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diff --git a/26319-0.txt b/26319-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0db17d0 --- /dev/null +++ b/26319-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,15745 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Text-Book of the History of Architecture, by Alfred D. F. Hamlin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: A Text-Book of the History of Architecture + Seventh Edition, revised + +Author: Alfred D. F. Hamlin + +Release Date: August 15, 2008 [eBook #26319] +[Most recently updated: October 28, 2023] + +Language: English + +Produced by: Louise Hope, Joseph R. Hauser and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE *** + + + + +[This text uses utf-8 (unicode) file encoding. If the apostrophes and +quotation marks in this paragraph appear as garbage, make sure your +text reader’s “character set” or “file encoding” is set to Unicode +(UTF-8). You may also need to change the default font. As a last +resort, use the latin-1 version of the file instead. + +Errors and inconsistencies, including details about some place names, +are listed at the end of the e-text. Spelling variations are as in the +original.] + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + + COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART + + Edited By + JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. + + * * * + + HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE + A. D. F. Hamlin + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + + COLLEGE HISTORIES OF ART + + Edited By + + JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. + + Professor of the History of Art + in Rutgers College + + * * * + + HISTORY OF PAINTING + +By JOHN C. VAN DYKE, the Editor of the Series. With Frontispiece +and 110 Illustrations, Bibliographies, and Index. Crown 8vo, $1.50. + + HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE + +By ALFRED D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. Adjunct Professor of Architecture, +Columbia College, New York. With Frontispiece and 229 Illustrations +and Diagrams, Bibliographies, Glossary, Index of Architects, and +a General Index. Crown 8vo, $2.00. + + HISTORY OF SCULPTURE + +By ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. and ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., +Ph.D., Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton +University. With Frontispiece and 112 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, $1.50. + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + + [Illustration: THE PARTHENON, ATHENS, AS RESTORED BY CH. CHIPIEZ. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)] + + + + + A TEXT-BOOK + + of the + + HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE + + + by + + A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M. + + Professor of the History of Architecture + in the School of Architecture, + Columbia University + + + SEVENTH EDITION + Revised + + + LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. + 91 and 93 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK + London, Bombay, and Calcutta + 1909 + + + + + Copyright, 1895, by + LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. + + _All rights reserved._ + + First Edition, March, 1896 + Printed and Revised, December, 1896. + December, 1898 (Revised) + October, 1900 (Revised) + October, 1902 (Revised) + September, 1904, June, 1906 (Revised). + November, 1907 (Revised) + January, 1909 + + Press of J. J. Little & Ives Co. + 425-435 East 24th Street, New York + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The aim of this work has been to sketch the various periods and styles +of architecture with the broadest possible strokes, and to mention, +with such brief characterization as seemed permissible or necessary, +the most important works of each period or style. Extreme condensation +in presenting the leading facts of architectural history has been +necessary, and much that would rightly claim place in a larger work has +been omitted here. The danger was felt to be rather in the direction of +too much detail than of too little. While the book is intended primarily +to meet the special requirements of the college student, those of the +general reader have not been lost sight of. The majority of the +technical terms used are defined or explained in the context, and the +small remainder in a glossary at the end of the work. Extended criticism +and minute description were out of the question, and discussion of +controverted points has been in consequence as far as possible avoided. + +The illustrations have been carefully prepared with a view to +elucidating the text, rather than for pictorial effect. With the +exception of some fifteen cuts reproduced from Lübke’s _Geschichte der +Architektur_ (by kind permission of Messrs. Seemann, of Leipzig), the +illustrations are almost all entirely new. A large number are from +original drawings made by myself, or under my direction, and the +remainder are, with a few exceptions, half-tone reproductions prepared +specially for this work from photographs in my possession. +Acknowledgments are due to Messrs. H. W. Buemming, H. D. Bultman, and +A. E. Weidinger for valued assistance in preparing original drawings; +and to Professor W. R. Ware, to Professor W. H. Thomson, M.D., and to +the Editor of the Series for much helpful criticism and suggestion. + +It is hoped that the lists of monuments appended to the history of each +period down to the present century may prove useful for reference, both +to the student and the general reader, as a supplement to the body of +the text. + + A. D. F. HAMLIN. + + COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK, + January 20, 1896. + + +The author desires to express his further acknowledgments to the friends +who have at various times since the first appearance of this book called +his attention to errors in the text or illustrations, and to recent +advances in the art or in its archæology deserving of mention in +subsequent editions. As far as possible these suggestions have been +incorporated in the various revisions and reprints which have appeared +since the first publication. + + A. D. F. H. + + COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, + October 28, 1907. + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + + PAGE + Preface v + + List of Illustrations xi + + General Bibliography xix + + Introduction xxi + + CHAPTER I. + Primitive and Prehistoric Architecture 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Egyptian Architecture 6 + + CHAPTER III. + Egyptian Architecture, _Continued_ 16 + + CHAPTER IV. + Chaldæan and Assyrian Architecture 28 + + CHAPTER V. + Persian, Lycian, and Jewish Architecture 35 + + CHAPTER VI. + Greek Architecture 43 + + CHAPTER VII. + Greek Architecture, _Continued_ 60 + + CHAPTER VIII. + Roman Architecture 74 + + CHAPTER IX. + Roman Architecture, _Continued_ 88 + + CHAPTER X. + Early Christian Architecture 110 + + CHAPTER XI. + Byzantine Architecture 120 + + CHAPTER XII. + Sassanian and Mohammedan Architecture--Arabian, + Moresque, Persian, indian, and Turkish 135 + + CHAPTER XIII. + Early Mediæval Architecture in Italy and France 155 + + CHAPTER XIV. + Early Mediæval Architecture in Germany, + Great Britain, and Spain 172 + + CHAPTER XV. + Gothic Architecture 182 + + CHAPTER XVI. + Gothic Architecture in France 196 + + CHAPTER XVII. + Gothic Architecture in Great Britain 218 + + CHAPTER XVIII. + Gothic Architecture in Germany, the Netherlands, + and Spain 237 + + CHAPTER XIX. + Gothic Architecture in Italy 254 + + CHAPTER XX. + Early Renaissance Architecture in Italy 270 + + CHAPTER XXI. + Renaissance Architecture in Italy--The Advanced + Renaissance and Decline 288 + + CHAPTER XXII. + Renaissance Architecture in France 308 + + CHAPTER XXIII. + Renaissance Architecture in Great Britain + and the Netherlands 326 + + CHAPTER XXIV. + Renaissance Architecture in Germany, Spain, + and Portugal 338 + + CHAPTER XXV. + The Classic Revivals in Europe 354 + + CHAPTER XXVI. + Recent Architecture in Europe 368 + + CHAPTER XXVII. + Architecture in the United States 383 + + CHAPTER XXVIII. + Oriental Architecture--India, China, and Japan 401 + + Appendix 417 + + Glossary 429 + + Index of Architects 431 + + Index 435 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +The authorship of the original drawings is indicated by the initials +affixed: A. = drawings by the author; B. = H. W. Buemming; Bn. = H. D. +Bultman; Ch. = Château, _L’Architecture en France_; G. = drawings +adapted from Gwilt’s _Encyclopædia of Architecture_; L. = Lübke’s +_Geschichte der Architektur_; W. = A. E. Weidinger. All other +illustrations are from photographs. + + PAGE + + FRONTISPIECE. The Parthenon Restored + (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) + 1 Section of Great Pyramid (A.) 8 + 2 Section of King’s Chamber (A.) 9 + 3 Plan of Sphinx Temple (A.) 9 + 4 Ruins of Sphinx Temple (A.) 10 + 5 Tomb at Abydos (A.) 11 + 6 Tomb at Beni-Hassan (A.) 11 + 7 Section and Half-plan of same (A.) 12 + 8 Plan of the Ramesseum (A.) 14 + 9 Temple of Edfou. Plan (B.) 17 + 10 Temple of Edfou. Section (B.) 17 + 11 Temple of Karnak. Plan (L.) 18 + 12 Central Portion of Hypostyle Hall at Karnak + (from model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 20 + 13 Great Temple of Ipsamboul 21 + 14 Edfou. Front of Hypostyle Hall 23 + 15 Osirid Pier (Medinet Abou) (A.) 24 + 16 Types of Column (A.) 25 + 17 Egyptian Floral Ornament-Forms (A.) 26 + 18 Palace of Sargon at Khorsabad. Plan (L.) 30 + 19 Gate, Khorsabad (A.) 32 + 20 Assyrian Ornament (A.) 34 + 21 Column from Persepolis (B.) 37 + 22 Lion Gate at Mycenæ (A.) 44 + 23 Polygonal Masonry, Mycenæ (A.) 45 + 24 Tholos of Atreus; Plan and Section (A.) 46 + 25 Tholos of Atreus, Doorway (after Clarke) (A.) 46 + 26 Greek Doric Order (A.) 48 + 27 Doric Order of the Parthenon. + (From cast in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 49 + 28 Greek Ionic Order, Miletus (A.) 51 + 29 Side View of Ionic Capital (B.) 52 + 30 Greek Corinthian Order (A.) 53 + 31 Types of Greek Temple Plans (A.) 54 + 32 Carved Anthemion Ornament, Athens 57 + 33 Temple of Zeus, Agrigentum; Plan (A.) 61 + 34 Ruins of the Parthenon 63 + 35 Plan of the Erechtheum (A.) 64 + 36 West End of the Erechtheum (A.) 64 + 37 Propylæa at Athens. Plan (G.) 65 + 38 Choragic Monument of Lysicrates. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 67 + 39 Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens. Plan (A.) 68 + 40 Plan of Greek Theatre (A.) 70 + 41 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (A.) 72 + 42 Roman Doric Order from Theatre of Marcellus. + (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 77 + 43 Roman Ionic Order (A.) 78 + 44 Roman Corinthian Order. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 79 + 45 Roman Arcade with Engaged Columns (A.) 80 + 46 Barrel Vault (A.) 81 + 47 Groined Vault (A.) 81 + 48 Roman Wall Masonry (B.) 83 + 49 Roman Carved Ornament. (Lateran Museum) 85 + 50 Roman Ceiling Panels (A.) 86 + 51 Temple of Fortuna Virilis. Plan 89 + 52 Circular Temple, Tivoli (A.) 90 + 53 Temple of Venus and Rome. Plan (A.) 93 + 54 Plan of the Pantheon (B.) 94 + 55 Interior of the Pantheon 95 + 56 Exterior of the Pantheon. + (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 96 + 57 Forum and Basilica of Trajan (A.) 97 + 58 Basilica of Constantine. Plan (G.) 98 + 59 Ruins of Basilica of Constantine 99 + 60 Central Block, Thermæ of Caracalla. Plan (G.) 100 + 61 Roman Theatre, Herculanum 101 + 62 Colosseum at Rome. Half Plan (A.) 102 + 63 Arch of Constantine. + (Model in Metropolitan Museum, New York) 104 + 64 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato. Plan (G.) 106 + 65 Plan of House of Pansa, Pompeii (A.) 107 + 66 Plan of Santa Costanza, Rome (A.) 111 + 67 Plan of the Basilica of + St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, Rome (A.) 113 + 68 St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls. Interior 114 + 69 Church at Kalb Louzeh (A.) 116 + 70 Cathedral at Bozrah. Plan (A.) 117 + 71 Diagram of Pendentives (A.) 123 + 72 Spandril, Hagia Sophia 125 + 73 Capital with Impost Block, S. Vitale 126 + 74 Plan of St. Sergius, Constantinople (A.) 127 + 75 Plan of Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (A.) 128 + 76 Section of Hagia Sophia (A.) 128 + 77 Interior of Hagia Sophia (full page) 129 + 78 Plan of St. Mark’s, Venice (A.) 132 + 79 Interior of St. Mark’s 133 + 80 Mosque of Sultan Hassan, Cairo. Sanctuary 137 + 81 Mosque of Kaîd Bey, Cairo 139 + 82 Moorish Detail, Alhambra 141 + 83 Interior of Great Mosque, Cordova 142 + 84 Plan of the Alhambra (A.) 144 + 85 Tomb of Mahmûd, Bijapur. Section (A.) 147 + 86 The Taj Mahal, Agra 149 + 87 Mosque of Mehmet II., Constantinople. Plan (L.) 151 + 88 Exterior of Ahmediyeh Mosque, Constantinople 152 + 89 Interior of Suleimaniyeh Mosque, Constantinople 153 + 90 Interior of San Ambrogio, Milan 157 + 91 West Front and Campanile, Cathedral of Piacenza 158 + 92 Baptistery, Cathedral, and Leaning Tower, Pisa 160 + 93 Interior of Pisa Cathedral 161 + 94 Plan of St. Front, Perigueux (G.) 164 + 95 Interior of St. Front (L.) 165 + 96 Plan of Notre Dame du Port, Clermont (Ch.) 166 + 97 Section of same (Ch.) 166 + 98 A Six-part Ribbed Vault (A.) 167 + 99 Plan of Minster at Worms (G.) 173 + 100 One Bay, Cathedral of Spires (L.) 174 + 101 East End, Church of the Apostles, Cologne 175 + 102 Plan of Durham Cathedral (Bn.) 177 + 103 One Bay, Transept of Winchester Cathedral (G.) 178 + 104 Front of Iffley Church (A.) 179 + 105 Constructive System of Gothic Church (A.) 183 + 106 Plan of Sainte Chapelle, Paris (Bn.) 184 + 107 Early Gothic Flying Buttress (Bn.) 185 + 108 Ribbed Vault, English Type (Bn. after Babcock) 186 + 109 Penetrations and Intersections of Vaults (Bn.) 187 + 110 Plate Tracery, Charlton-on-Oxmore 188 + 111 Bar Tracery, St. Michael’s, Warfield (W.) 189 + 112 Rose Window from St. Ouen, Rouen (G.) 190 + 113 Flamboyant Detail, Strasburg 191 + 114 Early Gothic Carving (A.) 192 + 115 Carving, Decorated Period, from Southwell Minster 193 + 116 Plan of Notre Dame, Paris (L.) 198 + 117 Interior of Notre Dame 199 + 118 Interior of Le Mans Cathedral 200 + 119 Vaulting with Zigzag Ridge Joints (A.) 201 + 120 One Bay, Abbey of St. Denis (G.) 203 + 121 The Sainte Chapelle, Paris. Exterior 204 + 122 Amiens Cathedral; Plan (G.) 205 + 123 Alby Cathedral. Plan (A. after Lübke) 206 + 124 West Front of Notre Dame, Paris 207 + 125 West Front of St. Maclou, Rouen 208 + 126 French Gothic Capitals (A.) 210 + 127 House of Jacques Cœur, Bourges (L.) 215 + 128 Plan of Salisbury Cathedral (Bn.) 219 + 129 Ribbed Vaulting, Choir of Exeter Cathedral 221 + 130 Lierne Vaulting, Tewkesbury Abbey 222 + 131 Vault of Chapter House, Wells 223 + 132 Cloisters of Salisbury Cathedral 225 + 133 Perpendicular Tracery, St. George’s, Windsor 226 + 134 West Front, Lichfield Cathedral 228 + 135 One Bay of Choir, Lichfield Cathedral (A.) 229 + 136 Fan Vaulting, Henry VII.’s Chapel 231 + 137 Eastern Part, Westminster Abbey. Plan (L.) 232 + 138 Roof of Nave, St. Mary’s, Westonzoyland (W.) 233 + 139 One Bay, Cathedral of St. George, Limburg (L.) 239 + 140 Section of St. Elizabeth, Marburg (Bn.) 240 + 141 Cologne Cathedral, Plan (G.) 242 + 142 Church of Our Lady, Treves (L.) 243 + 143 Plan of Ulm Cathedral (L.) 244 + 144 Town Hall, Louvain 247 + 145 Façade of Burgos Cathedral 249 + 146 Detail from S. Gregorio, Valladolid 251 + 147 Duomo at Florence, Plan (G.) 256 + 148 Duomo at Florence, Nave 257 + 149 One Bay, Cathedral of S. Martino, Lucca (L.) 258 + 150 Interior of Sienna Cathedral 259 + 151 Façade of Sienna Cathedral 261 + 152 Exterior of the Certosa, Pavia 262 + 153 Plan of the Certosa, Pavia 263 + 154 Upper Part of Campanile, Florence 265 + 155 Upper Part of Palazzo Vecchio, Florence 266 + 156 Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence 267 + 157 West Front of Doge’s Palace, Venice 268 + 158 Capital, Palazzo Zorzi, Venice 275 + 159 Section of Dome, Duomo of Florence (Bn.) 276 + 160 Exterior of Dome, Duomo of Florence 277 + 161 Interior of S. Spirito, Florence 278 + 162 Court of Riccardi Palace, Florence 279 + 163 Façade of Strozzi Palace, Florence 280 + 164 Tomb of Pietro di Noceto, Lucca 282 + 165 Vendramini Palace, Venice 285 + 166 Façade of Giraud Palace, Rome (L.) 290 + 167 Plan of Farnese Palace, Rome (L.) 292 + 168 Court of Farnese Palace, Rome 293 + 169 Bramante’s Plan for St. Peter’s, Rome (L.) 294 + 170 Plan of St. Peter’s, Rome, as now standing + (Bn. after G.) 295 + 171 Interior of St. Peter’s (full page) 297 + 172 Library of St. Mark, Venice 301 + 173 Interior of San Severo, Naples 302 + 174 Church of Santa Maria della Salute, Naples 303 + 175 Court Façade, East Wing of Blois 311 + 176 Staircase Tower, Blois 313 + 177 Plan of Château of Chambord (A.) 314 + 178 Upper Part of Château of Chambord 314 + 179 Detail of Court of Louvre, southwest portion 315 + 180 The Luxemburg Palace, Paris 318 + 181 Colonnade of the Louvre 321 + 182 Dome of the Invalides, Paris 322 + 183 Façade of St. Sulpice, Paris 323 + 184 Burghley House 327 + 185 Whitehall Palace. The Banqueting Hall 329 + 186 Plan of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London (G.) 330 + 187 Exterior of St. Paul’s Cathedral 331 + 188 Plan of Blenheim (G.) 332 + 189 St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, London 333 + 190 Renaissance Houses, Brussels 335 + 191 The Castle, Hämelschenburg 341 + 192 The Friedrichsbau, Heidelberg Castle 344 + 193 Pavilion of Zwinger Palace, Dresden 345 + 194 Marienkirche, Dresden 346 + 195 Portal of University, Salamanca 349 + 196 Court (Patio) of Casa de Zaporta 350 + 197 Palace of Charles V., Granada 351 + 198 Façade of British Museum, London 357 + 199 St. George’s Hall, Liverpool 358 + 200 The Old Museum, Berlin 359 + 201 The Propylæa, Munich 360 + 202 Plan of the Panthéon, Paris (G.) 361 + 203 Exterior of the Panthéon 362 + 204 Arch of Triumph of l’Étoile, Paris 363 + 205 The Madeleine, Paris 364 + 206 Door of École des Beaux-Arts, Paris 365 + 207 St. Isaac’s Cathedral, St. Petersburg 366 + 208 Plan of Louvre and Tuileries (A.) 371 + 209 Pavilion Richelieu, Louvre 372 + 210 Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House 373 + 211 Fountain of Longchamps, Marseilles 374 + 212 Galliéra Museum, Paris 375 + 213 Royal Theatre, Dresden 376 + 214 Maria-Theresienhof, Vienna 377 + 215 Houses of Parliament, London 379 + 216 Assize Courts, Manchester 380 + 217 Natural History Museum, South Kensington 381 + 218 Christ Church, Philadelphia 386 + 219 Craigie House, Cambridge (Mass.) 387 + 220 National Capitol, Washington 389 + 221 Custom House, New York 390 + 222 Trinity Church, Boston 394 + 223 Public Library, Woburn (Mass.) 395 + 224 Times Building, New York 396 + 225 Country House (Mass.) 398 + 226 Porch of Temple of Vimalah Sah, Mount Abu. 406 + 227 Tower of Victory, Chittore 407 + 228 Double Temple at Hullabîd: Detail 410 + 229 Shrine of Soubramanya, Tanjore 412 + + + + +GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. + + +(This includes the leading architectural works treating of more than one +period or style. The reader should consult also the special references +at the head of each chapter. Valuable material is also contained in the +leading architectural periodicals and in monographs too numerous to +mention.) + + +DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS. + +Agincourt, _History of Art by its Monuments_; London. + +Architectural Publication Society, _Dictionary of Architecture_; London. + +Bosc, _Dictionnaire raisonné d’architecture_; Paris. + +Durm and others, _Handbuch der Architektur_; Stuttgart. (This is an +encyclopedic compendium of architectural knowledge in many volumes; the +series not yet complete. It is referred to as the _Hdbuch. d. Arch._) + +Gwilt, _Encyclopedia of Architecture_; London. + +Longfellow and Frothingham, _Cyclopedia of Architecture in Italy and the +Levant_; New York. + +Planat, _Encyclopédie d’architecture_; Paris. + +Sturgis, _Dictionary of Architecture and Building_; New York. + + +GENERAL HANDBOOKS AND HISTORIES. + +Bühlmann, _Die Architektur des klassischen Alterthums und der +Renaissance_; Stuttgart. (Also in English, published in New York.) + +Choisy, _Histoire de l’architecture_; Paris. + +Durand, _Recueil et parallèle d’édifices de tous genres_; Paris. + +Fergusson, _History of Architecture in All Countries_; London. + +Fletcher and Fletcher, _A History of Architecture_; London. + +Gailhabaud, _L’Architecture du Vme. au XVIIIme. siècle_; +Paris.--_Monuments anciens et modernes_; Paris. + +Kugler, _Geschichte der Baukunst_; Stuttgart. + +Longfellow, _The Column and the Arch_; New York. + +Lübke, _Geschichte der Architektur_; Leipzig.--_History of Art_, tr. and +rev. by R. Sturgis; New York. + +Perry, _Chronology of Mediæval and Renaissance Architecture_; London. + +Reynaud, _Traité d’architecture_; Paris. + +Rosengarten, _Handbook of Architectural Styles_; London and New York. + +Simpson, _A History of Architectural Development_; London. + +Spiers, _Architecture East and West_; London. + +Stratham, _Architecture for General Readers_; London. + +Sturgis, _European Architecture_; New York. + +_Transactions of the Royal Institute of British Architects_; London. + +Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on Architecture_; Boston. + + +THEORY, THE ORDERS, ETC. + +Chambers, _A Treatise on Civil Architecture_; London. + +Daviler, _Cours d’architecture de Vignole_; Paris. + +Esquié, _Traité élémentaire d’architecture_; Paris. + +Guadet, _Théorie de l’architecture_; Paris. + +Robinson, _Principles of Architectural Composition_; New York. + +Ruskin, _The Seven Lamps of Architecture_; London. + +Sturgis, _How to Judge Architecture_; New York. + +Tuckerman, _Vignola, the Five Orders of Architecture_; New York. + +Van Brunt, _Greek Lines and Other Essays_; Boston. + +Van Pelt, _A Discussion of Composition_. + +Ware, _The American Vignola_; Scranton. + + + + +HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE. + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +A history of architecture is a record of man’s efforts to build +beautifully. The erection of structures devoid of beauty is mere +building, a trade and not an art. Edifices in which strength and +stability alone are sought, and in designing which only utilitarian +considerations have been followed, are properly works of engineering. +Only when the idea of beauty is added to that of use does a structure +take its place among works of architecture. We may, then, define +architecture as the art which seeks to harmonize in a building the +requirements of utility and of beauty. It is the most useful of the fine +arts and the noblest of the useful arts. It touches the life of man at +every point. It is concerned not only in sheltering his person and +ministering to his comfort, but also in providing him with places for +worship, amusement, and business; with tombs, memorials, embellishments +for his cities, and other structures for the varied needs of a complex +civilization. It engages the services of a larger portion of the +community and involves greater outlays of money than any other +occupation except agriculture. Everyone at some point comes in contact +with the work of the architect, and from this universal contact +architecture derives its significance as an index of the civilization of +an age, a race, or a people. + +It is the function of the historian of architecture to trace the origin, +growth, and decline of the architectural styles which have prevailed in +different lands and ages, and to show how they have reflected the great +movements of civilization. The migrations, the conquests, the +commercial, social, and religious changes among different peoples have +all manifested themselves in the changes of their architecture, and it +is the historian’s function to show this. It is also his function to +explain the principles of the styles, their characteristic forms and +decoration, and to describe the great masterpieces of each style and +period. + + ++STYLE+ is a quality; the “historic styles” are phases of development. +_Style_ is character expressive of definite conceptions, as of grandeur, +gaiety, or solemnity. An _historic style_ is the particular phase, the +characteristic manner of design, which prevails at a given time and +place. It is not the result of mere accident or caprice, but of +intellectual, moral, social, religious, and even political conditions. +Gothic architecture could never have been invented by the Greeks, nor +could the Egyptian styles have grown up in Italy. Each style is based +upon some fundamental principle springing from its surrounding +civilization, which undergoes successive developments until it either +reaches perfection or its possibilities are exhausted, after which a +period of decline usually sets in. This is followed either by a reaction +and the introduction of some radically new principle leading to the +evolution of a new style, or by the final decay and extinction of the +civilization and its replacement by some younger and more virile +element. Thus the history of architecture appears as a connected chain +of causes and effects succeeding each other without break, each style +growing out of that which preceded it, or springing out of the +fecundating contact of a higher with a lower civilization. To study +architectural styles is therefore to study a branch of the history of +civilization. + +Technically, architectural styles are identified by the means they +employ to cover enclosed spaces, by the characteristic forms of the +supports and other members (piers, columns, arches, mouldings, +traceries, etc.), and by their decoration. The +plan+ should receive +special attention, since it shows the arrangement of the points of +support, and hence the nature of the structural design. A comparison, +for example, of the plans of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak (Fig. 11, h) +and of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58) shows at once a radical +difference in constructive principle between the two edifices, and hence +a difference of style. + + ++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ All architecture is based on one or more of +three fundamental structural principles; that of the _lintel_, of the +_arch_ or _vault_, and of the _truss_. The principle of the +lintel+ is +that of resistance to transverse strains, and appears in all +construction in which a cross-piece or beam rests on two or more +vertical supports. The +arch+ or +vault+ makes use of several pieces to +span an opening between two supports. These pieces are in compression +and exert lateral pressures or _thrusts_ which are transmitted to the +supports or abutments. The thrust must be resisted either by the +massiveness of the abutments or by the opposition to it of +counter-thrusts from other arches or vaults. Roman builders used the +first, Gothic builders the second of these means of resistance. The ++truss+ is a framework so composed of several pieces of wood or metal +that each shall best resist the particular strain, whether of tension or +compression, to which it is subjected, the whole forming a compound beam +or arch. It is especially applicable to very wide spans, and is the most +characteristic feature of modern construction. How the adoption of one +or another of these principles affected the forms and even the +decoration of the various styles, will be shown in the succeeding +chapters. + + ++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ Geographically and chronologically, architecture +appears to have originated in the Nile valley. A second centre of +development is found in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, not +uninfluenced by the older Egyptian art. Through various channels the +Greeks inherited from both Egyptian and Assyrian art, the two influences +being discernible even through the strongly original aspect of Greek +architecture. The Romans in turn, adopting the external details of Greek +architecture, transformed its substance by substituting the Etruscan +arch for the Greek construction of columns and lintels. They developed a +complete and original system of construction and decoration and spread +it over the civilized world, which has never wholly outgrown or +abandoned it. + +With the fall of Rome and the rise of Constantinople these forms +underwent in the East another transformation, called the Byzantine, in +the development of Christian domical church architecture. In the North +and West, meanwhile, under the growing institutions of the papacy and of +the monastic orders and the emergence of a feudal civilization out of +the chaos of the Dark Ages, the constant preoccupation of architecture +was to evolve from the basilica type of church a vaulted structure, and +to adorn it throughout with an appropriate dress of constructive and +symbolic ornament. Gothic architecture was the outcome of this +preoccupation, and it prevailed throughout northern and western Europe +until nearly or quite the close of the fifteenth century. + +During this fifteenth century the Renaissance style matured in Italy, +where it speedily triumphed over Gothic fashions and produced a +marvellous series of civic monuments, palaces, and churches, adorned +with forms borrowed or imitated from classic Roman art. This influence +spread through Europe in the sixteenth century, and ran a course of two +centuries, after which a period of servile classicism was followed by a +rapid decline in taste. To this succeeded the eclecticism and confusion +of the nineteenth century, to which the rapid growth of new requirements +and development of new resources have largely contributed. + +In Eastern lands three great schools of architecture have grown up +contemporaneously with the above phases of Western art; one under the +influence of Mohammedan civilization, another in the Brahman and +Buddhist architecture of India, and the third in China and Japan. The +first of these is the richest and most important. Primarily inspired +from Byzantine art, always stronger on the decorative than on the +constructive side, it has given to the world the mosques and palaces of +Northern Africa, Moorish Spain, Persia, Turkey, and India. The other two +schools seem to be wholly unrelated to the first, and have no affinity +with the architecture of Western lands. + +Of Mexican, Central American, and South American architecture so little +is known, and that little is so remote in history and spirit from the +styles above enumerated, that it belongs rather to archæology than to +architectural history, and will not be considered in this work. + + +NOTE.--The reader’s attention is called to the Appendix to this volume, +in which are gathered some of the results of recent investigations and +of the architectural progress of the last few years which could not +readily be introduced into the text of this edition. The General +Bibliography and the lists of books recommended have been revised and +brought up to date. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +PRIMITIVE AND PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Desor, _Les constructions lacustres du lac de + Neufchatel_. Fergusson, _Rude Stone Monuments_. R. C. Hoare, + _Ancients Wiltshire_. Lyell, _The Antiquity of Man_. Lubbock, + _Prehistoric Times_. Nadaillac, _Prehistoric America_. Rougemont, + _L’age du Bronze_. