned a purely pagan sense to
+the sacred formula, “Father, Son and Holy Ghost,” understanding it to be
+“Fire, Earth and Air,” or the like.[28-*]
+
+Whoever or whatever was an enemy to that religion so brutally forced upon
+these miserable creatures was to them an ally and a friend. Nuñez de la
+Vega tells us that he found written formulas among them reading: “O
+Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, come to our
+aid!”--pathetic and desperate appeal of a wretched race, ground to earth
+under the iron heels of a religious and military despotism.[28-†]
+
+
+=18.= The association embraced various tribes and its members were
+classified under different degrees. The initiation into these was by
+solemn and often painful ceremonies. Local sodalities or brotherhoods
+were organized after the manner of those usual in the Roman Church; but
+instead of being named after St. John or the Virgin Mary they were
+dedicated to Judas Iscariot or Pontius Pilate out of derision and hatred
+of the teachings of the priests; or to the Devil or Antichrist, who were
+looked upon as powerful divinities in opposition to the Church.[28-‡]
+
+There were certain recognized centres of the association, near which its
+most important dignitaries resided, and where their secret councils and
+most imposing ceremonies were held. One of these was Zamayac, in the
+province of Suchiltepec; a second near Huehuetan, Soconusco; a third at
+Totonicapan, Guatemala; a fourth at Cancuc, Chiapas; a fifth at
+Teozapotlan, Oaxaca; and a few others may be surmised.
+
+The high priest who resided at each of these centres exercised control
+over all the nagualistic teachers and practitioners in an extensive
+district. On the occasion of an official inquiry by the Spanish
+authorities it was ascertained that the high priest of Zamayac included
+under his rule nearly one thousand sub-priests,[29-*] and no doubt
+others of his rank were not less potent.
+
+The unity between the members of the association over an indefinitely
+wide area was perfectly well known to the Spanish priests and civil
+authorities. The ceremonies, formulas and methods of procedure were
+everywhere identical or alike. This itself was justly regarded as a
+proof of the secret intelligence which existed among the members of this
+cabalistic guild.[29-†]
+
+To a certain extent, and at least in some localities, as Chiapas and
+Guatemala, the priesthood of Nagualism was hereditary in particular
+families. This is especially stated by the historian Ordoñez y Aguiar,
+who had exceptional opportunities for acquainting himself with the
+facts.[29-‡]
+
+A traveler of the first decade of this century, who has left us a number
+of curious details of the superstitions of the Christianized Indians in
+Mexico of that day, Benito Maria de Moxò, informs us that he had
+discovered the existence of different grades in the native soothsayers
+and medicine men, and that all in a given locality recognized the
+supremacy of one whom they referred to as “the little old man,” _El
+Viejito_. But he was unable to ascertain by what superior traits or
+rights he obtained this distinction.[29-§]
+
+According to some authorities, the highest grade of these native
+hierophants bore among the Nahuas the symbolic name of “flower
+weavers,” _Xochimilca_, probably from the skill they had to deceive the
+senses by strange and pleasant visions.[30-*] In the south they were
+spoken of as “guardians,” which may have been derived from the classes
+of priests so-called in the Zapotec religion.[30-†]
+
+
+=19.= It will be seen from the above, that Nagualism, beginning in an
+ancient superstition dating back to the time of primitive barbarism,
+became after the Conquest a potent factor in the political and social
+development of the peoples among whom it existed; that it was the source
+from which was drawn and the means by which was sustained the
+race-hatred of the native American towards his foreign conquerors,
+smouldering for centuries, now and then breaking out in furious revolt
+and civil war.
+
+There is strong reason to suspect its power where, for obvious reasons,
+it has not been demonstrated. It has always been a mystery and a matter
+of surprise to the historians of Yucatan how rapidly spread the plans of
+the insurrection which secured lasting independence for the natives,
+after these plans had been agreed upon by the two chiefs, Antonio Ay and
+Cecilio Chi, at the remote rancho of Xihum, in July, 1847. Such
+unanimity of action could only have been possible through the aid of a
+powerful, well-disciplined and widespread secret organization. There can
+scarcely be a doubt they were the chiefs or masters of the redoubtable
+order of Nagualism in the Peninsula.[30-‡]
+
+There is no question that such was the case with the brief and bloody
+revolt of the Mayas in 1761. It suddenly broke out in a number of
+villages near Valladolid, Yucatan, headed by a full-blood native,
+Jacinto Can-Ek; but some of the participants afterwards confessed that
+it was the outcome of a conspiracy which had been preparing for a year.
+
+When the appointed day arrived, Jacinto boldly announced himself as the
+high priest of the fraternity of sorcerers, a master and teacher of
+magic, and the lineal successor of the famous ancient prophet, Chilan
+Balam, “whose words cannot fail.” In a stirring appeal he urged his
+fellow-countrymen to attack the Spaniards without fear of consequences.
+
+     “‘Be not afraid,’ he exclaimed, ‘of their cannons and their forts;
+     for among the many to whom I have taught the arts of magic (el arte
+     de brujeria) there are fifteen chosen ones, marvelous experts, who
+     by their mystic power will enter the fortress, slay the sentinels,
+     and throw open the gates to our warriors. I shall take the leaves
+     of the sacred tree, and folding them into trumpets, I shall call to
+     the four winds of heaven, and a multitude of fighting men will
+     hasten to our aid.’”[31-*]
+
+Saying this, he took a sheet of paper, held it up to show that it was
+blank, folded it for a moment, and then spread it out covered with
+writing! This deft trick convinced his simple-minded hearers of the
+truth of his claims and they rushed to arms. He led them, clothed in the
+robe of the Virgin and with her crown on his head. But neither their
+enthusiasm nor their leader’s art magic availed, and soon Jacinto and
+his followers fell victims to the stake and the gallows. After their
+death the dance of “the tiger,” or of Chac-Mool--the “ghost dance” of
+the Mayas--was prohibited; and the use of the sacred drum--the favorite
+instrument of the native priests--was forbidden.[31-†]
+
+In fact, wherever we have any full accounts of the revolts against the
+Spanish domination during the three centuries of its existence in New
+Spain, we can manifestly trace the guiding fingers of the powerful
+though hidden hand of Nagualism. An earlier revolt of the Mayas in
+Yucatan occurred in 1585. It was led by Andres Chi, a full-blood Indian,
+and a descendant of the ancient royal house of the Cocomes. He also
+announced himself as a priest of the ancient faith, a prophet and a
+worker of miracles, sent to instruct his own people in a new religion
+and to give them an independent political existence. Seized by the
+Spaniards, he was charged with idolatry, sorcery and disturbing the
+peace, and was ignominiously hanged.[32-*]
+
+Not less definitely inspired by the same ideas was the Mixe Indian,
+known as “Don Pascual,” who led the revolt of the Tehuantepec tribes in
+1661. He sent out his summons to the “thirteen governors of the Zapotecs
+and Chontales” to come to his aid, and the insurrection threatened to
+assume formidable proportions, prevented only by bringing to bear upon
+the natives the whole power of the Roman Church through the Bishop of
+Oaxaca, Cuevas Davalos.[32-†]
+
+Nearly the same locality had been the scene of the revolt of the
+Zapotecs in 1550, when they were led by a native priest who claimed to
+be an incarnation of the old god Quetzalcoatl, the patron deity of the
+nagualists.[32-‡]
+
+In the city of Mexico itself, in the year 1692, there was a violent
+outbreak of the natives, when they destroyed three million dollars worth
+of property. Doubtless this was partly attributable to the scarcity of
+food which prevailed; but that the authorities traced it also to some
+secret ceremonials is evident from the law which was immediately passed
+forbidding the Indians to wear the _piochtli_, or scalp-lock, a portion
+of the hair preserved from birth as part of the genethliac
+rituals,[32-§] and the especial enactments against the _octli_.
+
+As for the revolt of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1712, it was clearly
+and confessedly under the leadership of the nagualistic priesthood, as I
+shall indicate on a later page.
+
+The history of the native American race under the Spanish power in North
+America has never yet been written with the slightest approach to
+thoroughness. He who properly qualifies himself for that task will
+certainly reach the conclusion expressed a number of years ago by the
+eminent American antiquary and historian, Mr. E. G. Squier, in these
+words:
+
+     “Among the ruling and priestly classes of the semi-civilized
+     nations of America, there has always existed a mysterious bond, a
+     secret organization, which all the disasters to which they have
+     been subjected have not destroyed. It is to its present existence
+     that we may attribute those simultaneous movements of the
+     aborigines of Mexico and Central America, which have more than once
+     threatened the complete subversion of the Spanish power.”[33-*]
+
+That mysterious bond, that secret organization, is _Nagualism_.
+
+
+=20.= A remarkable feature in this mysterious society was the exalted
+position it assigned to Women. Not only were they admitted to the most
+esoteric degrees, but in repeated instances they occupied the very
+highest posts in the organization. According to the traditions of the
+Tzentals and Pipils of Chiapas, when their national hero, Votan,
+constructed by the breath of his mouth his darkened shrine at
+Tlazoaloyan, in Soconusco, he deposited in it the sacred books and holy
+relics, and constituted a college of venerable sages to be its
+guardians; but placed them all in subjection to a high priestess, whose
+powers were absolute.[33-†]
+
+The veracious Pascual de Andagoya asserts from his own knowledge that
+some of these female adepts had attained the rare and peculiar power of
+being in two places at once, as much as a league and a half
+apart;[33-‡] and the repeated references to them in the Spanish
+writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries confirm the dread in
+which they were held and the extensive influence they were known to
+control. In the sacraments of Nagualism, Woman was the primate and
+hierophant.
+
+
+=21.= This was a lineal inheritance from pre-Columbian times. In many
+native American legends, as in others from the old world, some powerful
+enchantress is remembered as the founder of the State, mistress of men
+through the potency of her magic powers.
+
+Such, among the Aztecs, was the sorceress who built the city of
+Mallinalco, on the road from Mexico to Michoacan, famous even after the
+conquest for the skill of its magicians, who claimed descent from
+her.[34-*] Such, in Honduras, was Coamizagual, queen of Cerquin, versed
+in all occult science, who died not, but at the close of her earthly
+career rose to heaven in the form of a beautiful bird, amid the roll of
+thunder and the flash of lightning.[34-†]
+
+According to an author intimately familiar with the Mexican nagualists,
+the art they claimed to possess of transforming themselves into the
+lower animals was taught their predecessors by a woman, a native Circe,
+a mighty enchantress, whose usual name was Quilaztli (the etymology of
+which is unknown), but who bore also four others, representing her four
+metamorphoses, Cohuacihuatl, the Serpent Woman; Quauhcihuatl, the Eagle
+Woman; Yaocihuatl, the Warrior Woman; and Tzitzimecihuatl, the Specter
+Woman.[34-‡]
+
+The powers of these queens of magic extended widely among their sex. We
+read in the chronicles of ancient Mexico that when Nezahualpilli, the
+king, oppressed the tribes of the coast, the _tierra caliente_, they
+sent against him, not their warriors, but their witches. These cast upon
+him their fatal spells, so that when he walked forth from his palace,
+blood burst from his mouth, and he fell prone and dead.[34-§]
+
+In Guatemala, as in ancient Delphos, the gods were believed to speak
+through the mouths of these inspired seeresses, and at the celebration
+of victories they enjoyed a privilege so strange and horrible that I
+quote it from the old manuscript before me without venturing a
+translation:
+
+     “... Despues de sacrificar los antiguos algun hombre,
+     despedaçandolo, si era de los que avian cogido en guerra, dicen que
+     guardaban el miembro genital y los testiculos del tal sacrificado,
+     y se los daban à una vieja que tenian por profeta, para que los
+     comiese, y le pedian rogasse à su idolo les diesse mas
+     captivos.”[35-*]
+
+When Captain Pedro de Alvarado, in the year 1524, was marching upon
+Quetzaltanango, in Guatemala, just such a fearful old witch took her
+stand at the summit of the pass, with her familiar in the shape of a
+dog, and “by spells and nagualistic incantations” undertook to prevent
+his approach.[35-†]
+
+As in the earliest, so in the latest accounts. The last revolt of the
+Indians of Chiapas occurred among the Zotzils in 1869. The cause of it
+was the seizure and imprisonment by the Spanish authorities of a
+“mystical woman,” known to the whites as Santa Rosa, who, together with
+one of their _ahaus_ or chieftains, had been suspected of fomenting
+sedition. The natives marched thousands strong against the city of San
+Cristobal, where the prisoners were, and secured their liberation; but
+their leader, Ignacio Galindo, was entrapped and shot by the Spaniards,
+and the mutiny was soon quelled.[35-‡]
+
+
+=22.= But perhaps the most striking instance is that recorded in the
+history of the insurrection of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1713. They
+were led by an Indian girl, a native Joan of Arc, fired by like
+enthusiasm to drive from her country the hated foreign oppressors, and
+to destroy every vestige of their presence. She was scarcely twenty
+years old, and was known to the Spaniards as Maria Candelaria. She was
+the leader of what most historians call a religious sect, but what
+Ordoñez y Aguiar, himself a native of Chiapas, recognizes as the
+powerful secret association of Nagualism, determined on the extirpation
+of the white race. He estimates that in Chiapas alone there were nearly
+seventy thousand natives under her orders--doubtless an
+exaggeration--and asserts that the conspiracy extended far into the
+neighboring tribes, who had been ordered to await the result of the
+effort in Chiapas.
+
+Her authority was absolute, and she was merciless in requiring obedience
+to it. The disobedient were flayed alive or roasted over a slow fire.
+She and all her followers took particular pleasure in manifesting their
+hatred and contempt for the religion of their oppressors. They defiled
+the sacred vessels of the churches, imitated with buffoonery the
+ceremonies of the mass, which she herself performed, and stoned to death
+the priests whom they caught.
+
+Of course, her attempt against the power of Spain was hopeless. It
+failed after a bitter and protracted conquest, characterized by the
+utmost inhumanity on both sides. But when her followers were scattered
+and killed, when the victorious whites had again in their hands all the
+power and resources of the country, not their most diligent search, nor
+the temptation of any reward, enabled them to capture Maria Candelaria,
+the heroine of the bloody drama. With a few trusty followers she escaped
+to the forest, and was never again heard of.[36-*]
+
+More unfortunate were her friends and lieutenants, the priestesses of
+Guistiupan and Yajalon, who had valiantly seconded Maria in her
+patriotic endeavors. Seized by the Spaniards, they met the fate which we
+can easily imagine, though the historian has mercifully thrown a veil on
+its details.[36-†]
+
+
+=23.= Of just such a youthful prophetess did Mr. E. G. Squier hear during
+his travels in Central America, a “_sukia_ woman,” as she was called by
+the coast Indians, one who lived alone mid the ruins of an old Mayan
+temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and
+life in her hands.[36-‡] Perhaps his account is somewhat fanciful;
+it is so, indeed; but it is grounded on the unshaken beliefs and ancient
+traditions of the natives of those climes, and on customs well known to
+those who reside there.
+
+The late distinguished Americanist, the Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg,
+during his long travels in Mexico and Central America, had occasion more
+than once to come in contact with this trait of the ancient faith of the
+Nagualists, still alive in their descendants. Among the Zapotecs of the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec he saw one of the queens of the mystic
+fraternity, and he describes her with a warmth which proves that he had
+not lost his eye for the beautiful.
+
+     “She wore a piece of light-green stuff loosely folded around her
+     form at the hips, and falling to a little distance above the ankle;
+     a jacket of red silk gauze with short sleeves and embroidered with
+     gold, clothed the upper part of her person, veiling her bosom, upon
+     which lay a chain of heavy gold pieces, pierced and strung on a
+     cord. Her rich black hair was divided on the forehead, and drawn
+     back in two splendid tresses fastened with blue ribbons, while a
+     white muslin kerchief encircled her head like the calantica of the
+     ancient Egyptians. Never in my life have I seen a more striking
+     figure of an Isis or a Cleopatra.
+
+     “There was something strange in her expression. Her eyes were the
+     blackest and the brightest in the world; but there were moments
+     when she suddenly paused, leaned against the billiard table or the
+     wall, and they became fixed and dead like those of a corpse. Then a
+     fiery glance would shoot from beneath her dark lashes, sending a
+     chill to the heart of the one to whom it was directed. Was it
+     madness, or was it, as those around her believed, a momentary
+     absence of soul, an absorption of her spirit into its _nagual_, a
+     transportation into an unknown world? Who shall decide?”[37-*]
+
+
+=24.= It would be a mistake to suppose that Nagualism was an incoherent
+medley of superstitions, a mass of jumbled fragments derived from the
+ancient paganism. My study of it has led me to a widely different
+conclusion. It was a perpetuation of a well-defined portion of the
+native cult, whose sources we are able to trace long anterior to the
+period of the conquest, and which had no connection with the elaborate
+and bloody ritual of the Aztecs. The evidence to this effect is cogent.
+
+Wherever in later days the Catholic priests found out the holy places
+and sacred objects of the nagualists, they were in-caves or deep
+rock-recesses, not in artificial structures. The myths they gleaned, and
+the names of the gods they heard, also point to this as a distinguishing
+peculiarity. An early instance is recorded among the Nahuas of Mexico.
+In 1537 Father Perea discovered a cavern in a deep ravine at Chalma,
+near Mallinalco (a town famous for its magicians), which was the
+sanctuary of the deity called _Oztoteotl_, the Cave God (_oztotl_, cave;
+_teotl_, god), “venerated throughout the whole empire of
+Montezuma.”[38-*] He destroyed the image of the god, and converted the
+cavern into a chapel.
+
+We cannot err in regarding Oztoteotl as merely another name of the
+Nahuatl divinity, Tepeyollotl, the Heart, or Inside, of the Mountain,
+who in the Codex Borgia and the Codex Vaticanus is represented seated
+upon or in a cavern. His name may equally well be translated “the Heart
+of the Place,” or “of the Town.”
+
+Dr. Eduard Seler has shown beyond reasonable question that this divinity
+did not originally belong to the Aztec Pantheon, but was introduced from
+the South, either from the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, or the Mayan tribes,
+beyond these.[38-†] The Cave God of the Aztecs is identical with the
+Votan of the Tzentals of Chiapas, and with the U-q’ux Uleuh of the
+Quiches of Guatemala, and probably with the Cozaana of the Zapotecs.
+
+The rites of all of these were conducted in caverns, and there have been
+preserved several interesting descriptions of the contents of these
+sacred places. That relating to the “dark house of Votan” is given thus
+in the work of the Bishop of Chiapas:
+
+     “Votan is the third hero who is named in the calendar, and some of
+     his descendants still reside in the town of Teopisca, where they
+     are known as Votans. He is sometimes referred to as Lord of the
+     Sacred Drum, and he is said to have seen the great wall (which must
+     have been the Tower of Babel), and to have divided this land among
+     the Indians, and given to each tribe its language.
+
+     “They say further that he once dwelt in Huehuetan, a town in the
+     province of Soconusco. Near there, at the place called Tlazoaloyan,
+     he constructed, by blowing with his breath, a dark house, and put
+     tapirs in the river, and in the house a great treasure, and left
+     all in charge of a noble lady, assisted by guardians (_tlapiane_)
+     to preserve. This treasure consisted of earthenware vases with
+     covers of the same material; a stone, on which were inscribed the
+     figures of the ancient native heroes as found in the calendar;
+     _chalchiuites_, which are green stones; and other superstitious
+     objects.
+
+     “All of these were taken from the cave, and publicly burned in the
+     plaza of Huehuetan on the occasion of our first diocesan visit
+     there in 1691, having been delivered to us by the lady in charge
+     and the guardians. All the Indians have great respect for this
+     Votan, and in some places they call him ‘the Heart of the
+     Towns.’”[39-*]
+
+The English priest, Thomas Gage, who was curate of a parish among the
+Pokonchi Indians of Guatemala about 1630, relates his discovery of such
+a cave, in which the idol was preserved, and gives this description of
+it:
+
+     “We found the Idol standing upon a low stool covered with a linen
+     cloth. The substance of it was wood, black shining like jet, as if
+     it had been painted or smoked; the form was of a man’s head unto
+     the shoulders, without either Beard or Mustachoes; his look was
+     grim, with a wrinkled forehead, and broad staring eyes.
+
+     “They boasted of this their god, saying that he had plainly told
+     them they should not believe anything I preached of Christ, but
+     follow the old ways of their forefathers.”[39-†]
+
+The black color here mentioned was a relic of ancient symbolism,
+referring to the night, darkness, and the obscurity of the holy cavern.
+Vetancurt informs us that the priests of the ancient paganism were
+accustomed to rub their faces and bodies with an ointment of fat and
+pine soot when they went to sacrifice in the forests, so that they
+looked as black as negroes[TN-3][39-‡] In the extract from Nuñez de
+la Vega already given, _Ical Ahau_, the “Black King,” is named as one of
+the divinities of the nagualists.
+
+In some parts the principal idol found in the caves was the mummied or
+exsiccated body of some former distinguished priest or chieftain. One
+such is recorded by Bartholomé de Pisa, which was found among the
+Zapotecs of Coatlan. It bore a name taken from the calendar, that of the
+tenth day, and was alleged to be the preserved cadaver of a celebrated
+ruler.[40-*] Another interesting example is narrated by Villa Señor y
+Sanchez,[40-†] who describes it as an eye-witness. It was discovered
+in a spacious cave located some distance to the west of the city of
+Mexico, in Nahuatl territory, on the side of what was known as “the Sun
+mountain”--_la Mesa de Tonati_. He speaks of it as remarkably well
+preserved, “both the muscles and the bones.”
+
+     “It was seated in an armchair which served for a throne, and was
+     clothed in a mantle, which fell from the shoulders to the feet.
+     This was richly adorned with precious stones, which, according to
+     the native custom, were sewed into the texture of the cloth. The
+     figure also wore shoulder straps, collars, bracelets and fastenings
+     of silver. From its forehead rose a crown of beautiful feathers of
+     different colors arranged so that one color should alternate with
+     another. The left hand was resting on the arm of the chair, while
+     in the right was a sharp cutlass with silver mountings. At its feet
+     were several vases of fine stone, as marble and alabaster, in which
+     were offerings of blood and meat, obtained from the sacrifices.”
+
+The same writer refers to other examples of these sacred caves which he
+had seen in his journeys. One was near the town of Teremendo, where the
+sides and roof had been artificially dressed into the shape of huge
+arches. A natural altar had been provided in a similar manner, and on
+it, at the time of his visit, were numerous idols in the figures of men
+and animals, and before them fresh offerings of copal and food.
+Elsewhere he refers to many such caverns still in use as places resorted
+to by the natives in _la gran Sierra de Tlascala_.[40-‡]
+
+These extracts prove the extent of this peculiar worship and the number
+of these subterranean temples in recent generations. The fame of some of
+the greater ones of the past still survives, as the vast grotto of
+Chalcatongo, near Achiutla, which was the sepulchral vault of its
+ancient kings; that of Totomachiapa, a solemn scene of sacrifice for
+the ancient priests; that of Justlahuaca, near Sola (Oaxaca), which was
+a place of worship of the Zapotecs long after the Conquest; and that in
+the Cerro de Monopostiac, near San Francisco del Mar.[41-*]
+
+The intimate meaning of this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The
+Cave God, the Heart of the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil,
+from whose dark recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender
+shoots of the food-plants, as well as the great trees. To the native
+Mexican, the Earth was the provider of food and drink, the common Father
+of All; so that to this day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops
+to the earth, touches it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula:
+_Cuix amo nechitla in toteotzin?_ “Does not our Great God see me?”
+
+
+=25.= The identity of the Tepeyollotl of the Nahuas and the Votan of the
+Tzentals is shown not only in the oneness of meaning of the names, but
+in the fact that both represent the _third_ day in the ritual calendar.
+For this reason I take it, we find the number _three_ so generally a
+sacred number in the symbolism of the nagualists. We have already
+learned in the extract from Nuñez de la Vega that the neophytes were
+instructed in classes of three. To this day in Soteapan the fasts and
+festivals appointed by the native ministrants are three days in
+duration.[41-†] The semi-Christianized inhabitants of the Sierra of
+Nayerit, the Nahuatl-speaking Chotas, continued in the last century to
+venerate three divinities, the Dawn, the Stone and the Serpent;[41-‡]
+analogous to a similar “trinity” noted by Father Duran among the ancient
+Aztecs.[41-§]
+
+The number _nine_, that is, 3 x 3, recurs so frequently in the
+conjuration formulas of the Mexican sorcerers that de la Serna exclaims:
+“It was the Devil himself who inculcated into them this superstition
+about the number nine.”[41-‖]
+
+The other number sacred to the nagualists was _seven_. I have, in a
+former essay, given various reasons for believing that this was not
+derived from the seven days of the Christian week, but directly from the
+native calendar.[42-*] Nuñez de la Vega tells us that the patron of the
+seventh day was _Cuculcan_, “the Feathered Serpent,” and that many
+nagualists chose him as their special protector. As already seen, in
+Guatemala the child finally accepted its _naual_ when seven years old;
+and among some of the Nahuatl tribes of Mexico the _tonal_ and the
+calendar name was formally assigned on the seventh day after
+birth.[42-†] From similar impressions the Cakchiquels of Guatemala
+maintained that when the lightning strikes the earth the “thunder stone”
+sinks into the soil, but rises to the surface after seven
+years.[42-‡]
+
+The three and the seven were the ruling numbers in the genealogical
+trees of the Pipiles of San Salvador. The “tree” was painted with
+_seven_ branches representing degrees of relationship within which
+marriage was forbidden unless a man had performed some distinguished
+exploit in war, when he could marry beyond the nearest _three_ degrees
+of relationship.[42-§] Another combination of 3 and 7, by
+multiplication, explains the customs among the Mixes of deserting for 21
+days a house in which a death has occurred.[42-‖]
+
+The indications are that the nagualists derived these numbers from the
+third and seventh days of the calendar “month” of twenty days.
+Tepeololtec, the Cave God, was patron of the third day and also “Lord of
+Animals,” the transformation into which was the test of nagualistic
+power.[42-¶] Tlaloc, god of the mountains and the rains, to whom the
+seventh day was hallowed, was represented by the nagualistic symbol of a
+snake doubled and twisted on itself, and was generally portrayed in
+connection with the “Feathered Serpent” (Quetzalcoatl, Cuculchan,
+Gukumatz, all names meaning this), represented as carrying his medicine
+bag, _xiquipilli_, and incensory, the apparatus of the native
+illuminati, his robe marked with the sign of the cross to show that he
+was Lord of the Four Winds and of Life.[43-*]
+
+
+=26.= The nagualistic rites were highly symbolic, and the symbols used had
+clearly defined meanings, which enable us to analyze the religious ideas
+underlying this mysterious cult.
+
+The most important symbol was Fire. It was regarded as the primal
+element and the immediate source of life. Father Nicolas de Leon has the
+following suggestive passage in this connection:
+
+     “If any of their old superstitions has remained more deeply rooted
+     than another in the hearts of these Indians, both men and women, it
+     is this about fire and its worship, and about making new fire and
+     preserving it for a year in secret places. We should be on the
+     watch for this, and when in their confessions they speak of what
+     the Fire said and how the Fire wept, expressions which we are apt
+     to pass by as unintelligible, we must lay our hands on them for
+     reprehension. We should also be on the watch for their baptism by
+     Fire, a ceremony called the _yiahuiltoca_,[43-†] shortly after
+     the birth of a child when they bestow on it the surnames; nor must
+     the lying-in women and their assistants be permitted to speak of
+     Fire as the father and mother of all things and the author of
+     nature; because it is a common saying with them that Fire is
+     present at the birth and death of every creature.”
+
+This curious ceremony derived its name from the _yiahuitli_, a plant not
+unlike the absinthe, the powdered leaves of which, according to Father
+Sahagun, the natives were accustomed to throw into the flames as an
+offering to the fire.[43-‡] Long after the conquest, and probably to
+this day, the same custom prevails in Mexico, the fumes and odor of the
+burning leaves being considered very salubrious and purifying to the air
+of the sick room[TN-4][43-§]
+
+The word _yiahuiltoca_ means “the throwing of the _yiauhtli_” (from
+_toca_, to throw upon with the hands). Another name for the ceremony,
+according to Father Vetancurt, who wrote a century later than Leon, was
+_apehualco_, which has substantially the same meaning, “a throwing upon”
+or “a throwing away.”[44-*] He adds the interesting particulars that it
+was celebrated on the fourth day after the birth of the child, during
+which time it was deemed essential to keep the fire burning in the
+house, but not to permit any of it to be carried out, as that would
+bring bad luck to the child.
+
+Jacinto de la Serna also describes this ceremony, to which he gives the
+name _tlecuixtliliztli_, “which means that they pass the infant over the
+fire;” and elsewhere he adds: “The worship of fire is the greatest
+stumbling-block to these wretched idolaters.”[44-†]
+
+
+=27.= Other ceremonies connected with fire worship took place in
+connection with the manufacture of the pulque, or _octli_, the fermented
+liquor obtained from the sap of the maguey plant. The writer just
+quoted, de Vetancurt, states that the natives in his day, when they had
+brewed the new pulque and it was ready to be drunk, first built a fire,
+walked in procession around it and threw some of the new liquor into the
+flames, chanting the while an invocation to the god of inebriation,
+Tezcatzoncatl, to descend and be present with them.
+
+This was distinctly a survival of an ancient doctrine which connected
+the God of Fire with the Gods of Drunkenness, as we may gather from the
+following quotation from the history composed by Father Diego Duran:
+
+     “The _octli_ was a favorite offering to the gods, and especially to
+     the God of Fire. Sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases,
+     sometimes it was scattered upon the flames with a brush, at other
+     times it was poured out around the fireplace.”[45-*]
+
+
+=28.= The high importance of the fire ceremonies in the secret rituals of
+the modern Mayas is plainly evident from the native Calendars, although
+their signification has eluded the researches of students, even of the
+laborious Pio Perez, who was so intimately acquainted with their
+language and customs. In these Calendars the fire-priest is constantly
+referred to as _ah-toc_, literally “the fire-master.” The rites he
+celebrates recur at regular intervals of twenty days (the length of one
+native month) apart. They are four in number. On the first he takes the
+fire; on the second he kindles the fire; on the third he gives it free
+play, and on the fourth he extinguishes it. A period of five days is
+then allowed to elapse, when these ceremonies are recommenced in the
+same order. Whatever their meaning, they are so important that in the
+_Buk Xoc_, or General Computation of the Calendar, preserved in the
+mystic “Books of Chilan Balam,” there are special directions for these
+fire-masters to reckon the proper periods for the exercise of their
+strange functions.[45-†]
+
+
+=29.= What, now, was the sentiment which underlay this worship of fire? I
+think that the facts quoted, and especially the words of Father de Leon,
+leave no doubt about it. Fire was worshiped as the life-giver, the
+active generator, of animate existence. This idea was by no means
+peculiar to them. It repeatedly recurs in Sanskrit, in Greek and in
+Teutonic mythology, as has been ably pointed out by Dr. Hermann
+Cohen.[45-‡] The fire-god Agni (_ignis_) is in the Vedas the Maker of
+men; Prometheus steals the fire from heaven that he may with it animate
+the human forms he has moulded of clay; even the connection of the
+pulque with the fire is paralleled in Greek mythos, where Dionysos is
+called _Pyrigenes_, the “fire-born.”
+
+Among the ancient Aztecs the god of fire was called the oldest of gods,
+_Huehueteotl_, and also “Our Father,” _Tota_, as it was believed from
+him all things were derived.[46-*] Both among them and the Mayas, as I
+have pointed out in a previous work, he was supposed to govern the
+generative proclivities and the sexual relations.[46-†] Another of his
+names was _Xiuhtecutli_, which can be translated “God of the Green
+Leaf,” that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.[46-‡]
+
+To transform themselves into a globe or ball of fire was, as we have
+seen (antè, p. 21), a power claimed by expert nagualists, and to handle
+it with impunity, or to blow it from the mouth, was one of their
+commonest exhibitions. Nothing so much proved their superiority as thus
+to master this potent element.
+
+
+=30.= The same name above referred to, “the Heart of the Town,” or “of the
+Hills,” was that which at a comparatively late date was applied to an
+idol of green stone preserved with religious care in a cavern in the
+Cerro de Monopostiac, not far from San Francisco del Mar. The spot is
+still believed by the natives to be enchanted ground and protected by
+superhuman powers.[46-§]
+
+These green stones, called _chalchiuitl_, of jadeite, nephrite, green
+quartz, or the like, were accounted of peculiar religious significance
+throughout southern Mexico, and probably to this day many are preserved
+among the indigenous population as amulets and charms. They were often
+carved into images, either in human form or representing a frog, the
+latter apparently the symbol of the waters and of fertility. Bartholomè
+de Alva refers to them in a passage of his Confessionary. The priest
+asks the penitent:
+
+     “Dost thou possess at this very time little idols of green stone,
+     or frogs made of it (_in chalchiuh coconeme, chalchiuh
+     tamazoltin_)?
+
+     “Dost thou put them out in the sun to be warmed? Dost thou keep
+     them wrapped in cotton coverings, with great respect and
+     veneration?
+
+     “Dost thou believe, and hold for very truth, that these green
+     stones give thee food and drink, even as thy ancestors believed,
+     who died in their idolatry? Dost thou believe that they give thee
+     success and prosperity and good things, and all that them hast or
+     wishest? Because we know very well that many of you so believe at
+     this very time.”[47-*]
+
+Down to quite a recent date, and perhaps still, these green stones are
+employed in certain ceremonies in vogue among the Indians of Oaxaca in
+order to ensure a plenteous maize harvest. The largest ear of corn in
+the field is selected and wrapped up in a cloth with some of these
+chalchiuite. At the next corn-planting it is taken to the field and
+buried in the soil. This is believed to be a relic of the worship of the
+ancient Zapotec divinity, Quiegolani, who presided over cultivated
+fields.[47-†]
+
+They are still in use among the natives as lucky stones or amulets. In
+the Zotzil insurrection of 1869, already referred to, one was found
+suspended to the neck of one of the slain Indians. It came into the
+possession of M. Maler, who has described and figured it.[47-‡] It
+represents a human head with a curious expression and a singular
+headdress.
+
+From specimens of these amulets preserved in museums it is seen that any
+greenish stone was selected, preferably those yielding a high, vitreous
+polish, as jadeite, turquoise, emerald, chlormelanite or precious
+serpentine. The color gave the sacred character, and this, it seems to
+me, was distinctly meant to be symbolic of water and its effects, the
+green of growing plants, and hence of fertility, abundance and
+prosperity.
+
+
+=31.= There is another symbol, still venerated among the present
+indigenous population, which belongs to Nagualism, and is a survival
+from the ancient cult; this is the Tree. The species held in especial
+respect is the ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, the _ytzamatl_ (knife-leaved
+paper tree) of the Nahuas, the _yax che_ (green, or first tree) of the
+Mayas, the _Bombax ceiba_ of the botanists. It is of great size and
+rapid growth. In Southern Mexico and Central America one is to be seen
+near many of the native villages, and is regarded as in some way the
+protecting genius of the town.
+
+Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mexican cult, and, what is
+curious, the same name was applied to such as to the fire, _Tota_, Our
+Father. They are said to have represented the gods of woods and
+waters.[48-*] In the ancient mythology we often hear of the “tree of
+life,” represented to have four branches, each sacred to one of the four
+cardinal points and the divinities associated therewith.
+
+The conventionalized form of this tree in the Mexican figurative
+paintings strongly resembles a cross. Examples of it are numerous and
+unmistakable, as, for instance, the cruciform tree of life rising from a
+head with a protruding tongue, in the Vienna Codex.[48-†]
+
+
+=32.= Thus, the sign of the cross, either the form with equal arms known
+as the cross of St. Andrew, which is the oldest Christian form, or the
+Latin cross, with its arms of unequal length, came to be the ideogram
+for “life” in the Mexican hieroglyphic writing; and as such, with more
+or less variants, was employed to signify the _tonalli_ or _nagual_, the
+sign of nativity, the natal day, the personal spirit.[48-‡] The ancient
+document called the Mappe Quinatzin offers examples, and its meaning is
+explained by various early writers. The peculiar character of the
+Mexican ritual calendar, by which nativities were calculated, favored a
+plan of representing them in the shape of a cross; as we see in the
+singular _Codex Cruciformis_ of the Boturini-Goupil collection.
+
+
+=33.= But the doctrines of Nagualism had a phase even more detestable to
+the missionaries than any of these, an esoteric phase, which brought it
+into relation to the libidinous cults of Babylon and the orgies of the
+“Witches’ Sabbaths” of the Dark Ages. Of these occult practices we of
+course have no detailed descriptions, but there are hints and
+half-glances which leave us in no doubt.
+
+When the mysterious metamorphosis of the individual into his or her
+_nagual_ was about to take place, the person must strip to absolute
+nudity;[49-*] and the lascivious fury of bands of naked Nagualists,
+meeting in remote glades by starlight or in the dark recesses of caves,
+dancing before the statues of the ancient gods, were scenes that stirred
+the fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries to its highest pitch. Bishop
+Landa informs us that in Yucatan the dance there known as the _naual_
+was one of the few in which both men and women took part, and that it
+“was not very decent.” It was afterwards prohibited by the priests. We
+have excellent authority that such wild rites continued well into the
+present century, close to the leading cities of the State,[49-†] and
+it is highly likely that they are not unknown to-day.
+
+
+=34.= Moreover, it is certain that among the Nagualists, one of their
+most revered symbols was the _serpent_; in Chiapas, one of their highest
+orders of the initiated was that of the _chanes_, or serpents. Not only
+is this in Christian symbolism the form and sign of the Prince of Evil
+and the enemy of God, but the missionaries were aware that in the
+astrological symbols of ancient Mexico the serpent represented the
+_phallus_; that it was regarded as the most potent of all the
+signs;[49-‡] and modern research has shown, contrary to the opinion long
+held, that there was among these nations an extraordinary and extensive
+worship of the reciprocal principle of nature, associated with numerous
+phallic emblems.[49-§]
+
+Huge phalli of stone have been discovered, one, for instance, on the
+Cerro de las Navajas, not far from the city of Mexico, and another in
+the State of Hidalgo.[50-*] Probably they were used in some such
+ceremonies as Oviedo describes among the Nahuas of Nicaragua, where the
+same symbol was represented by conical mounds of earth, around which at
+certain seasons the women danced with libidinous actions. Although as a
+general rule the pottery of ancient Mexico avoids obscenity, Brasseur
+stated that he had seen many specimens of a contrary character from
+certain regions,[50-†] and Dr. Berendt has copied several striking
+examples, showing curious _yoni_ symbols, which are now in my
+possession.
+
+We may explain these as in some way connected with the worship of
+Pantecatl, the male divinity who presided over profligate love, and of
+Tlazolteotl, the _Venus Impudica_ of the Aztec pantheon; and it is not
+without significance that the cave-temple of Votan, whose contents were
+destroyed by the Bishop of Chiapas, in 1691 (see above, p. 39), was
+located at _Tlazoaloyan_, both names being derived from a root
+signifying sexual action.[50-‡] The other name of the divinity, called
+“the Heart of the Hills,” is in Quiche, Alom, “he who begets,” and the
+Zapotec Cozaana, another analogue of the same deity, is translated by
+Seler, “the Begetter.” Such facts indicate how intimately the esoteric
+doctrines of Nagualism were related to the worship of the reproductive
+powers of nature.
+
+
+=35.= It will readily be understood from what has been said that Nagualism
+was neither a pure descendant of the ancient cults, nor yet a derivative
+from Christian doctrines and European superstitions. It was a strange
+commingling of both, often in grotesque and absurd forms. In fact, the
+pretended Christianity of the native population of Mexico to-day is
+little more than a figment, according to the testimony of the most
+competent observers.[50-§]
+
+The rituals and prayers of the nagualists bear witness to this. It is
+very visible in those I have quoted from Nuñez de la Vega, and I can
+add an interesting example of it which has not heretofore been
+published. I take it from the MSS. of Father Vicente Hernandez Spina,
+cura of Ixtlavacan, in Guatemala, a remote village of the Quiches. He
+wrote it down in the native tongue about forty years ago, as recited by
+an _ah-kih_, “reader of days,” a native master of the genethliac art,
+who had composed it in favor of a client who had asked his intercession.
+
+     _Prayer of an Ah-Kih._
+
+     “O Jesus Christ my God: thou God the Son, with the Father and the
+     Holy Spirit, art my only God. Today, on this day, at this hour, on
+     this day Tihax, I call upon the holy souls which accompany the
+     sun-rising and the sun-setting of the day: with these holy souls I
+     call upon thee, O chief of the genii, thou who dwellest in this
+     mountain of Siba Raxquin; come, ye holy spirits of Juan Vachiac, of
+     Don Domingo Vachiac, of Juan Ixquiaptap, the holy souls of
+     Francisco Excoquieh, of Diego Soom, of Juan Fay, of Alonzo Tzep; I
+     call the holy souls of Diego Tziquin and of Don Pedro Noh: you, O
+     priests, to whom all things are revealed, and thou, chief of the
+     genii, you, lords of the mountains, lords of the plains, thou, Don
+     Purupeto Martin, come, accept this incense, accept to-day this
+     candle.[51-*]
+
+     “Come also, my mother Holy Mary, the Lord of Esquipulas, the Lord
+     of Capetagua, the beloved Mary of Chiantla, with her who dwells at
+     San Lorenzo, and also Mary of Sorrows, Mary Saint Anna, Mary
+     Tibureia, Mary of Carmen, with Saint Michael the Archangel, the
+     captain St. James, St. Christoval, St. Sebastian, St. Nicolas, St.
+     Bonaventura, St. Bernardin, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St.
+     Bartholomew, and thou my beloved mother St. Catherine, thou beloved
+     Mary of the Conception, Mary of the Rosary, thou lord and king
+     Pascual, be here present.
+
+     “And thou, Frost, and thou, excellent Wind, thou, God of the plain,
+     thou, God of Quiac-Basulup, thou, God of Retal-Uleu, thou, lord of
+     San Gregorio, thou, lord of Chii-Masa. [These are mountains and
+     localities, and in the original there follow the names of more than
+     a hundred others. The prayer concludes as follows:]
+
+     “... I who appoint myself godfather and godmother, I who ask, I the
+     witness and brother of this man who asks, of this man who makes
+     himself, your son, O holy souls, I ask, do not let any evil happen
+     unto him, nor let him be unhappy for any cause.
+
+     “I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light
+     this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my
+     protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with
+     facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall
+     ill of fever; I ask that he shall not become paralytic; that he
+     may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a
+     serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do
+     not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck
+     by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not
+     killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by
+     an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O
+     thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal
+     Father.
+
+     “And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you
+     that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his
+     enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order
+     it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices
+     of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O
+     holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the
+     Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus.”
+
+Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and
+symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of
+Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the
+peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I
+shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of “calling
+back the _tonal_,” referred to on a previous page. I append an
+explanation of its obscure metaphors.
+
+
+     _Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal._
+
+     “Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious
+     stones![1] What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?[2] Is the
+     obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow
+     enchantment and the white enchantment.[3]
+
+     “I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who
+     formed thee and gave thee life.[4] Thou, mother mine of the starry
+     skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou
+     turned against this one?[5]
+
+     “Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth
+     and depth of the waters.[6] I, master of spells, speak to
+     thee[TN-5] Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems,
+     come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of
+     light,[7] that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys
+     and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit
+     of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.
+
+     “Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over
+     mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him
+     whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine
+     times smitten, see that thou fail me not.[8] Come hither, mother
+     mine, whose robe is of precious gems; one water, two waters; one
+     rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two
+     alligators.[9]
+
+     “Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise
+     of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me.
+     What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and
+     goddesses?[10] I have come to seek and call back the _tonal_ of
+     this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it
+     nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine
+     unions.[11] Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to
+     return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head.”
+
+
+     _Explanations._
+
+     1. The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The
+     “skirt of precious stones” refers to the green of the precious
+     green stones, a color sacred to water.
+
+     2. The question is addressed to the _tonal_.
+
+     3. The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.
+
+     4. That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick
+     man.
+
+     5. This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.
+
+     6. The threat is addressed to the _tonal_, to frighten it into
+     returning.
+
+     7. The “shining spirit” is the Fire-god.
+
+     8. The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner
+     indicated.
+
+     9. These are names of days in the native calendar which are
+     invoked.
+
+     10. The priest speaks in the person of his god.
+
+     11. Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and
+     nine under worlds.
+
+From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of
+symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be
+sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around
+their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of
+coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.
+
+
+     _Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists._
+
+     _Blood._--“The red woman with snakes on her gown” (referring to the
+     veins).
+
+     _Copal Gum._--“The white woman” (from the whitish color of the
+     fresh gum).
+
+     _Cords_ (for carrying burdens).--“The snake that does woman’s work”
+     (because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself
+     is carried).
+
+     _Drunkenness._--“My resting time,” or “when I am getting my
+     breath.”
+
+     _The Earth._--“The mirror that smokes” (because of the mists that
+     rise from it); “the rabbit with its mouth upward” (the rabbit, in
+     opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward,
+     because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled
+     from the mouth); “the flower which contains everything” (as all
+     fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed
+     from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); “the
+     flower which bites the mouths” (a flower, for the reason given; it
+     eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and
+     are swallowed by it).
+
+     _Fingers._--“The five fates,” or “the five works,” or “the five
+     fields” (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own
+     destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the
+     god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words
+     mean “hand”).
+
+     _Fire._--“Our Father of the Four Reeds” (because the ceremony of
+     making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); “the
+     shining rose;” “the yellow flyer;” “the red-haired one;” “the
+     yellow spirit.”
+
+     _A Knife of Copper._--“The yellow Chichimec” (because the
+     Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).
+
+     _The Maguey Plant._--“My sister, the eight in a row” (because it
+     was planted in this manner).
+
+     _A Road._--“That which is divided in two, and yet has neither
+     beginning, middle nor end” (because it always lies in two
+     directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and
+     thus never end).
+
+     _Sickness._--“The red woman;” “the breath of the flame;” “our
+     mother the comet” (all referring to the fever); “the Chichimec”
+     (because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); “the
+     spider” (because of its venomous nature).
+
+     _Smoke._--“The old wife” (_i. e._, of the fire).
+
+     _The Sun._--“Our holy and pockified Uncle” (referring to the myth
+     of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a
+     fire rose as the sun).
+
+     _Tobacco._--“The nine (or seven) times beaten” (because for sacred
+     purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); “the enchanted
+     gray one” (from its color and use in conjuring).
+
+     _Water._--“The Green Woman” (from the greenness which follows
+     moisture); “our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones” (from the
+     green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade,
+     etc.).
+
+
+=36.= It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the
+Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy
+Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is,
+that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who
+at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the
+Indies, “to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their
+stupidity and incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy
+Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy,
+sorcery, incantations, superstitions,” etc.
+
+Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption.
+In the imposing _auto de fé_ celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659,
+a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian
+mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office
+by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the
+precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood
+brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[55-*]
+Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an
+_auto de fé_ held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which
+eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess
+Pinopiaa.[55-†] Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied extensively
+the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in none of the
+trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism, although
+many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting Indian
+sorcerers.
+
+
+=37.= It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism
+extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It
+becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock
+this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is
+reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their
+origin.
+
+The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most
+writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while
+an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a
+radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects,
+and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.[55-‡] Perhaps both these
+positions are erroneous, and we must look elsewhere for the true
+etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become
+domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think
+they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable,
+civilization than either of these nations could claim.
+
+To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from
+the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series,
+three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though
+geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and
+the Nahuatl.
+
+
+     _From the Maya, of Yucatan._
+
+     _Naual_, or _nautal_, a native dance, forbidden by the
+       missionaries.
+
+     _Naatil_, talent, skill, ability.
+
+     _Naat_, intelligence, wisdom.
+
+     _Naatah_, to understand, to divine.
+
+     _Nanaol_, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with
+       oneself, to enter into oneself.
+
+     _Noh_, great, skillful; as _noh ahceh_, a skillful hunter.
+
+
+     _From Maya Dialects._
+
+     QUICHE-CAKCHIQUEL.
+
+     _Naual_, a witch or sorcerer.
+
+     _Naualin_, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.
+
+     _Qui naualin_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.
+
+     _Na_, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one’s heart.
+
+     _Nao_, to know, to be alert or expert in something.
+
+     _Naol_, a skillful person, a rhetorician.
+
+     _Naotizan_, to make another intelligent or astute.
+
+     _Natal_, the memory.
+
+     _Natub_, the soul or shadow of a man.
+
+     _Noh_, the god of reason (“Genius der Vernunft,” Scherzer).
+
+     _Noh_, to fecundate, to impregnate (_Popol Vuh_).
+
+
+     TZENTAL.
+
+     _X-qna_, to know.
+
+     _X-qnaulai_, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).
+
+     _Naom_, wise, astute (_naom vinic_, hombre sabio).
+
+     _Naoghi_, art, science.
+
+     _Naoghibal_, memory.
+
+     _Ghnaoghel_, a wise man.
+
+     _Alaghom naom_, the Goddess of Wisdom.
+
+
+     _From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca_.
+
+     _Nana_, _gana_, _gona_, to know.
+
+     _Nona_, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.
+
+     _Nana ticha_, or _nona lii_, a wise man.
+
+     _Guela nana_, or _guela nona_, wisdom, knowledge.
+
+     _Hue gona_, or _ro gona_, a teacher, a master.
+
+     _Na lii_, truth; _ni na lii_, that which is true.
+
+     _Naciña_, or _naciina_, skill, dexterity.
+
+     _Hui naa_, a medicine man, a “nagualist.”
+
+     _Nahaa_, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.
+
+     _Nayaa_, or _nayapi_, to speak easily or fluently.
+
+     _Rigoo gona_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.
+
+     _Ni nana_, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.
+
+     _Nayanii_, the superior reason of man.
+
+     _Nayaa_,  } superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).
+     _Naguii_, }
+
+
+     _From the Nahuatl, of Mexico_.
+
+     _Naua_, to dance, holding each other by the hands.
+
+     _Naualli_, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.
+
+     _Nauallotl_, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.
+
+     _Nauatl_, or _nahuatl_, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior;
+       applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the
+       name of the tongue.
+
+     _Nauati_, to speak clearly and distinctly.
+
+     _Nauatlato_, an interpreter.
+
+
+=38.= I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words,
+all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and
+writing when they still retained their original purity, without
+acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and
+further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this
+radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize
+the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya
+linguistic stocks.
+
+The root _na_, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we
+trace all of them. _Nahual_ means knowledge, especially mystic
+knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of
+nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and
+magic.[57-*]
+
+It is very significant that neither the radical _na_ nor any of its
+derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which
+was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock.
+The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.
+
+Nor in the Nahuatl language--although its very name is derived from
+it[58-*]--does the radical _na_ appear in its simplicity and true
+significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.
+
+It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican _naualli_, a sorcerer,
+from the verb _nahualtia_, to mask or disguise oneself, “because a
+_naualli_ is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some
+lower animal, which is his _nagual_;”[58-†] but it is altogether likely
+that _nahualtia_ derived its meaning from the custom of the medicine men
+to wear masks during their ceremonies.
+
+Therefore, if the term _nagual_, and many of its associates and
+derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a
+necessary corrollary[TN-6] of this conclusion is, that along with these
+terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they
+allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such
+superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.
+
+Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them,
+and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were
+employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the
+name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to
+Nicaragua and beyond.
+
+The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient
+significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico _nagual_
+is defined as “a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them
+behave,”[58-‡] while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl population
+has left so many traces of its presence in the language of to-day, the
+word _nagual_ no longer means an actor in the black art, or a knowledge
+of it, but his or her armamentarium, or the box, jar or case in which
+are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and charms, which
+constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the necromancer.[59-*]
+
+Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the
+upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term
+_naguate_ or _nagutlat_ is said to be applied to any one “who is
+entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;”[59-†] but in all
+probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult
+knowledge.
+
+
+=39.= All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are
+aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change
+themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than
+history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of
+ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the
+peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the
+were-wolf of Germany, the _loup-garou_ of France and the _lupo mannaro_
+of Italy. Dr. Richard Andrée well says in his interesting study of the
+subject: “He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition
+must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one
+universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but
+of the species and its psychology at large.”[59-‡]
+
+Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person
+with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between
+the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany.
+As in Mexico the _nagual_ was assigned to the infant by a form of
+baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the
+godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant
+will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the
+name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been
+changed will restore him to human shape.[59-§]
+
+
+=40.= I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not
+especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in general, and
+can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient
+Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that
+each individual has a particular spirit, or _daimōn_, in whom is
+enshrined his or her moral personality. To this _daimōn_ he should
+address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior
+promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent
+monitor.[60-*]
+
+Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the _daimōn_ of
+the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has
+chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did
+not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian
+priest selecting the _nagual_ of the child a hideous and diabolical
+caricature of the holy rites.
+
+But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded
+so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal
+sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign
+which represents the natal day, the _tonal_, by which the individual
+demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have
+seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole
+business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic
+powers of its professors.
+
+
+=41.= How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to
+take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The
+evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful
+jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations.
+They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not
+surpass them.
+
+Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators?
+Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which
+the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel
+and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken
+glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the
+sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have
+to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of
+thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoyance, of spiritual
+rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the
+nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of
+nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are
+recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and
+Rome.[61-*] So long as many intelligent and sensible people among
+ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those
+of a greater antiquity.
+
+
+=42.= The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it
+was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have
+asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism,
+more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained;
+but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization,
+extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and
+varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers
+and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion--hatred
+of the whites--and by one unalterable purpose--that of their
+destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and
+religion which they had introduced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4-*] These words occur a number of times in the English translation,
+published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera’s _Teatro Critico
+Americano_. The form _nagual_ instead of _nahual_, or _naual_, or
+_nawal_ has been generally adopted and should be preferred.
+
+[4-†] For instance, in “The Names of the Gods in the Kiche Myths,” pp.
+21, 22, in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_, 1881;
+_Annals of the Cakchiquels_, Introduction, p. 46; _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 170, etc.
+
+[5-*] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4.
+
+[5-†] More especially it is the territory of the Chorti dialect, spoken
+to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city of Copan,
+Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of this
+celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, _Zur Ethnographie der
+Republik Guatemala_, pp. 106-9.
+
+[6-*] Bernardino de Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. x, cap.
+9.
+
+[6-†] Derived from _teciuhtlaza_, to conjure against hail, itself from
+_teciuh_, hail. Alonso de Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_, sub voce.
+
+[6-‡] Bautista, _Advertencias para los Confesores_, fol. 112 (Mexico,
+1600).
+
+[6-§] Nicolas de Leon, _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 111 (Mexico, 1611).
+
+[7-*] Paso y Troncoso, in _Anales del Museo Nacionàl[TN-7] de Mexico_,
+Tom. iii, p. 180.
+
+[7-†] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva España_, Lib. x, cap. 29, and Lib. xi,
+cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious properties of this
+plant: “Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo fides sit
+vulgatissimæ inter eos rei habendæ), devorantes illam quodlibet
+prsæsagire prædicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint impetum in
+eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis supellectilem, aut
+aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum alia, quibus
+Chichimecæ hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis.” Franciscus Hernandus,
+_Historia Plantarum Novæ Hispaniæ_, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed., Madrid, 1790).
+
+[7-‡] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360 (Mexico, 1856).
+
+[8-*] _Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana_, fol. 8, verso
+(Mexico, 1634).
+
+[8-†] Vetancurt, _Teatro Mexicano_, Trat. iii, cap. 9.
+
+[8-‡] Hernandez, _Historia Plantarum Novæ Hispaniæ_, Tom. iii, p. 32.
+
+[9-*] Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Min stros[TN-8] de Indios para
+el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas_, p. 163. This
+interesting work was composed about the middle of the seventeenth
+century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was first printed
+at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon, under the
+editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.
+
+[9-†] MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and _Informe_ of Father Baeza in
+_Registro Yucateco_, Tom. i.
+
+[10-*] Acosta, _De la Historia Moral de Indias_, Lib. v, cap. 26.
+
+[10-†] Of the _thiuimeezque_ Hernandez writes: “Aiunt radicis cortice
+unius unciæ pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos observare
+phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum figuras,
+detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit.” _Hist.
+Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. iii, p. 272. The _chacuaco_ and its effects
+are described by Father Venegas in his _History of California_, etc.
+
+[10-‡] “In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in Tlahuipuchtin.”
+Paredes, _Promptuario Manual Mexicano_, p. 128 (Mexico, 1757). The
+_tlahuipuchtin_, “those who work with smoke,” were probably diviners who
+foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising in the air.
+This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they were called
+_Uirapircos_ (Balboa, _Hist. du Perou_, p. 28-30).
+
+[10-§] Von Gagern, _Charakteristik der Indianischer Bevölkerung
+Mexikos_, s. 125.
+
+[11-*] _Historia Antigua de Mexico_, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco Pimentel,
+in his thoughtful work, _Memoria sobre las Causas que han originado la
+Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_ (Mexico, 1864),
+recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith in this
+nagualism. “Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la antigüedad,
+siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los _nahuales_,” etc., p. 200, and comp.
+p. 145.
+
+[11-†] On these terms consult the extensive _Dictionnaire de la Langue
+Nahuatl_, by Rémi Simeon,[TN-9] published at Paris, 1887. It is not
+impossible that _tona_ is itself a compound root, including the
+monosyllabic radical _na_, which is at the basis of _nagual_.
+
+[11-‡] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva España_, Lib. iv, _passim_, and Lib.
+x, cap. 9.
+
+[12-*] See Ch. de Labarthe, _Révue Américaine_, Serie ii, Tom. ii, pp.
+222-225. His translation of _naualteteuctin_ by “Seigneurs du gènie”
+must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for assigning this
+meaning to _naualli_.
+
+[13-*] _Anales de Cuauhtitlan_, p. 31. The translator renders it “palo
+brujo.”
+
+[13-†] _Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde_, pp. 146-148, figured on
+p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, _Decades Americanæ_, pp.
+74-81.
+
+[13-‡] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_
+(Philadelphia, 1893).
+
+[13-§] Eduard Mühlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. i, s. 255.
+
+[14-*] The word is derived from _tlatoa_, to speak for another, and its
+usual translation was “chief,” as the head man spoke for, and in the
+name of the gens or tribe.
+
+[14-†] The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the Appendix to
+the _Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia_ (Mexico, 1856).
+Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the Mixes cling to
+their ancient beliefs. Señor Moro says they continue to be “notorious
+idolaters,” and their actual religion to be “an absurd jumble of their
+old superstitions with Christian doctrines” (in Orozco y Berra,
+_Geografia de las Lenguas de exico[TN-10]_, p. 176).
+
+[15-*] For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his _Estudios Historicos del
+Estado Oaxaqueño_ (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the _nahualt_ was a
+ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the infant was bled
+from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a certain day, and
+a guardian angel or _tona_. These words are pure Nahuatl, and Carriedo,
+who does not give his authority, probably had none which referred these
+rites to the Zapotecs.
+
+[15-†] Juan de Cordova, _Arte en Lengua Zapoteca_, pp. 16, 202, 203,
+213, 216.
+
+[16-*] Quoted in Carriedo, ubi suprá, p. 17.
+
+[16-†] _Hist. de las Indias Oc._, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12.
+
+[17-*] So I understand the phrase, “figuras pintadas con zifras
+enigmaticas”[TN-11]
+
+[17-†] _Popoluca_ was a term applied to various languages. I suspect the
+one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me, entitled
+“Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography,” in the
+_Compte Rendu_ of the Eighth Session of the Congress of Americanists, p.
+566, _seq._
+
+[17-‡] _Constit. Diocesan_, p. 19.
+
+[18-*] _Constitut. Diocesan_, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.
+
+[19-*] Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the Gucumatz of
+the Quiches, both of which names mean “Feathered Serpent.” Mixcohuatl,
+the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the Thunder-storm.
+
+[19-†] In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give this exact
+form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father Ximenes
+has _quikeho_, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement; the
+prefix _zme_ is the Tzental word for “mother.”
+
+[20-*] Father Lara, in his _Vocabulario Tzendal MS._ (in my possession),
+gives for medical (medico), _ghpoxil_, for medicine (medicinal cosa),
+_pox_, _xpoxtacoghbil_; for physician (medico), _ghpoxta vinic_ (the
+form _vanegh_, person, is also correct). The Tzendal _pox_ (pronounced
+_pōsh_) is another form of the Quiche-Cakchiquel _pūz_, a word which
+Father Ximenes, in his _Vocabulario Cakchiquel_ MS (in my possession),
+gives in the compound _puz naual_, with the meaning, enchanter, wizard.
+Both these, I take it, are derived from the Maya _puz_, which means to
+blow the dust, etc., off of something (soplar el polvo de la ropa ó otra
+cosa. _Dicc. de la Lengua Maya del Convento de Motul_, MS. The
+dictionary edited by Pio Perez does not give this meaning). The act of
+blowing was the essential feature in the treatment of these medicine
+men. It symbolized the transfer and exercise of spiritual power. When
+Votan built his underground shrine he did it _à soplos_, by blowing
+(Nuñez de la Vega, _Constitut. Diocesan_, p. 10). The natives did not
+regard the comet’s tail as behind it but in front of it, blown from its
+mouth. The Nahuatl word in the text, _tzihuizin_, is the Pipil form of
+_xihuitzin_, the reverential of _xihuitl_, which means a leaf, a season,
+a year, or a comet. Apparently it refers to the Nahuatl divinity _Xiuhté
+cutli_, described by Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva España_, Lib. i, cap.
+13, as god of fire, etc.
+
+[21-*] _Hicalahau_, for _ical ahau_, Black King, one of the Tzental
+divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.
+
+[21-†] “Mæstros de los pueblos,” _Constitut. Diocesan_, i, p. 106.
+
+[23-*] _Historia de Guatemala, ò, Recordacion Florida_, Tom. ii, p. 44,
+_seq._
+
+[24-*] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, p. 388, _seq._ (4th
+Ed.).
+
+[25-*] _Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacré des Quichés_, p. 315 (Ed. Brasseur,
+Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of
+Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, “Feathered
+Serpent.”
+
+[25-†] Baeza’s article is printed in the _Registro Yucateco_, Vol. i, p.
+165, _seq._
+
+[26-*] “Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erhält der heidnische
+Götzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der
+katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltbürger durch den Aj-quig
+das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt,
+Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein
+Lieblingsgötze angerufen, und noche viele andere aberglaübische
+Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur
+christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach
+seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gewöhnlich auch
+als sein Schutzgeist (_nagual_) fürs ganze Leben.” Dr. Karl Scherzer,
+_Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan_, p. 11, Wien, 1856.
+
+[26-†] The word _zahori_, of Arabic origin, is thus explained in the
+Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): “So they call
+in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of the earth,
+through stone walls, or into a man’s body.” Dr. Stoll says the Guatemala
+Indians speak of their diviners, the _Ah Kih_, as _zahorin_.
+_Guatemala_, s. 229.
+
+[26-‡] Emetorio Pineda, _Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y Soconusco_,
+p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[27-*] Madier de Montjau, “Manuscrits Figuratifs de l’ Ancien Mexique,”
+in _Archives de la Sociétè Americaine[TN-12] de France_, 1875, p. 245.
+
+[27-†] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[28-*] De la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162. The
+mushroom referred to was the _quauhnanacatl_, probably the same as the
+_teyhuinti_ of Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. ii, p. 358,
+who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind,
+inciting to laughter and intoxication.
+
+[28-†] Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as late as the
+middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, _Tres Siglos de Mexico_,
+etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.
+
+[28-‡] Brasseur, _Hist. des Nations Civilisées de Mexique_, Tom. iv, p.
+822.
+
+[29-*] _Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba Figueroa,
+corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque_, quoted by Brasseur.
+
+[29-†] Jacinto de la Serna says: “Los mæstros de estas ceremonias son
+todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas sucede.” _Manual
+de Ministros_, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the nagualists of
+Chiapas, Bishop Nuñez de la Vega writes: “Concuerdan los mas modernos
+con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico.” _Constituciones
+Diocesanas_, p. 134.
+
+[29-‡] He observes that there were “familias de los tales sabios en las
+quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo los hijos á los
+padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de Nagualismo.” _Historia
+del Cielo y de la Tierra_, MS., p. 7. Ordoñez advances various erudite
+reasons for believing that Nagualism is a religious belief whose theory
+and rites were brought from Carthage by Punic navigators in ancient
+times.
+
+[29-§] Maria de Moxó, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 270, (Genova, n. d.).
+
+[30-*] “_Xochimilca_, que asi llamavan à los mui sabios encantadores.”
+Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[30-†] In Nahuatl, _tlapiani_, a guardian or watchman. The Zapotec
+priesthood was divided into the _huijatoos_, “greater guardians,” and
+their inferiors, the _copavitoos_, “guardians of the gods.” Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historicòs_,[TN-13] p. 93.
+
+[30-‡] See Eligio Ancona. _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. iv, cap. 1
+(Mérida, 1880).
+
+[31-*] The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples indicates
+that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in Yucatan as
+in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named, but
+presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address of
+Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by the
+Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his _Relacion hecho al Cabildo Eclesiastico
+por el preposito de la Compañia de Jesus, acerca de la muerte de Jacinto
+Can-Ek y socios_, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with other documents
+relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the _Diccionario Universal_,
+edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the prophecies of Chilan
+Balam, see my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 255-273 (Philadelphia,
+1890).
+
+[31-†] Eligio Ancona, _Hist. de Yucatan_, Tom. ii, p. 452.
+
+[32-*] See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, _Informe contra Idolum Cultores en
+Yucathan_ (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. ii,
+pp. 128, 129.
+
+[32-†] The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres Castillo,
+_Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex y Villa
+Alta_ (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante
+el Gobierno Español_, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by Christoval Manso
+de Contreras, _Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que sucedio en esta
+Provincia de Tehuantepec_, etc. (printed at Mexico, 1661), which I know
+only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H. Bancroft, in his very
+meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists that it took place in
+1660. _History of Mexico_, Vol. iii, p. 164.
+
+[32-‡] See Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations Civilisées de la
+Mexique_, Tom. iv, 824.
+
+[32-§] Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the use and
+significance of the _piochtli_ we have some information in Vetancurt,
+_Teatro Mexicano_, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the
+native priesthood.
+
+[33-*] _Adventures on the Musquito Shore_, by S. A. Ward, pseudonym of
+Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).
+
+[33-†] Nuñez de la Vega, _Constituciones Diocesanas_, p. 10, and comp.
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique_, Tom. i, p. 74.
+
+[33-‡] Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. ii, Lib. iii,
+cap. 5.
+
+[34-*] Acosta, _Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias_, Lib. vii, cap. 5.
+
+[34-†] The story is given in Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias_, Dec. iv,
+Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the account as
+“Flying Tigress.” I cannot assign it this sense in any dialect.
+
+[34-‡] Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_. p. 138. Sahagun
+identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of mankind and
+goddess of child-birth (_Hist. de Nueva España_, Lib. i, cap. 6, Lib.
+vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by Torquemada,
+_Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The _tzitzime_ were mysterious
+elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined finally to
+destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8). The word
+means “flying haired” (Serna).
+
+[34-§] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 62.
+
+[35-*] Fr. Tomas Coto, _Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., s. v.
+_Sacrificar_; in the Library of the American Philosophical Society at
+Philadelphia.
+
+[35-†] “Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y _naguales_” are
+the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his _Recordacion Florida_,
+Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it reads as if this witch
+and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes is clear in his
+statement, and had other documents at hand.
+
+[35-‡] Teobert Maler, “Mémoire sur l’Etat de Chiapas,” in the _Révue d’
+Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also gives some
+valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de Alicia, in
+1873.
+
+[36-*] The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this insurrection
+is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly prejudiced Spanish
+sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the motives which
+prompted the native actors. See his _History of the Pacific States_, Vol
+ii, p. 696 _sqq._ Ordoñez y Aguiar, who lived on the spot within a
+generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria Candelaria (whose true
+name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the rebellion, “quien
+ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que principalmente trataban
+las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que no quedase rastro alguno
+de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo.” His account is in his
+unpublished work, _Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, written at
+Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their rites, says of them:
+“Apostando de la fé, profanando los vasos sagrados, y ofreciendo
+sacrilegos cultos á una indizuela.” _Historia de la Ciudad de
+Guatemala_, Tom. i, p. 17.
+
+[36-†] Bancroft, ubi suprà, p. 705, note. One was hanged, whom Garcia
+Pelaez calls “una india bruja.” _Memorias para la Historia de
+Guatemala_, Tom. ii, p. 153.
+
+[36-‡] Squier, ubi suprà, passim.
+
+[37-*] _Voyage á l’ Isthmus de Tehuantepec_, p. 164. He adds a number of
+particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.
+
+[38-*] “Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma.” See
+_Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).
+
+[38-†] “Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und weiter südwärts
+seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen Olymp fremd ist,
+darüber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten.” See Dr. Seler’s able
+discussion of the subject in the _Compte-Rendu_ of the Seventh
+International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, _seq._ The adoption of
+subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait. “Notandose
+principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan los mas de
+ellos cubiertos, ò en subterraneos espaciosos y lòbregos.” Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historicos_, Tom. i, p. 26.
+
+[39-*] _Constituciones Diocesanas_, pp. 9, 10.
+
+[39-†] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, pp. 389, 393.
+
+[39-‡] _Teatro Mexicano_, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr. Bandelier has called
+attention to the naming of one of the principal chiefs among the Aztecs,
+_Tlilancalqui_, “Man of the Dark House,” and thinks it related to the
+Votan myth. _Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, p. 689.
+
+[40-*] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iii, Lib.
+iii, cap. 14.
+
+[40-†] Villa Señor, _Teatro Americano_, Lib. v, cap. 38 (Mexico, 1747).
+Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human sacrifices present, but
+of this I can find no evidence in the earlier reports. Comp. Cavo, _Los
+Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno Españal[TN-14]_, Tom. ii, p.
+128.
+
+[40-‡] _Teatro Americano_, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap. 13.
+
+[41-*] See Mühlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266; Brasseur, _Hist.
+des Nations Civ. de la Mexique_, Vol. iv, p. 821; Herrera, _Historia de
+las Indias_, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.
+
+[41-†] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v.
+
+[41-‡] Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father Stone;
+Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. _Dicc. Univ._, App., Tom. iii, p.
+11.
+
+[41-§] Duran, _Historia de los Indios_, Tom. ii, p. 140. They were Tota,
+Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably pulque); and
+Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom this epithet
+was often applied).
+
+[41-‖] “Fue el Demonio que les dió la superstición del numero nueve.”
+_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197.
+
+[42-*] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_, p. 12.
+
+[42-†] Motolinia, _Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias de los
+Indios de la Nueva España_, p. 340 (in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos
+para la Historia de España_).
+
+[42-‡] Thomas Coto, _Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., sub
+voce, _Rayo_.
+
+[42-§] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias_, Dec. IV, Lib. viii, cap. 10.
+
+[42-‖] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, ubi suprá.
+
+[42-¶] [TN-15]‘Señor de los Animales.” _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, Parte
+ii, Lam. iv.
+
+[43-*] See Dr. Seler’s minute description in the _Compte Rendu_ of the
+Eighth Session of the Congrés International des Américanistes, pp. 588,
+589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna (_Manual de
+Ministros_, p. 212) the priest says: “Yo soy el sacerdote, el dios
+_Quetzalcoatl_, que se bajará al infierno, y subiré á lo superior, y
+hasta los nueve infiernos.” This writer, who was very competent in the
+Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by “culebra con cresta”
+(_id._, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct rendering.
+
+[43-†] His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, “El baptismo de
+fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman _yahuiltoca_,
+quando nacen.” This may be translated, “The baptism of fire in which
+they confer the names which they call _yahuiltoca_.” The obscurity is in
+the Nahuatl, as the word _toca_ may be a plural of _tocaitl_, name, as
+well as the verb _toca_, to throw upon. The passage is from the _Camino
+del Cielo_, fol. 100, verso.
+
+[43-‡] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva España_, Lib. iv, cap. 25.
+
+[43-§] It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early
+physicians, Francisco Ximenes, _Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza_, p. 144;
+Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Novæ Hispaniæ_, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke,
+in his recent article on “The Medicine Men of the Apaches” (in _Ninth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, p. 521), suggests that the
+_yiahuitli_ of the Aztecs is the same as the “hoddentin,” the pollen of
+a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw
+into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the
+_yiahuitli_ as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and
+hill-sides--no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the
+anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the
+“yellow spirit” (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire
+(_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197).
+
+[44-*] From the verb _apeua_. Vetancurt’s description is in his _Teatro
+Mexicano_, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).
+
+[44-†] His frequent references to it show this. See his _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc. The word
+_tlecuixtliliztli_ is compounded of _tlecuilli_, the hearth or
+fireplace, and _ixtliluia_, to darken with smoke.
+
+[45-*] Duran, _Historia de los Indios de la Nueva España_, Tom. ii, p.
+240. Sahagun adds that the _octli_ was poured on the hearth at four
+separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. _Historia de Nueva
+España_, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony as
+current in his day, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 35. The invocation
+ran:--“Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart
+before the God.”
+
+[45-†] A copy of these strange “Books of Chilan Balam” is in my
+possession. I have described them in my _Essays of an Americanist_
+(Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[45-‡] See his remarks on “Apperception der Menschenzeugung als
+Feuerbereitung,” in the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. vi, s.
+113, _seq._
+
+[46-*] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva España_, Lib. i, cap. 13. The Nahuatl
+text is more definite than the Spanish translation.
+
+[46-†] See my _Myths of the New World_, p. 154, _seq._
+
+[46-‡] In the Nahuatl language the word _xihuitl_ (_xiuitl_) has four
+meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.
+
+[46-§] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueño_, Tom.
+i, p. 82, etc.
+
+[47-*] Alva, _Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana_, fol. 9.
+
+[47-†] Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_, pp. 6, 7.
+
+[47-‡] In the _Revue[TN-16] d’ Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, p. 313. Some very
+fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier, in his
+“Observations on the Chalchihuitl,” in the _Annals of the Lyceum of
+Natural History_, Vol. i (New York, 1869).