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_. + + ++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ It is impossible to trace the early stages of the +process by which true architecture grew out of the first rude attempts +of man at building. The oldest existing monuments of architecture--those +of Chaldæa and Egypt--belong to an advanced civilization. The rude and +elementary structures built by savage and barbarous peoples, like the +Hottentots or the tribes of Central Africa, are not in themselves works +of architecture, nor is any instance known of the evolution of a +civilized art from such beginnings. So far as the monuments testify, no +savage people ever raised itself to civilization, and no primitive +method of building was ever developed into genuine architecture, except +by contact with some existing civilization of which it appropriated the +spirit, the processes, and the forms. How the earliest architecture came +into existence is as yet an unsolved problem. + + ++PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE+ is therefore a subject for the archæologist +rather than the historian of art, and needs here only the briefest +mention. If we may judge of the condition of the primitive races of +antiquity by that of the savage and barbarous peoples of our own time, +they required only the simplest kinds of buildings, though the purposes +which they served were the same as those of later times in civilized +communities. A hut or house for shelter, a shrine of some sort for +worship, a stockade for defence, a cairn or mound over the grave of the +chief or hero, were provided out of the simplest materials, and these +often of a perishable nature. Poles supplied the framework; wattles, +skins, or mud the walls; thatching or stamped earth the roof. Only the +simplest tools were needed for such elementary construction. There was +ingenuity and patient labor in work of this kind; but there was no +planning, no fitting together into a complex organism of varied +materials shaped with art and handled with science. Above all, there was +no progression toward higher ideals of fitness and beauty. Rudimentary +art displayed itself mainly in objects of worship, or in carvings on +canoes and weapons, executed as talismans to ward off misfortune or to +charm the unseen powers; but even this art was sterile and never grew of +itself into civilized and progressive art. + +Yet there must have been at some point in the remote past an exception +to this rule. Somewhere and somehow the people of Egypt must have +developed from crude beginnings the architectural knowledge and resource +which meet us in the oldest monuments, though every vestige of that +early age has apparently perished. But although nothing has come down to +us of the actual work of the builders who wrought in the primitive ages +of mankind, there exist throughout Europe and Asia almost countless +monuments of a primitive character belonging to relatively recent times, +but executed before the advent of historic civilization to the regions +where they are found. A general resemblance among them suggests a common +heritage of traditions from the hoariest antiquity, and throws light on +the probable character of the transition from barbaric to civilized +architecture. + + ++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+ These monuments vary widely as well as in +excellence; some of them belong to Roman or even Christian times; others +to a much remoter period. They are divided into two principal classes, +the megalithic structures and lake dwellings. The latter class may be +dismissed with the briefest mention. It comprises a considerable number +of very primitive houses or huts built on wooden piles in the lakes of +Switzerland and several other countries in both hemispheres, and forming +in some cases villages of no mean size. Such villages, built over the +water for protection from attack, are mentioned by the writers of +antiquity and portrayed on Assyrian reliefs. The objects found in them +reveal an incipient but almost stationary civilization, extending back +from three thousand to five thousand years or more, and lasting through +the ages of stone and bronze down into historic times. + +The +megalithic+ remains of Europe and Asia are far more important. They +are very widely distributed, and consist in most cases of great blocks +of stone arranged in rows, circles, or avenues, sometimes with huge +lintels resting upon them. Upright stones without lintels are called +_menhirs_; standing in pairs with lintels they are known as _dolmens_; +the circles are called _cromlechs_. Some of the stones are of gigantic +size, some roughly hewn into shape; others left as when quarried. Their +age and purpose have been much discussed without reaching positive +results. It is probable that, like the lake dwellings, they cover a long +range of time, reaching from the dawn of recorded history some thousands +of years back into the unknown past, and that they were erected by races +which have disappeared before the migrations to which Europe owes her +present populations. That most of them were in some way connected with +the worship of these prehistoric peoples is generally admitted; but +whether as temples, tombs, or memorials of historical or mythical events +cannot, in all cases, be positively asserted. They were not dwellings or +palaces, and very few were even enclosed buildings. They are imposing by +the size and number of their immense stones, but show no sign of +advanced art, or of conscious striving after beauty of design. The small +number of “carved stones,” bearing singular ornamental patterns, +symbolic or mystical rather than decorative in intention, really tends +to prove this statement rather than to controvert it. It is not +impossible that the dolmens were generally intended to be covered by +mounds of earth. This would group them with the tumuli referred to +below, and point to a sepulchral purpose in their erection. Some +antiquaries, Fergusson among them, contend that many of the European +circles and avenues were intended as battle-monuments or trophies. + +There are also +walls+ of great antiquity in various parts of Europe, +intended for fortification; the most important of these in Greece and +Italy will be referred to in later chapters. They belong to a more +advanced art, some of them even deserving to be classed among works of +archaic architecture. + +The +tumuli+, or burial mounds, which form so large a part of the +prehistoric remains of both continents, are interesting to the architect +only as revealing the prototypes of the pyramids of Egypt and the +subterranean tombs of Mycenæ and other early Greek centres. The piling +of huge cairns or commemorative heaps of stone is known from the +Scriptures and other ancient writings to have been a custom of the +greatest antiquity. The pyramids and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus are +the most imposing and elaborate outgrowths of this practice, of which +the prehistoric tumuli are the simpler manifestations. + +These crude and elementary products of undeveloped civilizations have no +place, however, in any list of genuine architectural works. They belong +rather to the domain of archæology and ethnology, and have received this +brief mention only as revealing the beginnings of the builder’s art, and +the wide gap that separates them from that genuine architecture which +forms the subject of the following chapters. + + + +MONUMENTS+: The most celebrated in England are at Avebury, an + avenue, large and small circles, barrows, and the great tumuli of + Bartlow and Silbury “Hills;” at Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, + great megalithic circles and many barrows; “Sarsen stones” at + Ashdown; tumuli, dolmens, chambers, and circles in Derbyshire. In + Ireland, many cairns and circles. In Scotland, circles and barrows + in the Orkney Islands. In France, Carnac and Lokmariaker in + Brittany are especially rich in dolmens, circles, and avenues. In + Scandinavia, Germany, and Italy, in India and in Africa, are many + similar remains. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Champollion, _Monuments de l’Egypte et de la + Nubie_. Choisy, _L’art de bâtir chez les Egyptiens_. + Flinders-Petrie, _History of Egypt; Ten Years Digging in Egypt, + 1881-91_. Jomard, _Description de l’Egypte, Antiquités_. Lepsius, + _Denkmäler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien_. Mariette, _Monuments of + Upper Egypt_. Maspero, _Egyptian Archæology_. Perrot and Chipiez, + _History of Art in Ancient Egypt_. Prisse d’Avennes, _Histoire de + l’art égyptien_. Reber, _History of Ancient Art_. Rossellini, + _Monumenti del Egitto_. Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of Ancient + Egyptians_. + + ++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ As long ago as 5000 B.C., the Egyptians were a people +already highly civilized, and skilled in the arts of peace and war. The +narrow valley of the Nile, fertilized by the periodic overflow of the +river, was flanked by rocky heights, nearly vertical in many places, +which afforded abundance of excellent building stone, while they both +isolated the Egyptians and protected them from foreign aggression. At +the Delta, however, the valley widened out, with the falling away of +these heights, into broad lowlands, from which there was access to the +outer world. + +The art history of Egypt may be divided into five periods as follows: + +I. THE ANCIENT EMPIRE (cir. 4500?-3000 B.C.), comprising the first ten +dynasties, with Memphis as the capital. + +II. THE FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY or MIDDLE EMPIRE (3000-2100 B.C.) +comprising the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth dynasties reigning at +Thebes. + +The Hyksos invasion, or incursion of the Shepherd Kings, interrupted the +current of Egyptian art history for a period of unknown length, probably +not less than four or five centuries. + +III. THE SECOND THEBAN MONARCHY (1700?-1000 B.C.), comprising the +eighteenth to twentieth dynasties inclusive, was the great period of +Egyptian history; the age of conquests and of vast edifices. + +IV. THE DECADENCE or SAITIC PERIOD (1000-324 B.C.), comprising the +dynasties twenty-one to thirty (Saitic, Bubastid, Ethiopic, etc.), +reigning at Sais, Tanis, and Bubastis, and the Persian conquest; +a period almost barren of important monuments. + +(Periods III. and IV. constitute together the period of the NEW EMPIRE, +if we omit the Persian dominion.) + +V. THE REVIVAL (from 324 B.C. to cir. 330 A.D.) comprises the Ptolemaic +or Macedonian and Roman dominations. + + ++THE ANCIENT EMPIRE: THE PYRAMIDS.+ The great works of this period are +almost exclusively sepulchral, and include the most ancient buildings of +which we have any remains. While there is little of strictly +architectural art, the overwhelming size and majesty of the Pyramids, +and the audacity and skill shown in their construction, entitle them to +the first place in any sketch of this period. They number over a +hundred, scattered in six groups, from Abu-Roash in the north to Meidoum +in the south, and are of various shapes and sizes. They are all royal +tombs and belong to the first twelve dynasties; each contains a +sepulchral chamber, and each at one time possessed a small chapel +adjacent to it, but this has, in almost every case, perished. + +Three pyramids surpass all the rest by their prodigious size; these are +at Ghizeh and belong to the fourth dynasty. They are known by the names +of their builders; the oldest and greatest being that of +Cheops+, or +Khufu;[1] the second, that of +Chephren+, or Khafra; and the third, that +of +Mycerinus+, or Menkhara. Other smaller ones stand at the feet of +these giants. + + [Footnote 1: The Egyptian names known to antiquity are given + here first in the more familiar classic form, and then in the + Egyptian form.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--SECTION OF GREAT PYRAMID. + a, _King’s Chamber_; b, _Queen’s Chamber_; c, _Chamber + cut in Rock_.] + +The base of the “Great Pyramid” measures 764 feet on a side; its height +is 482 feet, and its volume must have originally been nearly three and +one-half million cubic yards (Fig. 1). It is constructed of limestone +upon a plateau of rock levelled to receive it, and was finished +externally, like its two neighbors, with a coating of polished stone, +supposed by some to have been disposed in bands of different colored +granites, but of which it was long ago despoiled. It contained three +principal chambers and an elaborate system of inclined passages, all +executed in finely cut granite and limestone. The sarcophagus was in the +uppermost chamber, above which the superincumbent weight was relieved by +open spaces and a species of rudimentary arch of Λ-shape (Fig. 2). The +other two pyramids differ from that of Cheops in the details of their +arrangement and in size, not in the principle of their construction. +Chephren is 454 feet high, with a base 717 feet square. Mycerinus, which +still retains its casing of pink granite, is but 218 feet in height, +with a base 253 feet on a side. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--SECTION OF KING’S CHAMBER.] + +Among the other pyramids there is considerable variety both of type and +material. At Sakkarah is one 190 feet high, constructed in six unequal +steps on a slightly oblong base measuring nearly 400 × 357 feet. It was +attributed by Mariette to Ouenephes, of the first dynasty, though now +more generally ascribed to Senefrou of the third. At Abu-Seir and +Meidoum are other stepped pyramids; at Dashour is one having a broken +slope, the lower part steeper than the upper. Several at Meroë with +unusually steep slopes belong to the Ethiopian dynasties of the +Decadence. A number of pyramids are built of brick. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--PLAN OF SPHINX TEMPLE.] + ++TOMBS.+ The Ancient Empire has also left us a great number of tombs of +the type known as _Mastabas_. These are oblong rectangular structures of +stone or brick with slightly inclined sides and flat ceilings. They +uniformly face the east, and are internally divided into three parts; +the chamber or chapel, the _serdab_, and the well. In the first of +these, next the entrance, were placed the offerings made to the _Ka_ or +“double,” for whom also scenes of festivity or worship were carved and +painted on its walls to minister to his happiness in his incorporeal +life. The serdabs, or secret inner chambers, of which there were several +in each mastaba, contained statues of the defunct, by which the +existence and identity of the Ka were preserved. Finally came the well, +leading to the mummy chamber, deep underground, which contained the +sarcophagus. The sarcophagi, both of this and later ages, are good +examples of the minor architecture of Egypt; many of them are panelled +in imitation of wooden construction and richly decorated with color, +symbols, and hieroglyphs. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--RUINS OF SPHINX TEMPLE.] + ++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Two other monuments of the Ancient Empire also claim +attention: the +Sphinx+ and the adjacent so-called “+Sphinx temple+” at +Ghizeh. The first of these, a huge sculpture carved from the rock, +represents Harmachis in the form of a human-headed lion. It is +ordinarily partly buried in the sand; is 70 feet long by 66 feet high, +and forms one of the most striking monuments of Egyptian art. Close to +it lie the nearly buried ruins of the temple once supposed to be that of +the Sphinx, but now proved by Petrie to have been erected in connection +with the second pyramid. The plan and present aspect of this venerable +edifice are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The hall was roofed with stone +lintels carried on sixteen square monolithic piers of alabaster. The +whole was buried in a rectangular mass of masonry and revetted +internally with alabaster, but was wholly destitute internally as well +as externally of decoration or even of mouldings. With the exception of +scanty remains of a few of the pyramid-temples or chapels, and the +temple discovered by Petrie in Meidoum, it is the only survival from the +temple architecture of that early age. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--TOMB AT ABYDOS.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--TOMB AT BENI-HASSAN.] + ++THE MIDDLE EMPIRE: TOMBS.+ The monuments of this period, as of the +preceding, are almost wholly sepulchral. We now encounter two types of +tombs. One, structural and pyramidal, is represented by many examples at +Abydos, the most venerated of all the burial grounds of Egypt (Fig. 5). +All of these are built of brick, and are of moderate size and little +artistic interest. The second type is that of tombs cut in the vertical +cliffs of the west bank of the Nile Valley. The entrance to these faces +eastward as required by tradition; the remoter end of the excavation +pointing toward the land of the Sun of Night. But such tunnels only +become works of architecture when, in addition to the customary mural +paintings, they receive a decorative treatment in the design of their +structural forms. Such a treatment appears in several tombs at +Beni-Hassan, in which columns are reserved in cutting away the rock, +both in the chapel-chambers and in the vestibules or porches which +precede them. These columns are polygonal in some cases, clustered in +others. The former type, with eight, sixteen, or thirty-two sides (in +these last the _arrises_ or edges are emphasized by a slight concavity +in each face, like embryonic fluting), have a square abacus, suggesting +the Greek Doric order, and giving rise to the name _proto-Doric_ +(Fig. 6). Columns of this type are also found at Karnak, Kalabshé, +Amada, and Abydos. A reminiscence of primitive wood construction is seen +in the dentils over the plain architrave of the entrance, which in other +respects recalls the triple entrances to certain mastabas of the Old +Empire. These dentils are imitations of the ends of rafters, and to some +archæologists suggest a wooden origin for the whole system of columnar +design. But these rock-cut shafts and heavy architraves in no respect +resemble wooden prototypes, but point rather to an imitation cut in the +rock of a well-developed, pre-existing system of stone construction, +some of whose details, however, were undoubtedly derived from early +methods of building in wood. The vault was below the chapel and reached +by a separate entrance. The serdab was replaced by a niche in which was +the figure of the defunct carved from the native rock. Some of the tombs +employed in the chapel-chamber columns of quatrefoil section with +capitals like clustered buds (Fig. 7), and this type became in the next +period one of the most characteristic forms of Egyptian architecture. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--SECTION AND HALF-PLAN OF A TOMB AT + BENI-HASSAN.] + + ++TEMPLES.+ Of the temples of this period only two have left any remains +of importance. Both belong to the twelfth dynasty (cir. 2200 B.C.). Of +one of these many badly shattered fragments have been found in the ruins +of Bubastis; these show the clustered type of lotus-bud column mentioned +above. The other, of which a few columns have been identified among the +ruins of the Great Temple at Karnak, constituted the oldest part of that +vast agglomeration of religious edifices, and employed columns of the +so-called proto-Doric type. From these remains it appears that +structural stone columns as well as those cut in the rock were used at +this early period (2200 B.C.). Indeed, it is probable that the whole +architectural system of the New Empire was based on models developed in +the age we are considering; that the use of multiplied columns of +various types and the building of temples of complex plan adorned with +colossal statues, obelisks, and painted reliefs, were perfectly +understood and practised in this period. But the works it produced have +perished, having been most probably demolished to make way for the more +sumptuous edifices of later times. + + ++THE NEW EMPIRE.+ This was the grand age of Egyptian architecture and +history. An extraordinary series of mighty men ruled the empire during a +long period following the expulsion of the Hyksos usurpers. The names of +Thothmes, Amenophis, Hatasu, Seti, and Rameses made glorious the +eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties. Foreign conquests in Ethiopia, +Syria, and Assyria enlarged the territory and increased the splendor of +the empire. The majority of the most impressive ruins of Egypt belong to +this period, and it was in these buildings that the characteristic +elements of Egyptian architecture were brought to perfection and carried +out on the grandest scale. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--PLAN OF THE RAMESSEUM. + a, _Sanctuary_; b, _Hypostyle Hall_; c, _Second court_; + d, _Entrance court_; e, _Pylons_.] + ++TOMBS OF THE NEW EMPIRE.+ Some of these are structural, others +excavated; both types displaying considerable variety in arrangement and +detail. The rock-cut tombs of Bab-el-Molouk, among which are twenty-five +royal sepulchres, are striking both by the simplicity of their openings +and the depth and complexity of their shafts, tunnels, and chambers. +From the pipe-like length of their tunnels they have since the time of +Herodotus been known by the name _syrinx_. Every precaution was taken to +lead astray and baffle the intending violator of their sanctity. They +penetrated hundreds of feet into the rock; their chambers, often formed +with columns and vault-like roofs, were resplendent with colored reliefs +and ornament destined to solace and sustain the shadowy Ka until the +soul itself, the Ba, should arrive before the tribunal of Osiris, the +Sun of Night. Most impressively do these brilliant pictures,[2] intended +to be forever shut away from human eyes, attest the sincerity of the +Egyptian belief and the conscientiousness of the art which it inspired. + + [Footnote 2: See Van Dyke’s _History of Painting_, Figure 1.] + +While the tomb of the private citizen was complete in itself, containing +the Ka-statues and often the chapel, as well as the mummy, the royal +tomb demanded something more elaborate in scale and arrangement. In some +cases external structures of temple-form took the place of the +underground chapel and serdab. The royal effigy, many times repeated in +painting and sculpture throughout this temple-like edifice, and flanking +its gateways with colossal seated figures, made buried Ka-statues +unnecessary. Of these sepulchral temples three are of the first +magnitude. They are that of +Queen Hatasu+ (XVIIIth dynasty) at +Deir-el-Bahari; that of +Rameses II.+ (XIXth dynasty), the +Ramesseum+, +near by to the southwest; and that of +Rameses III.+ (XXth dynasty) at +Medinet Abou still further to the southwest. Like the tombs, these were +all on the west side of the Nile; so also was the sepulchral temple of +Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty), the +Amenopheum+, of which hardly a +trace remains except the two seated colossi which, rising from the +Theban plain, have astonished travellers from the times of Pausanias and +Strabo down to our own. These mutilated figures, one of which has been +known ever since classic times as the “vocal Memnon,” are 56 feet high, +and once flanked the entrance to the forecourt of the temple of +Amenophis. The plan of the Ramesseum, with its sanctuary, hypostyle +hall, and forecourts, its pylons and obelisks, is shown in Figure 8, and +may be compared with those of other temples given on pp. 17 and 18. That +of Medinet Abou resembles it closely. The Ramesseum occupies a rectangle +of 590 × 182 feet; the temple of Medinet Abou measures 500 × 160 feet, +not counting the extreme width of the entrance pylons. The temple of +Hatasu at Deir-el-Bahari is partly excavated and partly structural, +a model which is also followed on a smaller scale in several lesser +tombs. Such an edifice is called a _hemispeos_. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter II. + + ++TEMPLES.+ The surpassing glory of the New Empire was its great temples. +Some of them were among the most stupendous creations of structural art. +To temples rather than palaces were the resources and energies of the +kings devoted, and successive monarchs found no more splendid outlet for +their piety and ambition than the founding of new temples or the +extension and adornment of those already existing. By the forced labor +of thousands of fellaheen (the system is in force to this day and is +known as the _corvée_) architectural piles of vast extent could be +erected within the lifetime of a monarch. As in the tombs the internal +walls bore pictures for the contemplation of the Ka, so in the temples +the external walls, for the glory of the king and the delectation of the +people, were covered with colored reliefs reciting the monarch’s +glorious deeds. Internally the worship and attributes of the gods were +represented in a similar manner, in endless iteration. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. PLAN.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--TEMPLE OF EDFOU. SECTION.] + ++THE TEMPLE SCHEME.+ This is admirably shown in the temple of Khonsu, at +Karnak, built by Rameses III. (XXth dynasty), and in the temple of Edfou +(Figs. 9 and 10), though this belongs to the Roman period. It comprised +a sanctuary or _sekos_, a hypostyle (columnar) hall, known as the “hall +of assembly,” and a forecourt preceded by a double pylon or gateway. +Each of these parts might be made more or less complex in different +temples, but the essential features are encountered everywhere under all +changes of form. The building of a temple began with the sanctuary, +which contained the sacred chamber and the shrine of the god, with +subordinate rooms for the priests and for various rites and functions. +These chambers were low, dark, mysterious, accessible only to the +priests and king. They were given a certain dignity by being raised upon +a sort of platform above the general level, and reached by a few steps. +They were sumptuously decorated internally with ritual pictures in +relief. The hall was sometimes loftier, but set on a slightly lower +level; its massive columns supported a roof of stone lintels, and light +was admitted either through clearstory windows under the roof of a +central portion higher than the sides, as at Karnak, or over a low +screen-wall built between the columns of the front row, as at Edfou and +Denderah. This method was peculiar to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. +The court was usually surrounded by a single or double colonnade; +sometimes, however, this colonnade only flanked the sides or fronted the +hall, or again was wholly wanting. The _pylons_ were twin buttress-like +masses flanking the entrance gate of the court. They were shaped like +oblong truncated pyramids, crowned by flaring cornices, and were +decorated on the outer face with masts carrying banners, with obelisks, +or with seated colossal figures of the royal builder. An avenue of +sphinxes formed the approach to the entrance, and the whole temple +precinct was surrounded by a wall, usually of crude brick, pierced by +one or more gates with or without pylons. The piety of successive +monarchs was displayed in the addition of new hypostyle halls, courts, +pylons, or obelisks, by which the temple was successively extended in +length, and sometimes also in width, by the increased dimensions of the +new courts. The great Temple of Karnak most strikingly illustrates this +growth. Begun by Osourtesen (XIIth dynasty) more than 2000 years B.C., +it was not completed in its present form until the time of the +Ptolemies, when the last of the pylons and external gates were erected. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--TEMPLE OF KARNAK. PLAN.] + +The variations in the details of this general type were numerous. Thus, +at El Kab, the temple of Amenophis III. has the sekos and hall but no +forecourt. At Deir-el-Medineh the hall of the Ptolemaic Hathor-temple is +a mere porch in two parts, while the enclosure within the circuit wall +takes the place of the forecourt. At Karnak all the parts were repeated +several times, and under Amenophis III. (XVIIIth dynasty) a wing was +built at a nearly right angle to the main structure. At Luxor, to a +complete typical temple were added three aisles of an unfinished +hypostyle hall, and an elaborate forecourt, whose axis is inclined to +that of the other buildings, owing to a bend of the river at that point. +At Abydos a complex sanctuary of many chambers extends southeast at +right angles to the general mass, and the first court is without +columns. But in all these structures a certain unity of effect is +produced by the lofty pylons, the flat roofs diminishing in height over +successive portions from the front to the sanctuary, the sloping +windowless walls covered with carved and painted pictures, and the dim +and massive interiors of the columnar halls. + + ++TEMPLES OF KARNAK.+ Of these various temples that of +Amen-Ra+ is +incomparably the largest and most imposing. Its construction extended +through the whole duration of the New Empire, of whose architecture it +is a splendid _résumé_ (Fig. 11). Its extreme length is 1,215 feet, and +its greatest width 376 feet. The sanctuary and its accessories, mainly +built by Thothmes I. and Thothmes III., cover an area nearly 456 × 290 +feet in extent, and comprise two hypostyle halls and countless smaller +halls and chambers. It is preceded by a narrow columnar vestibule and +two pylons enclosing a columnar atrium and two obelisks. This is entered +from the +Great Hypostyle Hall+ (h in Fig. 11; Fig. 12), the noblest +single work of Egyptian architecture, measuring 340 × 170 feet, and +containing 134 columns in sixteen rows, supporting a massive stone roof. +The central columns with bell-capitals are 70 feet high and nearly 12 +feet in diameter; the others are smaller and lower, with lotus-bud +capitals, supporting a roof lower than that over the three central +aisles. A clearstory of stone-grated windows makes up the difference in +height between these two roofs. The interior, thus lighted, was splendid +with painted reliefs, which helped not only to adorn the hall but to +give scale to its massive parts. The whole stupendous creation was the +work of three kings--Rameses I., Seti I., and Rameses II. (XIXth +dynasty). + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--CENTRAL PORTION OF HYPOSTYLE HALL + AT KARNAK. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)] + +In front of it was the great court, flanked by columns, and still +showing the ruins of a central avenue of colossal pillars begun, but +never completed, by the Bubastid kings of the XXIId dynasty. One or two +smaller structures and the curious lateral wing built by Amenophis III., +interrupt the otherwise orderly and symmetrical advance of this plan +from the sanctuary to the huge first pylon (last in point of date) +erected by the Ptolemies. + +The smaller temple of Khonsu, south of that of Amen-Ra, has already been +alluded to as a typical example of templar design. Next to Karnak in +importance comes the +Temple of Luxor+ in its immediate neighborhood. It +has two forecourts adorned with double-aisled colonnades and connected +by what seems to be an unfinished hypostyle hall. The +Ramesseum+ and +the temples of +Medinet Abou+ and +Deir-El-Bahari+ have already been +mentioned (p. 15). At Gournah and Abydos are the next most celebrated +temples of this period; the first famous for its rich clustered +lotus-columns, the latter for its beautiful sanctuary chambers, +dedicated each to a different deity, and covered with delicate painted +reliefs of the time of Seti I. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--GREAT TEMPLE OF IPSAMBOUL.] + ++GROTTO TEMPLES.+ Two other styles of temple remain to be noticed. The +first is the subterranean or grotto temple, of which the two most +famous, at Ipsamboul (Abou-simbel), were excavated by Rameses II. They +are truly colossal conceptions, reproducing in the native rock the main +features of structural temples, the court being represented by the +larger of two chambers in the Greater Temple (Fig. 13) Their façades are +adorned with colossal seated figures of the builder; the smaller has +also two effigies of Nefert-Ari, his consort. Nothing more striking and +boldly impressive is to be met with in Egypt than these singular +rock-cut façades. Other rock-cut temples of more modest dimensions are +at Addeh, Feraig, Beni-Hassan (the “Speos Artemidos”), Beit-el-Wali, and +Silsileh. At Gherf-Hossein, Asseboua, and Derri are temples partly +excavated and partly structural. + + ++PERIPTERAL TEMPLES.+ The last type of temple to be noticed is +represented by only three or four structures of moderate size; it is the +_peripteral_, in which a small chamber is surrounded by columns, usually +mounted on a terrace with vertical walls. They were mere chapels, but +are among the most graceful of existing ruins. At Philæ are two +structures, one by Nectanebo, the other Ptolemaic, resembling peripteral +temples, but without cella-chambers or roofs. They may have been +waiting-courts for the adjoining temples. That at Elephantine (Amenophis +III.) has square piers at the sides, and columns only at the ends. +Another by Thothmes II., at Medinet Abou, formed only a part (the +sekos?) of a larger plan. At Edfou is another, belonging to the +Ptolemaic period. + + ++LATER TEMPLES.+ After the architectural inaction of the Decadence came +a marvellous recrudescence of splendor under the Ptolemies, whose +Hellenic origin and sympathies did not lead them into the mistaken +effort to impose Greek models upon Egyptian art. The temples erected +under their dominion, and later under Roman rule, vied with the grandest +works of the Ramessidæ, and surpassed them in the rich elaboration and +variety of their architectural details. The temple at Edfou (Figs. 9, +10, 14) is the most perfectly preserved, and conforms most closely to +the typical plan; that of Isis, at Philæ, is the most elaborate and +ornate. Denderah also possesses a group of admirably preserved temples +of the same period. At Esneh, and at Kalabshé and Kardassy or Ghertashi +in Nubia are others. In all these one notes innovations of detail and a +striving for effect quite different from the simpler majesty of the +preceding age (Fig. 14). One peculiar feature is the use of screen walls +built into the front rows of columns of the hypostyle hall. Light was +admitted above these walls, which measured about half the height of the +columns and were interrupted at the centre by a curious doorway cut +through their whole height and without any lintel. Long disused types of +capital were revived and others greatly elaborated; and the wall-reliefs +were arranged in bands and panels with a regularity and symmetry rather +Greek than Egyptian. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--EDFOU. FRONT OF HYPOSTYLE HALL.] + ++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ With the exception of a few purely utilitarian +vaulted structures, all Egyptian architecture was based on the principle +of the lintel. Artistic splendor depended upon the use of painted and +carved pictures, and the decorative treatment of the very simple +supports employed. Piers and columns sustained the roofs of such +chambers as were too wide for single lintels, and produced, in halls +like those of Karnak, of the Ramesseum, or of Denderah, a stupendous +effect by their height, massiveness, number, and colored decoration. The +simplest piers were plain square shafts; others, more elaborate, had +lotus stalks and flowers or heads of Hathor carved upon them. The most +striking were those against whose front faces were carved colossal +figures of Osiris, as at Luxor, Medmet Abou, and Karnak (Fig. 15). The +columns, which were seldom over six diameters in height, were treated +with greater variety; the shafts, slightly tapering upward, were either +round or clustered in section, and usually contracted at the base. The +capitals with which they were crowned were usually of one of the five +chief types described below. Besides round and clustered shafts, the +Middle Empire and a few of the earlier monuments of the New Empire +employed polygonal or slightly fluted shafts (see p. 11), as at Beni +Hassan and Karnak; these had a plain square abacus, with sometimes a +cushion-like echinus beneath it. A round plinth served as a base for +most of the columns. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 15.--OSIRID PIER (MEDINET ABOU).] + ++CAPITALS.+ The five chief types of capital were: a, the plain lotus +bud, as at Karnak (Great Hall); b, the clustered lotus bud (Beni-Hassan, +Karnak, Luxor, Gournah, etc.); c, the _campaniform_ or inverted bell +(central aisles at Karnak, Luxor, the Ramesseum); d, the palm-capital, +frequent in the later temples; and e, the Hathor-headed, in which heads +of Hathor adorn the four faces of a cubical mass surmounted by a model +of a shrine (Sedinga, Edfou, Denderah, Esneh). These types were richly +embellished and varied by the Ptolemaic architects, who gave a clustered +or quatrefoil plan to the bell-capital, or adorned its surface with palm +leaves. A few other forms are met with as exceptions. The first four are +shown in Fig. 16. + +Every part of the column was richly decorated in color. Lotus-leaves or +petals swathed the swelling lower part of the shaft, which was elsewhere +covered with successive bands of carved pictures and of hieroglyphics. +The capital was similarly covered with carved and painted ornament, +usually of lotus-flowers or leaves, or alternate stalks of lotus and +papyrus. + + [Illustration: FIG. 16.--TYPES OF COLUMN. + a, _Campaniform_; b, _Clustered Lotus-Column_; c, _Simple + Lotus-Column_; d, _Palm-Column_.] + +The lintels were plain and square in section, and often of prodigious +size. Where they appeared externally they were crowned with a simple +cavetto cornice, its curved surface covered with colored flutings +alternating with _cartouches_ of hieroglyphics. Sometimes, especially on +the screen walls of the Ptolemaic age, this was surmounted by a cresting +of adders or uræi in closely serried rank. No other form of cornice or +cresting is met with. Mouldings as a means of architectural effect were +singularly lacking in Egyptian architecture. The only moulding known is +the clustered torus (_torus_ = a convex moulding of semicircular +profile), which resembles a bundle of reeds tied together with cords or +ribbons. It forms an astragal under the cavetto cornice and runs down +the angles of the pylons and walls. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 17.--EGYPTIAN FLORAL ORNAMENT-FORMS.] + ++POLYCHROMY AND ORNAMENT.+ Color was absolutely essential to the +decorative scheme. In the vast and dim interiors, as well as in the +blinding glare of the sun, mere sculpture or relief would have been +wasted. The application of brilliant color to pictorial forms cut in low +relief, or outlined by deep incision with the edges of the figures +delicately rounded (_intaglio rilievo_) was the most appropriate +treatment possible. The walls and columns were covered with pictures +treated in this way, and the ceilings and lintels were embellished with +symbolic forms in the same manner. All the ornaments, as distinguished +from the paintings, were symbolical, at least in their origin. Over the +gateway was the solar disk or globe with wide-spread wings, the symbol +of the sun winging its way to the conquest of night; upon the ceiling +were sacred vultures, zodiacs, or stars spangled on a blue ground. +Externally the temples presented only masses of unbroken wall; but +these, as well as the pylons, were covered with huge pictures of a +historical character. Only in the tombs do we find painted ornament of a +purely conventional sort (Fig. 17). Rosettes, diaper patterns, spirals, +and checkers are to be met with in them; but many of these can be traced +to symbolic origins.[3] + + [Footnote 3: See Goodyear’s _Grammar of the Lotus_ for an + elaborate and ingenious presentation of the theory of a common + lotus-origin for all the conventional forms occurring in Egyptian + ornament.] + + ++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The only remains of palaces are the pavilion of +Rameses III. at Medinet Abou, and another at Semneh. The Royal Labyrinth +has so completely perished that even its site is uncertain. The +Egyptians lived so much out of doors that the house was a less important +edifice than in colder climates. Egyptian dwellings were probably in +most cases built of wood or crude brick, and their disappearance is thus +easily explained. Relief pictures on the monuments indicate the use of +wooden framing for the walls, which were probably filled in with crude +brick or panels of wood. The architecture was extremely simple. Gateways +like those of the temples on a smaller scale, the cavetto cornice on the +walls, and here and there a porch with carved columns of wood or stone, +were the only details pretending to elegance. The ground-plans of many +houses in ruined cities, as at Tel-el-Amarna and a nameless city of +Amenophis IV., are discernible in the ruins; but the superstructures are +wholly wanting. It was in religious and sepulchral architecture that the +constructive and artistic genius of the Egyptians was most fully +manifested. + + + +MONUMENTS+: The principal necropolis regions of Egypt are centred + about Ghizeh and ancient Memphis for the Old Empire (pyramids and + mastabas), Thebes for the Middle Empire (Silsileh, Beni Hassan), + and Thebes (Vale of the Kings, Vale of the Queens) and Abydos for + the New Empire. + + The Old Empire has also left us the Sphinx, Sphinx temple, and the + temple at Meidoum. + + The most important temples of the New Empire were those of Karnak + (the great temple, the southern or temple of Khonsu), of Luxor, + Medinet Abou (great temple of Rameses III., lesser temples of + Thothmes II. and III. with peripteral sekos; also Pavilion of + Rameses III.); of Abydos; of Gournah; of Eilithyia (Amenophis + III.); of Soleb and Sesebi in Nubia; of Elephantine (peripteral); + the tomb temple of Deir-el-Bahari, the Ramesseum, the Amenopheum; + hemispeos at Gherf Hossein; two grotto temples at Ipsamboul. + + At Meroë are pyramids of the Ethiopic kings of the Decadence. + + Temples of the Ptolemaic period: Philæ, Denderah. + + Temples of the Roman period: Koum Ombos, Edfou; Kalabshé, Kardassy + and Dandour in Nubia; Esneh. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CHALDÆAN AND ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Babelon, _Manual of + Oriental Antiquities_. Botta and Flandin, _Monuments de Ninive_. + Layard, _Discoveries in Nineveh_; _Nineveh and its Remains_. + Loftus, _Travels and Researches in Chaldæa and Susiana_. Perrot + and Chipiez, _History of Art in Chaldæa and Assyria_. Peters, + _Nippur_. Place, _Ninive et l’Assyrie_. + + ++SITUATION; HISTORIC PERIODS.+ The Tigro-Euphrates valley was the seat +of a civilization nearly or quite as old as that of the Nile, though +inferior in its monumental art. The kingdoms of Chaldæa and Assyria +which ruled in this valley, sometimes as rivals and sometimes as +subjects one of the other, differed considerably in character and +culture. But the scarcity of timber and the lack of good building-stone +except in the limestone table-lands and more distant mountains of upper +Mesopotamia, the abundance of clay, and the flatness of the country, +imposed upon the builders of both nations similar restrictions of +conception, form, and material. Both peoples, moreover, were probably, +in part at least, of Semitic race.[4] The Chaldæans attained +civilization as early as 4000 B.C., and had for centuries maintained +fixed institutions and practised the arts and sciences when the +Assyrians began their career as a nation of conquerors by reducing +Chaldæa to subjection. + + [Footnote 4: This is denied by some recent writers, so far as + the Chaldæans are concerned, and is not intended here to apply + to the Accadians and Summerians of primitive Chaldæa.] + +The history of Chaldæo-Assyrian art may be divided into three main +periods, as follows: + +1. The EARLY CHALDÆAN, 4000 to 1250 B.C. + +2. The ASSYRIAN, 1250 to 606 B.C. + +3. The BABYLONIAN, 606 to 538 B.C. + +In 538 the empire fell before the Persians. + + ++GENERAL CHARACTER OF MONUMENTS.+ Recent excavations at Nippur (Niffer), +the sacred city of Chaldæa, have uncovered ruins older than the +Pyramids. Though of slight importance architecturally, they reveal the +early knowledge of the arch and the possession of an advanced culture. +The poverty of the building materials of this region afforded only the +most limited resources for architectural effect. Owing to the flatness +of the country and the impracticability of building lofty structures +with sun-dried bricks, elevation above the plain could be secured only +by erecting buildings of moderate height upon enormous mounds or +terraces, built of crude brick and faced with hard brick or stone. This +led to the development of the stepped pyramid as the typical form of +Chaldæo-Assyrian architecture. Thick walls were necessary both for +stability and for protection from the burning heat of that climate. The +lack of stone for columns and the difficulty of procuring heavy beams +for long spans made broad halls and chambers impossible. The plans of +Assyrian palaces look like assemblages of long corridors and small cells +(Fig. 18). Neither the wooden post nor the column played any part in +this architecture except for window-mullions and subordinate members.[5] +It is probable that the vault was used for roofing many of the halls; +the arch was certainly employed for doors and the barrel-vault for the +drainage-tunnels under the terraces, made necessary by the heavy +rainfall. What these structures lacked in durability and height was made +up in decorative magnificence. The interior walls were wainscoted to a +height of eight or nine feet with alabaster slabs covered with those +low-relief pictures of hunting scenes, battles, and gods, which now +enrich the museums of London, Paris, and other modern cities. Elsewhere +painted plaster or more durable enamelled tile in brilliant colors +embellished the walls, and, doubtless, rugs and tapestries added their +richness to this architectural splendor. + + [Footnote 5: See Fergusson, _Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis_, + for an ingenious but unsubstantiated argument for the use of + columns in Assyrian palaces.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 18.--PALACE OF SARGON AT KHORSABAD.] + + ++CHALDÆAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The ruins at Mugheir (the Biblical Ur), dating, +perhaps, from 2200 B.C., belong to the two-storied terrace or platform +of a temple to Sin or Hurki. The wall of sun-dried brick is faced with +enamelled tile. The shrine, which was probably small, has wholly +disappeared from the summit of the mound. At Warka (the ancient Erech) +are two terrace-walls of palaces, one of which is ornamented with convex +flutings and with a species of mosaic in checker patterns and zigzags, +formed by terra-cotta cones or spikes driven into the clay, their +exposed bases being enamelled in the desired colors. The other shows a +system of long, narrow panels, in a style suggesting the influence of +Egyptian models through some as yet unknown channel. This panelling +became a common feature of the later Assyrian art (see Fig. 19). At +Birs-Nimroud are the ruins of a stepped pyramid surmounted by a small +shrine. Its seven stages are said to have been originally faced with +glazed tile of the seven planetary colors, gold, silver, yellow, red, +blue, white, and black. The ruins at Nippur, which comprise temples, +altars, and dwellings dating from 4000 B.C., have been alluded to. +Babylon, the later capital of Chaldæa, to which the shapeless mounds of +Mujehbeh and Kasr seem to have belonged, has left no other recognizable +vestige of its ancient magnificence. + + ++ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ Abundant ruins exist of Nineveh, the Assyrian +capital, and its adjacent palace-sites. Excavations at Koyunjik, +Khorsabad, and Nimroud have laid bare a number of these royal dwellings. +Among them are the palace of Assur-nazir-pal (885 B.C.) and two palaces +of Shalmaneser II. (850 B.C.) at Nimroud; the great palace of Sargon at +Khorsabad (721 B.C.); that of Sennacherib at Koyunjik (704 B.C.); of +Esarhaddon at Nimroud (650 B.C.); and of Assur-bani-pal at Koyunjik (660 +B.C.). All of these palaces are designed on the same general principle, +best shown by the plan (Fig. 18) of the palace of Sargon at Khorsabad, +excavated by Botta and Place. + +In this palace two large and several smaller courts are surrounded by a +complex series of long, narrow halls and small, square chambers. One +court probably belonged to the harem, another to the king’s apartments, +others to dependents and to the service of the palace. The crude brick +walls are immensely thick and without windows, the only openings being +for doors. The absence of columns made wide halls impossible, and great +size could only be attained in the direction of length. A terraced +pyramid supported an altar or shrine to the southwest of the palace; at +the west corner was a temple, the substructure of which was crowned by a +cavetto cornice showing plainly the influence of Egyptian models. The +whole palace stood upon a stupendous platform faced with cut stone, an +unaccustomed extravagance in Assyria. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 19.--GATE, KHORSABAD.] + ++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ There is no evidence that the Assyrians ever +used columnar supports except in minor or accessory details. There are +few halls in any of the ruins too wide to be spanned by good Syrian +cedar beams or palm timbers, and these few cases seem to have had +vaulted ceilings. So clumsy a feature as the central wall in the great +hall of Esarhaddon’s palace at Nimroud would never have been resorted to +for the support of the ceiling, had the Assyrians been familiar with the +use of columns. That they understood the arch and vault is proved by +their admirable terrace-drains and the fine arched gate in the walls of +Khorsabad (Fig. 19), as well as by bas-reliefs representing dwellings +with domes of various forms. Moreover, a few vaulted chambers of +moderate size, and fallen fragments of crude brick vaulting of larger +span, have been found in several of the Assyrian ruins. + +The construction was extremely simple. The heavy clay walls were faced +with alabaster, burned brick, or enamelled tiles. The roofs were +probably covered with stamped earth, and sometimes paved on top with +tiles or slabs of alabaster to form terraces. Light was introduced most +probably through windows immediately under the roof and divided by small +columns forming mullions, as suggested by certain relief pictures. No +other system seems consistent with the windowless walls of the ruins. It +is possible that many rooms depended wholly on artificial light or on +the scant rays coming through open doors. To this day, in the hot season +the population of Mosul takes refuge from the torrid heats of summer in +windowless basements lighted only by lamps. + + ++ORNAMENT.+ The only structural decorations seem to have been the +panelling of exterior walls in a manner resembling the Chaldæan +terrace-walls, and a form of parapet like a stepped cresting. There were +no characteristic mouldings, architraves, capitals, or cornices. Nearly +all the ornament was of the sort called _applied_, _i.e._, added after +the completion of the structure itself. Pictures in low relief covered +the alabaster revetment. They depicted hunting-scenes, battles, deities, +and other mythological subjects, and are interesting to the architect +mainly for their occasional representations of buildings and details of +construction. Above this wainscot were friezes of enamelled brick +ornamented with symbolic forms used as decorative motives; winged bulls, +the “sacred tree” and mythological monsters, with rosettes, palmettes, +lotus-flowers, and _guilloches_ (ornaments of interlacing bands winding +about regularly spaced buttons or eyes). These ornaments were also used +on the archivolts around the great arches of palace gates. The most +singular adornments of these gates were the carved “portal guardians” +set into the deep jambs--colossal monsters with the bodies of bulls, the +wings of eagles, and human heads of terrible countenance. Of mighty +bulk, they were yet minutely wrought in every detail of head-dress, +beard, feathers, curly hair, and anatomy. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT.] + +The purely conventional ornaments mentioned above--the rosette, +guilloche, and lotus-flower, and probably also the palmette, were +derived from Egyptian originals. They were treated, however, in a quite +new spirit and adapted to the special materials and uses of their +environment. Thus the form of the palmette, even if derived, as is not +unlikely, from the Egyptian lotus-motive, was assimilated to the more +familiar palm-forms of Assyria (Fig. 20). + +Assyrian architecture never rivalled the Egyptian in grandeur or +constructive power, in seriousness, or the higher artistic qualities. It +did, however, produce imposing results with the poorest resources, and +in its use of the arch and its development of ornamental forms it +furnished prototypes for some of the most characteristic features of +later Asiatic art, which profoundly influenced both Greek and Byzantine +architecture. + + + +MONUMENTS+: The most important Chaldæan and Assyrian monuments of + which there are extant remains, have already been enumerated in + the text. It is therefore unnecessary to duplicate the list here. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +PERSIAN, LYCIAN AND JEWISH ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Babelon; Bliss, _Excavations at + Jerusalem_. Reber. Also Dieulafoy, _L’Art antique de la Perse_. + Fellows, _Account of Discoveries in Lycia_. Fergusson, _The Temple + at Jerusalem_. Flandin et Coste, _Perse ancienne_. Perrot and + Chipiez, _History of Art in Persia_; _History of Art in Phrygia, + Lydia, Caria, and Lycia_; _History of Art in Sardinia and Judæa_. + Texier, _L’Arménie et la Perse_; _L’Asie Mineure_. De Vogüé, _Le + Temple de Jérusalem_. + + ++PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ With the Persians, who under Cyrus (536 B.C.) +and Cambyses (525 B.C.) became the masters of the Orient, the Aryan race +superseded the Semitic, and assimilated in new combinations the forms it +borrowed from the Assyrian civilization. Under the Achæmenidæ (536 to +330 B.C.) palaces were built in Persepolis and Susa of a splendor and +majesty impossible in Mesopotamia, and rivalling the marvels in the Nile +Valley. The conquering nation of warriors who had overthrown the +Egyptians and Assyrians was in turn conquered by the arts of its +vanquished foes, and speedily became the most luxurious of all nations. +The Persians were not great innovators in art; but inhabiting a land of +excellent building resources, they were able to combine the Egyptian +system of interior columns with details borrowed from Assyrian art, and +suggestions, derived most probably from the general use in Persia and +Central Asia, of wooden posts or columns as intermediate supports. Out +of these elements they evolved an architecture which has only become +fully known to us since the excavations of M. and Mme. Dieulafoy at Susa +in 1882. + + ++ELEMENTS OF PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The Persians used both crude and +baked bricks, the latter far more freely than was practicable in +Assyria, owing to the greater abundance of fuel. Walls when built of the +weaker material were faced with baked brick enamelled in brilliant +colors, or both moulded and enamelled, to form colored pictures in +relief. Stone was employed for walls and columns, and, in conjunction +with brick, for the jambs and lintels of doors and windows. Architraves +and ceiling-beams were of wood. The palaces were erected, as in Assyria, +upon broad platforms, partly cut in the rock and partly structural, +approached by imposing flights of steps. These palaces were composed of +detached buildings, propylæa or gates of honor, vast audience-halls open +on one or two sides, and chambers or dwellings partly enclosing or +flanking these halls, or grouped in separate buildings. Temples appear +to have been of small importance, perhaps owing to habits of out-of-door +worship of fire and sun. There are few structural tombs, but there are a +number of imposing royal sepulchres cut in the rock at Naksh-i-Roustam. + + ++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The Persians, like the Egyptians, used the +column as an internal feature in hypostyle halls of great size, and +externally to form porches, and perhaps, also, open kiosks without +walls. The great +Hall of Xerxes+ at Persepolis covers 100,000 square +feet--more than double the area of the Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. But the +Persian column was derived from wooden prototypes and used with wooden +architraves, permitting a wider spacing than is possible with stone. In +the present instance thirty-six columns sufficed for an area which in +the Karnak hall contained one hundred and thirty-four. The shafts being +slender and finely fluted instead of painted or carved, the effect +produced was totally different from that sought by the Egyptians. The +most striking peculiarity of the column was the capital, which was +forked (Fig. 21). In one of the two principal types the fork, formed by +the coupled fore-parts of bulls or symbolic monsters, rested directly on +the top of the shaft. In the other, two singular members were interposed +between the fork and the shaft; the lower, a sort of double bell or +bell-and-palm capital, and above it, just beneath the fork, a curious +combination of vertical scrolls or volutes, resembling certain ornaments +seen in Assyrian furniture. The transverse architrave rested in the +fork; the longitudinal architrave was supported on the heads of the +monsters. A rich moulded base, rather high and in some cases adorned +with carved leaves or flutings, supported the columns, which in the Hall +of Xerxes were over 66 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. The architraves +have perished, but the rock-cut tomb of Darius at Naksh-i-Roustam +reproduces in its façade a palace-front, showing a banded architrave +with dentils--an obvious imitation of the ends of wooden rafters on a +lintel built up of several beams. + + [Illustration: FIG. 21.--COLUMN FROM PERSEPOLIS.] + +These features of the architrave, as well as the fine flutings and +moulded bases of the columns, are found in Ionic architecture, and in +part, at least, in Lycian tombs. As all these examples date from nearly +the same period, the origin of these forms and their mutual relations +have not been fully determined. The Persian capitals, however, are +unique, and so far as known, without direct prototypes or derivatives. +Their constituent elements may have been borrowed from various sources. +One can hardly help seeing the Egyptian palm-capital in the lower member +of the compound type (Fig. 21). + +The doors and windows had banded architraves or trims and cavetto +cornices very Egyptian in character. The portals were flanked, as in +Assyria, by winged monsters; but these were built up in several courses +of stone, not carved from single blocks like their prototypes. Plaster +or, as at Susa, enamelled bricks, replaced as a wall-finish the Assyrian +alabaster wainscot. These bricks, splendid in color, and moulded into +relief pictures covering large surfaces, are the oldest examples of the +skill of the Persians in a branch of ceramic art in which they have +always excelled down to our own day. + + ++LYCIAN ARCHITECTURE.+ The architecture of those Asiatic peoples which +served as intermediaries between the ancient civilizations of Egypt and +Assyria on the one hand and of the Greeks on the other, need occupy us +only a moment in passing. None of them developed a complete and +independent style or produced monuments of the first rank. Those chiefly +concerned in the transmission of ideas were the Cypriotes, Phœnicians, +and Lycians. The part played by other Asiatic nations is too slight to +be considered here. From Cyprus the Greeks could have learned little +beyond a few elementary notions regarding sculpture and pottery, +although it is possible that the volute-form in Ionic architecture was +originally derived from patterns on Cypriote pottery and from certain +Cypriote steles, where it appears as a modified lotus motive. The +Phœnicians were the world’s traders from a very early age down to the +Persian conquest. They not only distributed through the Mediterranean +lands the manufactures of Egypt and Assyria, but also counterfeited them +and adopted their forms in decorating their own wares. But they have +bequeathed us not a single architectural ruin of importance, either of +temples or palaces, nor are the few tombs still extant of sufficient +artistic interest to deserve even brief mention in a work of this scope. + +In Lycia, however, there arose a system of tomb-design which came near +creating a new architectural style, and which doubtless influenced both +Persia and the Ionian colonies. The tombs were mostly cut in the rock, +though a few are free-standing monolithic monuments, resembling +sarcophagi or small shrines mounted on a high base or pedestal. + +In all of these tombs we recognize a manifest copying in stone of framed +wooden structures. The walls are panelled, or imitate open structures +framed of squared timbers. The roofs are often gabled, sometimes in the +form of a pointed arch; they generally show a banded architrave, +dentils, and a raking cornice, or else an imitation of broadly +projecting eaves with small round rafters. There are several with +porches of Ionic columns; of these, some are of late date and evidently +copied from Asiatic Greek models. Others, and notably one at Telmissus, +seem to be examples of a primitive Ionic, and may indeed have been early +steps in the development of that splendid style which the Ionic Greeks, +both in Asia Minor and in Attica, carried to such perfection. + + ++JEWISH ARCHITECTURE.+ The Hebrews borrowed from the art of every people +with whom they had relations, so that we encounter in the few extant +remains of their architecture Egyptian, Assyrian, Phœnician, Greek, +Roman, and Syro-Byzantine features, but nothing like an independent +national style. Among the most interesting of these remains are tombs of +various periods, principally occurring in the valleys near Jerusalem, +and erroneously ascribed by popular tradition to the judges, prophets, +and kings of Israel. Some of them are structural, some cut in the rock; +the former (tomb of Absalom, of Zechariah) decorated with Doric and +Ionic engaged orders, were once supposed to be primitive types of these +orders and of great antiquity. They are now recognized to be debased +imitations of late Greek work of the third or second century B.C. They +have Egyptian cavetto cornices and pyramidal roofs, like many Asiatic +tombs. The openings of the rock-cut tombs have frames or pediments +carved with rich surface ornament showing a similar mixture of +types--Roman triglyphs and garlands, Syrian-Greek acanthus leaves, +conventional foliage of Byzantine character, and naturalistic carvings +of grapes and local plant-life. The carved arches of two of the ancient +city gates (one the so-called Golden Gate) in Jerusalem display rich +acanthus foliage somewhat like that of the tombs, but more vigorous and +artistic. If of the time of Herod or even of Constantine, as claimed by +some, they would indicate that Greek artists in Syria created the +prototypes of Byzantine ornament. They are more probably, however, +Byzantine restorations of the 6th century A.D. + +The one great achievement of Jewish architecture was the national ++Temple of Jehovah+, represented by three successive edifices on Mount +Moriah, the site of the present so-called “Mosque of Omar.” The first, +built by Solomon (1012 B.C.) appears from the Biblical description[6] to +have combined Egyptian conceptions (successive courts, lofty +entrance-pylons, the Sanctuary and the sekos or “Holy of Holies”) with +Phœnician and Assyrian details and workmanship (cedar woodwork, +empaistic decoration or overlaying with _repoussé_ metal work, the +isolated brazen columns Jachin and Boaz). The whole stood on a mighty +platform built up with stupendous masonry and vaulted chambers from the +valley surrounding the rock on three sides. This precinct was nearly +doubled in size by Herod (18 B.C.) who extended it southward by a +terrace-wall of still more colossal masonry. Some of the stones are +twenty-two feet long; one reaches the prodigious length of forty feet. +The “Wall of Lamentations” is a part of this terrace, upon which stood +the Temple on a raised platform. As rebuilt by Herod, the Temple +reproduced in part the antique design, and retained the porch of Solomon +along the east side; but the whole was superbly reconstructed in white +marble with abundance of gilding. Defended by the Castle of Antonia on +the northwest, and embellished with a new and imposing triple colonnade +on the south, the whole edifice, a conglomerate of Egyptian, Assyrian, +and Roman conceptions and forms, was one of the most singular and yet +magnificent creations of ancient art. + + [Footnote 6: 1 Kings vi.-vii.; 2 Chronicles iii.