+
+[48-*] Diego Duran, _Historia de los Indios de Nueva España_, Tom. ii,
+p. 140.
+
+[48-†] In Kingsborough, _Antiquities of Mexico_, Vol. ii, Pl. 180. On
+the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of W. H.
+Holmes, in the _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp.
+270, 271.
+
+[48-‡] “Au Mexique, le cadre croisé, la croix en sautoir, comme celle de
+St. André, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe de nativité,
+_tonalli_, la fête, le jour natal.” M. Aubin, in Boban, _Catalogue
+Raisonnée de la Collection Goupil_, Tom. i, p. 227. Both Gomara and
+Herrera may be quoted to this effect.
+
+[49-*] See a curious story from native sources in my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented by
+casting salt upon the person.
+
+[49-†] Benito Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 257; Landa, _Cosas
+de Yucatan_, p. 193.
+
+[49-‡] Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex Vaticanus, published
+in Kingsborough’s great work, assigns the sign, _cohuatl_, the serpent,
+to “il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti gli altri.” It is
+distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De la Serna states
+that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a wand, around which
+was fastened a living serpent. _Manual de Ministros_, p. 37.
+
+[49-§] There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of the Codex
+Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex Mexicanus of
+the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said as far back
+as 1841--“le culte du lingam on du phallus n’etait pas etranger aux
+Mexicains, ce qu’ etablissent plusieurs documents peu connus et des
+sculptures découvertes depuis un petit nombre d’années.” His letter is
+in Boban, _Catalogue Raisonné la Collection Goupil_, Tom. ii, p. 207. On
+the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with the phallus in
+classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele’s article, “Der
+Schlangen-Cultus,” in the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Band
+xvii, p. 285, _seq._
+
+[50-*] Cf. G. Tarayre, _Exploration Mineralogique des Regions
+Mexicaines_, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and _Bulletin de la Sociétè
+d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Juin, 1893.
+
+[50-†] _Sources de l’ Histoire Primitive de Mexique_, p. 81.
+
+[50-‡] From _zo_, to join together. Compare my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[50-§] “El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra.” F. Pimentel, _La
+Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_, p. 197.
+
+[51-*] The “holy souls” who are here appealed to by name are those of
+deceased _ah-kih_, or priests of the native cult.
+
+[55-*] See the _Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, año de 1659_
+(Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).
+
+[55-†] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueno[TN-17]_,
+Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of Indians in the
+province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried enchanted ashes
+beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 52.)
+
+[55-‡] “Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form _naoal_ ein echtes
+Quiché-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme _naó_, wissen,
+erkennen. _Naoal_ ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in diesem Falle
+das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem mexikanischen
+_nahualli_ (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung bringen
+möchte, nichts zu schaffen.” _Guatemala_, s. 238.
+
+[57-*] The Abbé Brasseur observes: “Le mot _nahual_, qui vet dire toute
+science, ou science de tout, est fréquemment employé pour exprimer la
+sorcellerie chez ces populations.” _Bulletin de la Sociétè de
+Géographie_, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the
+speculative Abbé translates _naual_ by the English “know all,” and is
+not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the
+former.
+
+[58-*] See an article by me, entitled “On the Words ‘Anahuac’ and
+‘Nahuatl,’” in the _American Antiquarian_, for November, 1893.
+
+[58-†] _Manual de Ministros_, p. 50.
+
+[58-‡] Jesus Sanchez, _Glosario de Voces Castellanas derivadas del
+Idioma Nahuatl_, sub voce.
+
+[59-*] “_Nagual_--el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde guarda
+sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja.” Berendt, _La Lengua
+Castellana de Nicaragua_, MS.
+
+[59-†] Emetorio Pineda, _Description Geografica de Chiapas y Soconusco_,
+p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[59-‡] See his article “Wer-wolf,” in his _Ethnographische Parallelen
+und Vergleiche_, p. 62, _seq._
+
+[59-§] Richard Andrée, _ibid._, ss. 63, 64.
+
+[60-*] See Alfred Maury, _La Magie et l’ Astrologie_, pp. 88, 89, 267,
+etc.
+
+[61-*] In the _Notice Preliminaire_ to the second part of his work, _La
+Magie et l’ Astrologie dans l’ Antiquité et au Moyen Age_, Mr. Alfred
+Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command for
+explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying their
+reality as actual occurrences.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Native words explained, _in Italics_; names of Authors quoted, in SMALL
+CAPITALS.
+
+  Achiutla, 40
+
+  ACOSTA, J., 9, 34
+
+  AGUILAR, P. S., 32
+
+  _Ahau_, 35
+
+  _Ah Kih_, 26, 51
+
+  _Ah-toc_, 45
+
+  Aissaoua, the, 60
+
+  Alaghom Naom, a goddess, 56
+
+  _Alom_, deity, 50
+
+  ALVA, B. DE, 8, 46, 47
+
+  _Anahuac_, 58
+
+  ANCONA, E., 30, 31
+
+  ANDAGOYA, P. DE, 33
+
+  ANDREE,[TN-18] R., 59
+
+  Antichrist, appealed to, 28
+
+  _Apehualco_, 44
+
+  AUBIN, M., 48, 49
+
+  Ay, Antonio, 30
+
+  Aztecan language, 5, 11
+
+  Aztecs, 7
+
+
+  _Baal-che_, 9
+
+  BAEZA, P., 9, 25
+
+  BALBOA, P., 10
+
+  BANCROFT, H. H., 13, 32, 36
+
+  BANDELIER, A., 39
+
+  Baptism, 27, 43
+
+  Baptism by fire, 37
+
+  BARBA FIGUEROA, 29
+
+  BAUTISTA, J., 6
+
+  BERENDT, C. H., 50, 59
+
+  “Black King,” the, 39
+
+  Blowing, as a rite, 19, 20
+
+  BOBAN, M., 48
+
+  “Books of Chilan Balam”, 45
+
+  BOURKE, Capt., 44
+
+  BRASSEUR (de Bourbourg), 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 37, 57
+
+  _Buk xoc_, 45
+
+  BURGOA, P., 16
+
+
+  CABRERA, Dr. P. F., 4
+
+  Cakchiquel language, 20, 23
+
+  Calendar, the native, 13-16, 45, 53
+
+  California, 10
+
+  Cancuc, town, 29
+
+  Candelaria, Maria, 35
+
+  Can Ek, Jacinto, 30
+
+  Carpio, Bernardo del, 55
+
+  CARRIEDO, J. B., 15, 30, 38, 46
+
+  Cave God, the, 38, 41
+
+  CAVO, P., 28, 32, 40
+
+  Ceiba tree, 47
+
+  Cerquin, province, 4, 5, 34
+
+  _Chac Mool_, 31
+
+  _Chacuaco_, 10
+
+  Chalcatongo, 40
+
+  _Chalchihuitl_, 39, 46, 47
+
+  Chalcos, 12
+
+  Chalma, place, 38
+
+  _Chanes_, 49
+
+  CHARNAY, D., 13
+
+  Chi, Andres, 31
+
+  Chi, Cecilio, 30
+
+  Chichimecs, 7, 54
+
+  _Chilan Balam_, 31, 45
+
+  Chontales, 17, 32
+
+  Chorti dialect, 5 n.
+
+  Chotas, tribe, 41
+
+  Clairvoyance, 9
+
+  _Coamizagual_, 34
+
+  _Coanamoa_, 41
+
+  Coatlan, 40
+
+  _Coaxihuitl_, 8
+
+  _Cohuacihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Cohuatl_, sign of, 49 n.
+
+  Codex cruciformis, 48
+
+  COHEN, H., 45
+
+  Copan, ruins of, 5 n.
+
+  _Copavitoos_, 30
+
+  CORDOVA, J., 14, 15
+
+  COTO, P., 23, 35, 42
+
+  Coyopy, king, 15
+
+  _Cozaana_, 38, 50
+
+  Cross, as symbol, 42, 43, 48
+
+  Cuculchan, 17, 19, 42
+
+
+  “Dark House,” the, 38, 39
+
+  Dawn, as deity, 41
+
+  Dionysos Pyrigenes, 45
+
+  DELPINO, 26
+
+  Drum, the sacred, 31, 38
+
+  Drunkenness, god of, 44
+
+  DURAN, D., 44, 45, 48
+
+
+  Earth, as deity, 41, 53
+
+  “Essays of an Americanist,” 4, 31, 45, 49, 50
+
+
+  FERGUSON, DAVID, 55
+
+  “Field mass,” the, 25
+
+  Fingers, names for, 54
+
+  Fire worship, 28, 43, 45, 53, 54
+
+  Four Winds, Lord of, 43
+
+  Frog, symbol, 46
+
+  FUENSANTA DEL VALLE, 9
+
+  FUENTES Y GUZMAN, 22, 35
+
+
+  GAGE, THOMAS, 24, 39
+
+  GAGERN, C., 10
+
+  Galindo, Ig., 35
+
+  “Ghost dance” of Mayas, 31
+
+  Gnosis, the, 57
+
+  Goupil collection, 48
+
+  Green stones, 46
+
+  _Gspoxil_, 20
+
+  Guatemala, 24, 39
+
+  Gucumatz, king, 24, 42
+
+
+  Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  “Heart of the Hills”, 41, 46
+
+  “Heart of the Maguey”, 41
+
+  “Heart of the Towns”, 38, 39, 47
+
+  HERNANDEZ, F., 7, 10, 28, 43
+
+  HERRERA, A. DE, 4, 5, 11, 16, 33, 34, 40, 42
+
+  _Hicalahau_, 21, 39
+
+  “Hoddentin”, 44
+
+  HOLMES, W. H., 48
+
+  Honduras, 4, 34
+
+  Huasteca dialect, 58
+
+  Huehuetan, town, 28, 39
+
+  _Huehueteotl_, 46
+
+  _Huijatoos_, 30
+
+
+  _Ical ahau_, 21, 39
+
+  IGLESIAS, A., 13
+
+  Inquisition, the, 54
+
+  Intoxicants, 7, 9
+
+  Istlavacan, town, 25
+
+
+  Jadeite, 46
+
+  JUARROS, P., 36
+
+  Justlahuaca, 41
+
+
+  _Kab_, the hand, 54
+
+  KINGSBOROUGH, Lord, 48
+
+
+  LABARTHE, CH., 12
+
+  Lacandons, tribe, 59
+
+  LANDA, D., 49
+
+  LARA, P., 19, 20
+
+  LEON, Dr. N., 9
+
+  LEON, N. DE, 6, 43, 45
+
+  Life, ideogram of, 48
+
+  Life, tree of, 48
+
+  Lingam, the, 49
+
+
+  Maguey, Heart of the, 41
+
+  _Maitl_, the Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  MALER, T., 35, 47
+
+  Mallinalco, town, 34, 38
+
+  MANSO DE CONTRERAS, 32
+
+  Mappe Quinantzin[TN-19], 48
+
+  MARIA DE MOXÒ, B., 29, 49
+
+  MAURY, A., 60, 61
+
+  Mayan stock, 5, 16, 24
+
+  Mayas, 9, 20, 25, 45
+
+  Mayas, revolts of, 30, 31
+
+  Mexican language, 5
+
+  Michoacan, 10
+
+  Milky Way, as deity, 53
+
+  _Mixcohuatl_, 19
+
+  Mixes, tribe, 13, 17, 32, 42
+
+  Mixtecs, tribe, 15, 16
+
+  MOLINA, A., 6
+
+  Monopostiac, Cerro de, 41
+
+  MONTJAU, M., 27
+
+  MORO, Sr., 14
+
+  MOTOLINIA, P., 42
+
+  MÜHLENPFORDT, E., 13
+
+  Mushrooms, intoxicating, 28
+
+
+  _Na_, the root, 5, 11 n.[TN-20] 57
+
+  NAGELE, A., 49
+
+  Nagual, 4, 11, 17, 22, 58
+
+  Nagualism, 4, 16
+
+  Nagualist, 4, 17, 18
+
+  _Nahual_. See _Naualli_.
+
+  _Nahualtia_, 58
+
+  Nahuatl language, 5, 12, 14, 41, 46, 57, 58
+
+  _Nana hualtin_, 5, 6, 10
+
+  Nanahuatl, a deity, 54
+
+  _Naualac_, 13
+
+  _Naualcuauhtla_, 12
+
+  _Naualli_, 5, 10, 11, 12, 57, 58
+
+  _Nauallotl_, 5, 57
+
+  _Naualteteuctin_, 12
+
+  Navajas, Cerro de las, 49
+
+  Nayerit, Sierra de, 41
+
+  Nezahualpilli, king, 34
+
+  Nine, sacred number, 41
+
+  Noh, god of reason, 56
+
+  NUÑEZ, DE LA VEGA, 16, 28, 29, 33, 42
+
+
+  Oaxaca, province, 14, 32, 47
+
+  _Octli_, 32, 44
+
+  _Ololiuhqui_, 7, 8, 9
+
+  ORDOÑEZ Y AGUIAR, 29, 36
+
+  OROZCO Y BERRA, 10, 14, 31
+
+  OVIEDO, 50
+
+  Oxchuc, town, 21
+
+  _Oztoteotl_, 38
+
+
+  Padrinos, 26
+
+  Pah-Ahtuns, deities, 9
+
+  Pantecatl, deity, 50
+
+  PAREDES, IG., 10
+
+  Pascual, Don, 32
+
+  PASO Y TRONCOSO, 7
+
+  _Patzlan_, 20
+
+  _Payni_, 9
+
+  PELAEZ, G., 36
+
+  _Pellote_, 7
+
+  PEREZ, P., 45
+
+  Personal spirit, 11, 13
+
+  _Peyotl_, the, 6-10
+
+  Phallus, symbol, 49
+
+  _Picietl_, 9
+
+  PIMENTEL, F., 11
+
+  PINEDA, E., 26, 50, 59
+
+  Pinopiaa, goddess, 55
+
+  _Piochtli_, 32
+
+  Pipils, tribe, 33, 42
+
+  PISA, B. DE, 40
+
+  Pokonchis, tribe, 24
+
+  _Popol Vuh_, the, 24
+
+  Popoluca language, 17
+
+  _Pox_, 20
+
+  _Poxlon_, 20
+
+  _Poxta vanegs_, 20
+
+  PUERTO, M., 31
+
+
+  _Quauhcihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Quauhnanacatl_, 28 n.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 12, 19, 26, 32, 41, 42, 43 n.
+
+  Quiche language, 20, 23, 55, 56
+
+  Quiches, tribe, 24, 25
+
+  Quiegolani, deity, 47
+
+  _Quilaztli_, 34
+
+  _Quiz_, 19
+
+
+  Reason, god of, 56
+
+  “Restitution of the _tonal_”, 12, 52
+
+  RIOS, PEDRO DE LOS, 49
+
+
+  SAHAGUN, B., 5, 6, 7, 11, 34, 43, 46
+
+  SANCHEZ, J., 58
+
+  San Francisco del Mar, 41
+
+  “Scalp-lock,” the, 32
+
+  SCHERZER, C., 25
+
+  SELER, E., 38
+
+  SERNA, J., 9, 28, 29, 32, 34, 43, 44, 49, 52
+
+  Serpent of the Clouds, 19
+
+  Serpent, plant, 8
+
+  Serpent, feathered, 12, 19, 42
+
+  Serpent, which seizes, 41 n.
+
+  Serpent, symbol, 49
+
+  Seven, sacred number, 25, 42
+
+  SIMÉON, R., 11
+
+  Slavery of Indians, 28 n.
+
+  Smoke, divining by, 10 n.
+
+  Snake, symbol. See Serpent.
+
+  Soteapan, 13, 41
+
+  SPINA, V. H., 51
+
+  SQUIER, E. G., 33, 36, 47
+
+  STOLL, O., 26, 55
+
+  Stone, as deity, 41
+
+  “_Sukia_ woman”, 36
+
+  “Sun Mountain”, 40
+
+  Sun, name of, 54
+
+
+  Tapirs, sacred, 39
+
+  TARAYRE, G., 50
+
+  _Ta Te_, 41
+
+  _Ta Yoapa_, 41
+
+  _Teciuhtlazque_, 6
+
+  Telepathy, 9
+
+  _Tenextlecietl_, 9
+
+  _Teopatli_, 8
+
+  _Teotlauice_, 12
+
+  Teozapotlan, 29
+
+  Tepeololtec deity, 42
+
+  _Tepeyollotl_, 38, 41
+
+  Teremendo, town, 40
+
+  _Teteuctin_, 12
+
+  _Tetonaltiani_, 12
+
+  _Teyhuinti_, 28
+
+  Tezcatzoncatl, deity, 44
+
+  _Thiuimeezque_, 10
+
+  Three, sacred number, 41
+
+  “Thunder stone”, 42
+
+  _T’ich_, 25
+
+  Tiger dance, the, 31
+
+  _Tlachixqui_, Seer, 9
+
+  _Tlahuipuchtin_, 10 n.
+
+  Tlaloc, deity, 42
+
+  _Tlapiani_, 30, 39
+
+  Tlascala, Sierra de, 40
+
+  _Tlatoques_, 14
+
+  Tlazoaloyan, 33, 39
+
+  Tlazolteotl, deity, 50
+
+  _Tlecuixtliliztli_, 44
+
+  _Tlilancalqui_, 39 n.
+
+  Tobacco, 8, 9, 53, 54
+
+  _Tonal, tonalli_, 11, 15 n., 42, 52, 60
+
+  _Tonalcaualtia_, 12
+
+  _Tonalitlacoa_, 12
+
+  _Tonalpouhque_, 11
+
+  _Tonantzin_, 34
+
+  _Topiltzin_, 41
+
+  TORQUEMADA, P., 27, 30, 36
+
+  TORRES CASTILLO, 32
+
+  _To Ta_, 41, 46, 48
+
+  Totomachiapa, 40
+
+  Totonicapan, 22, 28
+
+  Tree, sacred, 31, 47
+
+  Tree of the Cross, 42
+
+  Tree of Life, 48
+
+  Tres Micos, 16
+
+  Trinity, the native, 41
+
+  Triplets, 19, 31
+
+  Tzentals, tribe, 16, 19, 21, 32, 33
+
+  _Tzihuizin_, 20
+
+  _Tzitzime_, the, 34 n.
+
+  _Tzitzimecihuatl_, 34
+
+
+  _Uirapircos_, 10 n.
+
+  _U-q’ux-Uleuh_, 38
+
+
+  VENEGAS, P., 10
+
+  Venus Impudica, 50
+
+  Vera Cruz, 13, 26
+
+  VETANCURT, A., 8, 32, 39, 44
+
+  VILLA SEÑOR Y SANCHEZ, 40
+
+  Votan, 33, 38, 41
+
+
+  WARD, S. A., 33
+
+  Water, divination by, 6
+
+  Water, as deity, 53, 54
+
+  Were-wolf, 59
+
+  Wisdom, goddess of, 56
+
+  Witches, 10
+
+  “Witches’ Sabbaths”, 48
+
+
+  _Xihuitl_, 46 n.
+
+  _Xihuitzin_, 20
+
+  XIMENES, FRANCISCO, 43
+
+  XIMENES, P., 20
+
+  _Xiquipilli_, 42
+
+  _Xiuhtecutli_, 20, 46
+
+  _Xochimilca_, 30
+
+
+  _Yahuiltoca_, 43
+
+  Yanhuitlan, town, 16
+
+  _Yaocihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Yax che_, 47
+
+  _Yax ha_, 9
+
+  _Yiahuitli_, the, 43
+
+  _Yollometli_, 41
+
+  Yoni symbols, 50
+
+  _Ytzamatl_, 47
+
+  Yucatan, 9, 25, 30
+
+
+  Zahoris, 26
+
+  Zamayac, town, 28, 29
+
+  Zapotecs, tribe, 14, 15, 32, 37, 38, 40, 47
+
+  ZETINA, 9
+
+  _Z me quiz_, 19
+
+  Zotzils, revolt of, 35, 47
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+The following typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of the book.
+
+Typographical errors:
+
+  Page  Error
+  TN-1  Fn. 14-†  The footnote marker was missing in the original text.
+                  It has been inserted based on context.
+  TN-2  19   centipedes, etc, should read centipedes, etc.,
+  TN-3  39   black as negroes should read black as negroes.
+  TN-4  43   sick room should read sick room.
+  TN-5  52   speak to thee should read speak to thee.
+  TN-6  58   corrollary should read corollary
+  TN-7  Fn. 7-*   Nacionàl should read Nacional
+  TN-8  Fn. 9-*   Min stros should read Ministros
+  TN-9  Fn. 11-†  Simeon should read Siméon
+  TN-10 Fn. 14-†  exico should read Mexico
+  TN-11 Fn. 17-*  enigmaticas” should read enigmaticas.”
+  TN-12 Fn. 27-*  Americaine should read Américaine
+  TN-13 Fn. 30-†  Historicòs should read Historicos
+  TN-14 Fn. 40-†  Españal should read Español
+  TN-15 Fn. 42-¶  ‘Señor should read “Señor
+  TN-16 Fn. 47-‡  Revue should read Révue
+  TN-17 Fn. 55-†  Oaxaqueno should read Oaxaqueño
+  TN-18 61   Andree should read Andrée
+  TN-19 63   Quinantzin should read Quinatzin
+  TN-20 63   11 n. should read 11 n.,
+
+The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Bartholomé / Bartholomè
+  Diœcesanas / Diocesanas / Diocesan
+  Gucumatz / Gukumatz
+  Moxò / Moxó / Moxo
+  Quiché / Quiche
+  Quichés / Quiches
+  suprà / suprá
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
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diff --git a/26426-0.zip b/26426-0.zip
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nagualism
+       A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2008 [EBook #26426]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAGUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Julia Miller, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by Case Western Reserve University Preservation Department
+Digital Library)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been maintained
+in this version of this book. Typographical errors have been marked with
+a [TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text. A list of words that have been inconsistently spelled or
+hyphenated is found at the end of the present text. Oe ligatures have
+been expanded.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not present in the
+character set used for this version of the book.
+
+  [=u] u with macron
+  [=o] o with macron
+  [||] double vertical line
+  [+]  Dagger
+  [++] Double dagger
+
+
+
+
+                         NAGUALISM.
+
+                          A STUDY
+
+                             IN
+
+                 Native American Folk-lore
+                        and History.
+
+
+                             BY
+
+        DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
+
+  Professor of American Arch�ology and Linguistics in the
+                University of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+                       PHILADELPHIA:
+      MACCALLA & COMPANY, PRINTERS, 237-9 DOCK STREET.
+                            1894
+
+
+
+
+_Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History._
+
+_By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D._
+
+(_Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan'y 5, 1894._)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+1. The words _Nagual_, _Nagualism_, _Nagualist_. 2. The Earliest
+Reference to Nagualism. 3. The _Naualli_ of the Aztecs; their Classes
+and Pretended Powers. 4. The Sacred Intoxicants; the _Peyotl_, the
+_Ololiuhqui_, the _Teopatli_, the _Yax Ha_, etc. 5. Clairvoyance and
+Telepathy during Intoxication. 6. The _Naualli_ of Modern Mexico. 7. The
+_Tonal_ and the _Tonalpouhque_; the Genethliac System of the Nahuas. 8.
+The Aztec Sodality of "Master Magicians." 9. The Personal Guardian
+Spirit.
+
+10. Folk-lore of the Mixe Indians. 11. Astrological Divination of the
+Zapotecs. 12. Similar Arts of the Mixtecs. 13. Nagualism in Chiapas, as
+Described by Bishop Nu�ez de la Vega. 14. Nagualism Among the Quiches,
+Cakchiquels and Pokonchis of Guatemala. 15. The Metamorphoses of
+Gukumatz. 16. Modern Witchcraft in Yucatan and Central America; the
+Zahoris and Padrinos.
+
+17. Fundamental Principles of Nagualism, Hatred of the Whites and of
+Christianity. 18. Its Organization and Extent; its Priesthood. 19. Its
+Influence in the Native Revolts against the Spanish Power. 20. Exalted
+Position of Woman in Nagualism. 21. This a Survival from Ancient Times.
+22. A Native Joan of Arc. 23. Modern Queens of Nagualism.
+
+24. The Cave-temples and the Cave-gods; Oztoteotl, Tepeyollotl, Votan,
+etc. 25. The Sacred Numbers, 3 and 7. 26. Fire Worship of the
+Nagualists. 27. Fire Rights Connected with the Pulque. 28. Fire
+Ceremonies of the Modern Mayas. 29. Secret Significance of Fire Worship.
+30. The Chalchiuites, or Sacred Green Stones. 31. The Sacred Tree and
+the Tree of Life. 32. The Cross and its Symbolic Meaning. 33. The
+Lascivious Rites of the Nagualists. 34. Their Relation to the Symbols of
+the Serpent and the Phallus.
+
+35. Confusion of Christian and Native Religious Ideas; Prayers of Nagual
+Priests. Their Symbolic Language. 36. The Inquisition and Nagualism. 37.
+Etymology of the Word _Nagual_. 38. The Root _Na_ in the Maya, Zapotec
+and Nahuatl Languages. 39. The Doctrine of Animal Transformation in the
+Old World. 40. The Doctrine of Personal Spirits in the Old World. 41.
+Scientific Explanations of Nagual Magic. 42. Conclusion.
+
+
+  REPRINTED FEB. 23, 1894, FROM PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., VOL. XXXIII.
+
+
+
+
+=1.= The words, a _nagual_, _nagualism_, a _nagualist_, have been current
+in English prose for more than seventy years; they are found during that
+time in a variety of books published in England and the United
+States,[4-*] yet are not to be discovered in any dictionary of the
+English language; nor has _Nagualism_ a place in any of the numerous
+encyclop�dias or "Conversation Lexicons," in English, French, German or
+Spanish.
+
+This is not owing to its lack of importance, since for two hundred years
+past, as I shall show, it has been recognized as a cult, no less
+powerful than mysterious, which united many and diverse tribes of Mexico
+and Central America into organized opposition against the government and
+the religion which had been introduced from Europe; whose members had
+acquired and were bound together by strange faculties and an occult
+learning, which placed them on a par with the famed thaumaturgists and
+theodidacts of the Old World; and which preserved even into our own days
+the thoughts and forms of a long suppressed ritual.
+
+In several previous publications I have referred briefly to this secret
+sodality and its aims,[4-[+]] and now believe it worth while to collect
+my scattered notes and present all that I have found of value about the
+origin, aims and significance of this Eleusinian Mystery of America. I
+shall trace its geographical extension and endeavor to discover what its
+secret influence really was and is.
+
+
+=2.= The earliest description I find of its particular rites is that which
+the historian Herrera gives, as they prevailed in 1530, in the province
+of Cerquin, in the mountainous parts of Honduras. It is as follows:
+
+     "The Devil was accustomed to deceive these natives by appearing to
+     them in the form of a lion, tiger, coyote, lizard, snake, bird, or
+     other animal. To these appearances they apply the name _Naguales_,
+     which is as much as to say, guardians or companions; and when such
+     an animal dies, so does the Indian to whom it was assigned. The way
+     such an alliance was formed was thus: The Indian repaired to some
+     very retired spot and there appealed to the streams, rocks and
+     trees around him, and weeping, implored for himself the favors they
+     had conferred on his ancestors. He then sacrificed a dog or a fowl,
+     and drew blood from his tongue, or his ears, or other parts of his
+     body, and turned to sleep. Either in his dreams or half awake, he
+     would see some one of those animals or birds above mentioned, who
+     would say to him, 'On such a day go hunting and the first animal or
+     bird you see will be my form, and I shall remain your companion and
+     _Nagual_ for all time.' Thus their friendship became so close that
+     when one died so did the other; and without such a _Nagual_ the
+     natives believe no one can become rich or powerful."[5-*]
+
+This province of Cerquin appears to have been peopled by a tribe which
+belonged to the great Mayan stock, akin to those which occupied most of
+the area of what is now Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala.[5-[+]]
+I shall say something later about the legendary enchantress whom their
+traditions recalled as the teacher of their ancestors and the founder of
+their nation. What I would now call attention to is the fact that in
+none of the dialects of the specifically Mexican or Aztecan stock of
+languages do we find the word _nagual_ in the sense in which it is
+employed in the above extract, and this is strong evidence that the
+origin of Nagualism is not to be sought in that stock.
+
+
+=3.= We do find, however, in the Nahuatl language, which is the proper
+name of the Aztecan, a number of derivatives from the same root, _na_,
+among them this very word, _Nahuatl_, all of them containing the idea
+"to know," or "knowledge." The early missionaries to New Spain often
+speak of the _naualli_ (plural, _nanahualtin_), masters of mystic
+knowledge, dealers in the black art, wizards or sorcerers. They were not
+always evil-minded persons, though they seem to have been generally
+feared. The earliest source of information about them is Father Sahagun,
+who, in his invaluable History, has the following paragraph:
+
+     "The _naualli_, or magician, is he who frightens men and sucks the
+     blood of children during the night. He is well skilled in the
+     practice of this trade, he knows all the arts of sorcery
+     (_nauallotl_) and employs them with cunning and ability; but for
+     the benefit of men only, not for their injury. Those who have
+     recourse to such arts for evil intents injure the bodies of their
+     victims, cause them to lose their reason and smother them. These
+     are wicked men and necromancers."[6-*]
+
+It is evident on examining the later works of the Roman clergy in Mexico
+that the Church did not look with any such lenient eye on the possibly
+harmless, or even beneficial, exercise of these magical devices. We find
+a further explanation of what they were, preserved in a work of
+instruction to confessors, published by Father Juan Bautista, at Mexico,
+in the year 1600.
+
+     "There are magicians who call themselves _teciuhtlazque_,[6-[+]]
+     and also by the term _nanahualtin_, who conjure the clouds when
+     there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They
+     can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede,
+     a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of
+     these _nanahualtin_ will transform themselves to all appearances
+     (segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog or a weasel. Others again
+     will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a weasel; and when one is
+     preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an
+     owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves
+     _nanahualtin_."[6-[++]]
+
+There is an evident attempt in this somewhat confused statement to
+distinguish between an actual transformation, and one which only appears
+such to the observer.
+
+In another work of similar character, published at Mexico a few years
+later, the "Road to Heaven," of Father Nicolas de Leon, we find a series
+of questions which a confessor should put to any of his flock suspected
+of these necromantic practices. They reveal to us quite clearly what
+these occult practitioners were believed to do. The passage reads as
+follows, the questions being put in the mouth of the priest:
+
+     "Art thou a soothsayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading signs,
+     or by interpreting dreams, or by water, making circles and figures
+     on its surface? Dost thou sweep and ornament with flower garlands
+     the places where idols are preserved? Dost thou know certain words
+     with which to conjure for success in hunting, or to bring rain?
+
+     "Dost thou suck the blood of others, or dost thou wander about at
+     night, calling upon the Demon to help thee? Hast thou drunk
+     _peyotl_, or hast thou given it to others to drink, in order to
+     find out secrets, or to discover where stolen or lost articles
+     were? Dost thou know how to speak to vipers in such words that they
+     obey thee?"[6-�]
+
+
+=4.= This interesting passage lets in considerable light on the claims and
+practices of the nagualists. Not the least important item is that of
+their use of the intoxicant, _peyotl_, a decoction of which it appears
+played a prominent part in their ceremonies. This is the native Nahuatl
+name of a certain plant, having a white, tuberous root, which is the
+part employed. It is mentioned as "pellote" or "peyote" in the
+_Farmacopea Mexicana_ as a popular remedy, but its botanical name is not
+added. According to Paso y Troncoso, it is one of the Composit�, a
+species of the genus _Cacalia_.[7-*] It is referred to in several
+passages by Father Sahagun, who says that it grows in southern Mexico,
+and that the Aztecs derived their knowledge of it from the older
+"Chichimecs." It was used as an intoxicant.
+
+     "Those who eat or drink of this _peyotl_ see visions, which are
+     sometimes frightful and sometimes ludicrous. The intoxication it
+     causes lasts several days. The Chichimecs believed that it gave
+     them courage in time of danger and diminished the pangs of hunger
+     and thirst."[7-[+]]
+
+Its use was continued until a late date, and very probably has not yet
+died out. Its composition and method of preparation are given in a list
+of beverages prohibited by the Spanish authorities in the year 1784, as
+follows:
+
+     "_Peyote_: Made from a species of vinagrilla, about the size of a
+     billiard ball, which grows in dry and sterile soil. The natives
+     chew it, and throw it into a wooden mortar, where it is left to
+     ferment, some leaves of tobacco being added to give it pungency.
+     They consume it in this form, sometimes with slices of _peyote_
+     itself, in their most solemn festivities, although it dulls the
+     intellect and induces gloomy and hurtful visions (sombras muy
+     funestas)."[7-[++]]
+
+The _peyotl_ was not the only herb prized as a means of casting the soul
+into the condition of hypostatic union with divinity. We have abundant
+evidence that long after the conquest the seeds of the plant called in
+Nahuatl the _ololiuhqui_ were in high esteem for this purpose. In the
+Confessionary of Father Bartholom� de Alva the priest is supposed to
+inquire and learn as follows:
+
+     "_Question._ Hast thou loved God above all things? Hast thou loved
+     any created thing, adoring it, looking upon it as God, and
+     worshiping it?
+
+     "_Answer._ I have loved God with all my heart; but sometimes I have
+     believed in dreams, and also I have believed in the sacred herbs,
+     the _peyotl_, and the _ololiuhqui_; and in other such things
+     (_onicneltocac in temictli, in xiuhtzintli, in peyotl, in
+     ololiuhqui, yhuan in occequitlamantli_)."[8-*]
+
+The seeds of the _ololiuhqui_ appear to have been employed externally.
+They were the efficient element in the mysterious unguent known as "the
+divine remedy" (_teopatli_), about which we find some information in the
+works of Father Augustin de Vetancurt, who lived in Mexico in the middle
+of the seventeenth century. He writes:
+
+     "The pagan priests made use of an ointment composed of insects,
+     such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and the like, which the
+     neophytes in the temples prepared. They burned these insects in a
+     basin, collected the ashes, and rubbed it up with green tobacco
+     leaves, living worms and insects, and the powdered seeds of a plant
+     called _ololiuhqui_, which has the power of inducing visions, and
+     the effect of which is to destroy the reasoning powers. Under the
+     influence of this ointment, they conversed with the Devil, and he
+     with them, practicing his deceptions upon them. They also believed
+     that it protected them, so they had no fear of going into the woods
+     at night.
+
+     "This was also employed by them as a remedy in various diseases,
+     and the soothing influence of the tobacco and the _ololiuhqui_ was
+     attributed by them to divine agency. There are some in our own day
+     who make use of this ointment for sorcery, shutting themselves up,
+     and losing their reason under its influence; especially some old
+     men and old women, who are prepared to fall an easy prey to the
+     Devil."[8-[+]]
+
+The botanist Hernandez observes that another name for this plant was
+_coaxihuitl_, "serpent plant," and adds that its seeds contain a
+narcotic poison, and that it is allied to the genus _Solanum_, of which
+the deadly night-shade is a familiar species. He speaks of its use in
+the sacred rites in these words:
+
+     "Indorum sacrifici, cum videri volebant versari cum superis, ac
+     responsa accipere ab eis, ea vescebantur planta, ut desiperent,
+     milleque phantasmata et demonum observatium effigies
+     circumspectarent."[8-[++]]
+
+Of the two plants mentioned, the _ololiuhqui_ and the _peyotl_, the
+former was considered the more potent in spiritual virtues. "They hold
+it in as much veneration as if it were God," says a theologian of the
+seventeenth century.[9-*] One who partook of these herbs was called
+_payni_ (from the verb _pay_, to take medicine); and more especially
+_tlachixqui_, a Seer, referring to the mystic "second sight," hence a
+diviner or prophet (from the verb _tlachia_, to see).
+
+Tobacco also held a prominent, though less important, place in these
+rites. It was employed in two forms, the one the dried leaf, _picietl_,
+which for sacred uses must be broken and rubbed up either seven or nine
+times; and the green leaf mixed with lime, hence called _tenextlecietl_
+(from _tenextli_, lime).
+
+Allied in effect to these is an intoxicant in use in southern Mexico and
+Yucatan, prepared from the bark of a tree called by the Mayas
+_baal-che_. The whites speak of the drink as _pitarilla_. It is quite
+popular among the natives, and they still attribute to it a sacred
+character, calling it _yax ha_, the first water, the primal fluid. They
+say that it was the first liquid created by God, and when He returned to
+His heavenly home He left this beverage and its production in charge of
+the gods of the rains, the four Pah-Ahtuns.[9-[+]]
+
+
+=5.= Intoxication of some kind was an essential part of many of these
+secret rites. It was regarded as a method of throwing the individual out
+of himself and into relation with the supernal powers. What the old
+historian, Father Joseph de Acosta, tells us about the clairvoyants and
+telepaths of the aborigines might well stand for a description of their
+modern representatives:
+
+     "Some of these sorcerers take any shape they choose, and fly
+     through the air with wonderful rapidity and for long distances.
+     They will tell what is taking place in remote localities long
+     before the news could possibly arrive. The Spaniards have known
+     them to report mutinies, battles, revolts and deaths, occurring two
+     hundred or three hundred leagues distant, on the very day they took
+     place, or the day after.
+
+     "To practice this art the sorcerers, usually old women, shut
+     themselves in a house, and intoxicate themselves to the degree of
+     losing their reason. The next day they are ready to reply to
+     questions."[10-*]
+
+Plants possessing similar powers to excite vivid visions and distort the
+imagination, and, therefore, employed in the magical rites, were the
+_thiuimeezque_, in Michoacan, and the _chacuaco_, in lower
+California.[10-[+]]
+
+
+=6.= In spite of all effort, the various classes of wonder-workers
+continued to thrive in Mexico. We find in a book of sermons published by
+the Jesuit Father, Ignacio de Paredes, in the Nahuatl language, in 1757,
+that he strenuously warns his hearers against invoking, consulting, or
+calling upon "the devilish spell-binders, the nagualists, and those who
+conjure with smoke."[10-[++]]
+
+They have not yet lost their power; we have evidence enough that many
+children of a larger growth in that land still listen with respect to
+the recitals of the mysterious faculties attributed to the
+_nanahualtin_. An observant German traveler, Carlos von Gagern, informs
+us that they are widely believed to be able to cause sicknesses and
+other ills, which must be counteracted by appropriate exorcisms, among
+which the reading aloud certain passages of the Bible is deemed to be
+one of the most potent.[10-�]
+
+The learned historian, Orozco y Berra, speaks of the powers attributed
+at the present day to the _nahual_ in Mexico among the lower classes, in
+these words:
+
+     "The _nahual_ is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows
+     how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black and ugly. The female
+     witch can convert herself into a ball of fire; she has the power of
+     flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of
+     little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or
+     of clay, then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place
+     them in some secret place; you can be sure that the person against
+     whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where
+     the thorn is inserted. There still exist among them the
+     medicine-men, who treat the sick by means of strange contortions,
+     call upon the spirits, pronounce magical incantations, blow upon
+     the part where the pain is, and draw forth from the patient thorns,
+     worms, or pieces of stone. They know how to prepare drinks which
+     will bring on sickness, and if the patients are cured by others the
+     convalescents are particular to throw something of their own away,
+     as a lock of hair, or a part of their clothing. Those who possess
+     the evil eye can, by merely looking at children, deprive them of
+     beauty and health, and even cause their death."[11-*]
+
+
+=7.= As I have said, nowhere in the records of purely Mexican, that is,
+Aztecan, Nagualism do we find the word _nagual_ employed in the sense
+given in the passage quoted from Herrera, that is as a personal guardian
+spirit or tutelary genius. These tribes had, indeed, a belief in some
+such protecting power, and held that it was connected with the day on
+which each person is born. They called it the _tonalli_ of a person, a
+word translated to mean that which is peculiar to him, which makes his
+individuality, his self. The radical from which it is derived is _tona_,
+to warm, or to be warm, from which are also derived _tonatiuh_, the sun.
+_Tonalli_, which in composition loses its last syllable, is likewise the
+word for heat, summer, soul, spirit and day, and also for the share or
+portion which belongs to one. Thus, _to-tonal_ is spirit or soul in
+general; _no-tonal_, my spirit; _no-tonal in ipan no-tlacat_, "the sign
+under which I was born," _i. e._, the astrological day-sign. From this
+came the verb _tonalpoa_, to count or estimate the signs, that is, to
+cast the horoscope of a person; and _tonalpouhque_, the diviners whose
+business it was to practice this art.[11-[+]]
+
+These _tonalpouhque_ are referred to at length by Father
+Sahagun.[11-[++]] He distinguishes them from the _naualli_, though it is
+clear that they corresponded in functions to the nagualistic priests of
+the southern tribes. From the number and name of the day of birth they
+forecast the destiny of the child, and stated the power or spiritual
+influence which should govern its career.
+
+The _tonal_ was by no means an indefeasible possession. It was a sort of
+independent _mascotte_. So long as it remained with a person he enjoyed
+health and prosperity; but it could depart, go astray, become lost; and
+then sickness and misfortune arrived. This is signified in the Nahuatl
+language by the verbs _tonalcaualtia_, to check, stop or suspend the
+_tonal_, hence, to shock or frighten one; and _tonalitlacoa_, to hurt or
+injure the _tonal_, hence, to cast a spell on one, to bewitch him.
+
+This explains the real purpose of the conjuring and incantations which
+were carried on by the native doctor when visiting the sick. It was to
+recall the _tonal_, to force or persuade it to return; and, therefore,
+the ceremony bore the name "the restitution of the _tonal_," and was
+more than any other deeply imbued with the superstitions of Nagualism.
+The chief officiant was called the _tetonaltiani_, "he who concerns
+himself with the tonal." On a later page I shall give the formula
+recited on such an occasion.
+
+
+=8.= There is some vague mention in the Aztec records of a semi-priestly
+order, who bore the name _naualteteuctin_, which may be translated
+"master magicians." They were also known as _teotlauice_, "sacred
+companions in arms." As was the case with most classes of the
+_teteuctin_, or nobles, entrance to the order was by a severe and
+prolonged ceremony of initiation, the object of which was not merely to
+test the endurance of pain and the powers of self-denial, but especially
+to throw the mind into that subjective state in which it is brought into
+contact with the divine, in which it can "see visions and dream dreams."
+The order claimed as its patron and founder Quetzalcoatl, the "feathered
+serpent," who, it will be seen on another page, was also the patron of
+the later nagualists.[12-*]
+
+The word _naualli_ also occurs among the ancient Nahuas in composition
+as a part of proper names; always with the signification of "magician,"
+as in that of Naualcuauhtla, a chief of the Chalcos, meaning
+"wizard-stick," referring probably to the rod or wand employed by the
+magi in conjuration.[13-*] So also _Naualac_, the "wizard water," an
+artificial lake not far from the city of Mexico, surrounded by ruined
+temples, described by M. Charnay.[13-[+]]
+
+
+=9.= The belief in a personal guardian spirit was one of the fundamental
+doctrines of Nagualism; but this belief by no means connotes the full
+import of the term (as Mr. H. H. Bancroft has erroneously stated). The
+calendar system of Mexico and Central America, which I have shown to be
+substantially the same throughout many diverse linguistic
+stocks,[13-[++]] had as one of its main objects, astrological
+divination. By consulting it the appropriate nagual was discovered and
+assigned, and this was certainly a prominent feature in the native cult
+and has never been abandoned.
+
+In Mexico to-day, in addition to his special personal guardian, the
+native will often choose another for a limited time or for a particular
+purpose, and this is quite consistent with the form of Christianity he
+has been taught. For instance, as we are informed by an observant
+traveler, at New Year or at corn-planting the head of a family will go
+to the parish church and among the various saints there displayed will
+select one as his guardian for the year. He will address to him his
+prayers for rain and sunshine, for an abundant harvest, health and
+prosperity, and will not neglect to back these supplications by liberal
+gifts. If times are good and harvests ample the Santo is rewarded with
+still more gifts, and his aid is sought for another term; but if luck
+has been bad the Indian repairs to the church at the end of the year,
+bestows on his holy patron a sound cursing, calls him all the bad names
+he can think of, and has nothing more to do with him.[13-�]
+
+
+=10.= A Mexican writer, Andres Iglesias, who enjoyed more than common
+opportunities to study these practices as they exist in the present
+generation, describes them as he saw them in the village of Soteapan, a
+remote hamlet in the State of Vera Cruz, the population of which speak
+the Mixe language. This is not related to the Nahuatl tongue, but the
+terms of their magical rites are drawn from Nahuatl words, showing their
+origin. Every person at birth has assigned to him both a good and a bad
+genius, the former aiming at his welfare, the latter at his injury. The
+good genius is known by the Nahuatl term _tonale_, and it is represented
+in the first bird or animal of any kind which is seen in or near the
+house immediately after the birth of the infant.
+
+The most powerful person in the village is the high priest of the native
+cult. One who died about 1850 was called "the Thunderbolt," and whenever
+he walked abroad he was preceded by a group of chosen disciples, called
+by the Nahuatl name _tlatoques_, speakers or attorneys.[14-*] His
+successor, known as "the Greater Thunder," did not maintain this state,
+but nevertheless claimed to be able to control the seasons and to send
+or to mitigate destructive storms--claims which, sad to say, brought him
+to the stocks, but did not interfere with the regular payment of tribute
+to him by the villagers. He was also a medicine man and master of
+ceremonies in certain "scandalous orgies, where immodesty shows herself
+without a veil."[14-[+]][TN-1]
+
+
+=11.= Turning to the neighboring province of Oaxaca and its inhabitants,
+we are instructed on the astrological use of the calendar of the
+Zapotecs by Father Juan de Cordova, whose _Arte_ of their language was
+published at Mexico in 1578. From what he says its principal, if not its
+only purpose, was astrological. Each day had its number and was called
+after some animal, as eagle, snake, deer, rabbit, etc. Every child, male
+or female, received the name of the day, and also its number, as a
+surname; its personal name being taken from a fixed series, which
+differed in the masculine and feminine gender, and which seems to have
+been derived from the names of the fingers.
+
+From this it appears that among the Zapotecs the personal spirit or
+_nagual_ was fixed by the date of the birth, and not by some later
+ceremony, although the latter has been asserted by some writers; who,
+however, seem to have applied without certain knowledge the rites of the
+Nahuas and other surrounding tribes to the Zapotecs.[15-*]
+
+Next in importance to the assigning of names, according to Father
+Cordova, was the employment of the calendar in deciding the propriety of
+marriages. As the recognized object of marriage was to have sons, the
+couple appealed to the professional augur to decide this question before
+the marriage was fixed. He selected as many beans as was the sum of the
+numbers of the two proponents' names, and, counting them by twos, if one
+remained over, it meant a son; then counting by threes any remainder
+also meant sons; by fours the remainder meant either sons or daughters;
+and by five and six the same; and if there was no remainder by any of
+these five divisors the marriage would result in no sons and was
+prohibited.
+
+It is obvious that this method of fortune-telling was most auspicious
+for the lovers; for I doubt if there is any combination of two numbers
+below fourteen which is divisible by two, three, four, five and six
+without remainder in any one instance.[15-[+]]
+
+The Zapotecs were one of those nations who voluntarily submitted
+themselves to the Spaniards, not out of love for the Europeans, but
+through hatred of the Aztecs, who had conquered them in the preceding
+century. Their king, Coyopy, and his subjects accepted Christianity and
+were generally baptized; but it was the merest formality, and years
+afterwards Coyopy was detected secretly conducting the heathen ritual of
+his ancestors with all due pomp. He was arrested, sent to the city of
+Mexico, deprived of his power and wealth, and soon died; it is
+charitably supposed, from natural causes. There is no question but that
+he left successors to the office of pontifex maximus, and that they
+continued the native religious ceremonies.
+
+
+=12.= The sparse notices we have of the astrology of the Mixtecs,
+neighbors and some think relatives of the Zapotecs, reveal closely
+similar rites. The name of their king, who opposed Montezuma the First
+some sixty years before the arrival of Cortez, proves that they made use
+of the same or a similar calendar in bestowing personal appellations. It
+is given as _Tres Micos_, Three Monkeys.
+
+Unfortunately, so far as I know, there has not been published, and
+perhaps there does not exist, an authentic copy of the Mixtec calendar.
+It was nevertheless reduced to writing in the native tongue after the
+conquest, and a copy of it was seen by the historian Burgoa in the
+Mixtec town of Yanhuitlan.[16-*] Each day was named from a tree, a plant
+or an animal, and from them the individual received his names, as Four
+Lions, Five Roses, etc. (examples given by Herrera). This latter writer
+adds that the name was assigned by the priests when the child was seven
+years old (as among the Tzentals), part of the rite being to conduct it
+to the temple and bore its ears. He refers also to their auguries
+relating to marriage.[16-[+]] These appear to have been different from
+among the Zapotecs. It was necessary that the youth should have a name
+bearing a higher number than that of the maiden, and also "that they
+should be related;" probably this applied only to certain formal
+marriages of the rulers which were obliged to be within the same _gens_.
+
+
+=13.= I have referred in some detail to the rites and superstitions
+connected with the Calendar because they are all essential parts of
+Nagualism, carried on far into Christian times by the priests of this
+secret cult, as was fully recognized by the Catholic clergy. Wherever
+this calendar was in use, the Freemasonry of Nagualism extended, and its
+ritual had constant reference to it. Our fullest information about it
+does not come from central Mexico, but further south, in the region
+occupied by the various branches of the Mayan stock, by the ancestors of
+some one of which, perhaps, this singular calendar, and the symbolism
+connected with it, were invented.
+
+One of the most important older authorities on this subject is Francisco
+Nu�ez de la Vega, a learned Dominican, who was appointed Bishop of
+Chiapas and Soconusco in 1687, and who published at Rome, in 1702, a
+stately folio entitled "_Constituciones Dioecesanas del Obispado de
+Chiappa_," comprising discussions of the articles of religion and a
+series of pastoral letters. The subject of Nagualism is referred to in
+many passages, and the ninth Pastoral Letter is devoted to it. As this
+book is one of extreme rarity, I shall make rather lengthy extracts from
+it, taking the liberty of condensing the scholastic prolixity of the
+author, and omitting his professional admonitions to the wicked.
+
+He begins his references to it in several passages of his Introduction
+or _Preambulo_, in which he makes some interesting statements as to the
+use to which the natives put their newly-acquired knowledge of writing,
+while at the same time they had evidently not forgotten the ancient
+method of recording ideas invented by their ancestors.
+
+The Bishop writes:
+
+     "The Indians of New Spain retain all the errors of their time of
+     heathenism preserved in certain writings in their own languages,
+     explaining by abbreviated characters and by figures painted in a
+     secret cypher[17-*] the places, provinces and names of their early
+     rulers, the animals, stars and elements which they worshiped, the
+     ceremonies and sacrifices which they observed, and the years,
+     months and days by which they predicted the fortunes of children at
+     birth, and assign them that which they call the Naguals. These
+     writings are known as Repertories or Calendars, and they are also
+     used to discover articles lost or stolen, and to effect cures of
+     diseases. Some have a wheel painted in them, like that of
+     Pythagoras, described by the Venerable Bede; others portray a lake
+     surrounded by the Naguals in the form of various animals. Some of
+     the Nagualist Masters claim as their patron and ruler Cuchulchan,
+     and they possessed a certain formula of prayer to him, written in
+     the Popoluca tongue (which was called Baha in their time of
+     heathenism), and which has been translated into Mexican.[17-[+]]
+
+     "Those who are selected to become the masters of these arts are
+     taught from early childhood how to draw and paint these characters,
+     and are obliged to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of
+     the ancient Nagualists, and whatever else is included in these
+     written documents, many of which we have held in our hands, and
+     have heard them explained by such masters whom we had imprisoned
+     for their guilt, and who had afterwards become converted and
+     acknowledged their sins."[17-[++]]
+
+The Bishop made up his mind that extreme measures should be taken to
+eradicate these survivals of the ancient paganism in his diocese, and he
+therefore promulgated the following order in the year 1692:
+
+     "And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are
+     Nagualists adore their _naguals_, and look upon them as gods, and
+     by their aid believe that they can foretell the future, discover
+     hidden treasures, and fulfill their dishonest desires: we,
+     therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an
+     ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the
+     church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks (con
+     grillos y cepos), and we confer authority on every priest and
+     curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of
+     disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with
+     especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism (y con
+     rigor mayor � los dogmatizantes Nagualistas)."[18-*]
+
+In spite of these injunctions it is evident that he failed to destroy
+the seeds of what he esteemed this dangerous heresy in the parishes of
+his diocese; for his ninth Pastoral Letter, in which he exposes at
+length the character of Nagualism, is dated from the metropolitan city
+of Ciudad Real, on May 24, 1698. As much of it is germane to my theme, I
+translate as follows:
+
+     "There are certain bad Christians of both sexes who do not hesitate
+     to follow the school of the Devil, and to occupy themselves with
+     evil arts, divinations, sorceries, conjuring, enchantments,
+     fortune-telling, and other means to forecast the future.
+
+     "These are those who in all the provinces of New Spain are known by
+     the name of _Nagualists_. They pretend that the birth of men is
+     regulated by the course and movements of stars and planets, and by
+     observing the time of day and the months in which a child is born,
+     they prognosticate its condition and the events, prosperous or
+     otherwise, of its life; and the worst is that these perverse men
+     have written down their signs and rules, and thus deceive the
+     erring and ignorant.
+
+     "These Nagualists practice their arts by means of Repertories and
+     superstitious Calendars, where are represented under their proper
+     names all the Naguals of stars, elements, birds, fishes, brute
+     beasts and dumb animals; with a vain note of days and months, so
+     that they can announce which corresponds to the day of birth of the
+     infant. This is preceded by some diabolical ceremonies, after which
+     they designate the field or other spot, where, after seven years
+     shall have elapsed, the Nagual will appear to ratify the bargain.
+     As the time approaches, they instruct the child to deny God and
+     His Blessed Mother, and warn him to have no fear, and not to make
+     the sign of the cross. He is told to embrace his Nagual tenderly,
+     which, by some diabolical art, presents itself in an affectionate
+     manner even though it be a ferocious beast, like a lion or a tiger.
+     Thus, with infernal cunning they persuade him that this Nagual is
+     an angel of God, who will look after him and protect him in his
+     after life.
+
+     "To such diabolical masters the intelligent Indians apply, to learn
+     from these superstitious Calendars, dictated by the Devil, their
+     own fortunes, and the Naguals which will be assigned to their
+     children, even before they are baptized. In most of the Calendars,
+     the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which they
+     call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with
+     feathers which moves in the water. This sign corresponds with
+     Mexzichuaut, which means Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds.[19-*]
+     The people also consult them in order to work injury on their
+     enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices,
+     and committing unspeakable atrocities.
+
+     "Worse even than these are those who wander about as physicians or
+     healers; who are none such, but magicians, enchanters, and
+     sorcerers, who, while pretending to cure, kill whom they will. They
+     apply their medicines by blowing on the patient, and by the use of
+     infernal words; learned by heart by those who cannot read or write;
+     and received in writing from their masters by those acquainted with
+     letters. The Master never imparts this instruction to a single
+     disciple, but always to three at a time, so that in the practice of
+     the art it may be difficult to decide which one exerts the magical
+     power. They blow on feathers, or sticks, or plants, and place them
+     in the paths where they may be stepped on by those they wish to
+     injure, thus causing chills, fevers, ugly pustules and other
+     diseases; or they introduce into the body by such arts toads,
+     frogs, snakes, centipedes, etc,[TN-2] causing great torments. And
+     by these same breathings and magic words they can burn down houses,
+     destroy the growing crops and induce sickness. No one of the three
+     disciples is permitted to practice any of these arts without
+     previously informing the other two, and also the Master, by whom
+     the three have been taught.
+
+     "We have learned by the confession of certain guilty parties how
+     the Master begins to instruct his disciple. First he tells him to
+     abjure God, the saints and the Virgin, not to invoke their names,
+     and to have no fear of them. He then conducts him to the wood,
+     glen, cave or field where the pact with the Devil is concluded,
+     which they call 'the agreement' or 'the word given' (in Tzental
+     _quiz_). In some provinces the disciple is laid on an ant-hill, and
+     the Master standing above him calls forth a snake, colored with
+     black, white and red, which is known as 'the ant-mother' (in
+     Tzental _zmezquiz_).[19-[+]] This comes accompanied by the ants
+     and other small snakes of the same kind, which enter at the joints
+     of the fingers, beginning with the left hand, and coming out at the
+     joints of the right hand, and also by the ears and the nose; while
+     the great snake enters the body with a leap and emerges at its
+     posterior vent. Afterwards the disciple meets a dragon vomiting
+     fire, which swallows him entire and ejects him posteriorly. Then
+     the Master declares he may be admitted, and asks him to select the
+     herbs with which he will conjure, the disciple names them, the
+     Master gathers them and delivers them to him, and then teaches him
+     the sacred words.
+
+     "These words and ceremonies are substantially the same in all the
+     provinces. The healer enters the house of the invalid, asks about
+     the sickness, lays his hand on the suffering part, and then leaves,
+     promising to return on the day following. At the next visit he
+     brings with him some herbs which he chews or mashes with a little
+     water and applies to the part. Then he repeats the _Pater Noster_,
+     the _Ave_, the _Credo_ and the _Salve_ and blows upon the seat of
+     disease, afterwards pronouncing the magical words taught him by his
+     master. He continues blowing in this manner, inhaling and exhaling,
+     repeating under his breath these magical expressions, which are
+     powerful to kill or to cure as he chooses, through the compact he
+     has made with the Devil. Finally, so as to deceive the bystanders,
+     he ends with saying in a loud voice: 'God the Father, God the Son,
+     and God the Holy Ghost. Amen.'
+
+     "This physician or healer is called in the towns of some of the
+     provinces _poxta vanegs_, and the medicine _gspoxil_; and
+     everything relating to healing among the Indians to which they
+     apply these terms means also to practice sorcery; and all words
+     derived from _pox_ allude to the Nagual; for this in some provinces
+     is called _poxlon_, and in others _patzlan_, and in many
+     _tzihuizin_, which is something very much feared by the Indians. We
+     have ascertained by the confessions of many who have been
+     reconciled that the Devil at times appears to them in the shape of
+     a ball or globe of fire in the air, with a tail like a comet.[20-*]
+
+     "According to the most ancient traditions of these Indians this
+     idol, _poxlon_, was one of the most important and venerated they
+     had in the old times, and the Tzentals revered it so much that
+     they preserved it innumerable years painted on a tablet in the
+     above figure. Even after they were converted to the faith, they
+     hung it behind a beam in the church of the town of Oxchuc,
+     accompanied by an image of their god Hicalahau, having a ferocious
+     black face with the members of a man,[21-*] along with five owls
+     and vultures. By divine interposition, we discovered these on our
+     second visit there in 1687, and had no little difficulty in getting
+     them down, we reciting the creed, and the Indians constantly
+     spitting as they executed our orders. These objects were publicly
+     burned in the plaza.
+
+     "In other parts they reverence the bones of the earlier Nagualists,
+     preserving them in caves, where they adorn them with flowers and
+     burn copal before them. We have discovered some of these and burned
+     them, hoping to root out and put a stop to such evil ceremonies of
+     the infernal sect of the Nagualists.
+
+     "At present, all are not so subject to the promptings of the Devil
+     as formerly, but there are still some so closely allied to him that
+     they transform themselves into tigers, lions, bulls, flashes of
+     light and globes of fire. We can say from the declaration and
+     solemn confession of some penitents that it is proved that the
+     Devil had carnal relations with them, both as incubus and succubus,
+     approaching them in the form of their Nagual; and there was one
+     woman who remained in the forest a week with the demon in the form
+     of her Nagual, acting toward him as does an infatuated woman toward
+     her lover (como pudiera con su proprio amigo una muger amancebada).
+     As a punishment for such horrible crimes our Lord has permitted
+     that they lose their life as soon as their Nagual is killed; and
+     that they bear on their own bodies the wound or mark of the blow
+     which killed it; as the curas of Chamula, Copainala and other
+     places have assured us.
+
+     "The devilish seed of this Nagualism has rooted itself in the very
+     flesh and blood of these Indians. It perseveres in their hearts
+     through the instructions of the masters of the sect, and there is
+     scarcely a town in these provinces in which it has not been
+     introduced. It is a superstitious idolatry, full of monstrous
+     incests, sodomies and detestable bestialities."
+
+Such are the words of the Bishop of Chiapas. We learn from his
+thoroughly instructed and unimpeachable testimony that at the beginning
+of the eighteenth century Nagualism was a widespread and active
+institution among the Indians of southern Mexico; that it was taught and
+practiced by professors who were so much feared and respected that, as
+he tells us in another passage, they were called "masters of the
+towns;"[21-[+]] that they gave systematic instruction to disciples in
+classes of three, all of whom were bound together by pledges of mutual
+information and assistance; that a fundamental principle of the
+organization and an indispensable step in the initiation into its
+mysteries was the abjuration of the Christian religion, and an undying
+hatred to its teachers and all others of the race of the white
+oppressors; and that when they made use of Christian phrases or
+ceremonies it was either in derision or out of hypocrisy, the better to
+conceal their real sentiments.
+
+There are a number of other witnesses from the seventeenth century that
+may be summoned to strengthen this testimony, if it needs it.
+
+
+=14.= In the _History of Guatemala_, written about 1690 by Francisco
+Antonio Fuentes y Guzman, the author gives some information about a
+sorcerer of this school, who was arrested in Totonicapan, and with whom
+the historian had something to do as _corregidor_.
+
+The redoubtable magician was a little old man, _viejezuelo_, and when
+caught had in his possession a document giving the days of the year
+according to the European calendar, with the Nagual, which belonged to
+each one. That for January is alone given by our writer, but it is
+probable that the other months merely repeated the naguals corresponding
+to the numbers. It ran as follows:
+
+  _Nagual Calendar for January._
+
+  1. Lion.
+  2. Snake.
+  3. Stone.
+  4. Alligator.
+  5. Ceiba tree.
+  6. The quetzal (a bird).
+  7. A stick.
+  8. Rabbit.
+  9. A rope.
+  10. Leaf.
+  11. Deer.
+  12. Guacamayo (parrot).
+  13. Flower.
+  14. Toad.
+  15. Caterpillar.
+  16. A chip.
+  17. Arrow.
+  18. Broom.
+  19. Jaguar.
+  20. Corn-husk.
+  21. A flute.
+  22. Green-stone.
+  23. Crow.
+  24. Fire.
+  25. A pheasant.
+  26. A reed.
+  27. Opossum.
+  28. Huracan (the thunder-storm).
+  29. The vulture.
+  30. Hawk.
+  31. Bat.
+
+When the sorcerer was examined as to the manner of assigning the proper
+nagual to a child he gave the following account:
+
+Having been informed of its day of birth, he in due time called at the
+residence of the parents, and told the mother to bring the child into
+the field behind the house. Having there invoked the demon, the _nagual_
+of the child would appear under the form of the animal or object set
+opposite its birthday in the calendar, a serpent were it born on the 2d
+of January, a flower were it on the 13th, fire were it on the 24th, and
+so on. The sorcerer then addressed certain prayers to the _nagual_ to
+protect the little one, and told the mother to take it daily to the same
+spot, where its _nagual_ would appear to it, and would finally accompany
+it through all its life. Some, but not all, obtained the power of
+transforming themselves into the _nagual_, and the author declares that,
+though he could not cite such a case from his own experience, his father
+knew of several, and reliable priests, _religiosos de f�_, had told him
+enough examples to fill volumes.[23-*]
+
+The tribes to which this author refers were the Cakchiquels and Quiches,
+who spoke practically the same tongue. An examination of some of the old
+dictionaries prepared by the early missionaries furnishes further and
+interesting information about this obscure subject.
+
+In the Cakchiquel language of Guatemala, the word _naual_ was applied
+both to the magician himself, to his necromantic art, and to the demonic
+agency which taught and protected him. This is shown by the following
+explanation, which I quote from Father Coto's _Vocabulario de la Lengua
+Cakchiquel_, 1651, a manuscript in the library of the American
+Philosophical Society:
+
+     "_Magic_ or _Necromancy_: _puz_ or _naual_; and they were
+     accustomed to call their magicians or sorcerers by the same terms.
+     It was a kind of magic which they invoked in order to transform
+     themselves into eagles, lions, tigers, etc. Thus, they said, _ru
+     puz_, _ru naual_, _pedro l� cot_, _balam_, 'Peter's power, his
+     _naual_, is a lion, a tiger.' They also applied the words _puz_ and
+     _naual_ to certain trees, rocks and other inanimate objects, whence
+     the Devil used to speak to them, and likewise to the idols which
+     they worshiped, as _gazlic che_, _gazlic abah_, _huyu_, _k'o ru
+     naual_, 'The life of the tree, the life of the stone, of the hill,
+     is its _naual_,' etc.; because they believed there was life in
+     these objects. They used to have armies and soldiery to guard
+     their lands, and the captains, as well as many who were not
+     captains, had their _nauales_. They called the captain _ru g'
+     alache; rohobachi, ti ru gaah, ru pocob, ru gh' amay a ghay ti be
+     chi naualil_ [he works magic with his shield, his lance, and his
+     arrows].
+
+     "To practice such magical arts: _tin naualih_ ('I practice magic'),
+     an active verb. They use it, for instance, when a man asks his wife
+     for something to eat or drink, and she has nothing, owing to his
+     negligence, she will say: 'Where do you suppose I can get what you
+     want? Do you expect me to perform miracles--_xa pe ri tin
+     naualih_--that they shall come to my hands?' So when one is asked
+     to lend or give something which he has not, he will exclaim: _Tin
+     naualih pe ri puvak_, etc. ('Can I perform miracles,' etc.)
+
+     "It also signifies to pretend something, concealing the truth, as
+     _xa ru naualim ara neh chu g' ux ri tzih tan tu bijh pedro_, 'Peter
+     is feigning this which he is saying.' They are also accustomed to
+     apply this word to the power which the priests exert (in the
+     sacraments, etc.)."
+
+A long and foolish account of the witchcraft supposed to be practiced
+among the Pokonchis of Guatemala, also a tribe of Mayan stock, is given
+by the Englishman, Thomas Gage, who was cura of a parish among them
+about 1630, and afterwards returned to England and Protestantism. He
+described, at wearisome length, the supposed metamorphosis of two chiefs
+of neighboring tribes, the one into a lion, the other into a tiger, and
+the mortal combat in which they engaged, resulting in the death of one
+to whom Gage administered absolution. No doubt he had been worsted in a
+personal encounter with his old enemy, and, being a man of eighty years,
+had not the vigor to recover. The account is of interest only as proving
+that the same superstitions at that time prevailed among the Pokonchis
+as in other portions of Guatemala.[24-*]
+
+
+=15.= A really mighty nagualist was not confined to a single
+transformation. He could take on many and varied figures. One such is
+described in the sacred books of the Quiches of Guatemala, that document
+known by the name of the Popol Vuh, or National Book. The passage is in
+reference to one of their great kings and powerful magicians, Gucumatz
+by name. It says:
+
+     "Truly he was a wonderful king. Every seven days he ascended to the
+     sky, and every seven days he followed the path to the abode of the
+     dead; every seven days he put on the nature of a serpent, and then
+     he became truly a serpent; every seven days he assumed the nature
+     of an eagle, and then he became truly an eagle; then of a tiger and
+     he became truly a tiger; then of coagulated blood, and he was
+     nothing else than coagulated blood."[25-*]
+
+It may be said that such passages refer metaphorically to the
+versatility of his character, but even if this is so, the metaphors are
+drawn from the universal belief in Nagualism which then prevailed, and
+they do not express it too strongly.
+
+
+=16.= Among the Maya tribes of Yucatan and Guatemala we have testimony to
+the continuance to this day of these beliefs. Father Bartolom� de Baeza,
+cura of Yaxcaba in the first half of this century, reports that an old
+man, in his dying confession, declared that by diabolical art he had
+transformed himself into an animal, doubtless his _nagual_; and a young
+girl of some twelve years confessed that she had been transformed into a
+bird by the witches, and in one of her nocturnal flights had rested on
+the roof of the very house in which the good priest resided, which was
+some two leagues from her home. He wisely suggests that, perhaps,
+listening to some tale of sorcery, she had had a vivid dream, in which
+she seemed to take this flight. It is obvious, however, from his
+account, as well as from other sources, that the belief of the
+transformation into lower animals was and is one familiar to the
+superstitions of the Mayas.[25-[+]] The natives still continue to
+propitiate the ancient gods of the harvest, at the beginning of the
+season assembling at a ceremony called by the Spaniards the _misa
+milpera_, or "field mass," and by themselves _ti'ch_, "the stretching
+out of the hands."
+
+The German traveler, Dr. Scherzer, when he visited, in 1854, the remote
+hamlet of Istlavacan, in Guatemala, peopled by Quich� Indians,
+discovered that they had preserved in this respect the usages of their
+ancestors almost wholly unaffected by the teachings of their various
+Christian curates. The "Master" still assigned the _naguals_ to the
+new-born infants, copal was burned to their ancient gods in remote
+caves, and formulas of invocation were taught by the veteran nagualists
+to their neophytes.[26-*]
+
+These _Zahoris_,[26-[+]] as they are generally called in the Spanish of
+Central America, possessed many other mysterious arts besides that of
+such metamorphoses and of forecasting the future. They could make
+themselves invisible, and walk unseen among their enemies; they could in
+a moment transport themselves to distant places, and, as quickly
+returning, report what they had witnessed; they could create before the
+eyes of the spectator a river, a tree, a house, or an animal, where none
+such existed; they could cut open their own stomach, or lop a limb from
+another person, and immediately heal the wound or restore the severed
+member to its place; they could pierce themselves with knives and not
+bleed, or handle venomous serpents and not be bitten; they could cause
+mysterious sounds in the air, and fascinate animals and persons by their
+steady gaze; they could call visible and invisible spirits, and the
+spirits would come.
+
+Among the native population of the State of Vera Cruz and elsewhere in
+southern Mexico these mysterious personages go by the name _padrinos_,
+godfathers, and are looked upon with a mixture of fear and respect. They
+are believed by the Indians to be able to cause sickness and domestic
+calamities, and are pronounced by intelligent whites to present "a
+combination of rascality, duplicity and trickery."[26-[++]]
+
+
+=17.= The details of the ceremonies and doctrines of Nagualism have never
+been fully revealed; but from isolated occurrences and partial
+confessions it is clear that its adherents formed a coherent association
+extending over most of southern Mexico and Guatemala, which everywhere
+was inspired by two ruling sentiments--detestation of the Spaniards and
+hatred of the Christian religion.
+
+In their eyes the latter was but a cloak for the exactions, massacres
+and oppressions exerted by the former. To them the sacraments of the
+Church were the outward signs of their own subjugation and misery. They
+revolted against these rites in open hatred, or received them with
+secret repugnance and contempt. In the Mexican figurative manuscripts
+composed after the conquest the rite of baptism is constantly depicted
+as the symbol of religious persecution. Says a sympathetic student of
+this subject:
+
+     "The act of baptism is always inserted in their records of battles
+     and massacres. Everywhere it conveys the same idea,--making evident
+     to the reader that the pretext for all the military expeditions of
+     the Spaniards was the enforced conversion to Christianity of the
+     natives; a pretext on which the Spaniards seized in order to
+     possess themselves of the land and its treasure, to rob the Indians
+     of their wives and daughters, to enslave them, and to spill their
+     blood without remorse or remission. One of these documents, dated
+     in 1526, adds a trait of savage irony. A Spanish soldier is
+     represented dragging a fugitive Indian from a lake by a lasso
+     around his neck; while on the shore stands a monk ready to baptize
+     the recreant on his arrival!"[27-*]
+
+No wonder that the priests of the dark ritual of Nagualism for centuries
+after the conquest sought to annul the effects of the hated Christian
+sacraments by counteracting ceremonies of their own, as we are told they
+did by the historian Torquemada, writing from his own point of view in
+these words:
+
+     "The Father of Lies had his ministers who aided him, magicians and
+     sorcerers, who went about from town to town, persuading the simple
+     people to that which the Enemy of Light desired. Those who believed
+     their deceits, and had been baptized, were washed on the head and
+     breast by these sorcerers, who assured them that this would remove
+     the effects of the chrism and the holy oils. I myself knew an
+     instance where a person of prominence, who resided not far from the
+     City of Mexico, was dying, and had received extreme unction; and
+     when the priest had departed one of these diabolical ceremonialists
+     entered, and washed all the parts which had been anointed by the
+     holy oil with the intention to destroy its power."[27-[+]]
+
+Similar instances are recorded by Jacinto de la Serna. He adds that not
+only did the Masters prescribe sacrifices to the Fire in order to annul
+the effects of extreme unction, but they delighted to caricature the
+Eucharist, dividing among their congregation a narcotic yellow mushroom
+for the bread, and the inebriating pulque for the wine. Sometimes they
+adroitly concealed in the pyx, alongside the holy wafer, some little
+idol of their own, so that they really followed their own superstitions
+while seemingly adoring the Host. They assigned a purely pagan sense to
+the sacred formula, "Father, Son and Holy Ghost," understanding it to be
+"Fire, Earth and Air," or the like.[28-*]
+
+Whoever or whatever was an enemy to that religion so brutally forced upon
+these miserable creatures was to them an ally and a friend. Nu�ez de la
+Vega tells us that he found written formulas among them reading: "O
+Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, come to our
+aid!"--pathetic and desperate appeal of a wretched race, ground to earth
+under the iron heels of a religious and military despotism.[28-[+]]
+
+
+=18.= The association embraced various tribes and its members were
+classified under different degrees. The initiation into these was by
+solemn and often painful ceremonies. Local sodalities or brotherhoods
+were organized after the manner of those usual in the Roman Church; but
+instead of being named after St. John or the Virgin Mary they were
+dedicated to Judas Iscariot or Pontius Pilate out of derision and hatred
+of the teachings of the priests; or to the Devil or Antichrist, who were
+looked upon as powerful divinities in opposition to the Church.[28-[++]]
+
+There were certain recognized centres of the association, near which its
+most important dignitaries resided, and where their secret councils and
+most imposing ceremonies were held. One of these was Zamayac, in the
+province of Suchiltepec; a second near Huehuetan, Soconusco; a third at
+Totonicapan, Guatemala; a fourth at Cancuc, Chiapas; a fifth at
+Teozapotlan, Oaxaca; and a few others may be surmised.