-iv.] + +The temple of Zerubbabel (515 B.C.), intermediate between those above +described, was probably less a re-edification of the first, than a new +design. While based on the scheme of the first temple, it appears to +have followed more closely the pattern described in the vision of +Ezekiel (chapters xl.-xlii.). It was far inferior to its predecessor in +splendor and costliness. No vestiges of it remain. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ PERSIAN: at Murghab, the tomb of Cyrus, known as + Gabré-Madré-Soleiman--a gabled structure on a seven-stepped + pyramidal basement (525 B.C.). At Persepolis the palace of Darius + (521 B.C.); the Propylæa of Xerxes, his palace and his harem (?) + or throne-hall (480 B.C.). These splendid structures, several of + them of vast size, resplendent with color and majestic with their + singular and colossal columns, must have formed one of the most + imposing architectural groups in the world. At various points, + tower-like tombs, supposed erroneously by Fergusson to have been + fire altars. At Naksh-i-Roustam, the tomb of Darius, cut in the + rock. Other tombs near by at Persepolis proper and at Pasargadæ. + At the latter place remains of the palace of Cyrus. At Susa the + palace of Xerxes and Artaxerxes (480-405 B.C.). + + There are no remains of private houses or temples. + + LYCIAN: the principal Lycian monuments are found in Myra, + Antiphellus, and Telmissus. Some of the monolithic tombs have been + removed to the British and other European museums. + + JEWISH: the temples have been mentioned above. The palace of + Solomon. The rock-cut monolithic tomb of Siloam. So-called tombs + of Absalom and Zechariah, structural; probably of Herod’s time or + later. Rock-cut Tombs of the Kings; of the Prophets, etc. City + gates (Herodian or early Christian period). + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +GREEK ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Reber. Also, Anderson and Spiers, + _Architecture of Greece and Rome_. Baumeister, _Denkmäler der + Klassischen Alterthums_. Bötticher, _Tektonik der Hellenen_. + Chipiez, _Histoire critique des ordres grecs_. Curtius, Adler and + Treu, _Die Ausgrabungen zu Olympia_. Durm, _Antike Baukunst_ (in + _Handbuch d. Arch._). Frazer, _Pausanias’ Description of Greece_. + Hitorff, _L’architecture polychrome chez les Grecs_. Michaelis, + _Der Parthenon_. Penrose, _An Investigation, etc., of Athenian + Architecture_. Perrot and Chipiez, _History of Art in Primitive + Greece_; _La Grèce de l’Epopée_; _La Grèce archaïque_. Stuart and + Revett, _Antiquities of Athens_. Tarbell, _History of Greek Art_. + Texier, _L’Asie Mineure_. Wilkins, _Antiquities of Magna Græcia_. + + ++GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.+ Greek art marks the beginning of European +civilization. The Hellenic race gathered up influences and suggestions +from both Asia and Africa and fused them with others, whose sources are +unknown, into an art intensely national and original, which was to +influence the arts of many races and nations long centuries after the +decay of the Hellenic states. The Greek mind, compared with the Egyptian +or Assyrian, was more highly intellectual, more logical, more +symmetrical, and above all more inquiring and analytic. Living nowhere +remote from the sea, the Greeks became sailors, merchants, and +colonizers. The Ionian kinsmen of the European Greeks, speaking a +dialect of the same language, populated the coasts of Asia Minor and +many of the islands, so that through them the Greeks were open to the +influences of the Assyrian, Phœnician, Persian, and Lycian +civilizations. In Cyprus they encountered Egyptian influences, and +finally, under Psammetichus, they established in Egypt itself the Greek +city of Naukratis. They were thus by geographical situation, by +character, and by circumstances, peculiarly fitted to receive, develop, +and transmit the mingled influences of the East and the South. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 22.--LION GATE AT MYCENÆ.] + ++PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS.+[7] Authentic Greek history begins with the +first Olympiad, 776 B.C. The earliest monuments of that historic +architecture which developed into the masterpieces of the Periclean and +Alexandrian ages, date from the middle of the following century. But +there are a number of older buildings, belonging presumably to the +so-called Heroic Age, which, though seemingly unconnected with the later +historic development of Greek architecture, are still worthy of note. +They are the work of a people somewhat advanced in civilization, +probably the Pelasgi, who preceded the Dorians on Greek soil, and +consist mainly of fortifications, walls, gates, and tombs, the most +important of which are at +Mycenæ+ and +Tiryns+. At the latter place is +a well-defined acropolis, with massive walls in which are passages +covered by stones successively overhanging or corbelled until they meet. +The masonry is of huge stones piled without cement. At Mycenæ the city +wall is pierced by the remarkable +Lion Gate+ (Fig. 22), consisting of +two jambs and a huge lintel, over which the weight is relieved by a +triangular opening. This is filled with a sculptured group, now much +defaced, representing two rampant lions flanking a singular column which +tapers downward. This symbolic group has relations with Hittite and +Phrygian sculptures, and with the symbolism of the worship of Rhea +Cybele. The masonry of the wall is carefully dressed but not regularly +coursed. Other primitive walls and gates showing openings and embryonic +arches of various forms, are found widely scattered, at Samos and Delos, +at Phigaleia, Thoricus, Argos and many other points. The very earliest +are hardly more than random piles of rough stone. Those which may fairly +claim notice for their artistic masonry are of a later date and of two +kinds: the coursed, and the polygonal or Cyclopean, so called from the +tradition that they were built by the Cyclopes. These Cyclopean walls +were composed of large, irregular polygonal blocks carefully fitted +together and dressed to a fairly smooth face (Fig. 23). Both kinds were +used contemporaneously, though in the course of time the regular coursed +masonry finally superseded the polygonal. + + [Footnote 7: For enlargement on this topic see Appendix A.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 23.--POLYGONAL MASONRY.] + + ++THOLOS OF ATREUS.+ All these structures present, however, only the +rudiments of architectural art. The so-called +Tholos+ (or Treasury) of ++Atreus+, at Mycenæ, on the other hand, shows the germs of truly +artistic design (Fig. 24). It is in reality a tomb, and is one of a +large class of prehistoric tombs found in almost every part of the +globe, consisting of a circular stone-walled and stone-roofed chamber +buried under a tumulus of earth. This one is a beehive-shaped +construction of horizontal courses of masonry, with a stone-walled +passage, the _dromos_, leading to the entrance door. Though internally +of domical form, its construction with horizontal beds in the masonry +proves that the idea of the true dome with the beds of each course +pitched at an angle always normal to the curve of the vault, was not yet +grasped. A small sepulchral chamber opens from the great one, by a door +with the customary relieving triangle over it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 24.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. PLAN AND SECTION.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 25.--THOLOS OF ATREUS. DOORWAY.] + +Traces of a metal lining have been found on the inner surface of the +dome and on the jambs of the entrance door. This entrance is the most +artistic and elaborate part of the edifice (Fig. 25). The main opening +is enclosed in a three-banded frame, and was once flanked by columns +which, as shown by fragments still existing and by marks on either side +the door, tapered downward as in the sculptured column over the Lion +Gate. Shafts, bases, and capitals were covered with zig-zag bands or +chevrons of fine spirals. This well-studied decoration, the banded +jambs, and the curiously inverted columns (of which several other +examples exist in or near Mycenæ), all point to a fairly developed art, +derived partly from Egyptian and partly from Asiatic sources. That +Egyptian influences had affected this early art is further proved by a +fragment of carved and painted ornament on a ceiling in Orchomenos, +imitating with remarkable closeness certain ceiling decorations in +Egyptian tombs. + + ++HISTORIC MONUMENTS; THE ORDERS.+ It was the Dorians and Ionians who +developed the architecture of classic Greece. This fact is perpetuated +in the traditional names, Doric and Ionic, given to the two systems of +columnar design which formed the most striking feature of that +architecture. While in Egypt the column was used almost exclusively as +an internal support and decoration, in Greece it was chiefly employed to +produce an imposing exterior effect. It was the most important element +in the temple architecture of the Greeks, and an almost indispensable +adornment of their gateways, public squares, and temple enclosures. To +the column the two races named above gave each a special and radically +distinct development, and it was not until the Periclean age that the +two forms came to be used in conjunction, even by the mixed Doric-Ionic +people of Attica. Each of the two types had its own special shaft, +capital, entablature, mouldings, and ornaments, although considerable +variation was allowed in the proportions and minor details. The general +type, however, remained substantially unchanged from first to last. The +earliest examples known to us of either order show it complete in all +its parts, its later development being restricted to the refining and +perfecting of its proportions and details. The probable origin of these +orders will be separately considered later on. + + ++THE DORIC.+ The column of the Doric order (Figs. 26, 27) consists of a +tapering shaft rising directly from the stylobate or platform and +surmounted by a capital of great simplicity and beauty. The shaft is +fluted with sixteen to twenty shallow channellings of segmental or +elliptical section, meeting in sharp edges or _arrises_. The capital is +made up of a circular cushion or _echinus_ adorned with fine grooves +called _annulæ_, and a plain square _abacus_ or cap Upon this rests a +plain architrave or _epistyle_, with a narrow fillet, the _tænia_, +running along its upper edge. The frieze above it is divided into square +panels, called the _metopes_, separated by vertical _triglyphs_ having +each two vertical grooves and chamfered edges. There is a triglyph over +each column and one over each intercolumniation, or two in rare +instances where the columns are widely spaced. The cornice consists of a +broadly projecting _corona_ resting on a _bed-mould_ of one or two +simple mouldings. Its under surface, called the _soffit_, is adorned +with _mutules_, square, flat projections having each eighteen _guttæ_ +depending from its under side. Two or three small mouldings run along +the upper edge of the corona, which has in addition, over each slope of +the gable, a gutter-moulding or _cymatium_. The cornices along the +horizontal edges of the roof have instead of the cymatium a row of +_antefixæ_, ornaments of terra-cotta or marble placed opposite the foot +of each tile-ridge of the roofing. The enclosed triangular field of the +gable, called the _tympanum_, was in the larger monuments adorned with +sculptured groups resting on the shelf formed by the horizontal cornice +below. Carved ornaments called _acroteria_ commonly embellished the +three angles of the gable or pediment. + + [Illustration: FIG. 26.--GREEK DORIC ORDER. + A, _Crepidoma, or stylobate_; b, _Column_; c, _Architrave_; + d, _Tænia_; e, _Frieze_; f, _Horizontal cornice_; g, _Raking + cornice_; h, _Tympanum of pediment_; k, _Metope_.] + + ++POLYCHROMY.+ It has been fully proved, after a century of debate, that +all this elaborate system of parts, severe and dignified in their +simplicity of form, received a rich decoration of color. While the +precise shades and tones employed cannot be predicated with certainty, +it is well established that the triglyphs were painted blue and the +metopes red, and that all the mouldings were decorated with +leaf-ornaments, “eggs-and-darts,” and frets, in red, green, blue, and +gold. The walls and columns were also colored, probably with pale tints +of yellow or buff, to reduce the glare of the fresh marble or the +whiteness of the fine stucco with which the surfaces of masonry of +coarser stone were primed. In the clear Greek atmosphere and outlined +against the brilliant sky, the Greek temple must have presented an +aspect of rich, sparkling gayety. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 27.--DORIC ORDER OF THE PARTHENON.] + ++ORIGIN OF THE ORDER.+ It is generally believed that the details of the +Doric frieze and cornice were reminiscences of a primitive wood +construction. The triglyph suggests the chamfered ends of cross-beams +made up of three planks each; the mutules, the sheathing of the eaves; +and the guttæ, the heads of the spikes or trenails by which the +sheathing was secured. It is known that in early astylar temples the +metopes were left open like the spaces between the ends of +ceiling-rafters. In the earlier peripteral temples, as at Selinus, the +triglyph-frieze is retained around the cella-wall under the ceiling of +the colonnade, where it has no functional significance, as a survival +from times antedating the adoption of the colonnade, when the tradition +of a wooden roof-construction showing externally had not yet been +forgotten. + +A similar wooden origin for the Doric column has been advocated by some, +who point to the assertion of Pausanias that in the Doric Heraion at +Olympia the original wooden columns had with one exception been replaced +by stone columns as fast as they decayed. (See p. 62.) This, however, +only proves that wooden columns were sometimes used in early buildings, +not that the Doric column was derived from them. Others would derive it +from the Egyptian columns of Beni Hassan (p. 12), which it certainly +resembles. But they do not explain how the Greeks could have been +familiar with the Beni Hassan column long before the opening of Egypt to +them under Psammetichus; nor why, granting them some knowledge of +Egyptian architecture, they should have passed over the splendors of +Karnak and Luxor to copy these inconspicuous tombs perched high up on +the cliffs of the Nile. It would seem that the Greeks invented this form +independently, developing it in buildings which have perished; unless, +indeed, they brought the idea with them from their primitive Aryan home +in Asia. + + ++THE IONIC ORDER+ was characterized by greater slenderness of proportion +and elegance of detail than the Doric, and depended more on carving than +on color for the decoration of its members (Fig. 28). It was adopted in +the fifth century B.C. by the people of Attica, and used both for civic +and religious buildings, sometimes alone and sometimes in conjunction +with the Doric. The column was from eight to ten diameters in height, +against four and one-third to seven for the Doric. It stood on a base +which was usually composed of two tori (see p. 25 for definition) +separated by a _scotia_ (a concave moulding of semicircular or +semi-elliptical profile), and was sometimes provided also with a square +flat base-block, the _plinth_. There was much variety in the proportions +and details of these mouldings, which were often enriched by flutings or +carved guilloches. The tall shaft bore twenty-four deep narrow flutings +separated by narrow fillets. The capital was the most peculiar feature +of the order. It consisted of a bead or _astragal_ and echinus, over +which was a horizontal band ending on either side in a scroll or volute, +the sides of which presented the aspect shown in Fig. 29. A thin moulded +abacus was interposed between this member and the architrave. + + [Illustration: FIG. 28.--GREEK IONIC ORDER. (MILETUS.)] + +The Ionic capital was marked by two awkward features which all its +richness could not conceal. One was the protrusion of the echinus beyond +the face of the band above it, the other was the disparity between the +side and front views of the capital, especially noticeable at the +corners of a colonnade. To obviate this, various contrivances were +tried, none wholly successful. Ordinarily the two adjacent exterior +sides of the corner capital were treated alike, the scrolls at their +meeting being bent out at an angle of 45°, while the two inner faces +simply intersected, cutting each other in halves. + +The entablature comprised an architrave of two or three flat bands +crowned by fine mouldings; an uninterrupted frieze, frequently +sculptured in relief; and a simple cornice of great beauty. In addition +to the ordinary bed-mouldings there was in most examples a row of narrow +blocks or _dentils_ under the corona, which was itself crowned by a high +cymatium of extremely graceful profile, carved with the rich +“honeysuckle” (_anthemion_) ornament. All the mouldings were carved with +the “egg-and-dart,” heart-leaf and anthemion ornaments, so designed as +to recall by their outline the profile of the moulding itself. The +details of this order were treated with much more freedom and variety +than those of the Doric. The pediments of Ionic buildings were rarely or +never adorned with groups of sculpture. The volutes and echinus of the +capital, the fluting of the shaft, the use of a moulded circular base, +and in the cornice the high corona and cymatium, these were constant +elements in every Ionic order, but all other details varied widely in +the different examples. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 29.--SIDE VIEW OF IONIC CAPITAL.] + ++ORIGIN OF THE IONIC ORDER.+ The origin of the Ionic order has given +rise to almost as much controversy as that of the Doric. Its different +elements were apparently derived from various sources. The Lycian tombs +may have contributed the denticular cornice and perhaps also the general +form of the column and capital. In the Persian architecture of the sixth +century B.C., the high moulded base, the narrow flutings of the shaft, +the carved bead-moulding and the use of scrolls in the capital are +characteristic features, which may have been borrowed by the Ionians +during the same century, unless, indeed, they were themselves the work +of Ionic or Lycian workmen in Persian employ. The banded architrave and +the use of the volute in the decoration of stele-caps (from στηλη = +a memorial stone or column standing isolated and upright), furniture, +and minor structures are common features in Assyrian, Lycian, and other +Asiatic architecture of early date. The volute or scroll itself as an +independent decorative motive may have originated in successive +variations of Egyptian lotus-patterns.[8] But the combination of these +diverse elements and their development into the final form of the order +was the work of the Ionian Greeks, and it was in the Ionian provinces of +Asia Minor that the most splendid examples of its use are to be found +(Halicarnassus, Miletus, Priene, Ephesus), while the most graceful and +perfect are those of Doric-Ionic Attica. + + [Footnote 8: As contended by W. H. Goodyear in his _Grammar of + the Lotus_.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 30.--GREEK CORINTHIAN ORDER. + (From the monument of Lysicrates.)] + ++THE CORINTHIAN ORDER.+ This was a late outgrowth of the Ionic rather +than a new order, and up to the time of the Roman conquest was only used +for monuments of small size (see Fig. 38). Its entablature in pure Greek +examples was identical with the Ionic; the shaft and base were only +slightly changed in proportion and detail. The capital, however, was a +new departure, based probably on metallic embellishments of altars, +pedestals, etc., of Ionic style. It consisted in the best examples of a +high bell-shaped core surrounded by one or two rows of acanthus leaves, +above which were pairs of branching scrolls meeting at the corners in +spiral volutes. These served to support the angles of a moulded abacus +with concave sides (Fig. 30). One example, from the Tower of the Winds +(the clepsydra of Andronicus Cyrrhestes) at Athens, has only smooth +pointed palm-leaves and no scrolls above a single row of acanthus +leaves. Indeed, the variety and disparity among the different examples +prove that we have here only the first steps toward the evolution of an +independent order, which it was reserved for the Romans to fully +develop. + + ++GREEK TEMPLES; THE TYPE.+ With the orders as their chief decorative +element the Greeks built up a splendid architecture of religious and +secular monuments. Their noblest works were temples, which they designed +with the utmost simplicity of general scheme, but carried out with a +mastery of proportion and detail which has never been surpassed. Of +moderate size in most cases, they were intended primarily to enshrine +the simulacrum of the deity, and not, like Christian churches, to +accommodate great throngs of worshippers. Nor were they, on the other +hand, sanctuaries designed, like those of Egypt, to exclude all but a +privileged few from secret rites performed only by the priests and king. +The statue of the deity was enshrined in a chamber, the _naos_ (see +plan, Fig. 31), often of considerable size, and accessible to the public +through a columnar porch the _pronaos_. A smaller chamber, the +_opisthodomus_, was sometimes added in the rear of the main sanctuary, +to serve as a treasury or depository for votive offerings. Together +these formed a windowless structure called the _cella_, beyond which was +the rear porch, the _posticum_ or _epinaos_. This whole structure was in +the larger temples surrounded by a colonnade, the _peristyle_, which +formed the most splendid feature of Greek architecture. The external +aisle on either side of the cella was called the _pteroma_. A single +gabled roof covered the entire building. + + [Illustration: FIG. 31.--TYPES OF GREEK TEMPLE PLANS. + a, _In Antis_; b, _Prostyle_; c, _Amphiprostyle_; d, _Peripteral_ + (_The Parthenon_); N, _Naos_; O, _Opisthodomus_; S, _Statue_.] + +The Greek colonnade was thus an exterior feature, surrounding the solid +cella-wall instead of being enclosed by it as in Egypt. The temple was a +public, not a royal monument; and its builders aimed, not as in Egypt at +size and overwhelming sombre majesty, but rather at sunny beauty and the +highest perfection of proportion, execution, and detail (Fig. 34). + +There were of course many variations of the general type just described. +Each of these has received a special name, which is given below with +explanations and is illustrated in Fig. 31. + +_In antis_; with a porch having two or more columns enclosed between the +projecting side-walls of the cella. + +_Prostylar_ (or prostyle); with a columnar porch in front and no +peristyle. + +_Amphiprostylar_ (or -style); with columnar porches at both ends but no +peristyle. + +_Peripteral_; surrounded by columns. + +_Pseudoperipteral_; with false or engaged columns built into the walls +of the cella, leaving no pteroma. + +_Dipteral_; with double lateral ranges of columns (see Fig. 39). + +_Pseudodipteral_; with a single row of columns on each side, whose +distance from the wall is equal to two intercolumniations of the front. + +_Tetrastyle_, _hexastyle_, _octastyle_, _decastyle_, etc.; with four, +six, eight, or ten columns in the end rows. + + ++CONSTRUCTION.+ All the temples known to us are of stone, though it is +evident from allusions in the ancient writers that wood was sometimes +used in early times. (See p. 62.) The finest temples, especially those +of Attica, Olympia, and Asia Minor, were of marble. In Magna Græcia, at +Assos, and in other places where marble was wanting, limestone, +sandstone, or lava was employed and finished with a thin, fine stucco. +The roof was almost invariably of wood and gabled, forming at the ends +pediments decorated in most cases with sculpture. The disappearance of +these inflammable and perishable roofs has given rise to endless +speculations as to the lighting of the cellas, which in all known ruins, +except one at Agrigentum, are destitute of windows. It has been +conjectured that light was admitted through openings in the roof, and +even that the central part of the cella was wholly open to the sky. Such +an arrangement is termed _hypæthral_, from an expression used in a +description by Vitruvius;[9] but this description corresponds to no +known structure, and the weight of opinion now inclines against the use +of the hypæthral opening, except possibly in one or two of the largest +temples, in which a part of the cella in front of the statue may have +been thus left open. But even this partial _hypæthros_ is not +substantiated by direct evidence. It hardly seems probable that the +magnificent chryselephantine statues of such temples were ever thus left +exposed to the extremes of the climate, which are often severe even in +Greece. In the model of the Parthenon designed by Ch. Chipiez for the +Metropolitan Museum in New York, a small clerestory opening through the +roof admits a moderate amount of light to the cella; but this ingenious +device rests on no positive evidence (see Frontispiece). It seems on the +whole most probable that the cella was lighted entirely by artificial +illumination; but the controversy in its present state is and must be +wholly speculative. + + [Footnote 9: Lib. III., Cap. I.] + +The wooden roof was covered with tiles of terra-cotta or marble. It was +probably ceiled and panelled on the under side, and richly decorated +with color and gold. The pteroma had under the exterior roof a ceiling +of stone or marble, deeply panelled between transverse architraves. + +The naos and opisthodomus being in the larger temples too wide to be +spanned by single beams, were furnished with interior columns to afford +intermediate support. To avoid the extremes of too great massiveness and +excessive slenderness in these columns, they were built in two stages, +and advantage was taken of this arrangement, in some cases, at least, to +introduce lateral galleries into the naos. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 32.--CARVED ANTHEMION ORNAMENT. ATHENS.] + ++SCULPTURE AND CARVING.+ All the architectural membering was treated +with the greatest refinement of design and execution, and the aid of +sculpture, both in relief and in the round, was invoked to give splendor +and significance to the monument. The statue of the deity was the focus +of internal interest, while externally, groups of statues representing +the Olympian deities or the mythical exploits of gods, demigods, and +heroes, adorned the gables. Relief carvings in the friezes and metopes +commemorated the favorite national myths. In these sculptures we have +the finest known adaptations of pure sculpture--_i.e._, sculpture +treated as such and complete in itself--to an architectural framework. +The noblest examples of this decorative sculpture are those of the +Parthenon, consisting of figures in the full round from the pediments, +groups in high relief from the metopes, and the beautiful frieze of the +Panathenaic procession from the cella-wall under the pteroma ceiling. +The greater part of these splendid works are now in the British Museum, +whither they were removed by Lord Elgin in 1801. From Olympia, Ægina, +and Phigaleia, other master-works of the same kind have been transferred +to the museums of Europe. In the Doric style there was little carving +other than the sculpture, the ornament being mainly polychromatic. Greek +Ionic and Corinthian monuments, however, as well as minor works such as +steles, altars, etc., were richly adorned with carved mouldings and +friezes, festoons, acroteria, and other embellishments executed with the +chisel. The anthemion ornament, a form related to the Egyptian lotus and +Assyrian palmette, most frequently figures in these. It was made into +designs of wonderful vigor and beauty (Fig. 32). + + ++DETAIL AND EXECUTION.+ In the handling and cutting of stone the Greeks +displayed a surpassing skill and delicacy. While ordinarily they were +content to use stones of moderate size, they never hesitated at any +dimension necessary for proper effect or solid construction. The lower +drums of the Parthenon peristyle are 6 feet 6½ inches in diameter, and +2 feet 10 inches high, cut from single blocks of Pentelic marble. The +architraves of the Propylæa at Athens are each made up of two lintels +placed side by side, the longest 17 feet 7 inches long, 3 feet 10 inches +high, and 2 feet 4 inches thick. In the colossal temples of Asia Minor, +where the taste for the vast and grandiose was more pronounced, blocks +of much greater size were used. These enormous stones were cut and +fitted with the most scrupulous exactness. The walls of all important +structures were built in regular courses throughout, every stone +carefully bedded with extremely close joints. The masonry was usually +laid up without cement and clamped with metal; there is no filling in +with rubble and concrete between mere facings of cut stone, as in most +modern work. When the only available stone was of coarse texture it was +finished with a coating of fine stucco, in which sharp edges and minute +detail could be worked. + +The details were, in the best period, executed with the most +extraordinary refinement and care. The profiles of capitals and +mouldings, the carved ornament, the arrises of the flutings, were cut +with marvellous precision and delicacy. It has been rightly said that +the Greeks “built like Titans and finished like jewellers.” But this +perfect finish was never petty nor wasted on unworthy or vulgar design. +The just relation of scale between the building and all its parts was +admirably maintained; the ornament was distributed with rare judgment, +and the vigor of its design saved it from all appearance of triviality. + +The sensitive taste of the Greeks led them into other refinements than +those of mere mechanical perfection. In the Parthenon especially, but +also in lesser degree in other temples, the seemingly straight lines of +the building were all slightly curved, and the vertical faces inclined. +This was done to correct the monotony and stiffness of absolutely +straight lines and right angles, and certain optical illusions which +their acute observation had detected. The long horizontal lines of the +stylobate and cornice were made convex upward; a similar convexity in +the horizontal corona of the pediment counteracted the seeming concavity +otherwise resulting from its meeting with the multiplied inclined lines +of the raking cornice. The columns were almost imperceptibly inclined +toward the cella, and the corner intercolumniations made a trifle +narrower than the rest; while the vertical lines of the arrises of the +flutings were made convex outward with a curve of the utmost beauty and +delicacy. By these and other like refinements there was imparted to the +monument an elasticity and vigor of aspect, an elusive and surprising +beauty impossible to describe and not to be explained by the mere +composition and general proportions, yet manifest to every cultivated +eye.[10] + + [Footnote 10: These refinements, first noticed by Allason in + 1814, and later confirmed by Cockerell and Haller as to the + columns, were published to the world in 1838 by Hoffer, verified + by Penrose in 1846, and further developed by the investigations + of Ziller and later observers.] + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +GREEK ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VI. Also, Bacon and Clarke, + _Investigations at Assos_. Espouy, _Fragments d’architecture + antique_. Harrison and Verrall, _Mythology and Monuments of + Ancient Athens_. Hitorff et Zanth, _Recueil des Monuments de + Ségeste et Sélinonte_. Magne, _Le Parthénon_. Koldewey and + Puchstein, _Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_. + Waldstein, _The Argive Heræum_. + + ++HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT.+ The history of Greek architecture, subsequent to +the Heroic or Primitive Age, may be divided into periods as follows: + +The ARCHAIC; from 650 to 500 B.C. + +The TRANSITIONAL; from 500 to 460 B.C., or to the revival of prosperity +after the Persian wars. + +The PERICLEAN; from 460 to 400 B.C. + +The FLORID or ALEXANDRIAN; from 400 to 300 B.C. + +The DECADENT; 300 to 100 B.C. + +The ROMAN; 100 B.C. to 200 A.D. + +These dates are, of course, somewhat arbitrary; it is impossible to set +exact bounds to style-periods, which must inevitably overlap at certain +points, but the dates, as given above, will assist in distinguishing the +successive phases of the history. + + ++ARCHAIC PERIOD.+ The archaic period is characterized by the exclusive +use of the Doric order, which appears in the earliest monuments complete +in all its parts, but heavy in its proportions and coarse in its +execution. The oldest known temples of this period are the +Apollo +Temple+ at Corinth (650 B.C.?), and the +Northern Temple+ on the +acropolis at +Selinus+ in Sicily (cir. 610-590 B.C.). They are both of a +coarse limestone covered with stucco. The columns are low and massive +(4⅓ to 4⅔ diameters in height), widely spaced, and carry a very high +entablature. The triglyphs still appear around the cella wall under the +pteroma ceiling, an illogical detail destined to disappear in later +buildings. Other temples at Selinus date from the middle or latter part +of the sixth century; they have higher columns and finer profiles than +those just mentioned. The great +Temple of Zeus+ at +Selinus+ was the +earliest of five colossal Greek temples of very nearly identical +dimensions; it measured 360 feet by 167 feet in plan, but was never +completed. During the second half of the sixth century important Doric +temples were built at Pæstum in South Italy, and Agrigentum in Sicily; +the somewhat primitive temple at Assos in Asia Minor, with uncouth +carvings of centaurs and monsters on its architrave, belongs to this +same period. The +Temple of Zeus+ at +Agrigentum+ (Fig. 33) is another +singular and exceptional design, and was the second of the five colossal +temples mentioned above. The pteroma was entirely enclosed by walls with +engaged columns showing externally, and was of extraordinary width. The +walls of the narrow cella were interrupted by heavy piers supporting +atlantes, or applied statues under the ceiling. There seem to have been +windows between these figures, but it is not clear whence they borrowed +their light, unless it was admitted by the omission of the metopes +between the external triglyphs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 33.--TEMPLE OF ZEUS. AGRIGENTUM.] + + ++THE TRANSITION.+ During the transitional period there was a marked +improvement in the proportions, detail, and workmanship of the temples. +The cella was made broader, the columns more slender, the entablature +lighter. The triglyphs disappeared from the cella wall, and sculpture of +a higher order enhanced the architectural effect. The profiles of the +mouldings and especially of the capitals became more subtle and refined +in their curves, while the development of the Ionic order in important +monuments in Asia Minor was preparing the way for the splendors of the +Periclean age. Three temples especially deserve notice: the +Athena +Temple+ on the island of +Ægina+, the +Temple of Zeus+ at +Olympia+, and +the so-called +Theseum+--perhaps a temple of Heracles--in Athens. They +belong to the period 470-450 B.C.; they are all hexastyle and +peripteral, and without triglyphs on the cella wall. Of the three the +second in the list is interesting as the scene of those rites which +preceded and accompanied the Panhellenic Olympian games, and as the +central feature of the Altis, the most complete temple-group and +enclosure among all Greek remains. It was built of a coarse +conglomerate, finished with fine stucco, and embellished with sculpture +by the greatest masters of the time. The adjacent +Heraion+ (temple of +Hera) was a highly venerated and ancient shrine, originally built with +wooden columns which, according to Pausanias, were replaced one by one, +as they decayed, by stone columns. The truth of this statement is +attested by the discovery of a singular variety of capitals among its +ruins, corresponding to the various periods at which they were added. +The Theseum is the most perfectly preserved of all Greek temples, and in +the refinement of its forms is only surpassed by those of the Periclean +age. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 34.--RUINS OF THE PARTHENON.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 35.--PLAN OF ERECHTHEUM.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 36.--WEST END OF ERECHTHEUM, RESTORED.] + ++THE PERICLEAN AGE.+ The Persian wars may be taken as the dividing line +between the Transition period and the Periclean age. The _élan_ of +national enthusiasm that followed the expulsion of the invader, and the +glory and wealth which accrued to Athens as the champion of all Hellas, +resulted in a splendid reconstruction of the Attic monuments as well as +a revival of building activity in Asia Minor. By the wise administration +of Pericles and by the genius of Ictinus, Phidias, and other artists of +surpassing skill, the Acropolis at Athens was crowned with a group of +buildings and statues absolutely unrivalled. Chief among them was the ++Parthenon+, the shrine of Athena Parthenos, which the critics of all +schools have agreed in considering the most faultless in design and +execution of all buildings erected by man (Figs. 31, 34, and +Frontispiece). It was an octastyle peripteral temple, with seventeen +columns on the side, and measured 220 by 100 feet on the top of the +stylobate. It was the work of Ictinus and Callicrates, built to enshrine +the noble statue of the goddess by Phidias, a standing chryselephantine +figure forty feet high. It was the masterpiece of Greek architecture not +only by reason of its refinements of detail, but also on account of the +beauty of its sculptural adornments. The frieze about the cella wall +under the pteroma ceiling, representing in low relief with masterly +skill the Panathenaic procession; the sculptured groups in the metopes, +and the superb assemblages of Olympic and symbolic figures of colossal +size in the pediments, added their majesty to the perfection of the +architecture. Here also the horizontal curvatures and other refinements +are found in their highest development. Northward from it, upon the +Acropolis, stood the +Erechtheum+, an excellent example of the +Attic-Ionic style (Figs. 35, 36). Its singular irregularities of plan +and level, and the variety of its detail, exhibit in a striking way the +Greek indifference to mere formal symmetry when confronted by practical +considerations. The motive in this case was the desire to include in one +design several existing and venerated shrines to Attic deities and +heroes--Athena Polias, Poseidon, Pandrosus, Erechtheus, Boutes, etc. +Begun by unknown architects in 479 B.C., and not completed until 408 +B.C., it remains in its ruin still one of the most interesting and +attractive of ancient buildings. Its two colonnades of differing design, +its beautiful north doorway, and the unique and noble caryatid porch or +balcony on the south side are unsurpassed in delicate beauty combined +with vigor of design.[11] A smaller monument of the Ionic order, the +amphiprostyle temple to +Nike Apteros+--the Wingless Victory--stands on +a projecting spur of the Acropolis to the southwest. It measures only 27 +feet by 18 feet in plan; the cella is nearly square; the columns are +sturdier than those of the Erechtheum, and the execution of the monument +is admirable. It was the first completed of the extant buildings of the +group of the Acropolis and dates from 466 B.C. + + [Footnote 11: See Appendix, p. 427.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 37.--PROPYLÆA AT ATHENS. PLAN.] + +In the +Propylæa+ (Fig. 37), the monumental gateway to the Acropolis, +the Doric and Ionic orders appear to have been combined for the first +time (437 to 432 B.C.). It was the master work of Mnesicles. The front +and rear façades were Doric hexastyles; adjoining the front porch were +two projecting lateral wings employing a smaller Doric order. The +central passageway led between two rows of Ionic columns to the rear +porch, entered by five doorways and crowned, like the front, with a +pediment. The whole was executed with the same splendor and perfection +as the other buildings of the Acropolis, and was a worthy gateway to the +group of noble monuments which crowned that citadel of the Attic +capital. The two orders were also combined in the temple of +Apollo +Epicurius+ at +Phigalæa+ (Bassæ). This temple was erected in 430 B.C. by +Ictinus, who used the Ionic order internally to decorate a row of +projecting piers instead of free-standing columns in the naos, in which +there was also a single Corinthian column of rather archaic design, +which may have been used as a support for a statue or votive offering. + + ++ALEXANDRIAN AGE.+ A period of reaction followed the splendid +architectural activity of the Periclean age. A succession of disastrous +wars--the Sicilian, Peloponnesian, and Corinthian--drained the energies +and destroyed the peace of European Greece for seventy-five years, +robbing Athens of her supremacy and inflicting wounds from which she +never recovered. In the latter part of the fourth century, however, the +triumph of the Macedonian empire over all the Mediterranean lands +inaugurated a new era of architectural magnificence, especially in Asia +Minor. The keynote of the art of this time was splendor, as that of the +preceding age was artistic perfection. The Corinthian order came into +use, as though the Ionic were not rich enough for the sumptuous taste of +the time, and capitals and bases of novel and elaborate design +embellished the Ionic temples of Asia Minor. In the temple of +Apollo +Didymæus+ at Miletus, the plinths of the bases were made octagonal and +panelled with rich scroll-carvings; and the piers which buttressed the +interior faces of the cella-walls were given capitals of singular but +elegant form, midway between the Ionic and Corinthian types. This temple +belongs to the list of colossal edifices already referred to; its +dimensions were 366 by 163 feet, making it the largest of them all. The +famous +Artemisium+ (temple of Artemis or Diana) measured 342 by 163 +feet. Several of the columns of the latter were enriched with sculptured +figures encircling the lower drums of the colossal shafts. The most +lavish expenditure was bestowed upon small structures, shrines, and +sarcophagi. The graceful monument still visible in Athens, erected by +the choragus Lysicrates in token of his victory in the choral +competitions, belongs to this period (330 B.C.). It is circular, with a +slightly domical imbricated roof, and is decorated with elegant engaged +Corinthian columns (Fig. 38). In the Imperial Museum at Constantinople +are several sarcophagi of this period found at Sidon, but executed by +Greek artists, and of exceptional beauty. They are in the form of +temples or shrines; the finest of them, supposed by some to have been +made for Alexander’s favorite general Perdiccas, and by others for the +Persian satrap who figures prominently on its sculptured reliefs, is the +most sumptuous work of the kind in existence. The exquisite polychromy +of its beautiful reliefs and the perfection of its rich details of +cornice, pediment, tiling, and crestings, make it an exceedingly +interesting and instructive example of the minor architecture of the +period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 38.--CHORAGIC MONUMENT OF LYSICRATES. + (Restored model, N.Y.)] + + ++THE DECADENCE.+ After the decline of Alexandrian magnificence Greek art +never recovered its ancient glory, but the flame was not suddenly +extinguished. While in Greece proper the works of the second and third +centuries B.C., are for the most part weak and lifeless, like the +Stoa +of Attalus+ (175 B.C.) and the +Tower of the Winds+ (the Clepsydra of +Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 100 B.C.) at Athens or the Portico of Philip in +Delos, there were still a few worthy works built in Asia Minor. The +splendid +Altar+ erected at +Pergamon+ by Eumenes II. (circ. 180 B.C.) +in the Ionic order, combined sculpture of extraordinary vigor with +imposing architecture in masterly fashion. At +Aizanoi+ an Ionic +Temple +to Zeus+, by some attributed to the Roman period, but showing rather the +character of good late Greek work, deserves mention for its elegant +details, and especially for its frieze-decoration of acanthus leaves and +scrolls resembling those of a Corinthian capital. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 39.--TEMPLE OF OLYMPIAN ZEUS. ATHENS.] + ++ROMAN PERIOD.+ During this period, _i.e._, throughout the second and +first centuries B.C., the Roman dominion was spreading over Greek +territory, and the structures erected subsequent to the conquest partake +of the Roman character and mingle Roman conceptions with Greek details +and _vice versâ_. The temple of the +Olympian Zeus+ at Athens (Fig. 39), +a mighty dipteral Corinthian edifice measuring 354 by 171 feet, standing +on a vast terrace or temenos surrounded by a buttressed wall, was begun +by Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.) on the site of an earlier unfinished +Doric temple of the time of Pisistratus, and carried out under the +direction of the Roman architect, Cossutius. It was not, however, +finally completed until the time of Hadrian, 130 A.D. Meanwhile Sulla +had despoiled it of several columns[12] which he carried to Rome (86 +B.C.), to use in the rebuilding of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, +where they undoubtedly served as models in the development of the Roman +Corinthian order. The columns were 57 feet high, with capitals of the +most perfect Corinthian type; fifteen are now standing, and one lies +prostrate near by. To the Roman period also belong the +Agora Gate+ +(circ. 35 B.C.), the +Arch of Hadrian+ (117 A.D.), the +Odeon of +Regilla+ or of Herodes Atticus (143 A.D.), at Athens, and many temples +and tombs, theatres, arches, etc., in the Greek provinces. + + [Footnote 12: L. Bevier, in _Papers of the American Classical + School at Athens_ (vol. i., pp. 195, 196), contends that these + were columns left from the old Doric temple. This is untenable, + for Sulla would certainly not have taken the trouble to carry + away archaic Doric columns, with such splendid Corinthian columns + before him.] + + ++SECULAR MONUMENTS; PROPYLÆA.+ The stately gateway by which the +Acropolis was entered has already been described. It was the noblest and +most perfect of a class of buildings whose prototype is found in the +monumental columnar porches of the palace-group at Persepolis. The +Greeks never used the arch in these structures, nor did they attach to +them the same importance as did most of the other nations of antiquity. +The Altis of Olympia, the national shrine of Hellenism, appears to have +had no central gateway of imposing size, but a number of insignificant +entrances disposed at random. The +Propylæa+ of +Sunium+, +Priene+ and ++Eleusis+ are the most conspicuous, after those of the Athenian +Acropolis. Of these the Ionic gateway at Priene is the finest, although +the later of the two at Eleusis is interesting for its anta-capitals. +(_Anta_ = a flat pilaster decorating the end of a wing-wall and treated +with a base and capital usually differing from those of the adjacent +columns.) These are of Corinthian type, adorned with winged horses, +scrolls, and anthemions of an exuberant richness of design, +characteristic of this late period. + + ++COLONNADES, STOÆ.+ These were built to connect public monuments (as the +Dionysiac theatre and Odeon at Athens); or along the sides of great +public squares, as at Assos and Olympia (the so-called +Echo Hall+); or +as independent open public halls, as the +Stoa Diple+ at Thoricus. They +afforded shelter from sun and rain, places for promenading, meetings +with friends, public gatherings, and similar purposes. They were rarely +of great size, and most of them are of rather late date, though the +archaic structure at Pæstum, known as the +Basilica+, was probably in +reality an open hall of this kind. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 40.--PLAN OF GREEK THEATRE. + o, _Orchestra_; l, _Logeion_; p, _Paraskenai_; _s, s_, _Stoa_.] + ++THEATRES, ODEONS.+ These were invariably cut out of the rocky +hillsides, though in a few cases (Mantinæa, Myra, Antiphellus) a part of +the seats were sustained by a built-up substructure and walls to eke out +the deficiency of the hill-slope under them. The front of the excavation +was enclosed by a stage and a set scene or background, built up so as to +leave somewhat over a semicircle for the _orchestra_ or space enclosed +by the lower tier of seats (Fig. 40). An altar to Dionysus (Bacchus) was +the essential feature in the foreground of the orchestra, where the +Dionysiac choral dance was performed. The seats formed successive steps +of stone or marble sweeping around the sloping excavation, with carved +marble thrones for the priests, archons, and other dignitaries. The only +architectural decoration of the theatre was that of the set scene or +_skene_, which with its wing-walls (_paraskenai_) enclosing the stage +(_logeion_) was a permanent structure of stone or marble adorned with +doors, cornices, pilasters, etc. This has perished in nearly every case; +but at Aspendus, in Asia Minor, there is one still fairly well +preserved, with a rich architectural decoration on its inner face. The +extreme diameter of the theatres varied greatly; thus at Aizanoi it is +187 feet, and at Syracuse 495 feet. The theatre of Dionysus at Athens +(finished 325 B.C.) could accommodate thirty thousand spectators. + +The odeon differed from the theatre principally in being smaller and +entirely covered in by a wooden roof. The +Odeon of Regilla+, built by +Herodes Atticus in Athens (143 A.D.), is a well-preserved specimen of +this class, but all traces of its cedar ceiling and of its intermediate +supports have disappeared. + + ++BUILDINGS FOR ATHLETIC CONTESTS.+ These comprised stadia and +hippodromes for races, and gymnasia and palæstræ for individual +exercise, bathing, and amusement. The _stadia_ and _hippodromes_ were +oblong enclosures surrounded by tiers of seats and without conspicuous +architectural features. The _palæstra_ or _gymnasium_--for the terms are +not clearly distinguished--was a combination of courts, chambers, tanks +(_piscinæ_) for bathers and _exedræ_ or semicircular recesses provided +with tiers of seats for spectators and auditors, destined not merely for +the exercises of athletes preparing for the stadium, but also for the +instruction and diversion of the public by recitations, lectures, and +discussions. It was the prototype of the Roman thermæ, but less +imposing, more simple in plan and adornment. Every Greek city had one or +more of them, but they have almost wholly disappeared, and the brief +description by Vitruvius and scanty remains at Alexandria Troas and +Ephesus furnish almost the only information we possess regarding their +form and arrangement. + + ++TOMBS.+ These are not numerous, and the most important are found in +Asia Minor. The greatest of these is the famed +Mausoleum+ at +Halicarnassus in Caria, the monument erected to the king Mausolus by his +widow Artemisia (354 B.C.; Fig. 41). It was designed by Satyrus and +Pythius in the Ionic style, and comprised a podium or base 50 feet high +and measuring 80 feet by 100 feet, in which was the sepulchre. Upon this +base stood a cella surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns; and crowned +by a pyramidal roof, on the peak of which was a colossal marble quadriga +at a height of 130 feet. It was superbly decorated by Scopas and other +great sculptors with statues, marble lions, and a magnificent frieze. +The British Museum possesses fragments of this most imposing monument. +At Xanthus the +Nereid Monument+, so called from its sculptured figures +of Nereides, was a somewhat similar design on a smaller scale, with +sixteen Ionic columns. At Mylassa was another tomb with an open +Corinthian colonnade supporting a roof formed in a stepped pyramid. Some +of the later rock-cut tombs of Lycia at Myra and Antiphellus may also be +counted as Hellenic works. + + [Illustration: FIG. 41.--MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS. + (As restored by the author.)] + + ++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ This never attained great importance in Greece, +and our knowledge of the typical Greek house is principally derived from +literary sources. Very few remains of Greek houses have been found +sufficiently well preserved to permit of restoring even the plan. It is +probable that they resembled in general arrangement the houses of +Pompeii (see p. 107); but that they were generally insignificant in size +and decoration. The exterior walls were pierced only by the entrance +doors, all light being derived from one or more interior courts. In the +Macedonian epoch there must have been greater display and luxury in +domestic architecture, but no remains have come down to us of sufficient +importance or completeness to warrant further discussion. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ In addition to those already mentioned in the text + the following should be enumerated: + + PREHISTORIC PERIOD. In the Islands about Santorin, remains of + houses antedating 1500 B.C.; at Tiryns the Acropolis, walls, and + miscellaneous ruins; the like also at Mycenæ, besides various + tombs; walls and gates at Samos, Thoricus, Menidi, Athens, etc. + + ARCHAIC PERIOD. Doric Temples at Metapontium (by Durm assigned to + 610 B.C.), Selinus, Agrigentum, Pæstum; at Athens the first + Parthenon; in Asia Minor the primitive Ionic Artemisium at Ephesus + and the Heraion at Samos, the latter the oldest of colossal Greek + temples. + + TRANSITIONAL PERIOD. At Agrigentum, temples of Concord, Castor and + Pollux, Demeter, Æsculapius, all circ. 480 B.C.; temples at + Selinus and Segesta. + + PERICLEAN PERIOD. In Athens the Ionic temple on the Illissus, + destroyed during the present century; on Cape Sunium the temple of + Athena, 430 B.C., partly standing; at Nemea, the temple of Zeus; + at Tegea, the temple of Athena Elea (400? B.C.); at Rhamnus, the + temples of Themis and of Nemesis; at Argos, two temples, stoa, and + other buildings; all these were Doric. + + ALEXANDRIAN PERIOD. The temple of Dionysus at Teos; temple of + Artemis Leucophryne at Magnesia, both about 330 B.C. and of the + Ionic order. + + DECADENCE AND ROMAN PERIOD. At Athens the Stoa of Eumenes, circ. + 170 B.C.; the monument of Philopappus on the Museum hill, 110 + A.D.; the Gymnasium of Hadrian, 114 to 137 A.D.; the last two of + the Corinthian order. + + THEATRES. Besides those already mentioned there are important + remains of theatres at Epidaurus, Argos, Segesta, Iassus (400? + B.C.), Delos, Sicyon, and Thoricus; at Aizanoi, Myra, Telmissus, + and Patara, besides many others of less importance scattered + through the Hellenic world. At Taormina are extensive ruins of a + large Greek theatre rebuilt in the Roman period. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Anderson and Spiers, Baumeister, + Reber. Choisy, _L’Art de bâtir chez les Romains_. Desgodetz, _Rome + in her Ancient Grandeur_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Etrusker_; _Die + Baukunst der Romer_. Lanciani, _Ancient Rome in the Light of + Modern Discovery_; _New Tales of Old Rome_; _Ruins and Excavations + of Ancient Rome_. De Martha, _Archéologie étrusque et romaine_. + Middleton, _Ancient Rome in 1888_. + + ++LAND AND PEOPLE.+ The geographical position of Italy conferred upon her +special and obvious advantages for taking up and carrying northward and +westward the arts of civilization. A scarcity of good harbors was the +only drawback amid the blessings of a glorious climate, fertile soil, +varied scenery, and rich material resources. From a remote antiquity +Dorian colonists had occupied the southern portion and the island of +Sicily, enriching them with splendid monuments of Doric art; and +Phœnician commerce had brought thither the products of Oriental art and +industry. The foundation of Rome in 753 B.C. established the nucleus +about which the sundry populations of Italy were to crystallize into the +Roman nation, under the dominating influence of the Latin element. Later +on, the absorption of the conquered Etruscans added to this composite +people a race of builders and engineers, as yet rude and uncouth in +their art, but destined to become a powerful factor in developing the +new architecture that was to spring from the contact of the practical +Romans with the noble art of the Greek centres. + + ++GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.+ While the Greeks bequeathed to posterity the +most perfect models of form in literary and plastic art, it was reserved +for the Romans to work out the applications of these to every-day +material life. The Romans were above all things a practical people. +Their consummate skill as organizers is manifest in the marvellous +administrative institutions of their government, under which they united +the most distant and diverse nationalities. Seemingly deficient in +culture, they were yet able to recast the forms of Greek architecture in +new moulds, and to evolve therefrom a mighty architecture adapted to +wholly novel conditions. They brought engineering into the service of +architecture, which they fitted to the varied requirements of +government, public amusement, private luxury, and the common comfort. +They covered the antique world with arches and amphitheatres, with +villas, baths, basilicas, and temples, all bearing the unmistakable +impress of Rome, though wrought by artists and artisans of divers races. +Only an extraordinary genius for organization could have accomplished +such results. + +The architects of Rome marvellously extended the range of their art, and +gave it a flexibility by which it accommodated itself to the widest +variety of materials and conditions. They made the arch and vault the +basis of their system of design, employing them on a scale previously +undreamed of, and in combinations of surpassing richness and majesty. +They systematized their methods of construction so that soldiers and +barbarians could execute the rough mass of their buildings, and +formulated the designing of the decorative details so that artisans of +moderate skill could execute them with good effect. They carried the +principle of repetition of motives to its utmost limit, and sought to +counteract any resulting monotony by the scale and splendor of the +design. Above all they developed planning into a fine art, displaying +their genius in a wonderful variety of combinations and in an unfailing +sense of the demands of constructive propriety, practical convenience, +and artistic effect. Where Egyptian or Greek architecture shows one type +of plan, the Roman shows a score. + + ++GREEK INFLUENCE.+ Previous to the closing years of the Republic the +Romans had no art but the Etruscan. The few buildings of importance they +possessed were of Etruscan design and workmanship, excepting a small +number built by Greek hands. It was not until the Empire that Roman +architecture took on a truly national form. True Roman architecture is +essentially imperial. The change from the primitive Etruscan style to +the splendors of the imperial age was due to the conquest of the Greek +states. Not only did the Greek campaigns enrich Rome with an +unprecedented wealth of artistic spoils; they also brought into Italy +hosts of Greek artists, and filled the minds of the campaigners with the +ambition to realize in their own dominions the marble colonnades, the +temples, theatres, and propylæa of the Greek cities they had pillaged. +The Greek orders were adopted, altered, and applied to arcaded designs +as well as to peristyles and other open colonnades. The marriage of the +column and arch gave birth to a system of forms as characteristic of +Roman architecture as the Doric or Ionic colonnade is of the Greek. + + ++THE ROMAN ORDERS.+ To meet the demands of Roman taste the Etruscan +column was retained with its simple entablature; the Doric and Ionic +were adopted in a modified form; the Corinthian was developed into a +complete and independent order, and the Composite was added to the list. +A regular system of proportions for all these five orders was gradually +evolved, and the mouldings were profiled with arcs of circles instead of +the subtler Greek curves. In the building of many-storied structures the +orders were superposed, the more slender over the sturdier, in an +orderly and graded succession. The immense extent and number of the +Roman buildings, the coarse materials often used, the relative scarcity +of highly trained artisans, and above all, the necessity of making a +given amount of artistic design serve for the largest possible amount of +architecture, combined to direct the designing of detail into uniform +channels. Thus in time was established a sort of canon of proportions, +which was reduced to rules by Vitruvius, and revived in much more +detailed and precise form by Vignola in the sixteenth century. + + [Illustration: FIG. 42.--ROMAN DORIC ORDER. + (THEATRE OF MARCELLUS).] + +In each of the orders, including the Doric, the column was given a base +one half of a diameter in height (the unit of measurement being the +diameter of the lower part of the shaft, the _crassitudo_ of Vitruvius). +The shaft was made to contract about one-sixth in diameter toward the +capital, under which it was terminated by an _astragal_ or collar of +small mouldings; at the base it ended in a slight flare and fillet +called the _cincture_. The entablature was in all cases given not far +from one quarter the height of the whole column. The +Tuscan+ order was +a rudimentary or Etruscan Doric with a column seven diameters high and a +simple entablature without triglyphs, mutules, or dentils. But few +examples of its use are known. The +Doric+ (Fig. 42) retained the +triglyphs and metopes, the mutules and guttæ of the Greek; but the +column was made eight diameters high, the shaft was smooth or had deep +flutings separated by narrow fillets, and was usually provided with a +simple moulded base on a square plinth. Mutules were used only over the +triglyphs, and were even replaced in some cases by dentils; the corona +was made lighter than the Greek, and a cymatium replaced the antefixæ on +the lateral cornices. The Ionic underwent fewer changes, and these +principally in the smaller mouldings and details of the capital. The +column was nine diameters high (Fig. 43). The +Corinthian+ was made into +an independent order by the designing of a special base of small _tori_ +and _scotiæ_, and by sumptuously carved _modillions_ or brackets +enriching the cornice and supporting the corona above a denticulated +bed-mould (Fig. 44). Though the first designers of the modillion were +probably Greeks, it must, nevertheless, be taken as really a Roman +device, worthily completing the essentially Roman Corinthian order. The ++Composite+ was formed by combining into one capital portions of the +Ionic and Corinthian, and giving to it a simplified form of the +Corinthian cornice. The Corinthian order remained, however, the favorite +order of Roman architecture. + + [Illustration: FIG. 43.--ROMAN IONIC ORDER.] + + ++USE OF THE ORDERS.+ The Romans introduced many innovations in the +general use and treatment of the orders. Monolithic shafts were +preferred to those built up of superposed drums. The fluting was omitted +on these, and when hard and semi-precious stone like porphyry or +verd-antique was the material, it was highly polished to bring out its +color. These polished monoliths were often of great size, and they were +used in almost incredible numbers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 44.--CORINTHIAN ORDER + (TEMPLE OF CASTOR AND POLLUX).] + +Another radical departure from Greek usage was the mounting of columns +on pedestals to secure greater height without increasing the size of the +column and its entablature. The Greek _anta_ was developed into the +Roman pilaster or flattened wall-column, and every free column, or range +of columns perpendicular to the façade, had its corresponding pilaster +to support the wall-end of the architrave. But the most radical +innovation was the general use of engaged columns as wall-decorations or +buttresses. The engaged column projected from the wall by more than half +its diameter, and was built up with the wall as a part of its substance +(Fig. 45). The entablature was in many cases advanced only over the +columns, between which it was set back almost to the plane of the wall. +This practice is open to the obvious criticism that it makes the column +appear superfluous by depriving it of its function of supporting the +continuous entablature. The objection has less weight when the +projecting entablature over the column serves as a pedestal for a statue +or similar object, which restores to the column its function as a +support (see the Arch of Constantine, Fig. 63). + + + [Illustration: FIG. 45.--ROMAN ARCADE WITH ENGAGED COLUMNS + (From the Colosseum.)] + ++ARCADES.+ The orders, though probably at first used only as free +supports in porticos and colonnades, were early applied as decorations +to arcaded structures. This practice became general with the +multiplication of many-storied arcades like those of the amphitheatres, +the engaged columns being set between the arches as buttresses, +supporting entablatures which marked the divisions into stories (Fig. +45). This combination has been assailed as a false and illogical device, +but the criticism proceeds from a too narrow conception of architectural +propriety. It is defensible upon both artistic and logical grounds; for +it not only furnishes a most desirable play of light and shade and a +pleasing contrast of rectangular and curved lines, but by emphasizing +the constructive divisions and elements of the building and the vertical +support of the piers, it also contributes to the expressiveness and +vigor of the design. + + ++VAULTING.+ The Romans substituted vaulting in brick, concrete, or +masonry for wooden ceilings wherever possible, both in public and +private edifices. The Etruscans were the first vault-builders, and the +Cloaca Maxima, the great sewer of Republican Rome (about 500 B.C.) still +remains as a monument of their engineering skill. Probably not only +Etruscan engineers (whose traditions were perhaps derived from Asiatic +sources in the remote past), but Asiatic builders also from conquered +eastern provinces, were engaged together in the development of the +wonderful system of vaulted construction to which Roman architecture so +largely owed its grandeur. Three types of vault were commonly used: the +barrel-vault, the groined or four-part vault, and the dome. + + [Illustration: FIG. 46.--BARREL VAULT.] + +The barrel vault (Fig. 46) was generally semi-cylindrical in section, +and was used to cover corridors and oblong halls, like the +temple-cellas, or was bent around a curve, as in amphitheatre passages. + + [Illustration: FIG. 47.--GROINED VAULT. + _g, g_, _Groins._] + +The groined vault is formed by the intersection of two barrel-vaults +(Fig. 47). When several compartments of groined vaulting are placed +together over an oblong plan, a double advantage is secured. Lateral +windows can be carried up to the full height of the vaulting instead of +being stopped below its springing; and the weight and thrust of the +vaulting are concentrated upon a number of isolated points instead of +being exerted along the whole extent of the side walls, as with the +barrel-vault. The Romans saw that it was sufficient to dispose the +masonry at these points in masses at right angles to the length of the +hall, to best resist the lateral thrust of the vault. This appears +clearly in the plan of the Basilica of Constantine (Fig. 58). + +The dome was in almost all Roman examples supported on a circular wall +built up from the ground, as in the Pantheon (Fig. 54). The pendentive +dome, sustained by four or eight arches over a square or octagonal plan, +is not found in true Roman buildings. + +The Romans made of the vault something more than a mere constructive +device. It became in their hands an element of interior effect at least +equally important with the arch and column. No style of architecture has +ever evolved nobler forms of ceiling than the groined vault and the +dome. Moreover, the use of vaulting made possible effects of +unencumbered spaciousness and amplitude which could never be compassed +by any combination of piers and columns. It also assured to the Roman +monuments a duration and a freedom from danger of destruction by fire +impossible with any wooden-roofed architecture, however noble its form +or careful its execution. + + ++CONSTRUCTION.+ The constructive methods of the Romans varied with the +conditions and resources of different provinces, but were everywhere +dominated by the same practical spirit. Their vaulted architecture +demanded for the support of its enormous weights and for resistance to +its disruptive thrusts, piers and buttresses of great mass. To construct +these wholly of cut stone appeared preposterous and wasteful to the +Roman. Italy abounds in clay, lime, and a volcanic product, _pozzolana_ +(from Puteoli or Pozzuoli, where it has always been obtained in large +quantities), which makes an admirable hydraulic cement. With these +materials it was possible to employ unskilled labor for the great bulk +of this massive masonry, and to erect with the greatest rapidity and in +the most economical manner those stupendous piles which, even in their +ruin, excite the admiration of every beholder. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 48.--ROMAN WALL MASONRY. + a, _Brickwork_; b, _Tufa ashlar_; r, _Opus reticulatum_; + i, _Opus incertum_.] + ++STONE, CONCRETE, AND BRICK MASONRY.+ For buildings of an externally +decorative character such as temples, arches of triumph, and +amphitheatres, as well as in all places where brick and concrete were +not easily obtained, stone was employed. The walls were built by laying +up the inner and outer faces in _ashlar_ or cut stone, and filling in +the intermediate space with rubble (random masonry of uncut stone) laid +up in cement, or with concrete of broken stone and cement dumped into +the space in successive layers. The cement converted the whole into a +conglomerate closely united with the face-masonry. In Syria and Egypt +the local preference for stones of enormous size was gratified, and even +surpassed, as in Herod’s terrace-walls for the temple at Jerusalem +(p. 41), and in the splendid structures of Palmyra and Baalbec. In +Italy, however, stones of moderate size were preferred, and when blocks +of unusual dimensions occur, they are in many cases marked with false +joints, dividing them into apparently smaller blocks, lest they should +dwarf the building by their large scale. The general use in the Augustan +period of marble for a decorative lining or wainscot in interiors led in +time to the objectionable practice of coating buildings of concrete with +an apparel of sham marble masonry, by carving false joints upon an +external veneer of thin slabs of that material. Ordinary concrete walls +were frequently faced with small blocks of tufa, called, according to +the manner of its application, _opus reticulatum_, _opus incertum_, +_opus spicatum_, etc. (Fig. 48). In most cases, however, the facing was +of carefully executed brickwork, covered sometimes by a coating of +stucco. The bricks were large, measuring from one to two feet square +where used for quoins or arches, but triangular where they served only +as facings. Bricks were also used in the construction of skeleton ribs +for concrete vaults of large span. + + ++VAULTING.+ Here, as in the wall-masonry, economy and common sense +devised methods extremely simple for accomplishing vast designs. While +the smaller vaults were, so to speak, cast in concrete upon moulds made +of rough boards, the enormous weight of the larger vaults precluded +their being supported, while drying or “setting,” upon timber centrings +built up from the ground. Accordingly, a skeleton of light ribs was +first built on wooden centrings, and these ribs, when firmly “set,” +became themselves supports for intermediate centrings on which to cast +the concrete fillings between the ribs. The whole vault, once hardened, +formed really a monolithic curved lintel, exerting no thrust whatever, +so that the extraordinary precautions against lateral disruption +practised by the Romans were, in fact, in many cases quite superfluous. + + ++DECORATION.+ The temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum (long +miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator), is a typical example of Roman +architectural decoration, in which richness was preferred to the subtler +refinements of design (see Fig. 44). The splendid figure-sculpture which +adorned the Greek monuments would have been inappropriate on the +theatres and thermæ of Rome or the provinces, even had there been the +taste or the skill to produce it. Conventional carved ornament was +substituted in its place, and developed into a splendid system of highly +decorative forms. Two principal elements appear in this decoration--the +acanthus-leaf, as the basis of a whole series of wonderfully varied +motives; and symbolism, represented principally by what are technically +termed _grotesques_--incongruous combinations of natural forms, as when +an infant’s body terminates in a bunch of foliage (Fig. 49). Only to a +limited extent do we find true sculpture employed as decoration, and +that mainly for triumphal arches or memorial columns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 49--ROMAN CARVED ORNAMENT. + (Lateran Museum.)] + +The architectural mouldings were nearly always carved, the Greek +water-leaf and egg-and-dart forming the basis of most of the +enrichments; but these were greatly elaborated and treated with more +minute detail than the Greek prototypes. Friezes and bands were commonly +ornamented with the foliated scroll or _rinceau_ (a convenient French +term for which we have no equivalent). This motive was as characteristic +of Roman art as the anthemion was of the Greek. It consists of a +continuous stem throwing out alternately on either side branches which +curl into spirals and are richly adorned with rosettes, acanthus-leaves, +scrolls, tendrils, and blossoms. In the best examples the detail was +modelled with great care and minuteness, and the motive itself was +treated with extraordinary variety and fertility of invention. A derived +and enriched form of the anthemion was sometimes used for bands and +friezes; and grotesques, dolphins, griffins, infant genii, wreaths, +festoons, ribbons, eagles, and masks are also common features in Roman +relief carving. + + [Illustration: FIG. 50.--ROMAN CEILING PANELS. + (a, From Palmyra; b, Basilica of Constantine.)] + +The Romans made great use of panelling and of moulded plaster in their +interior decoration, especially for ceilings. The panelling of domes and +vaults was usually roughly shaped in their first construction and +finished afterward in stucco with rich moulding and rosettes. The panels +were not always square or rectangular, as in Greek ceilings, but of +various geometric forms in pleasing combinations (Fig. 50). In works of +a small scale the panels and decorations were wrought in relief in a +heavy coating of plaster applied to the finished structure, and these +stucco reliefs are among the most refined and charming products of Roman +art. (Baths of Titus; Baths at Pompeii; Palace of the Cæsars and tombs +at Rome.) + + ++COLOR DECORATION.+ Plaster was also used as a ground for painting, +executed in distemper or by the encaustic process, wax liquefied by a +hot iron being the medium for applying the color in the latter case. +Pompeii and Herculaneum furnish countless examples of brilliant +wall-painting in which strong primary colors form the ground, and a +semi-naturalistic, semi-fantastic representation of figures, +architecture and landscape is mingled with festoons, vines, and purely +conventional ornament. Mosaic was also employed to decorate floors and +wall-spaces, and sometimes for ceilings.[13] The later imperial baths +and palaces were especially rich in mosaic of the kind called opus +Grecanicum, executed with numberless minute cubes of stone or glass, as +in the Baths of Caracalla and the Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli. + + [Footnote 13: See Van Dyke’s _History of Paintings_, p. 33.] + +To the walls of monumental interiors, such as temples, basilicas, and +thermæ, splendor of color was given by veneering them with thin slabs of +rare and richly colored marble. No limit seems to have been placed upon +the costliness or amount of these precious materials. Byzantine +architecture borrowed from this practice its system of interior color +decoration. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +ROMAN ARCHITECTURE--_Continued_. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Same as for Chapter VIII. Also, Guhl and + Kohner, _Life of the Ancient Greeks and Romans_. Adams, _Ruins of + the Palace of Spalato_. Burn, _Rome and the Campagna_. Cameron, + _Roman Baths_. Mau, tr. by Kelcey, _Pompeii, its Life and Art_. + Mazois, _Ruines de Pompeii_. Von Presuhn, _Die neueste + Ausgrabungen zu Pompeii_. Wood, _Ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec_. + + ++THE ETRUSCAN STYLE.+ Although the first Greek architects were employed +in Rome as early as 493 B.C., the architecture of the Republic was +practically Etruscan until nearly 100 B.C. Its monuments, consisting +mainly of city walls, tombs, and temples, are all marked by a general +uncouthness of detail, denoting a lack of artistic refinement, but they +display considerable constructive skill. In the Etruscan walls we meet +with both polygonal and regularly coursed masonry; in both kinds the +true arch appears as the almost universal form for gates and openings. +A famous example is the Augustan Gate at Perugia, a late work rebuilt +about 40 B.C., but thoroughly Etruscan in style. At Volaterræ (Volterra) +is another arched gate, and in Perugia fragments of still another appear +built into the modern walls. + +The Etruscans built both structural and excavated tombs; they consisted +in general of a single chamber with a slightly arched or gabled roof, +supported in the larger tombs on heavy square piers. The interiors were +covered with pictures; externally there was little ornament except about +the gable and doorway. The latter had a stepped or moulded frame with +curious _crossettes_ or ears projecting laterally at the top. The gable +recalled the wooden roofs of Etruscan temples, but was coarse in detail, +especially in its mouldings. Sepulchral monuments of other types are +also met with, such as _cippi_ or memorial pillars, sometimes in groups +of five on a single pedestal (tomb at Albano). + +Among the temples of Etruscan style that of +Jupiter Capitolinus+ on the +Capitol at Rome, destroyed by fire in 80 B.C., was the chief. Three +narrow chambers side by side formed a cella nearly square in plan, +preceded by a hexastyle porch of huge Doric, or rather Tuscan, columns +arranged in three aisles, widely spaced and carrying ponderous wooden +architraves. The roof was of wood; the cymatium and ornaments, as well +as the statues in the pediment, were of terra-cotta, painted and gilded. +The details in general showed acquaintance with Greek models, which +appeared in debased and awkward imitations of triglyphs, cornices, +antefixæ, etc. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 51.--TEMPLE FORTUNA VIRILIS. PLAN.] + ++GREEK STYLE.+ The victories of Marcellus at Syracuse, 212 B.C., Fabius +Maximus at Tarentum (209 B.C.), Flaminius (196 B.C.), Mummius (146 +B.C.), Sulla (86 B.C.), and others in the various Greek provinces, +steadily increased the vogue of Greek architecture and the number of +Greek artists in Rome. The temples of the last two centuries B.C., and +some of earlier date, though still Etruscan in plan, were in many cases +strongly Greek in the character of their details. A few have remained to +our time in tolerable preservation. The temple of +Fortuna Virilis+ +(really of Fors Fortuna), of the second century (?) B.C., is a +tetrastyle prostyle pseudoperipteral temple with a high _podium_ or +base, a typical Etruscan cella, and a deep porch, now walled up, but +thoroughly Greek in the elegant details of its Ionic order (Fig. 51). +Two circular temples, both called erroneously +Temples of Vesta+, one at +Rome near the Cloaca Maxima, the other at Tivoli, belong among the +monuments of Greek style. The first was probably dedicated to Hercules, +the second probably to the Sibyls; the latter being much the better +preserved of the two. Both were surrounded by peristyles of eighteen +Corinthian columns, and probably covered by domical roofs with gilded +bronze tiles. The Corinthian order appears here complete with its +modillion cornice, but the crispness of the detail and the fineness of +the execution are Greek and not Roman. These temples date from about 72 +B.C., though the one at Rome was probably rebuilt in the first century +A.D. (Fig. 52). + + [Illustration: FIG. 52.--CIRCULAR TEMPLE. TIVOLI.] + + ++IMPERIAL ARCHITECTURE; AUGUSTAN AGE.+ Even in the temples of Greek +style Roman conceptions of plan and composition are dominant. The Greek +architect was not free to reproduce textually Greek designs or details, +however strongly he might impress with the Greek character whatever he +touched. The demands of imperial splendor and the building of great +edifices of varied form and complex structure, like the thermæ and +amphitheatres, called for new adaptations and combinations of planning +and engineering. The reign of Augustus (27 B.C.-14 A.D.) inaugurated the +imperial epoch, but many works erected before and after his reign +properly belong to the Augustan age by right of style. In general, we +find in the works of this period the happiest combination of Greek +refinement with Roman splendor. It was in this period that Rome first +assumed the aspect of an opulent and splendid metropolis, though the way +had been prepared for this by the regularization and adornment of the +Roman Forum and the erection of many temples, basilicas, fora, arches, +and theatres during the generation preceding the accession of Augustus. +His reign saw the inception or completion of the portico of Octavia, the +Augustan forum, the Septa Julia, the first Pantheon, the adjoining +Thermæ of Agrippa, the theatre of Marcellus, the first of the imperial +palaces on the Palatine, and a long list of temples, including those of +the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), of Mars Ultor, of Jupiter Tonans on +the Capitol, and others in the provinces; besides colonnades, statues, +arches, and other embellishments almost without number. + + ++LATER IMPERIAL WORKS.+ With the successors of Augustus splendor +increased to almost fabulous limits, as, for instance, in the vast +extent and the prodigality of ivory and gold in the famous Golden House +of Nero. After the great fire in Rome, presumably kindled by the agents +of this emperor, a more regular and monumental system of street-planning +and building was introduced, and the first municipal building-law was +decreed by him. To the reign of Vespasian (68-79 A.D.) we owe the +rebuilding in Roman style and with the Corinthian order of the temple of +Jupiter Capitolinus, the Baths of Titus, and the beginning of the +Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum. The two last-named edifices both +stood on the site of Nero’s Golden House, of which the greater part was +demolished to make way for them. During the last years of the first +century the arch of Titus was erected, the Colosseum finished, +amphitheatres built at Verona, Pola, Reggio, Tusculum, Nîmes (France), +Constantine (Algiers), Pompeii and Herculanum (these last two cities and +Stabiæ rebuilt after the earthquake of 63 A.D.), and arches, bridges, +and temples erected all over the Roman world. + +The first part of the second century was distinguished by the splendid +architectural achievements of the reign of Hadrian (117-138 A.D.) in +Rome and the provinces, especially Athens. Nearly all his works were +marked by great dignity of conception as well as beauty of detail. +During the latter part of the century a very interesting series of +buildings were erected in the Hauran (Syria), in which Greek and Arab +workmen under Roman direction produced examples of vigorous stone +architecture of a mingled Roman and Syrian character. + +The most-remarkable thermæ of Rome belong to the third century--those of +Caracalla (211-217 A.D.) and of Diocletian (284-305 A.D.)--their ruins +to-day ranking among the most imposing remains of antiquity. In Syria +the temples of the Sun at Baalbec and Palmyra (273 A.D., under +Aurelian), and the great palace of Diocletian at Spalato, in Dalmatia +(300 A.D.), are still the wonder of the few travellers who reach those +distant spots. + +While during the third and fourth centuries there was a marked decline +in purity and refinement of detail, many of the later works of the +period display a remarkable freedom and originality in conception. But +these works are really not Roman, they are foreign, that is, provincial +products; and the transfer of the capital to Byzantium revealed the +increasing degree in which Rome was coming to look to the East for her +strength and her art. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 53.--TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME. PLAN.] + ++TEMPLES.+ The Romans built both rectangular and circular temples, and +there was much variety in their treatment. In the rectangular temples a +high _podium_, or basement, was substituted for the Greek stepped +stylobate, and the prostyle plan was more common than the peripteral. +The cella was relatively short and wide, the front porch inordinately +deep, and frequently divided by longitudinal rows of columns into three +aisles. In most cases the exterior of the cella in prostyle temples was +decorated by engaged columns. A barrel vault gave the interior an aspect +of spaciousness impossible with the Greek system of a wooden ceiling +supported on double ranges of columns. In the place of these, free or +engaged columns along the side-walls received the ribs of the vaulting. +Between these ribs the ceiling was richly panelled, or coffered and +sumptuously gilded. The temples of +Fortuna Virilis+ and of +Faustina+ +at Rome (the latter built 141 A.D., and its ruins incorporated into the +modern church of S. Lorenzo in Miranda), and the beautiful and admirably +preserved +Maison Carrée+, at Nîmes (France) (4 A.D.) are examples of +this type. The temple of +Concord+, of which only the podium remains, +and the small temple of Julius (both of these in the Forum) illustrate +another form of prostyle temple in which the porch was on a long side of +the cella. Some of the larger temples were peripteral. The temple of the ++Dioscuri+ (Castor and Pollux) in the Forum, was one of the most +magnificent of these, certainly the richest in detail (Fig. 44). Very +remarkable was the double temple of +Venus and Rome+, east of the Forum, +designed by the Emperor Hadrian about 130 A.D. (Fig. 53). It was a vast +pseudodipteral edifice containing two cellas in one structure, their +statue-niches or apses meeting back to back in the centre. The temple +stood in the midst of an imposing columnar peribolus entered by +magnificent gateways. Other important temples have already been +mentioned on p. 91. + +Besides the two circular temples already described, the temple of Vesta, +adjoining the House of the Vestals, at the east end of the Forum should +be mentioned. At Baalbec is a circular temple whose entablature curves +inward between the widely-spaced columns until it touches the cella in +the middle of each intercolumniation. It illustrates the caprices of +design which sometimes resulted from the disregard of tradition and the +striving after originality (273 A.D.). + + + [Illustration: FIG. 54.--PLAN OF THE PANTHEON.] + ++THE PANTHEON.+ The noblest of all circular temples of Rome and of the +world was the +Pantheon+. It was built by Hadrian, 117-138 A.D., on the +site of the earlier rectangular temple of the same name erected by +Agrippa. It measures 142 feet in diameter internally; the wall is 20 +feet thick and supports a hemispherical dome rising to a height of 140 +feet (Figs. 54, 55). Light is admitted solely through a round opening 28 +feet in diameter at the top of the dome, the simplest and most +impressive method of illumination conceivable. The rain and snow that +enter produce no appreciable effect upon the temperature of the vast +hall. There is a single entrance, with noble bronze doors, admitting +directly to the interior, around which seven niches, alternately +rectangular and semicircular in plan and fronted by Corinthian columns, +lighten, without weakening, the mass of the encircling wall. This wall +was originally incrusted with rich marbles, and the great dome, adorned +with deep coffering in rectangular panels, was decorated with rosettes +and mouldings in gilt stucco. The dome appears to have been composed of +numerous arches and ribs, filled in and finally coated with concrete. +A recent examination of a denuded portion of its inner surface has +convinced the writer that the interior panelling was executed after, and +not during, its construction, by hewing the panels out of the mass of +brick and concrete, without regard to the form and position of the +origin skeleton of ribs. + + [Illustration: FIG. 55.--INTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 56.--EXTERIOR OF THE PANTHEON. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)] + +The exterior (Fig. 56) was less successful than the interior. The gabled +porch of twelve superb granite columns 50 feet high, three-aisled in +plan after the Etruscan mode, and covered originally by a ceiling of +bronze, was a rebuilding with the materials and on the plan of the +original pronaos of the Pantheon of Agrippa. The circular wall behind it +is faced with fine brickwork, and displays, like the dome, many curious +arrangements of discharging arches, reminiscences of traditional +constructive precautions here wholly useless and fictitious because only +skin-deep. A revetment of marble below and plaster above once concealed +this brick facing. The portico, in spite of its too steep gable (once +filled with a “gigantomachia” in gilt bronze) and its somewhat awkward +association with a round building, is nevertheless a noble work, its +capitals in Pentelic marble ranking among the finest known examples of +the Roman Corinthian. Taken as a whole, the Pantheon is one of the great +masterpieces of the world’s architecture. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 57.--FORUM AND BASILICA OF TRAJAN.] + ++FORA AND BASILICAS.+ The fora were the places for general public +assemblage. The chief of those in Rome, the +Forum Magnum+, or +Forum +Romanum+, was at first merely an irregular vacant space, about and in +which, as the focus of the civic life, temples, halls, colonnades, and +statues gradually accumulated. These chance aggregations the systematic +Roman mind reduced in time to orderly and monumental form; successive +emperors extended them and added new fora at enormous cost and with +great splendor of architecture. Those of Julius, Augustus, Vespasian, +and Nerva (or Domitian), adjoining the Roman Forum, were magnificent +enclosures surrounded by high walls and single or double colonnades. +Each contained a temple or basilica, besides gateways, memorial columns +or arches, and countless statues. The +Forum of Trajan+ surpassed all +the rest; it covered an area of thirty-five thousand square yards, and +included, besides the main area, entered through a triumphal arch, the +Basilica Ulpia, the temple of Trajan, and his colossal Doric column of +Victory. Both in size and beauty it ranked as the chief architectural +glory of the city (Fig. 57). The six fora together contained thirteen +temples, three basilicas, eight triumphal arches, a mile of porticos, +and a number of other public edifices.[14] Besides these, a net-work of +colonnades covered large tracts of the city, affording sheltered +communication in every direction, and here and there expanding into +squares or gardens surrounded by peristyles. + + [Footnote 14: Lanciani: _Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent + Discoveries_, p. 89.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 58.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. PLAN.] + +The public business of Rome, both judicial and commercial, was largely +transacted in the _basilicas_, large buildings consisting usually of a +wide and lofty central nave flanked by lower side-aisles, and +terminating at one or both ends in an apse or semicircular recess called +the _tribune_, in which were the seats for the magistrates. The +side-aisles were separated from the nave by columns supporting a +clearstory wall, pierced by windows above the roofs of the side-aisles. +In some cases the latter were two stories high, with galleries; in +others the central space was open to the sky, as at Pompeii, suggesting +the derivation of the basilica from the open square surrounded by +colonnades, or from the forum itself, with which we find it usually +associated. The most important basilicas in Rome were the +Sempronian+, +the +Æmilian+ (about 54 B.C.), the +Julian+ in the Forum Magnum (51 +B.C.), and the +Ulpian+ in the Forum of Trajan (113 A.D.). The last two +were probably open basilicas, only the side-aisles being roofed. The +Ulpian (Fig. 57) was the most magnificent of all, and in conjunction +with the Forum of Trajan formed one of the most imposing of those +monumental aggregations of columnar architecture which contributed so +largely to the splendor of the Roman capital. + +These monuments frequently suffered from the burning of their wooden +roofs. It was Constantine who completed the first vaulted and fireproof +basilica, begun by his predecessor and rival, Maxentius, on the site of +the former Temple of Peace (Figs. 58, 59). Its design reproduced on a +grand scale the plan of the tepidarium-halls of the thermæ, the +side-recesses of which were converted into a continuous side-aisle by +piercing arches through the buttress-walls that separated them. Above +the imposing vaults of these recesses and under the cross-vaults of the +nave were windows admitting abundant light. A _narthex_, or porch, +preceded the hall at one end; there were also a side entrance from the +Via Sacra, and an apse or tribune for the magistrates opposite each of +these entrances. The dimensions of the main hall (325 × 85 feet), the +height of its vault (117 feet), and the splendor of its columns and +incrustations excited universal admiration, and exercised a powerful +influence on later architecture. + + [Illustration: FIG. 59.--BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE. RUINS.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 60.--THERMÆ OF CARACALLA. + PLAN OF CENTRAL BLOCK. + A, _Caldarium, or Hot Bath_; B, _Intermediate Chamber_; + C, _Tepidarium, or Warm Bath_; D, _Frigidarium, or Cold Bath_; + E, _Peristyles_; a, _Gymnastic Rooms_; b, _Dressing Rooms_; + c, _Cooling Rooms_; d, _Small Courts_; e, _Entrances_; + v, _Vestibules_.] + ++THERMÆ.