+
+The high priest who resided at each of these centres exercised control
+over all the nagualistic teachers and practitioners in an extensive
+district. On the occasion of an official inquiry by the Spanish
+authorities it was ascertained that the high priest of Zamayac included
+under his rule nearly one thousand sub-priests,[29-*] and no doubt
+others of his rank were not less potent.
+
+The unity between the members of the association over an indefinitely
+wide area was perfectly well known to the Spanish priests and civil
+authorities. The ceremonies, formulas and methods of procedure were
+everywhere identical or alike. This itself was justly regarded as a
+proof of the secret intelligence which existed among the members of this
+cabalistic guild.[29-[+]]
+
+To a certain extent, and at least in some localities, as Chiapas and
+Guatemala, the priesthood of Nagualism was hereditary in particular
+families. This is especially stated by the historian Ordo�ez y Aguiar,
+who had exceptional opportunities for acquainting himself with the
+facts.[29-[++]]
+
+A traveler of the first decade of this century, who has left us a number
+of curious details of the superstitions of the Christianized Indians in
+Mexico of that day, Benito Maria de Mox�, informs us that he had
+discovered the existence of different grades in the native soothsayers
+and medicine men, and that all in a given locality recognized the
+supremacy of one whom they referred to as "the little old man," _El
+Viejito_. But he was unable to ascertain by what superior traits or
+rights he obtained this distinction.[29-�]
+
+According to some authorities, the highest grade of these native
+hierophants bore among the Nahuas the symbolic name of "flower
+weavers," _Xochimilca_, probably from the skill they had to deceive the
+senses by strange and pleasant visions.[30-*] In the south they were
+spoken of as "guardians," which may have been derived from the classes
+of priests so-called in the Zapotec religion.[30-[+]]
+
+
+=19.= It will be seen from the above, that Nagualism, beginning in an
+ancient superstition dating back to the time of primitive barbarism,
+became after the Conquest a potent factor in the political and social
+development of the peoples among whom it existed; that it was the source
+from which was drawn and the means by which was sustained the
+race-hatred of the native American towards his foreign conquerors,
+smouldering for centuries, now and then breaking out in furious revolt
+and civil war.
+
+There is strong reason to suspect its power where, for obvious reasons,
+it has not been demonstrated. It has always been a mystery and a matter
+of surprise to the historians of Yucatan how rapidly spread the plans of
+the insurrection which secured lasting independence for the natives,
+after these plans had been agreed upon by the two chiefs, Antonio Ay and
+Cecilio Chi, at the remote rancho of Xihum, in July, 1847. Such
+unanimity of action could only have been possible through the aid of a
+powerful, well-disciplined and widespread secret organization. There can
+scarcely be a doubt they were the chiefs or masters of the redoubtable
+order of Nagualism in the Peninsula.[30-[++]]
+
+There is no question that such was the case with the brief and bloody
+revolt of the Mayas in 1761. It suddenly broke out in a number of
+villages near Valladolid, Yucatan, headed by a full-blood native,
+Jacinto Can-Ek; but some of the participants afterwards confessed that
+it was the outcome of a conspiracy which had been preparing for a year.
+
+When the appointed day arrived, Jacinto boldly announced himself as the
+high priest of the fraternity of sorcerers, a master and teacher of
+magic, and the lineal successor of the famous ancient prophet, Chilan
+Balam, "whose words cannot fail." In a stirring appeal he urged his
+fellow-countrymen to attack the Spaniards without fear of consequences.
+
+     "'Be not afraid,' he exclaimed, 'of their cannons and their forts;
+     for among the many to whom I have taught the arts of magic (el arte
+     de brujeria) there are fifteen chosen ones, marvelous experts, who
+     by their mystic power will enter the fortress, slay the sentinels,
+     and throw open the gates to our warriors. I shall take the leaves
+     of the sacred tree, and folding them into trumpets, I shall call to
+     the four winds of heaven, and a multitude of fighting men will
+     hasten to our aid.'"[31-*]
+
+Saying this, he took a sheet of paper, held it up to show that it was
+blank, folded it for a moment, and then spread it out covered with
+writing! This deft trick convinced his simple-minded hearers of the
+truth of his claims and they rushed to arms. He led them, clothed in the
+robe of the Virgin and with her crown on his head. But neither their
+enthusiasm nor their leader's art magic availed, and soon Jacinto and
+his followers fell victims to the stake and the gallows. After their
+death the dance of "the tiger," or of Chac-Mool--the "ghost dance" of
+the Mayas--was prohibited; and the use of the sacred drum--the favorite
+instrument of the native priests--was forbidden.[31-[+]]
+
+In fact, wherever we have any full accounts of the revolts against the
+Spanish domination during the three centuries of its existence in New
+Spain, we can manifestly trace the guiding fingers of the powerful
+though hidden hand of Nagualism. An earlier revolt of the Mayas in
+Yucatan occurred in 1585. It was led by Andres Chi, a full-blood Indian,
+and a descendant of the ancient royal house of the Cocomes. He also
+announced himself as a priest of the ancient faith, a prophet and a
+worker of miracles, sent to instruct his own people in a new religion
+and to give them an independent political existence. Seized by the
+Spaniards, he was charged with idolatry, sorcery and disturbing the
+peace, and was ignominiously hanged.[32-*]
+
+Not less definitely inspired by the same ideas was the Mixe Indian,
+known as "Don Pascual," who led the revolt of the Tehuantepec tribes in
+1661. He sent out his summons to the "thirteen governors of the Zapotecs
+and Chontales" to come to his aid, and the insurrection threatened to
+assume formidable proportions, prevented only by bringing to bear upon
+the natives the whole power of the Roman Church through the Bishop of
+Oaxaca, Cuevas Davalos.[32-[+]]
+
+Nearly the same locality had been the scene of the revolt of the
+Zapotecs in 1550, when they were led by a native priest who claimed to
+be an incarnation of the old god Quetzalcoatl, the patron deity of the
+nagualists.[32-[++]]
+
+In the city of Mexico itself, in the year 1692, there was a violent
+outbreak of the natives, when they destroyed three million dollars worth
+of property. Doubtless this was partly attributable to the scarcity of
+food which prevailed; but that the authorities traced it also to some
+secret ceremonials is evident from the law which was immediately passed
+forbidding the Indians to wear the _piochtli_, or scalp-lock, a portion
+of the hair preserved from birth as part of the genethliac
+rituals,[32-�] and the especial enactments against the _octli_.
+
+As for the revolt of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1712, it was clearly
+and confessedly under the leadership of the nagualistic priesthood, as I
+shall indicate on a later page.
+
+The history of the native American race under the Spanish power in North
+America has never yet been written with the slightest approach to
+thoroughness. He who properly qualifies himself for that task will
+certainly reach the conclusion expressed a number of years ago by the
+eminent American antiquary and historian, Mr. E. G. Squier, in these
+words:
+
+     "Among the ruling and priestly classes of the semi-civilized
+     nations of America, there has always existed a mysterious bond, a
+     secret organization, which all the disasters to which they have
+     been subjected have not destroyed. It is to its present existence
+     that we may attribute those simultaneous movements of the
+     aborigines of Mexico and Central America, which have more than once
+     threatened the complete subversion of the Spanish power."[33-*]
+
+That mysterious bond, that secret organization, is _Nagualism_.
+
+
+=20.= A remarkable feature in this mysterious society was the exalted
+position it assigned to Women. Not only were they admitted to the most
+esoteric degrees, but in repeated instances they occupied the very
+highest posts in the organization. According to the traditions of the
+Tzentals and Pipils of Chiapas, when their national hero, Votan,
+constructed by the breath of his mouth his darkened shrine at
+Tlazoaloyan, in Soconusco, he deposited in it the sacred books and holy
+relics, and constituted a college of venerable sages to be its
+guardians; but placed them all in subjection to a high priestess, whose
+powers were absolute.[33-[+]]
+
+The veracious Pascual de Andagoya asserts from his own knowledge that
+some of these female adepts had attained the rare and peculiar power of
+being in two places at once, as much as a league and a half
+apart;[33-[++]] and the repeated references to them in the Spanish
+writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries confirm the dread in
+which they were held and the extensive influence they were known to
+control. In the sacraments of Nagualism, Woman was the primate and
+hierophant.
+
+
+=21.= This was a lineal inheritance from pre-Columbian times. In many
+native American legends, as in others from the old world, some powerful
+enchantress is remembered as the founder of the State, mistress of men
+through the potency of her magic powers.
+
+Such, among the Aztecs, was the sorceress who built the city of
+Mallinalco, on the road from Mexico to Michoacan, famous even after the
+conquest for the skill of its magicians, who claimed descent from
+her.[34-*] Such, in Honduras, was Coamizagual, queen of Cerquin, versed
+in all occult science, who died not, but at the close of her earthly
+career rose to heaven in the form of a beautiful bird, amid the roll of
+thunder and the flash of lightning.[34-[+]]
+
+According to an author intimately familiar with the Mexican nagualists,
+the art they claimed to possess of transforming themselves into the
+lower animals was taught their predecessors by a woman, a native Circe,
+a mighty enchantress, whose usual name was Quilaztli (the etymology of
+which is unknown), but who bore also four others, representing her four
+metamorphoses, Cohuacihuatl, the Serpent Woman; Quauhcihuatl, the Eagle
+Woman; Yaocihuatl, the Warrior Woman; and Tzitzimecihuatl, the Specter
+Woman.[34-[++]]
+
+The powers of these queens of magic extended widely among their sex. We
+read in the chronicles of ancient Mexico that when Nezahualpilli, the
+king, oppressed the tribes of the coast, the _tierra caliente_, they
+sent against him, not their warriors, but their witches. These cast upon
+him their fatal spells, so that when he walked forth from his palace,
+blood burst from his mouth, and he fell prone and dead.[34-�]
+
+In Guatemala, as in ancient Delphos, the gods were believed to speak
+through the mouths of these inspired seeresses, and at the celebration
+of victories they enjoyed a privilege so strange and horrible that I
+quote it from the old manuscript before me without venturing a
+translation:
+
+     "... Despues de sacrificar los antiguos algun hombre,
+     despeda�andolo, si era de los que avian cogido en guerra, dicen que
+     guardaban el miembro genital y los testiculos del tal sacrificado,
+     y se los daban � una vieja que tenian por profeta, para que los
+     comiese, y le pedian rogasse � su idolo les diesse mas
+     captivos."[35-*]
+
+When Captain Pedro de Alvarado, in the year 1524, was marching upon
+Quetzaltanango, in Guatemala, just such a fearful old witch took her
+stand at the summit of the pass, with her familiar in the shape of a
+dog, and "by spells and nagualistic incantations" undertook to prevent
+his approach.[35-[+]]
+
+As in the earliest, so in the latest accounts. The last revolt of the
+Indians of Chiapas occurred among the Zotzils in 1869. The cause of it
+was the seizure and imprisonment by the Spanish authorities of a
+"mystical woman," known to the whites as Santa Rosa, who, together with
+one of their _ahaus_ or chieftains, had been suspected of fomenting
+sedition. The natives marched thousands strong against the city of San
+Cristobal, where the prisoners were, and secured their liberation; but
+their leader, Ignacio Galindo, was entrapped and shot by the Spaniards,
+and the mutiny was soon quelled.[35-[++]]
+
+
+=22.= But perhaps the most striking instance is that recorded in the
+history of the insurrection of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1713. They
+were led by an Indian girl, a native Joan of Arc, fired by like
+enthusiasm to drive from her country the hated foreign oppressors, and
+to destroy every vestige of their presence. She was scarcely twenty
+years old, and was known to the Spaniards as Maria Candelaria. She was
+the leader of what most historians call a religious sect, but what
+Ordo�ez y Aguiar, himself a native of Chiapas, recognizes as the
+powerful secret association of Nagualism, determined on the extirpation
+of the white race. He estimates that in Chiapas alone there were nearly
+seventy thousand natives under her orders--doubtless an
+exaggeration--and asserts that the conspiracy extended far into the
+neighboring tribes, who had been ordered to await the result of the
+effort in Chiapas.
+
+Her authority was absolute, and she was merciless in requiring obedience
+to it. The disobedient were flayed alive or roasted over a slow fire.
+She and all her followers took particular pleasure in manifesting their
+hatred and contempt for the religion of their oppressors. They defiled
+the sacred vessels of the churches, imitated with buffoonery the
+ceremonies of the mass, which she herself performed, and stoned to death
+the priests whom they caught.
+
+Of course, her attempt against the power of Spain was hopeless. It
+failed after a bitter and protracted conquest, characterized by the
+utmost inhumanity on both sides. But when her followers were scattered
+and killed, when the victorious whites had again in their hands all the
+power and resources of the country, not their most diligent search, nor
+the temptation of any reward, enabled them to capture Maria Candelaria,
+the heroine of the bloody drama. With a few trusty followers she escaped
+to the forest, and was never again heard of.[36-*]
+
+More unfortunate were her friends and lieutenants, the priestesses of
+Guistiupan and Yajalon, who had valiantly seconded Maria in her
+patriotic endeavors. Seized by the Spaniards, they met the fate which we
+can easily imagine, though the historian has mercifully thrown a veil on
+its details.[36-[+]]
+
+
+=23.= Of just such a youthful prophetess did Mr. E. G. Squier hear during
+his travels in Central America, a "_sukia_ woman," as she was called by
+the coast Indians, one who lived alone mid the ruins of an old Mayan
+temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and
+life in her hands.[36-[++]] Perhaps his account is somewhat fanciful;
+it is so, indeed; but it is grounded on the unshaken beliefs and ancient
+traditions of the natives of those climes, and on customs well known to
+those who reside there.
+
+The late distinguished Americanist, the Abb� Brasseur de Bourbourg,
+during his long travels in Mexico and Central America, had occasion more
+than once to come in contact with this trait of the ancient faith of the
+Nagualists, still alive in their descendants. Among the Zapotecs of the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec he saw one of the queens of the mystic
+fraternity, and he describes her with a warmth which proves that he had
+not lost his eye for the beautiful.
+
+     "She wore a piece of light-green stuff loosely folded around her
+     form at the hips, and falling to a little distance above the ankle;
+     a jacket of red silk gauze with short sleeves and embroidered with
+     gold, clothed the upper part of her person, veiling her bosom, upon
+     which lay a chain of heavy gold pieces, pierced and strung on a
+     cord. Her rich black hair was divided on the forehead, and drawn
+     back in two splendid tresses fastened with blue ribbons, while a
+     white muslin kerchief encircled her head like the calantica of the
+     ancient Egyptians. Never in my life have I seen a more striking
+     figure of an Isis or a Cleopatra.
+
+     "There was something strange in her expression. Her eyes were the
+     blackest and the brightest in the world; but there were moments
+     when she suddenly paused, leaned against the billiard table or the
+     wall, and they became fixed and dead like those of a corpse. Then a
+     fiery glance would shoot from beneath her dark lashes, sending a
+     chill to the heart of the one to whom it was directed. Was it
+     madness, or was it, as those around her believed, a momentary
+     absence of soul, an absorption of her spirit into its _nagual_, a
+     transportation into an unknown world? Who shall decide?"[37-*]
+
+
+=24.= It would be a mistake to suppose that Nagualism was an incoherent
+medley of superstitions, a mass of jumbled fragments derived from the
+ancient paganism. My study of it has led me to a widely different
+conclusion. It was a perpetuation of a well-defined portion of the
+native cult, whose sources we are able to trace long anterior to the
+period of the conquest, and which had no connection with the elaborate
+and bloody ritual of the Aztecs. The evidence to this effect is cogent.
+
+Wherever in later days the Catholic priests found out the holy places
+and sacred objects of the nagualists, they were in-caves or deep
+rock-recesses, not in artificial structures. The myths they gleaned, and
+the names of the gods they heard, also point to this as a distinguishing
+peculiarity. An early instance is recorded among the Nahuas of Mexico.
+In 1537 Father Perea discovered a cavern in a deep ravine at Chalma,
+near Mallinalco (a town famous for its magicians), which was the
+sanctuary of the deity called _Oztoteotl_, the Cave God (_oztotl_, cave;
+_teotl_, god), "venerated throughout the whole empire of
+Montezuma."[38-*] He destroyed the image of the god, and converted the
+cavern into a chapel.
+
+We cannot err in regarding Oztoteotl as merely another name of the
+Nahuatl divinity, Tepeyollotl, the Heart, or Inside, of the Mountain,
+who in the Codex Borgia and the Codex Vaticanus is represented seated
+upon or in a cavern. His name may equally well be translated "the Heart
+of the Place," or "of the Town."
+
+Dr. Eduard Seler has shown beyond reasonable question that this divinity
+did not originally belong to the Aztec Pantheon, but was introduced from
+the South, either from the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, or the Mayan tribes,
+beyond these.[38-[+]] The Cave God of the Aztecs is identical with the
+Votan of the Tzentals of Chiapas, and with the U-q'ux Uleuh of the
+Quiches of Guatemala, and probably with the Cozaana of the Zapotecs.
+
+The rites of all of these were conducted in caverns, and there have been
+preserved several interesting descriptions of the contents of these
+sacred places. That relating to the "dark house of Votan" is given thus
+in the work of the Bishop of Chiapas:
+
+     "Votan is the third hero who is named in the calendar, and some of
+     his descendants still reside in the town of Teopisca, where they
+     are known as Votans. He is sometimes referred to as Lord of the
+     Sacred Drum, and he is said to have seen the great wall (which must
+     have been the Tower of Babel), and to have divided this land among
+     the Indians, and given to each tribe its language.
+
+     "They say further that he once dwelt in Huehuetan, a town in the
+     province of Soconusco. Near there, at the place called Tlazoaloyan,
+     he constructed, by blowing with his breath, a dark house, and put
+     tapirs in the river, and in the house a great treasure, and left
+     all in charge of a noble lady, assisted by guardians (_tlapiane_)
+     to preserve. This treasure consisted of earthenware vases with
+     covers of the same material; a stone, on which were inscribed the
+     figures of the ancient native heroes as found in the calendar;
+     _chalchiuites_, which are green stones; and other superstitious
+     objects.
+
+     "All of these were taken from the cave, and publicly burned in the
+     plaza of Huehuetan on the occasion of our first diocesan visit
+     there in 1691, having been delivered to us by the lady in charge
+     and the guardians. All the Indians have great respect for this
+     Votan, and in some places they call him 'the Heart of the
+     Towns.'"[39-*]
+
+The English priest, Thomas Gage, who was curate of a parish among the
+Pokonchi Indians of Guatemala about 1630, relates his discovery of such
+a cave, in which the idol was preserved, and gives this description of
+it:
+
+     "We found the Idol standing upon a low stool covered with a linen
+     cloth. The substance of it was wood, black shining like jet, as if
+     it had been painted or smoked; the form was of a man's head unto
+     the shoulders, without either Beard or Mustachoes; his look was
+     grim, with a wrinkled forehead, and broad staring eyes.
+
+     "They boasted of this their god, saying that he had plainly told
+     them they should not believe anything I preached of Christ, but
+     follow the old ways of their forefathers."[39-[+]]
+
+The black color here mentioned was a relic of ancient symbolism,
+referring to the night, darkness, and the obscurity of the holy cavern.
+Vetancurt informs us that the priests of the ancient paganism were
+accustomed to rub their faces and bodies with an ointment of fat and
+pine soot when they went to sacrifice in the forests, so that they
+looked as black as negroes[TN-3][39-[++]] In the extract from Nu�ez de
+la Vega already given, _Ical Ahau_, the "Black King," is named as one of
+the divinities of the nagualists.
+
+In some parts the principal idol found in the caves was the mummied or
+exsiccated body of some former distinguished priest or chieftain. One
+such is recorded by Bartholom� de Pisa, which was found among the
+Zapotecs of Coatlan. It bore a name taken from the calendar, that of the
+tenth day, and was alleged to be the preserved cadaver of a celebrated
+ruler.[40-*] Another interesting example is narrated by Villa Se�or y
+Sanchez,[40-[+]] who describes it as an eye-witness. It was discovered
+in a spacious cave located some distance to the west of the city of
+Mexico, in Nahuatl territory, on the side of what was known as "the Sun
+mountain"--_la Mesa de Tonati_. He speaks of it as remarkably well
+preserved, "both the muscles and the bones."
+
+     "It was seated in an armchair which served for a throne, and was
+     clothed in a mantle, which fell from the shoulders to the feet.
+     This was richly adorned with precious stones, which, according to
+     the native custom, were sewed into the texture of the cloth. The
+     figure also wore shoulder straps, collars, bracelets and fastenings
+     of silver. From its forehead rose a crown of beautiful feathers of
+     different colors arranged so that one color should alternate with
+     another. The left hand was resting on the arm of the chair, while
+     in the right was a sharp cutlass with silver mountings. At its feet
+     were several vases of fine stone, as marble and alabaster, in which
+     were offerings of blood and meat, obtained from the sacrifices."
+
+The same writer refers to other examples of these sacred caves which he
+had seen in his journeys. One was near the town of Teremendo, where the
+sides and roof had been artificially dressed into the shape of huge
+arches. A natural altar had been provided in a similar manner, and on
+it, at the time of his visit, were numerous idols in the figures of men
+and animals, and before them fresh offerings of copal and food.
+Elsewhere he refers to many such caverns still in use as places resorted
+to by the natives in _la gran Sierra de Tlascala_.[40-[++]]
+
+These extracts prove the extent of this peculiar worship and the number
+of these subterranean temples in recent generations. The fame of some of
+the greater ones of the past still survives, as the vast grotto of
+Chalcatongo, near Achiutla, which was the sepulchral vault of its
+ancient kings; that of Totomachiapa, a solemn scene of sacrifice for
+the ancient priests; that of Justlahuaca, near Sola (Oaxaca), which was
+a place of worship of the Zapotecs long after the Conquest; and that in
+the Cerro de Monopostiac, near San Francisco del Mar.[41-*]
+
+The intimate meaning of this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The
+Cave God, the Heart of the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil,
+from whose dark recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender
+shoots of the food-plants, as well as the great trees. To the native
+Mexican, the Earth was the provider of food and drink, the common Father
+of All; so that to this day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops
+to the earth, touches it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula:
+_Cuix amo nechitla in toteotzin?_ "Does not our Great God see me?"
+
+
+=25.= The identity of the Tepeyollotl of the Nahuas and the Votan of the
+Tzentals is shown not only in the oneness of meaning of the names, but
+in the fact that both represent the _third_ day in the ritual calendar.
+For this reason I take it, we find the number _three_ so generally a
+sacred number in the symbolism of the nagualists. We have already
+learned in the extract from Nu�ez de la Vega that the neophytes were
+instructed in classes of three. To this day in Soteapan the fasts and
+festivals appointed by the native ministrants are three days in
+duration.[41-[+]] The semi-Christianized inhabitants of the Sierra of
+Nayerit, the Nahuatl-speaking Chotas, continued in the last century to
+venerate three divinities, the Dawn, the Stone and the Serpent;[41-[++]]
+analogous to a similar "trinity" noted by Father Duran among the ancient
+Aztecs.[41-�]
+
+The number _nine_, that is, 3 x 3, recurs so frequently in the
+conjuration formulas of the Mexican sorcerers that de la Serna exclaims:
+"It was the Devil himself who inculcated into them this superstition
+about the number nine."[41-[||]]
+
+The other number sacred to the nagualists was _seven_. I have, in a
+former essay, given various reasons for believing that this was not
+derived from the seven days of the Christian week, but directly from the
+native calendar.[42-*] Nu�ez de la Vega tells us that the patron of the
+seventh day was _Cuculcan_, "the Feathered Serpent," and that many
+nagualists chose him as their special protector. As already seen, in
+Guatemala the child finally accepted its _naual_ when seven years old;
+and among some of the Nahuatl tribes of Mexico the _tonal_ and the
+calendar name was formally assigned on the seventh day after
+birth.[42-[+]] From similar impressions the Cakchiquels of Guatemala
+maintained that when the lightning strikes the earth the "thunder stone"
+sinks into the soil, but rises to the surface after seven
+years.[42-[++]]
+
+The three and the seven were the ruling numbers in the genealogical
+trees of the Pipiles of San Salvador. The "tree" was painted with
+_seven_ branches representing degrees of relationship within which
+marriage was forbidden unless a man had performed some distinguished
+exploit in war, when he could marry beyond the nearest _three_ degrees
+of relationship.[42-�] Another combination of 3 and 7, by
+multiplication, explains the customs among the Mixes of deserting for 21
+days a house in which a death has occurred.[42-[||]]
+
+The indications are that the nagualists derived these numbers from the
+third and seventh days of the calendar "month" of twenty days.
+Tepeololtec, the Cave God, was patron of the third day and also "Lord of
+Animals," the transformation into which was the test of nagualistic
+power.[42-�] Tlaloc, god of the mountains and the rains, to whom the
+seventh day was hallowed, was represented by the nagualistic symbol of a
+snake doubled and twisted on itself, and was generally portrayed in
+connection with the "Feathered Serpent" (Quetzalcoatl, Cuculchan,
+Gukumatz, all names meaning this), represented as carrying his medicine
+bag, _xiquipilli_, and incensory, the apparatus of the native
+illuminati, his robe marked with the sign of the cross to show that he
+was Lord of the Four Winds and of Life.[43-*]
+
+
+=26.= The nagualistic rites were highly symbolic, and the symbols used had
+clearly defined meanings, which enable us to analyze the religious ideas
+underlying this mysterious cult.
+
+The most important symbol was Fire. It was regarded as the primal
+element and the immediate source of life. Father Nicolas de Leon has the
+following suggestive passage in this connection:
+
+     "If any of their old superstitions has remained more deeply rooted
+     than another in the hearts of these Indians, both men and women, it
+     is this about fire and its worship, and about making new fire and
+     preserving it for a year in secret places. We should be on the
+     watch for this, and when in their confessions they speak of what
+     the Fire said and how the Fire wept, expressions which we are apt
+     to pass by as unintelligible, we must lay our hands on them for
+     reprehension. We should also be on the watch for their baptism by
+     Fire, a ceremony called the _yiahuiltoca_,[43-[+]] shortly after
+     the birth of a child when they bestow on it the surnames; nor must
+     the lying-in women and their assistants be permitted to speak of
+     Fire as the father and mother of all things and the author of
+     nature; because it is a common saying with them that Fire is
+     present at the birth and death of every creature."
+
+This curious ceremony derived its name from the _yiahuitli_, a plant not
+unlike the absinthe, the powdered leaves of which, according to Father
+Sahagun, the natives were accustomed to throw into the flames as an
+offering to the fire.[43-[++]] Long after the conquest, and probably to
+this day, the same custom prevails in Mexico, the fumes and odor of the
+burning leaves being considered very salubrious and purifying to the air
+of the sick room[TN-4][43-�]
+
+The word _yiahuiltoca_ means "the throwing of the _yiauhtli_" (from
+_toca_, to throw upon with the hands). Another name for the ceremony,
+according to Father Vetancurt, who wrote a century later than Leon, was
+_apehualco_, which has substantially the same meaning, "a throwing upon"
+or "a throwing away."[44-*] He adds the interesting particulars that it
+was celebrated on the fourth day after the birth of the child, during
+which time it was deemed essential to keep the fire burning in the
+house, but not to permit any of it to be carried out, as that would
+bring bad luck to the child.
+
+Jacinto de la Serna also describes this ceremony, to which he gives the
+name _tlecuixtliliztli_, "which means that they pass the infant over the
+fire;" and elsewhere he adds: "The worship of fire is the greatest
+stumbling-block to these wretched idolaters."[44-[+]]
+
+
+=27.= Other ceremonies connected with fire worship took place in
+connection with the manufacture of the pulque, or _octli_, the fermented
+liquor obtained from the sap of the maguey plant. The writer just
+quoted, de Vetancurt, states that the natives in his day, when they had
+brewed the new pulque and it was ready to be drunk, first built a fire,
+walked in procession around it and threw some of the new liquor into the
+flames, chanting the while an invocation to the god of inebriation,
+Tezcatzoncatl, to descend and be present with them.
+
+This was distinctly a survival of an ancient doctrine which connected
+the God of Fire with the Gods of Drunkenness, as we may gather from the
+following quotation from the history composed by Father Diego Duran:
+
+     "The _octli_ was a favorite offering to the gods, and especially to
+     the God of Fire. Sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases,
+     sometimes it was scattered upon the flames with a brush, at other
+     times it was poured out around the fireplace."[45-*]
+
+
+=28.= The high importance of the fire ceremonies in the secret rituals of
+the modern Mayas is plainly evident from the native Calendars, although
+their signification has eluded the researches of students, even of the
+laborious Pio Perez, who was so intimately acquainted with their
+language and customs. In these Calendars the fire-priest is constantly
+referred to as _ah-toc_, literally "the fire-master." The rites he
+celebrates recur at regular intervals of twenty days (the length of one
+native month) apart. They are four in number. On the first he takes the
+fire; on the second he kindles the fire; on the third he gives it free
+play, and on the fourth he extinguishes it. A period of five days is
+then allowed to elapse, when these ceremonies are recommenced in the
+same order. Whatever their meaning, they are so important that in the
+_Buk Xoc_, or General Computation of the Calendar, preserved in the
+mystic "Books of Chilan Balam," there are special directions for these
+fire-masters to reckon the proper periods for the exercise of their
+strange functions.[45-[+]]
+
+
+=29.= What, now, was the sentiment which underlay this worship of fire? I
+think that the facts quoted, and especially the words of Father de Leon,
+leave no doubt about it. Fire was worshiped as the life-giver, the
+active generator, of animate existence. This idea was by no means
+peculiar to them. It repeatedly recurs in Sanskrit, in Greek and in
+Teutonic mythology, as has been ably pointed out by Dr. Hermann
+Cohen.[45-[++]] The fire-god Agni (_ignis_) is in the Vedas the Maker of
+men; Prometheus steals the fire from heaven that he may with it animate
+the human forms he has moulded of clay; even the connection of the
+pulque with the fire is paralleled in Greek mythos, where Dionysos is
+called _Pyrigenes_, the "fire-born."
+
+Among the ancient Aztecs the god of fire was called the oldest of gods,
+_Huehueteotl_, and also "Our Father," _Tota_, as it was believed from
+him all things were derived.[46-*] Both among them and the Mayas, as I
+have pointed out in a previous work, he was supposed to govern the
+generative proclivities and the sexual relations.[46-[+]] Another of his
+names was _Xiuhtecutli_, which can be translated "God of the Green
+Leaf," that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.[46-[++]]
+
+To transform themselves into a globe or ball of fire was, as we have
+seen (ant�, p. 21), a power claimed by expert nagualists, and to handle
+it with impunity, or to blow it from the mouth, was one of their
+commonest exhibitions. Nothing so much proved their superiority as thus
+to master this potent element.
+
+
+=30.= The same name above referred to, "the Heart of the Town," or "of the
+Hills," was that which at a comparatively late date was applied to an
+idol of green stone preserved with religious care in a cavern in the
+Cerro de Monopostiac, not far from San Francisco del Mar. The spot is
+still believed by the natives to be enchanted ground and protected by
+superhuman powers.[46-�]
+
+These green stones, called _chalchiuitl_, of jadeite, nephrite, green
+quartz, or the like, were accounted of peculiar religious significance
+throughout southern Mexico, and probably to this day many are preserved
+among the indigenous population as amulets and charms. They were often
+carved into images, either in human form or representing a frog, the
+latter apparently the symbol of the waters and of fertility. Bartholom�
+de Alva refers to them in a passage of his Confessionary. The priest
+asks the penitent:
+
+     "Dost thou possess at this very time little idols of green stone,
+     or frogs made of it (_in chalchiuh coconeme, chalchiuh
+     tamazoltin_)?
+
+     "Dost thou put them out in the sun to be warmed? Dost thou keep
+     them wrapped in cotton coverings, with great respect and
+     veneration?
+
+     "Dost thou believe, and hold for very truth, that these green
+     stones give thee food and drink, even as thy ancestors believed,
+     who died in their idolatry? Dost thou believe that they give thee
+     success and prosperity and good things, and all that them hast or
+     wishest? Because we know very well that many of you so believe at
+     this very time."[47-*]
+
+Down to quite a recent date, and perhaps still, these green stones are
+employed in certain ceremonies in vogue among the Indians of Oaxaca in
+order to ensure a plenteous maize harvest. The largest ear of corn in
+the field is selected and wrapped up in a cloth with some of these
+chalchiuite. At the next corn-planting it is taken to the field and
+buried in the soil. This is believed to be a relic of the worship of the
+ancient Zapotec divinity, Quiegolani, who presided over cultivated
+fields.[47-[+]]
+
+They are still in use among the natives as lucky stones or amulets. In
+the Zotzil insurrection of 1869, already referred to, one was found
+suspended to the neck of one of the slain Indians. It came into the
+possession of M. Maler, who has described and figured it.[47-[++]] It
+represents a human head with a curious expression and a singular
+headdress.
+
+From specimens of these amulets preserved in museums it is seen that any
+greenish stone was selected, preferably those yielding a high, vitreous
+polish, as jadeite, turquoise, emerald, chlormelanite or precious
+serpentine. The color gave the sacred character, and this, it seems to
+me, was distinctly meant to be symbolic of water and its effects, the
+green of growing plants, and hence of fertility, abundance and
+prosperity.
+
+
+=31.= There is another symbol, still venerated among the present
+indigenous population, which belongs to Nagualism, and is a survival
+from the ancient cult; this is the Tree. The species held in especial
+respect is the ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, the _ytzamatl_ (knife-leaved
+paper tree) of the Nahuas, the _yax che_ (green, or first tree) of the
+Mayas, the _Bombax ceiba_ of the botanists. It is of great size and
+rapid growth. In Southern Mexico and Central America one is to be seen
+near many of the native villages, and is regarded as in some way the
+protecting genius of the town.
+
+Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mexican cult, and, what is
+curious, the same name was applied to such as to the fire, _Tota_, Our
+Father. They are said to have represented the gods of woods and
+waters.[48-*] In the ancient mythology we often hear of the "tree of
+life," represented to have four branches, each sacred to one of the four
+cardinal points and the divinities associated therewith.
+
+The conventionalized form of this tree in the Mexican figurative
+paintings strongly resembles a cross. Examples of it are numerous and
+unmistakable, as, for instance, the cruciform tree of life rising from a
+head with a protruding tongue, in the Vienna Codex.[48-[+]]
+
+
+=32.= Thus, the sign of the cross, either the form with equal arms known
+as the cross of St. Andrew, which is the oldest Christian form, or the
+Latin cross, with its arms of unequal length, came to be the ideogram
+for "life" in the Mexican hieroglyphic writing; and as such, with more
+or less variants, was employed to signify the _tonalli_ or _nagual_, the
+sign of nativity, the natal day, the personal spirit.[48-[++]] The
+ancient document called the Mappe Quinatzin offers examples, and its
+meaning is explained by various early writers. The peculiar character of
+the Mexican ritual calendar, by which nativities were calculated,
+favored a plan of representing them in the shape of a cross; as we see
+in the singular _Codex Cruciformis_ of the Boturini-Goupil collection.
+
+
+=33.= But the doctrines of Nagualism had a phase even more detestable to
+the missionaries than any of these, an esoteric phase, which brought it
+into relation to the libidinous cults of Babylon and the orgies of the
+"Witches' Sabbaths" of the Dark Ages. Of these occult practices we of
+course have no detailed descriptions, but there are hints and
+half-glances which leave us in no doubt.
+
+When the mysterious metamorphosis of the individual into his or her
+_nagual_ was about to take place, the person must strip to absolute
+nudity;[49-*] and the lascivious fury of bands of naked Nagualists,
+meeting in remote glades by starlight or in the dark recesses of caves,
+dancing before the statues of the ancient gods, were scenes that stirred
+the fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries to its highest pitch. Bishop
+Landa informs us that in Yucatan the dance there known as the _naual_
+was one of the few in which both men and women took part, and that it
+"was not very decent." It was afterwards prohibited by the priests. We
+have excellent authority that such wild rites continued well into the
+present century, close to the leading cities of the State,[49-[+]] and
+it is highly likely that they are not unknown to-day.
+
+
+=34.= Moreover, it is certain that among the Nagualists, one of their most
+revered symbols was the _serpent_; in Chiapas, one of their highest
+orders of the initiated was that of the _chanes_, or serpents. Not only
+is this in Christian symbolism the form and sign of the Prince of Evil
+and the enemy of God, but the missionaries were aware that in the
+astrological symbols of ancient Mexico the serpent represented the
+_phallus_; that it was regarded as the most potent of all the
+signs;[49-[++]] and modern research has shown, contrary to the opinion
+long held, that there was among these nations an extraordinary and
+extensive worship of the reciprocal principle of nature, associated with
+numerous phallic emblems.[49-�]
+
+Huge phalli of stone have been discovered, one, for instance, on the
+Cerro de las Navajas, not far from the city of Mexico, and another in
+the State of Hidalgo.[50-*] Probably they were used in some such
+ceremonies as Oviedo describes among the Nahuas of Nicaragua, where the
+same symbol was represented by conical mounds of earth, around which at
+certain seasons the women danced with libidinous actions. Although as a
+general rule the pottery of ancient Mexico avoids obscenity, Brasseur
+stated that he had seen many specimens of a contrary character from
+certain regions,[50-[+]] and Dr. Berendt has copied several striking
+examples, showing curious _yoni_ symbols, which are now in my
+possession.
+
+We may explain these as in some way connected with the worship of
+Pantecatl, the male divinity who presided over profligate love, and of
+Tlazolteotl, the _Venus Impudica_ of the Aztec pantheon; and it is not
+without significance that the cave-temple of Votan, whose contents were
+destroyed by the Bishop of Chiapas, in 1691 (see above, p. 39), was
+located at _Tlazoaloyan_, both names being derived from a root
+signifying sexual action.[50-[++]] The other name of the divinity,
+called "the Heart of the Hills," is in Quiche, Alom, "he who begets,"
+and the Zapotec Cozaana, another analogue of the same deity, is
+translated by Seler, "the Begetter." Such facts indicate how intimately
+the esoteric doctrines of Nagualism were related to the worship of the
+reproductive powers of nature.
+
+
+=35.= It will readily be understood from what has been said that Nagualism
+was neither a pure descendant of the ancient cults, nor yet a derivative
+from Christian doctrines and European superstitions. It was a strange
+commingling of both, often in grotesque and absurd forms. In fact, the
+pretended Christianity of the native population of Mexico to-day is
+little more than a figment, according to the testimony of the most
+competent observers.[50-�]
+
+The rituals and prayers of the nagualists bear witness to this. It is
+very visible in those I have quoted from Nu�ez de la Vega, and I can
+add an interesting example of it which has not heretofore been
+published. I take it from the MSS. of Father Vicente Hernandez Spina,
+cura of Ixtlavacan, in Guatemala, a remote village of the Quiches. He
+wrote it down in the native tongue about forty years ago, as recited by
+an _ah-kih_, "reader of days," a native master of the genethliac art,
+who had composed it in favor of a client who had asked his intercession.
+
+     _Prayer of an Ah-Kih._
+
+     "O Jesus Christ my God: thou God the Son, with the Father and the
+     Holy Spirit, art my only God. Today, on this day, at this hour, on
+     this day Tihax, I call upon the holy souls which accompany the
+     sun-rising and the sun-setting of the day: with these holy souls I
+     call upon thee, O chief of the genii, thou who dwellest in this
+     mountain of Siba Raxquin; come, ye holy spirits of Juan Vachiac, of
+     Don Domingo Vachiac, of Juan Ixquiaptap, the holy souls of
+     Francisco Excoquieh, of Diego Soom, of Juan Fay, of Alonzo Tzep; I
+     call the holy souls of Diego Tziquin and of Don Pedro Noh: you, O
+     priests, to whom all things are revealed, and thou, chief of the
+     genii, you, lords of the mountains, lords of the plains, thou, Don
+     Purupeto Martin, come, accept this incense, accept to-day this
+     candle.[51-*]
+
+     "Come also, my mother Holy Mary, the Lord of Esquipulas, the Lord
+     of Capetagua, the beloved Mary of Chiantla, with her who dwells at
+     San Lorenzo, and also Mary of Sorrows, Mary Saint Anna, Mary
+     Tibureia, Mary of Carmen, with Saint Michael the Archangel, the
+     captain St. James, St. Christoval, St. Sebastian, St. Nicolas, St.
+     Bonaventura, St. Bernardin, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St.
+     Bartholomew, and thou my beloved mother St. Catherine, thou beloved
+     Mary of the Conception, Mary of the Rosary, thou lord and king
+     Pascual, be here present.
+
+     "And thou, Frost, and thou, excellent Wind, thou, God of the plain,
+     thou, God of Quiac-Basulup, thou, God of Retal-Uleu, thou, lord of
+     San Gregorio, thou, lord of Chii-Masa. [These are mountains and
+     localities, and in the original there follow the names of more than
+     a hundred others. The prayer concludes as follows:]
+
+     "... I who appoint myself godfather and godmother, I who ask, I the
+     witness and brother of this man who asks, of this man who makes
+     himself, your son, O holy souls, I ask, do not let any evil happen
+     unto him, nor let him be unhappy for any cause.
+
+     "I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light
+     this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my
+     protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with
+     facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall
+     ill of fever; I ask that he shall not become paralytic; that he
+     may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a
+     serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do
+     not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck
+     by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not
+     killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by
+     an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O
+     thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal
+     Father.
+
+     "And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you
+     that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his
+     enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order
+     it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices
+     of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O
+     holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the
+     Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus."
+
+Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and
+symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of
+Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the
+peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I
+shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of "calling
+back the _tonal_," referred to on a previous page. I append an
+explanation of its obscure metaphors.
+
+
+     _Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal._
+
+     "Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious
+     stones![1] What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?[2] Is the
+     obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow
+     enchantment and the white enchantment.[3]
+
+     "I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who
+     formed thee and gave thee life.[4] Thou, mother mine of the starry
+     skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou
+     turned against this one?[5]
+
+     "Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth
+     and depth of the waters.[6] I, master of spells, speak to
+     thee[TN-5] Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems,
+     come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of
+     light,[7] that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys
+     and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit
+     of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.
+
+     "Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over
+     mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him
+     whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine
+     times smitten, see that thou fail me not.[8] Come hither, mother
+     mine, whose robe is of precious gems; one water, two waters; one
+     rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two
+     alligators.[9]
+
+     "Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise
+     of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me.
+     What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and
+     goddesses?[10] I have come to seek and call back the _tonal_ of
+     this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it
+     nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine
+     unions.[11] Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to
+     return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head."
+
+
+     _Explanations._
+
+     1. The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The
+     "skirt of precious stones" refers to the green of the precious
+     green stones, a color sacred to water.
+
+     2. The question is addressed to the _tonal_.
+
+     3. The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.
+
+     4. That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick
+     man.
+
+     5. This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.
+
+     6. The threat is addressed to the _tonal_, to frighten it into
+     returning.
+
+     7. The "shining spirit" is the Fire-god.
+
+     8. The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner
+     indicated.
+
+     9. These are names of days in the native calendar which are
+     invoked.
+
+     10. The priest speaks in the person of his god.
+
+     11. Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and
+     nine under worlds.
+
+From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of
+symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be
+sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around
+their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of
+coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.
+
+
+     _Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists._
+
+     _Blood._--"The red woman with snakes on her gown" (referring to the
+     veins).
+
+     _Copal Gum._--"The white woman" (from the whitish color of the
+     fresh gum).
+
+     _Cords_ (for carrying burdens).--"The snake that does woman's work"
+     (because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself
+     is carried).
+
+     _Drunkenness._--"My resting time," or "when I am getting my
+     breath."
+
+     _The Earth._--"The mirror that smokes" (because of the mists that
+     rise from it); "the rabbit with its mouth upward" (the rabbit, in
+     opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward,
+     because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled
+     from the mouth); "the flower which contains everything" (as all
+     fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed
+     from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); "the
+     flower which bites the mouths" (a flower, for the reason given; it
+     eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and
+     are swallowed by it).
+
+     _Fingers._--"The five fates," or "the five works," or "the five
+     fields" (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own
+     destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the
+     god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words
+     mean "hand").
+
+     _Fire._--"Our Father of the Four Reeds" (because the ceremony of
+     making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); "the
+     shining rose;" "the yellow flyer;" "the red-haired one;" "the
+     yellow spirit."
+
+     _A Knife of Copper._--"The yellow Chichimec" (because the
+     Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).
+
+     _The Maguey Plant._--"My sister, the eight in a row" (because it
+     was planted in this manner).
+
+     _A Road._--"That which is divided in two, and yet has neither
+     beginning, middle nor end" (because it always lies in two
+     directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and
+     thus never end).
+
+     _Sickness._--"The red woman;" "the breath of the flame;" "our
+     mother the comet" (all referring to the fever); "the Chichimec"
+     (because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); "the
+     spider" (because of its venomous nature).
+
+     _Smoke._--"The old wife" (_i. e._, of the fire).
+
+     _The Sun._--"Our holy and pockified Uncle" (referring to the myth
+     of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a
+     fire rose as the sun).
+
+     _Tobacco._--"The nine (or seven) times beaten" (because for sacred
+     purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); "the enchanted
+     gray one" (from its color and use in conjuring).
+
+     _Water._--"The Green Woman" (from the greenness which follows
+     moisture); "our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones" (from the
+     green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade,
+     etc.).
+
+
+=36.= It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the
+Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy
+Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is,
+that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who
+at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the
+Indies, "to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their
+stupidity and incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy
+Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy,
+sorcery, incantations, superstitions," etc.
+
+Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption.
+In the imposing _auto de f�_ celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659,
+a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian
+mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office
+by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the
+precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood
+brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[55-*]
+Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an
+_auto de f�_ held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which
+eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess
+Pinopiaa.[55-[+]] Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied
+extensively the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in
+none of the trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism,
+although many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting
+Indian sorcerers.
+
+
+=37.= It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism
+extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It
+becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock
+this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is
+reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their
+origin.
+
+The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most
+writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while
+an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a
+radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects,
+and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.[55-[++]] Perhaps both these
+positions are erroneous, and we must look elsewhere for the true
+etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become
+domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think
+they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable,
+civilization than either of these nations could claim.
+
+To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from
+the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series,
+three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though
+geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and
+the Nahuatl.
+
+
+     _From the Maya, of Yucatan._
+
+     _Naual_, or _nautal_, a native dance, forbidden by the
+       missionaries.
+
+     _Naatil_, talent, skill, ability.
+
+     _Naat_, intelligence, wisdom.
+
+     _Naatah_, to understand, to divine.
+
+     _Nanaol_, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with
+       oneself, to enter into oneself.
+
+     _Noh_, great, skillful; as _noh ahceh_, a skillful hunter.
+
+
+     _From Maya Dialects._
+
+     QUICHE-CAKCHIQUEL.
+
+     _Naual_, a witch or sorcerer.
+
+     _Naualin_, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.
+
+     _Qui naualin_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.
+
+     _Na_, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one's heart.
+
+     _Nao_, to know, to be alert or expert in something.
+
+     _Naol_, a skillful person, a rhetorician.
+
+     _Naotizan_, to make another intelligent or astute.
+
+     _Natal_, the memory.
+
+     _Natub_, the soul or shadow of a man.
+
+     _Noh_, the god of reason ("Genius der Vernunft," Scherzer).
+
+     _Noh_, to fecundate, to impregnate (_Popol Vuh_).
+
+
+     TZENTAL.
+
+     _X-qna_, to know.
+
+     _X-qnaulai_, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).
+
+     _Naom_, wise, astute (_naom vinic_, hombre sabio).
+
+     _Naoghi_, art, science.
+
+     _Naoghibal_, memory.
+
+     _Ghnaoghel_, a wise man.
+
+     _Alaghom naom_, the Goddess of Wisdom.
+
+
+     _From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca_.
+
+     _Nana_, _gana_, _gona_, to know.
+
+     _Nona_, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.
+
+     _Nana ticha_, or _nona lii_, a wise man.
+
+     _Guela nana_, or _guela nona_, wisdom, knowledge.
+
+     _Hue gona_, or _ro gona_, a teacher, a master.
+
+     _Na lii_, truth; _ni na lii_, that which is true.
+
+     _Naci�a_, or _naciina_, skill, dexterity.
+
+     _Hui naa_, a medicine man, a "nagualist."
+
+     _Nahaa_, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.
+
+     _Nayaa_, or _nayapi_, to speak easily or fluently.
+
+     _Rigoo gona_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.
+
+     _Ni nana_, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.
+
+     _Nayanii_, the superior reason of man.
+
+     _Nayaa_,  } superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).
+     _Naguii_, }
+
+
+     _From the Nahuatl, of Mexico_.
+
+     _Naua_, to dance, holding each other by the hands.
+
+     _Naualli_, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.
+
+     _Nauallotl_, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.
+
+     _Nauatl_, or _nahuatl_, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior;
+       applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the
+       name of the tongue.
+
+     _Nauati_, to speak clearly and distinctly.
+
+     _Nauatlato_, an interpreter.
+
+
+=38.= I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words,
+all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and
+writing when they still retained their original purity, without
+acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and
+further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this
+radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize
+the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya
+linguistic stocks.
+
+The root _na_, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we
+trace all of them. _Nahual_ means knowledge, especially mystic
+knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of
+nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and
+magic.[57-*]
+
+It is very significant that neither the radical _na_ nor any of its
+derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which
+was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock.
+The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.
+
+Nor in the Nahuatl language--although its very name is derived from
+it[58-*]--does the radical _na_ appear in its simplicity and true
+significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.
+
+It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican _naualli_, a sorcerer,
+from the verb _nahualtia_, to mask or disguise oneself, "because a
+_naualli_ is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some
+lower animal, which is his _nagual_;"[58-[+]] but it is altogether
+likely that _nahualtia_ derived its meaning from the custom of the
+medicine men to wear masks during their ceremonies.
+
+Therefore, if the term _nagual_, and many of its associates and
+derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a
+necessary corrollary[TN-6] of this conclusion is, that along with these
+terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they
+allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such
+superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.
+
+Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them,
+and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were
+employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the
+name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to
+Nicaragua and beyond.
+
+The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient
+significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico _nagual_
+is defined as "a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them
+behave,"[58-[++]] while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl
+population has left so many traces of its presence in the language of
+to-day, the word _nagual_ no longer means an actor in the black art, or
+a knowledge of it, but his or her armamentarium, or the box, jar or
+case in which are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and
+charms, which constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the
+necromancer.[59-*]
+
+Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the
+upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term
+_naguate_ or _nagutlat_ is said to be applied to any one "who is
+entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;"[59-[+]] but in all
+probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult
+knowledge.
+
+
+=39.= All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are
+aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change
+themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than
+history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of
+ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the
+peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the
+were-wolf of Germany, the _loup-garou_ of France and the _lupo mannaro_
+of Italy. Dr. Richard Andr�e well says in his interesting study of the
+subject: "He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition
+must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one
+universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but
+of the species and its psychology at large."[59-[++]]
+
+Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person
+with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between
+the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany.
+As in Mexico the _nagual_ was assigned to the infant by a form of
+baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the
+godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant
+will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the
+name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been
+changed will restore him to human shape.[59-�]
+
+
+=40.= I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not
+especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in general, and
+can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient
+Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that
+each individual has a particular spirit, or _daim[=o]n_, in whom is
+enshrined his or her moral personality. To this _daim[=o]n_ he should
+address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior
+promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent
+monitor.[60-*]
+
+Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the _daim[=o]n_ of
+the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has
+chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did
+not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian
+priest selecting the _nagual_ of the child a hideous and diabolical
+caricature of the holy rites.
+
+But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded
+so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal
+sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign
+which represents the natal day, the _tonal_, by which the individual
+demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have
+seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole
+business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic
+powers of its professors.
+
+
+=41.= How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to
+take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The
+evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful
+jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations.
+They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not
+surpass them.
+
+Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators?
+Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which
+the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel
+and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken
+glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the
+sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have
+to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of
+thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoyance, of spiritual
+rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the
+nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of
+nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are
+recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and
+Rome.[61-*] So long as many intelligent and sensible people among
+ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those
+of a greater antiquity.
+
+
+=42.= The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it
+was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have
+asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism,
+more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained;
+but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization,
+extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and
+varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers
+and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion--hatred
+of the whites--and by one unalterable purpose--that of their
+destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and
+religion which they had introduced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4-*] These words occur a number of times in the English translation,
+published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera's _Teatro Critico
+Americano_. The form _nagual_ instead of _nahual_, or _naual_, or
+_nawal_ has been generally adopted and should be preferred.
+
+[4-[+]] For instance, in "The Names of the Gods in the Kiche Myths," pp.
+21, 22, in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_, 1881;
+_Annals of the Cakchiquels_, Introduction, p. 46; _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 170, etc.
+
+[5-*] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4.
+
+[5-[+]] More especially it is the territory of the Chorti dialect,
+spoken to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city of Copan,
+Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of this
+celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, _Zur Ethnographie der
+Republik Guatemala_, pp. 106-9.
+
+[6-*] Bernardino de Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. x, cap.
+9.
+
+[6-[+]] Derived from _teciuhtlaza_, to conjure against hail, itself from
+_teciuh_, hail. Alonso de Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_, sub voce.
+
+[6-[++]] Bautista, _Advertencias para los Confesores_, fol. 112 (Mexico,
+1600).
+
+[6-�] Nicolas de Leon, _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 111 (Mexico, 1611).
+
+[7-*] Paso y Troncoso, in _Anales del Museo Nacion�l[TN-7] de Mexico_,
+Tom. iii, p. 180.
+
+[7-[+]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. x, cap. 29, and Lib.
+xi, cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious properties of
+this plant: "Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo fides sit
+vulgatissim� inter eos rei habend�), devorantes illam quodlibet
+prs�sagire pr�dicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint impetum in
+eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis supellectilem, aut
+aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum alia, quibus
+Chichimec� hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis." Franciscus Hernandus,
+_Historia Plantarum Nov� Hispani�_, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed., Madrid, 1790).
+
+[7-[++]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360 (Mexico,
+1856).
+
+[8-*] _Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana_, fol. 8, verso
+(Mexico, 1634).
+
+[8-[+]] Vetancurt, _Teatro Mexicano_, Trat. iii, cap. 9.
+
+[8-[++]] Hernandez, _Historia Plantarum Nov� Hispani�_, Tom. iii, p. 32.
+
+[9-*] Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Min stros[TN-8] de Indios para
+el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas_, p. 163. This
+interesting work was composed about the middle of the seventeenth
+century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was first printed
+at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon, under the
+editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.
+
+[9-[+]] MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and _Informe_ of Father Baeza in
+_Registro Yucateco_, Tom. i.
+
+[10-*] Acosta, _De la Historia Moral de Indias_, Lib. v, cap. 26.
+
+[10-[+]] Of the _thiuimeezque_ Hernandez writes: "Aiunt radicis cortice
+unius unci� pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos observare
+phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum figuras,
+detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit." _Hist.
+Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. iii, p. 272. The _chacuaco_ and its effects
+are described by Father Venegas in his _History of California_, etc.
+
+[10-[++]] "In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in Tlahuipuchtin."
+Paredes, _Promptuario Manual Mexicano_, p. 128 (Mexico, 1757). The
+_tlahuipuchtin_, "those who work with smoke," were probably diviners who
+foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising in the air.
+This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they were called
+_Uirapircos_ (Balboa, _Hist. du Perou_, p. 28-30).
+
+[10-�] Von Gagern, _Charakteristik der Indianischer Bev�lkerung
+Mexikos_, s. 125.
+
+[11-*] _Historia Antigua de Mexico_, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco Pimentel,
+in his thoughtful work, _Memoria sobre las Causas que han originado la
+Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_ (Mexico, 1864),
+recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith in this
+nagualism. "Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la antig�edad,
+siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los _nahuales_," etc., p. 200, and comp.
+p. 145.
+
+[11-[+]] On these terms consult the extensive _Dictionnaire de la Langue
+Nahuatl_, by R�mi Simeon,[TN-9] published at Paris, 1887. It is not
+impossible that _tona_ is itself a compound root, including the
+monosyllabic radical _na_, which is at the basis of _nagual_.
+
+[11-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. iv, _passim_, and
+Lib. x, cap. 9.
+
+[12-*] See Ch. de Labarthe, _R�vue Am�ricaine_, Serie ii, Tom. ii, pp.
+222-225. His translation of _naualteteuctin_ by "Seigneurs du g�nie"
+must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for assigning this
+meaning to _naualli_.
+
+[13-*] _Anales de Cuauhtitlan_, p. 31. The translator renders it "palo
+brujo."
+
+[13-[+]] _Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde_, pp. 146-148, figured
+on p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, _Decades American�_, pp.
+74-81.
+
+[13-[++]] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_
+(Philadelphia, 1893).
+
+[13-�] Eduard M�hlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. i, s. 255.
+
+[14-*] The word is derived from _tlatoa_, to speak for another, and its
+usual translation was "chief," as the head man spoke for, and in the
+name of the gens or tribe.
+
+[14-[+]] The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the Appendix
+to the _Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia_ (Mexico, 1856).
+Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the Mixes cling to
+their ancient beliefs. Se�or Moro says they continue to be "notorious
+idolaters," and their actual religion to be "an absurd jumble of their
+old superstitions with Christian doctrines" (in Orozco y Berra,
+_Geografia de las Lenguas de exico[TN-10]_, p. 176).
+
+[15-*] For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his _Estudios Historicos del
+Estado Oaxaque�o_ (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the _nahualt_ was a
+ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the infant was bled
+from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a certain day, and
+a guardian angel or _tona_. These words are pure Nahuatl, and Carriedo,
+who does not give his authority, probably had none which referred these
+rites to the Zapotecs.
+
+[15-[+]] Juan de Cordova, _Arte en Lengua Zapoteca_, pp. 16, 202, 203,
+213, 216.
+
+[16-*] Quoted in Carriedo, ubi supr�, p. 17.
+
+[16-[+]] _Hist. de las Indias Oc._, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12.
+
+[17-*] So I understand the phrase, "figuras pintadas con zifras
+enigmaticas"[TN-11]
+
+[17-[+]] _Popoluca_ was a term applied to various languages. I suspect
+the one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me, entitled
+"Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography," in the
+_Compte Rendu_ of the Eighth Session of the Congress of Americanists, p.
+566, _seq._
+
+[17-[++]] _Constit. Diocesan_, p. 19.
+
+[18-*] _Constitut. Diocesan_, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.
+
+[19-*] Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the Gucumatz of
+the Quiches, both of which names mean "Feathered Serpent." Mixcohuatl,
+the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the Thunder-storm.
+
+[19-[+]] In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give this exact
+form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father Ximenes
+has _quikeho_, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement; the
+prefix _zme_ is the Tzental word for "mother."
+
+[20-*] Father Lara, in his _Vocabulario Tzendal MS._ (in my possession),
+gives for medical (medico), _ghpoxil_, for medicine (medicinal cosa),
+_pox_, _xpoxtacoghbil_; for physician (medico), _ghpoxta vinic_ (the
+form _vanegh_, person, is also correct). The Tzendal _pox_ (pronounced
+_p[=o]sh_) is another form of the Quiche-Cakchiquel _p[=u]z_, a word
+which Father Ximenes, in his _Vocabulario Cakchiquel_ MS (in my
+possession), gives in the compound _puz naual_, with the meaning,
+enchanter, wizard. Both these, I take it, are derived from the Maya
+_puz_, which means to blow the dust, etc., off of something (soplar el
+polvo de la ropa � otra cosa. _Dicc. de la Lengua Maya del Convento de
+Motul_, MS. The dictionary edited by Pio Perez does not give this
+meaning). The act of blowing was the essential feature in the treatment
+of these medicine men. It symbolized the transfer and exercise of
+spiritual power. When Votan built his underground shrine he did it _�
+soplos_, by blowing (Nu�ez de la Vega, _Constitut. Diocesan_, p. 10).
+The natives did not regard the comet's tail as behind it but in front of
+it, blown from its mouth. The Nahuatl word in the text, _tzihuizin_, is
+the Pipil form of _xihuitzin_, the reverential of _xihuitl_, which means
+a leaf, a season, a year, or a comet. Apparently it refers to the
+Nahuatl divinity _Xiuht� cutli_, described by Sahagun, _Historia de
+Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. i, cap. 13, as god of fire, etc.
+
+[21-*] _Hicalahau_, for _ical ahau_, Black King, one of the Tzental
+divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.
+
+[21-[+]] "M�stros de los pueblos," _Constitut. Diocesan_, i, p. 106.
+
+[23-*] _Historia de Guatemala, �, Recordacion Florida_, Tom. ii, p. 44,
+_seq._
+
+[24-*] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, p. 388, _seq._ (4th
+Ed.).
+
+[25-*] _Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacr� des Quich�s_, p. 315 (Ed. Brasseur,
+Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of
+Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, "Feathered
+Serpent."
+
+[25-[+]] Baeza's article is printed in the _Registro Yucateco_, Vol. i,
+p. 165, _seq._
+
+[26-*] "Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erh�lt der heidnische
+G�tzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der
+katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltb�rger durch den Aj-quig
+das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt,
+Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein
+Lieblingsg�tze angerufen, und noche viele andere abergla�bische
+Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur
+christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach
+seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gew�hnlich auch
+als sein Schutzgeist (_nagual_) f�rs ganze Leben." Dr. Karl Scherzer,
+_Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan_, p. 11, Wien, 1856.
+
+[26-[+]] The word _zahori_, of Arabic origin, is thus explained in the
+Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): "So they call
+in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of the earth,
+through stone walls, or into a man's body." Dr. Stoll says the Guatemala
+Indians speak of their diviners, the _Ah Kih_, as _zahorin_.
+_Guatemala_, s. 229.
+
+[26-[++]] Emetorio Pineda, _Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco_, p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[27-*] Madier de Montjau, "Manuscrits Figuratifs de l' Ancien Mexique,"
+in _Archives de la Soci�t� Americaine[TN-12] de France_, 1875, p. 245.
+
+[27-[+]] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[28-*] De la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162. The
+mushroom referred to was the _quauhnanacatl_, probably the same as the
+_teyhuinti_ of Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. ii, p. 358,
+who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind,
+inciting to laughter and intoxication.
+
+[28-[+]] Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as late as
+the middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, _Tres Siglos de
+Mexico_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.
+
+[28-[++]] Brasseur, _Hist. des Nations Civilis�es de Mexique_, Tom. iv,
+p. 822.
+
+[29-*] _Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba Figueroa,
+corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque_, quoted by Brasseur.
+
+[29-[+]] Jacinto de la Serna says: "Los m�stros de estas ceremonias son
+todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas sucede." _Manual
+de Ministros_, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the nagualists of
+Chiapas, Bishop Nu�ez de la Vega writes: "Concuerdan los mas modernos
+con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico." _Constituciones
+Diocesanas_, p. 134.
+
+[29-[++]] He observes that there were "familias de los tales sabios en
+las quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo los hijos �
+los padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de Nagualismo."
+_Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, MS., p. 7. Ordo�ez advances various
+erudite reasons for believing that Nagualism is a religious belief whose
+theory and rites were brought from Carthage by Punic navigators in
+ancient times.
+
+[29-�] Maria de Mox�, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 270, (Genova, n. d.).
+
+[30-*] "_Xochimilca_, que asi llamavan � los mui sabios encantadores."
+Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[30-[+]] In Nahuatl, _tlapiani_, a guardian or watchman. The Zapotec
+priesthood was divided into the _huijatoos_, "greater guardians," and
+their inferiors, the _copavitoos_, "guardians of the gods." Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historic�s_,[TN-13] p. 93.
+
+[30-[++]] See Eligio Ancona. _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. iv, cap. 1
+(M�rida, 1880).
+
+[31-*] The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples indicates
+that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in Yucatan as
+in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named, but
+presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address of
+Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by the
+Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his _Relacion hecho al Cabildo Eclesiastico
+por el preposito de la Compa�ia de Jesus, acerca de la muerte de Jacinto
+Can-Ek y socios_, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with other documents
+relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the _Diccionario Universal_,
+edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the prophecies of Chilan
+Balam, see my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 255-273 (Philadelphia,
+1890).
+
+[31-[+]] Eligio Ancona, _Hist. de Yucatan_, Tom. ii, p. 452.
+
+[32-*] See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, _Informe contra Idolum Cultores en
+Yucathan_ (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. ii,
+pp. 128, 129.
+
+[32-[+]] The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres Castillo,
+_Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex y Villa
+Alta_ (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante
+el Gobierno Espa�ol_, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by Christoval Manso
+de Contreras, _Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que sucedio en esta
+Provincia de Tehuantepec_, etc. (printed at Mexico, 1661), which I know
+only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H. Bancroft, in his very
+meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists that it took place in
+1660. _History of Mexico_, Vol. iii, p. 164.
+
+[32-[++]] See Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations Civilis�es de
+la Mexique_, Tom. iv, 824.
+
+[32-�] Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the use and
+significance of the _piochtli_ we have some information in Vetancurt,
+_Teatro Mexicano_, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the
+native priesthood.
+
+[33-*] _Adventures on the Musquito Shore_, by S. A. Ward, pseudonym of
+Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).
+
+[33-[+]] Nu�ez de la Vega, _Constituciones Diocesanas_, p. 10, and comp.
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique_, Tom. i, p. 74.
+
+[33-[++]] Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. ii, Lib.
+iii, cap. 5.
+
+[34-*] Acosta, _Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias_, Lib. vii, cap. 5.
+
+[34-[+]] The story is given in Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias_, Dec. iv,
+Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the account as
+"Flying Tigress." I cannot assign it this sense in any dialect.
+
+[34-[++]] Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_. p. 138. Sahagun
+identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of mankind and
+goddess of child-birth (_Hist. de Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. i, cap. 6, Lib.
+vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by Torquemada,
+_Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The _tzitzime_ were mysterious
+elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined finally to
+destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8). The word
+means "flying haired" (Serna).
+
+[34-�] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 62.
+
+[35-*] Fr. Tomas Coto, _Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., s. v.
+_Sacrificar_; in the Library of the American Philosophical Society at
+Philadelphia.
+
+[35-[+]] "Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y _naguales_" are
+the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his _Recordacion Florida_,
+Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it reads as if this witch
+and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes is clear in his
+statement, and had other documents at hand.
+
+[35-[++]] Teobert Maler, "M�moire sur l'Etat de Chiapas," in the _R�vue
+d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also gives some
+valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de Alicia, in
+1873.
+
+[36-*] The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this insurrection
+is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly prejudiced Spanish
+sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the motives which
+prompted the native actors. See his _History of the Pacific States_, Vol
+ii, p. 696 _sqq._ Ordo�ez y Aguiar, who lived on the spot within a
+generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria Candelaria (whose true
+name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the rebellion, "quien
+ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que principalmente trataban
+las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que no quedase rastro alguno
+de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo." His account is in his
+unpublished work, _Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, written at
+Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their rites, says of them:
+"Apostando de la f�, profanando los vasos sagrados, y ofreciendo
+sacrilegos cultos � una indizuela." _Historia de la Ciudad de
+Guatemala_, Tom. i, p. 17.
+
+[36-[+]] Bancroft, ubi supr�, p. 705, note. One was hanged, whom Garcia
+Pelaez calls "una india bruja." _Memorias para la Historia de
+Guatemala_, Tom. ii, p. 153.
+
+[36-[++]] Squier, ubi supr�, passim.
+
+[37-*] _Voyage � l' Isthmus de Tehuantepec_, p. 164. He adds a number of
+particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.
+
+[38-*] "Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma." See
+_Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).
+
+[38-[+]] "Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und weiter
+s�dw�rts seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen Olymp fremd
+ist, dar�ber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten." See Dr. Seler's able
+discussion of the subject in the _Compte-Rendu_ of the Seventh
+International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, _seq._ The adoption of
+subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait. "Notandose
+principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan los mas de
+ellos cubiertos, � en subterraneos espaciosos y l�bregos." Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historicos_, Tom. i, p. 26.
+
+[39-*] _Constituciones Diocesanas_, pp. 9, 10.
+
+[39-[+]] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, pp. 389, 393.
+
+[39-[++]] _Teatro Mexicano_, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr. Bandelier has
+called attention to the naming of one of the principal chiefs among the
+Aztecs, _Tlilancalqui_, "Man of the Dark House," and thinks it related
+to the Votan myth. _Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, p.
+689.
+
+[40-*] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iii, Lib.
+iii, cap. 14.
+
+[40-[+]] Villa Se�or, _Teatro Americano_, Lib. v, cap. 38 (Mexico,
+1747). Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human sacrifices
+present, but of this I can find no evidence in the earlier reports.
+Comp. Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno
+Espa�al[TN-14]_, Tom. ii, p. 128.
+
+[40-[++]] _Teatro Americano_, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap. 13.
+
+[41-*] See M�hlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266; Brasseur, _Hist.
+des Nations Civ. de la Mexique_, Vol. iv, p. 821; Herrera, _Historia de
+las Indias_, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.
+
+[41-[+]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v.
+
+[41-[++]] Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father Stone;
+Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. _Dicc. Univ._, App., Tom. iii, p.
+11.
+
+[41-�] Duran, _Historia de los Indios_, Tom. ii, p. 140. They were Tota,
+Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably pulque); and
+Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom this epithet
+was often applied).
+
+[41-[||]] "Fue el Demonio que les di� la superstici�n del numero nueve."
+_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197.
+
+[42-*] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_, p. 12.
+
+[42-[+]] Motolinia, _Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias de los
+Indios de la Nueva Espa�a_, p. 340 (in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos
+para la Historia de Espa�a_).
+
+[42-[++]] Thomas Coto, _Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., sub
+voce, _Rayo_.
+
+[42-�] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias_, Dec. IV, Lib. viii, cap. 10.
+
+[42-[||]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, ubi supr�.
+
+[42-�] [TN-15]'Se�or de los Animales." _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, Parte
+ii, Lam. iv.
+
+[43-*] See Dr. Seler's minute description in the _Compte Rendu_ of the
+Eighth Session of the Congr�s International des Am�ricanistes, pp. 588,
+589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna (_Manual de
+Ministros_, p. 212) the priest says: "Yo soy el sacerdote, el dios
+_Quetzalcoatl_, que se bajar� al infierno, y subir� � lo superior, y
+hasta los nueve infiernos." This writer, who was very competent in the
+Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by "culebra con cresta"
+(_id._, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct rendering.
+
+[43-[+]] His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, "El baptismo de
+fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman _yahuiltoca_,
+quando nacen." This may be translated, "The baptism of fire in which
+they confer the names which they call _yahuiltoca_." The obscurity is in
+the Nahuatl, as the word _toca_ may be a plural of _tocaitl_, name, as
+well as the verb _toca_, to throw upon. The passage is from the _Camino
+del Cielo_, fol. 100, verso.
+
+[43-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. iv, cap. 25.
+
+[43-�] It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early
+physicians, Francisco Ximenes, _Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza_, p. 144;
+Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Nov� Hispani�_, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke,
+in his recent article on "The Medicine Men of the Apaches" (in _Ninth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, p. 521), suggests that the
+_yiahuitli_ of the Aztecs is the same as the "hoddentin," the pollen of
+a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw
+into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the
+_yiahuitli_ as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and
+hill-sides--no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the
+anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the
+"yellow spirit" (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire
+(_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197).
+
+[44-*] From the verb _apeua_. Vetancurt's description is in his _Teatro
+Mexicano_, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).
+
+[44-[+]] His frequent references to it show this. See his _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc. The word
+_tlecuixtliliztli_ is compounded of _tlecuilli_, the hearth or
+fireplace, and _ixtliluia_, to darken with smoke.
+
+[45-*] Duran, _Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espa�a_, Tom. ii, p.
+240. Sahagun adds that the _octli_ was poured on the hearth at four
+separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. _Historia de Nueva
+Espa�a_, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony as
+current in his day, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 35. The invocation
+ran:--"Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart
+before the God."
+
+[45-[+]] A copy of these strange "Books of Chilan Balam" is in my
+possession. I have described them in my _Essays of an Americanist_
+(Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[45-[++]] See his remarks on "Apperception der Menschenzeugung als
+Feuerbereitung," in the _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_, Bd. vi, s.
+113, _seq._
+
+[46-*] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espa�a_, Lib. i, cap. 13. The Nahuatl
+text is more definite than the Spanish translation.
+
+[46-[+]] See my _Myths of the New World_, p. 154, _seq._
+
+[46-[++]] In the Nahuatl language the word _xihuitl_ (_xiuitl_) has four
+meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.
+
+[46-�] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaque�o_, Tom.
+i, p. 82, etc.
+
+[47-*] Alva, _Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana_, fol. 9.
+
+[47-[+]] Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_, pp. 6, 7.
+
+[47-[++]] In the _Revue[TN-16] d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, p. 313. Some
+very fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier, in his
+"Observations on the Chalchihuitl," in the _Annals of the Lyceum of
+Natural History_, Vol. i (New York, 1869).
+
+[48-*] Diego Duran, _Historia de los Indios de Nueva Espa�a_, Tom. ii,
+p. 140.
+
+[48-[+]] In Kingsborough, _Antiquities of Mexico_, Vol. ii, Pl. 180. On
+the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of W. H.
+Holmes, in the _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp.
+270, 271.
+
+[48-[++]] "Au Mexique, le cadre crois�, la croix en sautoir, comme celle
+de St. Andr�, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe de
+nativit�, _tonalli_, la f�te, le jour natal." M. Aubin, in Boban,
+_Catalogue Raisonn�e de la Collection Goupil_, Tom. i, p. 227. Both
+Gomara and Herrera may be quoted to this effect.
+
+[49-*] See a curious story from native sources in my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented by
+casting salt upon the person.
+
+[49-[+]] Benito Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 257; Landa, _Cosas
+de Yucatan_, p. 193.
+
+[49-[++]] Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex Vaticanus,
+published in Kingsborough's great work, assigns the sign, _cohuatl_, the
+serpent, to "il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti gli altri." It
+is distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De la Serna
+states that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a wand, around
+which was fastened a living serpent. _Manual de Ministros_, p. 37.
+
+[49-�] There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of the Codex
+Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex Mexicanus of
+the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said as far back
+as 1841--"le culte du lingam on du phallus n'etait pas etranger aux
+Mexicains, ce qu' etablissent plusieurs documents peu connus et des
+sculptures d�couvertes depuis un petit nombre d'ann�es." His letter is
+in Boban, _Catalogue Raisonn� la Collection Goupil_, Tom. ii, p. 207. On
+the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with the phallus in
+classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele's article, "Der
+Schlangen-Cultus," in the _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_, Band
+xvii, p. 285, _seq._
+
+[50-*] Cf. G. Tarayre, _Exploration Mineralogique des Regions
+Mexicaines_, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and _Bulletin de la Soci�t�
+d'Anthropologie de Paris_, Juin, 1893.
+
+[50-[+]] _Sources de l' Histoire Primitive de Mexique_, p. 81.
+
+[50-[++]] From _zo_, to join together. Compare my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[50-�] "El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra." F. Pimentel, _La
+Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_, p. 197.
+
+[51-*] The "holy souls" who are here appealed to by name are those of
+deceased _ah-kih_, or priests of the native cult.
+
+[55-*] See the _Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, a�o de 1659_
+(Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).
+
+[55-[+]] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado
+Oaxaqueno[TN-17]_, Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of
+Indians in the province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried
+enchanted ashes beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, _Manual de
+Ministros_, p. 52.)
+
+[55-[++]] "Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form _naoal_ ein echtes
+Quich�-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme _na�_, wissen,
+erkennen. _Naoal_ ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in diesem Falle
+das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem mexikanischen
+_nahualli_ (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung bringen
+m�chte, nichts zu schaffen." _Guatemala_, s. 238.
+
+[57-*] The Abb� Brasseur observes: "Le mot _nahual_, qui vet dire toute
+science, ou science de tout, est fr�quemment employ� pour exprimer la
+sorcellerie chez ces populations." _Bulletin de la Soci�t� de
+G�ographie_, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the
+speculative Abb� translates _naual_ by the English "know all," and is
+not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the
+former.
+
+[58-*] See an article by me, entitled "On the Words 'Anahuac' and
+'Nahuatl,'" in the _American Antiquarian_, for November, 1893.
+
+[58-[+]] _Manual de Ministros_, p. 50.
+
+[58-[++]] Jesus Sanchez, _Glosario de Voces Castellanas derivadas del
+Idioma Nahuatl_, sub voce.
+
+[59-*] "_Nagual_--el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde guarda
+sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja." Berendt, _La Lengua
+Castellana de Nicaragua_, MS.
+
+[59-[+]] Emetorio Pineda, _Description Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco_, p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[59-[++]] See his article "Wer-wolf," in his _Ethnographische Parallelen
+und Vergleiche_, p. 62, _seq._
+
+[59-�] Richard Andr�e, _ibid._, ss. 63, 64.
+
+[60-*] See Alfred Maury, _La Magie et l' Astrologie_, pp. 88, 89, 267,
+etc.
+
+[61-*] In the _Notice Preliminaire_ to the second part of his work, _La
+Magie et l' Astrologie dans l' Antiquit� et au Moyen Age_, Mr. Alfred
+Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command for
+explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying their
+reality as actual occurrences.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Native words explained, _in Italics_; names of Authors quoted, in SMALL
+CAPITALS.
+
+  Achiutla, 40
+
+  ACOSTA, J., 9, 34
+
+  AGUILAR, P. S., 32
+
+  _Ahau_, 35
+
+  _Ah Kih_, 26, 51
+
+  _Ah-toc_, 45
+
+  Aissaoua, the, 60
+
+  Alaghom Naom, a goddess, 56
+
+  _Alom_, deity, 50
+
+  ALVA, B. DE, 8, 46, 47
+
+  _Anahuac_, 58
+
+  ANCONA, E., 30, 31
+
+  ANDAGOYA, P. DE, 33
+
+  ANDREE,[TN-18] R., 59
+
+  Antichrist, appealed to, 28
+
+  _Apehualco_, 44
+
+  AUBIN, M., 48, 49
+
+  Ay, Antonio, 30
+
+  Aztecan language, 5, 11
+
+  Aztecs, 7
+
+
+  _Baal-che_, 9
+
+  BAEZA, P., 9, 25
+
+  BALBOA, P., 10
+
+  BANCROFT, H. H., 13, 32, 36
+
+  BANDELIER, A., 39
+
+  Baptism, 27, 43
+
+  Baptism by fire, 37
+
+  BARBA FIGUEROA, 29
+
+  BAUTISTA, J., 6
+
+  BERENDT, C. H., 50, 59
+
+  "Black King," the, 39
+
+  Blowing, as a rite, 19, 20
+
+  BOBAN, M., 48
+
+  "Books of Chilan Balam", 45
+
+  BOURKE, Capt., 44
+
+  BRASSEUR (de Bourbourg), 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 37, 57
+
+  _Buk xoc_, 45
+
+  BURGOA, P., 16
+
+
+  CABRERA, Dr. P. F., 4
+
+  Cakchiquel language, 20, 23
+
+  Calendar, the native, 13-16, 45, 53
+
+  California, 10
+
+  Cancuc, town, 29
+
+  Candelaria, Maria, 35
+
+  Can Ek, Jacinto, 30
+
+  Carpio, Bernardo del, 55
+
+  CARRIEDO, J. B., 15, 30, 38, 46
+
+  Cave God, the, 38, 41
+
+  CAVO, P., 28, 32, 40
+
+  Ceiba tree, 47
+
+  Cerquin, province, 4, 5, 34
+
+  _Chac Mool_, 31
+
+  _Chacuaco_, 10
+
+  Chalcatongo, 40
+
+  _Chalchihuitl_, 39, 46, 47
+
+  Chalcos, 12
+
+  Chalma, place, 38
+
+  _Chanes_, 49
+
+  CHARNAY, D., 13
+
+  Chi, Andres, 31
+
+  Chi, Cecilio, 30
+
+  Chichimecs, 7, 54
+
+  _Chilan Balam_, 31, 45
+
+  Chontales, 17, 32
+
+  Chorti dialect, 5 n.
+
+  Chotas, tribe, 41
+
+  Clairvoyance, 9
+
+  _Coamizagual_, 34
+
+  _Coanamoa_, 41
+
+  Coatlan, 40
+
+  _Coaxihuitl_, 8
+
+  _Cohuacihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Cohuatl_, sign of, 49 n.
+
+  Codex cruciformis, 48
+
+  COHEN, H., 45
+
+  Copan, ruins of, 5 n.
+
+  _Copavitoos_, 30
+
+  CORDOVA, J., 14, 15
+
+  COTO, P., 23, 35, 42
+
+  Coyopy, king, 15
+
+  _Cozaana_, 38, 50
+
+  Cross, as symbol, 42, 43, 48
+
+  Cuculchan, 17, 19, 42
+
+
+  "Dark House," the, 38, 39
+
+  Dawn, as deity, 41
+
+  Dionysos Pyrigenes, 45
+
+  DELPINO, 26
+
+  Drum, the sacred, 31, 38
+
+  Drunkenness, god of, 44
+
+  DURAN, D., 44, 45, 48
+
+
+  Earth, as deity, 41, 53
+
+  "Essays of an Americanist," 4, 31, 45, 49, 50
+
+
+  FERGUSON, DAVID, 55
+
+  "Field mass," the, 25
+
+  Fingers, names for, 54
+
+  Fire worship, 28, 43, 45, 53, 54
+
+  Four Winds, Lord of, 43
+
+  Frog, symbol, 46
+
+  FUENSANTA DEL VALLE, 9
+
+  FUENTES Y GUZMAN, 22, 35
+
+
+  GAGE, THOMAS, 24, 39
+
+  GAGERN, C., 10
+
+  Galindo, Ig., 35
+
+  "Ghost dance" of Mayas, 31
+
+  Gnosis, the, 57
+
+  Goupil collection, 48
+
+  Green stones, 46
+
+  _Gspoxil_, 20
+
+  Guatemala, 24, 39
+
+  Gucumatz, king, 24, 42
+
+
+  Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  "Heart of the Hills", 41, 46
+
+  "Heart of the Maguey", 41
+
+  "Heart of the Towns", 38, 39, 47
+
+  HERNANDEZ, F., 7, 10, 28, 43
+
+  HERRERA, A. DE, 4, 5, 11, 16, 33, 34, 40, 42
+
+  _Hicalahau_, 21, 39
+
+  "Hoddentin", 44
+
+  HOLMES, W. H., 48
+
+  Honduras, 4, 34
+
+  Huasteca dialect, 58
+
+  Huehuetan, town, 28, 39
+
+  _Huehueteotl_, 46
+
+  _Huijatoos_, 30
+
+
+  _Ical ahau_, 21, 39
+
+  IGLESIAS, A., 13
+
+  Inquisition, the, 54
+
+  Intoxicants, 7, 9
+
+  Istlavacan, town, 25
+
+
+  Jadeite, 46
+
+  JUARROS, P., 36
+
+  Justlahuaca, 41
+
+
+  _Kab_, the hand, 54
+
+  KINGSBOROUGH, Lord, 48
+
+
+  LABARTHE, CH., 12
+
+  Lacandons, tribe, 59
+
+  LANDA, D., 49
+
+  LARA, P., 19, 20
+
+  LEON, Dr. N., 9
+
+  LEON, N. DE, 6, 43, 45
+
+  Life, ideogram of, 48
+
+  Life, tree of, 48
+
+  Lingam, the, 49
+
+
+  Maguey, Heart of the, 41
+
+  _Maitl_, the Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  MALER, T., 35, 47
+
+  Mallinalco, town, 34, 38
+
+  MANSO DE CONTRERAS, 32
+
+  Mappe Quinantzin[TN-19], 48
+
+  MARIA DE MOX�, B., 29, 49
+
+  MAURY, A., 60, 61
+
+  Mayan stock, 5, 16, 24
+
+  Mayas, 9, 20, 25, 45
+
+  Mayas, revolts of, 30, 31
+
+  Mexican language, 5
+
+  Michoacan, 10
+
+  Milky Way, as deity, 53
+
+  _Mixcohuatl_, 19
+
+  Mixes, tribe, 13, 17, 32, 42
+
+  Mixtecs, tribe, 15, 16
+
+  MOLINA, A., 6
+
+  Monopostiac, Cerro de, 41
+
+  MONTJAU, M., 27
+
+  MORO, Sr., 14
+
+  MOTOLINIA, P., 42
+
+  M�HLENPFORDT, E., 13
+
+  Mushrooms, intoxicating, 28
+
+
+  _Na_, the root, 5, 11 n.[TN-20] 57
+
+  NAGELE, A., 49
+
+  Nagual, 4, 11, 17, 22, 58
+
+  Nagualism, 4, 16
+
+  Nagualist, 4, 17, 18
+
+  _Nahual_. See _Naualli_.
+
+  _Nahualtia_, 58
+
+  Nahuatl language, 5, 12, 14, 41, 46, 57, 58
+
+  _Nana hualtin_, 5, 6, 10
+
+  Nanahuatl, a deity, 54
+
+  _Naualac_, 13
+
+  _Naualcuauhtla_, 12
+
+  _Naualli_, 5, 10, 11, 12, 57, 58
+
+  _Nauallotl_, 5, 57
+
+  _Naualteteuctin_, 12
+
+  Navajas, Cerro de las, 49
+
+  Nayerit, Sierra de, 41
+
+  Nezahualpilli, king, 34
+
+  Nine, sacred number, 41
+
+  Noh, god of reason, 56
+
+  NU�EZ, DE LA VEGA, 16, 28, 29, 33, 42
+
+
+  Oaxaca, province, 14, 32, 47
+
+  _Octli_, 32, 44
+
+  _Ololiuhqui_, 7, 8, 9
+
+  ORDO�EZ Y AGUIAR, 29, 36
+
+  OROZCO Y BERRA, 10, 14, 31
+
+  OVIEDO, 50
+
+  Oxchuc, town, 21
+
+  _Oztoteotl_, 38
+
+
+  Padrinos, 26
+
+  Pah-Ahtuns, deities, 9
+
+  Pantecatl, deity, 50
+
+  PAREDES, IG., 10
+
+  Pascual, Don, 32
+
+  PASO Y TRONCOSO, 7
+
+  _Patzlan_, 20
+
+  _Payni_, 9
+
+  PELAEZ, G., 36
+
+  _Pellote_, 7
+
+  PEREZ, P., 45
+
+  Personal spirit, 11, 13
+
+  _Peyotl_, the, 6-10
+
+  Phallus, symbol, 49
+
+  _Picietl_, 9
+
+  PIMENTEL, F., 11
+
+  PINEDA, E., 26, 50, 59
+
+  Pinopiaa, goddess, 55
+
+  _Piochtli_, 32
+
+  Pipils, tribe, 33, 42
+
+  PISA, B. DE, 40
+
+  Pokonchis, tribe, 24
+
+  _Popol Vuh_, the, 24
+
+  Popoluca language, 17
+
+  _Pox_, 20
+
+  _Poxlon_, 20
+
+  _Poxta vanegs_, 20
+
+  PUERTO, M., 31
+
+
+  _Quauhcihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Quauhnanacatl_, 28 n.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 12, 19, 26, 32, 41, 42, 43 n.
+
+  Quiche language, 20, 23, 55, 56
+
+  Quiches, tribe, 24, 25
+
+  Quiegolani, deity, 47
+
+  _Quilaztli_, 34
+
+  _Quiz_, 19
+
+
+  Reason, god of, 56
+
+  "Restitution of the _tonal_", 12, 52
+
+  RIOS, PEDRO DE LOS, 49
+
+
+  SAHAGUN, B., 5, 6, 7, 11, 34, 43, 46
+
+  SANCHEZ, J., 58
+
+  San Francisco del Mar, 41
+
+  "Scalp-lock," the, 32
+
+  SCHERZER, C., 25
+
+  SELER, E., 38
+
+  SERNA, J., 9, 28, 29, 32, 34, 43, 44, 49, 52
+
+  Serpent of the Clouds, 19
+
+  Serpent, plant, 8
+
+  Serpent, feathered, 12, 19, 42
+
+  Serpent, which seizes, 41 n.
+
+  Serpent, symbol, 49
+
+  Seven, sacred number, 25, 42
+
+  SIM�ON, R., 11
+
+  Slavery of Indians, 28 n.
+
+  Smoke, divining by, 10 n.
+
+  Snake, symbol. See Serpent.
+
+  Soteapan, 13, 41
+
+  SPINA, V. H., 51
+
+  SQUIER, E. G., 33, 36, 47
+
+  STOLL, O., 26, 55
+
+  Stone, as deity, 41
+
+  "_Sukia_ woman", 36
+
+  "Sun Mountain", 40
+
+  Sun, name of, 54
+
+
+  Tapirs, sacred, 39
+
+  TARAYRE, G., 50
+
+  _Ta Te_, 41
+
+  _Ta Yoapa_, 41
+
+  _Teciuhtlazque_, 6
+
+  Telepathy, 9
+
+  _Tenextlecietl_, 9
+
+  _Teopatli_, 8
+
+  _Teotlauice_, 12
+
+  Teozapotlan, 29
+
+  Tepeololtec deity, 42
+
+  _Tepeyollotl_, 38, 41
+
+  Teremendo, town, 40
+
+  _Teteuctin_, 12
+
+  _Tetonaltiani_, 12
+
+  _Teyhuinti_, 28
+
+  Tezcatzoncatl, deity, 44
+
+  _Thiuimeezque_, 10
+
+  Three, sacred number, 41
+
+  "Thunder stone", 42
+
+  _T'ich_, 25
+
+  Tiger dance, the, 31
+
+  _Tlachixqui_, Seer, 9
+
+  _Tlahuipuchtin_, 10 n.
+
+  Tlaloc, deity, 42
+
+  _Tlapiani_, 30, 39
+
+  Tlascala, Sierra de, 40
+
+  _Tlatoques_, 14
+
+  Tlazoaloyan, 33, 39
+
+  Tlazolteotl, deity, 50
+
+  _Tlecuixtliliztli_, 44
+
+  _Tlilancalqui_, 39 n.
+
+  Tobacco, 8, 9, 53, 54
+
+  _Tonal, tonalli_, 11, 15 n., 42, 52, 60
+
+  _Tonalcaualtia_, 12
+
+  _Tonalitlacoa_, 12
+
+  _Tonalpouhque_, 11
+
+  _Tonantzin_, 34
+
+  _Topiltzin_, 41
+
+  TORQUEMADA, P., 27, 30, 36
+
+  TORRES CASTILLO, 32
+
+  _To Ta_, 41, 46, 48
+
+  Totomachiapa, 40
+
+  Totonicapan, 22, 28
+
+  Tree, sacred, 31, 47
+
+  Tree of the Cross, 42
+
+  Tree of Life, 48
+
+  Tres Micos, 16
+
+  Trinity, the native, 41
+
+  Triplets, 19, 31
+
+  Tzentals, tribe, 16, 19, 21, 32, 33
+
+  _Tzihuizin_, 20
+
+  _Tzitzime_, the, 34 n.
+
+  _Tzitzimecihuatl_, 34
+
+
+  _Uirapircos_, 10 n.
+
+  _U-q'ux-Uleuh_, 38
+
+
+  VENEGAS, P., 10
+
+  Venus Impudica, 50
+
+  Vera Cruz, 13, 26
+
+  VETANCURT, A., 8, 32, 39, 44
+
+  VILLA SE�OR Y SANCHEZ, 40
+
+  Votan, 33, 38, 41
+
+
+  WARD, S. A., 33
+
+  Water, divination by, 6
+
+  Water, as deity, 53, 54
+
+  Were-wolf, 59
+
+  Wisdom, goddess of, 56
+
+  Witches, 10
+
+  "Witches' Sabbaths", 48
+
+
+  _Xihuitl_, 46 n.
+
+  _Xihuitzin_, 20
+
+  XIMENES, FRANCISCO, 43
+
+  XIMENES, P., 20
+
+  _Xiquipilli_, 42
+
+  _Xiuhtecutli_, 20, 46
+
+  _Xochimilca_, 30
+
+
+  _Yahuiltoca_, 43
+
+  Yanhuitlan, town, 16
+
+  _Yaocihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Yax che_, 47
+
+  _Yax ha_, 9
+
+  _Yiahuitli_, the, 43
+
+  _Yollometli_, 41
+
+  Yoni symbols, 50
+
+  _Ytzamatl_, 47
+
+  Yucatan, 9, 25, 30
+
+
+  Zahoris, 26
+
+  Zamayac, town, 28, 29
+
+  Zapotecs, tribe, 14, 15, 32, 37, 38, 40, 47
+
+  ZETINA, 9
+
+  _Z me quiz_, 19
+
+  Zotzils, revolt of, 35, 47
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of the book.
+
+Typographical errors:
+
+  Page  Error
+  TN-1  Fn. 14-[+]  The footnote marker was missing in the original text.
+                    It has been inserted based on context.
+  TN-2  19   centipedes, etc, should read centipedes, etc.,
+  TN-3  39   black as negroes should read black as negroes.
+  TN-4  43   sick room should read sick room.
+  TN-5  52   speak to thee should read speak to thee.
+  TN-6  58   corrollary should read corollary
+  TN-7  Fn. 7-*     Nacion�l should read Nacional
+  TN-8  Fn. 9-*     Min�stros should read Ministros
+  TN-9  Fn. 11-[+]  Simeon should read Sim�on
+  TN-10 Fn. 14-[+]  exico should read Mexico
+  TN-11 Fn. 17-*    enigmaticas" should read enigmaticas."
+  TN-12 Fn. 27-*    Americaine should read Am�ricaine
+  TN-13 Fn. 30-[+]  Historic�s should read Historicos
+  TN-14 Fn. 40-[+]  Espa�al should read Espa�ol
+  TN-15 Fn. 42-�    'Se�or should read "Se�or
+  TN-16 Fn. 47-[++] Revue should read R�vue
+  TN-17 Fn. 55-[+]  Oaxaqueno should read Oaxaque�o
+  TN-18  61   Andree should read Andr�e
+  TN-19 63   Quinantzin should read Quinatzin
+  TN-20 63   11 n. should read 11 n.,
+
+The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Bartholom� / Bartholom�
+  Dioecesanas / Diocesanas / Diocesan
+  Gucumatz / Gukumatz
+  Mox� / Mox� / Moxo
+  Quich� / Quiche
+  Quich�s / Quiches
+  supr� / supr�
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nagualism
+       A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2008 [EBook #26426]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAGUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Julia Miller, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
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+Digital Library)
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+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><b>Transcriber&#8217;s Note:</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been maintained
+in this version of this book. Typographical errors have been marked with
+a [TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete <a href="#trans_note">list</a> found at the
+end of the text. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a> of words that have been inconsistently spelled or
+hyphenated is found at the end of the present text.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The less-comon characters that are used in this version of the book. If
+they do not display correctly, please try changing your font.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">&#8224;&nbsp; Dagger<br />
+&#8225;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Double dagger<br />
+&#339;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;oe ligature<br />
+&#363;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;u with macron<br />
+&#333;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;o with macron<br />
+&#8214;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;double vertical lines</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1 style="margin-top: 3em;">NAGUALISM.</h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 3em;"><span style="font-size: 130%;">A STUDY</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: smaller;">...IN...</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: 150%;">Native American Folk-lore<br />
+and History.</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 3em; margin-bottom: 2em;"><span style="font-size: smaller;">....BY....</span><br />
+<br />
+<b>DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.</b><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-top: 1em; font-size: smaller;">Professor of American Arch&aelig;ology and Linguistics in the<br />
+University of Pennsylvania.</span></p>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em; font-size: smaller;">PHILADELPHIA:<br />
+<span class="smcap">MacCalla &amp; Company, Printers, 237-9 Dock Street.</span><br />
+...1894...</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><i>Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History.</i></h2>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">(<i>Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan&#8217;y 5, 1894.</i>)</p>
+
+
+<h2 class="sectionhead" style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="Contents" id="Contents"></a><span class="smcap">Contents.</span></h2>
+
+
+
+<p><a href="#section_1">1.</a> The words <i>Nagual</i>, <i>Nagualism</i>, <i>Nagualist</i>. <a href="#section_2">2.</a> The Earliest
+Reference to Nagualism. <a href="#section_3">3.</a> The <i>Naualli</i> of the Aztecs; their Classes
+and Pretended Powers. <a href="#section_4">4.</a> The Sacred Intoxicants; the <i>Peyotl</i>, the
+<i>Ololiuhqui</i>, the <i>Teopatli</i>, the <i>Yax Ha</i>, etc. <a href="#section_5">5.</a> Clairvoyance and
+Telepathy during Intoxication. <a href="#section_6">6.</a> The <i>Naualli</i> of Modern Mexico. <a href="#section_7">7.</a> The
+<i>Tonal</i> and the <i>Tonalpouhque</i>; the Genethliac System of the Nahuas. <a href="#section_8">8.</a>
+The Aztec Sodality of &#8220;Master Magicians.&#8221; <a href="#section_9">9.</a> The Personal Guardian
+Spirit.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#section_10">10.</a> Folk-lore of the Mixe Indians. <a href="#section_11">11.</a> Astrological Divination of the
+Zapotecs. <a href="#section_12">12.</a> Similar Arts of the Mixtecs. <a href="#section_13">13.</a> Nagualism in Chiapas, as
+Described by Bishop Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega. <a href="#section_14">14.</a> Nagualism Among the Quiches,
+Cakchiquels and Pokonchis of Guatemala. <a href="#section_15">15.</a> The Metamorphoses of
+Gukumatz. <a href="#section_16">16.</a> Modern Witchcraft in Yucatan and Central America; the
+Zahoris and Padrinos.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#section_17">17.</a> Fundamental Principles of Nagualism, Hatred of the Whites and of
+Christianity. <a href="#section_18">18.</a> Its Organization and Extent; its Priesthood. <a href="#section_19">19.</a> Its
+Influence in the Native Revolts against the Spanish Power. <a href="#section_20">20.</a> Exalted
+Position of Woman in Nagualism. <a href="#section_21">21.</a> This a Survival from Ancient Times.
+<a href="#section_22">22.</a> A Native Joan of Arc. <a href="#section_23">23.</a> Modern Queens of Nagualism.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#section_24">24.</a> The Cave-temples and the Cave-gods; Oztoteotl, Tepeyollotl, Votan,
+etc. <a href="#section_25">25.</a> The Sacred Numbers, 3 and 7. <a href="#section_26">26.</a> Fire Worship of the
+Nagualists. <a href="#section_27">27.</a> Fire Rights Connected with the Pulque. <a href="#section_28">28.</a> Fire
+Ceremonies of the Modern Mayas. <a href="#section_29">29.</a> Secret Significance of Fire Worship.
+<a href="#section_30">30.</a> The Chalchiuites, or Sacred Green Stones. <a href="#section_31">31.</a> The Sacred Tree and
+the Tree of Life. <a href="#section_32">32.</a> The Cross and its Symbolic Meaning. <a href="#section_33">33.</a> The
+Lascivious Rites of the Nagualists. <a href="#section_34">34.</a> Their Relation to the Symbols of
+the Serpent and the Phallus.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#section_35">35.</a> Confusion of Christian and Native Religious Ideas; Prayers of Nagual
+Priests. Their Symbolic Language. <a href="#section_36">36.</a> The Inquisition and Nagualism. <a href="#section_37">37.</a>
+Etymology of the Word <i>Nagual</i>. <a href="#section_38">38.</a> The Root <i>Na</i> in the Maya, Zapotec
+and Nahuatl Languages. <a href="#section_39">39.</a> The Doctrine of Animal Transformation in the
+Old World. <a href="#section_40">40.</a> The Doctrine of Personal Spirits in the Old World. <a href="#section_41">41.</a>
+Scientific Explanations of Nagual Magic. <a href="#section_42">42.</a> Conclusion.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">REPRINTED FEB. 23, 1894, FROM PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., VOL. XXXIII.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_1" id="section_1"></a><b>1.</b> The words, a <i>nagual</i>, <i>nagualism</i>, a <i>nagualist</i>, have been current
+in English prose for more than seventy years; they are found during that
+time in a variety of books published in England and the United
+States,<a name="FNanchor_4-1_1" id="FNanchor_4-1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_4-1_1" class="fnanchor">4-*</a> yet are not to be discovered in any dictionary of the
+English language; nor has <i>Nagualism</i> a place in any of the numerous
+encyclop&aelig;dias or &#8220;Conversation Lexicons,&#8221; in English, French, German or
+Spanish.</p>
+
+<p>This is not owing to its lack of importance, since for two hundred years
+past, as I shall show, it has been recognized as a cult, no less
+powerful than mysterious, which united many and diverse tribes of Mexico
+and Central America into organized opposition against the government and
+the religion which had been introduced from Europe; whose members had
+acquired and were bound together by strange faculties and an occult
+learning, which placed them on a par with the famed thaumaturgists and
+theodidacts of the Old World; and which preserved even into our own days
+the thoughts and forms of a long suppressed ritual.</p>
+
+<p>In several previous publications I have referred briefly to this secret
+sodality and its aims,<a name="FNanchor_4-2_2" id="FNanchor_4-2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_4-2_2" class="fnanchor">4-&#8224;</a> and now believe it worth while to collect
+my scattered notes and present all that I have found of value about the
+origin, aims and significance of this Eleusinian Mystery of America. I
+shall trace its geographical extension and endeavor to discover what its
+secret influence really was and is.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_2" id="section_2"></a><b>2.</b> The earliest description I find of its particular rites is that which
+the historian Herrera gives, as they prevailed in 1530, in the province
+of Cerquin, in the mountainous parts of Honduras. It is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The Devil was accustomed to deceive these natives by appearing to
+them in the form of a lion, tiger, coyote, lizard, snake, bird, or
+other animal. To these appearances they apply the name <i>Naguales</i>,
+which is as much as to say, guardians or companions; and when such
+an animal dies, so does the Indian to whom it was assigned. The way
+such an alliance was formed was thus: The Indian repaired to some
+very retired spot<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> and there appealed to the streams, rocks and
+trees around him, and weeping, implored for himself the favors they
+had conferred on his ancestors. He then sacrificed a dog or a fowl,
+and drew blood from his tongue, or his ears, or other parts of his
+body, and turned to sleep. Either in his dreams or half awake, he
+would see some one of those animals or birds above mentioned, who
+would say to him, &#8216;On such a day go hunting and the first animal or
+bird you see will be my form, and I shall remain your companion and
+<i>Nagual</i> for all time.&#8217; Thus their friendship became so close that
+when one died so did the other; and without such a <i>Nagual</i> the
+natives believe no one can become rich or powerful.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_5-1_3" id="FNanchor_5-1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_5-1_3" class="fnanchor">5-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>This province of Cerquin appears to have been peopled by a tribe which
+belonged to the great Mayan stock, akin to those which occupied most of
+the area of what is now Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_5-2_4" id="FNanchor_5-2_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_5-2_4" class="fnanchor">5-&#8224;</a>
+I shall say something later about the legendary enchantress whom their
+traditions recalled as the teacher of their ancestors and the founder of
+their nation. What I would now call attention to is the fact that in
+none of the dialects of the specifically Mexican or Aztecan stock of
+languages do we find the word <i>nagual</i> in the sense in which it is
+employed in the above extract, and this is strong evidence that the
+origin of Nagualism is not to be sought in that stock.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_3" id="section_3"></a><b>3.</b> We do find, however, in the Nahuatl language, which is the proper
+name of the Aztecan, a number of derivatives from the same root, <i>na</i>,
+among them this very word, <i>Nahuatl</i>, all of them containing the idea
+&#8220;to know,&#8221; or &#8220;knowledge.&#8221; The early missionaries to New Spain often
+speak of the <i>naualli</i> (plural, <i>nanahualtin</i>), masters of mystic
+knowledge, dealers in the black art, wizards or sorcerers. They were not
+always evil-minded persons, though they seem to have been generally
+feared. The earliest source of information about them is Father Sahagun,
+who, in his invaluable History, has the following paragraph:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The <i>naualli</i>, or magician, is he who frightens men and sucks the
+blood of children during the night. He is well skilled in the
+practice of this trade, he knows all the arts of sorcery
+(<i>nauallotl</i>) and employs them with cunning and ability; but for
+the benefit of men only, not for their<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> injury. Those who have
+recourse to such arts for evil intents injure the bodies of their
+victims, cause them to lose their reason and smother them. These
+are wicked men and necromancers.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_6-1_5" id="FNanchor_6-1_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-1_5" class="fnanchor">6-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>It is evident on examining the later works of the Roman clergy in Mexico
+that the Church did not look with any such lenient eye on the possibly
+harmless, or even beneficial, exercise of these magical devices. We find
+a further explanation of what they were, preserved in a work of
+instruction to confessors, published by Father Juan Bautista, at Mexico,
+in the year 1600.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;There are magicians who call themselves <i>teciuhtlazque</i>,<a name="FNanchor_6-2_6" id="FNanchor_6-2_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-2_6" class="fnanchor">6-&#8224;</a>
+and also by the term <i>nanahualtin</i>, who conjure the clouds when
+there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They
+can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede,
+a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of
+these <i>nanahualtin</i> will transform themselves to all appearances
+(segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog or a weasel. Others again
+will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a weasel; and when one is
+preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an
+owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves
+<i>nanahualtin</i>.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_6-3_7" id="FNanchor_6-3_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-3_7" class="fnanchor">6-&#8225;</a></p></div>
+
+<p>There is an evident attempt in this somewhat confused statement to
+distinguish between an actual transformation, and one which only appears
+such to the observer.</p>
+
+<p>In another work of similar character, published at Mexico a few years
+later, the &#8220;Road to Heaven,&#8221; of Father Nicolas de Leon, we find a series
+of questions which a confessor should put to any of his flock suspected
+of these necromantic practices. They reveal to us quite clearly what
+these occult practitioners were believed to do. The passage reads as
+follows, the questions being put in the mouth of the priest:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Art thou a soothsayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading signs,
+or by interpreting dreams, or by water, making circles and figures
+on its surface? Dost thou sweep and ornament with flower garlands
+the places where idols are preserved? Dost thou know certain words
+with which to conjure for success in hunting, or to bring rain?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Dost thou suck the blood of others, or dost thou wander about at
+night, calling upon the Demon to help thee? Hast thou drunk
+<i>peyotl</i>, or hast thou given it to others to drink, in order to
+find out secrets, or to discover where stolen or lost articles
+were? Dost thou know how to speak to vipers in such words that they
+obey thee?&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_6-4_8" id="FNanchor_6-4_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_6-4_8" class="fnanchor">6-&sect;</a></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_4" id="section_4"></a><b>4.</b> This interesting passage lets in considerable light on the claims and
+practices of the nagualists. Not the least important item is that of
+their use of the intoxicant, <i>peyotl</i>, a decoction of which it appears
+played a prominent part in their ceremonies. This is the native Nahuatl
+name of a certain plant, having a white, tuberous root, which is the
+part employed. It is mentioned as &#8220;pellote&#8221; or &#8220;peyote&#8221; in the
+<i>Farmacopea Mexicana</i> as a popular remedy, but its botanical name is not
+added. According to Paso y Troncoso, it is one of the Composit&aelig;, a
+species of the genus <i>Cacalia</i>.<a name="FNanchor_7-1_9" id="FNanchor_7-1_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-1_9" class="fnanchor">7-*</a> It is referred to in several
+passages by Father Sahagun, who says that it grows in southern Mexico,
+and that the Aztecs derived their knowledge of it from the older
+&#8220;Chichimecs.&#8221; It was used as an intoxicant.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Those who eat or drink of this <i>peyotl</i> see visions, which are
+sometimes frightful and sometimes ludicrous. The intoxication it
+causes lasts several days. The Chichimecs believed that it gave
+them courage in time of danger and diminished the pangs of hunger
+and thirst.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_7-2_10" id="FNanchor_7-2_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-2_10" class="fnanchor">7-&#8224;</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Its use was continued until a late date, and very probably has not yet
+died out. Its composition and method of preparation are given in a list
+of beverages prohibited by the Spanish authorities in the year 1784, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;<i>Peyote</i>: Made from a species of vinagrilla, about the size of a
+billiard ball, which grows in dry and sterile soil. The natives
+chew it, and throw it into a wooden mortar, where it is left to
+ferment, some leaves of tobacco being added to give it pungency.
+They consume it in this form, sometimes with slices of <i>peyote</i>
+itself, in their most solemn festivities, although it dulls the
+intellect and induces gloomy and hurtful visions (sombras muy
+funestas).&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_7-3_11" id="FNanchor_7-3_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_7-3_11" class="fnanchor">7-&#8225;</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The <i>peyotl</i> was not the only herb prized as a means of casting the soul
+into the condition of hypostatic union with divinity. We have abundant
+evidence that long after the conquest the seeds of the plant called in
+Nahuatl the <i>ololiuhqui</i> were in high<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> esteem for this purpose. In the
+Confessionary of Father Bartholom&eacute; de Alva the priest is supposed to
+inquire and learn as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;<i>Question.</i> Hast thou loved God above all things? Hast thou loved
+any created thing, adoring it, looking upon it as God, and
+worshiping it?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;<i>Answer.</i> I have loved God with all my heart; but sometimes I have
+believed in dreams, and also I have believed in the sacred herbs,
+the <i>peyotl</i>, and the <i>ololiuhqui</i>; and in other such things
+(<i>onicneltocac in temictli, in xiuhtzintli, in peyotl, in
+ololiuhqui, yhuan in occequitlamantli</i>).&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_8-1_12" id="FNanchor_8-1_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-1_12" class="fnanchor">8-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The seeds of the <i>ololiuhqui</i> appear to have been employed externally.
+They were the efficient element in the mysterious unguent known as &#8220;the
+divine remedy&#8221; (<i>teopatli</i>), about which we find some information in the
+works of Father Augustin de Vetancurt, who lived in Mexico in the middle
+of the seventeenth century. He writes:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The pagan priests made use of an ointment composed of insects,
+such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and the like, which the
+neophytes in the temples prepared. They burned these insects in a
+basin, collected the ashes, and rubbed it up with green tobacco
+leaves, living worms and insects, and the powdered seeds of a plant
+called <i>ololiuhqui</i>, which has the power of inducing visions, and
+the effect of which is to destroy the reasoning powers. Under the
+influence of this ointment, they conversed with the Devil, and he
+with them, practicing his deceptions upon them. They also believed
+that it protected them, so they had no fear of going into the woods
+at night.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This was also employed by them as a remedy in various diseases,
+and the soothing influence of the tobacco and the <i>ololiuhqui</i> was
+attributed by them to divine agency. There are some in our own day
+who make use of this ointment for sorcery, shutting themselves up,
+and losing their reason under its influence; especially some old
+men and old women, who are prepared to fall an easy prey to the
+Devil.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_8-2_13" id="FNanchor_8-2_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-2_13" class="fnanchor">8-&#8224;</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The botanist Hernandez observes that another name for this plant was
+<i>coaxihuitl</i>, &#8220;serpent plant,&#8221; and adds that its seeds contain a
+narcotic poison, and that it is allied to the genus <i>Solanum</i>, of which
+the deadly night-shade is a familiar species. He speaks of its use in
+the sacred rites in these words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Indorum sacrifici, cum videri volebant versari cum superis, ac
+responsa accipere ab eis, ea vescebantur planta, ut desiperent,
+milleque phantasmata et demonum observatium effigies
+circumspectarent.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_8-3_14" id="FNanchor_8-3_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_8-3_14" class="fnanchor">8-&#8225;</a></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of the two plants mentioned, the <i>ololiuhqui</i> and the <i>peyotl</i>, the
+former was considered the more potent in spiritual virtues. &#8220;They hold
+it in as much veneration as if it were God,&#8221; says a theologian of the
+seventeenth century.<a name="FNanchor_9-1_15" id="FNanchor_9-1_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_9-1_15" class="fnanchor">9-*</a> One who partook of these herbs was called
+<i>payni</i> (from the verb <i>pay</i>, to take medicine); and more especially
+<i>tlachixqui</i>, a Seer, referring to the mystic &#8220;second sight,&#8221; hence a
+diviner or prophet (from the verb <i>tlachia</i>, to see).</p>
+
+<p>Tobacco also held a prominent, though less important, place in these
+rites. It was employed in two forms, the one the dried leaf, <i>picietl</i>,
+which for sacred uses must be broken and rubbed up either seven or nine
+times; and the green leaf mixed with lime, hence called <i>tenextlecietl</i>
+(from <i>tenextli</i>, lime).</p>
+
+<p>Allied in effect to these is an intoxicant in use in southern Mexico and
+Yucatan, prepared from the bark of a tree called by the Mayas
+<i>baal-che</i>. The whites speak of the drink as <i>pitarilla</i>. It is quite
+popular among the natives, and they still attribute to it a sacred
+character, calling it <i>yax ha</i>, the first water, the primal fluid. They
+say that it was the first liquid created by God, and when He returned to
+His heavenly home He left this beverage and its production in charge of
+the gods of the rains, the four Pah-Ahtuns.<a name="FNanchor_9-2_16" id="FNanchor_9-2_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_9-2_16" class="fnanchor">9-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_5" id="section_5"></a><b>5.</b> Intoxication of some kind was an essential part of many of these
+secret rites. It was regarded as a method of throwing the individual out
+of himself and into relation with the supernal powers. What the old
+historian, Father Joseph de Acosta, tells us about the clairvoyants and
+telepaths of the aborigines might well stand for a description of their
+modern representatives:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Some of these sorcerers take any shape they choose, and fly
+through the air with wonderful rapidity and for long distances.
+They will tell what is taking place in remote localities long
+before the news could possibly arrive. The Spaniards have known
+them to report mutinies, battles, revolts and deaths, occurring two
+hundred or three hundred leagues distant, on the very day they took
+place, or the day after.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>&#8220;To practice this art the sorcerers, usually old women, shut
+themselves in a house, and intoxicate themselves to the degree of
+losing their reason. The next day they are ready to reply to
+questions.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_10-1_17" id="FNanchor_10-1_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-1_17" class="fnanchor">10-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Plants possessing similar powers to excite vivid visions and distort the
+imagination, and, therefore, employed in the magical rites, were the
+<i>thiuimeezque</i>, in Michoacan, and the <i>chacuaco</i>, in lower
+California.<a name="FNanchor_10-2_18" id="FNanchor_10-2_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-2_18" class="fnanchor">10-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_6" id="section_6"></a><b>6.</b> In spite of all effort, the various classes of wonder-workers
+continued to thrive in Mexico. We find in a book of sermons published by
+the Jesuit Father, Ignacio de Paredes, in the Nahuatl language, in 1757,
+that he strenuously warns his hearers against invoking, consulting, or
+calling upon &#8220;the devilish spell-binders, the nagualists, and those who
+conjure with smoke.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_10-3_19" id="FNanchor_10-3_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-3_19" class="fnanchor">10-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>They have not yet lost their power; we have evidence enough that many
+children of a larger growth in that land still listen with respect to
+the recitals of the mysterious faculties attributed to the
+<i>nanahualtin</i>. An observant German traveler, Carlos von Gagern, informs
+us that they are widely believed to be able to cause sicknesses and
+other ills, which must be counteracted by appropriate exorcisms, among
+which the reading aloud certain passages of the Bible is deemed to be
+one of the most potent.<a name="FNanchor_10-4_20" id="FNanchor_10-4_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_10-4_20" class="fnanchor">10-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>The learned historian, Orozco y Berra, speaks of the powers attributed
+at the present day to the <i>nahual</i> in Mexico among the lower classes, in
+these words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The <i>nahual</i> is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows
+how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black and ugly. The female
+witch can convert herself into a ball of fire; she has the power of
+flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of
+little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or
+of clay, then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place
+them in some secret place; you can<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> be sure that the person against
+whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where
+the thorn is inserted. There still exist among them the
+medicine-men, who treat the sick by means of strange contortions,
+call upon the spirits, pronounce magical incantations, blow upon
+the part where the pain is, and draw forth from the patient thorns,
+worms, or pieces of stone. They know how to prepare drinks which
+will bring on sickness, and if the patients are cured by others the
+convalescents are particular to throw something of their own away,
+as a lock of hair, or a part of their clothing. Those who possess
+the evil eye can, by merely looking at children, deprive them of
+beauty and health, and even cause their death.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_11-1_21" id="FNanchor_11-1_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-1_21" class="fnanchor">11-*</a></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_7" id="section_7"></a><b>7.</b> As I have said, nowhere in the records of purely Mexican, that is,
+Aztecan, Nagualism do we find the word <i>nagual</i> employed in the sense
+given in the passage quoted from Herrera, that is as a personal guardian
+spirit or tutelary genius. These tribes had, indeed, a belief in some
+such protecting power, and held that it was connected with the day on
+which each person is born. They called it the <i>tonalli</i> of a person, a
+word translated to mean that which is peculiar to him, which makes his
+individuality, his self. The radical from which it is derived is <i>tona</i>,
+to warm, or to be warm, from which are also derived <i>tonatiuh</i>, the sun.
+<i>Tonalli</i>, which in composition loses its last syllable, is likewise the
+word for heat, summer, soul, spirit and day, and also for the share or
+portion which belongs to one. Thus, <i>to-tonal</i> is spirit or soul in
+general; <i>no-tonal</i>, my spirit; <i>no-tonal in ipan no-tlacat</i>, &#8220;the sign
+under which I was born,&#8221; <i>i. e.</i>, the astrological day-sign. From this
+came the verb <i>tonalpoa</i>, to count or estimate the signs, that is, to
+cast the horoscope of a person; and <i>tonalpouhque</i>, the diviners whose
+business it was to practice this art.<a name="FNanchor_11-2_22" id="FNanchor_11-2_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-2_22" class="fnanchor">11-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>These <i>tonalpouhque</i> are referred to at length by Father
+Sahagun.<a name="FNanchor_11-3_23" id="FNanchor_11-3_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_11-3_23" class="fnanchor">11-&#8225;</a> He distinguishes them from the <i>naualli</i>, though it is
+clear that they corresponded in functions to the nagualistic priests of
+the southern tribes. From the number and name of the day of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> birth they
+forecast the destiny of the child, and stated the power or spiritual
+influence which should govern its career.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>tonal</i> was by no means an indefeasible possession. It was a sort of
+independent <i>mascotte</i>. So long as it remained with a person he enjoyed
+health and prosperity; but it could depart, go astray, become lost; and
+then sickness and misfortune arrived. This is signified in the Nahuatl
+language by the verbs <i>tonalcaualtia</i>, to check, stop or suspend the
+<i>tonal</i>, hence, to shock or frighten one; and <i>tonalitlacoa</i>, to hurt or
+injure the <i>tonal</i>, hence, to cast a spell on one, to bewitch him.</p>
+
+<p>This explains the real purpose of the conjuring and incantations which
+were carried on by the native doctor when visiting the sick. It was to
+recall the <i>tonal</i>, to force or persuade it to return; and, therefore,
+the ceremony bore the name &#8220;the restitution of the <i>tonal</i>,&#8221; and was
+more than any other deeply imbued with the superstitions of Nagualism.
+The chief officiant was called the <i>tetonaltiani</i>, &#8220;he who concerns
+himself with the tonal.&#8221; On a later page I shall give the formula
+recited on such an occasion.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_8" id="section_8"></a><b>8.</b> There is some vague mention in the Aztec records of a semi-priestly
+order, who bore the name <i>naualteteuctin</i>, which may be translated
+&#8220;master magicians.&#8221; They were also known as <i>teotlauice</i>, &#8220;sacred
+companions in arms.&#8221; As was the case with most classes of the
+<i>teteuctin</i>, or nobles, entrance to the order was by a severe and
+prolonged ceremony of initiation, the object of which was not merely to
+test the endurance of pain and the powers of self-denial, but especially
+to throw the mind into that subjective state in which it is brought into
+contact with the divine, in which it can &#8220;see visions and dream dreams.&#8221;
+The order claimed as its patron and founder Quetzalcoatl, the &#8220;feathered
+serpent,&#8221; who, it will be seen on another page, was also the patron of
+the later nagualists.<a name="FNanchor_12-1_24" id="FNanchor_12-1_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_12-1_24" class="fnanchor">12-*</a></p>
+
+<p>The word <i>naualli</i> also occurs among the ancient Nahuas in composition
+as a part of proper names; always with the signification of &#8220;magician,&#8221;
+as in that of Naualcuauhtla, a chief of the Chalcos, meaning
+&#8220;wizard-stick,&#8221; referring probably to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> rod or wand employed by the
+magi in conjuration.<a name="FNanchor_13-1_25" id="FNanchor_13-1_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-1_25" class="fnanchor">13-*</a> So also <i>Naualac</i>, the &#8220;wizard water,&#8221; an
+artificial lake not far from the city of Mexico, surrounded by ruined
+temples, described by M. Charnay.<a name="FNanchor_13-2_26" id="FNanchor_13-2_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-2_26" class="fnanchor">13-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_9" id="section_9"></a><b>9.</b> The belief in a personal guardian spirit was one of the fundamental
+doctrines of Nagualism; but this belief by no means connotes the full
+import of the term (as Mr. H. H. Bancroft has erroneously stated). The
+calendar system of Mexico and Central America, which I have shown to be
+substantially the same throughout many diverse linguistic
+stocks,<a name="FNanchor_13-3_27" id="FNanchor_13-3_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-3_27" class="fnanchor">13-&#8225;</a> had as one of its main objects, astrological
+divination. By consulting it the appropriate nagual was discovered and
+assigned, and this was certainly a prominent feature in the native cult
+and has never been abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>In Mexico to-day, in addition to his special personal guardian, the
+native will often choose another for a limited time or for a particular
+purpose, and this is quite consistent with the form of Christianity he
+has been taught. For instance, as we are informed by an observant
+traveler, at New Year or at corn-planting the head of a family will go
+to the parish church and among the various saints there displayed will
+select one as his guardian for the year. He will address to him his
+prayers for rain and sunshine, for an abundant harvest, health and
+prosperity, and will not neglect to back these supplications by liberal
+gifts. If times are good and harvests ample the Santo is rewarded with
+still more gifts, and his aid is sought for another term; but if luck
+has been bad the Indian repairs to the church at the end of the year,
+bestows on his holy patron a sound cursing, calls him all the bad names
+he can think of, and has nothing more to do with him.<a name="FNanchor_13-4_28" id="FNanchor_13-4_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_13-4_28" class="fnanchor">13-&sect;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_10" id="section_10"></a><b>10.</b> A Mexican writer, Andres Iglesias, who enjoyed more than common
+opportunities to study these practices as they exist in the present
+generation, describes them as he saw them in the village of Soteapan, a
+remote hamlet in the State of Vera Cruz, the population of which speak
+the Mixe language. This<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> is not related to the Nahuatl tongue, but the
+terms of their magical rites are drawn from Nahuatl words, showing their
+origin. Every person at birth has assigned to him both a good and a bad
+genius, the former aiming at his welfare, the latter at his injury. The
+good genius is known by the Nahuatl term <i>tonale</i>, and it is represented
+in the first bird or animal of any kind which is seen in or near the
+house immediately after the birth of the infant.</p>
+
+<p>The most powerful person in the village is the high priest of the native
+cult. One who died about 1850 was called &#8220;the Thunderbolt,&#8221; and whenever
+he walked abroad he was preceded by a group of chosen disciples, called
+by the Nahuatl name <i>tlatoques</i>, speakers or attorneys.<a name="FNanchor_14-1_29" id="FNanchor_14-1_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_14-1_29" class="fnanchor">14-*</a> His
+successor, known as &#8220;the Greater Thunder,&#8221; did not maintain this state,
+but nevertheless claimed to be able to control the seasons and to send
+or to mitigate destructive storms&mdash;claims which, sad to say, brought him
+to the stocks, but did not interfere with the regular payment of tribute
+to him by the villagers. He was also a medicine man and master of
+ceremonies in certain &#8220;scandalous orgies, where immodesty shows herself
+without a veil.&#8221;<a name="corr1" title="corr1"></a><a name="FNanchor_14-2_30" id="FNanchor_14-2_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_14-2_30" class="fnanchor"><ins class="correction" title="inserted based on context">14-&#8224;</ins></a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_11" id="section_11"></a><b>11.</b> Turning to the neighboring province of Oaxaca and its inhabitants,
+we are instructed on the astrological use of the calendar of the
+Zapotecs by Father Juan de Cordova, whose <i>Arte</i> of their language was
+published at Mexico in 1578. From what he says its principal, if not its
+only purpose, was astrological. Each day had its number and was called
+after some animal, as eagle, snake, deer, rabbit, etc. Every child, male
+or female, received the name of the day, and also its number, as a
+surname; its personal name being taken from a fixed series, which
+differed in the masculine and feminine gender, and which seems to have
+been derived from the names of the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>From this it appears that among the Zapotecs the personal spirit or
+<i>nagual</i> was fixed by the date of the birth, and not by some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> later
+ceremony, although the latter has been asserted by some writers; who,
+however, seem to have applied without certain knowledge the rites of the
+Nahuas and other surrounding tribes to the Zapotecs.<a name="FNanchor_15-1_31" id="FNanchor_15-1_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_15-1_31" class="fnanchor">15-*</a></p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to the assigning of names, according to Father
+Cordova, was the employment of the calendar in deciding the propriety of
+marriages. As the recognized object of marriage was to have sons, the
+couple appealed to the professional augur to decide this question before
+the marriage was fixed. He selected as many beans as was the sum of the
+numbers of the two proponents&#8217; names, and, counting them by twos, if one
+remained over, it meant a son; then counting by threes any remainder
+also meant sons; by fours the remainder meant either sons or daughters;
+and by five and six the same; and if there was no remainder by any of
+these five divisors the marriage would result in no sons and was
+prohibited.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that this method of fortune-telling was most auspicious
+for the lovers; for I doubt if there is any combination of two numbers
+below fourteen which is divisible by two, three, four, five and six
+without remainder in any one instance.<a name="FNanchor_15-2_32" id="FNanchor_15-2_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_15-2_32" class="fnanchor">15-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>The Zapotecs were one of those nations who voluntarily submitted
+themselves to the Spaniards, not out of love for the Europeans, but
+through hatred of the Aztecs, who had conquered them in the preceding
+century. Their king, Coyopy, and his subjects accepted Christianity and
+were generally baptized; but it was the merest formality, and years
+afterwards Coyopy was detected secretly conducting the heathen ritual of
+his ancestors with all due pomp. He was arrested, sent to the city of
+Mexico, deprived of his power and wealth, and soon died; it is
+charitably supposed, from natural causes. There is no question but that
+he left successors to the office of pontifex maximus, and that they
+continued the native religious ceremonies.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_12" id="section_12"></a><b>12.</b> The sparse notices we have of the astrology of the Mixtecs,
+neighbors and some think relatives of the Zapotecs, reveal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> closely
+similar rites. The name of their king, who opposed Montezuma the First
+some sixty years before the arrival of Cortez, proves that they made use
+of the same or a similar calendar in bestowing personal appellations. It
+is given as <i>Tres Micos</i>, Three Monkeys.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, so far as I know, there has not been published, and
+perhaps there does not exist, an authentic copy of the Mixtec calendar.
+It was nevertheless reduced to writing in the native tongue after the
+conquest, and a copy of it was seen by the historian Burgoa in the
+Mixtec town of Yanhuitlan.<a name="FNanchor_16-1_33" id="FNanchor_16-1_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_16-1_33" class="fnanchor">16-*</a> Each day was named from a tree, a plant
+or an animal, and from them the individual received his names, as Four
+Lions, Five Roses, etc. (examples given by Herrera). This latter writer
+adds that the name was assigned by the priests when the child was seven
+years old (as among the Tzentals), part of the rite being to conduct it
+to the temple and bore its ears. He refers also to their auguries
+relating to marriage.<a name="FNanchor_16-2_34" id="FNanchor_16-2_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_16-2_34" class="fnanchor">16-&#8224;</a> These appear to have been different from
+among the Zapotecs. It was necessary that the youth should have a name
+bearing a higher number than that of the maiden, and also &#8220;that they
+should be related;&#8221; probably this applied only to certain formal
+marriages of the rulers which were obliged to be within the same <i>gens</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_13" id="section_13"></a><b>13.</b> I have referred in some detail to the rites and superstitions
+connected with the Calendar because they are all essential parts of
+Nagualism, carried on far into Christian times by the priests of this
+secret cult, as was fully recognized by the Catholic clergy. Wherever
+this calendar was in use, the Freemasonry of Nagualism extended, and its
+ritual had constant reference to it. Our fullest information about it
+does not come from central Mexico, but further south, in the region
+occupied by the various branches of the Mayan stock, by the ancestors of
+some one of which, perhaps, this singular calendar, and the symbolism
+connected with it, were invented.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most important older authorities on this subject is Francisco
+Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega, a learned Dominican, who was appointed Bishop of
+Chiapas and Soconusco in 1687, and who published at Rome, in 1702, a
+stately folio entitled &#8220;<i>Constitu<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>ciones Di&#339;cesanas del Obispado de
+Chiappa</i>,&#8221; comprising discussions of the articles of religion and a
+series of pastoral letters. The subject of Nagualism is referred to in
+many passages, and the ninth Pastoral Letter is devoted to it. As this
+book is one of extreme rarity, I shall make rather lengthy extracts from
+it, taking the liberty of condensing the scholastic prolixity of the
+author, and omitting his professional admonitions to the wicked.</p>
+
+<p>He begins his references to it in several passages of his Introduction
+or <i>Preambulo</i>, in which he makes some interesting statements as to the
+use to which the natives put their newly-acquired knowledge of writing,
+while at the same time they had evidently not forgotten the ancient
+method of recording ideas invented by their ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>The Bishop writes:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The Indians of New Spain retain all the errors of their time of
+heathenism preserved in certain writings in their own languages,
+explaining by abbreviated characters and by figures painted in a
+secret cypher<a name="FNanchor_17-1_35" id="FNanchor_17-1_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-1_35" class="fnanchor">17-*</a> the places, provinces and names of their early
+rulers, the animals, stars and elements which they worshiped, the
+ceremonies and sacrifices which they observed, and the years,
+months and days by which they predicted the fortunes of children at
+birth, and assign them that which they call the Naguals. These
+writings are known as Repertories or Calendars, and they are also
+used to discover articles lost or stolen, and to effect cures of
+diseases. Some have a wheel painted in them, like that of
+Pythagoras, described by the Venerable Bede; others portray a lake
+surrounded by the Naguals in the form of various animals. Some of
+the Nagualist Masters claim as their patron and ruler Cuchulchan,
+and they possessed a certain formula of prayer to him, written in
+the Popoluca tongue (which was called Baha in their time of
+heathenism), and which has been translated into Mexican.<a name="FNanchor_17-2_36" id="FNanchor_17-2_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-2_36" class="fnanchor">17-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Those who are selected to become the masters of these arts are
+taught from early childhood how to draw and paint these characters,
+and are obliged to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of
+the ancient Nagualists, and whatever else is included in these
+written documents, many of which we have held in our hands, and
+have heard them explained by such masters whom we had imprisoned
+for their guilt, and who had afterwards become converted and
+acknowledged their sins.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_17-3_37" id="FNanchor_17-3_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_17-3_37" class="fnanchor">17-&#8225;</a></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The Bishop made up his mind that extreme measures should be taken to
+eradicate these survivals of the ancient paganism in his diocese, and he
+therefore promulgated the following order in the year 1692:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are
+Nagualists adore their <i>naguals</i>, and look upon them as gods, and
+by their aid believe that they can foretell the future, discover
+hidden treasures, and fulfill their dishonest desires: we,
+therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an
+ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the
+church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks (con
+grillos y cepos), and we confer authority on every priest and
+curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of
+disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with
+especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism (y con
+rigor mayor &aacute; los dogmatizantes Nagualistas).&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_18-1_38" id="FNanchor_18-1_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_18-1_38" class="fnanchor">18-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In spite of these injunctions it is evident that he failed to destroy
+the seeds of what he esteemed this dangerous heresy in the parishes of
+his diocese; for his ninth Pastoral Letter, in which he exposes at
+length the character of Nagualism, is dated from the metropolitan city
+of Ciudad Real, on May 24, 1698. As much of it is germane to my theme, I
+translate as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;There are certain bad Christians of both sexes who do not hesitate
+to follow the school of the Devil, and to occupy themselves with
+evil arts, divinations, sorceries, conjuring, enchantments,
+fortune-telling, and other means to forecast the future.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These are those who in all the provinces of New Spain are known by
+the name of <i>Nagualists</i>. They pretend that the birth of men is
+regulated by the course and movements of stars and planets, and by
+observing the time of day and the months in which a child is born,
+they prognosticate its condition and the events, prosperous or
+otherwise, of its life; and the worst is that these perverse men
+have written down their signs and rules, and thus deceive the
+erring and ignorant.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These Nagualists practice their arts by means of Repertories and
+superstitious Calendars, where are represented under their proper
+names all the Naguals of stars, elements, birds, fishes, brute
+beasts and dumb animals; with a vain note of days and months, so
+that they can announce which corresponds to the day of birth of the
+infant. This is preceded by some diabolical ceremonies, after which
+they designate the field or other spot, where, after seven years
+shall have elapsed, the Nagual will appear to ratify the bargain.
+As the time approaches, they instruct the child to<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> deny God and
+His Blessed Mother, and warn him to have no fear, and not to make
+the sign of the cross. He is told to embrace his Nagual tenderly,
+which, by some diabolical art, presents itself in an affectionate
+manner even though it be a ferocious beast, like a lion or a tiger.
+Thus, with infernal cunning they persuade him that this Nagual is
+an angel of God, who will look after him and protect him in his
+after life.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To such diabolical masters the intelligent Indians apply, to learn
+from these superstitious Calendars, dictated by the Devil, their
+own fortunes, and the Naguals which will be assigned to their
+children, even before they are baptized. In most of the Calendars,
+the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which they
+call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with
+feathers which moves in the water. This sign corresponds with
+Mexzichuaut, which means Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds.<a name="FNanchor_19-1_39" id="FNanchor_19-1_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-1_39" class="fnanchor">19-*</a>
+The people also consult them in order to work injury on their
+enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices,
+and committing unspeakable atrocities.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Worse even than these are those who wander about as physicians or
+healers; who are none such, but magicians, enchanters, and
+sorcerers, who, while pretending to cure, kill whom they will. They
+apply their medicines by blowing on the patient, and by the use of
+infernal words; learned by heart by those who cannot read or write;
+and received in writing from their masters by those acquainted with
+letters. The Master never imparts this instruction to a single
+disciple, but always to three at a time, so that in the practice of
+the art it may be difficult to decide which one exerts the magical
+power. They blow on feathers, or sticks, or plants, and place them
+in the paths where they may be stepped on by those they wish to
+injure, thus causing chills, fevers, ugly pustules and other
+diseases; or they introduce into the body by such arts toads,
+frogs, snakes, centipedes, <a name="corr2" title="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="etc.,">etc,</ins> causing great torments. And
+by these same breathings and magic words they can burn down houses,
+destroy the growing crops and induce sickness. No one of the three
+disciples is permitted to practice any of these arts without
+previously informing the other two, and also the Master, by whom
+the three have been taught.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;We have learned by the confession of certain guilty parties how
+the Master begins to instruct his disciple. First he tells him to
+abjure God, the saints and the Virgin, not to invoke their names,
+and to have no fear of them. He then conducts him to the wood,
+glen, cave or field where the pact with the Devil is concluded,
+which they call &#8216;the agreement&#8217; or &#8216;the word given&#8217; (in Tzental
+<i>quiz</i>). In some provinces the disciple is laid on an ant-hill, and
+the Master standing above him calls forth a snake, colored with
+black, white and red, which is known as &#8216;the ant-mother&#8217; (in
+Tzental <i>zmezquiz</i>).<a name="FNanchor_19-2_40" id="FNanchor_19-2_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_19-2_40" class="fnanchor">19-&#8224;</a> This comes accompanied by the ants<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span>
+and other small snakes of the same kind, which enter at the joints
+of the fingers, beginning with the left hand, and coming out at the
+joints of the right hand, and also by the ears and the nose; while
+the great snake enters the body with a leap and emerges at its
+posterior vent. Afterwards the disciple meets a dragon vomiting
+fire, which swallows him entire and ejects him posteriorly. Then
+the Master declares he may be admitted, and asks him to select the
+herbs with which he will conjure, the disciple names them, the
+Master gathers them and delivers them to him, and then teaches him
+the sacred words.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;These words and ceremonies are substantially the same in all the
+provinces. The healer enters the house of the invalid, asks about
+the sickness, lays his hand on the suffering part, and then leaves,
+promising to return on the day following. At the next visit he
+brings with him some herbs which he chews or mashes with a little
+water and applies to the part. Then he repeats the <i>Pater Noster</i>,
+the <i>Ave</i>, the <i>Credo</i> and the <i>Salve</i> and blows upon the seat of
+disease, afterwards pronouncing the magical words taught him by his
+master. He continues blowing in this manner, inhaling and exhaling,
+repeating under his breath these magical expressions, which are
+powerful to kill or to cure as he chooses, through the compact he
+has made with the Devil. Finally, so as to deceive the bystanders,
+he ends with saying in a loud voice: &#8216;God the Father, God the Son,
+and God the Holy Ghost. Amen.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;This physician or healer is called in the towns of some of the
+provinces <i>poxta vanegs</i>, and the medicine <i>gspoxil</i>; and
+everything relating to healing among the Indians to which they
+apply these terms means also to practice sorcery; and all words
+derived from <i>pox</i> allude to the Nagual; for this in some provinces
+is called <i>poxlon</i>, and in others <i>patzlan</i>, and in many
+<i>tzihuizin</i>, which is something very much feared by the Indians. We
+have ascertained by the confessions of many who have been
+reconciled that the Devil at times appears to them in the shape of
+a ball or globe of fire in the air, with a tail like a comet.<a name="FNanchor_20-1_41" id="FNanchor_20-1_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_20-1_41" class="fnanchor">20-*</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;According to the most ancient traditions of these Indians this
+idol, <i>poxlon</i>, was one of the most important and venerated they
+had in the old<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> times, and the Tzentals revered it so much that
+they preserved it innumerable years painted on a tablet in the
+above figure. Even after they were converted to the faith, they
+hung it behind a beam in the church of the town of Oxchuc,
+accompanied by an image of their god Hicalahau, having a ferocious
+black face with the members of a man,<a name="FNanchor_21-1_42" id="FNanchor_21-1_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-1_42" class="fnanchor">21-*</a> along with five owls
+and vultures. By divine interposition, we discovered these on our
+second visit there in 1687, and had no little difficulty in getting
+them down, we reciting the creed, and the Indians constantly
+spitting as they executed our orders. These objects were publicly
+burned in the plaza.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In other parts they reverence the bones of the earlier Nagualists,
+preserving them in caves, where they adorn them with flowers and
+burn copal before them. We have discovered some of these and burned
+them, hoping to root out and put a stop to such evil ceremonies of
+the infernal sect of the Nagualists.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;At present, all are not so subject to the promptings of the Devil
+as formerly, but there are still some so closely allied to him that
+they transform themselves into tigers, lions, bulls, flashes of
+light and globes of fire. We can say from the declaration and
+solemn confession of some penitents that it is proved that the
+Devil had carnal relations with them, both as incubus and succubus,
+approaching them in the form of their Nagual; and there was one
+woman who remained in the forest a week with the demon in the form
+of her Nagual, acting toward him as does an infatuated woman toward
+her lover (como pudiera con su proprio amigo una muger amancebada).
+As a punishment for such horrible crimes our Lord has permitted
+that they lose their life as soon as their Nagual is killed; and
+that they bear on their own bodies the wound or mark of the blow
+which killed it; as the curas of Chamula, Copainala and other
+places have assured us.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The devilish seed of this Nagualism has rooted itself in the very
+flesh and blood of these Indians. It perseveres in their hearts
+through the instructions of the masters of the sect, and there is
+scarcely a town in these provinces in which it has not been
+introduced. It is a superstitious idolatry, full of monstrous
+incests, sodomies and detestable bestialities.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>Such are the words of the Bishop of Chiapas. We learn from his
+thoroughly instructed and unimpeachable testimony that at the beginning
+of the eighteenth century Nagualism was a widespread and active
+institution among the Indians of southern Mexico; that it was taught and
+practiced by professors who were so much feared and respected that, as
+he tells us in another passage, they were called &#8220;masters of the
+towns;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_21-2_43" id="FNanchor_21-2_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_21-2_43" class="fnanchor">21-&#8224;</a> that they gave systematic instruction to disciples in
+classes of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> three, all of whom were bound together by pledges of mutual
+information and assistance; that a fundamental principle of the
+organization and an indispensable step in the initiation into its
+mysteries was the abjuration of the Christian religion, and an undying
+hatred to its teachers and all others of the race of the white
+oppressors; and that when they made use of Christian phrases or
+ceremonies it was either in derision or out of hypocrisy, the better to
+conceal their real sentiments.</p>
+
+<p>There are a number of other witnesses from the seventeenth century that
+may be summoned to strengthen this testimony, if it needs it.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_14" id="section_14"></a><b>14.</b> In the <i>History of Guatemala</i>, written about 1690 by Francisco
+Antonio Fuentes y Guzman, the author gives some information about a
+sorcerer of this school, who was arrested in Totonicapan, and with whom
+the historian had something to do as <i>corregidor</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The redoubtable magician was a little old man, <i>viejezuelo</i>, and when
+caught had in his possession a document giving the days of the year
+according to the European calendar, with the Nagual, which belonged to
+each one. That for January is alone given by our writer, but it is
+probable that the other months merely repeated the naguals corresponding
+to the numbers. It ran as follows:</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Nagual Calendar for January.</i></p>
+
+<ul style="list-style-type: none; margin-left: 20%;">
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">1. Lion.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">2. Snake.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">3. Stone.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">4. Alligator.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">5. Ceiba tree.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">6. The quetzal (a bird).</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">7. A stick.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">8. Rabbit.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.5em;">9. A rope.</li>
+  <li>10. Leaf.</li>
+  <li>11. Deer.</li>
+  <li>12. Guacamayo (parrot).</li>
+  <li>13. Flower.</li>
+  <li>14. Toad.</li>
+  <li>15. Caterpillar.</li>
+  <li>16. A chip.</li>
+  <li>17. Arrow.</li>
+  <li>18. Broom.</li>
+  <li>19. Jaguar.</li>
+  <li>20. Corn-husk.</li>
+  <li>21. A flute.</li>
+  <li>22. Green-stone.</li>
+  <li>23. Crow.</li>
+  <li>24. Fire.</li>
+  <li>25. A pheasant.</li>
+  <li>26. A reed.</li>
+  <li>27. Opossum.</li>
+  <li>28. Huracan (the thunder-storm).</li>
+  <li>29. The vulture.</li>
+  <li>30. Hawk.</li>
+  <li>31. Bat.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>When the sorcerer was examined as to the manner of assigning the proper
+nagual to a child he gave the following account:</p>
+
+<p>Having been informed of its day of birth, he in due time called at the
+residence of the parents, and told the mother to bring the child into
+the field behind the house. Having there invoked the demon, the <i>nagual</i>
+of the child would appear under the form of the animal or object set
+opposite its birthday in the calendar, a serpent were it born on the 2d
+of January, a flower were it on the 13th, fire were it on the 24th, and
+so on. The sorcerer then addressed certain prayers to the <i>nagual</i> to
+protect the little one, and told the mother to take it daily to the same
+spot, where its <i>nagual</i> would appear to it, and would finally accompany
+it through all its life. Some, but not all, obtained the power of
+transforming themselves into the <i>nagual</i>, and the author declares that,
+though he could not cite such a case from his own experience, his father
+knew of several, and reliable priests, <i>religiosos de f&eacute;</i>, had told him
+enough examples to fill volumes.<a name="FNanchor_23-1_44" id="FNanchor_23-1_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_23-1_44" class="fnanchor">23-*</a></p>
+
+<p>The tribes to which this author refers were the Cakchiquels and Quiches,
+who spoke practically the same tongue. An examination of some of the old
+dictionaries prepared by the early missionaries furnishes further and
+interesting information about this obscure subject.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cakchiquel language of Guatemala, the word <i>naual</i> was applied
+both to the magician himself, to his necromantic art, and to the demonic
+agency which taught and protected him. This is shown by the following
+explanation, which I quote from Father Coto&#8217;s <i>Vocabulario de la Lengua
+Cakchiquel</i>, 1651, a manuscript in the library of the American
+Philosophical Society:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;<i>Magic</i> or <i>Necromancy</i>: <i>puz</i> or <i>naual</i>; and they were
+accustomed to call their magicians or sorcerers by the same terms.