+ The leisure of the Roman people was largely spent in the great +baths, or _thermæ_, which took the place substantially of the modern +club. The establishments erected by the emperors for this purpose were +vast and complex congeries of large and small halls, courts, and +chambers, combined with a masterly comprehension of artistic propriety +and effect in the sequence of oblong, square, oval, and circular +apartments, and in the relation of the greater to the lesser masses. +They were a combination of the Greek _palæstra_ with the Roman _balnea_, +and united in one harmonious design great public swimming-baths, private +baths for individuals and families, places for gymnastic exercises and +games, courts, peristyles, gardens, halls for literary entertainments, +lounging-rooms, and all the complex accommodation required for the +service of the whole establishment. They were built with apparent +disregard of cost, and adorned with splendid extravagance. The earliest +were the +Baths of Agrippa+ (27 B.C.) behind the Pantheon; next may be +mentioned those of +Titus+, built on the substructions of Nero’s Golden +House. The remains of the +Thermæ of Caracalla+ (211 A.D.) form the most +extensive mass of ruins in Rome, and clearly display the admirable +planning of this and similar establishments. A gigantic block of +buildings containing the three great halls for cold, warm, and hot +baths, stood in the centre of a vast enclosure surrounded by private +baths, _exedræ_, and halls for lecture-audiences and other gatherings. +The enclosure was adorned with statues, flower-gardens, and places for +out-door games. The +Baths of Diocletian+ (302 A.D.) embodied this +arrangement on a still more extensive scale; they could accommodate +3,500 bathers at once, and their ruins cover a broad territory near the +railway terminus of the modern city. The church of S. Maria degli Angeli +was formed by Michael Angelo out of the _tepidarium_ of these +baths--a colossal hall 340 × 87 feet, and 90 feet high. The original +vaulting and columns are still intact, and the whole interior most +imposing, in spite of later stucco disfigurements. The circular +_laconicum_ (sweat-room) serves as the porch to the present church. It +was in the building of these great halls that Roman architecture reached +its most original and characteristic expression. Wholly unrelated to any +foreign model, they represent distinctively Roman ideals, both as to +plan and construction. + + [Illustration: FIG. 61.--ROMAN THEATRE. (HERCULANUM.) + (From model.)] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 62.--COLOSSEUM. HALF PLAN.] + ++PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.+ The earliest Roman theatres differed from the +Greek in having a nearly semicircular plan, and in being built up from +the level ground, not excavated in a hillside (Fig. 61). The first +theatre was of wood, built by Mummius 145 B.C., and it was not until +ninety years later that stone was first substituted for the more +perishable material, in the theatre of Pompey. The +Theatre of +Marcellus+ (23-13 B.C.) is in part still extant, and later theatres in +Pompeii, Orange (France), and in the Asiatic provinces are in excellent +preservation. The orchestra was not, as in the Greek theatre, reserved +for the choral dance, but was given up to spectators of rank; the stage +was adorned with a permanent architectural background of columns and +arches, and sometimes roofed with wood, and an arcade or colonnade +surrounded the upper tier of seats. The amphitheatre was a still more +distinctively Roman edifice. It was elliptical in plan, surrounding an +elliptical arena, and built up with continuous encircling tiers of +seats. The earliest stone amphitheatre was erected by Statilius Taurus +in the time of Augustus. It was practically identical in design with the +later and much larger Flavian amphitheatre, commonly known as the ++Colosseum+, begun by Vespasian and completed 82 A.D. (Fig. 62). This +immense structure measured 607 × 506 feet in plan and was 180 feet high; +it could accommodate eighty-seven thousand spectators. Engaged columns +of the Tuscan, Ionic, and Corinthian orders decorated three stories of +the exterior; the fourth was a nearly unbroken wall with slender +Corinthian pilasters. Solidly constructed of travertine, concrete, and +tufa, the Colosseum, with its imposing but monotonous exterior, almost +sublime by its scale and seemingly endless repetition, but lacking in +refinement or originality of detail and dedicated to bloody and cruel +sports, was a characteristic product of the Roman character and +civilization. At Verona, Pola, Capua, and many cities in the foreign +provinces there are well-preserved remains of similar structures. + +Closely related to the amphitheatre were the circus and the stadium. The ++Circus Maximus+ between the Palatine and Aventine hills was the oldest +of those in Rome. That erected by Caligula and Nero on the site +afterward partly occupied by St. Peter’s, was more splendid, and is said +to have been capable of accommodating over three hundred thousand +spectators after its enlargement in the fourth century. The long, narrow +race-course was divided into two nearly equal parts by a low parapet, +the _spina_, on which were the goals (_metæ_) and many small decorative +structures and columns. One end of the circus, as of the stadium also, +was semicircular; the other was segmental in the circus, square in the +stadium; a colonnade or arcade ran along the top of the building, and +the entrances and exits were adorned with monumental arches. + + ++TRIUMPHAL ARCHES AND COLUMNS.+ Rome and the provincial cities abounded +in monuments commemorative of victory, usually single or triple arches +with engaged columns and rich sculptural adornments, or single colossal +columns supporting statues. The arches were characteristic products of +Roman design, and some of them deserve high praise for the excellence of +their proportions and the elegance of their details. There were in Rome +in the second century A.D., thirty-eight of these monuments. The +Arch +of Titus+ (71-82 A.D.) is the simplest and most perfect of those still +extant in Rome; the arch of +Septimius Severus+ in the Forum (203 A.D.) +and that of +Constantine+ (330 A.D.) near the Colosseum, are more +sumptuous but less pure in detail. The last-named was in part enriched +with sculptures taken from the earlier arch of Trajan. The statues of +Dacian captives on the attic (_attic_ = a species of subordinate story +added above the main cornice) of this arch were a fortunate addition, +furnishing a _raison-d’être_ for the columns and broken entablatures on +which they rest. Memorial columns of colossal size were erected by +several emperors, both in Rome and abroad. Those of +Trajan+ and of ++Marcus Aurelius+ are still standing in Rome in perfect preservation. +The first was 140 feet high including the pedestal and the statue which +surmounted it; its capital marked the height of the ridge levelled by +the emperor for the forum on which the column stands. Its most striking +peculiarity is the spiral band of reliefs winding around the shaft from +bottom to top and representing the Dacian campaigns of Trajan. The other +column is of similar design and dimensions, but greatly inferior to the +first in execution. Both are really towers, with interior stair-cases +leading to the top. + + [Illustration: FIG. 63.--ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. + (From model in Metropolitan Museum, New York.)] + + ++TOMBS.+ The Romans developed no special and national type of tomb, and +few of their sepulchral monuments were of large dimensions. The most +important in Rome were the pyramid of +Caius Cestius+ (late first +century B.C.), and the circular tombs of +Cecilia Metella+ (60 B.C.), ++Augustus+ (14 A.D.) and +Hadrian+, now the Castle of S. Angelo (138 +A.D.). The latter was composed of a huge cone of marble supported on a +cylindrical structure 230 feet in diameter standing on a square podium +300 feet long and wide. The cone probably once terminated in the gilt +bronze pine-cone now in the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican. In the +Mausoleum of Augustus a mound of earth planted with trees crowned a +similar circular base of marble on a podium 220 feet square, now buried. + +The smaller tombs varied greatly in size and form. Some were vaulted +chambers, with graceful internal painted decorations of figures and vine +patterns combined with low-relief enrichments in stucco. Others were +designed in the form of altars or sarcophagi, as at Pompeii; while +others again resembled ædiculæ, little temples, shrines, or small towers +in several stories of arches and columns, as at St. Rémy (France). + + ++PALACES AND DWELLINGS.+ Into their dwellings the Romans carried all +their love of ostentation and personal luxury. They anticipated in many +details the comforts of modern civilization in their furniture, their +plumbing and heating, and their utensils. Their houses may be divided +into four classes: the palace, the villa, the _domus_ or ordinary house, +and the _insula_ or many-storied tenement built in compact blocks. The +first three alone concern us, and will be taken up in the above order. + +The imperial +palaces+ on the Palatine Hill comprised a wide range in +style and variety of buildings, beginning with the first simple house of +Augustus (26 B.C.), burnt and rebuilt 3 A.D. Tiberius, Caligula, and +Nero added to the Augustan group; Domitian rebuilt a second time and +enlarged the palace of Augustus, and Septimius Severus remodelled the +whole group, adding to it his own extraordinary seven-storied palace, +the Septizonium. The ruins of these successive buildings have been +carefully excavated, and reveal a remarkable combination of +dwelling-rooms, courts, temples, libraries, basilicas, baths, gardens, +peristyles, fountains, terraces, and covered passages. These were +adorned with a profusion of precious marbles, mosaics, columns, and +statues. Parts of the demolished palace of Nero were incorporated in the +substructions of the Baths of Titus. The beautiful arabesques and +plaster reliefs which adorned them were the inspiration of much of the +fresco and stucco decoration of the Italian Renaissance. At Spalato, in +Dalmatia, are the extensive ruins of the great +Palace of Diocletian+, +which was laid out on the plan of a Roman camp, with two intersecting +avenues (Fig. 64). It comprised a temple, mausoleum, basilica, and other +structures besides those portions devoted to the purposes of a royal +residence. + + [Illustration: FIG. 64.--PALACE OF DIOCLETIAN. SPALATO.] + +The +villa+ was in reality a country palace, arranged with special +reference to the prevailing winds, exposure to the sun and shade, and +the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Baths, temples, _exedræ_, theatres, +tennis-courts, sun-rooms, and shaded porticoes were connected with the +house proper, which was built around two or three interior courts or +peristyles. Statues, fountains, and colossal vases of marble adorned the +grounds, which were laid out in terraces and treated with all the +fantastic arts of the Roman landscape-gardener. The most elaborate and +extensive villa was that of +Hadrian+, at Tibur (Tivoli); its ruins, +covering hundreds of acres, form one of the most interesting spots to +visit in the neighborhood of Rome. + + [Illustration: FIG. 65.--HOUSE OF PANSA, POMPEII. + s, _Shops_; v, _Vestibule_; f, _Family Rooms_; k, _Kitchen_; + l, _Lavarium_; _P, P, P_, _Peristyles_.] + +There are few remains in Rome of the +domus+ or private house. Two, +however, have left remarkably interesting ruins--the +Atrium Vestæ+, or +House of the Vestal Virgins, east of the Forum, a well-planned and +extensive house surrounding a cloister or court; and the +House of +Livia+, so-called, on the Palatine Hill, the walls and decorations of +which are excellently preserved. The typical Roman house in a provincial +town is best illustrated by the ruins of Pompeii and Herculanum, which, +buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D., have been partially +excavated since 1721. The Pompeiian house (Fig. 65) consisted of several +courts or _atria_, some of which were surrounded by colonnades and +called _peristyles_. The front portion was reserved for shops, or +presented to the street a wall unbroken save by the entrance; all the +rooms and chambers opened upon the interior courts, from which alone +they borrowed their light. In the brilliant climate of southern Italy +windows were little needed, as sufficient light was admitted by the +door, closed only by portières for the most part; especially as the +family life was passed mainly in the shaded courts, to which fountains, +parterres of shrubbery, statues, and other adornments lent their +inviting charm. The general plan of these houses seems to have been of +Greek origin, as well as the system of decoration used on the walls. +These, when not wainscoted with marble, were covered with fantastic, but +often artistic, painted decorations, in which an imaginary architecture +as of metal, a fantastic and arbitrary perspective, illusory pictures, +and highly finished figures were the chief elements. These were executed +in brilliant colors with excellent effect. The houses were lightly +built, with wooden ceilings and roofs instead of vaulting, and usually +with but one story on account of the danger from earthquakes. That the +workmanship and decoration were in the capital often superior to what +was to be found in a provincial town like Pompeii, is evidenced by +beautiful wall-paintings and reliefs discovered in Rome in 1879 and now +preserved in the Museo delle Terme. More or less fragmentary remains of +Roman houses have been found in almost every corner of the Roman empire, +but nowhere exhibiting as completely as in Pompeii the typical Roman +arrangement. + + ++WORKS OF UTILITY.+ A word should be said about Roman engineering works, +which in many cases were designed with an artistic sense of proportion +and form which raises them into the domain of genuine art. Such were +especially the bridges, in which a remarkable effect of monumental +grandeur was often produced by the form and proportions of the arches +and piers, and an appropriate use of rough and dressed masonry, as in +the Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), the great bridge at Alcantara (Spain), +and the Pont du Gard, in southern France. The aqueducts are impressive +rather by their length, scale, and simplicity, than by any special +refinements of design, except where their arches are treated with some +architectural decoration to form gates, as in the Porta Maggiore, at +Rome. + + + +MONUMENTS:+ (Those which have no important extant remains are + given in italics.) TEMPLES: _Jupiter Capitolinus_, 600 B.C.; + _Ceres, Liber, and Libera_, 494 B.C. (ruins of later rebuilding in + S. Maria in Cosmedin); _first T. of Concord_ (rebuilt in Augustan + age), 254 B.C.; _first marble temple_ in _portico of Metellus_, by + a Greek, Hermodorus, 143 B.C.; temples of Fortune at Præneste and + at Rome, and of “Vesta” at Rome, 83-78 B.C.; of “Vesta” at Tivoli, + and of Hercules at Cori, 72 B.C.; _first Pantheon_, 27 B.C. In + Augustan Age temples of _Apollo_, Concord rebuilt, Dioscuri, + _Julius_, _Jupiter Stator_, _Jupiter Tonans_, Mars Ultor, Minerva + (_at Rome_ and Assisi), Maison Carrée at Nîmes, Saturn; at + Puteoli, Pola, etc. _T. of Peace_; _T. Jupiter Capitolinus_, + rebuilt 70 A.D.; temple at Brescia. Temple of Vespasian, 96 A.D.; + also _of Minerva_ in Forum of Nerva; _of Trajan_, 117 A.D.; second + Pantheon; T. of Venus and Rome at Rome, and of Jupiter Olympius at + Athens, 135-138 A.D.; Faustina, 141 A.D.; many in Syria; temples + of Sun at _Rome_, Baalbec, and Palmyra, cir. 273 A.D.; of Romulus, + 305 A.D. (porch S. Cosmo and Damiano). PLACES OF ASSEMBLY: + FORA--Roman, Julian, 46 B.C.; Augustan, 40-42 B.C.; _of Peace_, 75 + A.D.; Nerva, 97 A.D.; Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.) + BASILICAS: _Sempronian_, _Æmilian_, 1st century B.C.; Julian, 51 + B.C.; _Septa Julia_, 26 B.C.; the Curia, later rebuilt by + Diocletian, 300 A.D. (now Church of S. Adriano); _at Fano_, 20 + A.D. (?); Forum and Basilica at Pompeii, 60 A.D.; of Trajan; of + Constantine, 310-324 A.D. THEATRES (th.) and AMPHITHEATRES (amp.): + th. _Pompey_, 55 B.C.; of _Balbus_ and of Marcellus, 13 B.C.; th. + and amp. at Pompeii and Herculanum; Colosseum at Rome, 78-82 A.D.; + th. at Orange and in Asia Minor; amp. at Albano, Constantine, + Nîmes, Petra, Pola, Reggio, Trevi, Tusculum, Verona, etc.; amp. + Castrense at Rome, 96 A.D. Circuses and stadia at Rome. THERMÆ: of + Agrippa, 27 B.C.; _of Nero_; of Titus, 78 A.D. _Domitian_, 90 + A.D.; Caracalla, 211 A.D.; Diocletian, 305 A.D.; _Constantine_, + 320 A.D.; “Minerva Medica,” 3d or 4th century A.D. ARCHES: _of + Stertinius_, 196 B.C.; _Scipio_, 190 B.C.; _Augustus_, 30 B.C.; + Titus, 71-82 A.D.; _Trajan_, 117 A.D.; Severus, 203 A.D.; + Constantine, 320 A.D.; of Drusus, Dolabella, Silversmiths, 204 + A.D.; Janus Quadrifrons, 320 A.D. (?); all at Rome. Others at + Benevento, Ancona, Rimini in Italy; also at Athens, and at Reims + and St. Chamas in France. Columns of Trajan, _Antoninus_, Marcus + Aurelius at Rome, others at Constantinople, Alexandria, etc. + TOMBS: along Via Appia and Via Latina, at Rome; Via Sacra at + Pompeii; tower-tombs at St. Rémy in France; rock-cut at Petra; at + Rome, of Caius Cestius and Cecilia Metella, 1st century B.C.; of + Augustus, 14 A.D.; Hadrian, 138 A.D. PALACES and PRIVATE HOUSES: + On Palatine, of Augustus, Tiberius, Nero, Domitian, Septimius + Severus, _Elagabalus_; Villa of Hadrian at Tivoli; palaces of + Diocletian at Spalato and _of Constantine_ at Constantinople. + House of Livia on Palatine (Augustan period); of Vestals, rebuilt + by Hadrian, cir. 120 A.D. Houses at Pompeii and Herculanum, cir. + 60-79 A.D.; Villas of Gordianus (“Tor’ de’ Schiavi,” 240 A.D.), + and _of Sallust_ at Rome and _of Pliny_ at Laurentium. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bunsen, _Die Basiliken christlichen Roms_. + Butler, _Architecture and other Arts in Northern Central Syria_. + Corroyer, _L’architecture romane_. Cummings, _A History of + Architecture in Italy_. Essenwein (Handbuch d. Architektur), + _Ausgänge der klassischen Baukunst_. Gutensohn u. Knapp, + _Denkmäler der christlichen Religion_. Hübsch, _Monuments de + l’architecture chrétienne_. Lanciani, _Pagan and Christian Rome_. + Mothes, _Die Basilikenform bei den Christen_, etc. Okely, + _Development of Christian Architecture in Italy_. Von Quast, _Die + altchristlichen Bauwerke zu Ravenna_. De Rossi, _Roma + Sotterranea_. De Vogüé, _Syrie Centrale_; _Églises de la Terre + Sainte_. + + ++INTRODUCTORY.+ The official recognition of Christianity in the year 328 +by Constantine simply legalized an institution which had been for three +centuries gathering momentum for its final conquest of the antique +world. The new religion rapidly enlisted in its service for a common +purpose and under a common impulse races as wide apart in blood and +culture as those which had built up the art of imperial Rome. It was +Christianity which reduced to civilization in the West the Germanic +hordes that had overthrown Rome, bringing their fresh and hitherto +untamed vigor to the task of recreating architecture out of the decaying +fragments of classic art. So in the East its life-giving influence awoke +the slumbering Greek art-instinct to new triumphs in the arts of +building, less refined and perfect indeed, but not less sublime than +those of the Periclean age. Long before the Constantinian edict, the +Christians in the Eastern provinces had enjoyed substantial freedom of +worship. Meeting often in the private basilicas of wealthy converts, and +finding these, and still more the great public basilicas, suited to the +requirements of their worship, they early began to build in imitation of +these edifices. There are many remains of these early churches in +northern Africa and central Syria. + + ++EARLY CHRISTIAN ART IN ROME.+ This was at first wholly sepulchral, +developing in the catacombs the symbols of the new faith. Once +liberated, however, Christianity appropriated bodily for its public +rites the basilica-type and the general substance of Roman architecture. +Shafts and capitals, architraves and rich linings of veined marble, even +the pagan Bacchic symbolism of the vine, it adapted to new uses in its +own service. Constantine led the way in architecture, endowing Bethlehem +and Jerusalem with splendid churches, and his new capital on the +Bosphorus with the first of the three historic basilicas dedicated to +the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia). One of the greatest of innovators, he +seems to have had a special predilection for circular buildings, and the +tombs and baptisteries which he erected in this form, especially that +for his sister Constantia in Rome (known as Santa Costanza, Fig. 66), +furnished the prototype for numberless Italian baptisteries in later +ages. + + [Illustration: FIG. 66.--STA. COSTANZA, ROME.] + +The Christian basilica (see Figs. 67, 68) generally comprised a broad +and lofty nave, separated by rows of columns from the single or double +side-aisles. The aisles had usually about half the width and height of +the nave, and like it were covered with wooden roofs and ceilings. Above +the columns which flanked the nave rose the lofty clearstory wall, +pierced with windows above the side-aisle roofs and supporting the +immense trusses of the roof of the nave. The timbering of the latter was +sometimes bare, sometimes concealed by a richly panelled ceiling, +carved, gilded, and painted. At the further end of the nave was the +sanctuary or apse, with the seats for the clergy on a raised platform, +the _bema_, in front of which was the altar. Transepts sometimes +expanded to right and left before the altar, under which was the +_confessio_ or shrine of the titular saint or martyr. + +An _atrium_ or forecourt surrounded by a covered arcade preceded the +basilica proper, the arcade at the front of the church forming a porch +or _narthex_, which, however, in some cases existed without the atrium. +The exterior was extremely plain; the interior, on the contrary, was +resplendent with incrustations of veined marble and with sumptuous +decorations in glass mosaic (called _opus Grecanicum_) on a blue or +golden ground. Especially rich were the half-dome of the apse and the +wall-space surrounding its arch and called the _triumphal arch_; next in +decorative importance came the broad band of wall beneath the clearstory +windows. Upon these surfaces the mosaic-workers wrought with minute +cubes of colored glass pictures and symbols almost imperishable, in +which the glow of color and a certain decorative grandeur of effect in +the composition went far to atone for the uncouth drawing. With growing +wealth and an increasingly elaborate ritual, the furniture and +equipments of the church assumed greater architectural importance. +A large rectangular space was retained for the choir in front of the +bema, and enclosed by a breast-high parapet of marble, richly inlaid. On +either side were the pulpits or _ambones_ for the Gospel and Epistle. +A lofty canopy was built over the altar, the _baldaquin_, supported on +four marble columns. A few basilicas were built with side-aisles, in two +stories, as in S. Lorenzo and Sta. Agnese. Adjoining the basilica in the +earlier examples were the baptistery and the tomb of the saint, circular +or polygonal buildings usually; but in later times these were replaced +by the font or baptismal chapel in the church and the _confessio_ under +the altar. + + [Illustration: FIG. 67.--PLAN OF THE BASILICA OF ST. PAUL.] + +Of the two Constantinian basilicas in Rome, the one dedicated to +St. +Peter+ was demolished in the fifteenth century; that of +St. John +Lateran+ has been so disfigured by modern alterations as to be +unrecognizable. The former of the two adjoined the site of the martyrdom +of St. Peter in the circus of Caligula and Nero; it was five-aisled, 380 +feet in length by 212 feet in width. The nave was 80 feet wide and 100 +feet high, and the disproportionately high clearstory wall rested on +horizontal architraves carried by columns. The impressive dimensions and +simple plan of this structure gave it a majesty worthy of its rank as +the first church of Christendom. +St. Paul beyond the Walls+ (S. Paolo +fuori le mura), built in 386 by Theodosius, resembled St. Peter’s +closely in plan (Figs. 67, 68). Destroyed by fire in 1821, it has been +rebuilt with almost its pristine splendor, and is, next to the modern +St. Peter’s and the Pantheon, the most impressive place of worship in +Rome. +Santa Maria Maggiore+,[15] though smaller in size, is more +interesting because it so largely retains its original aspect, its +Renaissance ceiling happily harmonizing with its simple antique lines. +Ionic columns support architraves to carry the clearstory, as in St. +Peter’s. In most other examples, St. Paul’s included, arches turned from +column to column perform this function. The first known case of such use +of classic columns as arch-bearers was in the palace of Diocletian at +Spalato; it also appears in Syrian buildings of the third and fourth +centuries A.D. + + [Footnote 15: Hereafter the abbreviation S. M. will be generally + used instead of the name Santa Maria.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 68.--ST. PAUL BEYOND THE WALLS. INTERIOR.] + +The basilica remained the model for ecclesiastical architecture in Rome, +without noticeable change either of plan or detail, until the time of +the Renaissance. All the earlier examples employed columns and capitals +taken from ancient ruins, often incongruous and ill-matched in size and +order. +San Clemente+ (1084) has retained almost intact its early +aspect, its choir-enclosure, baldaquin, and ambones having been well +preserved or carefully restored. Other important basilicas are mentioned +in the list of monuments on pages 118, 119. + + ++RAVENNA.+ The fifth and sixth centuries endowed Ravenna with a number +of notable buildings which, with the exception of the cathedral, +demolished in the last century, have been preserved to our day. Subdued +by the Byzantine emperor Justinian in 537, Ravenna became the +meeting-ground for Early Christian and Byzantine traditions and the +basilican and circular plans are both represented. The two churches +dedicated to St. Apollinaris, +S. Apollinare Nuovo+ (520) in the city, +and +S. Apollinare in Classe+ (538) three miles distant from the city, +in what was formerly the port, are especially interesting for their fine +mosaics, and for the impost-blocks interposed above the capitals of +their columns to receive the springing of the pier-arches. These blocks +appear to be somewhat crude modifications of the fragmentary architraves +or entablatures employed in classic Roman architecture to receive the +springing of vaults sustained by columns, and became common in Byzantine +structures (Fig. 73). The use of external arcading to give some slight +adornment to the walls of the second of the above-named churches, and +the round bell-towers of brick which adjoined both of them, were first +steps toward the development of the “wall-veil” or arcaded decoration, +and of the campaniles, which in later centuries became so characteristic +of north Italian churches (see Chapter XIII.). In Rome the campaniles +which accompany many of the mediæval basilicas are square and pierced +with many windows. + +The basilican form of church became general in Italy, a large proportion +of whose churches continued to be built with wooden roofs and with but +slight deviations from the original type, long after the appearance of +the Gothic style. The chief departures from early precedent were in the +exterior, which was embellished with marble incrustations as in +S. Miniato (Florence); or with successive stories of wall-arcades, as in +many churches in Pisa and Lucca (see Fig. 90); until finally the +introduction of clustered piers, pointed arches, and vaulting, gradually +transformed the basilican into the Italian Romanesque and Gothic styles. + + ++SYRIA AND THE EAST.+ In Syria, particularly the central portion, the +Christian architecture of the 3d to 8th centuries produced a number of +very interesting monuments. The churches built by Constantine in +Syria--the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem (nominally built by his +mother), of the Ascension at Jerusalem, the magnificent octagonal church +on the site of the Temple, and finally the somewhat similar church at +Antioch--were the most notable Christian monuments in Syria. The first +three on the list, still extant in part at least, have been so altered +by later additions and restorations that their original forms are only +approximately known from early descriptions. They were all of large +size, and the octagonal church on the Temple platform was of exceptional +magnificence.[16] The columns and a part of the marble incrustations of +the early design are still visible in the “Mosque of Omar,” but most of +the old work is concealed by the decoration of tiles applied by the +Moslems, and the whole interior aspect altered by the wood-and-plaster +dome with which they replaced the simpler roof of the original. + + [Footnote 16: Fergusson (_History of Architecture_, vol. ii., pp. + 408, 432) contends that this was the real Constantinian church of + the Holy Sepulchre, and that the one called to-day by that name + was erected by the Crusaders in the twelfth century. The more + general view is that the latter was originally built by + Constantine as the Church of the Sepulchre, though subsequently + much altered, and that the octagonal edifice was also his work, + but erected under some other name. Whether this church was later + incorporated in the “Mosque of Omar,” or merely furnished some of + the materials for its construction, is not quite clear.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 69.--CHURCH AT KALB LOUZEH.] + +Christian architecture in Syria soon, however, diverged from Roman +traditions. The abundance of hard stone, the total lack of clay or +brick, the remoteness from Rome, led to a peculiar independence and +originality in the forms and details of the ecclesiastical as well as of +the domestic architecture of central Syria. These innovations upon Roman +models resulted in the development of distinct types which, but for the +arrest of progress by the Mohammedan conquest in the seventh century, +would doubtless have inaugurated a new and independent style of +architecture. Piers of masonry came to replace the classic column, as at +Tafkha (third or fourth century), Rouheiha and Kalb Louzeh (fifth +century? Fig. 69); the ceilings in the smaller churches were often +formed with stone slabs; the apse was at first confined within the main +rectangle of the plan, and was sometimes square. The exterior assumed a +striking and picturesque variety of forms by means of turrets, porches, +and gables. Singularly enough, vaulting hardly appears at all, though +the arch is used with fine effect. Conventional and monastic groups of +buildings appear early in Syria, and that of +St. Simeon Stylites+ at +Kelat Seman is an impressive and interesting monument. Four three-aisled +wings form the arms of a cross, meeting in a central octagonal open +court, in the midst of which stood the column of the saint. The eastern +arm of the cross forms a complete basilica of itself, and the whole +cross measures 330 × 300 feet. Chapels, cloisters, and cells adjoin the +main edifice. + + [Illustration: FIG. 70.--CATHEDRAL AT BOZRAH.] + +Circular and polygonal plans appear in a number of Syrian examples of +the early sixth century. Their most striking feature is the inscribing +of the circle or polygon in a square which forms the exterior outline, +and the use of four niches to fill out the corners. This occurs at Kelat +Seman in a small double church, perhaps the tomb and chapel of a martyr; +in the cathedral at +Bozrah+ (Fig. 70), and in the small domical church +of +St. George+ at +Ezra+. These were probably the prototypes of many +Byzantine churches like St. Sergius at Constantinople, and San Vitale at +Ravenna (Fig. 74), though the exact dates of the Syrian churches are not +known. The one at Ezra is the only one of the three which has a dome, +the others having been roofed with wood. + +The interesting domestic architecture of this period is preserved in +whole towns and villages in the Hauran, which, deserted at the Arab +conquest, have never been reoccupied and remain almost intact but for +the decay of their wooden roofs. They are marked by dignity and +simplicity of design, and by the same picturesque massing of gables and +roofs and porches which has already been remarked of the churches. The +arches are broad, the columns rather heavy, the mouldings few and +simple, and the scanty carving vigorous and effective, often strongly +Byzantine in type. + +Elsewhere in the Eastern world are many early churches of which even the +enumeration would exceed the limits of this work. Salonica counts a +number of basilicas and several domical churches. The church of +St. +George+, now a mosque, is of early date and thoroughly Roman in plan and +section, of the same class with the Pantheon and the tomb of Helena, in +both of which a massive circular wall is lightened by eight niches. At +Angora (Ancyra), Hierapolis, Pergamus, and other points in Asia Minor; +in Egypt, Nubia, and Algiers, are many examples of both circular and +basilican edifices of the early centuries of Christianity. In +Constantinople there remains but a single representative of the +basilican type, the church of +St. John Studius+, now the Emir Akhor +mosque. + + + +MONUMENTS+: ROME: 4th century: St. Peter’s, Sta. Costanza, 330?; + Sta. Pudentiana, 335 (rebuilt 1598); tomb of St. Helena; + Baptistery of Constantine; St. Paul’s beyond the Walls, 386; St. + John Lateran (wholly remodelled in modern times). 