+It was a kind of magic which they invoked in order to transform
+themselves into eagles, lions, tigers, etc. Thus, they said, <i>ru
+puz</i>, <i>ru naual</i>, <i>pedro l&aelig; cot</i>, <i>balam</i>, &#8216;Peter&#8217;s power, his
+<i>naual</i>, is a lion, a tiger.&#8217; They also applied the words <i>puz</i> and
+<i>naual</i> to certain trees, rocks and other inanimate objects, whence
+the Devil used to speak to them, and likewise to the idols which
+they worshiped, as <i>gazlic che</i>, <i>gazlic abah</i>, <i>huyu</i>, <i>k&#8217;o ru
+naual</i>, &#8216;The life of the tree, the life of the stone, of the hill,
+is its <i>naual</i>,&#8217; etc.; because they believed there was life in
+these objects. They used to have armies and<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> soldiery to guard
+their lands, and the captains, as well as many who were not
+captains, had their <i>nauales</i>. They called the captain <i>ru g&#8217;
+alache; rohobachi, ti ru gaah, ru pocob, ru gh&#8217; amay a ghay ti be
+chi naualil</i> [he works magic with his shield, his lance, and his
+arrows].</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;To practice such magical arts: <i>tin naualih</i> (&#8216;I practice magic&#8217;),
+an active verb. They use it, for instance, when a man asks his wife
+for something to eat or drink, and she has nothing, owing to his
+negligence, she will say: &#8216;Where do you suppose I can get what you
+want? Do you expect me to perform miracles&mdash;<i>xa pe ri tin
+naualih</i>&mdash;that they shall come to my hands?&#8217; So when one is asked
+to lend or give something which he has not, he will exclaim: <i>Tin
+naualih pe ri puvak</i>, etc. (&#8216;Can I perform miracles,&#8217; etc.)</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It also signifies to pretend something, concealing the truth, as
+<i>xa ru naualim ara neh chu g&#8217; ux ri tzih tan tu bijh pedro</i>, &#8216;Peter
+is feigning this which he is saying.&#8217; They are also accustomed to
+apply this word to the power which the priests exert (in the
+sacraments, etc.).&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>A long and foolish account of the witchcraft supposed to be practiced
+among the Pokonchis of Guatemala, also a tribe of Mayan stock, is given
+by the Englishman, Thomas Gage, who was cura of a parish among them
+about 1630, and afterwards returned to England and Protestantism. He
+described, at wearisome length, the supposed metamorphosis of two chiefs
+of neighboring tribes, the one into a lion, the other into a tiger, and
+the mortal combat in which they engaged, resulting in the death of one
+to whom Gage administered absolution. No doubt he had been worsted in a
+personal encounter with his old enemy, and, being a man of eighty years,
+had not the vigor to recover. The account is of interest only as proving
+that the same superstitions at that time prevailed among the Pokonchis
+as in other portions of Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_24-1_45" id="FNanchor_24-1_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_24-1_45" class="fnanchor">24-*</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_15" id="section_15"></a><b>15.</b> A really mighty nagualist was not confined to a single
+transformation. He could take on many and varied figures. One such is
+described in the sacred books of the Quiches of Guatemala, that document
+known by the name of the Popol Vuh, or National Book. The passage is in
+reference to one of their great kings and powerful magicians, Gucumatz
+by name. It says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Truly he was a wonderful king. Every seven days he ascended to the
+sky, and every seven days he followed the path to the abode of the<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+dead; every seven days he put on the nature of a serpent, and then
+he became truly a serpent; every seven days he assumed the nature
+of an eagle, and then he became truly an eagle; then of a tiger and
+he became truly a tiger; then of coagulated blood, and he was
+nothing else than coagulated blood.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_25-1_46" id="FNanchor_25-1_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_25-1_46" class="fnanchor">25-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>It may be said that such passages refer metaphorically to the
+versatility of his character, but even if this is so, the metaphors are
+drawn from the universal belief in Nagualism which then prevailed, and
+they do not express it too strongly.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_16" id="section_16"></a><b>16.</b> Among the Maya tribes of Yucatan and Guatemala we have testimony to
+the continuance to this day of these beliefs. Father Bartolom&eacute; de Baeza,
+cura of Yaxcaba in the first half of this century, reports that an old
+man, in his dying confession, declared that by diabolical art he had
+transformed himself into an animal, doubtless his <i>nagual</i>; and a young
+girl of some twelve years confessed that she had been transformed into a
+bird by the witches, and in one of her nocturnal flights had rested on
+the roof of the very house in which the good priest resided, which was
+some two leagues from her home. He wisely suggests that, perhaps,
+listening to some tale of sorcery, she had had a vivid dream, in which
+she seemed to take this flight. It is obvious, however, from his
+account, as well as from other sources, that the belief of the
+transformation into lower animals was and is one familiar to the
+superstitions of the Mayas.<a name="FNanchor_25-2_47" id="FNanchor_25-2_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_25-2_47" class="fnanchor">25-&#8224;</a> The natives still continue to
+propitiate the ancient gods of the harvest, at the beginning of the
+season assembling at a ceremony called by the Spaniards the <i>misa
+milpera</i>, or &#8220;field mass,&#8221; and by themselves <i>ti&#8217;ch</i>, &#8220;the stretching
+out of the hands.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The German traveler, Dr. Scherzer, when he visited, in 1854, the remote
+hamlet of Istlavacan, in Guatemala, peopled by Quich&eacute; Indians,
+discovered that they had preserved in this respect the usages of their
+ancestors almost wholly unaffected by the teachings of their various
+Christian curates. The &#8220;Master&#8221; still assigned the <i>naguals</i> to the
+new-born infants, copal was burned to their ancient gods in remote
+caves, and formulas of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> invocation were taught by the veteran nagualists
+to their neophytes.<a name="FNanchor_26-1_48" id="FNanchor_26-1_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-1_48" class="fnanchor">26-*</a></p>
+
+<p>These <i>Zahoris</i>,<a name="FNanchor_26-2_49" id="FNanchor_26-2_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-2_49" class="fnanchor">26-&#8224;</a> as they are generally called in the Spanish of
+Central America, possessed many other mysterious arts besides that of
+such metamorphoses and of forecasting the future. They could make
+themselves invisible, and walk unseen among their enemies; they could in
+a moment transport themselves to distant places, and, as quickly
+returning, report what they had witnessed; they could create before the
+eyes of the spectator a river, a tree, a house, or an animal, where none
+such existed; they could cut open their own stomach, or lop a limb from
+another person, and immediately heal the wound or restore the severed
+member to its place; they could pierce themselves with knives and not
+bleed, or handle venomous serpents and not be bitten; they could cause
+mysterious sounds in the air, and fascinate animals and persons by their
+steady gaze; they could call visible and invisible spirits, and the
+spirits would come.</p>
+
+<p>Among the native population of the State of Vera Cruz and elsewhere in
+southern Mexico these mysterious personages go by the name <i>padrinos</i>,
+godfathers, and are looked upon with a mixture of fear and respect. They
+are believed by the Indians to be able to cause sickness and domestic
+calamities, and are pronounced by intelligent whites to present &#8220;a
+combination of rascality, duplicity and trickery.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_26-3_50" id="FNanchor_26-3_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_26-3_50" class="fnanchor">26-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_17" id="section_17"></a><b>17.</b> The details of the ceremonies and doctrines of Nagualism have never
+been fully revealed; but from isolated occurrences and partial
+confessions it is clear that its adherents formed a coherent association
+extending over most of southern<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> Mexico and Guatemala, which everywhere
+was inspired by two ruling sentiments&mdash;detestation of the Spaniards and
+hatred of the Christian religion.</p>
+
+<p>In their eyes the latter was but a cloak for the exactions, massacres
+and oppressions exerted by the former. To them the sacraments of the
+Church were the outward signs of their own subjugation and misery. They
+revolted against these rites in open hatred, or received them with
+secret repugnance and contempt. In the Mexican figurative manuscripts
+composed after the conquest the rite of baptism is constantly depicted
+as the symbol of religious persecution. Says a sympathetic student of
+this subject:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The act of baptism is always inserted in their records of battles
+and massacres. Everywhere it conveys the same idea,&mdash;making evident
+to the reader that the pretext for all the military expeditions of
+the Spaniards was the enforced conversion to Christianity of the
+natives; a pretext on which the Spaniards seized in order to
+possess themselves of the land and its treasure, to rob the Indians
+of their wives and daughters, to enslave them, and to spill their
+blood without remorse or remission. One of these documents, dated
+in 1526, adds a trait of savage irony. A Spanish soldier is
+represented dragging a fugitive Indian from a lake by a lasso
+around his neck; while on the shore stands a monk ready to baptize
+the recreant on his arrival!&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_27-1_51" id="FNanchor_27-1_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_27-1_51" class="fnanchor">27-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>No wonder that the priests of the dark ritual of Nagualism for centuries
+after the conquest sought to annul the effects of the hated Christian
+sacraments by counteracting ceremonies of their own, as we are told they
+did by the historian Torquemada, writing from his own point of view in
+these words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The Father of Lies had his ministers who aided him, magicians and
+sorcerers, who went about from town to town, persuading the simple
+people to that which the Enemy of Light desired. Those who believed
+their deceits, and had been baptized, were washed on the head and
+breast by these sorcerers, who assured them that this would remove
+the effects of the chrism and the holy oils. I myself knew an
+instance where a person of prominence, who resided not far from the
+City of Mexico, was dying, and had received extreme unction; and
+when the priest had departed one of these diabolical ceremonialists
+entered, and washed all the parts which had been anointed by the
+holy oil with the intention to destroy its power.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_27-2_52" id="FNanchor_27-2_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_27-2_52" class="fnanchor">27-&#8224;</a></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Similar instances are recorded by Jacinto de la Serna. He adds that not
+only did the Masters prescribe sacrifices to the Fire in order to annul
+the effects of extreme unction, but they delighted to caricature the
+Eucharist, dividing among their congregation a narcotic yellow mushroom
+for the bread, and the inebriating pulque for the wine. Sometimes they
+adroitly concealed in the pyx, alongside the holy wafer, some little
+idol of their own, so that they really followed their own superstitions
+while seemingly adoring the Host. They assigned a purely pagan sense to
+the sacred formula, &#8220;Father, Son and Holy Ghost,&#8221; understanding it to be
+&#8220;Fire, Earth and Air,&#8221; or the like.<a name="FNanchor_28-1_53" id="FNanchor_28-1_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-1_53" class="fnanchor">28-*</a></p>
+
+<p>Whoever or whatever was an enemy to that religion so brutally forced upon
+these miserable creatures was to them an ally and a friend. Nu&ntilde;ez de la
+Vega tells us that he found written formulas among them reading: &#8220;O
+Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, come to our
+aid!&#8221;&mdash;pathetic and desperate appeal of a wretched race, ground to earth
+under the iron heels of a religious and military despotism.<a name="FNanchor_28-2_54" id="FNanchor_28-2_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-2_54" class="fnanchor">28-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_18" id="section_18"></a><b>18.</b> The association embraced various tribes and its members were
+classified under different degrees. The initiation into these was by
+solemn and often painful ceremonies. Local sodalities or brotherhoods
+were organized after the manner of those usual in the Roman Church; but
+instead of being named after St. John or the Virgin Mary they were
+dedicated to Judas Iscariot or Pontius Pilate out of derision and hatred
+of the teachings of the priests; or to the Devil or Antichrist, who were
+looked upon as powerful divinities in opposition to the Church.<a name="FNanchor_28-3_55" id="FNanchor_28-3_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_28-3_55" class="fnanchor">28-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>There were certain recognized centres of the association, near which its
+most important dignitaries resided, and where their secret councils and
+most imposing ceremonies were held. One of these was Zamayac, in the
+province of Suchiltepec; a second near Huehuetan, Soconusco; a third at
+Totonicapan, Guate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>mala; a fourth at Cancuc, Chiapas; a fifth at
+Teozapotlan, Oaxaca; and a few others may be surmised.</p>
+
+<p>The high priest who resided at each of these centres exercised control
+over all the nagualistic teachers and practitioners in an extensive
+district. On the occasion of an official inquiry by the Spanish
+authorities it was ascertained that the high priest of Zamayac included
+under his rule nearly one thousand sub-priests,<a name="FNanchor_29-1_56" id="FNanchor_29-1_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-1_56" class="fnanchor">29-*</a> and no doubt
+others of his rank were not less potent.</p>
+
+<p>The unity between the members of the association over an indefinitely
+wide area was perfectly well known to the Spanish priests and civil
+authorities. The ceremonies, formulas and methods of procedure were
+everywhere identical or alike. This itself was justly regarded as a
+proof of the secret intelligence which existed among the members of this
+cabalistic guild.<a name="FNanchor_29-2_57" id="FNanchor_29-2_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-2_57" class="fnanchor">29-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>To a certain extent, and at least in some localities, as Chiapas and
+Guatemala, the priesthood of Nagualism was hereditary in particular
+families. This is especially stated by the historian Ordo&ntilde;ez y Aguiar,
+who had exceptional opportunities for acquainting himself with the
+facts.<a name="FNanchor_29-3_58" id="FNanchor_29-3_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-3_58" class="fnanchor">29-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>A traveler of the first decade of this century, who has left us a number
+of curious details of the superstitions of the Christianized Indians in
+Mexico of that day, Benito Maria de Mox&ograve;, informs us that he had
+discovered the existence of different grades in the native soothsayers
+and medicine men, and that all in a given locality recognized the
+supremacy of one whom they referred to as &#8220;the little old man,&#8221; <i>El
+Viejito</i>. But he was unable to ascertain by what superior traits or
+rights he obtained this distinction.<a name="FNanchor_29-4_59" id="FNanchor_29-4_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_29-4_59" class="fnanchor">29-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>According to some authorities, the highest grade of these native
+hierophants bore among the Nahuas the symbolic name<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> of &#8220;flower
+weavers,&#8221; <i>Xochimilca</i>, probably from the skill they had to deceive the
+senses by strange and pleasant visions.<a name="FNanchor_30-1_60" id="FNanchor_30-1_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-1_60" class="fnanchor">30-*</a> In the south they were
+spoken of as &#8220;guardians,&#8221; which may have been derived from the classes
+of priests so-called in the Zapotec religion.<a name="FNanchor_30-2_61" id="FNanchor_30-2_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-2_61" class="fnanchor">30-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_19" id="section_19"></a><b>19.</b> It will be seen from the above, that Nagualism, beginning in an
+ancient superstition dating back to the time of primitive barbarism,
+became after the Conquest a potent factor in the political and social
+development of the peoples among whom it existed; that it was the source
+from which was drawn and the means by which was sustained the
+race-hatred of the native American towards his foreign conquerors,
+smouldering for centuries, now and then breaking out in furious revolt
+and civil war.</p>
+
+<p>There is strong reason to suspect its power where, for obvious reasons,
+it has not been demonstrated. It has always been a mystery and a matter
+of surprise to the historians of Yucatan how rapidly spread the plans of
+the insurrection which secured lasting independence for the natives,
+after these plans had been agreed upon by the two chiefs, Antonio Ay and
+Cecilio Chi, at the remote rancho of Xihum, in July, 1847. Such
+unanimity of action could only have been possible through the aid of a
+powerful, well-disciplined and widespread secret organization. There can
+scarcely be a doubt they were the chiefs or masters of the redoubtable
+order of Nagualism in the Peninsula.<a name="FNanchor_30-3_62" id="FNanchor_30-3_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_30-3_62" class="fnanchor">30-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>There is no question that such was the case with the brief and bloody
+revolt of the Mayas in 1761. It suddenly broke out in a number of
+villages near Valladolid, Yucatan, headed by a full-blood native,
+Jacinto Can-Ek; but some of the participants afterwards confessed that
+it was the outcome of a conspiracy which had been preparing for a year.</p>
+
+<p>When the appointed day arrived, Jacinto boldly announced himself as the
+high priest of the fraternity of sorcerers, a master and teacher of
+magic, and the lineal successor of the famous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> ancient prophet, Chilan
+Balam, &#8220;whose words cannot fail.&#8221; In a stirring appeal he urged his
+fellow-countrymen to attack the Spaniards without fear of consequences.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;&#8216;Be not afraid,&#8217; he exclaimed, &#8216;of their cannons and their forts;
+for among the many to whom I have taught the arts of magic (el arte
+de brujeria) there are fifteen chosen ones, marvelous experts, who
+by their mystic power will enter the fortress, slay the sentinels,
+and throw open the gates to our warriors. I shall take the leaves
+of the sacred tree, and folding them into trumpets, I shall call to
+the four winds of heaven, and a multitude of fighting men will
+hasten to our aid.&#8217;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_31-1_63" id="FNanchor_31-1_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_31-1_63" class="fnanchor">31-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Saying this, he took a sheet of paper, held it up to show that it was
+blank, folded it for a moment, and then spread it out covered with
+writing! This deft trick convinced his simple-minded hearers of the
+truth of his claims and they rushed to arms. He led them, clothed in the
+robe of the Virgin and with her crown on his head. But neither their
+enthusiasm nor their leader&#8217;s art magic availed, and soon Jacinto and
+his followers fell victims to the stake and the gallows. After their
+death the dance of &#8220;the tiger,&#8221; or of Chac-Mool&mdash;the &#8220;ghost dance&#8221; of
+the Mayas&mdash;was prohibited; and the use of the sacred drum&mdash;the favorite
+instrument of the native priests&mdash;was forbidden.<a name="FNanchor_31-2_64" id="FNanchor_31-2_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_31-2_64" class="fnanchor">31-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>In fact, wherever we have any full accounts of the revolts against the
+Spanish domination during the three centuries of its existence in New
+Spain, we can manifestly trace the guiding fingers of the powerful
+though hidden hand of Nagualism. An earlier revolt of the Mayas in
+Yucatan occurred in 1585. It was led by Andres Chi, a full-blood Indian,
+and a descendant of the ancient royal house of the Cocomes. He also
+announced himself as a priest of the ancient faith, a prophet and a
+worker of miracles, sent to instruct his own people in a new religion
+and to give them an independent political existence. Seized by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> the
+Spaniards, he was charged with idolatry, sorcery and disturbing the
+peace, and was ignominiously hanged.<a name="FNanchor_32-1_65" id="FNanchor_32-1_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-1_65" class="fnanchor">32-*</a></p>
+
+<p>Not less definitely inspired by the same ideas was the Mixe Indian,
+known as &#8220;Don Pascual,&#8221; who led the revolt of the Tehuantepec tribes in
+1661. He sent out his summons to the &#8220;thirteen governors of the Zapotecs
+and Chontales&#8221; to come to his aid, and the insurrection threatened to
+assume formidable proportions, prevented only by bringing to bear upon
+the natives the whole power of the Roman Church through the Bishop of
+Oaxaca, Cuevas Davalos.<a name="FNanchor_32-2_66" id="FNanchor_32-2_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-2_66" class="fnanchor">32-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>Nearly the same locality had been the scene of the revolt of the
+Zapotecs in 1550, when they were led by a native priest who claimed to
+be an incarnation of the old god Quetzalcoatl, the patron deity of the
+nagualists.<a name="FNanchor_32-3_67" id="FNanchor_32-3_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-3_67" class="fnanchor">32-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>In the city of Mexico itself, in the year 1692, there was a violent
+outbreak of the natives, when they destroyed three million dollars worth
+of property. Doubtless this was partly attributable to the scarcity of
+food which prevailed; but that the authorities traced it also to some
+secret ceremonials is evident from the law which was immediately passed
+forbidding the Indians to wear the <i>piochtli</i>, or scalp-lock, a portion
+of the hair preserved from birth as part of the genethliac
+rituals,<a name="FNanchor_32-4_68" id="FNanchor_32-4_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_32-4_68" class="fnanchor">32-&sect;</a> and the especial enactments against the <i>octli</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As for the revolt of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1712, it was clearly
+and confessedly under the leadership of the nagualistic priesthood, as I
+shall indicate on a later page.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the native American race under the Spanish power in North
+America has never yet been written with the slightest approach to
+thoroughness. He who properly qualifies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span> himself for that task will
+certainly reach the conclusion expressed a number of years ago by the
+eminent American antiquary and historian, Mr. E. G. Squier, in these
+words:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Among the ruling and priestly classes of the semi-civilized
+nations of America, there has always existed a mysterious bond, a
+secret organization, which all the disasters to which they have
+been subjected have not destroyed. It is to its present existence
+that we may attribute those simultaneous movements of the
+aborigines of Mexico and Central America, which have more than once
+threatened the complete subversion of the Spanish power.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_33-1_69" id="FNanchor_33-1_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-1_69" class="fnanchor">33-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>That mysterious bond, that secret organization, is <i>Nagualism</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_20" id="section_20"></a><b>20.</b> A remarkable feature in this mysterious society was the exalted
+position it assigned to Women. Not only were they admitted to the most
+esoteric degrees, but in repeated instances they occupied the very
+highest posts in the organization. According to the traditions of the
+Tzentals and Pipils of Chiapas, when their national hero, Votan,
+constructed by the breath of his mouth his darkened shrine at
+Tlazoaloyan, in Soconusco, he deposited in it the sacred books and holy
+relics, and constituted a college of venerable sages to be its
+guardians; but placed them all in subjection to a high priestess, whose
+powers were absolute.<a name="FNanchor_33-2_70" id="FNanchor_33-2_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-2_70" class="fnanchor">33-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>The veracious Pascual de Andagoya asserts from his own knowledge that
+some of these female adepts had attained the rare and peculiar power of
+being in two places at once, as much as a league and a half
+apart;<a name="FNanchor_33-3_71" id="FNanchor_33-3_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_33-3_71" class="fnanchor">33-&#8225;</a> and the repeated references to them in the Spanish
+writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries confirm the dread in
+which they were held and the extensive influence they were known to
+control. In the sacraments of Nagualism, Woman was the primate and
+hierophant.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_21" id="section_21"></a><b>21.</b> This was a lineal inheritance from pre-Columbian times. In many
+native American legends, as in others from the old world, some powerful
+enchantress is remembered as the founder of the State, mistress of men
+through the potency of her magic powers.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>Such, among the Aztecs, was the sorceress who built the city of
+Mallinalco, on the road from Mexico to Michoacan, famous even after the
+conquest for the skill of its magicians, who claimed descent from
+her.<a name="FNanchor_34-1_72" id="FNanchor_34-1_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-1_72" class="fnanchor">34-*</a> Such, in Honduras, was Coamizagual, queen of Cerquin, versed
+in all occult science, who died not, but at the close of her earthly
+career rose to heaven in the form of a beautiful bird, amid the roll of
+thunder and the flash of lightning.<a name="FNanchor_34-2_73" id="FNanchor_34-2_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-2_73" class="fnanchor">34-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>According to an author intimately familiar with the Mexican nagualists,
+the art they claimed to possess of transforming themselves into the
+lower animals was taught their predecessors by a woman, a native Circe,
+a mighty enchantress, whose usual name was Quilaztli (the etymology of
+which is unknown), but who bore also four others, representing her four
+metamorphoses, Cohuacihuatl, the Serpent Woman; Quauhcihuatl, the Eagle
+Woman; Yaocihuatl, the Warrior Woman; and Tzitzimecihuatl, the Specter
+Woman.<a name="FNanchor_34-3_74" id="FNanchor_34-3_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-3_74" class="fnanchor">34-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>The powers of these queens of magic extended widely among their sex. We
+read in the chronicles of ancient Mexico that when Nezahualpilli, the
+king, oppressed the tribes of the coast, the <i>tierra caliente</i>, they
+sent against him, not their warriors, but their witches. These cast upon
+him their fatal spells, so that when he walked forth from his palace,
+blood burst from his mouth, and he fell prone and dead.<a name="FNanchor_34-4_75" id="FNanchor_34-4_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_34-4_75" class="fnanchor">34-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>In Guatemala, as in ancient Delphos, the gods were believed to speak
+through the mouths of these inspired seeresses, and at the celebration
+of victories they enjoyed a privilege so strange and horrible that I
+quote it from the old manuscript before me without venturing a
+translation:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;... Despues de sacrificar los antiguos algun hombre,
+despeda&ccedil;andolo, si era de los que avian cogido en guerra, dicen que
+guardaban el<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span> miembro genital y los testiculos del tal sacrificado,
+y se los daban &agrave; una vieja que tenian por profeta, para que los
+comiese, y le pedian rogasse &agrave; su idolo les diesse mas
+captivos.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_35-1_76" id="FNanchor_35-1_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-1_76" class="fnanchor">35-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>When Captain Pedro de Alvarado, in the year 1524, was marching upon
+Quetzaltanango, in Guatemala, just such a fearful old witch took her
+stand at the summit of the pass, with her familiar in the shape of a
+dog, and &#8220;by spells and nagualistic incantations&#8221; undertook to prevent
+his approach.<a name="FNanchor_35-2_77" id="FNanchor_35-2_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-2_77" class="fnanchor">35-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>As in the earliest, so in the latest accounts. The last revolt of the
+Indians of Chiapas occurred among the Zotzils in 1869. The cause of it
+was the seizure and imprisonment by the Spanish authorities of a
+&#8220;mystical woman,&#8221; known to the whites as Santa Rosa, who, together with
+one of their <i>ahaus</i> or chieftains, had been suspected of fomenting
+sedition. The natives marched thousands strong against the city of San
+Cristobal, where the prisoners were, and secured their liberation; but
+their leader, Ignacio Galindo, was entrapped and shot by the Spaniards,
+and the mutiny was soon quelled.<a name="FNanchor_35-3_78" id="FNanchor_35-3_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_35-3_78" class="fnanchor">35-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_22" id="section_22"></a><b>22.</b> But perhaps the most striking instance is that recorded in the
+history of the insurrection of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1713. They
+were led by an Indian girl, a native Joan of Arc, fired by like
+enthusiasm to drive from her country the hated foreign oppressors, and
+to destroy every vestige of their presence. She was scarcely twenty
+years old, and was known to the Spaniards as Maria Candelaria. She was
+the leader of what most historians call a religious sect, but what
+Ordo&ntilde;ez y Aguiar, himself a native of Chiapas, recognizes as the
+powerful secret association of Nagualism, determined on the extirpation
+of the white race. He estimates that in Chiapas alone there were nearly
+seventy thousand natives under her orders&mdash;doubtless an
+exaggeration&mdash;and asserts that the conspiracy extended far into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> the
+neighboring tribes, who had been ordered to await the result of the
+effort in Chiapas.</p>
+
+<p>Her authority was absolute, and she was merciless in requiring obedience
+to it. The disobedient were flayed alive or roasted over a slow fire.
+She and all her followers took particular pleasure in manifesting their
+hatred and contempt for the religion of their oppressors. They defiled
+the sacred vessels of the churches, imitated with buffoonery the
+ceremonies of the mass, which she herself performed, and stoned to death
+the priests whom they caught.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, her attempt against the power of Spain was hopeless. It
+failed after a bitter and protracted conquest, characterized by the
+utmost inhumanity on both sides. But when her followers were scattered
+and killed, when the victorious whites had again in their hands all the
+power and resources of the country, not their most diligent search, nor
+the temptation of any reward, enabled them to capture Maria Candelaria,
+the heroine of the bloody drama. With a few trusty followers she escaped
+to the forest, and was never again heard of.<a name="FNanchor_36-1_79" id="FNanchor_36-1_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-1_79" class="fnanchor">36-*</a></p>
+
+<p>More unfortunate were her friends and lieutenants, the priestesses of
+Guistiupan and Yajalon, who had valiantly seconded Maria in her
+patriotic endeavors. Seized by the Spaniards, they met the fate which we
+can easily imagine, though the historian has mercifully thrown a veil on
+its details.<a name="FNanchor_36-2_80" id="FNanchor_36-2_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-2_80" class="fnanchor">36-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_23" id="section_23"></a><b>23.</b> Of just such a youthful prophetess did Mr. E. G. Squier hear during
+his travels in Central America, a &#8220;<i>sukia</i> woman,&#8221; as she was called by
+the coast Indians, one who lived alone mid the ruins of an old Mayan
+temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and
+life in her hands.<a name="FNanchor_36-3_81" id="FNanchor_36-3_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_36-3_81" class="fnanchor">36-&#8225;</a> Per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>haps his account is somewhat fanciful;
+it is so, indeed; but it is grounded on the unshaken beliefs and ancient
+traditions of the natives of those climes, and on customs well known to
+those who reside there.</p>
+
+<p>The late distinguished Americanist, the Abb&eacute; Brasseur de Bourbourg,
+during his long travels in Mexico and Central America, had occasion more
+than once to come in contact with this trait of the ancient faith of the
+Nagualists, still alive in their descendants. Among the Zapotecs of the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec he saw one of the queens of the mystic
+fraternity, and he describes her with a warmth which proves that he had
+not lost his eye for the beautiful.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;She wore a piece of light-green stuff loosely folded around her
+form at the hips, and falling to a little distance above the ankle;
+a jacket of red silk gauze with short sleeves and embroidered with
+gold, clothed the upper part of her person, veiling her bosom, upon
+which lay a chain of heavy gold pieces, pierced and strung on a
+cord. Her rich black hair was divided on the forehead, and drawn
+back in two splendid tresses fastened with blue ribbons, while a
+white muslin kerchief encircled her head like the calantica of the
+ancient Egyptians. Never in my life have I seen a more striking
+figure of an Isis or a Cleopatra.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There was something strange in her expression. Her eyes were the
+blackest and the brightest in the world; but there were moments
+when she suddenly paused, leaned against the billiard table or the
+wall, and they became fixed and dead like those of a corpse. Then a
+fiery glance would shoot from beneath her dark lashes, sending a
+chill to the heart of the one to whom it was directed. Was it
+madness, or was it, as those around her believed, a momentary
+absence of soul, an absorption of her spirit into its <i>nagual</i>, a
+transportation into an unknown world? Who shall decide?&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_37-1_82" id="FNanchor_37-1_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_37-1_82" class="fnanchor">37-*</a></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_24" id="section_24"></a><b>24.</b> It would be a mistake to suppose that Nagualism was an incoherent
+medley of superstitions, a mass of jumbled fragments derived from the
+ancient paganism. My study of it has led me to a widely different
+conclusion. It was a perpetuation of a well-defined portion of the
+native cult, whose sources we are able to trace long anterior to the
+period of the conquest, and which had no connection with the elaborate
+and bloody ritual of the Aztecs. The evidence to this effect is cogent.</p>
+
+<p>Wherever in later days the Catholic priests found out the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> holy places
+and sacred objects of the nagualists, they were in-caves or deep
+rock-recesses, not in artificial structures. The myths they gleaned, and
+the names of the gods they heard, also point to this as a distinguishing
+peculiarity. An early instance is recorded among the Nahuas of Mexico.
+In 1537 Father Perea discovered a cavern in a deep ravine at Chalma,
+near Mallinalco (a town famous for its magicians), which was the
+sanctuary of the deity called <i>Oztoteotl</i>, the Cave God (<i>oztotl</i>, cave;
+<i>teotl</i>, god), &#8220;venerated throughout the whole empire of
+Montezuma.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_38-1_83" id="FNanchor_38-1_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_38-1_83" class="fnanchor">38-*</a> He destroyed the image of the god, and converted the
+cavern into a chapel.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot err in regarding Oztoteotl as merely another name of the
+Nahuatl divinity, Tepeyollotl, the Heart, or Inside, of the Mountain,
+who in the Codex Borgia and the Codex Vaticanus is represented seated
+upon or in a cavern. His name may equally well be translated &#8220;the Heart
+of the Place,&#8221; or &#8220;of the Town.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Eduard Seler has shown beyond reasonable question that this divinity
+did not originally belong to the Aztec Pantheon, but was introduced from
+the South, either from the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, or the Mayan tribes,
+beyond these.<a name="FNanchor_38-2_84" id="FNanchor_38-2_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_38-2_84" class="fnanchor">38-&#8224;</a> The Cave God of the Aztecs is identical with the
+Votan of the Tzentals of Chiapas, and with the U-q&#8217;ux Uleuh of the
+Quiches of Guatemala, and probably with the Cozaana of the Zapotecs.</p>
+
+<p>The rites of all of these were conducted in caverns, and there have been
+preserved several interesting descriptions of the contents of these
+sacred places. That relating to the &#8220;dark house of Votan&#8221; is given thus
+in the work of the Bishop of Chiapas:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Votan is the third hero who is named in the calendar, and some of
+his descendants still reside in the town of Teopisca, where they
+are known as Votans. He is sometimes referred to as Lord of the
+Sacred Drum, and he is said to have seen the great wall (which must
+have been the Tower of Babel), and to have divided this land among
+the Indians, and given to each tribe its language.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>&#8220;They say further that he once dwelt in Huehuetan, a town in the
+province of Soconusco. Near there, at the place called Tlazoaloyan,
+he constructed, by blowing with his breath, a dark house, and put
+tapirs in the river, and in the house a great treasure, and left
+all in charge of a noble lady, assisted by guardians (<i>tlapiane</i>)
+to preserve. This treasure consisted of earthenware vases with
+covers of the same material; a stone, on which were inscribed the
+figures of the ancient native heroes as found in the calendar;
+<i>chalchiuites</i>, which are green stones; and other superstitious
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;All of these were taken from the cave, and publicly burned in the
+plaza of Huehuetan on the occasion of our first diocesan visit
+there in 1691, having been delivered to us by the lady in charge
+and the guardians. All the Indians have great respect for this
+Votan, and in some places they call him &#8216;the Heart of the
+Towns.&#8217;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_39-1_85" id="FNanchor_39-1_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-1_85" class="fnanchor">39-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The English priest, Thomas Gage, who was curate of a parish among the
+Pokonchi Indians of Guatemala about 1630, relates his discovery of such
+a cave, in which the idol was preserved, and gives this description of
+it:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;We found the Idol standing upon a low stool covered with a linen
+cloth. The substance of it was wood, black shining like jet, as if
+it had been painted or smoked; the form was of a man&#8217;s head unto
+the shoulders, without either Beard or Mustachoes; his look was
+grim, with a wrinkled forehead, and broad staring eyes.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;They boasted of this their god, saying that he had plainly told
+them they should not believe anything I preached of Christ, but
+follow the old ways of their forefathers.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_39-2_86" id="FNanchor_39-2_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-2_86" class="fnanchor">39-&#8224;</a></p></div>
+
+<p>The black color here mentioned was a relic of ancient symbolism,
+referring to the night, darkness, and the obscurity of the holy cavern.
+Vetancurt informs us that the priests of the ancient paganism were
+accustomed to rub their faces and bodies with an ointment of fat and
+pine soot when they went to sacrifice in the forests, so that they
+looked as black as <a name="corr3" title="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="negroes.">negroes</ins><a name="FNanchor_39-3_87" id="FNanchor_39-3_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_39-3_87" class="fnanchor">39-&#8225;</a> In the extract from Nu&ntilde;ez de
+la Vega already given, <i>Ical Ahau</i>, the &#8220;Black King,&#8221; is named as one of
+the divinities of the nagualists.</p>
+
+<p>In some parts the principal idol found in the caves was the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> mummied or
+exsiccated body of some former distinguished priest or chieftain. One
+such is recorded by Bartholom&eacute; de Pisa, which was found among the
+Zapotecs of Coatlan. It bore a name taken from the calendar, that of the
+tenth day, and was alleged to be the preserved cadaver of a celebrated
+ruler.<a name="FNanchor_40-1_88" id="FNanchor_40-1_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-1_88" class="fnanchor">40-*</a> Another interesting example is narrated by Villa Se&ntilde;or y
+Sanchez,<a name="FNanchor_40-2_89" id="FNanchor_40-2_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-2_89" class="fnanchor">40-&#8224;</a> who describes it as an eye-witness. It was discovered
+in a spacious cave located some distance to the west of the city of
+Mexico, in Nahuatl territory, on the side of what was known as &#8220;the Sun
+mountain&#8221;&mdash;<i>la Mesa de Tonati</i>. He speaks of it as remarkably well
+preserved, &#8220;both the muscles and the bones.&#8221;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;It was seated in an armchair which served for a throne, and was
+clothed in a mantle, which fell from the shoulders to the feet.
+This was richly adorned with precious stones, which, according to
+the native custom, were sewed into the texture of the cloth. The
+figure also wore shoulder straps, collars, bracelets and fastenings
+of silver. From its forehead rose a crown of beautiful feathers of
+different colors arranged so that one color should alternate with
+another. The left hand was resting on the arm of the chair, while
+in the right was a sharp cutlass with silver mountings. At its feet
+were several vases of fine stone, as marble and alabaster, in which
+were offerings of blood and meat, obtained from the sacrifices.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>The same writer refers to other examples of these sacred caves which he
+had seen in his journeys. One was near the town of Teremendo, where the
+sides and roof had been artificially dressed into the shape of huge
+arches. A natural altar had been provided in a similar manner, and on
+it, at the time of his visit, were numerous idols in the figures of men
+and animals, and before them fresh offerings of copal and food.
+Elsewhere he refers to many such caverns still in use as places resorted
+to by the natives in <i>la gran Sierra de Tlascala</i>.<a name="FNanchor_40-3_90" id="FNanchor_40-3_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_40-3_90" class="fnanchor">40-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>These extracts prove the extent of this peculiar worship and the number
+of these subterranean temples in recent generations. The fame of some of
+the greater ones of the past still survives, as the vast grotto of
+Chalcatongo, near Achiutla, which was the sepulchral vault of its
+ancient kings; that of Totomachiapa, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> solemn scene of sacrifice for
+the ancient priests; that of Justlahuaca, near Sola (Oaxaca), which was
+a place of worship of the Zapotecs long after the Conquest; and that in
+the Cerro de Monopostiac, near San Francisco del Mar.<a name="FNanchor_41-1_91" id="FNanchor_41-1_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-1_91" class="fnanchor">41-*</a></p>
+
+<p>The intimate meaning of this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The
+Cave God, the Heart of the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil,
+from whose dark recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender
+shoots of the food-plants, as well as the great trees. To the native
+Mexican, the Earth was the provider of food and drink, the common Father
+of All; so that to this day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops
+to the earth, touches it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula:
+<i>Cuix amo nechitla in toteotzin?</i> &#8220;Does not our Great God see me?&#8221;</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_25" id="section_25"></a><b>25.</b> The identity of the Tepeyollotl of the Nahuas and the Votan of the
+Tzentals is shown not only in the oneness of meaning of the names, but
+in the fact that both represent the <i>third</i> day in the ritual calendar.
+For this reason I take it, we find the number <i>three</i> so generally a
+sacred number in the symbolism of the nagualists. We have already
+learned in the extract from Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega that the neophytes were
+instructed in classes of three. To this day in Soteapan the fasts and
+festivals appointed by the native ministrants are three days in
+duration.<a name="FNanchor_41-2_92" id="FNanchor_41-2_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-2_92" class="fnanchor">41-&#8224;</a> The semi-Christianized inhabitants of the Sierra of
+Nayerit, the Nahuatl-speaking Chotas, continued in the last century to
+venerate three divinities, the Dawn, the Stone and the Serpent;<a name="FNanchor_41-3_93" id="FNanchor_41-3_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-3_93" class="fnanchor">41-&#8225;</a>
+analogous to a similar &#8220;trinity&#8221; noted by Father Duran among the ancient
+Aztecs.<a name="FNanchor_41-4_94" id="FNanchor_41-4_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-4_94" class="fnanchor">41-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>The number <i>nine</i>, that is, 3 x 3, recurs so frequently in the
+conjuration formulas of the Mexican sorcerers that de la Serna exclaims:
+&#8220;It was the Devil himself who inculcated into them this superstition
+about the number nine.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_41-5_95" id="FNanchor_41-5_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_41-5_95" class="fnanchor">41-&#8214;</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>The other number sacred to the nagualists was <i>seven</i>. I have, in a
+former essay, given various reasons for believing that this was not
+derived from the seven days of the Christian week, but directly from the
+native calendar.<a name="FNanchor_42-1_96" id="FNanchor_42-1_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-1_96" class="fnanchor">42-*</a> Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega tells us that the patron of the
+seventh day was <i>Cuculcan</i>, &#8220;the Feathered Serpent,&#8221; and that many
+nagualists chose him as their special protector. As already seen, in
+Guatemala the child finally accepted its <i>naual</i> when seven years old;
+and among some of the Nahuatl tribes of Mexico the <i>tonal</i> and the
+calendar name was formally assigned on the seventh day after
+birth.<a name="FNanchor_42-2_97" id="FNanchor_42-2_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-2_97" class="fnanchor">42-&#8224;</a> From similar impressions the Cakchiquels of Guatemala
+maintained that when the lightning strikes the earth the &#8220;thunder stone&#8221;
+sinks into the soil, but rises to the surface after seven
+years.<a name="FNanchor_42-3_98" id="FNanchor_42-3_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-3_98" class="fnanchor">42-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>The three and the seven were the ruling numbers in the genealogical
+trees of the Pipiles of San Salvador. The &#8220;tree&#8221; was painted with
+<i>seven</i> branches representing degrees of relationship within which
+marriage was forbidden unless a man had performed some distinguished
+exploit in war, when he could marry beyond the nearest <i>three</i> degrees
+of relationship.<a name="FNanchor_42-4_99" id="FNanchor_42-4_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-4_99" class="fnanchor">42-&sect;</a> Another combination of 3 and 7, by
+multiplication, explains the customs among the Mixes of deserting for 21
+days a house in which a death has occurred.<a name="FNanchor_42-5_100" id="FNanchor_42-5_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-5_100" class="fnanchor">42-&#8214;</a></p>
+
+<p>The indications are that the nagualists derived these numbers from the
+third and seventh days of the calendar &#8220;month&#8221; of twenty days.
+Tepeololtec, the Cave God, was patron of the third day and also &#8220;Lord of
+Animals,&#8221; the transformation into which was the test of nagualistic
+power.<a name="FNanchor_42-6_101" id="FNanchor_42-6_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_42-6_101" class="fnanchor">42-&para;</a> Tlaloc, god of the mountains and the rains, to whom the
+seventh day was hallowed, was represented by the nagualistic symbol of a
+snake doubled and twisted on itself, and was generally portrayed in
+connection with the &#8220;Feathered Serpent&#8221; (Quetzalcoatl, Cuculchan,
+Gukumatz, all names meaning this), represented as carrying his medicine
+bag, <i>xiquipilli</i>, and incensory, the apparatus of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> native
+illuminati, his robe marked with the sign of the cross to show that he
+was Lord of the Four Winds and of Life.<a name="FNanchor_43-1_102" id="FNanchor_43-1_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-1_102" class="fnanchor">43-*</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_26" id="section_26"></a><b>26.</b> The nagualistic rites were highly symbolic, and the symbols used had
+clearly defined meanings, which enable us to analyze the religious ideas
+underlying this mysterious cult.</p>
+
+<p>The most important symbol was Fire. It was regarded as the primal
+element and the immediate source of life. Father Nicolas de Leon has the
+following suggestive passage in this connection:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;If any of their old superstitions has remained more deeply rooted
+than another in the hearts of these Indians, both men and women, it
+is this about fire and its worship, and about making new fire and
+preserving it for a year in secret places. We should be on the
+watch for this, and when in their confessions they speak of what
+the Fire said and how the Fire wept, expressions which we are apt
+to pass by as unintelligible, we must lay our hands on them for
+reprehension. We should also be on the watch for their baptism by
+Fire, a ceremony called the <i>yiahuiltoca</i>,<a name="FNanchor_43-2_103" id="FNanchor_43-2_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-2_103" class="fnanchor">43-&#8224;</a> shortly after
+the birth of a child when they bestow on it the surnames; nor must
+the lying-in women and their assistants be permitted to speak of
+Fire as the father and mother of all things and the author of
+nature; because it is a common saying with them that Fire is
+present at the birth and death of every creature.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>This curious ceremony derived its name from the <i>yiahuitli</i>, a plant not
+unlike the absinthe, the powdered leaves of which, according to Father
+Sahagun, the natives were accustomed to throw into the flames as an
+offering to the fire.<a name="FNanchor_43-3_104" id="FNanchor_43-3_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-3_104" class="fnanchor">43-&#8225;</a> Long after the conquest, and probably to
+this day, the same custom prevails in Mexico, the fumes and odor of the
+burning leaves being considered very salubrious and purifying to the air
+of the sick <a name="corr4" title="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="room.">room</ins><a name="FNanchor_43-4_105" id="FNanchor_43-4_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_43-4_105" class="fnanchor">43-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>The word <i>yiahuiltoca</i> means &#8220;the throwing of the <i>yiauhtli</i>&#8221; (from
+<i>toca</i>, to throw upon with the hands). Another name for the ceremony,
+according to Father Vetancurt, who wrote a century later than Leon, was
+<i>apehualco</i>, which has substantially the same meaning, &#8220;a throwing upon&#8221;
+or &#8220;a throwing away.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_44-1_106" id="FNanchor_44-1_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_44-1_106" class="fnanchor">44-*</a> He adds the interesting particulars that it
+was celebrated on the fourth day after the birth of the child, during
+which time it was deemed essential to keep the fire burning in the
+house, but not to permit any of it to be carried out, as that would
+bring bad luck to the child.</p>
+
+<p>Jacinto de la Serna also describes this ceremony, to which he gives the
+name <i>tlecuixtliliztli</i>, &#8220;which means that they pass the infant over the
+fire;&#8221; and elsewhere he adds: &#8220;The worship of fire is the greatest
+stumbling-block to these wretched idolaters.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_44-2_107" id="FNanchor_44-2_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_44-2_107" class="fnanchor">44-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_27" id="section_27"></a><b>27.</b> Other ceremonies connected with fire worship took place in
+connection with the manufacture of the pulque, or <i>octli</i>, the fermented
+liquor obtained from the sap of the maguey plant. The writer just
+quoted, de Vetancurt, states that the natives in his day, when they had
+brewed the new pulque and it was ready to be drunk, first built a fire,
+walked in procession around it and threw some of the new liquor into the
+flames, chanting the while an invocation to the god of inebriation,
+Tezcatzoncatl, to descend and be present with them.</p>
+
+<p>This was distinctly a survival of an ancient doctrine which connected
+the God of Fire with the Gods of Drunkenness, as we may gather from the
+following quotation from the history composed by Father Diego Duran:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;The <i>octli</i> was a favorite offering to the gods, and especially to
+the God of Fire. Sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases,
+sometimes<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> it was scattered upon the flames with a brush, at other
+times it was poured out around the fireplace.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_45-1_108" id="FNanchor_45-1_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-1_108" class="fnanchor">45-*</a></p></div>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_28" id="section_28"></a><b>28.</b> The high importance of the fire ceremonies in the secret rituals of
+the modern Mayas is plainly evident from the native Calendars, although
+their signification has eluded the researches of students, even of the
+laborious Pio Perez, who was so intimately acquainted with their
+language and customs. In these Calendars the fire-priest is constantly
+referred to as <i>ah-toc</i>, literally &#8220;the fire-master.&#8221; The rites he
+celebrates recur at regular intervals of twenty days (the length of one
+native month) apart. They are four in number. On the first he takes the
+fire; on the second he kindles the fire; on the third he gives it free
+play, and on the fourth he extinguishes it. A period of five days is
+then allowed to elapse, when these ceremonies are recommenced in the
+same order. Whatever their meaning, they are so important that in the
+<i>Buk Xoc</i>, or General Computation of the Calendar, preserved in the
+mystic &#8220;Books of Chilan Balam,&#8221; there are special directions for these
+fire-masters to reckon the proper periods for the exercise of their
+strange functions.<a name="FNanchor_45-2_109" id="FNanchor_45-2_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-2_109" class="fnanchor">45-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_29" id="section_29"></a><b>29.</b> What, now, was the sentiment which underlay this worship of fire? I
+think that the facts quoted, and especially the words of Father de Leon,
+leave no doubt about it. Fire was worshiped as the life-giver, the
+active generator, of animate existence. This idea was by no means
+peculiar to them. It repeatedly recurs in Sanskrit, in Greek and in
+Teutonic mythology, as has been ably pointed out by Dr. Hermann
+Cohen.<a name="FNanchor_45-3_110" id="FNanchor_45-3_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_45-3_110" class="fnanchor">45-&#8225;</a> The fire-god Agni (<i>ignis</i>) is in the Vedas the Maker of
+men; Prometheus steals the fire from heaven that he may with it animate
+the human forms he has moulded of clay; even the connection of the
+pulque with the fire is paralleled in Greek mythos, where Dionysos is
+called <i>Pyrigenes</i>, the &#8220;fire-born.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Among the ancient Aztecs the god of fire was called the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> oldest of gods,
+<i>Huehueteotl</i>, and also &#8220;Our Father,&#8221; <i>Tota</i>, as it was believed from
+him all things were derived.<a name="FNanchor_46-1_111" id="FNanchor_46-1_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-1_111" class="fnanchor">46-*</a> Both among them and the Mayas, as I
+have pointed out in a previous work, he was supposed to govern the
+generative proclivities and the sexual relations.<a name="FNanchor_46-2_112" id="FNanchor_46-2_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-2_112" class="fnanchor">46-&#8224;</a> Another of his
+names was <i>Xiuhtecutli</i>, which can be translated &#8220;God of the Green
+Leaf,&#8221; that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.<a name="FNanchor_46-3_113" id="FNanchor_46-3_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-3_113" class="fnanchor">46-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>To transform themselves into a globe or ball of fire was, as we have
+seen (ant&egrave;, p. 21), a power claimed by expert nagualists, and to handle
+it with impunity, or to blow it from the mouth, was one of their
+commonest exhibitions. Nothing so much proved their superiority as thus
+to master this potent element.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_30" id="section_30"></a><b>30.</b> The same name above referred to, &#8220;the Heart of the Town,&#8221; or &#8220;of the
+Hills,&#8221; was that which at a comparatively late date was applied to an
+idol of green stone preserved with religious care in a cavern in the
+Cerro de Monopostiac, not far from San Francisco del Mar. The spot is
+still believed by the natives to be enchanted ground and protected by
+superhuman powers.<a name="FNanchor_46-4_114" id="FNanchor_46-4_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_46-4_114" class="fnanchor">46-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>These green stones, called <i>chalchiuitl</i>, of jadeite, nephrite, green
+quartz, or the like, were accounted of peculiar religious significance
+throughout southern Mexico, and probably to this day many are preserved
+among the indigenous population as amulets and charms. They were often
+carved into images, either in human form or representing a frog, the
+latter apparently the symbol of the waters and of fertility. Bartholom&egrave;
+de Alva refers to them in a passage of his Confessionary. The priest
+asks the penitent:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Dost thou possess at this very time little idols of green stone,
+or frogs made of it (<i>in chalchiuh coconeme, chalchiuh
+tamazoltin</i>)?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Dost thou put them out in the sun to be warmed? Dost thou keep
+them wrapped in cotton coverings, with great respect and
+veneration?</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Dost thou believe, and hold for very truth, that these green
+stones give thee food and drink, even as thy ancestors believed,
+who died in their idolatry? Dost thou believe that they give thee
+success and prosperity<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> and good things, and all that them hast or
+wishest? Because we know very well that many of you so believe at
+this very time.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_47-1_115" id="FNanchor_47-1_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-1_115" class="fnanchor">47-*</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Down to quite a recent date, and perhaps still, these green stones are
+employed in certain ceremonies in vogue among the Indians of Oaxaca in
+order to ensure a plenteous maize harvest. The largest ear of corn in
+the field is selected and wrapped up in a cloth with some of these
+chalchiuite. At the next corn-planting it is taken to the field and
+buried in the soil. This is believed to be a relic of the worship of the
+ancient Zapotec divinity, Quiegolani, who presided over cultivated
+fields.<a name="FNanchor_47-2_116" id="FNanchor_47-2_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-2_116" class="fnanchor">47-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+<p>They are still in use among the natives as lucky stones or amulets. In
+the Zotzil insurrection of 1869, already referred to, one was found
+suspended to the neck of one of the slain Indians. It came into the
+possession of M. Maler, who has described and figured it.<a name="FNanchor_47-3_117" id="FNanchor_47-3_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_47-3_117" class="fnanchor">47-&#8225;</a> It
+represents a human head with a curious expression and a singular
+headdress.</p>
+
+<p>From specimens of these amulets preserved in museums it is seen that any
+greenish stone was selected, preferably those yielding a high, vitreous
+polish, as jadeite, turquoise, emerald, chlormelanite or precious
+serpentine. The color gave the sacred character, and this, it seems to
+me, was distinctly meant to be symbolic of water and its effects, the
+green of growing plants, and hence of fertility, abundance and
+prosperity.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_31" id="section_31"></a><b>31.</b> There is another symbol, still venerated among the present
+indigenous population, which belongs to Nagualism, and is a survival
+from the ancient cult; this is the Tree. The species held in especial
+respect is the ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, the <i>ytzamatl</i> (knife-leaved
+paper tree) of the Nahuas, the <i>yax che</i> (green, or first tree) of the
+Mayas, the <i>Bombax ceiba</i> of the botanists. It is of great size and
+rapid growth. In Southern Mexico and Central America one is to be seen
+near many of the native villages, and is regarded as in some way the
+protecting genius of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mexican cult, and, what is
+curious, the same name was applied to such as to the fire,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> <i>Tota</i>, Our
+Father. They are said to have represented the gods of woods and
+waters.<a name="FNanchor_48-1_118" id="FNanchor_48-1_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-1_118" class="fnanchor">48-*</a> In the ancient mythology we often hear of the &#8220;tree of
+life,&#8221; represented to have four branches, each sacred to one of the four
+cardinal points and the divinities associated therewith.</p>
+
+<p>The conventionalized form of this tree in the Mexican figurative
+paintings strongly resembles a cross. Examples of it are numerous and
+unmistakable, as, for instance, the cruciform tree of life rising from a
+head with a protruding tongue, in the Vienna Codex.<a name="FNanchor_48-2_119" id="FNanchor_48-2_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-2_119" class="fnanchor">48-&#8224;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_32" id="section_32"></a><b>32.</b> Thus, the sign of the cross, either the form with equal arms known
+as the cross of St. Andrew, which is the oldest Christian form, or the
+Latin cross, with its arms of unequal length, came to be the ideogram
+for &#8220;life&#8221; in the Mexican hieroglyphic writing; and as such, with more
+or less variants, was employed to signify the <i>tonalli</i> or <i>nagual</i>, the
+sign of nativity, the natal day, the personal spirit.<a name="FNanchor_48-3_120" id="FNanchor_48-3_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_48-3_120" class="fnanchor">48-&#8225;</a> The
+ancient document called the Mappe Quinatzin offers examples, and its
+meaning is explained by various early writers. The peculiar character of
+the Mexican ritual calendar, by which nativities were calculated,
+favored a plan of representing them in the shape of a cross; as we see
+in the singular <i>Codex Cruciformis</i> of the Boturini-Goupil collection.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_33" id="section_33"></a><b>33.</b> But the doctrines of Nagualism had a phase even more detestable to
+the missionaries than any of these, an esoteric phase, which brought it
+into relation to the libidinous cults of Babylon and the orgies of the
+&#8220;Witches&#8217; Sabbaths&#8221; of the Dark Ages. Of these occult practices we of
+course have no detailed descriptions, but there are hints and
+half-glances which leave us in no doubt.</p>
+
+<p>When the mysterious metamorphosis of the individual into his or her
+<i>nagual</i> was about to take place, the person must<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> strip to absolute
+nudity;<a name="FNanchor_49-1_121" id="FNanchor_49-1_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-1_121" class="fnanchor">49-*</a> and the lascivious fury of bands of naked Nagualists,
+meeting in remote glades by starlight or in the dark recesses of caves,
+dancing before the statues of the ancient gods, were scenes that stirred
+the fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries to its highest pitch. Bishop
+Landa informs us that in Yucatan the dance there known as the <i>naual</i>
+was one of the few in which both men and women took part, and that it
+&#8220;was not very decent.&#8221; It was afterwards prohibited by the priests. We
+have excellent authority that such wild rites continued well into the
+present century, close to the leading cities of the State,<a name="FNanchor_49-2_122" id="FNanchor_49-2_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-2_122" class="fnanchor">49-&#8224;</a> and
+it is highly likely that they are not unknown to-day.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_34" id="section_34"></a><b>34.</b> Moreover, it is certain that among the Nagualists, one of their most
+revered symbols was the <i>serpent</i>; in Chiapas, one of their highest
+orders of the initiated was that of the <i>chanes</i>, or serpents. Not only
+is this in Christian symbolism the form and sign of the Prince of Evil
+and the enemy of God, but the missionaries were aware that in the
+astrological symbols of ancient Mexico the serpent represented the
+<i>phallus</i>; that it was regarded as the most potent of all the
+signs;<a name="FNanchor_49-3_123" id="FNanchor_49-3_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-3_123" class="fnanchor">49-&#8225;</a> and modern research has shown, contrary to the opinion
+long held, that there was among these nations an extraordinary and
+extensive worship of the reciprocal principle of nature, associated with
+numerous phallic emblems.<a name="FNanchor_49-4_124" id="FNanchor_49-4_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_49-4_124" class="fnanchor">49-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>Huge phalli of stone have been discovered, one, for instance, on the
+Cerro de las Navajas, not far from the city of Mexico,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> and another in
+the State of Hidalgo.<a name="FNanchor_50-1_125" id="FNanchor_50-1_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-1_125" class="fnanchor">50-*</a> Probably they were used in some such
+ceremonies as Oviedo describes among the Nahuas of Nicaragua, where the
+same symbol was represented by conical mounds of earth, around which at
+certain seasons the women danced with libidinous actions. Although as a
+general rule the pottery of ancient Mexico avoids obscenity, Brasseur
+stated that he had seen many specimens of a contrary character from
+certain regions,<a name="FNanchor_50-2_126" id="FNanchor_50-2_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-2_126" class="fnanchor">50-&#8224;</a> and Dr. Berendt has copied several striking
+examples, showing curious <i>yoni</i> symbols, which are now in my
+possession.</p>
+
+<p>We may explain these as in some way connected with the worship of
+Pantecatl, the male divinity who presided over profligate love, and of
+Tlazolteotl, the <i>Venus Impudica</i> of the Aztec pantheon; and it is not
+without significance that the cave-temple of Votan, whose contents were
+destroyed by the Bishop of Chiapas, in 1691 (see above, <a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>), was
+located at <i>Tlazoaloyan</i>, both names being derived from a root
+signifying sexual action.<a name="FNanchor_50-3_127" id="FNanchor_50-3_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-3_127" class="fnanchor">50-&#8225;</a> The other name of the divinity,
+called &#8220;the Heart of the Hills,&#8221; is in Quiche, Alom, &#8220;he who begets,&#8221;
+and the Zapotec Cozaana, another analogue of the same deity, is
+translated by Seler, &#8220;the Begetter.&#8221; Such facts indicate how intimately
+the esoteric doctrines of Nagualism were related to the worship of the
+reproductive powers of nature.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_35" id="section_35"></a><b>35.</b> It will readily be understood from what has been said that Nagualism
+was neither a pure descendant of the ancient cults, nor yet a derivative
+from Christian doctrines and European superstitions. It was a strange
+commingling of both, often in grotesque and absurd forms. In fact, the
+pretended Christianity of the native population of Mexico to-day is
+little more than a figment, according to the testimony of the most
+competent observers.<a name="FNanchor_50-4_128" id="FNanchor_50-4_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_50-4_128" class="fnanchor">50-&sect;</a></p>
+
+<p>The rituals and prayers of the nagualists bear witness to this. It is
+very visible in those I have quoted from Nu&ntilde;ez de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> la Vega, and I can
+add an interesting example of it which has not heretofore been
+published. I take it from the MSS. of Father Vicente Hernandez Spina,
+cura of Ixtlavacan, in Guatemala, a remote village of the Quiches. He
+wrote it down in the native tongue about forty years ago, as recited by
+an <i>ah-kih</i>, &#8220;reader of days,&#8221; a native master of the genethliac art,
+who had composed it in favor of a client who had asked his intercession.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Prayer of an Ah-Kih.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>&#8220;O Jesus Christ my God: thou God the Son, with the Father and the
+Holy Spirit, art my only God. Today, on this day, at this hour, on
+this day Tihax, I call upon the holy souls which accompany the
+sun-rising and the sun-setting of the day: with these holy souls I
+call upon thee, O chief of the genii, thou who dwellest in this
+mountain of Siba Raxquin; come, ye holy spirits of Juan Vachiac, of
+Don Domingo Vachiac, of Juan Ixquiaptap, the holy souls of
+Francisco Excoquieh, of Diego Soom, of Juan Fay, of Alonzo Tzep; I
+call the holy souls of Diego Tziquin and of Don Pedro Noh: you, O
+priests, to whom all things are revealed, and thou, chief of the
+genii, you, lords of the mountains, lords of the plains, thou, Don
+Purupeto Martin, come, accept this incense, accept to-day this
+candle.<a name="FNanchor_51-1_129" id="FNanchor_51-1_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_51-1_129" class="fnanchor">51-*</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Come also, my mother Holy Mary, the Lord of Esquipulas, the Lord
+of Capetagua, the beloved Mary of Chiantla, with her who dwells at
+San Lorenzo, and also Mary of Sorrows, Mary Saint Anna, Mary
+Tibureia, Mary of Carmen, with Saint Michael the Archangel, the
+captain St. James, St. Christoval, St. Sebastian, St. Nicolas, St.
+Bonaventura, St. Bernardin, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St.
+Bartholomew, and thou my beloved mother St. Catherine, thou beloved
+Mary of the Conception, Mary of the Rosary, thou lord and king
+Pascual, be here present.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And thou, Frost, and thou, excellent Wind, thou, God of the plain,
+thou, God of Quiac-Basulup, thou, God of Retal-Uleu, thou, lord of
+San Gregorio, thou, lord of Chii-Masa. [These are mountains and
+localities, and in the original there follow the names of more than
+a hundred others. The prayer concludes as follows:]</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;... I who appoint myself godfather and godmother, I who ask, I the
+witness and brother of this man who asks, of this man who makes
+himself, your son, O holy souls, I ask, do not let any evil happen
+unto him, nor let him be unhappy for any cause.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light
+this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my
+protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with
+facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall
+ill of fever; I ask that he shall<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> not become paralytic; that he
+may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a
+serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do
+not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck
+by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not
+killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by
+an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O
+thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal
+Father.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you
+that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his
+enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order
+it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices
+of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O
+holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the
+Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and
+symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of
+Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the
+peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I
+shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of &#8220;calling
+back the <i>tonal</i>,&#8221; referred to on a previous page. I append an
+explanation of its obscure metaphors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>&#8220;Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious
+stones!<a name="anchor_note_1" id="anchor_note_1"></a><a href="#note_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?<a name="anchor_note_2" id="anchor_note_2"></a><a href="#note_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Is the
+obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow
+enchantment and the white enchantment.<a name="anchor_note_3" id="anchor_note_3"></a><a href="#note_3" class="fnanchor">3</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who
+formed thee and gave thee life.<a name="anchor_note_4" id="anchor_note_4"></a><a href="#note_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> Thou, mother mine of the starry
+skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou
+turned against this one?<a name="anchor_note_5" id="anchor_note_5"></a><a href="#note_5" class="fnanchor">5</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth
+and depth of the waters.<a name="anchor_note_6" id="anchor_note_6"></a><a href="#note_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> I, master of spells, speak to
+<a name="corr5" title="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="thee.">thee</ins> Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems,
+come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of
+light,<a name="anchor_note_7" id="anchor_note_7"></a><a href="#note_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys
+and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit
+of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over
+mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him
+whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine
+times smitten, see that thou fail me not.<a name="anchor_note_8" id="anchor_note_8"></a><a href="#note_8" class="fnanchor">8</a> Come hither, mother
+mine, whose robe is of precious<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> gems; one water, two waters; one
+rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two
+alligators.<a name="anchor_note_9" id="anchor_note_9"></a><a href="#note_9" class="fnanchor">9</a></p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise
+of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me.
+What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and
+goddesses?<a name="anchor_note_10" id="anchor_note_10"></a><a href="#note_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> I have come to seek and call back the <i>tonal</i> of
+this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it
+nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine
+unions.<a name="anchor_note_11" id="anchor_note_11"></a><a href="#note_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to
+return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Explanations.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><a name="note_1" id="note_1"></a><a href="#anchor_note_1">1.</a> The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The
+&#8220;skirt of precious stones&#8221; refers to the green of the precious
+green stones, a color sacred to water.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_2" id="note_2"></a><a href="#anchor_note_2">2.</a> The question is addressed to the <i>tonal</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_3" id="note_3"></a><a href="#anchor_note_3">3.</a> The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_4" id="note_4"></a><a href="#anchor_note_4">4.</a> That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick
+man.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_5" id="note_5"></a><a href="#anchor_note_5">5.</a> This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_6" id="note_6"></a><a href="#anchor_note_6">6.</a> The threat is addressed to the <i>tonal</i>, to frighten it into
+returning.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_7" id="note_7"></a><a href="#anchor_note_7">7.</a> The &#8220;shining spirit&#8221; is the Fire-god.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_8" id="note_8"></a><a href="#anchor_note_8">8.</a> The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner
+indicated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_9" id="note_9"></a><a href="#anchor_note_9">9.</a> These are names of days in the native calendar which are
+invoked.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_10" id="note_10"></a><a href="#anchor_note_10">10.</a> The priest speaks in the person of his god.</p>
+
+<p><a name="note_11" id="note_11"></a><a href="#anchor_note_11">11.</a> Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and
+nine under worlds.</p></div>
+
+<p>From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of
+symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be
+sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around
+their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of
+coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p><i>Blood.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The red woman with snakes on her gown&#8221; (referring to the
+veins).</p>
+
+<p><i>Copal Gum.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The white woman&#8221; (from the whitish color of the
+fresh gum).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cords</i> (for carrying burdens).&mdash;&#8220;The snake that does woman&#8217;s work&#8221;
+(because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself
+is carried).</p>
+
+<p><i>Drunkenness.</i>&mdash;&#8220;My resting time,&#8221; or &#8220;when I am getting my
+breath.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Earth.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The mirror that smokes&#8221; (because of the mists that
+rise<span class='pagenum' style="font-size: 89%;"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> from it); &#8220;the rabbit with its mouth upward&#8221; (the rabbit, in
+opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward,
+because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled
+from the mouth); &#8220;the flower which contains everything&#8221; (as all
+fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed
+from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); &#8220;the
+flower which bites the mouths&#8221; (a flower, for the reason given; it
+eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and
+are swallowed by it).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fingers.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The five fates,&#8221; or &#8220;the five works,&#8221; or &#8220;the five
+fields&#8221; (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own
+destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the
+god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words
+mean &#8220;hand&#8221;).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire.</i>&mdash;&#8220;Our Father of the Four Reeds&#8221; (because the ceremony of
+making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); &#8220;the
+shining rose;&#8221; &#8220;the yellow flyer;&#8221; &#8220;the red-haired one;&#8221; &#8220;the
+yellow spirit.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>A Knife of Copper.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The yellow Chichimec&#8221; (because the
+Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Maguey Plant.</i>&mdash;&#8220;My sister, the eight in a row&#8221; (because it
+was planted in this manner).</p>
+
+<p><i>A Road.</i>&mdash;&#8220;That which is divided in two, and yet has neither
+beginning, middle nor end&#8221; (because it always lies in two
+directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and
+thus never end).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sickness.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The red woman;&#8221; &#8220;the breath of the flame;&#8221; &#8220;our
+mother the comet&#8221; (all referring to the fever); &#8220;the Chichimec&#8221;
+(because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); &#8220;the
+spider&#8221; (because of its venomous nature).</p>
+
+<p><i>Smoke.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The old wife&#8221; (<i>i. e.</i>, of the fire).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Sun.</i>&mdash;&#8220;Our holy and pockified Uncle&#8221; (referring to the myth
+of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a
+fire rose as the sun).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tobacco.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The nine (or seven) times beaten&#8221; (because for sacred
+purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); &#8220;the enchanted
+gray one&#8221; (from its color and use in conjuring).</p>
+
+<p><i>Water.</i>&mdash;&#8220;The Green Woman&#8221; (from the greenness which follows
+moisture); &#8220;our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones&#8221; (from the
+green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade,
+etc.).</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_36" id="section_36"></a><b>36.</b> It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the
+Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy
+Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is,
+that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who
+at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the
+Indies, &#8220;to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their
+stupidity and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy
+Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy,
+sorcery, incantations, superstitions,&#8221; etc.</p>
+
+<p>Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption.
+In the imposing <i>auto de f&eacute;</i> celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659,
+a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian
+mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office
+by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the
+precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood
+brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.<a name="FNanchor_55-1_130" id="FNanchor_55-1_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-1_130" class="fnanchor">55-*</a>
+Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an
+<i>auto de f&eacute;</i> held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which
+eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess
+Pinopiaa.<a name="FNanchor_55-2_131" id="FNanchor_55-2_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-2_131" class="fnanchor">55-&#8224;</a> Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied
+extensively the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in
+none of the trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism,
+although many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting
+Indian sorcerers.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_37" id="section_37"></a><b>37.</b> It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism
+extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It
+becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock
+this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is
+reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their
+origin.</p>
+
+<p>The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most
+writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while
+an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a
+radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects,
+and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.<a name="FNanchor_55-3_132" id="FNanchor_55-3_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_55-3_132" class="fnanchor">55-&#8225;</a> Perhaps both these
+positions are erroneous, and we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> must look elsewhere for the true
+etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become
+domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think
+they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable,
+civilization than either of these nations could claim.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from
+the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series,
+three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though
+geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and
+the Nahuatl.</p>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><i>From the Maya, of Yucatan.</i></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li><i>Naual</i>, or <i>nautal</i>, a native dance, forbidden by the
+missionaries.</li>
+  <li><i>Naatil</i>, talent, skill, ability.</li>
+  <li><i>Naat</i>, intelligence, wisdom.</li>
+  <li><i>Naatah</i>, to understand, to divine.</li>
+  <li><i>Nanaol</i>, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with
+oneself, to enter into oneself.</li>
+  <li><i>Noh</i>, great, skillful; as <i>noh ahceh</i>, a skillful hunter.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From Maya Dialects.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">Quiche-Cakchiquel.</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li><i>Naual</i>, a witch or sorcerer.</li>
+  <li><i>Naualin</i>, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.</li>
+  <li><i>Qui naualin</i>, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.</li>
+  <li><i>Na</i>, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one&#8217;s heart.</li>
+  <li><i>Nao</i>, to know, to be alert or expert in something.</li>
+  <li><i>Naol</i>, a skillful person, a rhetorician.</li>
+  <li><i>Naotizan</i>, to make another intelligent or astute.</li>
+  <li><i>Natal</i>, the memory.</li>
+  <li><i>Natub</i>, the soul or shadow of a man.</li>
+  <li><i>Noh</i>, the god of reason (&#8220;Genius der Vernunft,&#8221; Scherzer).</li>
+  <li><i>Noh</i>, to fecundate, to impregnate (<i>Popol Vuh</i>).</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><span class="smcap">Tzental.</span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li><i>X-qna</i>, to know.</li>
+  <li><i>X-qnaulai</i>, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).</li>
+  <li><i>Naom</i>, wise, astute (<i>naom vinic</i>, hombre sabio).</li>
+  <li><i>Naoghi</i>, art, science.</li>
+  <li><i>Naoghibal</i>, memory.</li>
+  <li><i>Ghnaoghel</i>, a wise man.</li>
+  <li><i>Alaghom naom</i>, the Goddess of Wisdom.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li><i>Nana</i>, <i>gana</i>, <i>gona</i>, to know.</li>
+  <li><i>Nona</i>, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.</li>
+  <li><i>Nana ticha</i>, or <i>nona lii</i>, a wise man.</li>
+  <li><i>Guela nana</i>, or <i>guela nona</i>, wisdom, knowledge.</li>
+  <li><i>Hue gona</i>, or <i>ro gona</i>, a teacher, a master.</li>
+  <li><i>Na lii</i>, truth; <i>ni na lii</i>, that which is true.</li>
+  <li><i>Naci&ntilde;a</i>, or <i>naciina</i>, skill, dexterity.</li>
+  <li><i>Hui naa</i>, a medicine man, a &#8220;nagualist.&#8221;</li>
+  <li><i>Nahaa</i>, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.</li>
+  <li><i>Nayaa</i>, or <i>nayapi</i>, to speak easily or fluently.</li>
+  <li><i>Rigoo gona</i>, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.</li>
+  <li><i>Ni nana</i>, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.</li>
+  <li><i>Nayanii</i>, the superior reason of man.</li>
+  <li><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0;" summary="">
+      <tr><td style="padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;"><i>Nayaa</i>,<br /><i>Naguii</i>,</td><td style="vertical-align: middle;"><span style="font-size: 200%;">}</span></td><td style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 0;"> superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).</td></tr>
+      </table></li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 1.5em;"><i>From the Nahuatl, of Mexico</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li><i>Naua</i>, to dance, holding each other by the hands.</li>
+  <li><i>Naualli</i>, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.</li>
+  <li><i>Nauallotl</i>, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.</li>
+  <li><i>Nauatl</i>, or <i>nahuatl</i>, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior;
+applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the
+name of the tongue.</li>
+  <li><i>Nauati</i>, to speak clearly and distinctly.</li>
+  <li><i>Nauatlato</i>, an interpreter.</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_38" id="section_38"></a><b>38.</b> I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words,
+all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and
+writing when they still retained their original purity, without
+acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and
+further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this
+radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize
+the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya
+linguistic stocks.</p>
+
+<p>The root <i>na</i>, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we
+trace all of them. <i>Nahual</i> means knowledge, especially mystic
+knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of
+nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and
+magic.<a name="FNanchor_57-1_133" id="FNanchor_57-1_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_57-1_133" class="fnanchor">57-*</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span>It is very significant that neither the radical <i>na</i> nor any of its
+derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which
+was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock.
+The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.</p>
+
+<p>Nor in the Nahuatl language&mdash;although its very name is derived from
+it<a name="FNanchor_58-1_134" id="FNanchor_58-1_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-1_134" class="fnanchor">58-*</a>&mdash;does the radical <i>na</i> appear in its simplicity and true
+significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican <i>naualli</i>, a sorcerer,
+from the verb <i>nahualtia</i>, to mask or disguise oneself, &#8220;because a
+<i>naualli</i> is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some
+lower animal, which is his <i>nagual</i>;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_58-2_135" id="FNanchor_58-2_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-2_135" class="fnanchor">58-&#8224;</a> but it is altogether
+likely that <i>nahualtia</i> derived its meaning from the custom of the
+medicine men to wear masks during their ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore, if the term <i>nagual</i>, and many of its associates and
+derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a
+necessary <a name="corr6" title="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="corollary">corrollary</ins> of this conclusion is, that along with these
+terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they
+allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such
+superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.</p>
+
+<p>Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them,
+and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were
+employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the
+name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to
+Nicaragua and beyond.</p>
+
+<p>The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient
+significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico <i>nagual</i>
+is defined as &#8220;a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them
+behave,&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_58-3_136" id="FNanchor_58-3_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_58-3_136" class="fnanchor">58-&#8225;</a> while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl
+population has left so many traces of its presence in the language of
+to-day, the word <i>nagual</i> no longer means an actor in the black art, or
+a knowledge of it, but his or her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> armamentarium, or the box, jar or
+case in which are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and
+charms, which constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the
+necromancer.<a name="FNanchor_59-1_137" id="FNanchor_59-1_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-1_137" class="fnanchor">59-*</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the
+upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term
+<i>naguate</i> or <i>nagutlat</i> is said to be applied to any one &#8220;who is
+entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_59-2_138" id="FNanchor_59-2_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-2_138" class="fnanchor">59-&#8224;</a> but in all
+probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult
+knowledge.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_39" id="section_39"></a><b>39.</b> All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are
+aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change
+themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than
+history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of
+ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the
+peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the
+were-wolf of Germany, the <i>loup-garou</i> of France and the <i>lupo mannaro</i>
+of Italy. Dr. Richard Andr&eacute;e well says in his interesting study of the
+subject: &#8220;He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition
+must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one
+universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but
+of the species and its psychology at large.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_59-3_139" id="FNanchor_59-3_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-3_139" class="fnanchor">59-&#8225;</a></p>
+
+<p>Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person
+with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between
+the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany.
+As in Mexico the <i>nagual</i> was assigned to the infant by a form of
+baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the
+godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant
+will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the
+name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been
+changed will restore him to human shape.<a name="FNanchor_59-4_140" id="FNanchor_59-4_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_59-4_140" class="fnanchor">59-&sect;</a></p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_40" id="section_40"></a><b>40.</b> I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not
+especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> general, and
+can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient
+Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that
+each individual has a particular spirit, or <i>daim&#333;n</i>, in whom is
+enshrined his or her moral personality. To this <i>daim&#333;n</i> he should
+address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior
+promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent
+monitor.<a name="FNanchor_60-1_141" id="FNanchor_60-1_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_60-1_141" class="fnanchor">60-*</a></p>
+
+<p>Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the <i>daim&#333;n</i> of
+the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has
+chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did
+not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian
+priest selecting the <i>nagual</i> of the child a hideous and diabolical
+caricature of the holy rites.</p>
+
+<p>But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded
+so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal
+sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign
+which represents the natal day, the <i>tonal</i>, by which the individual
+demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have
+seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole
+business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic
+powers of its professors.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_41" id="section_41"></a><b>41.</b> How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to
+take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The
+evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful
+jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations.
+They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not
+surpass them.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators?
+Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which
+the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel
+and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken
+glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the
+sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have
+to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of
+thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoy<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>ance, of spiritual
+rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the
+nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of
+nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are
+recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and
+Rome.<a name="FNanchor_61-1_142" id="FNanchor_61-1_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_61-1_142" class="fnanchor">61-*</a> So long as many intelligent and sensible people among
+ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those
+of a greater antiquity.</p>
+
+
+<p class="sectionhead"><a name="section_42" id="section_42"></a><b>42.</b> The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it
+was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have
+asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism,
+more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained;
+but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization,
+extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and
+varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers
+and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion&mdash;hatred
+of the whites&mdash;and by one unalterable purpose&mdash;that of their
+destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and
+religion which they had introduced.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<p><a name="Footnote_4-1_1" id="Footnote_4-1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4-1_1"><span class="label">4-*</span></a> These words occur a number of times in the English
+translation, published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera&#8217;s
+<i>Teatro Critico Americano</i>. The form <i>nagual</i> instead of <i>nahual</i>, or
+<i>naual</i>, or <i>nawal</i> has been generally adopted and should be preferred.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4-2_2" id="Footnote_4-2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4-2_2"><span class="label">4-&#8224;</span></a> For instance, in &#8220;The Names of the Gods in the Kiche
+Myths,&#8221; pp. 21, 22, in <i>Proceedings of the American Philosophical
+Society</i>, 1881; <i>Annals of the Cakchiquels</i>, Introduction, p. 46;
+<i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, p. 170, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5-1_3" id="Footnote_5-1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5-1_3"><span class="label">5-*</span></a> <i>Historia de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec. iv, Lib.
+viii, cap. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5-2_4" id="Footnote_5-2_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4"><span class="label">5-&#8224;</span></a> More especially it is the territory of the Chorti
+dialect, spoken to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city
+of Copan, Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of
+this celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, <i>Zur Ethnographie der
+Republik Guatemala</i>, pp. 106-9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-1_5" id="Footnote_6-1_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-1_5"><span class="label">6-*</span></a> Bernardino de Sahagun, <i>Historia de la Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>,
+Lib. x, cap. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-2_6" id="Footnote_6-2_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-2_6"><span class="label">6-&#8224;</span></a> Derived from <i>teciuhtlaza</i>, to conjure against hail,
+itself from <i>teciuh</i>, hail. Alonso de Molina, <i>Vocabulario Mexicano</i>,
+sub voce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-3_7" id="Footnote_6-3_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-3_7"><span class="label">6-&#8225;</span></a> Bautista, <i>Advertencias para los Confesores</i>, fol. 112
+(Mexico, 1600).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6-4_8" id="Footnote_6-4_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6-4_8"><span class="label">6-&sect;</span></a> Nicolas de Leon, <i>Camino del Cielo</i>, fol. 111 (Mexico,
+1611).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7-1_9" id="Footnote_7-1_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-1_9"><span class="label">7-*</span></a> Paso y Troncoso, in <i>Anales del Museo <a name="corr7" title="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="Nacional">Nacion&agrave;l</ins> de
+Mexico</i>, Tom. iii, p. 180.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7-2_10" id="Footnote_7-2_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-2_10"><span class="label">7-&#8224;</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. x, cap. 29,
+and Lib. xi, cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious
+properties of this plant: &#8220;Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo
+fides sit vulgatissim&aelig; inter eos rei habend&aelig;), devorantes illam
+quodlibet prs&aelig;sagire pr&aelig;dicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint
+impetum in eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis
+supellectilem, aut aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum
+alia, quibus Chichimec&aelig; hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis.&#8221; Franciscus
+Hernandus, <i>Historia Plantarum Nov&aelig; Hispani&aelig;</i>, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed.,
+Madrid, 1790).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7-3_11" id="Footnote_7-3_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7-3_11"><span class="label">7-&#8225;</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360
+(Mexico, 1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-1_12" id="Footnote_8-1_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-1_12"><span class="label">8-*</span></a> <i>Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana</i>, fol.
+8, verso (Mexico, 1634).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-2_13" id="Footnote_8-2_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-2_13"><span class="label">8-&#8224;</span></a> Vetancurt, <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Trat. iii, cap. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8-3_14" id="Footnote_8-3_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8-3_14"><span class="label">8-&#8225;</span></a> Hernandez, <i>Historia Plantarum Nov&aelig; Hispani&aelig;</i>, Tom.
+iii, p. 32.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9-1_15" id="Footnote_9-1_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9-1_15"><span class="label">9-*</span></a> Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, <i>Manual de <a name="corr8" title="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="Ministros">Min&nbsp;stros</ins> de
+Indios para el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas</i>,
+p. 163. This interesting work was composed about the middle of the
+seventeenth century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was
+first printed at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon,
+under the editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9-2_16" id="Footnote_9-2_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9-2_16"><span class="label">9-&#8224;</span></a> MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and <i>Informe</i> of Father
+Baeza in <i>Registro Yucateco</i>, Tom. i.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-1_17" id="Footnote_10-1_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-1_17"><span class="label">10-*</span></a> Acosta, <i>De la Historia Moral de Indias</i>, Lib. v, cap.
+26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-2_18" id="Footnote_10-2_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-2_18"><span class="label">10-&#8224;</span></a> Of the <i>thiuimeezque</i> Hernandez writes: &#8220;Aiunt radicis
+cortice unius unci&aelig; pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos
+observare phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum
+figuras, detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit.&#8221;
+<i>Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan.</i>, Tom. iii, p. 272. The <i>chacuaco</i> and its
+effects are described by Father Venegas in his <i>History of California</i>,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-3_19" id="Footnote_10-3_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19"><span class="label">10-&#8225;</span></a> &#8220;In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in
+Tlahuipuchtin.&#8221; Paredes, <i>Promptuario Manual Mexicano</i>, p. 128 (Mexico,
+1757). The <i>tlahuipuchtin</i>, &#8220;those who work with smoke,&#8221; were probably
+diviners who foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising
+in the air. This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they
+were called <i>Uirapircos</i> (Balboa, <i>Hist. du Perou</i>, p. 28-30).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10-4_20" id="Footnote_10-4_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10-4_20"><span class="label">10-&sect;</span></a> Von Gagern, <i>Charakteristik der Indianischer Bev&ouml;lkerung
+Mexikos</i>, s. 125.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11-1_21" id="Footnote_11-1_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-1_21"><span class="label">11-*</span></a> <i>Historia Antigua de Mexico</i>, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco
+Pimentel, in his thoughtful work, <i>Memoria sobre las Causas que han
+originado la Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico</i> (Mexico,
+1864), recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith
+in this nagualism. &#8220;Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la
+antig&uuml;edad, siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los <i>nahuales</i>,&#8221; etc., p. 200,
+and comp. p. 145.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11-2_22" id="Footnote_11-2_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-2_22"><span class="label">11-&#8224;</span></a> On these terms consult the extensive <i>Dictionnaire de
+la Langue Nahuatl</i>, by R&eacute;mi <a name="corr9" title="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="Sim&eacute;on,">Simeon,</ins> published at Paris, 1887. It
+is not impossible that <i>tona</i> is itself a compound root, including the
+monosyllabic radical <i>na</i>, which is at the basis of <i>nagual</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11-3_23" id="Footnote_11-3_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-3_23"><span class="label">11-&#8225;</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. iv,
+<i>passim</i>, and Lib. x, cap. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12-1_24" id="Footnote_12-1_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12-1_24"><span class="label">12-*</span></a> See Ch. de Labarthe, <i>R&eacute;vue Am&eacute;ricaine</i>, Serie ii, Tom.
+ii, pp. 222-225. His translation of <i>naualteteuctin</i> by &#8220;Seigneurs du
+g&egrave;nie&#8221; must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for
+assigning this meaning to <i>naualli</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-1_25" id="Footnote_13-1_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-1_25"><span class="label">13-*</span></a> <i>Anales de Cuauhtitlan</i>, p. 31. The translator renders
+it &#8220;palo brujo.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-2_26" id="Footnote_13-2_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-2_26"><span class="label">13-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde</i>, pp. 146-148,
+figured on p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, <i>Decades
+American&aelig;</i>, pp. 74-81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-3_27" id="Footnote_13-3_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-3_27"><span class="label">13-&#8225;</span></a> <i>The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1893).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13-4_28" id="Footnote_13-4_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13-4_28"><span class="label">13-&sect;</span></a> Eduard M&uuml;hlenpfordt, <i>Mexico</i>, Bd. i, s. 255.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14-1_29" id="Footnote_14-1_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14-1_29"><span class="label">14-*</span></a> The word is derived from <i>tlatoa</i>, to speak for another,
+and its usual translation was &#8220;chief,&#8221; as the head man spoke for, and in
+the name of the gens or tribe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14-2_30" id="Footnote_14-2_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14-2_30"><span class="label">14-&#8224;</span></a> The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the
+Appendix to the <i>Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia</i>
+(Mexico, 1856). Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the
+Mixes cling to their ancient beliefs. Se&ntilde;or Moro says they continue to
+be &#8220;notorious idolaters,&#8221; and their actual religion to be &#8220;an absurd
+jumble of their old superstitions with Christian doctrines&#8221; (in Orozco y
+Berra, <i>Geografia de las Lenguas de <a name="corr10" title="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="Mexico">exico</ins></i>, p. 176).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15-1_31" id="Footnote_15-1_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15-1_31"><span class="label">15-*</span></a> For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his <i>Estudios
+Historicos del Estado Oaxaque&ntilde;o</i> (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the
+<i>nahualt</i> was a ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the
+infant was bled from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a
+certain day, and a guardian angel or <i>tona</i>. These words are pure
+Nahuatl, and Carriedo, who does not give his authority, probably had
+none which referred these rites to the Zapotecs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15-2_32" id="Footnote_15-2_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15-2_32"><span class="label">15-&#8224;</span></a> Juan de Cordova, <i>Arte en Lengua Zapoteca</i>, pp. 16,
+202, 203, 213, 216.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16-1_33" id="Footnote_16-1_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16-1_33"><span class="label">16-*</span></a> Quoted in Carriedo, ubi supr&aacute;, p. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16-2_34" id="Footnote_16-2_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16-2_34"><span class="label">16-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Hist. de las Indias Oc.</i>, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap.
+12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17-1_35" id="Footnote_17-1_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-1_35"><span class="label">17-*</span></a> So I understand the phrase, &#8220;figuras pintadas con zifras
+<a name="corr11" title="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="enigmaticas.&#8221;">enigmaticas&#8221;</ins></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17-2_36" id="Footnote_17-2_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-2_36"><span class="label">17-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Popoluca</i> was a term applied to various languages. I
+suspect the one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me,
+entitled &#8220;Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography,&#8221; in
+the <i>Compte Rendu</i> of the Eighth Session of the Congress of
+Americanists, p. 566, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17-3_37" id="Footnote_17-3_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17-3_37"><span class="label">17-&#8225;</span></a> <i>Constit. Diocesan</i>, p. 19.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18-1_38" id="Footnote_18-1_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18-1_38"><span class="label">18-*</span></a> <i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19-1_39" id="Footnote_19-1_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-1_39"><span class="label">19-*</span></a> Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the
+Gucumatz of the Quiches, both of which names mean &#8220;Feathered Serpent.&#8221;
+Mixcohuatl, the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the
+Thunder-storm.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19-2_40" id="Footnote_19-2_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19-2_40"><span class="label">19-&#8224;</span></a> In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give
+this exact form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father
+Ximenes has <i>quikeho</i>, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement;
+the prefix <i>zme</i> is the Tzental word for &#8220;mother.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20-1_41" id="Footnote_20-1_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20-1_41"><span class="label">20-*</span></a> Father Lara, in his <i>Vocabulario Tzendal MS.</i> (in my
+possession), gives for medical (medico), <i>ghpoxil</i>, for medicine
+(medicinal cosa), <i>pox</i>, <i>xpoxtacoghbil</i>; for physician (medico),
+<i>ghpoxta vinic</i> (the form <i>vanegh</i>, person, is also correct). The
+Tzendal <i>pox</i> (pronounced <i>p&#333;sh</i>) is another form of the
+Quiche-Cakchiquel <i>p&#363;z</i>, a word which Father Ximenes, in his
+<i>Vocabulario Cakchiquel</i> MS (in my possession), gives in the compound
+<i>puz naual</i>, with the meaning, enchanter, wizard. Both these, I take it,
+are derived from the Maya <i>puz</i>, which means to blow the dust, etc., off
+of something (soplar el polvo de la ropa &oacute; otra cosa. <i>Dicc. de la
+Lengua Maya del Convento de Motul</i>, MS. The dictionary edited by Pio
+Perez does not give this meaning). The act of blowing was the essential
+feature in the treatment of these medicine men. It symbolized the
+transfer and exercise of spiritual power. When Votan built his
+underground shrine he did it <i>&agrave; soplos</i>, by blowing (Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega,
+<i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, p. 10). The natives did not regard the comet&#8217;s
+tail as behind it but in front of it, blown from its mouth. The Nahuatl
+word in the text, <i>tzihuizin</i>, is the Pipil form of <i>xihuitzin</i>, the
+reverential of <i>xihuitl</i>, which means a leaf, a season, a year, or a
+comet. Apparently it refers to the Nahuatl divinity <i>Xiuht&eacute; cutli</i>,
+described by Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. i, cap. 13, as
+god of fire, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21-1_42" id="Footnote_21-1_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-1_42"><span class="label">21-*</span></a> <i>Hicalahau</i>, for <i>ical ahau</i>, Black King, one of the
+Tzental divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21-2_43" id="Footnote_21-2_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21-2_43"><span class="label">21-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;M&aelig;stros de los pueblos,&#8221; <i>Constitut. Diocesan</i>, i, p.
+106.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23-1_44" id="Footnote_23-1_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23-1_44"><span class="label">23-*</span></a> <i>Historia de Guatemala, &ograve;, Recordacion Florida</i>, Tom.
+ii, p. 44, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24-1_45" id="Footnote_24-1_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24-1_45"><span class="label">24-*</span></a> Gage, <i>A New Survey of the West Indies</i>, p. 388, <i>seq.</i>
+(4th Ed.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25-1_46" id="Footnote_25-1_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25-1_46"><span class="label">25-*</span></a> <i>Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacr&eacute; des Quich&eacute;s</i>, p. 315 (Ed.
+Brasseur, Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of
+Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, &#8220;Feathered
+Serpent.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25-2_47" id="Footnote_25-2_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25-2_47"><span class="label">25-&#8224;</span></a> Baeza&#8217;s article is printed in the <i>Registro Yucateco</i>,
+Vol. i, p. 165, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26-1_48" id="Footnote_26-1_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-1_48"><span class="label">26-*</span></a> &#8220;Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erh&auml;lt der
+heidnische G&ouml;tzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der
+katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltb&uuml;rger durch den Aj-quig
+das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt,
+Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein
+Lieblingsg&ouml;tze angerufen, und noche viele andere abergla&uuml;bische
+Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur
+christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach
+seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gew&ouml;hnlich auch
+als sein Schutzgeist (<i>nagual</i>) f&uuml;rs ganze Leben.&#8221; Dr. Karl Scherzer,
+<i>Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan</i>, p. 11, Wien, 1856.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26-2_49" id="Footnote_26-2_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-2_49"><span class="label">26-&#8224;</span></a> The word <i>zahori</i>, of Arabic origin, is thus explained
+in the Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): &#8220;So
+they call in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of
+the earth, through stone walls, or into a man&#8217;s body.&#8221; Dr. Stoll says
+the Guatemala Indians speak of their diviners, the <i>Ah Kih</i>, as
+<i>zahorin</i>. <i>Guatemala</i>, s. 229.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26-3_50" id="Footnote_26-3_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26-3_50"><span class="label">26-&#8225;</span></a> Emetorio Pineda, <i>Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco</i>, p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27-1_51" id="Footnote_27-1_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27-1_51"><span class="label">27-*</span></a> Madier de Montjau, &#8220;Manuscrits Figuratifs de l&#8217; Ancien
+Mexique,&#8221; in <i>Archives de la Soci&eacute;t&egrave; <a name="corr12" title="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="Am&eacute;ricaine">Americaine</ins> de France</i>, 1875,
+p. 245.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27-2_52" id="Footnote_27-2_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27-2_52"><span class="label">27-&#8224;</span></a> Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. xv, cap. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28-1_53" id="Footnote_28-1_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-1_53"><span class="label">28-*</span></a> De la Serna, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162.
+The mushroom referred to was the <i>quauhnanacatl</i>, probably the same as
+the <i>teyhuinti</i> of Hernandez, <i>Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan.</i>, Tom. ii, p.
+358, who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind,
+inciting to laughter and intoxication.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28-2_54" id="Footnote_28-2_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-2_54"><span class="label">28-&#8224;</span></a> Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as
+late as the middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, <i>Tres Siglos de
+Mexico</i>, etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28-3_55" id="Footnote_28-3_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28-3_55"><span class="label">28-&#8225;</span></a> Brasseur, <i>Hist. des Nations Civilis&eacute;es de Mexique</i>,
+Tom. iv, p. 822.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29-1_56" id="Footnote_29-1_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-1_56"><span class="label">29-*</span></a> <i>Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba
+Figueroa, corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque</i>, quoted by
+Brasseur.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29-2_57" id="Footnote_29-2_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-2_57"><span class="label">29-&#8224;</span></a> Jacinto de la Serna says: &#8220;Los m&aelig;stros de estas
+ceremonias son todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas
+sucede.&#8221; <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the
+nagualists of Chiapas, Bishop Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega writes: &#8220;Concuerdan los
+mas modernos con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico.&#8221;
+<i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, p. 134.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29-3_58" id="Footnote_29-3_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-3_58"><span class="label">29-&#8225;</span></a> He observes that there were &#8220;familias de los tales
+sabios en las quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo
+los hijos &aacute; los padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de
+Nagualismo.&#8221; <i>Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra</i>, MS., p. 7. Ordo&ntilde;ez
+advances various erudite reasons for believing that Nagualism is a
+religious belief whose theory and rites were brought from Carthage by
+Punic navigators in ancient times.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29-4_59" id="Footnote_29-4_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29-4_59"><span class="label">29-&sect;</span></a> Maria de Mox&oacute;, <i>Cartas Mejicanas</i>, p. 270, (Genova, n.
+d.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30-1_60" id="Footnote_30-1_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-1_60"><span class="label">30-*</span></a> &#8220;<i>Xochimilca</i>, que asi llamavan &agrave; los mui sabios
+encantadores.&#8221; Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. xv, cap. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30-2_61" id="Footnote_30-2_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-2_61"><span class="label">30-&#8224;</span></a> In Nahuatl, <i>tlapiani</i>, a guardian or watchman. The
+Zapotec priesthood was divided into the <i>huijatoos</i>, &#8220;greater
+guardians,&#8221; and their inferiors, the <i>copavitoos</i>, &#8220;guardians of the
+gods.&#8221; Carriedo, <i>Estudios <a name="corr13" title="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="Historicos">Historic&ograve;s</ins></i>, p. 93.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30-3_62" id="Footnote_30-3_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30-3_62"><span class="label">30-&#8225;</span></a> See Eligio Ancona. <i>Historia de Yucatan</i>, Tom. iv,
+cap. 1 (M&eacute;rida, 1880).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31-1_63" id="Footnote_31-1_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31-1_63"><span class="label">31-*</span></a> The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples
+indicates that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in
+Yucatan as in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named,
+but presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address
+of Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by
+the Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his <i>Relacion hecho al Cabildo
+Eclesiastico por el preposito de la Compa&ntilde;ia de Jesus, acerca de la
+muerte de Jacinto Can-Ek y socios</i>, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with
+other documents relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the
+<i>Diccionario Universal</i>, edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the
+prophecies of Chilan Balam, see my <i>Essays of an Americanist</i>, pp.
+255-273 (Philadelphia, 1890).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31-2_64" id="Footnote_31-2_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31-2_64"><span class="label">31-&#8224;</span></a> Eligio Ancona, <i>Hist. de Yucatan</i>, Tom. ii, p. 452.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32-1_65" id="Footnote_32-1_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-1_65"><span class="label">32-*</span></a> See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, <i>Informe contra Idolum
+Cultores en Yucathan</i> (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, <i>Historia de
+Yucatan</i>, Tom. ii, pp. 128, 129.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32-2_66" id="Footnote_32-2_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-2_66"><span class="label">32-&#8224;</span></a> The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres
+Castillo, <i>Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex
+y Villa Alta</i> (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos de Mexico
+durante el Gobierno Espa&ntilde;ol</i>, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by
+Christoval Manso de Contreras, <i>Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que
+sucedio en esta Provincia de Tehuantepec</i>, etc. (printed at Mexico,
+1661), which I know only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H.
+Bancroft, in his very meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists
+that it took place in 1660. <i>History of Mexico</i>, Vol. iii, p. 164.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32-3_67" id="Footnote_32-3_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-3_67"><span class="label">32-&#8225;</span></a> See Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Histoire des Nations
+Civilis&eacute;es de la Mexique</i>, Tom. iv, 824.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32-4_68" id="Footnote_32-4_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32-4_68"><span class="label">32-&sect;</span></a> Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos</i>, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the
+use and significance of the <i>piochtli</i> we have some information in
+Vetancurt, <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, <i>Manual
+de Ministros</i>, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the
+native priesthood.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33-1_69" id="Footnote_33-1_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-1_69"><span class="label">33-*</span></a> <i>Adventures on the Musquito Shore</i>, by S. A. Ward,
+pseudonym of Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33-2_70" id="Footnote_33-2_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-2_70"><span class="label">33-&#8224;</span></a> Nu&ntilde;ez de la Vega, <i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, p. 10,
+and comp. Brasseur de Bourbourg, <i>Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique</i>, Tom.
+i, p. 74.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33-3_71" id="Footnote_33-3_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33-3_71"><span class="label">33-&#8225;</span></a> Herrera, <i>Hist. de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec. ii,
+Lib. iii, cap. 5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34-1_72" id="Footnote_34-1_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-1_72"><span class="label">34-*</span></a> Acosta, <i>Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias</i>, Lib. vii,
+cap. 5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34-2_73" id="Footnote_34-2_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-2_73"><span class="label">34-&#8224;</span></a> The story is given in Herrera, <i>Hist. de las Indias</i>,
+Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the
+account as &#8220;Flying Tigress.&#8221; I cannot assign it this sense in any
+dialect.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34-3_74" id="Footnote_34-3_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-3_74"><span class="label">34-&#8225;</span></a> Jacinto de la Serna, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>. p. 138.
+Sahagun identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of
+mankind and goddess of child-birth (<i>Hist. de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. i,
+cap. 6, Lib. vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by
+Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The <i>tzitzime</i> were
+mysterious elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined
+finally to destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8).
+The word means &#8220;flying haired&#8221; (Serna).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34-4_75" id="Footnote_34-4_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34-4_75"><span class="label">34-&sect;</span></a> Torquemada, <i>Monarquia Indiana</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 62.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35-1_76" id="Footnote_35-1_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-1_76"><span class="label">35-*</span></a> Fr. Tomas Coto, <i>Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel</i>,
+MS., s. v. <i>Sacrificar</i>; in the Library of the American Philosophical
+Society at Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35-2_77" id="Footnote_35-2_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-2_77"><span class="label">35-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y
+<i>naguales</i>&#8221; are the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his
+<i>Recordacion Florida</i>, Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it
+reads as if this witch and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes
+is clear in his statement, and had other documents at hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35-3_78" id="Footnote_35-3_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35-3_78"><span class="label">35-&#8225;</span></a> Teobert Maler, &#8220;M&eacute;moire sur l&#8217;Etat de Chiapas,&#8221; in
+the <i>R&eacute;vue d&#8217; Ethnographie</i>, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also
+gives some valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de
+Alicia, in 1873.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36-1_79" id="Footnote_36-1_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-1_79"><span class="label">36-*</span></a> The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this
+insurrection is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly
+prejudiced Spanish sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the
+motives which prompted the native actors. See his <i>History of the
+Pacific States</i>, Vol ii, p. 696 <i>sqq.</i> Ordo&ntilde;ez y Aguiar, who lived on
+the spot within a generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria
+Candelaria (whose true name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the
+rebellion, &#8220;quien ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que
+principalmente trataban las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que
+no quedase rastro alguno de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo.&#8221;
+His account is in his unpublished work, <i>Historia del Cielo y de la
+Tierra</i>, written at Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their
+rites, says of them: &#8220;Apostando de la f&eacute;, profanando los vasos sagrados,
+y ofreciendo sacrilegos cultos &aacute; una indizuela.&#8221; <i>Historia de la Ciudad
+de Guatemala</i>, Tom. i, p. 17.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36-2_80" id="Footnote_36-2_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-2_80"><span class="label">36-&#8224;</span></a> Bancroft, ubi supr&agrave;, p. 705, note. One was hanged,
+whom Garcia Pelaez calls &#8220;una india bruja.&#8221; <i>Memorias para la Historia
+de Guatemala</i>, Tom. ii, p. 153.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36-3_81" id="Footnote_36-3_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36-3_81"><span class="label">36-&#8225;</span></a> Squier, ubi supr&agrave;, passim.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37-1_82" id="Footnote_37-1_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37-1_82"><span class="label">37-*</span></a> <i>Voyage &aacute; l&#8217; Isthmus de Tehuantepec</i>, p. 164. He adds a
+number of particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38-1_83" id="Footnote_38-1_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38-1_83"><span class="label">38-*</span></a> &#8220;Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma.&#8221; See
+<i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_38-2_84" id="Footnote_38-2_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38-2_84"><span class="label">38-&#8224;</span></a> &#8220;Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und
+weiter s&uuml;dw&auml;rts seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen
+Olymp fremd ist, dar&uuml;ber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten.&#8221; See Dr.
+Seler&#8217;s able discussion of the subject in the <i>Compte-Rendu</i> of the
+Seventh International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, <i>seq.</i> The
+adoption of subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait.
+&#8220;Notandose principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan
+los mas de ellos cubiertos, &ograve; en subterraneos espaciosos y l&ograve;bregos.&#8221;
+Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos</i>, Tom. i, p. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39-1_85" id="Footnote_39-1_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-1_85"><span class="label">39-*</span></a> <i>Constituciones Diocesanas</i>, pp. 9, 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39-2_86" id="Footnote_39-2_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-2_86"><span class="label">39-&#8224;</span></a> Gage, <i>A New Survey of the West Indies</i>, pp. 389,
+393.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_39-3_87" id="Footnote_39-3_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39-3_87"><span class="label">39-&#8225;</span></a> <i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr.
+Bandelier has called attention to the naming of one of the principal
+chiefs among the Aztecs, <i>Tlilancalqui</i>, &#8220;Man of the Dark House,&#8221; and
+thinks it related to the Votan myth. <i>Twelfth Annual Report of the
+Peabody Museum</i>, p. 689.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40-1_88" id="Footnote_40-1_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-1_88"><span class="label">40-*</span></a> Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias Occidentales</i>, Dec.
+iii, Lib. iii, cap. 14.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40-2_89" id="Footnote_40-2_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-2_89"><span class="label">40-&#8224;</span></a> Villa Se&ntilde;or, <i>Teatro Americano</i>, Lib. v, cap. 38
+(Mexico, 1747). Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human
+sacrifices present, but of this I can find no evidence in the earlier
+reports. Comp. Cavo, <i>Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno
+<a name="corr14" title="corr14"></a><ins class="correction" title="Espa&ntilde;ol">Espa&ntilde;al</ins></i>, Tom. ii, p. 128.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_40-3_90" id="Footnote_40-3_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40-3_90"><span class="label">40-&#8225;</span></a> <i>Teatro Americano</i>, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap.
+13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41-1_91" id="Footnote_41-1_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-1_91"><span class="label">41-*</span></a> See M&uuml;hlenpfordt, <i>Mexico</i>, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266;
+Brasseur, <i>Hist. des Nations Civ. de la Mexique</i>, Vol. iv, p. 821;
+Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41-2_92" id="Footnote_41-2_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-2_92"><span class="label">41-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, s. v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41-3_93" id="Footnote_41-3_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-3_93"><span class="label">41-&#8225;</span></a> Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father
+Stone; Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. <i>Dicc. Univ.</i>, App., Tom.
+iii, p. 11.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41-4_94" id="Footnote_41-4_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-4_94"><span class="label">41-&sect;</span></a> Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios</i>, Tom. ii, p. 140. They
+were Tota, Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably
+pulque); and Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom
+this epithet was often applied).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_41-5_95" id="Footnote_41-5_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41-5_95"><span class="label">41-&#8214;</span></a> &#8220;Fue el Demonio que les di&oacute; la superstici&oacute;n del
+numero nueve.&#8221; <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-1_96" id="Footnote_42-1_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-1_96"><span class="label">42-*</span></a> <i>The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico</i>, p.
+12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-2_97" id="Footnote_42-2_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-2_97"><span class="label">42-&#8224;</span></a> Motolinia, <i>Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias
+de los Indios de la Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, p. 340 (in <i>Coleccion de Documentos
+ineditos para la Historia de Espa&ntilde;a</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-3_98" id="Footnote_42-3_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-3_98"><span class="label">42-&#8225;</span></a> Thomas Coto, <i>Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel</i>,
+MS., sub voce, <i>Rayo</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-4_99" id="Footnote_42-4_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-4_99"><span class="label">42-&sect;</span></a> Herrera, <i>Historia de las Indias</i>, Dec. IV, Lib. viii,
+cap. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-5_100" id="Footnote_42-5_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-5_100"><span class="label">42-&#8214;</span></a> <i>Diccionario Universal</i>, Appendice, ubi supr&aacute;.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_42-6_101" id="Footnote_42-6_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42-6_101"><span class="label">42-&para;</span></a> <a name="corr15" title="corr15"></a><ins class="correction" title="&#8220;Se&ntilde;or">&#8216;Se&ntilde;or</ins> de los Animales.&#8221; <i>Codex
+Telleriano-Remensis</i>, Parte ii, Lam. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43-1_102" id="Footnote_43-1_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-1_102"><span class="label">43-*</span></a> See Dr. Seler&#8217;s minute description in the <i>Compte Rendu</i>
+of the Eighth Session of the Congr&eacute;s International des Am&eacute;ricanistes,
+pp. 588, 589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna
+(<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 212) the priest says: &#8220;Yo soy el sacerdote,
+el dios <i>Quetzalcoatl</i>, que se bajar&aacute; al infierno, y subir&eacute; &aacute; lo
+superior, y hasta los nueve infiernos.&#8221; This writer, who was very
+competent in the Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by &#8220;culebra
+con cresta&#8221; (<i>id.</i>, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct
+rendering.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43-2_103" id="Footnote_43-2_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-2_103"><span class="label">43-&#8224;</span></a> His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, &#8220;El
+baptismo de fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman
+<i>yahuiltoca</i>, quando nacen.&#8221; This may be translated, &#8220;The baptism of
+fire in which they confer the names which they call <i>yahuiltoca</i>.&#8221; The
+obscurity is in the Nahuatl, as the word <i>toca</i> may be a plural of
+<i>tocaitl</i>, name, as well as the verb <i>toca</i>, to throw upon. The passage
+is from the <i>Camino del Cielo</i>, fol. 100, verso.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43-3_104" id="Footnote_43-3_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-3_104"><span class="label">43-&#8225;</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de la Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. iv, cap.
+25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_43-4_105" id="Footnote_43-4_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43-4_105"><span class="label">43-&sect;</span></a> It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early
+physicians, Francisco Ximenes, <i>Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza</i>, p. 144;
+Hernandez, <i>Hist. Plant. Nov&aelig; Hispani&aelig;</i>, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke,
+in his recent article on &#8220;The Medicine Men of the Apaches&#8221; (in <i>Ninth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>, p. 521), suggests that the
+<i>yiahuitli</i> of the Aztecs is the same as the &#8220;hoddentin,&#8221; the pollen of
+a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw
+into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the
+<i>yiahuitli</i> as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and
+hill-sides&mdash;no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the
+anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the
+&#8220;yellow spirit&#8221; (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire
+(<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 197).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44-1_106" id="Footnote_44-1_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44-1_106"><span class="label">44-*</span></a> From the verb <i>apeua</i>. Vetancurt&#8217;s description is in his
+<i>Teatro Mexicano</i>, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_44-2_107" id="Footnote_44-2_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44-2_107"><span class="label">44-&#8224;</span></a> His frequent references to it show this. See his
+<i>Manual de Ministros</i>, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc.
+The word <i>tlecuixtliliztli</i> is compounded of <i>tlecuilli</i>, the hearth or
+fireplace, and <i>ixtliluia</i>, to darken with smoke.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45-1_108" id="Footnote_45-1_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-1_108"><span class="label">45-*</span></a> Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Tom.
+ii, p. 240. Sahagun adds that the <i>octli</i> was poured on the hearth at
+four separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. <i>Historia de
+Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony
+as current in his day, <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 35. The invocation
+ran:&mdash;&#8220;Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart
+before the God.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45-2_109" id="Footnote_45-2_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-2_109"><span class="label">45-&#8224;</span></a> A copy of these strange &#8220;Books of Chilan Balam&#8221; is in
+my possession. I have described them in my <i>Essays of an Americanist</i>
+(Philadelphia, 1890).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_45-3_110" id="Footnote_45-3_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45-3_110"><span class="label">45-&#8225;</span></a> See his remarks on &#8220;Apperception der Menschenzeugung
+als Feuerbereitung,&#8221; in the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. vi,
+s. 113, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46-1_111" id="Footnote_46-1_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-1_111"><span class="label">46-*</span></a> Sahagun, <i>Historia de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>, Lib. i, cap. 13.
+The Nahuatl text is more definite than the Spanish translation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46-2_112" id="Footnote_46-2_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-2_112"><span class="label">46-&#8224;</span></a> See my <i>Myths of the New World</i>, p. 154, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46-3_113" id="Footnote_46-3_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-3_113"><span class="label">46-&#8225;</span></a> In the Nahuatl language the word <i>xihuitl</i> (<i>xiuitl</i>)
+has four meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_46-4_114" id="Footnote_46-4_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46-4_114"><span class="label">46-&sect;</span></a> J. B. Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos del Estado
+Oaxaque&ntilde;o</i>, Tom. i, p. 82, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47-1_115" id="Footnote_47-1_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-1_115"><span class="label">47-*</span></a> Alva, <i>Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana</i>, fol. 9.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47-2_116" id="Footnote_47-2_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-2_116"><span class="label">47-&#8224;</span></a> Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos</i>, pp. 6, 7.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_47-3_117" id="Footnote_47-3_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47-3_117"><span class="label">47-&#8225;</span></a> In the <i><a name="corr16" title="corr16"></a><ins class="correction" title="R&eacute;vue">Revue</ins> d&#8217; Ethnographie</i>, Tom. iii, p.
+313. Some very fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier,
+in his &#8220;Observations on the Chalchihuitl,&#8221; in the <i>Annals of the Lyceum
+of Natural History</i>, Vol. i (New York, 1869).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48-1_118" id="Footnote_48-1_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-1_118"><span class="label">48-*</span></a> Diego Duran, <i>Historia de los Indios de Nueva Espa&ntilde;a</i>,
+Tom. ii, p. 140.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48-2_119" id="Footnote_48-2_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-2_119"><span class="label">48-&#8224;</span></a> In Kingsborough, <i>Antiquities of Mexico</i>, Vol. ii, Pl.
+180. On the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of
+W. H. Holmes, in the <i>Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology</i>,
+pp. 270, 271.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_48-3_120" id="Footnote_48-3_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48-3_120"><span class="label">48-&#8225;</span></a> &#8220;Au Mexique, le cadre crois&eacute;, la croix en sautoir,
+comme celle de St. Andr&eacute;, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe
+de nativit&eacute;, <i>tonalli</i>, la f&ecirc;te, le jour natal.&#8221; M. Aubin, in Boban,
+<i>Catalogue Raisonn&eacute;e de la Collection Goupil</i>, Tom. i, p. 227. Both
+Gomara and Herrera may be quoted to this effect.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49-1_121" id="Footnote_49-1_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-1_121"><span class="label">49-*</span></a> See a curious story from native sources in my <i>Essays of
+an Americanist</i>, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented
+by casting salt upon the person.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49-2_122" id="Footnote_49-2_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-2_122"><span class="label">49-&#8224;</span></a> Benito Maria de Moxo, <i>Cartas Mejicanas</i>, p. 257;
+Landa, <i>Cosas de Yucatan</i>, p. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49-3_123" id="Footnote_49-3_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-3_123"><span class="label">49-&#8225;</span></a> Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex
+Vaticanus, published in Kingsborough&#8217;s great work, assigns the sign,
+<i>cohuatl</i>, the serpent, to &#8220;il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti
+gli altri.&#8221; It is distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De
+la Serna states that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a
+wand, around which was fastened a living serpent. <i>Manual de Ministros</i>,
+p. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_49-4_124" id="Footnote_49-4_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49-4_124"><span class="label">49-&sect;</span></a> There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of
+the Codex Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex
+Mexicanus of the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said
+as far back as 1841&mdash;&#8220;le culte du lingam on du phallus n&#8217;etait pas
+etranger aux Mexicains, ce qu&#8217; etablissent plusieurs documents peu
+connus et des sculptures d&eacute;couvertes depuis un petit nombre d&#8217;ann&eacute;es.&#8221;
+His letter is in Boban, <i>Catalogue Raisonn&eacute; la Collection Goupil</i>, Tom.
+ii, p. 207. On the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with
+the phallus in classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele&#8217;s article, &#8220;Der
+Schlangen-Cultus,&#8221; in the <i>Zeitschrift f&uuml;r V&ouml;lkerpsychologie</i>, Band
+xvii, p. 285, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50-1_125" id="Footnote_50-1_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-1_125"><span class="label">50-*</span></a> Cf. G. Tarayre, <i>Exploration Mineralogique des Regions
+Mexicaines</i>, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and <i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&egrave;
+d&#8217;Anthropologie de Paris</i>, Juin, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50-2_126" id="Footnote_50-2_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-2_126"><span class="label">50-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Sources de l&#8217; Histoire Primitive de Mexique</i>, p. 81.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50-3_127" id="Footnote_50-3_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-3_127"><span class="label">50-&#8225;</span></a> From <i>zo</i>, to join together. Compare my <i>Essays of an
+Americanist</i>, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_50-4_128" id="Footnote_50-4_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50-4_128"><span class="label">50-&sect;</span></a> &#8220;El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra.&#8221; F. Pimentel,
+<i>La Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico</i>, p. 197.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_51-1_129" id="Footnote_51-1_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51-1_129"><span class="label">51-*</span></a> The &#8220;holy souls&#8221; who are here appealed to by name are
+those of deceased <i>ah-kih</i>, or priests of the native cult.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55-1_130" id="Footnote_55-1_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-1_130"><span class="label">55-*</span></a> See the <i>Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, a&ntilde;o de
+1659</i> (Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55-2_131" id="Footnote_55-2_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-2_131"><span class="label">55-&#8224;</span></a> J. B. Carriedo, <i>Estudios Historicos del Estado
+<a name="corr17" title="corr17"></a><ins class="correction" title="Oaxaque&ntilde;o">Oaxaqueno</ins></i>, Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of
+Indians in the province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried
+enchanted ashes beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, <i>Manual de
+Ministros</i>, p. 52.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_55-3_132" id="Footnote_55-3_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55-3_132"><span class="label">55-&#8225;</span></a> &#8220;Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form <i>naoal</i> ein
+echtes Quich&eacute;-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme <i>na&oacute;</i>,
+wissen, erkennen. <i>Naoal</i> ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in
+diesem Falle das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem
+mexikanischen <i>nahualli</i> (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung
+bringen m&ouml;chte, nichts zu schaffen.&#8221; <i>Guatemala</i>, s. 238.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_57-1_133" id="Footnote_57-1_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57-1_133"><span class="label">57-*</span></a> The Abb&eacute; Brasseur observes: &#8220;Le mot <i>nahual</i>, qui vet
+dire toute science, ou science de tout, est fr&eacute;quemment employ&eacute; pour
+exprimer la sorcellerie chez ces populations.&#8221; <i>Bulletin de la Soci&eacute;t&egrave;
+de G&eacute;ographie</i>, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the
+speculative Abb&eacute; translates <i>naual</i> by the English &#8220;know all,&#8221; and is
+not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the
+former.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58-1_134" id="Footnote_58-1_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-1_134"><span class="label">58-*</span></a> See an article by me, entitled &#8220;On the Words &#8216;Anahuac&#8217;
+and &#8216;Nahuatl,&#8217;&#8221; in the <i>American Antiquarian</i>, for November, 1893.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58-2_135" id="Footnote_58-2_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-2_135"><span class="label">58-&#8224;</span></a> <i>Manual de Ministros</i>, p. 50.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_58-3_136" id="Footnote_58-3_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58-3_136"><span class="label">58-&#8225;</span></a> Jesus Sanchez, <i>Glosario de Voces Castellanas
+derivadas del Idioma Nahuatl</i>, sub voce.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59-1_137" id="Footnote_59-1_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-1_137"><span class="label">59-*</span></a> &#8220;<i>Nagual</i>&mdash;el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde
+guarda sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja.&#8221; Berendt, <i>La Lengua
+Castellana de Nicaragua</i>, MS.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59-2_138" id="Footnote_59-2_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-2_138"><span class="label">59-&#8224;</span></a> Emetorio Pineda, <i>Description Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco</i>, p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59-3_139" id="Footnote_59-3_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-3_139"><span class="label">59-&#8225;</span></a> See his article &#8220;Wer-wolf,&#8221; in his <i>Ethnographische
+Parallelen und Vergleiche</i>, p. 62, <i>seq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_59-4_140" id="Footnote_59-4_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59-4_140"><span class="label">59-&sect;</span></a> Richard Andr&eacute;e, <i>ibid.</i>, ss. 63, 64.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_60-1_141" id="Footnote_60-1_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60-1_141"><span class="label">60-*</span></a> See Alfred Maury, <i>La Magie et l&#8217; Astrologie</i>, pp. 88,
+89, 267, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_61-1_142" id="Footnote_61-1_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61-1_142"><span class="label">61-*</span></a> In the <i>Notice Preliminaire</i> to the second part of his
+work, <i>La Magie et l&#8217; Astrologie dans l&#8217; Antiquit&eacute; et au Moyen Age</i>, Mr.
+Alfred Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command
+for explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying
+their reality as actual occurrences.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="declong" />
+<h2 style="font-weight: normal;"><a name="Index" id="Index"></a><span class="smcap">Index.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p class="titlepage">Native words explained, <i>in Italics</i>; names of Authors quoted, in <span class="smrom">SMALL
+CAPITALS</span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="declong" />
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Achiutla, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Acosta, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Aguilar, P. S.</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ahau</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ah Kih</i>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ah-toc</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Aissaoua, the, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li>Alaghom Naom, a goddess, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li><i>Alom</i>, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Alva, B. De</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><i>Anahuac</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ancona, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Andagoya, P. De</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap"><a name="corr18" title="corr18"></a><ins class="correction" title="Andr&eacute;e,">Andree,</ins> R.</span>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>Antichrist, appealed to, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li><i>Apehualco</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span><span class="smcap">Aubin, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>Ay, Antonio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>Aztecan language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Aztecs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Baal-che</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Baeza, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Balboa, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bancroft, H. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bandelier, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Baptism, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>Baptism by fire, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Barba Figueroa</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bautista, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Berendt, C. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Black King,&#8221; the, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Blowing, as a rite, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Boban, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Books of Chilan Balam&#8221;, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Bourke</span>, Capt., <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Brasseur</span> (de Bourbourg), <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li><i>Buk xoc</i>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Burgoa, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Cabrera</span>, Dr. P. F., <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+  <li>Cakchiquel language, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+  <li>Calendar, the native, <a href="#Page_13">13-16</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>California, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Cancuc, town, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>Candelaria, Maria, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>Can Ek, Jacinto, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>Carpio, Bernardo del, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Carriedo, J. B.</span>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>Cave God, the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Cavo, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>Ceiba tree, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Cerquin, province, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Chac Mool</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li><i>Chacuaco</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Chalcatongo, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li><i>Chalchihuitl</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Chalcos, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>Chalma, place, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li><i>Chanes</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Charnay, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Chi, Andres, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>Chi, Cecilio, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li>Chichimecs, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li><i>Chilan Balam</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Chontales, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>Chorti dialect,<a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4"> 5 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Chotas, tribe, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Clairvoyance, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Coamizagual</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Coanamoa</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Coatlan, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li><i>Coaxihuitl</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li><i>Cohuacihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Cohuatl</i>, sign of, <a href="#FNanchor_49-3_123">49 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Codex cruciformis, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Cohen, H.</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Copan, ruins of, <a href="#FNanchor_5-2_4">5 n.</a></li>
+  <li><i>Copavitoos</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Cordova, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Coto, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>Coyopy, king, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+  <li><i>Cozaana</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>Cross, as symbol, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Cuculchan, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>&#8220;Dark House,&#8221; the, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Dawn, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Dionysos Pyrigenes, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Delpino</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>Drum, the sacred, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li>Drunkenness, god of, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Duran, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Earth, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Essays of an Americanist,&#8221; <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ferguson, David</span>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Field mass,&#8221; the, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>Fingers, names for, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Fire worship, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Four Winds, Lord of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>Frog, symbol, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Fuensanta del Valle</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Fuentes y Guzman</span>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Gage, Thomas</span>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Gagern, C.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>Galindo, Ig., <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Ghost dance&#8221; of Mayas, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>Gnosis, the, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li>Goupil collection, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Green stones, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><i>Gspoxil</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li>Guatemala, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Gucumatz, king, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Hand, as deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Heart of the Hills&#8221;, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Heart of the Maguey&#8221;, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Heart of the Towns&#8221;, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Hernandez, F.</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Herrera, A. de</span>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><i>Hicalahau</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Hoddentin&#8221;, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Holmes, W. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Honduras, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>Huasteca dialect, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>Huehuetan, town, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li><i>Huehueteotl</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><i>Huijatoos</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Ical ahau</i>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Iglesias, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Inquisition, the, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Intoxicants, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Istlavacan, town, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Jadeite, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Juarros, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>Justlahuaca, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Kab</i>, the hand, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Kingsborough</span>, Lord, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Labarthe, Ch.</span>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>Lacandons, tribe, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Landa, D.</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Lara, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Leon</span>, Dr. N., <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Leon, N. de</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Life, ideogram of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Life, tree of, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Lingam, the, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Maguey, Heart of the, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><i>Maitl</i>, the Hand, as deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Maler, T.</span>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Mallinalco, town, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Manso de Contreras</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>Mappe <a name="corr19" title="corr19"></a><ins class="correction" title="Quinatzin,">Quinantzin,</ins> <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Maria de Mox&ograve;, B.</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Maury, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+  <li>Mayan stock, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>Mayas, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Mayas, revolts of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>Mexican language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+  <li>Michoacan, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Milky Way, as deity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+  <li><i>Mixcohuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Mixes, tribe, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>Mixtecs, tribe, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Molina, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>Monopostiac, Cerro de, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Montjau, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Moro</span>, Sr., <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Motolinia, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">M&uuml;hlenpfordt, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li>Mushrooms, intoxicating, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Na</i>, the root, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a name="corr20" title="corr20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11-2_22"><ins class="correction" title="11 n.,">11 n.</ins></a> 57</li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Nagele, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>Nagual, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>Nagualism, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>Nagualist, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+  <li><i>Nahual</i>. See <i>Naualli</i>.</li>
+  <li><i>Nahualtia</i>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>Nahuatl language, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li><i>Nana hualtin</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Nanahuatl, a deity, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li><i>Naualac</i>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li><i>Naualcuauhtla</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><i>Naualli</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li><i>Nauallotl</i>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+  <li><i>Naualteteuctin</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li>Navajas, Cerro de las, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>Nayerit, Sierra de, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Nezahualpilli, king, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li>Nine, sacred number, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Noh, god of reason, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span><span class="smcap">Nu&ntilde;ez, de la Vega</span>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Oaxaca, province, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><i>Octli</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ololiuhqui</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ordo&ntilde;ez y Aguiar</span>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Orozco y Berra</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Oviedo</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>Oxchuc, town, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+  <li><i>Oztoteotl</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Padrinos, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>Pah-Ahtuns, deities, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li>Pantecatl, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Paredes, Ig.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Pascual, Don, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Paso y Troncoso</span>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li><i>Patzlan</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><i>Payni</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Pelaez, G.</span>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li><i>Pellote</i>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Perez, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+  <li>Personal spirit, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+  <li><i>Peyotl</i>, the, <a href="#Page_6">6-10</a></li>
+  <li>Phallus, symbol, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li><i>Picietl</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Pimentel, F.</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Pineda, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>Pinopiaa, goddess, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li><i>Piochtli</i>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li>Pipils, tribe, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Pisa, B. de</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>Pokonchis, tribe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li><i>Popol Vuh</i>, the, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+  <li>Popoluca language, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+  <li><i>Pox</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><i>Poxlon</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><i>Poxta vanegs</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Puerto, M.</span>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Quauhcihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Quauhnanacatl</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_28-1_53">28 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_43-1_102">43 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Quiche language, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Quiches, tribe, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>Quiegolani, deity, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><i>Quilaztli</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Quiz</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Reason, god of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Restitution of the <i>tonal</i>&#8221;, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Rios, Pedro de Los</span>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Sahagun, B.</span>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Sanchez, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+  <li>San Francisco del Mar, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Scalp-lock,&#8221; the, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Scherzer, C.</span>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Seler, E.</span>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Serna, J.</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+  <li>Serpent of the Clouds, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Serpent, plant, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li>Serpent, feathered, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>Serpent, which seizes, <a href="#FNanchor_41-3_93">41 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Serpent, symbol, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li>
+  <li>Seven, sacred number, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Sim&eacute;on, R.</span>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li>Slavery of Indians, <a href="#FNanchor_28-2_54">28 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Smoke, divining by, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Snake, symbol. See Serpent.</li>
+  <li>Soteapan, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Spina, V. H.</span>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Squier, E. G.</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Stoll, O.</span>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+  <li>Stone, as deity, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;<i>Sukia</i> woman&#8221;, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Sun Mountain&#8221;, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>Sun, name of, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Tapirs, sacred, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Tarayre, G.</span>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ta Te</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ta Yoapa</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><i>Teciuhtlazque</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>Telepathy, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tenextlecietl</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Teopatli</i>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+  <li><i>Teotlauice</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>Teozapotlan, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>Tepeololtec deity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tepeyollotl</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Teremendo, town, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li><i>Teteuctin</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tetonaltiani</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><i>Teyhuinti</i>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>Tezcatzoncatl, deity, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><i>Thiuimeezque</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Three, sacred number, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Thunder stone&#8221;, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><i>T&#8217;ich</i>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+  <li>Tiger dance, the, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlachixqui</i>, Seer, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlahuipuchtin</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Tlaloc, deity, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlapiani</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Tlascala, Sierra de, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlatoques</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+  <li>Tlazoaloyan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+  <li>Tlazolteotl, deity, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlecuixtliliztli</i>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tlilancalqui</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_39-3_87">39 n.</a></li>
+  <li>Tobacco, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tonal, tonalli</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#FNanchor_15-1_31">15 n.</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tonalcaualtia</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tonalitlacoa</i>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tonalpouhque</i>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tonantzin</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Topiltzin</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Torquemada, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Torres Castillo</span>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+  <li><i>To Ta</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Totomachiapa, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>Totonicapan, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+  <li>Tree, sacred, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Tree of the Cross, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li>Tree of Life, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+  <li>Tres Micos, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li>Trinity, the native, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Triplets, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+  <li>Tzentals, tribe, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tzihuizin</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tzitzime</i>, the, <a href="#FNanchor_34-3_74">34 n.</a></li>
+  <li><i>Tzitzimecihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Uirapircos</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_10-3_19">10 n.</a></li>
+  <li><i>U-q&#8217;ux-Uleuh</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Venegas, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>Venus Impudica, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li>Vera Cruz, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Vetancurt, A.</span>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Villa Se&ntilde;or y Sanchez</span>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+  <li>Votan, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ward, S. A.</span>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+  <li>Water, divination by, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+  <li>Water, as deity, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li>
+  <li>Were-wolf, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+  <li>Wisdom, goddess of, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li>
+  <li>Witches, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+  <li>&#8220;Witches&#8217; Sabbaths&#8221;, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Xihuitl</i>, <a href="#FNanchor_46-3_113">46 n.</a></li>
+  <li><i>Xihuitzin</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ximenes, Francisco</span>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Ximenes, P.</span>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+  <li><i>Xiquipilli</i>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+  <li><i>Xiuhtecutli</i>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li>
+  <li><i>Xochimilca</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li><i>Yahuiltoca</i>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li>Yanhuitlan, town, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+  <li><i>Yaocihuatl</i>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+  <li><i>Yax che</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><i>Yax ha</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Yiahuitli</i>, the, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+  <li><i>Yollometli</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+  <li>Yoni symbols, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li>
+  <li><i>Ytzamatl</i>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li>Yucatan, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="IX">
+  <li>Zahoris, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+  <li>Zamayac, town, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+  <li>Zapotecs, tribe, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+  <li><span class="smcap">Zetina</span>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></li>
+  <li><i>Z me quiz</i>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+  <li>Zotzils, revolt of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="margin-left: 0;" summary="errors">
+<tr>
+  <td>Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+  <td>Correction</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr1">Fn. 14-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td colspan="2">The footnote marker was missing in the original text.
+   It has been inserted based on context.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr2">19</a></td>
+  <td>centipedes, etc,</td>
+  <td>centipedes, etc.,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr3">39</a></td>
+  <td>black as negroes</td>
+  <td>black as negroes.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr4">43</a></td>
+  <td>sick room</td>
+  <td>sick room.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr5">52</a></td>
+  <td>speak to thee</td>
+  <td>speak to thee.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr6">58</a></td>
+  <td>corrollary</td>
+  <td>corollary</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr7">Fn. 7-*</a></td>
+  <td>Nacion&agrave;l</td>
+  <td>Nacional</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr8">Fn. 9-*</a></td>
+  <td>Min&nbsp;stros</td>
+  <td>Ministros</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr9">Fn. 11-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>Simeon</td>
+  <td>Sim&eacute;on</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr10">Fn. 14-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>exico</td>
+  <td>Mexico</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr11">Fn. 17-*</a></td>
+  <td>enigmaticas&#8221;</td>
+  <td>enigmaticas.&#8221;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr12">Fn. 27-*</a></td>
+  <td>Americaine</td>
+  <td>Am&eacute;ricaine</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr13">Fn. 30-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>Historic&ograve;s</td>
+  <td>Historicos</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr14">Fn. 40-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>Espa&ntilde;al</td>
+  <td>Espa&ntilde;ol</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr15">Fn. 42-&para;</a></td>
+  <td>&#8216;Se&ntilde;or</td>
+  <td>&#8220;Se&ntilde;or</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr16">Fn. 47-&#8225;</a></td>
+  <td>Revue</td>
+  <td>R&eacute;vue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr17">Fn. 55-&#8224;</a></td>
+  <td>Oaxaqueno</td>
+  <td>Oaxaque&ntilde;o</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr18">61</a></td>
+  <td>Andree</td>
+  <td>Andr&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr19">63</a></td>
+  <td>Quinantzin</td>
+  <td>Quinatzin</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td><a href="#corr20">63</a></td>
+  <td>11 n.</td>
+  <td>11 n.,</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:</p>
+
+<ul style="list-style-type: none;">
+  <li>Bartholom&eacute; / Bartholom&egrave;</li>
+  <li>Di&#339;cesanas / Diocesanas / Diocesan</li>
+  <li>Gucumatz / Gukumatz</li>
+  <li>Mox&ograve; / Mox&oacute; / Moxo</li>
+  <li>Quich&eacute; / Quiche</li>
+  <li>Quich&eacute;s / Quiches</li>
+  <li>supr&agrave; / supr&aacute;</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Nagualism
+       A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: August 24, 2008 [EBook #26426]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NAGUALISM ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Julia Miller, and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by Case Western Reserve University Preservation Department
+Digital Library)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note:
+
+A number of typographical errors and inconsistencies have been maintained
+in this version of this book. Typographical errors have been marked with
+a [TN-#], which refers to a description in the complete list found at the
+end of the text. A list of words that have been inconsistently spelled or
+hyphenated is found at the end of the present text. Oe ligatures have
+been expanded.
+
+The following codes are used for characters that are not present in the
+character set used for this version of the book.
+
+  [=u] u with macron
+  [=o] o with macron
+  [||] double vertical line
+  [+]  Dagger
+  [++] Double dagger
+
+
+
+
+                         NAGUALISM.
+
+                          A STUDY
+
+                             IN
+
+                 Native American Folk-lore
+                        and History.
+
+
+                             BY
+
+        DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., D.Sc.,
+
+  Professor of American Archaeology and Linguistics in the
+                University of Pennsylvania.
+
+
+                       PHILADELPHIA:
+      MACCALLA & COMPANY, PRINTERS, 237-9 DOCK STREET.
+                            1894
+
+
+
+
+_Nagualism. A Study in Native American Folk-lore and History._
+
+_By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D._
+
+(_Read before the American Philosophical Society, Jan'y 5, 1894._)
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+1. The words _Nagual_, _Nagualism_, _Nagualist_. 2. The Earliest
+Reference to Nagualism. 3. The _Naualli_ of the Aztecs; their Classes
+and Pretended Powers. 4. The Sacred Intoxicants; the _Peyotl_, the
+_Ololiuhqui_, the _Teopatli_, the _Yax Ha_, etc. 5. Clairvoyance and
+Telepathy during Intoxication. 6. The _Naualli_ of Modern Mexico. 7. The
+_Tonal_ and the _Tonalpouhque_; the Genethliac System of the Nahuas. 8.
+The Aztec Sodality of "Master Magicians." 9. The Personal Guardian
+Spirit.
+
+10. Folk-lore of the Mixe Indians. 11. Astrological Divination of the
+Zapotecs. 12. Similar Arts of the Mixtecs. 13. Nagualism in Chiapas, as
+Described by Bishop Nunez de la Vega. 14. Nagualism Among the Quiches,
+Cakchiquels and Pokonchis of Guatemala. 15. The Metamorphoses of
+Gukumatz. 16. Modern Witchcraft in Yucatan and Central America; the
+Zahoris and Padrinos.
+
+17. Fundamental Principles of Nagualism, Hatred of the Whites and of
+Christianity. 18. Its Organization and Extent; its Priesthood. 19. Its
+Influence in the Native Revolts against the Spanish Power. 20. Exalted
+Position of Woman in Nagualism. 21. This a Survival from Ancient Times.
+22. A Native Joan of Arc. 23. Modern Queens of Nagualism.
+
+24. The Cave-temples and the Cave-gods; Oztoteotl, Tepeyollotl, Votan,
+etc. 25. The Sacred Numbers, 3 and 7. 26. Fire Worship of the
+Nagualists. 27. Fire Rights Connected with the Pulque. 28. Fire
+Ceremonies of the Modern Mayas. 29. Secret Significance of Fire Worship.
+30. The Chalchiuites, or Sacred Green Stones. 31. The Sacred Tree and
+the Tree of Life. 32. The Cross and its Symbolic Meaning. 33. The
+Lascivious Rites of the Nagualists. 34. Their Relation to the Symbols of
+the Serpent and the Phallus.
+
+35. Confusion of Christian and Native Religious Ideas; Prayers of Nagual
+Priests. Their Symbolic Language. 36. The Inquisition and Nagualism. 37.
+Etymology of the Word _Nagual_. 38. The Root _Na_ in the Maya, Zapotec
+and Nahuatl Languages. 39. The Doctrine of Animal Transformation in the
+Old World. 40. The Doctrine of Personal Spirits in the Old World. 41.
+Scientific Explanations of Nagual Magic. 42. Conclusion.
+
+
+  REPRINTED FEB. 23, 1894, FROM PROC. AMER. PHILOS. SOC., VOL. XXXIII.
+
+
+
+
+=1.= The words, a _nagual_, _nagualism_, a _nagualist_, have been current
+in English prose for more than seventy years; they are found during that
+time in a variety of books published in England and the United
+States,[4-*] yet are not to be discovered in any dictionary of the
+English language; nor has _Nagualism_ a place in any of the numerous
+encyclopaedias or "Conversation Lexicons," in English, French, German or
+Spanish.
+
+This is not owing to its lack of importance, since for two hundred years
+past, as I shall show, it has been recognized as a cult, no less
+powerful than mysterious, which united many and diverse tribes of Mexico
+and Central America into organized opposition against the government and
+the religion which had been introduced from Europe; whose members had
+acquired and were bound together by strange faculties and an occult
+learning, which placed them on a par with the famed thaumaturgists and
+theodidacts of the Old World; and which preserved even into our own days
+the thoughts and forms of a long suppressed ritual.
+
+In several previous publications I have referred briefly to this secret
+sodality and its aims,[4-[+]] and now believe it worth while to collect
+my scattered notes and present all that I have found of value about the
+origin, aims and significance of this Eleusinian Mystery of America. I
+shall trace its geographical extension and endeavor to discover what its
+secret influence really was and is.
+
+
+=2.= The earliest description I find of its particular rites is that which
+the historian Herrera gives, as they prevailed in 1530, in the province
+of Cerquin, in the mountainous parts of Honduras. It is as follows:
+
+     "The Devil was accustomed to deceive these natives by appearing to
+     them in the form of a lion, tiger, coyote, lizard, snake, bird, or
+     other animal. To these appearances they apply the name _Naguales_,
+     which is as much as to say, guardians or companions; and when such
+     an animal dies, so does the Indian to whom it was assigned. The way
+     such an alliance was formed was thus: The Indian repaired to some
+     very retired spot and there appealed to the streams, rocks and
+     trees around him, and weeping, implored for himself the favors they
+     had conferred on his ancestors. He then sacrificed a dog or a fowl,
+     and drew blood from his tongue, or his ears, or other parts of his
+     body, and turned to sleep. Either in his dreams or half awake, he
+     would see some one of those animals or birds above mentioned, who
+     would say to him, 'On such a day go hunting and the first animal or
+     bird you see will be my form, and I shall remain your companion and
+     _Nagual_ for all time.' Thus their friendship became so close that
+     when one died so did the other; and without such a _Nagual_ the
+     natives believe no one can become rich or powerful."[5-*]
+
+This province of Cerquin appears to have been peopled by a tribe which
+belonged to the great Mayan stock, akin to those which occupied most of
+the area of what is now Yucatan, Tabasco, Chiapas and Guatemala.[5-[+]]
+I shall say something later about the legendary enchantress whom their
+traditions recalled as the teacher of their ancestors and the founder of
+their nation. What I would now call attention to is the fact that in
+none of the dialects of the specifically Mexican or Aztecan stock of
+languages do we find the word _nagual_ in the sense in which it is
+employed in the above extract, and this is strong evidence that the
+origin of Nagualism is not to be sought in that stock.
+
+
+=3.= We do find, however, in the Nahuatl language, which is the proper
+name of the Aztecan, a number of derivatives from the same root, _na_,
+among them this very word, _Nahuatl_, all of them containing the idea
+"to know," or "knowledge." The early missionaries to New Spain often
+speak of the _naualli_ (plural, _nanahualtin_), masters of mystic
+knowledge, dealers in the black art, wizards or sorcerers. They were not
+always evil-minded persons, though they seem to have been generally
+feared. The earliest source of information about them is Father Sahagun,
+who, in his invaluable History, has the following paragraph:
+
+     "The _naualli_, or magician, is he who frightens men and sucks the
+     blood of children during the night. He is well skilled in the
+     practice of this trade, he knows all the arts of sorcery
+     (_nauallotl_) and employs them with cunning and ability; but for
+     the benefit of men only, not for their injury. Those who have
+     recourse to such arts for evil intents injure the bodies of their
+     victims, cause them to lose their reason and smother them. These
+     are wicked men and necromancers."[6-*]
+
+It is evident on examining the later works of the Roman clergy in Mexico
+that the Church did not look with any such lenient eye on the possibly
+harmless, or even beneficial, exercise of these magical devices. We find
+a further explanation of what they were, preserved in a work of
+instruction to confessors, published by Father Juan Bautista, at Mexico,
+in the year 1600.
+
+     "There are magicians who call themselves _teciuhtlazque_,[6-[+]]
+     and also by the term _nanahualtin_, who conjure the clouds when
+     there is danger of hail, so that the crops may not be injured. They
+     can also make a stick look like a serpent, a mat like a centipede,
+     a piece of stone like a scorpion, and similar deceptions. Others of
+     these _nanahualtin_ will transform themselves to all appearances
+     (segun la aparencia), into a tiger, a dog or a weasel. Others again
+     will take the form of an owl, a cock, or a weasel; and when one is
+     preparing to seize them, they will appear now as a cock, now as an
+     owl, and again as a weasel. These call themselves
+     _nanahualtin_."[6-[++]]
+
+There is an evident attempt in this somewhat confused statement to
+distinguish between an actual transformation, and one which only appears
+such to the observer.
+
+In another work of similar character, published at Mexico a few years
+later, the "Road to Heaven," of Father Nicolas de Leon, we find a series
+of questions which a confessor should put to any of his flock suspected
+of these necromantic practices. They reveal to us quite clearly what
+these occult practitioners were believed to do. The passage reads as
+follows, the questions being put in the mouth of the priest:
+
+     "Art thou a soothsayer? Dost thou foretell events by reading signs,
+     or by interpreting dreams, or by water, making circles and figures
+     on its surface? Dost thou sweep and ornament with flower garlands
+     the places where idols are preserved? Dost thou know certain words
+     with which to conjure for success in hunting, or to bring rain?
+
+     "Dost thou suck the blood of others, or dost thou wander about at
+     night, calling upon the Demon to help thee? Hast thou drunk
+     _peyotl_, or hast thou given it to others to drink, in order to
+     find out secrets, or to discover where stolen or lost articles
+     were? Dost thou know how to speak to vipers in such words that they
+     obey thee?"[6-Sec.]
+
+
+=4.= This interesting passage lets in considerable light on the claims and
+practices of the nagualists. Not the least important item is that of
+their use of the intoxicant, _peyotl_, a decoction of which it appears
+played a prominent part in their ceremonies. This is the native Nahuatl
+name of a certain plant, having a white, tuberous root, which is the
+part employed. It is mentioned as "pellote" or "peyote" in the
+_Farmacopea Mexicana_ as a popular remedy, but its botanical name is not
+added. According to Paso y Troncoso, it is one of the Compositae, a
+species of the genus _Cacalia_.[7-*] It is referred to in several
+passages by Father Sahagun, who says that it grows in southern Mexico,
+and that the Aztecs derived their knowledge of it from the older
+"Chichimecs." It was used as an intoxicant.
+
+     "Those who eat or drink of this _peyotl_ see visions, which are
+     sometimes frightful and sometimes ludicrous. The intoxication it
+     causes lasts several days. The Chichimecs believed that it gave
+     them courage in time of danger and diminished the pangs of hunger
+     and thirst."[7-[+]]
+
+Its use was continued until a late date, and very probably has not yet
+died out. Its composition and method of preparation are given in a list
+of beverages prohibited by the Spanish authorities in the year 1784, as
+follows:
+
+     "_Peyote_: Made from a species of vinagrilla, about the size of a
+     billiard ball, which grows in dry and sterile soil. The natives
+     chew it, and throw it into a wooden mortar, where it is left to
+     ferment, some leaves of tobacco being added to give it pungency.
+     They consume it in this form, sometimes with slices of _peyote_
+     itself, in their most solemn festivities, although it dulls the
+     intellect and induces gloomy and hurtful visions (sombras muy
+     funestas)."[7-[++]]
+
+The _peyotl_ was not the only herb prized as a means of casting the soul
+into the condition of hypostatic union with divinity. We have abundant
+evidence that long after the conquest the seeds of the plant called in
+Nahuatl the _ololiuhqui_ were in high esteem for this purpose. In the
+Confessionary of Father Bartholome de Alva the priest is supposed to
+inquire and learn as follows:
+
+     "_Question._ Hast thou loved God above all things? Hast thou loved
+     any created thing, adoring it, looking upon it as God, and
+     worshiping it?
+
+     "_Answer._ I have loved God with all my heart; but sometimes I have
+     believed in dreams, and also I have believed in the sacred herbs,
+     the _peyotl_, and the _ololiuhqui_; and in other such things
+     (_onicneltocac in temictli, in xiuhtzintli, in peyotl, in
+     ololiuhqui, yhuan in occequitlamantli_)."[8-*]
+
+The seeds of the _ololiuhqui_ appear to have been employed externally.
+They were the efficient element in the mysterious unguent known as "the
+divine remedy" (_teopatli_), about which we find some information in the
+works of Father Augustin de Vetancurt, who lived in Mexico in the middle
+of the seventeenth century. He writes:
+
+     "The pagan priests made use of an ointment composed of insects,
+     such as spiders, scorpions, centipedes and the like, which the
+     neophytes in the temples prepared. They burned these insects in a
+     basin, collected the ashes, and rubbed it up with green tobacco
+     leaves, living worms and insects, and the powdered seeds of a plant
+     called _ololiuhqui_, which has the power of inducing visions, and
+     the effect of which is to destroy the reasoning powers. Under the
+     influence of this ointment, they conversed with the Devil, and he
+     with them, practicing his deceptions upon them. They also believed
+     that it protected them, so they had no fear of going into the woods
+     at night.
+
+     "This was also employed by them as a remedy in various diseases,
+     and the soothing influence of the tobacco and the _ololiuhqui_ was
+     attributed by them to divine agency. There are some in our own day
+     who make use of this ointment for sorcery, shutting themselves up,
+     and losing their reason under its influence; especially some old
+     men and old women, who are prepared to fall an easy prey to the
+     Devil."[8-[+]]
+
+The botanist Hernandez observes that another name for this plant was
+_coaxihuitl_, "serpent plant," and adds that its seeds contain a
+narcotic poison, and that it is allied to the genus _Solanum_, of which
+the deadly night-shade is a familiar species. He speaks of its use in
+the sacred rites in these words:
+
+     "Indorum sacrifici, cum videri volebant versari cum superis, ac
+     responsa accipere ab eis, ea vescebantur planta, ut desiperent,
+     milleque phantasmata et demonum observatium effigies
+     circumspectarent."[8-[++]]
+
+Of the two plants mentioned, the _ololiuhqui_ and the _peyotl_, the
+former was considered the more potent in spiritual virtues. "They hold
+it in as much veneration as if it were God," says a theologian of the
+seventeenth century.[9-*] One who partook of these herbs was called
+_payni_ (from the verb _pay_, to take medicine); and more especially
+_tlachixqui_, a Seer, referring to the mystic "second sight," hence a
+diviner or prophet (from the verb _tlachia_, to see).
+
+Tobacco also held a prominent, though less important, place in these
+rites. It was employed in two forms, the one the dried leaf, _picietl_,
+which for sacred uses must be broken and rubbed up either seven or nine
+times; and the green leaf mixed with lime, hence called _tenextlecietl_
+(from _tenextli_, lime).
+
+Allied in effect to these is an intoxicant in use in southern Mexico and
+Yucatan, prepared from the bark of a tree called by the Mayas
+_baal-che_. The whites speak of the drink as _pitarilla_. It is quite
+popular among the natives, and they still attribute to it a sacred
+character, calling it _yax ha_, the first water, the primal fluid. They
+say that it was the first liquid created by God, and when He returned to
+His heavenly home He left this beverage and its production in charge of
+the gods of the rains, the four Pah-Ahtuns.[9-[+]]
+
+
+=5.= Intoxication of some kind was an essential part of many of these
+secret rites. It was regarded as a method of throwing the individual out
+of himself and into relation with the supernal powers. What the old
+historian, Father Joseph de Acosta, tells us about the clairvoyants and
+telepaths of the aborigines might well stand for a description of their
+modern representatives:
+
+     "Some of these sorcerers take any shape they choose, and fly
+     through the air with wonderful rapidity and for long distances.
+     They will tell what is taking place in remote localities long
+     before the news could possibly arrive. The Spaniards have known
+     them to report mutinies, battles, revolts and deaths, occurring two
+     hundred or three hundred leagues distant, on the very day they took
+     place, or the day after.
+
+     "To practice this art the sorcerers, usually old women, shut
+     themselves in a house, and intoxicate themselves to the degree of
+     losing their reason. The next day they are ready to reply to
+     questions."[10-*]
+
+Plants possessing similar powers to excite vivid visions and distort the
+imagination, and, therefore, employed in the magical rites, were the
+_thiuimeezque_, in Michoacan, and the _chacuaco_, in lower
+California.[10-[+]]
+
+
+=6.= In spite of all effort, the various classes of wonder-workers
+continued to thrive in Mexico. We find in a book of sermons published by
+the Jesuit Father, Ignacio de Paredes, in the Nahuatl language, in 1757,
+that he strenuously warns his hearers against invoking, consulting, or
+calling upon "the devilish spell-binders, the nagualists, and those who
+conjure with smoke."[10-[++]]
+
+They have not yet lost their power; we have evidence enough that many
+children of a larger growth in that land still listen with respect to
+the recitals of the mysterious faculties attributed to the
+_nanahualtin_. An observant German traveler, Carlos von Gagern, informs
+us that they are widely believed to be able to cause sicknesses and
+other ills, which must be counteracted by appropriate exorcisms, among
+which the reading aloud certain passages of the Bible is deemed to be
+one of the most potent.[10-Sec.]
+
+The learned historian, Orozco y Berra, speaks of the powers attributed
+at the present day to the _nahual_ in Mexico among the lower classes, in
+these words:
+
+     "The _nahual_ is generally an old Indian with red eyes, who knows
+     how to turn himself into a dog, woolly, black and ugly. The female
+     witch can convert herself into a ball of fire; she has the power of
+     flight, and at night will enter the windows and suck the blood of
+     little children. These sorcerers will make little images of rags or
+     of clay, then stick into them the thorn of the maguey and place
+     them in some secret place; you can be sure that the person against
+     whom the conjuration is practiced will feel pain in the part where
+     the thorn is inserted. There still exist among them the
+     medicine-men, who treat the sick by means of strange contortions,
+     call upon the spirits, pronounce magical incantations, blow upon
+     the part where the pain is, and draw forth from the patient thorns,
+     worms, or pieces of stone. They know how to prepare drinks which
+     will bring on sickness, and if the patients are cured by others the
+     convalescents are particular to throw something of their own away,
+     as a lock of hair, or a part of their clothing. Those who possess
+     the evil eye can, by merely looking at children, deprive them of
+     beauty and health, and even cause their death."[11-*]
+
+
+=7.= As I have said, nowhere in the records of purely Mexican, that is,
+Aztecan, Nagualism do we find the word _nagual_ employed in the sense
+given in the passage quoted from Herrera, that is as a personal guardian
+spirit or tutelary genius. These tribes had, indeed, a belief in some
+such protecting power, and held that it was connected with the day on
+which each person is born. They called it the _tonalli_ of a person, a
+word translated to mean that which is peculiar to him, which makes his
+individuality, his self. The radical from which it is derived is _tona_,
+to warm, or to be warm, from which are also derived _tonatiuh_, the sun.
+_Tonalli_, which in composition loses its last syllable, is likewise the
+word for heat, summer, soul, spirit and day, and also for the share or
+portion which belongs to one. Thus, _to-tonal_ is spirit or soul in
+general; _no-tonal_, my spirit; _no-tonal in ipan no-tlacat_, "the sign
+under which I was born," _i. e._, the astrological day-sign. From this
+came the verb _tonalpoa_, to count or estimate the signs, that is, to
+cast the horoscope of a person; and _tonalpouhque_, the diviners whose
+business it was to practice this art.[11-[+]]
+
+These _tonalpouhque_ are referred to at length by Father
+Sahagun.[11-[++]] He distinguishes them from the _naualli_, though it is
+clear that they corresponded in functions to the nagualistic priests of
+the southern tribes. From the number and name of the day of birth they
+forecast the destiny of the child, and stated the power or spiritual
+influence which should govern its career.
+
+The _tonal_ was by no means an indefeasible possession. It was a sort of
+independent _mascotte_. So long as it remained with a person he enjoyed
+health and prosperity; but it could depart, go astray, become lost; and
+then sickness and misfortune arrived. This is signified in the Nahuatl
+language by the verbs _tonalcaualtia_, to check, stop or suspend the
+_tonal_, hence, to shock or frighten one; and _tonalitlacoa_, to hurt or
+injure the _tonal_, hence, to cast a spell on one, to bewitch him.
+
+This explains the real purpose of the conjuring and incantations which
+were carried on by the native doctor when visiting the sick. It was to
+recall the _tonal_, to force or persuade it to return; and, therefore,
+the ceremony bore the name "the restitution of the _tonal_," and was
+more than any other deeply imbued with the superstitions of Nagualism.
+The chief officiant was called the _tetonaltiani_, "he who concerns
+himself with the tonal." On a later page I shall give the formula
+recited on such an occasion.
+
+
+=8.= There is some vague mention in the Aztec records of a semi-priestly
+order, who bore the name _naualteteuctin_, which may be translated
+"master magicians." They were also known as _teotlauice_, "sacred
+companions in arms." As was the case with most classes of the
+_teteuctin_, or nobles, entrance to the order was by a severe and
+prolonged ceremony of initiation, the object of which was not merely to
+test the endurance of pain and the powers of self-denial, but especially
+to throw the mind into that subjective state in which it is brought into
+contact with the divine, in which it can "see visions and dream dreams."
+The order claimed as its patron and founder Quetzalcoatl, the "feathered
+serpent," who, it will be seen on another page, was also the patron of
+the later nagualists.[12-*]
+
+The word _naualli_ also occurs among the ancient Nahuas in composition
+as a part of proper names; always with the signification of "magician,"
+as in that of Naualcuauhtla, a chief of the Chalcos, meaning
+"wizard-stick," referring probably to the rod or wand employed by the
+magi in conjuration.[13-*] So also _Naualac_, the "wizard water," an
+artificial lake not far from the city of Mexico, surrounded by ruined
+temples, described by M. Charnay.[13-[+]]
+
+
+=9.= The belief in a personal guardian spirit was one of the fundamental
+doctrines of Nagualism; but this belief by no means connotes the full
+import of the term (as Mr. H. H. Bancroft has erroneously stated). The
+calendar system of Mexico and Central America, which I have shown to be
+substantially the same throughout many diverse linguistic
+stocks,[13-[++]] had as one of its main objects, astrological
+divination. By consulting it the appropriate nagual was discovered and
+assigned, and this was certainly a prominent feature in the native cult
+and has never been abandoned.
+
+In Mexico to-day, in addition to his special personal guardian, the
+native will often choose another for a limited time or for a particular
+purpose, and this is quite consistent with the form of Christianity he
+has been taught. For instance, as we are informed by an observant
+traveler, at New Year or at corn-planting the head of a family will go
+to the parish church and among the various saints there displayed will
+select one as his guardian for the year. He will address to him his
+prayers for rain and sunshine, for an abundant harvest, health and
+prosperity, and will not neglect to back these supplications by liberal
+gifts. If times are good and harvests ample the Santo is rewarded with
+still more gifts, and his aid is sought for another term; but if luck
+has been bad the Indian repairs to the church at the end of the year,
+bestows on his holy patron a sound cursing, calls him all the bad names
+he can think of, and has nothing more to do with him.[13-Sec.]
+
+
+=10.= A Mexican writer, Andres Iglesias, who enjoyed more than common
+opportunities to study these practices as they exist in the present
+generation, describes them as he saw them in the village of Soteapan, a
+remote hamlet in the State of Vera Cruz, the population of which speak
+the Mixe language. This is not related to the Nahuatl tongue, but the
+terms of their magical rites are drawn from Nahuatl words, showing their
+origin. Every person at birth has assigned to him both a good and a bad
+genius, the former aiming at his welfare, the latter at his injury. The
+good genius is known by the Nahuatl term _tonale_, and it is represented
+in the first bird or animal of any kind which is seen in or near the
+house immediately after the birth of the infant.
+
+The most powerful person in the village is the high priest of the native
+cult. One who died about 1850 was called "the Thunderbolt," and whenever
+he walked abroad he was preceded by a group of chosen disciples, called
+by the Nahuatl name _tlatoques_, speakers or attorneys.[14-*] His
+successor, known as "the Greater Thunder," did not maintain this state,
+but nevertheless claimed to be able to control the seasons and to send
+or to mitigate destructive storms--claims which, sad to say, brought him
+to the stocks, but did not interfere with the regular payment of tribute
+to him by the villagers. He was also a medicine man and master of
+ceremonies in certain "scandalous orgies, where immodesty shows herself
+without a veil."[14-[+]][TN-1]
+
+
+=11.= Turning to the neighboring province of Oaxaca and its inhabitants,
+we are instructed on the astrological use of the calendar of the
+Zapotecs by Father Juan de Cordova, whose _Arte_ of their language was
+published at Mexico in 1578. From what he says its principal, if not its
+only purpose, was astrological. Each day had its number and was called
+after some animal, as eagle, snake, deer, rabbit, etc. Every child, male
+or female, received the name of the day, and also its number, as a
+surname; its personal name being taken from a fixed series, which
+differed in the masculine and feminine gender, and which seems to have
+been derived from the names of the fingers.
+
+From this it appears that among the Zapotecs the personal spirit or
+_nagual_ was fixed by the date of the birth, and not by some later
+ceremony, although the latter has been asserted by some writers; who,
+however, seem to have applied without certain knowledge the rites of the
+Nahuas and other surrounding tribes to the Zapotecs.[15-*]
+
+Next in importance to the assigning of names, according to Father
+Cordova, was the employment of the calendar in deciding the propriety of
+marriages. As the recognized object of marriage was to have sons, the
+couple appealed to the professional augur to decide this question before
+the marriage was fixed. He selected as many beans as was the sum of the
+numbers of the two proponents' names, and, counting them by twos, if one
+remained over, it meant a son; then counting by threes any remainder
+also meant sons; by fours the remainder meant either sons or daughters;
+and by five and six the same; and if there was no remainder by any of
+these five divisors the marriage would result in no sons and was
+prohibited.
+
+It is obvious that this method of fortune-telling was most auspicious
+for the lovers; for I doubt if there is any combination of two numbers
+below fourteen which is divisible by two, three, four, five and six
+without remainder in any one instance.[15-[+]]
+
+The Zapotecs were one of those nations who voluntarily submitted
+themselves to the Spaniards, not out of love for the Europeans, but
+through hatred of the Aztecs, who had conquered them in the preceding
+century. Their king, Coyopy, and his subjects accepted Christianity and
+were generally baptized; but it was the merest formality, and years
+afterwards Coyopy was detected secretly conducting the heathen ritual of
+his ancestors with all due pomp. He was arrested, sent to the city of
+Mexico, deprived of his power and wealth, and soon died; it is
+charitably supposed, from natural causes. There is no question but that
+he left successors to the office of pontifex maximus, and that they
+continued the native religious ceremonies.
+
+
+=12.= The sparse notices we have of the astrology of the Mixtecs,
+neighbors and some think relatives of the Zapotecs, reveal closely
+similar rites. The name of their king, who opposed Montezuma the First
+some sixty years before the arrival of Cortez, proves that they made use
+of the same or a similar calendar in bestowing personal appellations. It
+is given as _Tres Micos_, Three Monkeys.
+
+Unfortunately, so far as I know, there has not been published, and
+perhaps there does not exist, an authentic copy of the Mixtec calendar.
+It was nevertheless reduced to writing in the native tongue after the
+conquest, and a copy of it was seen by the historian Burgoa in the
+Mixtec town of Yanhuitlan.[16-*] Each day was named from a tree, a plant
+or an animal, and from them the individual received his names, as Four
+Lions, Five Roses, etc. (examples given by Herrera). This latter writer
+adds that the name was assigned by the priests when the child was seven
+years old (as among the Tzentals), part of the rite being to conduct it
+to the temple and bore its ears. He refers also to their auguries
+relating to marriage.[16-[+]] These appear to have been different from
+among the Zapotecs. It was necessary that the youth should have a name
+bearing a higher number than that of the maiden, and also "that they
+should be related;" probably this applied only to certain formal
+marriages of the rulers which were obliged to be within the same _gens_.
+
+
+=13.= I have referred in some detail to the rites and superstitions
+connected with the Calendar because they are all essential parts of
+Nagualism, carried on far into Christian times by the priests of this
+secret cult, as was fully recognized by the Catholic clergy. Wherever
+this calendar was in use, the Freemasonry of Nagualism extended, and its
+ritual had constant reference to it. Our fullest information about it
+does not come from central Mexico, but further south, in the region
+occupied by the various branches of the Mayan stock, by the ancestors of
+some one of which, perhaps, this singular calendar, and the symbolism
+connected with it, were invented.
+
+One of the most important older authorities on this subject is Francisco
+Nunez de la Vega, a learned Dominican, who was appointed Bishop of
+Chiapas and Soconusco in 1687, and who published at Rome, in 1702, a
+stately folio entitled "_Constituciones Dioecesanas del Obispado de
+Chiappa_," comprising discussions of the articles of religion and a
+series of pastoral letters. The subject of Nagualism is referred to in
+many passages, and the ninth Pastoral Letter is devoted to it. As this
+book is one of extreme rarity, I shall make rather lengthy extracts from
+it, taking the liberty of condensing the scholastic prolixity of the
+author, and omitting his professional admonitions to the wicked.
+
+He begins his references to it in several passages of his Introduction
+or _Preambulo_, in which he makes some interesting statements as to the
+use to which the natives put their newly-acquired knowledge of writing,
+while at the same time they had evidently not forgotten the ancient
+method of recording ideas invented by their ancestors.
+
+The Bishop writes:
+
+     "The Indians of New Spain retain all the errors of their time of
+     heathenism preserved in certain writings in their own languages,
+     explaining by abbreviated characters and by figures painted in a
+     secret cypher[17-*] the places, provinces and names of their early
+     rulers, the animals, stars and elements which they worshiped, the
+     ceremonies and sacrifices which they observed, and the years,
+     months and days by which they predicted the fortunes of children at
+     birth, and assign them that which they call the Naguals. These
+     writings are known as Repertories or Calendars, and they are also
+     used to discover articles lost or stolen, and to effect cures of
+     diseases. Some have a wheel painted in them, like that of
+     Pythagoras, described by the Venerable Bede; others portray a lake
+     surrounded by the Naguals in the form of various animals. Some of
+     the Nagualist Masters claim as their patron and ruler Cuchulchan,
+     and they possessed a certain formula of prayer to him, written in
+     the Popoluca tongue (which was called Baha in their time of
+     heathenism), and which has been translated into Mexican.[17-[+]]
+
+     "Those who are selected to become the masters of these arts are
+     taught from early childhood how to draw and paint these characters,
+     and are obliged to learn by heart the formulas, and the names of
+     the ancient Nagualists, and whatever else is included in these
+     written documents, many of which we have held in our hands, and
+     have heard them explained by such masters whom we had imprisoned
+     for their guilt, and who had afterwards become converted and
+     acknowledged their sins."[17-[++]]
+
+The Bishop made up his mind that extreme measures should be taken to
+eradicate these survivals of the ancient paganism in his diocese, and he
+therefore promulgated the following order in the year 1692:
+
+     "And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are
+     Nagualists adore their _naguals_, and look upon them as gods, and
+     by their aid believe that they can foretell the future, discover
+     hidden treasures, and fulfill their dishonest desires: we,
+     therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an
+     ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the
+     church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks (con
+     grillos y cepos), and we confer authority on every priest and
+     curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of
+     disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with
+     especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism (y con
+     rigor mayor a los dogmatizantes Nagualistas)."[18-*]
+
+In spite of these injunctions it is evident that he failed to destroy
+the seeds of what he esteemed this dangerous heresy in the parishes of
+his diocese; for his ninth Pastoral Letter, in which he exposes at
+length the character of Nagualism, is dated from the metropolitan city
+of Ciudad Real, on May 24, 1698. As much of it is germane to my theme, I
+translate as follows:
+
+     "There are certain bad Christians of both sexes who do not hesitate
+     to follow the school of the Devil, and to occupy themselves with
+     evil arts, divinations, sorceries, conjuring, enchantments,
+     fortune-telling, and other means to forecast the future.
+
+     "These are those who in all the provinces of New Spain are known by
+     the name of _Nagualists_. They pretend that the birth of men is
+     regulated by the course and movements of stars and planets, and by
+     observing the time of day and the months in which a child is born,
+     they prognosticate its condition and the events, prosperous or
+     otherwise, of its life; and the worst is that these perverse men
+     have written down their signs and rules, and thus deceive the
+     erring and ignorant.
+
+     "These Nagualists practice their arts by means of Repertories and
+     superstitious Calendars, where are represented under their proper
+     names all the Naguals of stars, elements, birds, fishes, brute
+     beasts and dumb animals; with a vain note of days and months, so
+     that they can announce which corresponds to the day of birth of the
+     infant. This is preceded by some diabolical ceremonies, after which
+     they designate the field or other spot, where, after seven years
+     shall have elapsed, the Nagual will appear to ratify the bargain.
+     As the time approaches, they instruct the child to deny God and
+     His Blessed Mother, and warn him to have no fear, and not to make
+     the sign of the cross. He is told to embrace his Nagual tenderly,
+     which, by some diabolical art, presents itself in an affectionate
+     manner even though it be a ferocious beast, like a lion or a tiger.
+     Thus, with infernal cunning they persuade him that this Nagual is
+     an angel of God, who will look after him and protect him in his
+     after life.
+
+     "To such diabolical masters the intelligent Indians apply, to learn
+     from these superstitious Calendars, dictated by the Devil, their
+     own fortunes, and the Naguals which will be assigned to their
+     children, even before they are baptized. In most of the Calendars,
+     the seventh sign is the figure of a man and a snake, which they
+     call Cuchulchan. The masters have explained it as a snake with
+     feathers which moves in the water. This sign corresponds with
+     Mexzichuaut, which means Cloudy Serpent, or, of the clouds.[19-*]
+     The people also consult them in order to work injury on their
+     enemies, taking the lives of many through such devilish artifices,
+     and committing unspeakable atrocities.
+
+     "Worse even than these are those who wander about as physicians or
+     healers; who are none such, but magicians, enchanters, and
+     sorcerers, who, while pretending to cure, kill whom they will. They
+     apply their medicines by blowing on the patient, and by the use of
+     infernal words; learned by heart by those who cannot read or write;
+     and received in writing from their masters by those acquainted with
+     letters. The Master never imparts this instruction to a single
+     disciple, but always to three at a time, so that in the practice of
+     the art it may be difficult to decide which one exerts the magical
+     power. They blow on feathers, or sticks, or plants, and place them
+     in the paths where they may be stepped on by those they wish to
+     injure, thus causing chills, fevers, ugly pustules and other
+     diseases; or they introduce into the body by such arts toads,
+     frogs, snakes, centipedes, etc,[TN-2] causing great torments. And
+     by these same breathings and magic words they can burn down houses,
+     destroy the growing crops and induce sickness. No one of the three
+     disciples is permitted to practice any of these arts without
+     previously informing the other two, and also the Master, by whom
+     the three have been taught.
+
+     "We have learned by the confession of certain guilty parties how
+     the Master begins to instruct his disciple. First he tells him to
+     abjure God, the saints and the Virgin, not to invoke their names,
+     and to have no fear of them. He then conducts him to the wood,
+     glen, cave or field where the pact with the Devil is concluded,
+     which they call 'the agreement' or 'the word given' (in Tzental
+     _quiz_). In some provinces the disciple is laid on an ant-hill, and
+     the Master standing above him calls forth a snake, colored with
+     black, white and red, which is known as 'the ant-mother' (in
+     Tzental _zmezquiz_).[19-[+]] This comes accompanied by the ants
+     and other small snakes of the same kind, which enter at the joints
+     of the fingers, beginning with the left hand, and coming out at the
+     joints of the right hand, and also by the ears and the nose; while
+     the great snake enters the body with a leap and emerges at its
+     posterior vent. Afterwards the disciple meets a dragon vomiting
+     fire, which swallows him entire and ejects him posteriorly. Then
+     the Master declares he may be admitted, and asks him to select the
+     herbs with which he will conjure, the disciple names them, the
+     Master gathers them and delivers them to him, and then teaches him
+     the sacred words.
+
+     "These words and ceremonies are substantially the same in all the
+     provinces. The healer enters the house of the invalid, asks about
+     the sickness, lays his hand on the suffering part, and then leaves,
+     promising to return on the day following. At the next visit he
+     brings with him some herbs which he chews or mashes with a little
+     water and applies to the part. Then he repeats the _Pater Noster_,
+     the _Ave_, the _Credo_ and the _Salve_ and blows upon the seat of
+     disease, afterwards pronouncing the magical words taught him by his
+     master. He continues blowing in this manner, inhaling and exhaling,
+     repeating under his breath these magical expressions, which are
+     powerful to kill or to cure as he chooses, through the compact he
+     has made with the Devil. Finally, so as to deceive the bystanders,
+     he ends with saying in a loud voice: 'God the Father, God the Son,
+     and God the Holy Ghost. Amen.'
+
+     "This physician or healer is called in the towns of some of the
+     provinces _poxta vanegs_, and the medicine _gspoxil_; and
+     everything relating to healing among the Indians to which they
+     apply these terms means also to practice sorcery; and all words
+     derived from _pox_ allude to the Nagual; for this in some provinces
+     is called _poxlon_, and in others _patzlan_, and in many
+     _tzihuizin_, which is something very much feared by the Indians. We
+     have ascertained by the confessions of many who have been
+     reconciled that the Devil at times appears to them in the shape of
+     a ball or globe of fire in the air, with a tail like a comet.[20-*]
+
+     "According to the most ancient traditions of these Indians this
+     idol, _poxlon_, was one of the most important and venerated they
+     had in the old times, and the Tzentals revered it so much that
+     they preserved it innumerable years painted on a tablet in the
+     above figure. Even after they were converted to the faith, they
+     hung it behind a beam in the church of the town of Oxchuc,
+     accompanied by an image of their god Hicalahau, having a ferocious
+     black face with the members of a man,[21-*] along with five owls
+     and vultures. By divine interposition, we discovered these on our
+     second visit there in 1687, and had no little difficulty in getting
+     them down, we reciting the creed, and the Indians constantly
+     spitting as they executed our orders. These objects were publicly
+     burned in the plaza.
+
+     "In other parts they reverence the bones of the earlier Nagualists,
+     preserving them in caves, where they adorn them with flowers and
+     burn copal before them. We have discovered some of these and burned
+     them, hoping to root out and put a stop to such evil ceremonies of
+     the infernal sect of the Nagualists.
+
+     "At present, all are not so subject to the promptings of the Devil
+     as formerly, but there are still some so closely allied to him that
+     they transform themselves into tigers, lions, bulls, flashes of
+     light and globes of fire. We can say from the declaration and
+     solemn confession of some penitents that it is proved that the
+     Devil had carnal relations with them, both as incubus and succubus,
+     approaching them in the form of their Nagual; and there was one
+     woman who remained in the forest a week with the demon in the form
+     of her Nagual, acting toward him as does an infatuated woman toward
+     her lover (como pudiera con su proprio amigo una muger amancebada).
+     As a punishment for such horrible crimes our Lord has permitted
+     that they lose their life as soon as their Nagual is killed; and
+     that they bear on their own bodies the wound or mark of the blow
+     which killed it; as the curas of Chamula, Copainala and other
+     places have assured us.
+
+     "The devilish seed of this Nagualism has rooted itself in the very
+     flesh and blood of these Indians. It perseveres in their hearts
+     through the instructions of the masters of the sect, and there is
+     scarcely a town in these provinces in which it has not been
+     introduced. It is a superstitious idolatry, full of monstrous
+     incests, sodomies and detestable bestialities."
+
+Such are the words of the Bishop of Chiapas. We learn from his
+thoroughly instructed and unimpeachable testimony that at the beginning
+of the eighteenth century Nagualism was a widespread and active
+institution among the Indians of southern Mexico; that it was taught and
+practiced by professors who were so much feared and respected that, as
+he tells us in another passage, they were called "masters of the
+towns;"[21-[+]] that they gave systematic instruction to disciples in
+classes of three, all of whom were bound together by pledges of mutual
+information and assistance; that a fundamental principle of the
+organization and an indispensable step in the initiation into its
+mysteries was the abjuration of the Christian religion, and an undying
+hatred to its teachers and all others of the race of the white
+oppressors; and that when they made use of Christian phrases or
+ceremonies it was either in derision or out of hypocrisy, the better to
+conceal their real sentiments.
+
+There are a number of other witnesses from the seventeenth century that
+may be summoned to strengthen this testimony, if it needs it.
+
+
+=14.= In the _History of Guatemala_, written about 1690 by Francisco
+Antonio Fuentes y Guzman, the author gives some information about a
+sorcerer of this school, who was arrested in Totonicapan, and with whom
+the historian had something to do as _corregidor_.
+
+The redoubtable magician was a little old man, _viejezuelo_, and when
+caught had in his possession a document giving the days of the year
+according to the European calendar, with the Nagual, which belonged to
+each one. That for January is alone given by our writer, but it is
+probable that the other months merely repeated the naguals corresponding
+to the numbers. It ran as follows:
+
+  _Nagual Calendar for January._
+
+  1. Lion.
+  2. Snake.
+  3. Stone.
+  4. Alligator.
+  5. Ceiba tree.
+  6. The quetzal (a bird).
+  7. A stick.
+  8. Rabbit.
+  9. A rope.
+  10. Leaf.
+  11. Deer.
+  12. Guacamayo (parrot).
+  13. Flower.
+  14. Toad.
+  15. Caterpillar.
+  16. A chip.
+  17. Arrow.
+  18. Broom.
+  19. Jaguar.
+  20. Corn-husk.
+  21. A flute.
+  22. Green-stone.
+  23. Crow.
+  24. Fire.
+  25. A pheasant.
+  26. A reed.
+  27. Opossum.
+  28. Huracan (the thunder-storm).
+  29. The vulture.
+  30. Hawk.
+  31. Bat.
+
+When the sorcerer was examined as to the manner of assigning the proper
+nagual to a child he gave the following account:
+
+Having been informed of its day of birth, he in due time called at the
+residence of the parents, and told the mother to bring the child into
+the field behind the house. Having there invoked the demon, the _nagual_
+of the child would appear under the form of the animal or object set
+opposite its birthday in the calendar, a serpent were it born on the 2d
+of January, a flower were it on the 13th, fire were it on the 24th, and
+so on. The sorcerer then addressed certain prayers to the _nagual_ to
+protect the little one, and told the mother to take it daily to the same
+spot, where its _nagual_ would appear to it, and would finally accompany
+it through all its life. Some, but not all, obtained the power of
+transforming themselves into the _nagual_, and the author declares that,
+though he could not cite such a case from his own experience, his father
+knew of several, and reliable priests, _religiosos de fe_, had told him
+enough examples to fill volumes.[23-*]
+
+The tribes to which this author refers were the Cakchiquels and Quiches,
+who spoke practically the same tongue. An examination of some of the old
+dictionaries prepared by the early missionaries furnishes further and
+interesting information about this obscure subject.
+
+In the Cakchiquel language of Guatemala, the word _naual_ was applied
+both to the magician himself, to his necromantic art, and to the demonic
+agency which taught and protected him. This is shown by the following
+explanation, which I quote from Father Coto's _Vocabulario de la Lengua
+Cakchiquel_, 1651, a manuscript in the library of the American
+Philosophical Society:
+
+     "_Magic_ or _Necromancy_: _puz_ or _naual_; and they were
+     accustomed to call their magicians or sorcerers by the same terms.
+     It was a kind of magic which they invoked in order to transform
+     themselves into eagles, lions, tigers, etc. Thus, they said, _ru
+     puz_, _ru naual_, _pedro lae cot_, _balam_, 'Peter's power, his
+     _naual_, is a lion, a tiger.' They also applied the words _puz_ and
+     _naual_ to certain trees, rocks and other inanimate objects, whence
+     the Devil used to speak to them, and likewise to the idols which
+     they worshiped, as _gazlic che_, _gazlic abah_, _huyu_, _k'o ru
+     naual_, 'The life of the tree, the life of the stone, of the hill,
+     is its _naual_,' etc.; because they believed there was life in
+     these objects. They used to have armies and soldiery to guard
+     their lands, and the captains, as well as many who were not
+     captains, had their _nauales_. They called the captain _ru g'
+     alache; rohobachi, ti ru gaah, ru pocob, ru gh' amay a ghay ti be
+     chi naualil_ [he works magic with his shield, his lance, and his
+     arrows].
+
+     "To practice such magical arts: _tin naualih_ ('I practice magic'),
+     an active verb. They use it, for instance, when a man asks his wife
+     for something to eat or drink, and she has nothing, owing to his
+     negligence, she will say: 'Where do you suppose I can get what you
+     want? Do you expect me to perform miracles--_xa pe ri tin
+     naualih_--that they shall come to my hands?' So when one is asked
+     to lend or give something which he has not, he will exclaim: _Tin
+     naualih pe ri puvak_, etc. ('Can I perform miracles,' etc.)
+
+     "It also signifies to pretend something, concealing the truth, as
+     _xa ru naualim ara neh chu g' ux ri tzih tan tu bijh pedro_, 'Peter
+     is feigning this which he is saying.' They are also accustomed to
+     apply this word to the power which the priests exert (in the
+     sacraments, etc.)."
+
+A long and foolish account of the witchcraft supposed to be practiced
+among the Pokonchis of Guatemala, also a tribe of Mayan stock, is given
+by the Englishman, Thomas Gage, who was cura of a parish among them
+about 1630, and afterwards returned to England and Protestantism. He
+described, at wearisome length, the supposed metamorphosis of two chiefs
+of neighboring tribes, the one into a lion, the other into a tiger, and
+the mortal combat in which they engaged, resulting in the death of one
+to whom Gage administered absolution. No doubt he had been worsted in a
+personal encounter with his old enemy, and, being a man of eighty years,
+had not the vigor to recover. The account is of interest only as proving
+that the same superstitions at that time prevailed among the Pokonchis
+as in other portions of Guatemala.[24-*]
+
+
+=15.= A really mighty nagualist was not confined to a single
+transformation. He could take on many and varied figures. One such is
+described in the sacred books of the Quiches of Guatemala, that document
+known by the name of the Popol Vuh, or National Book. The passage is in
+reference to one of their great kings and powerful magicians, Gucumatz
+by name. It says:
+
+     "Truly he was a wonderful king. Every seven days he ascended to the
+     sky, and every seven days he followed the path to the abode of the
+     dead; every seven days he put on the nature of a serpent, and then
+     he became truly a serpent; every seven days he assumed the nature
+     of an eagle, and then he became truly an eagle; then of a tiger and
+     he became truly a tiger; then of coagulated blood, and he was
+     nothing else than coagulated blood."[25-*]
+
+It may be said that such passages refer metaphorically to the
+versatility of his character, but even if this is so, the metaphors are
+drawn from the universal belief in Nagualism which then prevailed, and
+they do not express it too strongly.
+
+
+=16.= Among the Maya tribes of Yucatan and Guatemala we have testimony to
+the continuance to this day of these beliefs. Father Bartolome de Baeza,
+cura of Yaxcaba in the first half of this century, reports that an old
+man, in his dying confession, declared that by diabolical art he had
+transformed himself into an animal, doubtless his _nagual_; and a young
+girl of some twelve years confessed that she had been transformed into a
+bird by the witches, and in one of her nocturnal flights had rested on
+the roof of the very house in which the good priest resided, which was
+some two leagues from her home. He wisely suggests that, perhaps,
+listening to some tale of sorcery, she had had a vivid dream, in which
+she seemed to take this flight. It is obvious, however, from his
+account, as well as from other sources, that the belief of the
+transformation into lower animals was and is one familiar to the
+superstitions of the Mayas.[25-[+]] The natives still continue to
+propitiate the ancient gods of the harvest, at the beginning of the
+season assembling at a ceremony called by the Spaniards the _misa
+milpera_, or "field mass," and by themselves _ti'ch_, "the stretching
+out of the hands."
+
+The German traveler, Dr. Scherzer, when he visited, in 1854, the remote
+hamlet of Istlavacan, in Guatemala, peopled by Quiche Indians,
+discovered that they had preserved in this respect the usages of their
+ancestors almost wholly unaffected by the teachings of their various
+Christian curates. The "Master" still assigned the _naguals_ to the
+new-born infants, copal was burned to their ancient gods in remote
+caves, and formulas of invocation were taught by the veteran nagualists
+to their neophytes.[26-*]
+
+These _Zahoris_,[26-[+]] as they are generally called in the Spanish of
+Central America, possessed many other mysterious arts besides that of
+such metamorphoses and of forecasting the future. They could make
+themselves invisible, and walk unseen among their enemies; they could in
+a moment transport themselves to distant places, and, as quickly
+returning, report what they had witnessed; they could create before the
+eyes of the spectator a river, a tree, a house, or an animal, where none
+such existed; they could cut open their own stomach, or lop a limb from
+another person, and immediately heal the wound or restore the severed
+member to its place; they could pierce themselves with knives and not
+bleed, or handle venomous serpents and not be bitten; they could cause
+mysterious sounds in the air, and fascinate animals and persons by their
+steady gaze; they could call visible and invisible spirits, and the
+spirits would come.
+
+Among the native population of the State of Vera Cruz and elsewhere in
+southern Mexico these mysterious personages go by the name _padrinos_,
+godfathers, and are looked upon with a mixture of fear and respect. They
+are believed by the Indians to be able to cause sickness and domestic
+calamities, and are pronounced by intelligent whites to present "a
+combination of rascality, duplicity and trickery."[26-[++]]
+
+
+=17.= The details of the ceremonies and doctrines of Nagualism have never
+been fully revealed; but from isolated occurrences and partial
+confessions it is clear that its adherents formed a coherent association
+extending over most of southern Mexico and Guatemala, which everywhere
+was inspired by two ruling sentiments--detestation of the Spaniards and
+hatred of the Christian religion.
+
+In their eyes the latter was but a cloak for the exactions, massacres
+and oppressions exerted by the former. To them the sacraments of the
+Church were the outward signs of their own subjugation and misery. They
+revolted against these rites in open hatred, or received them with
+secret repugnance and contempt. In the Mexican figurative manuscripts
+composed after the conquest the rite of baptism is constantly depicted
+as the symbol of religious persecution. Says a sympathetic student of
+this subject:
+
+     "The act of baptism is always inserted in their records of battles
+     and massacres. Everywhere it conveys the same idea,--making evident
+     to the reader that the pretext for all the military expeditions of
+     the Spaniards was the enforced conversion to Christianity of the
+     natives; a pretext on which the Spaniards seized in order to
+     possess themselves of the land and its treasure, to rob the Indians
+     of their wives and daughters, to enslave them, and to spill their
+     blood without remorse or remission. One of these documents, dated
+     in 1526, adds a trait of savage irony. A Spanish soldier is
+     represented dragging a fugitive Indian from a lake by a lasso
+     around his neck; while on the shore stands a monk ready to baptize
+     the recreant on his arrival!"[27-*]
+
+No wonder that the priests of the dark ritual of Nagualism for centuries
+after the conquest sought to annul the effects of the hated Christian
+sacraments by counteracting ceremonies of their own, as we are told they
+did by the historian Torquemada, writing from his own point of view in
+these words:
+
+     "The Father of Lies had his ministers who aided him, magicians and
+     sorcerers, who went about from town to town, persuading the simple
+     people to that which the Enemy of Light desired. Those who believed
+     their deceits, and had been baptized, were washed on the head and
+     breast by these sorcerers, who assured them that this would remove
+     the effects of the chrism and the holy oils. I myself knew an
+     instance where a person of prominence, who resided not far from the
+     City of Mexico, was dying, and had received extreme unction; and
+     when the priest had departed one of these diabolical ceremonialists
+     entered, and washed all the parts which had been anointed by the
+     holy oil with the intention to destroy its power."[27-[+]]
+
+Similar instances are recorded by Jacinto de la Serna. He adds that not
+only did the Masters prescribe sacrifices to the Fire in order to annul
+the effects of extreme unction, but they delighted to caricature the
+Eucharist, dividing among their congregation a narcotic yellow mushroom
+for the bread, and the inebriating pulque for the wine. Sometimes they
+adroitly concealed in the pyx, alongside the holy wafer, some little
+idol of their own, so that they really followed their own superstitions
+while seemingly adoring the Host. They assigned a purely pagan sense to
+the sacred formula, "Father, Son and Holy Ghost," understanding it to be
+"Fire, Earth and Air," or the like.[28-*]
+
+Whoever or whatever was an enemy to that religion so brutally forced upon
+these miserable creatures was to them an ally and a friend. Nunez de la
+Vega tells us that he found written formulas among them reading: "O
+Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, Brother Antichrist, come to our
+aid!"--pathetic and desperate appeal of a wretched race, ground to earth
+under the iron heels of a religious and military despotism.[28-[+]]
+
+
+=18.= The association embraced various tribes and its members were
+classified under different degrees. The initiation into these was by
+solemn and often painful ceremonies. Local sodalities or brotherhoods
+were organized after the manner of those usual in the Roman Church; but
+instead of being named after St. John or the Virgin Mary they were
+dedicated to Judas Iscariot or Pontius Pilate out of derision and hatred
+of the teachings of the priests; or to the Devil or Antichrist, who were
+looked upon as powerful divinities in opposition to the Church.[28-[++]]
+
+There were certain recognized centres of the association, near which its
+most important dignitaries resided, and where their secret councils and
+most imposing ceremonies were held. One of these was Zamayac, in the
+province of Suchiltepec; a second near Huehuetan, Soconusco; a third at
+Totonicapan, Guatemala; a fourth at Cancuc, Chiapas; a fifth at
+Teozapotlan, Oaxaca; and a few others may be surmised.
+
+The high priest who resided at each of these centres exercised control
+over all the nagualistic teachers and practitioners in an extensive
+district. On the occasion of an official inquiry by the Spanish
+authorities it was ascertained that the high priest of Zamayac included
+under his rule nearly one thousand sub-priests,[29-*] and no doubt
+others of his rank were not less potent.
+
+The unity between the members of the association over an indefinitely
+wide area was perfectly well known to the Spanish priests and civil
+authorities. The ceremonies, formulas and methods of procedure were
+everywhere identical or alike. This itself was justly regarded as a
+proof of the secret intelligence which existed among the members of this
+cabalistic guild.[29-[+]]
+
+To a certain extent, and at least in some localities, as Chiapas and
+Guatemala, the priesthood of Nagualism was hereditary in particular
+families. This is especially stated by the historian Ordonez y Aguiar,
+who had exceptional opportunities for acquainting himself with the
+facts.[29-[++]]
+
+A traveler of the first decade of this century, who has left us a number
+of curious details of the superstitions of the Christianized Indians in
+Mexico of that day, Benito Maria de Moxo, informs us that he had
+discovered the existence of different grades in the native soothsayers
+and medicine men, and that all in a given locality recognized the
+supremacy of one whom they referred to as "the little old man," _El
+Viejito_. But he was unable to ascertain by what superior traits or
+rights he obtained this distinction.[29-Sec.]
+
+According to some authorities, the highest grade of these native
+hierophants bore among the Nahuas the symbolic name of "flower
+weavers," _Xochimilca_, probably from the skill they had to deceive the
+senses by strange and pleasant visions.[30-*] In the south they were
+spoken of as "guardians," which may have been derived from the classes
+of priests so-called in the Zapotec religion.[30-[+]]
+
+
+=19.= It will be seen from the above, that Nagualism, beginning in an
+ancient superstition dating back to the time of primitive barbarism,
+became after the Conquest a potent factor in the political and social
+development of the peoples among whom it existed; that it was the source
+from which was drawn and the means by which was sustained the
+race-hatred of the native American towards his foreign conquerors,
+smouldering for centuries, now and then breaking out in furious revolt
+and civil war.
+
+There is strong reason to suspect its power where, for obvious reasons,
+it has not been demonstrated. It has always been a mystery and a matter
+of surprise to the historians of Yucatan how rapidly spread the plans of
+the insurrection which secured lasting independence for the natives,
+after these plans had been agreed upon by the two chiefs, Antonio Ay and
+Cecilio Chi, at the remote rancho of Xihum, in July, 1847. Such
+unanimity of action could only have been possible through the aid of a
+powerful, well-disciplined and widespread secret organization. There can
+scarcely be a doubt they were the chiefs or masters of the redoubtable
+order of Nagualism in the Peninsula.[30-[++]]
+
+There is no question that such was the case with the brief and bloody
+revolt of the Mayas in 1761. It suddenly broke out in a number of
+villages near Valladolid, Yucatan, headed by a full-blood native,
+Jacinto Can-Ek; but some of the participants afterwards confessed that
+it was the outcome of a conspiracy which had been preparing for a year.
+
+When the appointed day arrived, Jacinto boldly announced himself as the
+high priest of the fraternity of sorcerers, a master and teacher of
+magic, and the lineal successor of the famous ancient prophet, Chilan
+Balam, "whose words cannot fail." In a stirring appeal he urged his
+fellow-countrymen to attack the Spaniards without fear of consequences.
+
+     "'Be not afraid,' he exclaimed, 'of their cannons and their forts;
+     for among the many to whom I have taught the arts of magic (el arte
+     de brujeria) there are fifteen chosen ones, marvelous experts, who
+     by their mystic power will enter the fortress, slay the sentinels,
+     and throw open the gates to our warriors. I shall take the leaves
+     of the sacred tree, and folding them into trumpets, I shall call to
+     the four winds of heaven, and a multitude of fighting men will
+     hasten to our aid.'"[31-*]
+
+Saying this, he took a sheet of paper, held it up to show that it was
+blank, folded it for a moment, and then spread it out covered with
+writing! This deft trick convinced his simple-minded hearers of the
+truth of his claims and they rushed to arms. He led them, clothed in the
+robe of the Virgin and with her crown on his head. But neither their
+enthusiasm nor their leader's art magic availed, and soon Jacinto and
+his followers fell victims to the stake and the gallows. After their
+death the dance of "the tiger," or of Chac-Mool--the "ghost dance" of
+the Mayas--was prohibited; and the use of the sacred drum--the favorite
+instrument of the native priests--was forbidden.[31-[+]]
+
+In fact, wherever we have any full accounts of the revolts against the
+Spanish domination during the three centuries of its existence in New
+Spain, we can manifestly trace the guiding fingers of the powerful
+though hidden hand of Nagualism. An earlier revolt of the Mayas in
+Yucatan occurred in 1585. It was led by Andres Chi, a full-blood Indian,
+and a descendant of the ancient royal house of the Cocomes. He also
+announced himself as a priest of the ancient faith, a prophet and a
+worker of miracles, sent to instruct his own people in a new religion
+and to give them an independent political existence. Seized by the
+Spaniards, he was charged with idolatry, sorcery and disturbing the
+peace, and was ignominiously hanged.[32-*]
+
+Not less definitely inspired by the same ideas was the Mixe Indian,
+known as "Don Pascual," who led the revolt of the Tehuantepec tribes in
+1661. He sent out his summons to the "thirteen governors of the Zapotecs
+and Chontales" to come to his aid, and the insurrection threatened to
+assume formidable proportions, prevented only by bringing to bear upon
+the natives the whole power of the Roman Church through the Bishop of
+Oaxaca, Cuevas Davalos.[32-[+]]
+
+Nearly the same locality had been the scene of the revolt of the
+Zapotecs in 1550, when they were led by a native priest who claimed to
+be an incarnation of the old god Quetzalcoatl, the patron deity of the
+nagualists.[32-[++]]
+
+In the city of Mexico itself, in the year 1692, there was a violent
+outbreak of the natives, when they destroyed three million dollars worth
+of property. Doubtless this was partly attributable to the scarcity of
+food which prevailed; but that the authorities traced it also to some
+secret ceremonials is evident from the law which was immediately passed
+forbidding the Indians to wear the _piochtli_, or scalp-lock, a portion
+of the hair preserved from birth as part of the genethliac
+rituals,[32-Sec.] and the especial enactments against the _octli_.
+
+As for the revolt of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1712, it was clearly
+and confessedly under the leadership of the nagualistic priesthood, as I
+shall indicate on a later page.
+
+The history of the native American race under the Spanish power in North
+America has never yet been written with the slightest approach to
+thoroughness. He who properly qualifies himself for that task will
+certainly reach the conclusion expressed a number of years ago by the
+eminent American antiquary and historian, Mr. E. G. Squier, in these
+words:
+
+     "Among the ruling and priestly classes of the semi-civilized
+     nations of America, there has always existed a mysterious bond, a
+     secret organization, which all the disasters to which they have
+     been subjected have not destroyed. It is to its present existence
+     that we may attribute those simultaneous movements of the
+     aborigines of Mexico and Central America, which have more than once
+     threatened the complete subversion of the Spanish power."[33-*]
+
+That mysterious bond, that secret organization, is _Nagualism_.
+
+
+=20.= A remarkable feature in this mysterious society was the exalted
+position it assigned to Women. Not only were they admitted to the most
+esoteric degrees, but in repeated instances they occupied the very
+highest posts in the organization. According to the traditions of the
+Tzentals and Pipils of Chiapas, when their national hero, Votan,
+constructed by the breath of his mouth his darkened shrine at
+Tlazoaloyan, in Soconusco, he deposited in it the sacred books and holy
+relics, and constituted a college of venerable sages to be its
+guardians; but placed them all in subjection to a high priestess, whose
+powers were absolute.[33-[+]]
+
+The veracious Pascual de Andagoya asserts from his own knowledge that
+some of these female adepts had attained the rare and peculiar power of
+being in two places at once, as much as a league and a half
+apart;[33-[++]] and the repeated references to them in the Spanish
+writings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries confirm the dread in
+which they were held and the extensive influence they were known to
+control. In the sacraments of Nagualism, Woman was the primate and
+hierophant.
+
+
+=21.= This was a lineal inheritance from pre-Columbian times. In many
+native American legends, as in others from the old world, some powerful
+enchantress is remembered as the founder of the State, mistress of men
+through the potency of her magic powers.
+
+Such, among the Aztecs, was the sorceress who built the city of
+Mallinalco, on the road from Mexico to Michoacan, famous even after the
+conquest for the skill of its magicians, who claimed descent from
+her.[34-*] Such, in Honduras, was Coamizagual, queen of Cerquin, versed
+in all occult science, who died not, but at the close of her earthly
+career rose to heaven in the form of a beautiful bird, amid the roll of
+thunder and the flash of lightning.[34-[+]]
+
+According to an author intimately familiar with the Mexican nagualists,
+the art they claimed to possess of transforming themselves into the
+lower animals was taught their predecessors by a woman, a native Circe,
+a mighty enchantress, whose usual name was Quilaztli (the etymology of
+which is unknown), but who bore also four others, representing her four
+metamorphoses, Cohuacihuatl, the Serpent Woman; Quauhcihuatl, the Eagle
+Woman; Yaocihuatl, the Warrior Woman; and Tzitzimecihuatl, the Specter
+Woman.[34-[++]]
+
+The powers of these queens of magic extended widely among their sex. We
+read in the chronicles of ancient Mexico that when Nezahualpilli, the
+king, oppressed the tribes of the coast, the _tierra caliente_, they
+sent against him, not their warriors, but their witches. These cast upon
+him their fatal spells, so that when he walked forth from his palace,
+blood burst from his mouth, and he fell prone and dead.[34-Sec.]
+
+In Guatemala, as in ancient Delphos, the gods were believed to speak
+through the mouths of these inspired seeresses, and at the celebration
+of victories they enjoyed a privilege so strange and horrible that I
+quote it from the old manuscript before me without venturing a
+translation:
+
+     "... Despues de sacrificar los antiguos algun hombre,
+     despedacandolo, si era de los que avian cogido en guerra, dicen que
+     guardaban el miembro genital y los testiculos del tal sacrificado,
+     y se los daban a una vieja que tenian por profeta, para que los
+     comiese, y le pedian rogasse a su idolo les diesse mas
+     captivos."[35-*]
+
+When Captain Pedro de Alvarado, in the year 1524, was marching upon
+Quetzaltanango, in Guatemala, just such a fearful old witch took her
+stand at the summit of the pass, with her familiar in the shape of a
+dog, and "by spells and nagualistic incantations" undertook to prevent
+his approach.[35-[+]]
+
+As in the earliest, so in the latest accounts. The last revolt of the
+Indians of Chiapas occurred among the Zotzils in 1869. The cause of it
+was the seizure and imprisonment by the Spanish authorities of a
+"mystical woman," known to the whites as Santa Rosa, who, together with
+one of their _ahaus_ or chieftains, had been suspected of fomenting
+sedition. The natives marched thousands strong against the city of San
+Cristobal, where the prisoners were, and secured their liberation; but
+their leader, Ignacio Galindo, was entrapped and shot by the Spaniards,
+and the mutiny was soon quelled.[35-[++]]
+
+
+=22.= But perhaps the most striking instance is that recorded in the
+history of the insurrection of the Tzentals of Chiapas, in 1713. They
+were led by an Indian girl, a native Joan of Arc, fired by like
+enthusiasm to drive from her country the hated foreign oppressors, and
+to destroy every vestige of their presence. She was scarcely twenty
+years old, and was known to the Spaniards as Maria Candelaria. She was
+the leader of what most historians call a religious sect, but what
+Ordonez y Aguiar, himself a native of Chiapas, recognizes as the
+powerful secret association of Nagualism, determined on the extirpation
+of the white race. He estimates that in Chiapas alone there were nearly
+seventy thousand natives under her orders--doubtless an
+exaggeration--and asserts that the conspiracy extended far into the
+neighboring tribes, who had been ordered to await the result of the
+effort in Chiapas.
+
+Her authority was absolute, and she was merciless in requiring obedience
+to it. The disobedient were flayed alive or roasted over a slow fire.
+She and all her followers took particular pleasure in manifesting their
+hatred and contempt for the religion of their oppressors. They defiled
+the sacred vessels of the churches, imitated with buffoonery the
+ceremonies of the mass, which she herself performed, and stoned to death
+the priests whom they caught.
+
+Of course, her attempt against the power of Spain was hopeless. It
+failed after a bitter and protracted conquest, characterized by the
+utmost inhumanity on both sides. But when her followers were scattered
+and killed, when the victorious whites had again in their hands all the
+power and resources of the country, not their most diligent search, nor
+the temptation of any reward, enabled them to capture Maria Candelaria,
+the heroine of the bloody drama. With a few trusty followers she escaped
+to the forest, and was never again heard of.[36-*]
+
+More unfortunate were her friends and lieutenants, the priestesses of
+Guistiupan and Yajalon, who had valiantly seconded Maria in her
+patriotic endeavors. Seized by the Spaniards, they met the fate which we
+can easily imagine, though the historian has mercifully thrown a veil on
+its details.[36-[+]]
+
+
+=23.= Of just such a youthful prophetess did Mr. E. G. Squier hear during
+his travels in Central America, a "_sukia_ woman," as she was called by
+the coast Indians, one who lived alone mid the ruins of an old Mayan
+temple, a sorceress of twenty years, loved and feared, holding death and
+life in her hands.[36-[++]] Perhaps his account is somewhat fanciful;
+it is so, indeed; but it is grounded on the unshaken beliefs and ancient
+traditions of the natives of those climes, and on customs well known to
+those who reside there.
+
+The late distinguished Americanist, the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg,
+during his long travels in Mexico and Central America, had occasion more
+than once to come in contact with this trait of the ancient faith of the
+Nagualists, still alive in their descendants. Among the Zapotecs of the
+Isthmus of Tehuantepec he saw one of the queens of the mystic
+fraternity, and he describes her with a warmth which proves that he had
+not lost his eye for the beautiful.
+
+     "She wore a piece of light-green stuff loosely folded around her
+     form at the hips, and falling to a little distance above the ankle;
+     a jacket of red silk gauze with short sleeves and embroidered with
+     gold, clothed the upper part of her person, veiling her bosom, upon
+     which lay a chain of heavy gold pieces, pierced and strung on a
+     cord. Her rich black hair was divided on the forehead, and drawn
+     back in two splendid tresses fastened with blue ribbons, while a
+     white muslin kerchief encircled her head like the calantica of the
+     ancient Egyptians. Never in my life have I seen a more striking
+     figure of an Isis or a Cleopatra.
+
+     "There was something strange in her expression. Her eyes were the
+     blackest and the brightest in the world; but there were moments
+     when she suddenly paused, leaned against the billiard table or the
+     wall, and they became fixed and dead like those of a corpse. Then a
+     fiery glance would shoot from beneath her dark lashes, sending a
+     chill to the heart of the one to whom it was directed. Was it
+     madness, or was it, as those around her believed, a momentary
+     absence of soul, an absorption of her spirit into its _nagual_, a
+     transportation into an unknown world? Who shall decide?"[37-*]
+
+
+=24.= It would be a mistake to suppose that Nagualism was an incoherent
+medley of superstitions, a mass of jumbled fragments derived from the
+ancient paganism. My study of it has led me to a widely different
+conclusion. It was a perpetuation of a well-defined portion of the
+native cult, whose sources we are able to trace long anterior to the
+period of the conquest, and which had no connection with the elaborate
+and bloody ritual of the Aztecs. The evidence to this effect is cogent.
+
+Wherever in later days the Catholic priests found out the holy places
+and sacred objects of the nagualists, they were in-caves or deep
+rock-recesses, not in artificial structures. The myths they gleaned, and
+the names of the gods they heard, also point to this as a distinguishing
+peculiarity. An early instance is recorded among the Nahuas of Mexico.
+In 1537 Father Perea discovered a cavern in a deep ravine at Chalma,
+near Mallinalco (a town famous for its magicians), which was the
+sanctuary of the deity called _Oztoteotl_, the Cave God (_oztotl_, cave;
+_teotl_, god), "venerated throughout the whole empire of
+Montezuma."[38-*] He destroyed the image of the god, and converted the
+cavern into a chapel.
+
+We cannot err in regarding Oztoteotl as merely another name of the
+Nahuatl divinity, Tepeyollotl, the Heart, or Inside, of the Mountain,
+who in the Codex Borgia and the Codex Vaticanus is represented seated
+upon or in a cavern. His name may equally well be translated "the Heart
+of the Place," or "of the Town."
+
+Dr. Eduard Seler has shown beyond reasonable question that this divinity
+did not originally belong to the Aztec Pantheon, but was introduced from
+the South, either from the Zapotecs, the Mixtecs, or the Mayan tribes,
+beyond these.[38-[+]] The Cave God of the Aztecs is identical with the
+Votan of the Tzentals of Chiapas, and with the U-q'ux Uleuh of the
+Quiches of Guatemala, and probably with the Cozaana of the Zapotecs.
+
+The rites of all of these were conducted in caverns, and there have been
+preserved several interesting descriptions of the contents of these
+sacred places. That relating to the "dark house of Votan" is given thus
+in the work of the Bishop of Chiapas:
+
+     "Votan is the third hero who is named in the calendar, and some of
+     his descendants still reside in the town of Teopisca, where they
+     are known as Votans. He is sometimes referred to as Lord of the
+     Sacred Drum, and he is said to have seen the great wall (which must
+     have been the Tower of Babel), and to have divided this land among
+     the Indians, and given to each tribe its language.
+
+     "They say further that he once dwelt in Huehuetan, a town in the
+     province of Soconusco. Near there, at the place called Tlazoaloyan,
+     he constructed, by blowing with his breath, a dark house, and put
+     tapirs in the river, and in the house a great treasure, and left
+     all in charge of a noble lady, assisted by guardians (_tlapiane_)
+     to preserve. This treasure consisted of earthenware vases with
+     covers of the same material; a stone, on which were inscribed the
+     figures of the ancient native heroes as found in the calendar;
+     _chalchiuites_, which are green stones; and other superstitious
+     objects.
+
+     "All of these were taken from the cave, and publicly burned in the
+     plaza of Huehuetan on the occasion of our first diocesan visit
+     there in 1691, having been delivered to us by the lady in charge
+     and the guardians. All the Indians have great respect for this
+     Votan, and in some places they call him 'the Heart of the
+     Towns.'"[39-*]
+
+The English priest, Thomas Gage, who was curate of a parish among the
+Pokonchi Indians of Guatemala about 1630, relates his discovery of such
+a cave, in which the idol was preserved, and gives this description of
+it:
+
+     "We found the Idol standing upon a low stool covered with a linen
+     cloth. The substance of it was wood, black shining like jet, as if
+     it had been painted or smoked; the form was of a man's head unto
+     the shoulders, without either Beard or Mustachoes; his look was
+     grim, with a wrinkled forehead, and broad staring eyes.
+
+     "They boasted of this their god, saying that he had plainly told
+     them they should not believe anything I preached of Christ, but
+     follow the old ways of their forefathers."[39-[+]]
+
+The black color here mentioned was a relic of ancient symbolism,
+referring to the night, darkness, and the obscurity of the holy cavern.
+Vetancurt informs us that the priests of the ancient paganism were
+accustomed to rub their faces and bodies with an ointment of fat and
+pine soot when they went to sacrifice in the forests, so that they
+looked as black as negroes[TN-3][39-[++]] In the extract from Nunez de
+la Vega already given, _Ical Ahau_, the "Black King," is named as one of
+the divinities of the nagualists.
+
+In some parts the principal idol found in the caves was the mummied or
+exsiccated body of some former distinguished priest or chieftain. One
+such is recorded by Bartholome de Pisa, which was found among the
+Zapotecs of Coatlan. It bore a name taken from the calendar, that of the
+tenth day, and was alleged to be the preserved cadaver of a celebrated
+ruler.[40-*] Another interesting example is narrated by Villa Senor y
+Sanchez,[40-[+]] who describes it as an eye-witness. It was discovered
+in a spacious cave located some distance to the west of the city of
+Mexico, in Nahuatl territory, on the side of what was known as "the Sun
+mountain"--_la Mesa de Tonati_. He speaks of it as remarkably well
+preserved, "both the muscles and the bones."
+
+     "It was seated in an armchair which served for a throne, and was
+     clothed in a mantle, which fell from the shoulders to the feet.
+     This was richly adorned with precious stones, which, according to
+     the native custom, were sewed into the texture of the cloth. The
+     figure also wore shoulder straps, collars, bracelets and fastenings
+     of silver. From its forehead rose a crown of beautiful feathers of
+     different colors arranged so that one color should alternate with
+     another. The left hand was resting on the arm of the chair, while
+     in the right was a sharp cutlass with silver mountings. At its feet
+     were several vases of fine stone, as marble and alabaster, in which
+     were offerings of blood and meat, obtained from the sacrifices."
+
+The same writer refers to other examples of these sacred caves which he
+had seen in his journeys. One was near the town of Teremendo, where the
+sides and roof had been artificially dressed into the shape of huge
+arches. A natural altar had been provided in a similar manner, and on
+it, at the time of his visit, were numerous idols in the figures of men
+and animals, and before them fresh offerings of copal and food.
+Elsewhere he refers to many such caverns still in use as places resorted
+to by the natives in _la gran Sierra de Tlascala_.[40-[++]]
+
+These extracts prove the extent of this peculiar worship and the number
+of these subterranean temples in recent generations. The fame of some of
+the greater ones of the past still survives, as the vast grotto of
+Chalcatongo, near Achiutla, which was the sepulchral vault of its
+ancient kings; that of Totomachiapa, a solemn scene of sacrifice for
+the ancient priests; that of Justlahuaca, near Sola (Oaxaca), which was
+a place of worship of the Zapotecs long after the Conquest; and that in
+the Cerro de Monopostiac, near San Francisco del Mar.[41-*]
+
+The intimate meaning of this cave-cult was the worship of the Earth. The
+Cave God, the Heart of the Hills, really typified the Earth, the Soil,
+from whose dark recesses flow the limpid streams and spring the tender
+shoots of the food-plants, as well as the great trees. To the native
+Mexican, the Earth was the provider of food and drink, the common Father
+of All; so that to this day, when he would take a solemn oath, he stoops
+to the earth, touches it with his hand, and repeats the solemn formula:
+_Cuix amo nechitla in toteotzin?_ "Does not our Great God see me?"
+
+
+=25.= The identity of the Tepeyollotl of the Nahuas and the Votan of the
+Tzentals is shown not only in the oneness of meaning of the names, but
+in the fact that both represent the _third_ day in the ritual calendar.
+For this reason I take it, we find the number _three_ so generally a
+sacred number in the symbolism of the nagualists. We have already
+learned in the extract from Nunez de la Vega that the neophytes were
+instructed in classes of three. To this day in Soteapan the fasts and
+festivals appointed by the native ministrants are three days in
+duration.[41-[+]] The semi-Christianized inhabitants of the Sierra of
+Nayerit, the Nahuatl-speaking Chotas, continued in the last century to
+venerate three divinities, the Dawn, the Stone and the Serpent;[41-[++]]
+analogous to a similar "trinity" noted by Father Duran among the ancient
+Aztecs.[41-Sec.]
+
+The number _nine_, that is, 3 x 3, recurs so frequently in the
+conjuration formulas of the Mexican sorcerers that de la Serna exclaims:
+"It was the Devil himself who inculcated into them this superstition
+about the number nine."[41-[||]]
+
+The other number sacred to the nagualists was _seven_. I have, in a
+former essay, given various reasons for believing that this was not
+derived from the seven days of the Christian week, but directly from the
+native calendar.[42-*] Nunez de la Vega tells us that the patron of the
+seventh day was _Cuculcan_, "the Feathered Serpent," and that many
+nagualists chose him as their special protector. As already seen, in
+Guatemala the child finally accepted its _naual_ when seven years old;
+and among some of the Nahuatl tribes of Mexico the _tonal_ and the
+calendar name was formally assigned on the seventh day after
+birth.[42-[+]] From similar impressions the Cakchiquels of Guatemala
+maintained that when the lightning strikes the earth the "thunder stone"
+sinks into the soil, but rises to the surface after seven
+years.[42-[++]]
+
+The three and the seven were the ruling numbers in the genealogical
+trees of the Pipiles of San Salvador. The "tree" was painted with
+_seven_ branches representing degrees of relationship within which
+marriage was forbidden unless a man had performed some distinguished
+exploit in war, when he could marry beyond the nearest _three_ degrees
+of relationship.[42-Sec.] Another combination of 3 and 7, by
+multiplication, explains the customs among the Mixes of deserting for 21
+days a house in which a death has occurred.[42-[||]]
+
+The indications are that the nagualists derived these numbers from the
+third and seventh days of the calendar "month" of twenty days.
+Tepeololtec, the Cave God, was patron of the third day and also "Lord of
+Animals," the transformation into which was the test of nagualistic
+power.[42-[P}] Tlaloc, god of the mountains and the rains, to whom the
+seventh day was hallowed, was represented by the nagualistic symbol of a
+snake doubled and twisted on itself, and was generally portrayed in
+connection with the "Feathered Serpent" (Quetzalcoatl, Cuculchan,
+Gukumatz, all names meaning this), represented as carrying his medicine
+bag, _xiquipilli_, and incensory, the apparatus of the native
+illuminati, his robe marked with the sign of the cross to show that he
+was Lord of the Four Winds and of Life.[43-*]
+
+
+=26.= The nagualistic rites were highly symbolic, and the symbols used had
+clearly defined meanings, which enable us to analyze the religious ideas
+underlying this mysterious cult.
+
+The most important symbol was Fire. It was regarded as the primal
+element and the immediate source of life. Father Nicolas de Leon has the
+following suggestive passage in this connection:
+
+     "If any of their old superstitions has remained more deeply rooted
+     than another in the hearts of these Indians, both men and women, it
+     is this about fire and its worship, and about making new fire and
+     preserving it for a year in secret places. We should be on the
+     watch for this, and when in their confessions they speak of what
+     the Fire said and how the Fire wept, expressions which we are apt
+     to pass by as unintelligible, we must lay our hands on them for
+     reprehension. We should also be on the watch for their baptism by
+     Fire, a ceremony called the _yiahuiltoca_,[43-[+]] shortly after
+     the birth of a child when they bestow on it the surnames; nor must
+     the lying-in women and their assistants be permitted to speak of
+     Fire as the father and mother of all things and the author of
+     nature; because it is a common saying with them that Fire is
+     present at the birth and death of every creature."
+
+This curious ceremony derived its name from the _yiahuitli_, a plant not
+unlike the absinthe, the powdered leaves of which, according to Father
+Sahagun, the natives were accustomed to throw into the flames as an
+offering to the fire.[43-[++]] Long after the conquest, and probably to
+this day, the same custom prevails in Mexico, the fumes and odor of the
+burning leaves being considered very salubrious and purifying to the air
+of the sick room[TN-4][43-Sec.]
+
+The word _yiahuiltoca_ means "the throwing of the _yiauhtli_" (from
+_toca_, to throw upon with the hands). Another name for the ceremony,
+according to Father Vetancurt, who wrote a century later than Leon, was
+_apehualco_, which has substantially the same meaning, "a throwing upon"
+or "a throwing away."[44-*] He adds the interesting particulars that it
+was celebrated on the fourth day after the birth of the child, during
+which time it was deemed essential to keep the fire burning in the
+house, but not to permit any of it to be carried out, as that would
+bring bad luck to the child.
+
+Jacinto de la Serna also describes this ceremony, to which he gives the
+name _tlecuixtliliztli_, "which means that they pass the infant over the
+fire;" and elsewhere he adds: "The worship of fire is the greatest
+stumbling-block to these wretched idolaters."[44-[+]]
+
+
+=27.= Other ceremonies connected with fire worship took place in
+connection with the manufacture of the pulque, or _octli_, the fermented
+liquor obtained from the sap of the maguey plant. The writer just
+quoted, de Vetancurt, states that the natives in his day, when they had
+brewed the new pulque and it was ready to be drunk, first built a fire,
+walked in procession around it and threw some of the new liquor into the
+flames, chanting the while an invocation to the god of inebriation,
+Tezcatzoncatl, to descend and be present with them.
+
+This was distinctly a survival of an ancient doctrine which connected
+the God of Fire with the Gods of Drunkenness, as we may gather from the
+following quotation from the history composed by Father Diego Duran:
+
+     "The _octli_ was a favorite offering to the gods, and especially to
+     the God of Fire. Sometimes it was placed before a fire in vases,
+     sometimes it was scattered upon the flames with a brush, at other
+     times it was poured out around the fireplace."[45-*]
+
+
+=28.= The high importance of the fire ceremonies in the secret rituals of
+the modern Mayas is plainly evident from the native Calendars, although
+their signification has eluded the researches of students, even of the
+laborious Pio Perez, who was so intimately acquainted with their
+language and customs. In these Calendars the fire-priest is constantly
+referred to as _ah-toc_, literally "the fire-master." The rites he
+celebrates recur at regular intervals of twenty days (the length of one
+native month) apart. They are four in number. On the first he takes the
+fire; on the second he kindles the fire; on the third he gives it free
+play, and on the fourth he extinguishes it. A period of five days is
+then allowed to elapse, when these ceremonies are recommenced in the
+same order. Whatever their meaning, they are so important that in the
+_Buk Xoc_, or General Computation of the Calendar, preserved in the
+mystic "Books of Chilan Balam," there are special directions for these
+fire-masters to reckon the proper periods for the exercise of their
+strange functions.[45-[+]]
+
+
+=29.= What, now, was the sentiment which underlay this worship of fire? I
+think that the facts quoted, and especially the words of Father de Leon,
+leave no doubt about it. Fire was worshiped as the life-giver, the
+active generator, of animate existence. This idea was by no means
+peculiar to them. It repeatedly recurs in Sanskrit, in Greek and in
+Teutonic mythology, as has been ably pointed out by Dr. Hermann
+Cohen.[45-[++]] The fire-god Agni (_ignis_) is in the Vedas the Maker of
+men; Prometheus steals the fire from heaven that he may with it animate
+the human forms he has moulded of clay; even the connection of the
+pulque with the fire is paralleled in Greek mythos, where Dionysos is
+called _Pyrigenes_, the "fire-born."
+
+Among the ancient Aztecs the god of fire was called the oldest of gods,
+_Huehueteotl_, and also "Our Father," _Tota_, as it was believed from
+him all things were derived.[46-*] Both among them and the Mayas, as I
+have pointed out in a previous work, he was supposed to govern the
+generative proclivities and the sexual relations.[46-[+]] Another of his
+names was _Xiuhtecutli_, which can be translated "God of the Green
+Leaf," that is, of vegetable fecundity and productiveness.[46-[++]]
+
+To transform themselves into a globe or ball of fire was, as we have
+seen (ante, p. 21), a power claimed by expert nagualists, and to handle
+it with impunity, or to blow it from the mouth, was one of their
+commonest exhibitions. Nothing so much proved their superiority as thus
+to master this potent element.
+
+
+=30.= The same name above referred to, "the Heart of the Town," or "of the
+Hills," was that which at a comparatively late date was applied to an
+idol of green stone preserved with religious care in a cavern in the
+Cerro de Monopostiac, not far from San Francisco del Mar. The spot is
+still believed by the natives to be enchanted ground and protected by
+superhuman powers.[46-Sec.]
+
+These green stones, called _chalchiuitl_, of jadeite, nephrite, green
+quartz, or the like, were accounted of peculiar religious significance
+throughout southern Mexico, and probably to this day many are preserved
+among the indigenous population as amulets and charms. They were often
+carved into images, either in human form or representing a frog, the
+latter apparently the symbol of the waters and of fertility. Bartholome
+de Alva refers to them in a passage of his Confessionary. The priest
+asks the penitent:
+
+     "Dost thou possess at this very time little idols of green stone,
+     or frogs made of it (_in chalchiuh coconeme, chalchiuh
+     tamazoltin_)?
+
+     "Dost thou put them out in the sun to be warmed? Dost thou keep
+     them wrapped in cotton coverings, with great respect and
+     veneration?
+
+     "Dost thou believe, and hold for very truth, that these green
+     stones give thee food and drink, even as thy ancestors believed,
+     who died in their idolatry? Dost thou believe that they give thee
+     success and prosperity and good things, and all that them hast or
+     wishest? Because we know very well that many of you so believe at
+     this very time."[47-*]
+
+Down to quite a recent date, and perhaps still, these green stones are
+employed in certain ceremonies in vogue among the Indians of Oaxaca in
+order to ensure a plenteous maize harvest. The largest ear of corn in
+the field is selected and wrapped up in a cloth with some of these
+chalchiuite. At the next corn-planting it is taken to the field and
+buried in the soil. This is believed to be a relic of the worship of the
+ancient Zapotec divinity, Quiegolani, who presided over cultivated
+fields.[47-[+]]
+
+They are still in use among the natives as lucky stones or amulets. In
+the Zotzil insurrection of 1869, already referred to, one was found
+suspended to the neck of one of the slain Indians. It came into the
+possession of M. Maler, who has described and figured it.[47-[++]] It
+represents a human head with a curious expression and a singular
+headdress.
+
+From specimens of these amulets preserved in museums it is seen that any
+greenish stone was selected, preferably those yielding a high, vitreous
+polish, as jadeite, turquoise, emerald, chlormelanite or precious
+serpentine. The color gave the sacred character, and this, it seems to
+me, was distinctly meant to be symbolic of water and its effects, the
+green of growing plants, and hence of fertility, abundance and
+prosperity.
+
+
+=31.= There is another symbol, still venerated among the present
+indigenous population, which belongs to Nagualism, and is a survival
+from the ancient cult; this is the Tree. The species held in especial
+respect is the ceiba, the silk-cotton tree, the _ytzamatl_ (knife-leaved
+paper tree) of the Nahuas, the _yax che_ (green, or first tree) of the
+Mayas, the _Bombax ceiba_ of the botanists. It is of great size and
+rapid growth. In Southern Mexico and Central America one is to be seen
+near many of the native villages, and is regarded as in some way the
+protecting genius of the town.
+
+Sacred trees were familiar to the old Mexican cult, and, what is
+curious, the same name was applied to such as to the fire, _Tota_, Our
+Father. They are said to have represented the gods of woods and
+waters.[48-*] In the ancient mythology we often hear of the "tree of
+life," represented to have four branches, each sacred to one of the four
+cardinal points and the divinities associated therewith.
+
+The conventionalized form of this tree in the Mexican figurative
+paintings strongly resembles a cross. Examples of it are numerous and
+unmistakable, as, for instance, the cruciform tree of life rising from a
+head with a protruding tongue, in the Vienna Codex.[48-[+]]
+
+
+=32.= Thus, the sign of the cross, either the form with equal arms known
+as the cross of St. Andrew, which is the oldest Christian form, or the
+Latin cross, with its arms of unequal length, came to be the ideogram
+for "life" in the Mexican hieroglyphic writing; and as such, with more
+or less variants, was employed to signify the _tonalli_ or _nagual_, the
+sign of nativity, the natal day, the personal spirit.[48-[++]] The
+ancient document called the Mappe Quinatzin offers examples, and its
+meaning is explained by various early writers. The peculiar character of
+the Mexican ritual calendar, by which nativities were calculated,
+favored a plan of representing them in the shape of a cross; as we see
+in the singular _Codex Cruciformis_ of the Boturini-Goupil collection.
+
+
+=33.= But the doctrines of Nagualism had a phase even more detestable to
+the missionaries than any of these, an esoteric phase, which brought it
+into relation to the libidinous cults of Babylon and the orgies of the
+"Witches' Sabbaths" of the Dark Ages. Of these occult practices we of
+course have no detailed descriptions, but there are hints and
+half-glances which leave us in no doubt.
+
+When the mysterious metamorphosis of the individual into his or her
+_nagual_ was about to take place, the person must strip to absolute
+nudity;[49-*] and the lascivious fury of bands of naked Nagualists,
+meeting in remote glades by starlight or in the dark recesses of caves,
+dancing before the statues of the ancient gods, were scenes that stirred
+the fanaticism of the Spanish missionaries to its highest pitch. Bishop
+Landa informs us that in Yucatan the dance there known as the _naual_
+was one of the few in which both men and women took part, and that it
+"was not very decent." It was afterwards prohibited by the priests. We
+have excellent authority that such wild rites continued well into the
+present century, close to the leading cities of the State,[49-[+]] and
+it is highly likely that they are not unknown to-day.
+
+
+=34.= Moreover, it is certain that among the Nagualists, one of their most
+revered symbols was the _serpent_; in Chiapas, one of their highest
+orders of the initiated was that of the _chanes_, or serpents. Not only
+is this in Christian symbolism the form and sign of the Prince of Evil
+and the enemy of God, but the missionaries were aware that in the
+astrological symbols of ancient Mexico the serpent represented the
+_phallus_; that it was regarded as the most potent of all the
+signs;[49-[++]] and modern research has shown, contrary to the opinion
+long held, that there was among these nations an extraordinary and
+extensive worship of the reciprocal principle of nature, associated with
+numerous phallic emblems.[49-Sec.]
+
+Huge phalli of stone have been discovered, one, for instance, on the
+Cerro de las Navajas, not far from the city of Mexico, and another in
+the State of Hidalgo.[50-*] Probably they were used in some such
+ceremonies as Oviedo describes among the Nahuas of Nicaragua, where the
+same symbol was represented by conical mounds of earth, around which at
+certain seasons the women danced with libidinous actions. Although as a
+general rule the pottery of ancient Mexico avoids obscenity, Brasseur
+stated that he had seen many specimens of a contrary character from
+certain regions,[50-[+]] and Dr. Berendt has copied several striking
+examples, showing curious _yoni_ symbols, which are now in my
+possession.
+
+We may explain these as in some way connected with the worship of
+Pantecatl, the male divinity who presided over profligate love, and of
+Tlazolteotl, the _Venus Impudica_ of the Aztec pantheon; and it is not
+without significance that the cave-temple of Votan, whose contents were
+destroyed by the Bishop of Chiapas, in 1691 (see above, p. 39), was
+located at _Tlazoaloyan_, both names being derived from a root
+signifying sexual action.[50-[++]] The other name of the divinity,
+called "the Heart of the Hills," is in Quiche, Alom, "he who begets,"
+and the Zapotec Cozaana, another analogue of the same deity, is
+translated by Seler, "the Begetter." Such facts indicate how intimately
+the esoteric doctrines of Nagualism were related to the worship of the
+reproductive powers of nature.
+
+
+=35.= It will readily be understood from what has been said that Nagualism
+was neither a pure descendant of the ancient cults, nor yet a derivative
+from Christian doctrines and European superstitions. It was a strange
+commingling of both, often in grotesque and absurd forms. In fact, the
+pretended Christianity of the native population of Mexico to-day is
+little more than a figment, according to the testimony of the most
+competent observers.[50-Sec.]
+
+The rituals and prayers of the nagualists bear witness to this. It is
+very visible in those I have quoted from Nunez de la Vega, and I can
+add an interesting example of it which has not heretofore been
+published. I take it from the MSS. of Father Vicente Hernandez Spina,
+cura of Ixtlavacan, in Guatemala, a remote village of the Quiches. He
+wrote it down in the native tongue about forty years ago, as recited by
+an _ah-kih_, "reader of days," a native master of the genethliac art,
+who had composed it in favor of a client who had asked his intercession.
+
+     _Prayer of an Ah-Kih._
+
+     "O Jesus Christ my God: thou God the Son, with the Father and the
+     Holy Spirit, art my only God. Today, on this day, at this hour, on
+     this day Tihax, I call upon the holy souls which accompany the
+     sun-rising and the sun-setting of the day: with these holy souls I
+     call upon thee, O chief of the genii, thou who dwellest in this
+     mountain of Siba Raxquin; come, ye holy spirits of Juan Vachiac, of
+     Don Domingo Vachiac, of Juan Ixquiaptap, the holy souls of
+     Francisco Excoquieh, of Diego Soom, of Juan Fay, of Alonzo Tzep; I
+     call the holy souls of Diego Tziquin and of Don Pedro Noh: you, O
+     priests, to whom all things are revealed, and thou, chief of the
+     genii, you, lords of the mountains, lords of the plains, thou, Don
+     Purupeto Martin, come, accept this incense, accept to-day this
+     candle.[51-*]
+
+     "Come also, my mother Holy Mary, the Lord of Esquipulas, the Lord
+     of Capetagua, the beloved Mary of Chiantla, with her who dwells at
+     San Lorenzo, and also Mary of Sorrows, Mary Saint Anna, Mary
+     Tibureia, Mary of Carmen, with Saint Michael the Archangel, the
+     captain St. James, St. Christoval, St. Sebastian, St. Nicolas, St.
+     Bonaventura, St. Bernardin, St. Andrew, St. Thomas, St.
+     Bartholomew, and thou my beloved mother St. Catherine, thou beloved
+     Mary of the Conception, Mary of the Rosary, thou lord and king
+     Pascual, be here present.
+
+     "And thou, Frost, and thou, excellent Wind, thou, God of the plain,
+     thou, God of Quiac-Basulup, thou, God of Retal-Uleu, thou, lord of
+     San Gregorio, thou, lord of Chii-Masa. [These are mountains and
+     localities, and in the original there follow the names of more than
+     a hundred others. The prayer concludes as follows:]
+
+     "... I who appoint myself godfather and godmother, I who ask, I the
+     witness and brother of this man who asks, of this man who makes
+     himself, your son, O holy souls, I ask, do not let any evil happen
+     unto him, nor let him be unhappy for any cause.
+
+     "I the priest, I who speak, I who burn this incense, I who light
+     this candle, I who pray for him, I who take him under my
+     protection, I ask you that he may obtain his subsistence with
+     facility. Thou, God, canst provide him with money; let him not fall
+     ill of fever; I ask that he shall not become paralytic; that he
+     may not choke with severe coughing; that he be not bitten by a
+     serpent; that he become neither bloated nor asthmatic; that he do
+     not go mad; that he be not bitten by a dog; that he be not struck
+     by lightning; that he be not choked with brandy; that he be not
+     killed with iron, nor by a stick, and that he be not carried off by
+     an eagle; guard him, O clouds; aid him, O lightning; aid him, O
+     thunder; aid him, St. Peter; aid him, St. Paul; aid him, eternal
+     Father.
+
+     "And I who up to this time have spoken for him to you, I ask you
+     that sickness may visit his enemies. So order it, that when his
+     enemies go forth from their houses, they may meet sickness; order
+     it, that wherever they go, they may meet troubles; do your offices
+     of injury to them, wheresoever they are met; do this that I pray, O
+     holy souls. God be with you; God the Father, God the Son, God the
+     Holy Spirit: Amen, Jesus."
+
+Most of such invocations are expressed in terms far more recondite and
+symbolic than the above. We have many such preserved in the work of
+Jacinto de la Serna, which supply ample material to acquaint us with the
+peculiarities of the sacred and secret language of the nagualists. I
+shall quote but one, that employed in the curious ceremony of "calling
+back the _tonal_," referred to on a previous page. I append an
+explanation of its obscure metaphors.
+
+
+     _Invocation for the Restitution of the Tonal._
+
+     "Ho there! Come to my aid, mother mine of the skirt of precious
+     stones![1] What keeps thee away, gray ghost, white ghost?[2] Is the
+     obstacle white, or is it yellow? See, I place here the yellow
+     enchantment and the white enchantment.[3]
+
+     "I, the Master of the Masters of enchantments, have come, I, who
+     formed thee and gave thee life.[4] Thou, mother mine of the starry
+     skirt, thou, goddess of the stars, who givest life, why hast thou
+     turned against this one?[5]
+
+     "Adverse spirit and darkened star, I shall sink thee in the breadth
+     and depth of the waters.[6] I, master of spells, speak to
+     thee[TN-5] Ho there! Mother mine, whose skirt is made of gems,
+     come, seek with me the shining spirit who dwells in the house of
+     light,[7] that we may know what god or mighty power thus destroys
+     and crushes to earth this unfortunate one. Green and black spirit
+     of sickness, leave him and seek thy prey elsewhere.
+
+     "Green and yellow ghost, who art wandering, as if lost, over
+     mountains and plains, I seek thee, I desire thee; return to him
+     whom thou hast abandoned. Thou, the nine times beaten, the nine
+     times smitten, see that thou fail me not.[8] Come hither, mother
+     mine, whose robe is of precious gems; one water, two waters; one
+     rabbit, two rabbits; one deer, two deers; one alligator, two
+     alligators.[9]
+
+     "Lo! I myself am here; I am most furious; I make the loudest noise
+     of all; I respect no one; even sticks and stones tremble before me.
+     What god or mighty power dare face me, me, a child of gods and
+     goddesses?[10] I have come to seek and call back the _tonal_ of
+     this sick one, wherever it is, whithersoever it has wandered, be it
+     nine times wandered, even unto the nine junctures and the nine
+     unions.[11] Wherever it is, I summon it to return, I order it to
+     return, and to heal and clean this heart and this head."
+
+
+     _Explanations._
+
+     1. The appeal is to Water, regarded as the universal Mother. The
+     "skirt of precious stones" refers to the green of the precious
+     green stones, a color sacred to water.
+
+     2. The question is addressed to the _tonal_.
+
+     3. The yellow enchantment is tobacco; the white, a cup of water.
+
+     4. That is, assigned the form of the nagual belonging to the sick
+     man.
+
+     5. This appeal is directed to the Milky Way.
+
+     6. The threat is addressed to the _tonal_, to frighten it into
+     returning.
+
+     7. The "shining spirit" is the Fire-god.
+
+     8. The yellow tobacco, prepared ceremonially in the manner
+     indicated.
+
+     9. These are names of days in the native calendar which are
+     invoked.
+
+     10. The priest speaks in the person of his god.
+
+     11. Referring to the Nahuatl belief that there are nine upper and
+     nine under worlds.
+
+From the same work of de la Serna I collect the following list of
+symbolic expressions. It might easily be extended, but these will be
+sufficient to show the figurative obscurities which they threw around
+their formulas of conjuration, but which were by no means devoid of
+coherence and instruction to those who could understand them.
+
+
+     _Symbolic Expressions of the Nagualists._
+
+     _Blood._--"The red woman with snakes on her gown" (referring to the
+     veins).
+
+     _Copal Gum._--"The white woman" (from the whitish color of the
+     fresh gum).
+
+     _Cords_ (for carrying burdens).--"The snake that does woman's work"
+     (because women sit still to knit, and the cord works while itself
+     is carried).
+
+     _Drunkenness._--"My resting time," or "when I am getting my
+     breath."
+
+     _The Earth._--"The mirror that smokes" (because of the mists that
+     rise from it); "the rabbit with its mouth upward" (the rabbit, in
+     opposition to the one they see in the moon; with its mouth upward,
+     because of the mists which rise from it like the breath exhaled
+     from the mouth); "the flower which contains everything" (as all
+     fruit proceeds from flowers, so does all vegetable life proceed
+     from the earth, which is therefore spoken of as a flower); "the
+     flower which bites the mouths" (a flower, for the reason given; it
+     eats the mouths, because all things necessarily return to it, and
+     are swallowed by it).
+
+     _Fingers._--"The five fates," or "the five works," or "the five
+     fields" (because by the use of his fingers man works out his own
+     destiny. Hence also the worship of the Hand among the Nahuas as the
+     god Maitl, and among the Mayas as the god Kab, both which words
+     mean "hand").
+
+     _Fire._--"Our Father of the Four Reeds" (because the ceremony of
+     making the new fire was held on the day Four Reeds, 4 Acatl); "the
+     shining rose;" "the yellow flyer;" "the red-haired one;" "the
+     yellow spirit."
+
+     _A Knife of Copper._--"The yellow Chichimec" (because the
+     Chichimecs were alleged to tear out the bowels of their enemies).
+
+     _The Maguey Plant._--"My sister, the eight in a row" (because it
+     was planted in this manner).
+
+     _A Road._--"That which is divided in two, and yet has neither
+     beginning, middle nor end" (because it always lies in two
+     directions from a person, and yet all roads lead into others and
+     thus never end).
+
+     _Sickness._--"The red woman;" "the breath of the flame;" "our
+     mother the comet" (all referring to the fever); "the Chichimec"
+     (because it aims to destroy life, like these savage warriors); "the
+     spider" (because of its venomous nature).
+
+     _Smoke._--"The old wife" (_i. e._, of the fire).
+
+     _The Sun._--"Our holy and pockified Uncle" (referring to the myth
+     of Nanahuatl, who was syphilitic, and leaping into the flames of a
+     fire rose as the sun).
+
+     _Tobacco._--"The nine (or seven) times beaten" (because for sacred
+     purposes it was rubbed up this number of times); "the enchanted
+     gray one" (from its color and use in conjuring).
+
+     _Water._--"The Green Woman" (from the greenness which follows
+     moisture); "our Mother, whose robe is of precious stones" (from the
+     green or vegetable life resembling the turquoise, emerald, jade,
+     etc.).
+
+
+=36.= It might be asked how the dark arts and secret ceremonies of the
+Nagualists escaped the prying eyes of the officers of the Holy
+Inquisition, which was established in Mexico in 1571. The answer is,
+that the inquisitors were instructed by Cardinal Diego de Espinosa, who
+at that time was Inquisitor General and President of the Council of the
+Indies, "to abstain from proceedings against Indians, because of their
+stupidity and incapacity, as well as scant instruction in the Holy
+Catholic faith, for the crimes of heresy, apostasy, heretical blasphemy,
+sorcery, incantations, superstitions," etc.
+
+Energetic inquisitors, however, conceded very grudgingly this exemption.
+In the imposing _auto de fe_ celebrated in the city of Mexico, in 1659,
+a half-breed, Bernardo del Carpio by name, son of a full-blood Indian
+mother, accused of blasphemy, etc., endeavored to escape the Holy Office
+by pleading his Indian blood; but his appeal was disallowed, and the
+precedent established that any admixture whatever of European blood
+brought the accused within the jurisdiction of the Inquisition.[55-*]
+Even this seems to have been a concession, for we find the record of an
+_auto de fe_ held in 1609, in the province of Tehuantepec, in which
+eight full-blood natives were punished for worshiping the goddess
+Pinopiaa.[55-[+]] Mr. David Ferguson, however, who has studied
+extensively the records of the inquisition in Mexico, informs me that in
+none of the trials read by him has he observed any charges of Nagualism,
+although many white persons were accused, and some tried, for consulting
+Indian sorcerers.
+
+
+=37.= It will be seen from what I have said, that the rites of Nagualism
+extended as widely as did the term over Mexico and Central America. It
+becomes, therefore, of importance to discover from what linguistic stock
+this term and its associated words are derived. From that source it is
+reasonable to suppose the rites of this superstition also had their
+origin.
+
+The opinions on this subject have been diverse and positive. Most
+writers have assumed that it is a Nahuatl, or pure Mexican, word; while
+an eminent authority, Dr. Stoll, is not less certain that it is from a
+radical belonging to the neighboring great stock of the Mayan dialects,
+and especially the Quiche, of Guatemala.[55-[++]] Perhaps both these
+positions are erroneous, and we must look elsewhere for the true
+etymology of these expressions. Unquestionably they had become
+domesticated in both Maya and Nahuatl; but there is some reason to think
+they were loan-words, belonging to another, and perhaps more venerable,
+civilization than either of these nations could claim.
+
+To illustrate this I shall subjoin several series of words derived from
+the same radical which is at the basis of the word nagual, the series,
+three in number, being taken from the three radically diverse, though
+geographically contiguous, linguistic stocks, the Maya, the Zapotec and
+the Nahuatl.
+
+
+     _From the Maya, of Yucatan._
+
+     _Naual_, or _nautal_, a native dance, forbidden by the
+       missionaries.
+
+     _Naatil_, talent, skill, ability.
+
+     _Naat_, intelligence, wisdom.
+
+     _Naatah_, to understand, to divine.
+
+     _Nanaol_, to consider, to contemplate, to meditate, to commune with
+       oneself, to enter into oneself.
+
+     _Noh_, great, skillful; as _noh ahceh_, a skillful hunter.
+
+
+     _From Maya Dialects._
+
+     QUICHE-CAKCHIQUEL.
+
+     _Naual_, a witch or sorcerer.
+
+     _Naualin_, to tell fortunes, to predict the future.
+
+     _Qui naualin_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifices.
+
+     _Na_, to feel, to suspect, to divine, to think in one's heart.
+
+     _Nao_, to know, to be alert or expert in something.
+
+     _Naol_, a skillful person, a rhetorician.
+
+     _Naotizan_, to make another intelligent or astute.
+
+     _Natal_, the memory.
+
+     _Natub_, the soul or shadow of a man.
+
+     _Noh_, the god of reason ("Genius der Vernunft," Scherzer).
+
+     _Noh_, to fecundate, to impregnate (_Popol Vuh_).
+
+
+     TZENTAL.
+
+     _X-qna_, to know.
+
+     _X-qnaulai_, to know often or thoroughly (frequentative).
+
+     _Naom_, wise, astute (_naom vinic_, hombre sabio).
+
+     _Naoghi_, art, science.
+
+     _Naoghibal_, memory.
+
+     _Ghnaoghel_, a wise man.
+
+     _Alaghom naom_, the Goddess of Wisdom.
+
+
+     _From the Zapotec, of Oaxaca_.
+
+     _Nana_, _gana_, _gona_, to know.
+
+     _Nona_, to know thoroughly, to retain in the memory.
+
+     _Nana ticha_, or _nona lii_, a wise man.
+
+     _Guela nana_, or _guela nona_, wisdom, knowledge.
+
+     _Hue gona_, or _ro gona_, a teacher, a master.
+
+     _Na lii_, truth; _ni na lii_, that which is true.
+
+     _Nacina_, or _naciina_, skill, dexterity.
+
+     _Hui naa_, a medicine man, a "nagualist."
+
+     _Nahaa_, to speak pleasantly or agreeably.
+
+     _Nayaa_, or _nayapi_, to speak easily or fluently.
+
+     _Rigoo gona_, to sacrifice, to offer sacrifice.
+
+     _Ni nana_, the understanding, the intelligence, generally.
+
+     _Nayanii_, the superior reason of man.
+
+     _Nayaa_,  } superiority, a superior man (gentileza, gentil hombre).
+     _Naguii_, }
+
+
+     _From the Nahuatl, of Mexico_.
+
+     _Naua_, to dance, holding each other by the hands.
+
+     _Naualli_, a sorcerer, magician, enchanter.
+
+     _Nauallotl_, magic, enchantment, witchcraft.
+
+     _Nauatl_, or _nahuatl_, skillful, astute, smart; hence, superior;
+       applied to language, clear, well-sounding, whence (perhaps) the
+       name of the tongue.
+
+     _Nauati_, to speak clearly and distinctly.
+
+     _Nauatlato_, an interpreter.
+
+
+=38.= I believe that no one can carefully examine these lists of words,
+all taken from authorities well acquainted with the several tongues, and
+writing when they still retained their original purity, without
+acknowledging that the same radical or syllable underlies them all; and
+further, that from the primitive form and rich development of this
+radical in the Zapotec, it looks as if we must turn to it to recognize
+the origin of all these expressions, both in the Nahuatl and the Maya
+linguistic stocks.
+
+The root _na_, to know, is the primitive monosyllabic stem to which we
+trace all of them. _Nahual_ means knowledge, especially mystic
+knowledge, the Gnosis, the knowledge of the hidden and secret things of
+nature; easily enough confounded in uncultivated minds with sorcery and
+magic.[57-*]
+
+It is very significant that neither the radical _na_ nor any of its
+derivatives are found in the Huasteca dialect of the Mayan tongue, which
+was spoken about Tampico, far removed from other members of the stock.
+The inference is that in the southern dialects it was a borrowed stem.
+
+Nor in the Nahuatl language--although its very name is derived from
+it[58-*]--does the radical _na_ appear in its simplicity and true
+significance. To the Nahuas, also, it must have been a loan.
+
+It is true that de la Serna derives the Mexican _naualli_, a sorcerer,
+from the verb _nahualtia_, to mask or disguise oneself, "because a
+_naualli_ is one who masks or disguises himself under the form of some
+lower animal, which is his _nagual_;"[58-[+]] but it is altogether
+likely that _nahualtia_ derived its meaning from the custom of the
+medicine men to wear masks during their ceremonies.
+
+Therefore, if the term _nagual_, and many of its associates and
+derivatives, were at first borrowed from the Zapotec language, a
+necessary corrollary[TN-6] of this conclusion is, that along with these
+terms came most of the superstitions, rites and beliefs to which they
+allude; which thus became grafted on the general tendency to such
+superstitions existing everywhere and at all times in the human mind.
+
+Along with the names of the days and the hieroglyphs which mark them,
+and the complicated arithmetical methods by means of which they were
+employed, were carried most of the doctrines of the Nagualists, and the
+name by which they in time became known from central Mexico quite to
+Nicaragua and beyond.
+
+The mysterious words have now, indeed, lost much of their ancient
+significance. In a recent dictionary of the Spanish of Mexico _nagual_
+is defined as "a witch; a word used to frighten children and make them
+behave,"[58-[++]] while in Nicaragua, where the former Nahuatl
+population has left so many traces of its presence in the language of
+to-day, the word _nagual_ no longer means an actor in the black art, or
+a knowledge of it, but his or her armamentarium, or the box, jar or
+case in which are kept the professional apparatus, the talismans and
+charms, which constitute the stock in trade or outfit of the
+necromancer.[59-*]
+
+Among the Lacandons, of Mayan stock, who inhabit the forests on the
+upper waters of the Usumacinta river, at the present day the term
+_naguate_ or _nagutlat_ is said to be applied to any one "who is
+entitled to respect and obedience by age and merit;"[59-[+]] but in all
+probability he is also believed to possess superior and occult
+knowledge.
+
+
+=39.= All who have any acquaintance with the folk-lore of the world are
+aware that the notion of men and women having the power to change
+themselves into beasts is as wide as superstition itself and older than
+history. It is mentioned in the pages of Herodotus and in the myths of
+ancient Assyria. It is the property of African negroes, and the
+peasantry of Europe still hold to their faith in the reality of the
+were-wolf of Germany, the _loup-garou_ of France and the _lupo mannaro_
+of Italy. Dr. Richard Andree well says in his interesting study of the
+subject: "He who would explain the origin of this strange superstition
+must not approach it as a national or local manifestation, but as one
+universal in its nature; not as the property of one race or family, but
+of the species and its psychology at large."[59-[++]]
+
+Even in such a detail as the direct connection of the name of the person
+with his power of change do we find extraordinary parallelisms between
+the superstition of the red man of America and the peasant of Germany.
+As in Mexico the _nagual_ was assigned to the infant by a form of
+baptism, so in Europe the peasants of east Prussia hold that if the
+godparent at the time of naming and baptism thinks of a wolf, the infant
+will acquire the power of becoming one; and in Hesse to pronounce the
+name of the person in the presence of the animal into which he has been
+changed will restore him to human shape.[59-Sec.]
+
+
+=40.= I need not say that the doctrine of personal spirits is not
+especially Mexican, nor yet American; it belongs to man in general, and
+can be recognized in most religions and many philosophies. In ancient
+Greece both the Platonicians and later the Neo-Platonicians thought that
+each individual has a particular spirit, or _daim[=o]n_, in whom is
+enshrined his or her moral personality. To this _daim[=o]n_ he should
+address his prayers, and should listen heedfully to those interior
+promptings which seem to arise in the mind from some unseen silent
+monitor.[60-*]
+
+Many a member of the Church of Rome substitutes for the _daim[=o]n_ of
+the Platonists the patron saint after whom he is named, or whom he has
+chosen from the calendar, the hagiology, of his Church. This analogy did
+not fail to strike the early missionaries, and they saw in the Indian
+priest selecting the _nagual_ of the child a hideous and diabolical
+caricature of the holy rites.
+
+But what was their horror when they found that the similarity proceeded
+so far that the pagan priest also performed a kind of baptismal
+sacrament with water; and that in the Mexican picture-writing the sign
+which represents the natal day, the _tonal_, by which the individual
+demon is denoted, was none other than the sign of the cross, as we have
+seen. This left no doubt as to the devilish origin of the whole
+business, which was further supported by the wondrous thaumaturgic
+powers of its professors.
+
+
+=41.= How are we to explain these marvelous statements? It will not do to
+take the short and easy road of saying they are all lies and frauds. The
+evidence is too abundant for us to doubt that there was skillful
+jugglery among the proficients in the occult arts among those nations.
+They could rival their colleagues in the East Indies and Europe, if not
+surpass them.
+
+Moreover, is there anything incredible in the reports of the spectators?
+Are we not familiar with the hypnotic or mesmeric conditions in which
+the subject sees, hears and feels just what the master tells him to feel
+and see? The tricks of cutting oneself or others, of swallowing broken
+glass, of handling venomous reptiles, are well-known performances of the
+sect of the Aissaoua in northern Africa, and nowadays one does not have
+to go off the boulevards of Paris to see them repeated. The phenomena of
+thought transference, of telepathy, of clairvoyance, of spiritual
+rappings, do but reiterate under the clear light of the close of the
+nineteenth century the mystical thaumaturgy with which these children of
+nature were familiar centuries ago in the New World, and which are
+recorded of the theosophists and magicians of Egypt, Greece and
+Rome.[61-*] So long as many intelligent and sensible people among
+ourselves find all explanations of these modern phenomena inadequate and
+unsatisfactory, we may patiently wait for a complete solution of those
+of a greater antiquity.
+
+
+=42.= The conclusion to which this study of Nagualism leads is, that it
+was not merely the belief in a personal guardian spirit, as some have
+asserted; not merely a survival of fragments of the ancient heathenism,
+more or less diluted by Christian teachings, as others have maintained;
+but that above and beyond these, it was a powerful secret organization,
+extending over a wide area, including members of different languages and
+varying culture, bound together by mystic rites, by necromantic powers
+and occult doctrines; but, more than all, by one intense emotion--hatred
+of the whites--and by one unalterable purpose--that of their
+destruction, and with them the annihilation of the government and
+religion which they had introduced.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[4-*] These words occur a number of times in the English translation,
+published at London in 1822, of Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera's _Teatro Critico
+Americano_. The form _nagual_ instead of _nahual_, or _naual_, or
+_nawal_ has been generally adopted and should be preferred.
+
+[4-[+]] For instance, in "The Names of the Gods in the Kiche Myths," pp.
+21, 22, in _Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society_, 1881;
+_Annals of the Cakchiquels_, Introduction, p. 46; _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 170, etc.
+
+[5-*] _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iv, Lib. viii, cap. 4.
+
+[5-[+]] More especially it is the territory of the Chorti dialect,
+spoken to this day in the vicinity of the famous ancient city of Copan,
+Honduras. Cerquin lies in the mountains nearly due east of this
+celebrated site. On the Chorti, see Stoll, _Zur Ethnographie der
+Republik Guatemala_, pp. 106-9.
+
+[6-*] Bernardino de Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espana_, Lib. x, cap.
+9.
+
+[6-[+]] Derived from _teciuhtlaza_, to conjure against hail, itself from
+_teciuh_, hail. Alonso de Molina, _Vocabulario Mexicano_, sub voce.
+
+[6-[++]] Bautista, _Advertencias para los Confesores_, fol. 112 (Mexico,
+1600).
+
+[6-Sec.] Nicolas de Leon, _Camino del Cielo_, fol. 111 (Mexico, 1611).
+
+[7-*] Paso y Troncoso, in _Anales del Museo Nacional[TN-7] de Mexico_,
+Tom. iii, p. 180.
+
+[7-[+]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. x, cap. 29, and Lib.
+xi, cap. 7. Hernandez has the following on the mysterious properties of
+this plant: "Illud ferunt de hac radice mirabile (si modo fides sit
+vulgatissimae inter eos rei habendae), devorantes illam quodlibet
+prsaesagire praedicereque; velut an sequenti die hostes sint impetum in
+eos facturi? Anne illos felicia maneant tempora? Quis supellectilem, aut
+aliud quidpiam furto subripruerit? Et ad hunc modum alia, quibus
+Chichimecae hujusmodi medicamine cognoscendis." Franciscus Hernandus,
+_Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. iii, p. 71 (Ed., Madrid, 1790).
+
+[7-[++]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, Tom. i, p. 360 (Mexico,
+1856).
+
+[8-*] _Confessionario Mayor y Menor en lengua Mexicana_, fol. 8, verso
+(Mexico, 1634).
+
+[8-[+]] Vetancurt, _Teatro Mexicano_, Trat. iii, cap. 9.
+
+[8-[++]] Hernandez, _Historia Plantarum Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. iii, p. 32.
+
+[9-*] Dr. Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Min stros[TN-8] de Indios para
+el Conocimiento de sus Idolatrias y Extirpacion de Ellas_, p. 163. This
+interesting work was composed about the middle of the seventeenth
+century by a Rector of the University of Mexico, but was first printed
+at Madrid, in 1892, from the MS. furnished by Dr. N. Leon, under the
+editorship of the Marquis de la Fuensanta del Valle.
+
+[9-[+]] MSS. of the Licentiate Zetina, and _Informe_ of Father Baeza in
+_Registro Yucateco_, Tom. i.
+
+[10-*] Acosta, _De la Historia Moral de Indias_, Lib. v, cap. 26.
+
+[10-[+]] Of the _thiuimeezque_ Hernandez writes: "Aiunt radicis cortice
+unius unciae pondere tuso, atque devorato, multa ante oculos observare
+phantasmata, multiplices imagines ac monstrificas rerum figuras,
+detegique furem, si quidpiam rei familiaris subreptum sit." _Hist.
+Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. iii, p. 272. The _chacuaco_ and its effects
+are described by Father Venegas in his _History of California_, etc.
+
+[10-[++]] "In Mictlan Tetlachihuique, in Nanahualtin, in Tlahuipuchtin."
+Paredes, _Promptuario Manual Mexicano_, p. 128 (Mexico, 1757). The
+_tlahuipuchtin_, "those who work with smoke," were probably diviners who
+foretold the future from the forms taken by smoke in rising in the air.
+This class of augurs were also found in Peru, where they were called
+_Uirapircos_ (Balboa, _Hist. du Perou_, p. 28-30).
+
+[10-Sec.] Von Gagern, _Charakteristik der Indianischer Bevoelkerung
+Mexikos_, s. 125.
+
+[11-*] _Historia Antigua de Mexico_, Tom. ii, p. 25. Francisco Pimentel,
+in his thoughtful work, _Memoria sobre las Causas que han originado la
+Situacion Actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_ (Mexico, 1864),
+recognizes how almost impossible it is to extirpate their faith in this
+nagualism. "Conservan los agueros y supersticiones de la antigueedad,
+siendo cosa de fe para ellos, los _nahuales_," etc., p. 200, and comp.
+p. 145.
+
+[11-[+]] On these terms consult the extensive _Dictionnaire de la Langue
+Nahuatl_, by Remi Simeon,[TN-9] published at Paris, 1887. It is not
+impossible that _tona_ is itself a compound root, including the
+monosyllabic radical _na_, which is at the basis of _nagual_.
+
+[11-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. iv, _passim_, and
+Lib. x, cap. 9.
+
+[12-*] See Ch. de Labarthe, _Revue Americaine_, Serie ii, Tom. ii, pp.
+222-225. His translation of _naualteteuctin_ by "Seigneurs du genie"
+must be rejected, as there is absolutely no authority for assigning this
+meaning to _naualli_.
+
+[13-*] _Anales de Cuauhtitlan_, p. 31. The translator renders it "palo
+brujo."
+
+[13-[+]] _Les Anciennes Villes du Nouveau Monde_, pp. 146-148, figured
+on p. 150. On its significance compare Hamy, _Decades Americanae_, pp.
+74-81.
+
+[13-[++]] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_
+(Philadelphia, 1893).
+
+[13-Sec.] Eduard Muehlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. i, s. 255.
+
+[14-*] The word is derived from _tlatoa_, to speak for another, and its
+usual translation was "chief," as the head man spoke for, and in the
+name of the gens or tribe.
+
+[14-[+]] The interesting account by Iglesias is printed in the Appendix
+to the _Diccionario Universal de Geographia y Historia_ (Mexico, 1856).
+Other writers testify to the tenacity with which the Mixes cling to
+their ancient beliefs. Senor Moro says they continue to be "notorious
+idolaters," and their actual religion to be "an absurd jumble of their
+old superstitions with Christian doctrines" (in Orozco y Berra,
+_Geografia de las Lenguas de exico[TN-10]_, p. 176).
+
+[15-*] For instance, J. B. Carriedo, in his _Estudios Historicos del
+Estado Oaxaqueno_ (Oaxaca, 1849), p. 15, says the _nahualt_ was a
+ceremony performed by the native priest, in which the infant was bled
+from a vein behind the ear, assigned a name, that of a certain day, and
+a guardian angel or _tona_. These words are pure Nahuatl, and Carriedo,
+who does not give his authority, probably had none which referred these
+rites to the Zapotecs.
+
+[15-[+]] Juan de Cordova, _Arte en Lengua Zapoteca_, pp. 16, 202, 203,
+213, 216.
+
+[16-*] Quoted in Carriedo, ubi supra, p. 17.
+
+[16-[+]] _Hist. de las Indias Oc._, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12.
+
+[17-*] So I understand the phrase, "figuras pintadas con zifras
+enigmaticas"[TN-11]
+
+[17-[+]] _Popoluca_ was a term applied to various languages. I suspect
+the one here referred to was the Mixe. See an article by me, entitled
+"Chontales and Popolucas; a Study in Mexican Ethnography," in the
+_Compte Rendu_ of the Eighth Session of the Congress of Americanists, p.
+566, _seq._
+
+[17-[++]] _Constit. Diocesan_, p. 19.
+
+[18-*] _Constitut. Diocesan_, Titulo vii, pp. 47, 48.
+
+[19-*] Rather with the Quetzalcoatl of the Nahuas, and the Gucumatz of
+the Quiches, both of which names mean "Feathered Serpent." Mixcohuatl,
+the Cloud Serpent, in Mexican mythology, referred to the Thunder-storm.
+
+[19-[+]] In his Tzental Vocabulary, Father Lara does not give this exact
+form; but in the neighboring dialect of the Cakchiquel Father Ximenes
+has _quikeho_, to agree together, to enter into an arrangement; the
+prefix _zme_ is the Tzental word for "mother."
+
+[20-*] Father Lara, in his _Vocabulario Tzendal MS._ (in my possession),
+gives for medical (medico), _ghpoxil_, for medicine (medicinal cosa),
+_pox_, _xpoxtacoghbil_; for physician (medico), _ghpoxta vinic_ (the
+form _vanegh_, person, is also correct). The Tzendal _pox_ (pronounced
+_p[=o]sh_) is another form of the Quiche-Cakchiquel _p[=u]z_, a word
+which Father Ximenes, in his _Vocabulario Cakchiquel_ MS (in my
+possession), gives in the compound _puz naual_, with the meaning,
+enchanter, wizard. Both these, I take it, are derived from the Maya
+_puz_, which means to blow the dust, etc., off of something (soplar el
+polvo de la ropa o otra cosa. _Dicc. de la Lengua Maya del Convento de
+Motul_, MS. The dictionary edited by Pio Perez does not give this
+meaning). The act of blowing was the essential feature in the treatment
+of these medicine men. It symbolized the transfer and exercise of
+spiritual power. When Votan built his underground shrine he did it _a
+soplos_, by blowing (Nunez de la Vega, _Constitut. Diocesan_, p. 10).
+The natives did not regard the comet's tail as behind it but in front of
+it, blown from its mouth. The Nahuatl word in the text, _tzihuizin_, is
+the Pipil form of _xihuitzin_, the reverential of _xihuitl_, which means
+a leaf, a season, a year, or a comet. Apparently it refers to the
+Nahuatl divinity _Xiuhte cutli_, described by Sahagun, _Historia de
+Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 13, as god of fire, etc.
+
+[21-*] _Hicalahau_, for _ical ahau_, Black King, one of the Tzental
+divinities, who will be referred to on a later page.
+
+[21-[+]] "Maestros de los pueblos," _Constitut. Diocesan_, i, p. 106.
+
+[23-*] _Historia de Guatemala, o, Recordacion Florida_, Tom. ii, p. 44,
+_seq._
+
+[24-*] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, p. 388, _seq._ (4th
+Ed.).
+
+[25-*] _Le Popol Vuh, ou Livre Sacre des Quiches_, p. 315 (Ed. Brasseur,
+Paris, 1861). In the Quiche myths, Gucumatz is the analogue of
+Quetzalcoatl in Aztec legend. Both names mean the same, "Feathered
+Serpent."
+
+[25-[+]] Baeza's article is printed in the _Registro Yucateco_, Vol. i,
+p. 165, _seq._
+
+[26-*] "Wird ein Kind im Dorfe geboren, so erhaelt der heidnische
+Goetzenpriester von diesem Ereignisse viel eher Kunde, als der
+katholische Pfarrer. Erst wenn dem neuen Weltbuerger durch den Aj-quig
+das Horoskop gestellt, der Name irgend eines Thieres beigelegt,
+Mi-si-sal (das citronengelbe Harz des Rhus copallinum) verbrannt, ein
+Lieblingsgoetze angerufen, und noche viele andere aberglauebische
+Mysterien verrichtet worden sind, wird das Kind nach dem Pfarrhause zur
+christlichen Taufe getragen. Das Thier, dessen Name dem Kinde kurz nach
+seiner Geburt vom Sonnenpriester beigelegt wird, gilt gewoehnlich auch
+als sein Schutzgeist (_nagual_) fuers ganze Leben." Dr. Karl Scherzer,
+_Die Indianer von Santa Catalina Istlavacan_, p. 11, Wien, 1856.
+
+[26-[+]] The word _zahori_, of Arabic origin, is thus explained in the
+Spanish and English dictionary of Delpino (London, 1763): "So they call
+in Spain an impostor who pretends to see into the bowels of the earth,
+through stone walls, or into a man's body." Dr. Stoll says the Guatemala
+Indians speak of their diviners, the _Ah Kih_, as _zahorin_.
+_Guatemala_, s. 229.
+
+[26-[++]] Emetorio Pineda, _Descripcion Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco_, p. 22 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[27-*] Madier de Montjau, "Manuscrits Figuratifs de l' Ancien Mexique,"
+in _Archives de la Societe Americaine[TN-12] de France_, 1875, p. 245.
+
+[27-[+]] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[28-*] De la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_, pp. 20, 21, 42, 162. The
+mushroom referred to was the _quauhnanacatl_, probably the same as the
+_teyhuinti_ of Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Nov. Hispan._, Tom. ii, p. 358,
+who says that it is not dangerous to life, but disturbs the mind,
+inciting to laughter and intoxication.
+
+[28-[+]] Actual slavery of the Indians in Mexico continued as late as
+the middle of the seventeenth century. See Cavo, _Tres Siglos de
+Mexico_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 11.
+
+[28-[++]] Brasseur, _Hist. des Nations Civilisees de Mexique_, Tom. iv,
+p. 822.
+
+[29-*] _Informe del teniente general, Don Jacobo de Barba Figueroa,
+corregidor de la Provincia de Suchitepeque_, quoted by Brasseur.
+
+[29-[+]] Jacinto de la Serna says: "Los maestros de estas ceremonias son
+todos unos, y lo que sucede en esta cordillera en todas sucede." _Manual
+de Ministros_, p. 52. Speaking of the methods of the nagualists of
+Chiapas, Bishop Nunez de la Vega writes: "Concuerdan los mas modernos
+con los mas antiguos que se practicaban en Mexico." _Constituciones
+Diocesanas_, p. 134.
+
+[29-[++]] He observes that there were "familias de los tales sabios en
+las quales en manera de patrimonio se heredaban, succediendo los hijos a
+los padres, y principalmente su abominable secta de Nagualismo."
+_Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, MS., p. 7. Ordonez advances various
+erudite reasons for believing that Nagualism is a religious belief whose
+theory and rites were brought from Carthage by Punic navigators in
+ancient times.
+
+[29-Sec.] Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 270, (Genova, n. d.).
+
+[30-*] "_Xochimilca_, que asi llamavan a los mui sabios encantadores."
+Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. xv, cap. 16.
+
+[30-[+]] In Nahuatl, _tlapiani_, a guardian or watchman. The Zapotec
+priesthood was divided into the _huijatoos_, "greater guardians," and
+their inferiors, the _copavitoos_, "guardians of the gods." Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historicos_,[TN-13] p. 93.
+
+[30-[++]] See Eligio Ancona. _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. iv, cap. 1
+(Merida, 1880).
+
+[31-*] The mention of the fifteen, 5 x 3, chosen disciples indicates
+that the same system of initiating by triplets prevailed in Yucatan as
+in Chiapas (see above, p. 19). The sacred tree is not named, but
+presumably it was the ceiba to which I refer elsewhere. The address of
+Jacinto was obtained from those present, and is given at length by the
+Jesuit Martin del Puerto, in his _Relacion hecho al Cabildo Eclesiastico
+por el preposito de la Compania de Jesus, acerca de la muerte de Jacinto
+Can-Ek y socios_, Dec. 26, 1761. It is published, with other documents
+relating to this revolt, in the Appendix to the _Diccionario Universal_,
+edited by Orozco y Berra, Mexico, 1856. On the prophecies of Chilan
+Balam, see my _Essays of an Americanist_, pp. 255-273 (Philadelphia,
+1890).
+
+[31-[+]] Eligio Ancona, _Hist. de Yucatan_, Tom. ii, p. 452.
+
+[32-*] See Pedro Sanchez de Aguilar, _Informe contra Idolum Cultores en
+Yucathan_ (Madrid, 1639); Eligio Ancona, _Historia de Yucatan_, Tom. ii,
+pp. 128, 129.
+
+[32-[+]] The chief authority on this revolt is Juan de Torres Castillo,
+_Relacion de lo Sucedido en las Provincias de Nexapa, Iztepex y Villa
+Alta_ (Mexico, 1662). See also Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante
+el Gobierno Espanol_, Tom. ii, p. 41, and a pamphlet by Christoval Manso
+de Contreras, _Relacion cierta y verdadera de lo que sucedio en esta
+Provincia de Tehuantepec_, etc. (printed at Mexico, 1661), which I know
+only through the notes of Dr. Berendt. Mr. H. H. Bancroft, in his very
+meagre account of this event, mistakingly insists that it took place in
+1660. _History of Mexico_, Vol. iii, p. 164.
+
+[32-[++]] See Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations Civilisees de
+la Mexique_, Tom. iv, 824.
+
+[32-Sec.] Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos_, etc., Tom. ii, p. 82. On the use and
+significance of the _piochtli_ we have some information in Vetancurt,
+_Teatro Mexicano_, Tom. ii, p. 464, and de la Serna, _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 166, 167. It was the badge of a certain order of the
+native priesthood.
+
+[33-*] _Adventures on the Musquito Shore_, by S. A. Ward, pseudonym of
+Mr. Squier, p. 258 (New York, 1855).
+
+[33-[+]] Nunez de la Vega, _Constituciones Diocesanas_, p. 10, and comp.
+Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. des Nat. Civ. de Mexique_, Tom. i, p. 74.
+
+[33-[++]] Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. ii, Lib.
+iii, cap. 5.
+
+[34-*] Acosta, _Hist. Nat. y Moral de las Indias_, Lib. vii, cap. 5.
+
+[34-[+]] The story is given in Herrera, _Hist. de las Indias_, Dec. iv,
+Lib. viii, cap. 4. The name Coamizagual is translated in the account as
+"Flying Tigress." I cannot assign it this sense in any dialect.
+
+[34-[++]] Jacinto de la Serna, _Manual de Ministros_. p. 138. Sahagun
+identifies Quilaztli with Tonantzin, the common mother of mankind and
+goddess of child-birth (_Hist. de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 6, Lib.
+vi, cap. 27). Further particulars of her are related by Torquemada,
+_Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 2. The _tzitzime_ were mysterious
+elemental powers, who, the Nahuas believed, were destined finally to
+destroy the present world (Sahagun, l. c., Lib. vi, cap. 8). The word
+means "flying haired" (Serna).
+
+[34-Sec.] Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, Lib. ii, cap. 62.
+
+[35-*] Fr. Tomas Coto, _Diccionario de la Lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., s. v.
+_Sacrificar_; in the Library of the American Philosophical Society at
+Philadelphia.
+
+[35-[+]] "Trataron de valerse del arte de los encantos y _naguales_" are
+the words of the author, Fuentes y Guzman, in his _Recordacion Florida_,
+Tom. i, p. 50. In the account of Bernal Diaz, it reads as if this witch
+and her dog had both been sacrificed; but Fuentes is clear in his
+statement, and had other documents at hand.
+
+[35-[++]] Teobert Maler, "Memoire sur l'Etat de Chiapas," in the _Revue
+d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, pp. 309-311. This writer also gives some
+valuable facts about the Indian insurrection in the Sierra de Alicia, in
+1873.
+
+[36-*] The long account given by Mr H. H. Bancroft of this insurrection
+is a travesty of the situation drawn from bitterly prejudiced Spanish
+sources, of course, utterly out of sympathy with the motives which
+prompted the native actors. See his _History of the Pacific States_, Vol
+ii, p. 696 _sqq._ Ordonez y Aguiar, who lived on the spot within a
+generation of the occurrences recognizes in Maria Candelaria (whose true
+name Bancroft does not give) the real head of the rebellion, "quien
+ordenaba los ardides del motin; .... de lo que principalmente trataban
+las leyes fundamentales de su secta, era de que no quedase rastro alguno
+de que los Europeos havian pisado este suelo." His account is in his
+unpublished work, _Historia del Cielo y de la Tierra_, written at
+Guatemala about 1780. Juarros, speaking of their rites, says of them:
+"Apostando de la fe, profanando los vasos sagrados, y ofreciendo
+sacrilegos cultos a una indizuela." _Historia de la Ciudad de
+Guatemala_, Tom. i, p. 17.
+
+[36-[+]] Bancroft, ubi supra, p. 705, note. One was hanged, whom Garcia
+Pelaez calls "una india bruja." _Memorias para la Historia de
+Guatemala_, Tom. ii, p. 153.
+
+[36-[++]] Squier, ubi supra, passim.
+
+[37-*] _Voyage a l' Isthmus de Tehuantepec_, p. 164. He adds a number of
+particulars of the power she was supposed to exercise.
+
+[38-*] "Que era venerado en todo el imperio de Montezuma." See
+_Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v. (Mexico, 1856).
+
+[38-[+]] "Dass der Gott Tepeyollotl im Zapotekenlande und weiter
+suedwaerts seine Wurzeln hat, und dem eigentlichen Aztekischen Olymp fremd
+ist, darueber kann kein Zweifel mehr obwalten." See Dr. Seler's able
+discussion of the subject in the _Compte-Rendu_ of the Seventh
+International Congress of Americanists, p. 559, _seq._ The adoption of
+subterranean temples was peculiarly a Zapotecan trait. "Notandose
+principalmente en muchos adoratorios de los Zapotecos, estan los mas de
+ellos cubiertos, o en subterraneos espaciosos y lobregos." Carriedo,
+_Estudios Historicos_, Tom. i, p. 26.
+
+[39-*] _Constituciones Diocesanas_, pp. 9, 10.
+
+[39-[+]] Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, pp. 389, 393.
+
+[39-[++]] _Teatro Mexicano_, Tratado iii, cap. 11. Mr. Bandelier has
+called attention to the naming of one of the principal chiefs among the
+Aztecs, _Tlilancalqui_, "Man of the Dark House," and thinks it related
+to the Votan myth. _Twelfth Annual Report of the Peabody Museum_, p.
+689.
+
+[40-*] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias Occidentales_, Dec. iii, Lib.
+iii, cap. 14.
+
+[40-[+]] Villa Senor, _Teatro Americano_, Lib. v, cap. 38 (Mexico,
+1747). Father Cavo adds that there were signs of human sacrifices
+present, but of this I can find no evidence in the earlier reports.
+Comp. Cavo, _Los Tres Siglos de Mexico durante el Gobierno
+Espanal[TN-14]_, Tom. ii, p. 128.
+
+[40-[++]] _Teatro Americano_, Lib. ii, cap. 11; Lib. iii, cap. 13.
+
+[41-*] See Muehlenpfordt, _Mexico_, Bd. ii, pp. 200-266; Brasseur, _Hist.
+des Nations Civ. de la Mexique_, Vol. iv, p. 821; Herrera, _Historia de
+las Indias_, Dec. iii, Lib. iii, cap. 12, etc.
+
+[41-[+]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, s. v.
+
+[41-[++]] Their names were Ta Yoapa, Father Dawn; Ta Te, Father Stone;
+Coanamoa, the Serpent which Seizes. _Dicc. Univ._, App., Tom. iii, p.
+11.
+
+[41-Sec.] Duran, _Historia de los Indios_, Tom. ii, p. 140. They were Tota,
+Our Father; Yollometli, the Heart of the Maguey (probably pulque); and
+Topiltzin, Our Noble One (probably Quetzalcoatl, to whom this epithet
+was often applied).
+
+[41-[||]] "Fue el Demonio que les dio la supersticion del numero nueve."
+_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197.
+
+[42-*] _The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico_, p. 12.
+
+[42-[+]] Motolinia, _Ritos Antiguos, Sacrificios e Idolatrias de los
+Indios de la Nueva Espana_, p. 340 (in _Coleccion de Documentos ineditos
+para la Historia de Espana_).
+
+[42-[++]] Thomas Coto, _Vocabulario de la lengua Cakchiquel_, MS., sub
+voce, _Rayo_.
+
+[42-Sec.] Herrera, _Historia de las Indias_, Dec. IV, Lib. viii, cap. 10.
+
+[42-[||]] _Diccionario Universal_, Appendice, ubi supra.
+
+[42-[P]] [TN-15]'Senor de los Animales." _Codex Telleriano-Remensis_, Parte
+ii, Lam. iv.
+
+[43-*] See Dr. Seler's minute description in the _Compte Rendu_ of the
+Eighth Session of the Congres International des Americanistes, pp. 588,
+589. In one of the conjuration formulas given by de la Serna (_Manual de
+Ministros_, p. 212) the priest says: "Yo soy el sacerdote, el dios
+_Quetzalcoatl_, que se bajara al infierno, y subire a lo superior, y
+hasta los nueve infiernos." This writer, who was very competent in the
+Nahuatl, translates the name Quetzalcoatl by "culebra con cresta"
+(_id._, p. 171), an unusual, but perhaps a correct rendering.
+
+[43-[+]] His words here are somewhat obscure. They are, "El baptismo de
+fuego, en donde las ponen los sobre nombres que llaman _yahuiltoca_,
+quando nacen." This may be translated, "The baptism of fire in which
+they confer the names which they call _yahuiltoca_." The obscurity is in
+the Nahuatl, as the word _toca_ may be a plural of _tocaitl_, name, as
+well as the verb _toca_, to throw upon. The passage is from the _Camino
+del Cielo_, fol. 100, verso.
+
+[43-[++]] Sahagun, _Historia de la Nueva Espana_, Lib. iv, cap. 25.
+
+[43-Sec.] It is mentioned as useful for this purpose by the early
+physicians, Francisco Ximenes, _Cuatro Libros de la Naturaleza_, p. 144;
+Hernandez, _Hist. Plant. Novae Hispaniae_, Tom. ii, p. 200. Capt. Bourke,
+in his recent article on "The Medicine Men of the Apaches" (in _Ninth
+Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, p. 521), suggests that the
+_yiahuitli_ of the Aztecs is the same as the "hoddentin," the pollen of
+a variety of cat-tail rush which the Apaches in a similar manner throw
+into the fire as an offering. Hernandez, however, describes the
+_yiahuitli_ as a plant with red flowers, growing on mountains and
+hill-sides--no species of rush, therefore. De la Serna says it is the
+anise plant, and that with it the natives perform the conjuration of the
+"yellow spirit" (conjuro de amarillo espiritado), that is, of the Fire
+(_Manual de Ministros_, p. 197).
+
+[44-*] From the verb _apeua_. Vetancurt's description is in his _Teatro
+Mexicano_, Tom. i, pp. 462, 463 (Ed. Mexico, 1870).
+
+[44-[+]] His frequent references to it show this. See his _Manual de
+Ministros_, pp. 16, 20, 22, 24, 36, 40, 66, 174, 217, etc. The word
+_tlecuixtliliztli_ is compounded of _tlecuilli_, the hearth or
+fireplace, and _ixtliluia_, to darken with smoke.
+
+[45-*] Duran, _Historia de los Indios de la Nueva Espana_, Tom. ii, p.
+240. Sahagun adds that the _octli_ was poured on the hearth at four
+separate points, doubtless the four cardinal points. _Historia de Nueva
+Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 18. De la Serna describes the same ceremony as
+current in his day, _Manual de Ministros_, p. 35. The invocation
+ran:--"Shining Rose, light-giving Rose, receive and rejoice my heart
+before the God."
+
+[45-[+]] A copy of these strange "Books of Chilan Balam" is in my
+possession. I have described them in my _Essays of an Americanist_
+(Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[45-[++]] See his remarks on "Apperception der Menschenzeugung als
+Feuerbereitung," in the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. vi, s.
+113, _seq._
+
+[46-*] Sahagun, _Historia de Nueva Espana_, Lib. i, cap. 13. The Nahuatl
+text is more definite than the Spanish translation.
+
+[46-[+]] See my _Myths of the New World_, p. 154, _seq._
+
+[46-[++]] In the Nahuatl language the word _xihuitl_ (_xiuitl_) has four
+meanings: a plant, a turquoise, a year and a comet.
+
+[46-Sec.] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado Oaxaqueno_, Tom.
+i, p. 82, etc.
+
+[47-*] Alva, _Confessionario en Lengua Mexicana_, fol. 9.
+
+[47-[+]] Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos_, pp. 6, 7.
+
+[47-[++]] In the _Revue[TN-16] d' Ethnographie_, Tom. iii, p. 313. Some
+very fine objects of this class are described by E. G. Squier, in his
+"Observations on the Chalchihuitl," in the _Annals of the Lyceum of
+Natural History_, Vol. i (New York, 1869).
+
+[48-*] Diego Duran, _Historia de los Indios de Nueva Espana_, Tom. ii,
+p. 140.
+
+[48-[+]] In Kingsborough, _Antiquities of Mexico_, Vol. ii, Pl. 180. On
+the cross as a form derived from a tree see the observations of W. H.
+Holmes, in the _Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_, pp.
+270, 271.
+
+[48-[++]] "Au Mexique, le cadre croise, la croix en sautoir, comme celle
+de St. Andre, avec quelques variantes, representait le signe de
+nativite, _tonalli_, la fete, le jour natal." M. Aubin, in Boban,
+_Catalogue Raisonnee de la Collection Goupil_, Tom. i, p. 227. Both
+Gomara and Herrera may be quoted to this effect.
+
+[49-*] See a curious story from native sources in my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, pp. 171, 172. It adds that this change can be prevented by
+casting salt upon the person.
+
+[49-[+]] Benito Maria de Moxo, _Cartas Mejicanas_, p. 257; Landa, _Cosas
+de Yucatan_, p. 193.
+
+[49-[++]] Pedro de los Rios, in his notes to the Codex Vaticanus,
+published in Kingsborough's great work, assigns the sign, _cohuatl_, the
+serpent, to "il membro virile, il maggio augurio di tutti gli altri." It
+is distinctly so shown on the 75th plate of the Codex. De la Serna
+states that in his day some of the Mexican conjurors used a wand, around
+which was fastened a living serpent. _Manual de Ministros_, p. 37.
+
+[49-Sec.] There is abundant evidence of this in certain plates of the Codex
+Troano, and there is also alleged to be much in the Codex Mexicanus of
+the Palais Bourbon. Writing about the latter, M. Aubin said as far back
+as 1841--"le culte du lingam on du phallus n'etait pas etranger aux
+Mexicains, ce qu' etablissent plusieurs documents peu connus et des
+sculptures decouvertes depuis un petit nombre d'annees." His letter is
+in Boban, _Catalogue Raisonne la Collection Goupil_, Tom. ii, p. 207. On
+the frequent identification of the serpent symbol with the phallus in
+classical art, consult Dr. Anton Nagele's article, "Der
+Schlangen-Cultus," in the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Band
+xvii, p. 285, _seq._
+
+[50-*] Cf. G. Tarayre, _Exploration Mineralogique des Regions
+Mexicaines_, p. 233 (Paris, 1869), and _Bulletin de la Societe
+d'Anthropologie de Paris_, Juin, 1893.
+
+[50-[+]] _Sources de l' Histoire Primitive de Mexique_, p. 81.
+
+[50-[++]] From _zo_, to join together. Compare my _Essays of an
+Americanist_, p. 417 (Philadelphia, 1890).
+
+[50-Sec.] "El indio Mexicano es todavia idolatra." F. Pimentel, _La
+Situacion actual de la Raza Indigena de Mexico_, p. 197.
+
+[51-*] The "holy souls" who are here appealed to by name are those of
+deceased _ah-kih_, or priests of the native cult.
+
+[55-*] See the _Relation del Auto celebrado en Mexico, ano de 1659_
+(Mexico, En la Imprenta del Santo Officio, 1659).
+
+[55-[+]] J. B. Carriedo, _Estudios Historicos del Estado
+Oaxaqueno[TN-17]_, Tom. i, pp. 8, 9 (Oaxaca, 1849). About 1640 a number of
+Indians in the province of Acapulco were put to death for having buried
+enchanted ashes beneath the floor of a chapel! (Serna, _Manual de
+Ministros_, p. 52.)
+
+[55-[++]] "Nagual ist in seiner correcten Form _naoal_ ein echtes
+Quiche-Wort, ein Substantivum instrumentale, vom Stamme _nao_, wissen,
+erkennen. _Naoal_ ist dasjenige, womit oder woran etwas, in diesem Falle
+das Schicksal des Kindes, erkannt wird, und hat mit dem mexikanischen
+_nahualli_ (Hexe), mit dem man es vielleicht in Verbindung bringen
+moechte, nichts zu schaffen." _Guatemala_, s. 238.
+
+[57-*] The Abbe Brasseur observes: "Le mot _nahual_, qui vet dire toute
+science, ou science de tout, est frequemment employe pour exprimer la
+sorcellerie chez ces populations." _Bulletin de la Societe de
+Geographie_, 1857, p. 290. In another passage of his works the
+speculative Abbe translates _naual_ by the English "know all," and is
+not averse to believing that the latter is but a slight variant of the
+former.
+
+[58-*] See an article by me, entitled "On the Words 'Anahuac' and
+'Nahuatl,'" in the _American Antiquarian_, for November, 1893.
+
+[58-[+]] _Manual de Ministros_, p. 50.
+
+[58-[++]] Jesus Sanchez, _Glosario de Voces Castellanas derivadas del
+Idioma Nahuatl_, sub voce.
+
+[59-*] "_Nagual_--el lugar, rincon, cajon, nambira, etc., donde guarda
+sus talismanes y trajes de encanta la bruja." Berendt, _La Lengua
+Castellana de Nicaragua_, MS.
+
+[59-[+]] Emetorio Pineda, _Description Geografica de Chiapas y
+Soconusco_, p. 23 (Mexico, 1845).
+
+[59-[++]] See his article "Wer-wolf," in his _Ethnographische Parallelen
+und Vergleiche_, p. 62, _seq._
+
+[59-Sec.] Richard Andree, _ibid._, ss. 63, 64.
+
+[60-*] See Alfred Maury, _La Magie et l' Astrologie_, pp. 88, 89, 267,
+etc.
+
+[61-*] In the _Notice Preliminaire_ to the second part of his work, _La
+Magie et l' Astrologie dans l' Antiquite et au Moyen Age_, Mr. Alfred
+Maury admirably sums up the scientific resources at our command for
+explaining the mystical phenomena of experience, without denying their
+reality as actual occurrences.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+Native words explained, _in Italics_; names of Authors quoted, in SMALL
+CAPITALS.
+
+  Achiutla, 40
+
+  ACOSTA, J., 9, 34
+
+  AGUILAR, P. S., 32
+
+  _Ahau_, 35
+
+  _Ah Kih_, 26, 51
+
+  _Ah-toc_, 45
+
+  Aissaoua, the, 60
+
+  Alaghom Naom, a goddess, 56
+
+  _Alom_, deity, 50
+
+  ALVA, B. DE, 8, 46, 47
+
+  _Anahuac_, 58
+
+  ANCONA, E., 30, 31
+
+  ANDAGOYA, P. DE, 33
+
+  ANDREE,[TN-18] R., 59
+
+  Antichrist, appealed to, 28
+
+  _Apehualco_, 44
+
+  AUBIN, M., 48, 49
+
+  Ay, Antonio, 30
+
+  Aztecan language, 5, 11
+
+  Aztecs, 7
+
+
+  _Baal-che_, 9
+
+  BAEZA, P., 9, 25
+
+  BALBOA, P., 10
+
+  BANCROFT, H. H., 13, 32, 36
+
+  BANDELIER, A., 39
+
+  Baptism, 27, 43
+
+  Baptism by fire, 37
+
+  BARBA FIGUEROA, 29
+
+  BAUTISTA, J., 6
+
+  BERENDT, C. H., 50, 59
+
+  "Black King," the, 39
+
+  Blowing, as a rite, 19, 20
+
+  BOBAN, M., 48
+
+  "Books of Chilan Balam", 45
+
+  BOURKE, Capt., 44
+
+  BRASSEUR (de Bourbourg), 25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 37, 57
+
+  _Buk xoc_, 45
+
+  BURGOA, P., 16
+
+
+  CABRERA, Dr. P. F., 4
+
+  Cakchiquel language, 20, 23
+
+  Calendar, the native, 13-16, 45, 53
+
+  California, 10
+
+  Cancuc, town, 29
+
+  Candelaria, Maria, 35
+
+  Can Ek, Jacinto, 30
+
+  Carpio, Bernardo del, 55
+
+  CARRIEDO, J. B., 15, 30, 38, 46
+
+  Cave God, the, 38, 41
+
+  CAVO, P., 28, 32, 40
+
+  Ceiba tree, 47
+
+  Cerquin, province, 4, 5, 34
+
+  _Chac Mool_, 31
+
+  _Chacuaco_, 10
+
+  Chalcatongo, 40
+
+  _Chalchihuitl_, 39, 46, 47
+
+  Chalcos, 12
+
+  Chalma, place, 38
+
+  _Chanes_, 49
+
+  CHARNAY, D., 13
+
+  Chi, Andres, 31
+
+  Chi, Cecilio, 30
+
+  Chichimecs, 7, 54
+
+  _Chilan Balam_, 31, 45
+
+  Chontales, 17, 32
+
+  Chorti dialect, 5 n.
+
+  Chotas, tribe, 41
+
+  Clairvoyance, 9
+
+  _Coamizagual_, 34
+
+  _Coanamoa_, 41
+
+  Coatlan, 40
+
+  _Coaxihuitl_, 8
+
+  _Cohuacihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Cohuatl_, sign of, 49 n.
+
+  Codex cruciformis, 48
+
+  COHEN, H., 45
+
+  Copan, ruins of, 5 n.
+
+  _Copavitoos_, 30
+
+  CORDOVA, J., 14, 15
+
+  COTO, P., 23, 35, 42
+
+  Coyopy, king, 15
+
+  _Cozaana_, 38, 50
+
+  Cross, as symbol, 42, 43, 48
+
+  Cuculchan, 17, 19, 42
+
+
+  "Dark House," the, 38, 39
+
+  Dawn, as deity, 41
+
+  Dionysos Pyrigenes, 45
+
+  DELPINO, 26
+
+  Drum, the sacred, 31, 38
+
+  Drunkenness, god of, 44
+
+  DURAN, D., 44, 45, 48
+
+
+  Earth, as deity, 41, 53
+
+  "Essays of an Americanist," 4, 31, 45, 49, 50
+
+
+  FERGUSON, DAVID, 55
+
+  "Field mass," the, 25
+
+  Fingers, names for, 54
+
+  Fire worship, 28, 43, 45, 53, 54
+
+  Four Winds, Lord of, 43
+
+  Frog, symbol, 46
+
+  FUENSANTA DEL VALLE, 9
+
+  FUENTES Y GUZMAN, 22, 35
+
+
+  GAGE, THOMAS, 24, 39
+
+  GAGERN, C., 10
+
+  Galindo, Ig., 35
+
+  "Ghost dance" of Mayas, 31
+
+  Gnosis, the, 57
+
+  Goupil collection, 48
+
+  Green stones, 46
+
+  _Gspoxil_, 20
+
+  Guatemala, 24, 39
+
+  Gucumatz, king, 24, 42
+
+
+  Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  "Heart of the Hills", 41, 46
+
+  "Heart of the Maguey", 41
+
+  "Heart of the Towns", 38, 39, 47
+
+  HERNANDEZ, F., 7, 10, 28, 43
+
+  HERRERA, A. DE, 4, 5, 11, 16, 33, 34, 40, 42
+
+  _Hicalahau_, 21, 39
+
+  "Hoddentin", 44
+
+  HOLMES, W. H., 48
+
+  Honduras, 4, 34
+
+  Huasteca dialect, 58
+
+  Huehuetan, town, 28, 39
+
+  _Huehueteotl_, 46
+
+  _Huijatoos_, 30
+
+
+  _Ical ahau_, 21, 39
+
+  IGLESIAS, A., 13
+
+  Inquisition, the, 54
+
+  Intoxicants, 7, 9
+
+  Istlavacan, town, 25
+
+
+  Jadeite, 46
+
+  JUARROS, P., 36
+
+  Justlahuaca, 41
+
+
+  _Kab_, the hand, 54
+
+  KINGSBOROUGH, Lord, 48
+
+
+  LABARTHE, CH., 12
+
+  Lacandons, tribe, 59
+
+  LANDA, D., 49
+
+  LARA, P., 19, 20
+
+  LEON, Dr. N., 9
+
+  LEON, N. DE, 6, 43, 45
+
+  Life, ideogram of, 48
+
+  Life, tree of, 48
+
+  Lingam, the, 49
+
+
+  Maguey, Heart of the, 41
+
+  _Maitl_, the Hand, as deity, 54
+
+  MALER, T., 35, 47
+
+  Mallinalco, town, 34, 38
+
+  MANSO DE CONTRERAS, 32
+
+  Mappe Quinantzin[TN-19], 48
+
+  MARIA DE MOXO, B., 29, 49
+
+  MAURY, A., 60, 61
+
+  Mayan stock, 5, 16, 24
+
+  Mayas, 9, 20, 25, 45
+
+  Mayas, revolts of, 30, 31
+
+  Mexican language, 5
+
+  Michoacan, 10
+
+  Milky Way, as deity, 53
+
+  _Mixcohuatl_, 19
+
+  Mixes, tribe, 13, 17, 32, 42
+
+  Mixtecs, tribe, 15, 16
+
+  MOLINA, A., 6
+
+  Monopostiac, Cerro de, 41
+
+  MONTJAU, M., 27
+
+  MORO, Sr., 14
+
+  MOTOLINIA, P., 42
+
+  MUeHLENPFORDT, E., 13
+
+  Mushrooms, intoxicating, 28
+
+
+  _Na_, the root, 5, 11 n.[TN-20] 57
+
+  NAGELE, A., 49
+
+  Nagual, 4, 11, 17, 22, 58
+
+  Nagualism, 4, 16
+
+  Nagualist, 4, 17, 18
+
+  _Nahual_. See _Naualli_.
+
+  _Nahualtia_, 58
+
+  Nahuatl language, 5, 12, 14, 41, 46, 57, 58
+
+  _Nana hualtin_, 5, 6, 10
+
+  Nanahuatl, a deity, 54
+
+  _Naualac_, 13
+
+  _Naualcuauhtla_, 12
+
+  _Naualli_, 5, 10, 11, 12, 57, 58
+
+  _Nauallotl_, 5, 57
+
+  _Naualteteuctin_, 12
+
+  Navajas, Cerro de las, 49
+
+  Nayerit, Sierra de, 41
+
+  Nezahualpilli, king, 34
+
+  Nine, sacred number, 41
+
+  Noh, god of reason, 56
+
+  NUNEZ, DE LA VEGA, 16, 28, 29, 33, 42
+
+
+  Oaxaca, province, 14, 32, 47
+
+  _Octli_, 32, 44
+
+  _Ololiuhqui_, 7, 8, 9
+
+  ORDONEZ Y AGUIAR, 29, 36
+
+  OROZCO Y BERRA, 10, 14, 31
+
+  OVIEDO, 50
+
+  Oxchuc, town, 21
+
+  _Oztoteotl_, 38
+
+
+  Padrinos, 26
+
+  Pah-Ahtuns, deities, 9
+
+  Pantecatl, deity, 50
+
+  PAREDES, IG., 10
+
+  Pascual, Don, 32
+
+  PASO Y TRONCOSO, 7
+
+  _Patzlan_, 20
+
+  _Payni_, 9
+
+  PELAEZ, G., 36
+
+  _Pellote_, 7
+
+  PEREZ, P., 45
+
+  Personal spirit, 11, 13
+
+  _Peyotl_, the, 6-10
+
+  Phallus, symbol, 49
+
+  _Picietl_, 9
+
+  PIMENTEL, F., 11
+
+  PINEDA, E., 26, 50, 59
+
+  Pinopiaa, goddess, 55
+
+  _Piochtli_, 32
+
+  Pipils, tribe, 33, 42
+
+  PISA, B. DE, 40
+
+  Pokonchis, tribe, 24
+
+  _Popol Vuh_, the, 24
+
+  Popoluca language, 17
+
+  _Pox_, 20
+
+  _Poxlon_, 20
+
+  _Poxta vanegs_, 20
+
+  PUERTO, M., 31
+
+
+  _Quauhcihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Quauhnanacatl_, 28 n.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 12, 19, 26, 32, 41, 42, 43 n.
+
+  Quiche language, 20, 23, 55, 56
+
+  Quiches, tribe, 24, 25
+
+  Quiegolani, deity, 47
+
+  _Quilaztli_, 34
+
+  _Quiz_, 19
+
+
+  Reason, god of, 56
+
+  "Restitution of the _tonal_", 12, 52
+
+  RIOS, PEDRO DE LOS, 49
+
+
+  SAHAGUN, B., 5, 6, 7, 11, 34, 43, 46
+
+  SANCHEZ, J., 58
+
+  San Francisco del Mar, 41
+
+  "Scalp-lock," the, 32
+
+  SCHERZER, C., 25
+
+  SELER, E., 38
+
+  SERNA, J., 9, 28, 29, 32, 34, 43, 44, 49, 52
+
+  Serpent of the Clouds, 19
+
+  Serpent, plant, 8
+
+  Serpent, feathered, 12, 19, 42
+
+  Serpent, which seizes, 41 n.
+
+  Serpent, symbol, 49
+
+  Seven, sacred number, 25, 42
+
+  SIMEON, R., 11
+
+  Slavery of Indians, 28 n.
+
+  Smoke, divining by, 10 n.
+
+  Snake, symbol. See Serpent.
+
+  Soteapan, 13, 41
+
+  SPINA, V. H., 51
+
+  SQUIER, E. G., 33, 36, 47
+
+  STOLL, O., 26, 55
+
+  Stone, as deity, 41
+
+  "_Sukia_ woman", 36
+
+  "Sun Mountain", 40
+
+  Sun, name of, 54
+
+
+  Tapirs, sacred, 39
+
+  TARAYRE, G., 50
+
+  _Ta Te_, 41
+
+  _Ta Yoapa_, 41
+
+  _Teciuhtlazque_, 6
+
+  Telepathy, 9
+
+  _Tenextlecietl_, 9
+
+  _Teopatli_, 8
+
+  _Teotlauice_, 12
+
+  Teozapotlan, 29
+
+  Tepeololtec deity, 42
+
+  _Tepeyollotl_, 38, 41
+
+  Teremendo, town, 40
+
+  _Teteuctin_, 12
+
+  _Tetonaltiani_, 12
+
+  _Teyhuinti_, 28
+
+  Tezcatzoncatl, deity, 44
+
+  _Thiuimeezque_, 10
+
+  Three, sacred number, 41
+
+  "Thunder stone", 42
+
+  _T'ich_, 25
+
+  Tiger dance, the, 31
+
+  _Tlachixqui_, Seer, 9
+
+  _Tlahuipuchtin_, 10 n.
+
+  Tlaloc, deity, 42
+
+  _Tlapiani_, 30, 39
+
+  Tlascala, Sierra de, 40
+
+  _Tlatoques_, 14
+
+  Tlazoaloyan, 33, 39
+
+  Tlazolteotl, deity, 50
+
+  _Tlecuixtliliztli_, 44
+
+  _Tlilancalqui_, 39 n.
+
+  Tobacco, 8, 9, 53, 54
+
+  _Tonal, tonalli_, 11, 15 n., 42, 52, 60
+
+  _Tonalcaualtia_, 12
+
+  _Tonalitlacoa_, 12
+
+  _Tonalpouhque_, 11
+
+  _Tonantzin_, 34
+
+  _Topiltzin_, 41
+
+  TORQUEMADA, P., 27, 30, 36
+
+  TORRES CASTILLO, 32
+
+  _To Ta_, 41, 46, 48
+
+  Totomachiapa, 40
+
+  Totonicapan, 22, 28
+
+  Tree, sacred, 31, 47
+
+  Tree of the Cross, 42
+
+  Tree of Life, 48
+
+  Tres Micos, 16
+
+  Trinity, the native, 41
+
+  Triplets, 19, 31
+
+  Tzentals, tribe, 16, 19, 21, 32, 33
+
+  _Tzihuizin_, 20
+
+  _Tzitzime_, the, 34 n.
+
+  _Tzitzimecihuatl_, 34
+
+
+  _Uirapircos_, 10 n.
+
+  _U-q'ux-Uleuh_, 38
+
+
+  VENEGAS, P., 10
+
+  Venus Impudica, 50
+
+  Vera Cruz, 13, 26
+
+  VETANCURT, A., 8, 32, 39, 44
+
+  VILLA SENOR Y SANCHEZ, 40
+
+  Votan, 33, 38, 41
+
+
+  WARD, S. A., 33
+
+  Water, divination by, 6
+
+  Water, as deity, 53, 54
+
+  Were-wolf, 59
+
+  Wisdom, goddess of, 56
+
+  Witches, 10
+
+  "Witches' Sabbaths", 48
+
+
+  _Xihuitl_, 46 n.
+
+  _Xihuitzin_, 20
+
+  XIMENES, FRANCISCO, 43
+
+  XIMENES, P., 20
+
+  _Xiquipilli_, 42
+
+  _Xiuhtecutli_, 20, 46
+
+  _Xochimilca_, 30
+
+
+  _Yahuiltoca_, 43
+
+  Yanhuitlan, town, 16
+
+  _Yaocihuatl_, 34
+
+  _Yax che_, 47
+
+  _Yax ha_, 9
+
+  _Yiahuitli_, the, 43
+
+  _Yollometli_, 41
+
+  Yoni symbols, 50
+
+  _Ytzamatl_, 47
+
+  Yucatan, 9, 25, 30
+
+
+  Zahoris, 26
+
+  Zamayac, town, 28, 29
+
+  Zapotecs, tribe, 14, 15, 32, 37, 38, 40, 47
+
+  ZETINA, 9
+
+  _Z me quiz_, 19
+
+  Zotzils, revolt of, 35, 47
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+The following typographical errors and inconsistencies have been
+maintained in this version of the book.
+
+Typographical errors:
+
+  Page  Error
+  TN-1  Fn. 14-[+]  The footnote marker was missing in the original text.
+                    It has been inserted based on context.
+  TN-2  19   centipedes, etc, should read centipedes, etc.,
+  TN-3  39   black as negroes should read black as negroes.
+  TN-4  43   sick room should read sick room.
+  TN-5  52   speak to thee should read speak to thee.
+  TN-6  58   corrollary should read corollary
+  TN-7  Fn. 7-*     Nacional should read Nacional
+  TN-8  Fn. 9-*     Min stros should read Ministros
+  TN-9  Fn. 11-[+]  Simeon should read Simeon
+  TN-10 Fn. 14-[+]  exico should read Mexico
+  TN-11 Fn. 17-*    enigmaticas" should read enigmaticas."
+  TN-12 Fn. 27-*    Americaine should read Americaine
+  TN-13 Fn. 30-[+]  Historicos should read Historicos
+  TN-14 Fn. 40-[+]  Espanal should read Espanol
+  TN-15 Fn. 42-[P]  'Senor should read "Senor
+  TN-16 Fn. 47-[++] Revue should read Revue
+  TN-17 Fn. 55-[+]  Oaxaqueno should read Oaxaqueno
+  TN-18  61   Andree should read Andree
+  TN-19 63   Quinantzin should read Quinatzin
+  TN-20 63   11 n. should read 11 n.,
+
+The following words were inconsistently spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  Bartholome / Bartholome
+  Dioecesanas / Diocesanas / Diocesan
+  Gucumatz / Gukumatz
+  Moxo / Moxo / Moxo
+  Quiche / Quiche
+  Quiches / Quiches
+  supra / supra
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nagualism, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
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