5th century: + Baptistery of St. John Lateran; Sta. Sabina, 425; Sta. Maria + Maggiore, 432; S. Pietro in Vincoli, 442 (greatly altered in + modern times). 6th century: S. Lorenzo, 580 (the older portion in + two stories); SS. Cosmo e Damiano. 7th century: Sta. Agnese, 625; + S. Giorgio in Velabro, 682. 8th century: Sta. Maria in Cosmedin; + S. Crisogono. 9th century: S. Nereo ed Achilleo; Sta. Prassede; + Sta. Maria in Dominica. 12th and 13th centuries: S. Clemente, + 1118; Sta. Maria in Trastevere; S. Lorenzo (nave); Sta. Maria in + Ara Coeli. RAVENNA: Baptistery of S. John, 400 (?); S. Francesco; + S. Giovanni Evangelista, 425; Sta. Agata, 430; S. Giovanni + Battista, 439; tomb of Galla Placidia, 450; S. Apollinare Nuovo, + 500-520; S. Apollinare in Classe, 538; St. Victor; Sta. Maria in + Cosmedin (the Arian Baptistery); tomb of Theodoric (Sta. Maria + della Rotonda, a decagonal two-storied mausoleum, with a low dome + cut from a single stone 36 feet in diameter), 530-540. ITALY IN + GENERAL: basilica at Parenzo, 6th century; cathedral and Sta. + Fosca at Torcello, 640-700; at Naples Sta. Restituta, 7th century; + others, mostly of 10th-13th centuries, at Murano near Venice, at + Florence (S. Miniato), Spoleto, Toscanella, etc.; baptisteries at + Asti, Florence, Nocera dei Pagani, and other places. IN SYRIA AND + THE EAST: basilicas of the Nativity at Bethlehem, of the Sepulchre + and of the Ascension at Jerusalem; also polygonal church on Temple + platform; these all of 4th century. Basilicas at Bakouzah, Hass, + Kelat Seman, Kalb Louzeh, Rouheiha, Tourmanin, etc.; circular + churches, tombs, and baptisteries at Bozrah, Ezra, Hass, Kelat + Seman, Rouheiha, etc.; all these 4th-8th centuries. Churches at + Constantinople (Holy Wisdom, St. John Studius, etc.), Hierapolis, + Pergamus, and Thessalonica (St. Demetrius, “Eski Djuma”); in Egypt + and Nubia (Djemla, Announa, Ibreem, Siout, etc.); at Orléansville + in Algeria. (For churches, etc., of 8th-10th centuries in the + West, see Chapter XIII.) + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Essenwein, Hübsch, Von Quast. Also, + Bayet, _L’Art Byzantin_. Choisy, _L’Art de bâtir chez les + Byzantins_. Lethaby and Swainson, _Sancta Sophia_. Ongania, _La + Basilica di San Marco_. Pulgher, _Anciennes Églises Byzantines de + Constantinople_. Salzenberg, _Altchristliche Baudenkmäle von + Constantinopel_. Texier and Pullan, _Byzantine Architecture_. + + ++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The decline and fall of Rome arrested the +development of the basilican style in the West, as did the Arab conquest +later in Syria. It was otherwise in the new Eastern capital founded by +Constantine in the ancient Byzantium, which was rising in power and +wealth while Rome lay in ruins. Situated at the strategic point of the +natural highway of commerce between East and West, salubrious and +enchantingly beautiful in its surroundings, the new capital grew rapidly +from provincial insignificance to metropolitan importance. Its founder +had embellished it with an extraordinary wealth of buildings, in which, +owing to the scarcity of trained architects, quantity and cost doubtless +outran quality. But at least the tameness of blindly followed precedent +was avoided, and this departure from traditional tenets contributed +undoubtedly to the originality of Byzantine architecture. A large part +of the artisans employed in building were then, as now, from Asia Minor +and the Ægean Islands, Greek in race if not in name. An Oriental taste +for brilliant and harmonious color and for minute decoration spread over +broad surfaces must have been stimulated by trade with the Far East and +by constant contact with Oriental peoples, costumes, and arts. An +Asiatic origin may also be assigned to the methods of vaulting employed, +far more varied than the Roman, not only in form but also in materials +and processes. From Roman architecture, however, the Byzantines borrowed +the fundamental notion of their structural art; that, namely, of +distributing the weights and strains of their vaulted structures upon +isolated and massive points of support, strengthened by deep buttresses, +internal or external, as the case might be. Roman, likewise, was the use +of polished monolithic columns, and the incrustation of the piers and +walls with panels of variegated marble, as well as the decoration of +plastered surfaces by fresco and mosaic, and the use of _opus sectile_ +and _opus Alexandrinum_ for the production of sumptuous marble +pavements. In the first of these processes the color-figures of the +pattern are formed each of a single piece of marble cut to the shape +required; in the second the pattern is compounded of minute squares, +triangles, and curved pieces of uniform size. Under these combined +influences the artists of Constantinople wrought out new problems in +construction and decoration, giving to all that they touched a new and +striking character. + +There is no absolute line of demarcation, chronological, geographical, +or structural, between Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. But +the former was especially characterized by the basilica with three or +five aisles, and the use of wooden roofs even in its circular edifices; +the vault and dome, though not unknown, being exceedingly rare. +Byzantine architecture, on the other hand, rarely produced the simple +three-aisled or five-aisled basilica, and nearly all its monuments were +vaulted. The dome was especially frequent, and Byzantine architecture +achieved its highest triumphs in the use of the _pendentive_, as the +triangular spherical surfaces are called, by the aid of which a dome can +be supported on the summits of four arches spanning the four sides of a +square, as explained later. There is as little uniformity in the plans +of Byzantine buildings as in the forms of the vaulting. A few types of +church-plan, however, predominated locally in one or another centre; but +the controlling feature of the style was the dome and the constructive +system with which it was associated. The dome, it is true, had long been +used by the Romans, but always on a circular plan, as in the Pantheon. +It is also a fact that pendentives have been found in Syria and Asia +Minor older than the oldest Byzantine examples. But the special feature +characterizing the Byzantine dome on pendentives was its almost +exclusive association with plans having piers and columns or aisles, +with the dome as the central and dominant feature of the complex design +(see plans, Figs. 74, 75, 78). Another strictly Byzantine practice was +the piercing of the lower portion of the dome with windows forming a +circle or crown, and the final development of this feature into a high +drum. + + ++CONSTRUCTION.+ Still another divergence from Roman methods was in the +substitution of brick and stone masonry for concrete. Brick was used for +the mass as well as the facing of walls and piers, and for the vaulting +in many buildings mainly built of stone. Stone was used either alone or +in combination with brick, the latter appearing in bands of four or five +courses at intervals of three or four feet. In later work a regular +alternation of the two materials, course for course, was not uncommon. +In piers intended to support unusually heavy loads the stone was very +carefully cut and fitted, and sometimes tied and clamped with iron. + +Vaults were built sometimes of brick, sometimes of cut stone; in a few +cases even of earthenware jars fitting into each other, and laid up in a +continuous contracting spiral from the base to the crown of a dome, as +in San Vitale at Ravenna. Ingenious processes for building vaults +without centrings were made use of--processes inherited from the +drain-builders of ancient Assyria, and still in vogue in Armenia, +Persia, and Asia Minor. The groined vault was common, but always +approximated the form of a dome, by a longitudinal convexity upward in +the intersecting vaults. The aisles of Hagia Sophia[17] display a +remarkable variety of forms in the vaulting. + + [Footnote 17: “St. Sophia,” the common name of this church, is a + misnomer. It was not dedicated to a saint at all, but to the + Divine Wisdom (Hagia Sophia), which name the Turks have retained + in the softened form “Aya Sofia.”] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 71.--DIAGRAM OF PENDENTIVES.] + ++DOMES.+ The dome, as we have seen, early became the most characteristic +feature of Byzantine architecture; and especially the dome on +pendentives. If a hemisphere be cut by five planes, four perpendicular +to its base and bounding a square inscribed therein, and the fifth plane +parallel to the base and tangent to the semicircular intersections made +by the first four, there will remain of the original surface only four +triangular spaces bounded by arcs of circles. These are called +_pendentives_ (Fig. 71 a). When these are built up of masonry, each +course forms a species of arch, by virtue of its convexity. At the crown +of the four arches on which they rest, these courses meet and form a +complete circle, perfectly stable and capable of sustaining any +superstructure that does not by excessive weight disrupt the whole +fabric by overthrowing the four arches which support it. Upon these +pendentives, then, a new dome may be started of any desired curvature, +or even a cylindrical drum to support a still loftier dome, as in the +later churches (Fig. 71 b). This method of covering a square is simpler +than the groined vault, having no sharp edges or intersections; it is at +least as effective architecturally, by reason of its greater height in +the centre; and is equally applicable to successive bays of an oblong, +cruciform, and even columnar building. In the great cisterns at +Constantinople vast areas are covered by rows of small domes supported +on ranges of columns. + +The earlier domes were commonly pierced with windows at the base, this +apparent weakening of the vault being compensated for by strongly +buttressing the piers between the windows, as in Hagia Sophia. Here +forty windows form a crown of light at the spring of the dome, producing +an effect almost as striking as that of the simple _oculus_ of the +Pantheon, and celebrated by ancient writers in the most extravagant +terms. In later and smaller churches a high drum was introduced beneath +the dome, in order to secure, by means of longer windows, more light +than could be obtained by merely piercing the diminutive domes. + +Buttressing was well understood by the Byzantines, whose plans were +skilfully devised to provide internal abutments, which were often +continued above the roofs of the side-aisles to prop the main vaults, +precisely as was done by the Romans in their thermæ and similar halls. +But the Byzantines, while adhering less strictly than the Romans to +traditional forms and processes, and displaying much more ready +contrivance and special adaptation of means to ends, never worked out +this pregnant structural principle to its logical conclusion as did the +Gothic architects of Western Europe a few centuries later. + + ++DECORATION+. The exteriors of Byzantine buildings (except in some of +the small churches of late date) were generally bare and lacking in +beauty. The interiors, on the contrary, were richly decorated, color +playing a much larger part than carving in the designs. Painting was +resorted to only in the smaller buildings, the more durable and splendid +medium of mosaic being usually preferred. This was, as a rule, confined +to the vaults and to those portions of the wall-surfaces embraced by the +vaults above their springing. The colors were brilliant, the background +being usually of gold, though sometimes of blue or a delicate green. +Biblical scenes, symbolic and allegorical figures and groups of saints +adorned the larger areas, particularly the half-dome of the apse, as in +the basilicas. The smaller vaults, the soffits of arches, borders of +pictures, and other minor surfaces, received a more conventional +decoration of crosses, monograms, and set patterns. + + [Illustration: FIG. 72.--SPANDRIL. HAGIA SOPHIA.] + +The walls throughout were sheathed with slabs of rare marble in panels +so disposed that the veining should produce symmetrical figures. The +panels were framed in billet-mouldings, derived perhaps from classic +dentils; the billets or projections on one side the moulding coming +opposite the spaces on the other. This seems to have been a purely +Byzantine feature. + + ++CARVED DETAILS.+ Internally the different stories were marked by +horizontal bands and cornices of white or inlaid marble richly carved. +The arch-soffits, the archivolts or bands around the arches, and the +spandrils between them were covered with minute and intricate incised +carving. The motives used, though based on the acanthus and anthemion, +were given a wholly new aspect. The relief was low and flat, the leaves +sharp and crowded, and the effect rich and lacelike, rather than +vigorous. It was, however, well adapted to the covering of large areas +where general effect was more important than detail. Even the capitals +were treated in the same spirit. The impost-block was almost universal, +except where its use was rendered unnecessary by giving to the capital +itself the massive pyramidal form required to receive properly the +spring of the arch or vault. In such cases (more frequent in +Constantinople than elsewhere) the surface of the capital was simply +covered with incised carving of foliage, basketwork, monograms, etc.; +rudimentary volutes in a few cases recalling classic traditions (Figs. +72, 73). The mouldings were weak and poorly executed, and the vigorous +profiles of classic cornices were only remotely suggested by the +characterless aggregations of mouldings which took their place. + + [Illustration: FIG. 73.--CAPITAL WITH IMPOST BLOCK, S. VITALE.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 74.--ST. SERGIUS, CONSTANTINOPLE.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 75.--PLAN OF HAGIA SOPHIA.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 76.--SECTION OF HAGIA SOPHIA.] + ++PLANS.+ The remains of Byzantine architecture are almost exclusively of +churches and baptisteries, but the plans of these are exceedingly +varied. The first radical departure from the basilica-type seems to have +been the adoption of circular or polygonal plans, such as had usually +served only for tombs and baptisteries. The Baptistery of St. John at +Ravenna (early fifth century) is classed by many authorities as a +Byzantine monument. In the early years of the sixth century the adoption +of this model had become quite general, and with it the development of +domical design began to advance. The church of +St. Sergius+ at +Constantinople (Fig. 74), originally joined to a short basilica +dedicated to St. Bacchus (afterward destroyed by the Turks), as in the +double church at Kelat Seman, was built about 520; that of +San Vitale+ +at Ravenna was begun a few years later; both are domical churches on an +octagonal plan, with an exterior aisle. Semicircular niches--four in St. +Sergius and eight in San Vitale--projecting into the aisle, enlarge +somewhat the area of the central space and give variety to the internal +effect. The origin of this characteristic feature may be traced to the +eight niches of the Pantheon, through such intermediate examples as the +temple of Minerva Medica at Rome. The true pendentive does not appear in +these two churches. Timidly employed up to that time in small +structures, it received a remarkable development in the magnificent +church of +Hagia Sophia+, built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isodorus of +Miletus, under Justinian, 532-538 A.D. In the plan of this marvellous +edifice (Fig. 75) the dome rests upon four mighty arches bounding a +square, into two of which open the half-domes of semicircular apses. +These apses are penetrated and extended each by two smaller niches and a +central arch, and the whole vast nave, measuring over 200 × 100 feet, is +flanked by enormously wide aisles connecting at the front with a +majestic narthex. Huge transverse buttresses, as in the Basilica of +Constantine (with whose structural design this building shows striking +affinities), divide the aisles each into three sections. The plan +suggests that of St. Sergius cut in two, with a lofty dome on +pendentives over a square plan inserted between the halves. Thus was +secured a noble and unobstructed hall of unrivalled proportions and +great beauty, covered by a combination of half-domes increasing in span +and height as they lead up successively to the stupendous central vault, +which rises 180 feet into the air and fitly crowns the whole. The +imposing effect of this low-curved but loftily-poised dome, resting as +it does upon a crown of windows, and so disposed that its summit is +visible from every point of the nave (as may be easily seen from an +examination of the section, Fig. 76), is not surpassed in any interior +ever erected. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 77.--INTERIOR OF HAGIA SOPHIA, + CONSTANTINOPLE.] + +The two lateral arches under the dome are filled by clearstory walls +pierced by twelve windows, and resting on arcades in two stories carried +by magnificent columns taken from ancient ruins. These separate the nave +from the side-aisles, which are in two stories forming galleries, and +are vaulted with a remarkable variety of groined vaults. All the masses +are disposed with studied reference to the resistance required by the +many and complex thrusts exerted by the dome and other vaults. That the +earthquakes of one thousand three hundred and fifty years have not +destroyed the church is the best evidence of the sufficiency of these +precautions. + +Not less remarkable than the noble planning and construction of this +church was the treatment of scale and decoration in its interior design. +It was as conspicuously the masterpiece of Byzantine architecture as the +Parthenon was of the classic Greek. With little external beauty, it is +internally one of the most perfectly composed and beautifully decorated +halls of worship ever erected. Instead of the simplicity of the Pantheon +it displays the complexity of an organism of admirably related parts. +The division of the interior height into two stories below the spring of +the four arches, reduces the component parts of the design to moderate +dimensions, so that the scale of the whole is more easily grasped and +its vast size emphasized by the contrast. The walls are incrusted with +precious marbles up to the spring of the vaulting; the capitals, +spandrils, and soffits are richly and minutely carved with incised +ornament, and all the vaults covered with splendid mosaics. Dimmed by +the lapse of centuries and disfigured by the vandalism of the Moslems, +this noble interior, by the harmony of its coloring and its impressive +grandeur, is one of the masterpieces of all time (Fig. 77). + + ++LATER CHURCHES.+ After the sixth century no monuments were built at all +rivalling in scale the creations of the former period. The later +churches were, with few exceptions, relatively small and trivial. +Neither the plan nor the general aspect of Hagia Sophia seems to have +been imitated in these later works. The crown of dome-windows was +replaced by a cylindrical drum under the dome, which was usually of +insignificant size. The exterior was treated more decoratively than +before, by means of bands and incrustations of colored marble, or +alternations of stone and brick; and internally mosaic continued to be +executed with great skill and of great beauty until the tenth century, +when the art rapidly declined. These later churches, of which a number +were spared by the Turks, are, therefore, generally pleasing and elegant +rather than striking or imposing. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 78.--PLAN OF ST. MARK’S, VENICE.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 79.--INTERIOR OF ST. MARK’S.] + ++FOREIGN MONUMENTS.+ The influence of Byzantine art was wide-spread, +both in Europe and Asia. The leading city of civilization through the +Dark Ages, Constantinople influenced Italy through her political and +commercial relations with Ravenna, Genoa, and Venice. The church of +St. +Mark+ in the latter city was one result of this influence (Figs. 78, +79). Begun in 1063 to replace an earlier church destroyed by fire, it +received through several centuries additions not always Byzantine in +character. Yet it was mainly the work of Byzantine builders, who copied +most probably the church of the Apostles at Constantinople, built by +Justinian. The picturesque but wholly unstructural use of columns in the +entrance porches, the upper parts of the façade, the wooden cupolas over +the five domes, and the pointed arches in the narthex, are deviations +from Byzantine traditions dating in part from the later Middle Ages +Nothing could well be conceived more irrational, from a structural point +of view, than the accumulation of columns in the entrance-arches; but +the total effect is so picturesque and so rich in color, that its +architectural defects are easily overlooked. The external veneering of +white and colored marble occurs rarely in the East, but became a +favorite practice in Venice, where it continued in use for five hundred +years. The interior of St. Mark’s, in some respects better preserved +than that of Hagia Sophia, is especially fine in color, though not equal +in scale and grandeur to the latter church. With its five domes it has +less unity of effect than Hagia Sophia, but more of the charm of +picturesqueness, and its less brilliant and simpler lighting enhances +the impressiveness of its more modest dimensions. + +In Russia and Greece the Byzantine style has continued to be the +official style of the Greek Church. The Russian monuments are for the +most part of a somewhat fantastic aspect, the Muscovite taste having +introduced many innovations in the form of bulbous domes and other +eccentric details. In Greece there are few large churches, and some of +the most interesting, like the Cathedral at Athens, are almost toy-like +in their diminutiveness. On +Mt. Athos+ (Hagion Oros) is an ancient +monastery which still retains its Byzantine character and traditions. In +Armenia (as at Ani, Etchmiadzin, etc.) are also interesting examples of +late Armeno-Byzantine architecture, showing applications to exterior +carved detail of elaborate interlaced ornament looking like a re-echo of +Celtic MSS. illumination, itself, no doubt, originating in Byzantine +traditions. But the greatest and most prolific offspring of Byzantine +architecture appeared after the fall of Constantinople (1453) in the new +mosque-architecture of the victorious Turks. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ CONSTANTINOPLE: St. Sergius, 520; Hagia Sophia, + 532-538; Holy Apostles by Justinian (demolished); Holy Peace (St. + Irene) originally by Constantine, rebuilt by Justinian, and again + in 8th century by Leo the Isaurian; Hagia Theotokos, 12th century + (?); Monétes Choras (“Kahiré Djami”), 10th century; Pantokrator; + “Fetiyeh Djami.” Cisterns, especially the “Bin Bir Direk” (1,001 + columns) and “Yere Batan Serai;” palaces, few vestiges except the + great hall of the Blachernæ palace. SALONICA: Churches--of Divine + Wisdom (“Aya Sofia”) St. Bardias, St. Elias. RAVENNA: San Vitale, + 527-540. VENICE: St. Mark’s, 977-1071; “Fondaco dei Turchi,” now + Civic Museum, 12th century. Other churches at Athens and Mt. + Athos; at Misitra, Myra, Ancyra, Ephesus, etc.; in Armenia at Ani, + Dighour, Etchmiadzin, Kouthais, Pitzounda, Usunlar, etc.; tombs at + Ani, Varzhahan, etc.; in Russia at Kieff (St. Basil, Cathedral), + Kostroma, Moscow (Assumption, St. Basil, Vasili Blaghennoi, etc.), + Novgorod, Tchernigoff; at Kurtea Darghish in Wallachia, and many + other places. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +SASSANIAN AND MOHAMMEDAN ARCHITECTURE. + +(ARABIAN, MORESQUE, PERSIAN, INDIAN, AND TURKISH.) + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Bourgoin, _Les Arts Arabes_. Coste, _Monuments + du Caire_; _Monuments modernes de la Perse_. Cunningham, + _Archæological Survey of India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern + Architecture_. De Forest, _Indian Architecture and Ornament_. + Flandin et Coste, _Voyage en Perse_. Franz-Pasha, _Die Baukunst + des Islam_. Gayet, _L’Art Arabe_; _L’Art Persan_. Girault de + Prangey, _Essai sur l’architecture des Arabes en Espagne_, etc. + Goury and Jones, _The Alhambra_. Jacob, _Jeypore Portfolio of + Architectural Details_. Le Bon, _La civilisation des Arabes_; _Les + monuments de l’Inde_. Owen Jones, _Grammar of Ornament_. + Parvillée, _L’Architecture Ottomane_. Prisse d’Avennes, _L’Art + Arabe_. Texier, _Description de l’Arménie, la Perse_, etc. + + ++GENERAL SURVEY.+ While the Byzantine Empire was at its zenith, the new +faith of Islam was conquering Western Asia and the Mediterranean lands +with a fiery rapidity, which is one of the marvels of history. The new +architectural styles which grew up in the wake of these conquests, +though differing widely in conception and detail in the several +countries, were yet marked by common characteristics which set them +quite apart from the contemporary Christian styles. The predominance of +decorative over structural considerations, a predilection for minute +surface-ornament, the absence of pictures and sculpture, are found alike +in Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian buildings, though in varying +degree. These new styles, however, were almost entirely the handiwork of +artisans belonging to the conquered races, and many traces of Byzantine, +and even after the Crusades, of Norman and Gothic design, are +recognizable in Moslem architecture. But the Orientalism of the +conquerors and their common faith, tinged with the poetry and +philosophic mysticism of the Arab, stamped these works of Copts, +Syrians, and Greeks with an unmistakable character of their own, neither +Byzantine nor Early Christian. + + ++ARABIC ARCHITECTURE.+ In the building of mosques and tombs, especially +at Cairo, this architecture reached a remarkable degree of decorative +elegance, and sometimes of dignity. It developed slowly, the Arabs not +being at the outset a race of builders. The early monuments of Syria and +Egypt were insignificant, and the sacred _Kaabah_ at Mecca and the +mosque at Medina hardly deserve to be called architectural monuments at +all. The most important early works were the mosques of +’Amrou+ at +Cairo (642, rebuilt and enlarged early in the eighth century), of +El +Aksah+ on the Temple platform at Jerusalem (691, by Abd-el-Melek), and +of +El Walid+ at Damascus (705-732, recently seriously injured by fire). +All these were simple one-storied structures, with flat wooden roofs +carried on parallel ranges of columns supporting pointed arches, the +arcades either closing one side of a square court, or surrounding it +completely. The long perspectives of the aisles and the minute +decoration of the archivolts and ceilings alone gave them architectural +character. The beautiful +Dome of the Rock+ (Kubbet-es-Sakhrah, +miscalled the Mosque of Omar) on the Temple platform at Jerusalem is +either a remodelled Constantinian edifice, or in large part composed of +the materials of one (see p. 116). + + [Illustration: FIG. 80.--MOSQUE OF SULTAN HASSAN, CAIRO: SANCTUARY. + a, _Mihrâb_, b, _Mimber_.] + +The splendid mosque of +Ibn Touloun+ (876-885) was built on the same +plan as that of Amrou, but with cantoned piers instead of columns and a +corresponding increase in variety of perspective and richness of effect. +With the incoming of the Fatimite dynasty, however, and the foundation +of the present city of Cairo (971), vaulting began to take the place of +wooden ceilings, and then appeared the germs of those extraordinary +applications of geometry to decorative design which were henceforth to +be the most striking feature of Arabic ornament. Under the Ayûb dynasty, +which began with Salâh-ed-din (Saladin) in 1172, these elements, of +which the great +Barkouk+ mosque (1149) is the most imposing early +example, developed slowly in the domical tombs of the _Karafah_ at +Cairo, and prepared the way for the increasing richness and splendor of +a long series of mosques, among which those of +Kalaoun+ (1284-1318), ++Sultan Hassan+ (1356), +El Mu’ayyad+ (1415), and +Kaîd Bey+ (1463), +were the most conspicuous examples (Fig. 80). They mark, indeed, +successive advances in complexity of planning, ingenuity of +construction, and elegance of decoration. Together they constitute an +epoch in Arabic architecture, which coincides closely with the +development of Gothic vaulted architecture in Europe, both in the stages +and the duration of its advances. + +The mosques of these three centuries are, like the mediæval monasteries, +impressive aggregations of buildings of various sorts about a central +court of ablutions. The tomb of the founder, residences for the _imams_, +or priests, schools (_madrassah_), and hospitals (_mâristân_) rival in +importance the prayer-chamber. This last is, however, the real focus of +interest and splendor; in some cases, as in Sultan Hassan, it is a +simple barrel-vaulted chamber open to the court; in others an oblong +arcaded hall with many small domes; or again, a square hall covered with +a high pointed dome on pendentives of intricately beautiful +stalactite-work (see below). The ceremonial requirements of the mosque +were simple. The-court must have its fountain of ablutions in the +centre. The prayer-hall, or mosque proper, must have its _mihrâb_, or +niche, to indicate the _kibleh_, the direction of Mecca; and its +_mimber_, or high, slender pulpit for the reading of the Kôran. These +were the only absolutely indispensable features of a mosque, but as +early as the ninth century the _minaret_ was added, from which the call +to prayer could be sounded over the city by the _mueddin_. Not until the +Ayubite period, however, did it begin to assume those forms of varied +and picturesque grace which lend to Cairo so much of its architectural +charm. + + ++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ While Arabic architecture, in Syria and Egypt +alike, possesses more decorative than constructive originality, the +beautiful forms of its domes, pendentives, and minarets, the simple +majesty of the great pointed barrel-vaults of the Hassan mosque and +similar monuments, and the graceful lines of the universally used +pointed arch, prove the Coptic builders and their later Arabic +successors to have been architects of great ability. The Arabic domes, +as seen both in the mosques and in the remarkable group of tombs +commonly called “tombs of the Khalîfs,” are peculiar not only in their +pointed outlines and their rich external decoration of interlaced +geometric motives, but still more in the external and internal treatment +of the pendentives, exquisitely decorated with stalactite ornament. This +ornament, derived, no doubt, from a combination of minute corbels with +rows of small niches, and presumably of Persian origin, was finally +developed into a system of extraordinary intricacy, applicable alike to +the topping of a niche or panel, as in the great doorways of the +mosques, and to the bracketing out of minaret galleries (Figs. 81, 82). +Its applications show a bewildering variety of forms and an +extraordinary aptitude for intricate geometrical design. + + [Illustration: FIG. 81.--MOSQUE OF KAÎD BEY, CAIRO] + + ++DECORATION.+ Geometry, indeed, vied with the love of color in its hold +on the Arabic taste. Ceiling-beams were carved into highly ornamental +forms before receiving their rich color-decoration of red, green, blue, +and gold. The doors and the _mimber_ were framed in geometric patterns +with slender intersecting bars forming complicated star-panelling. The +voussoirs of arches were cut into curious interlocking forms; doorways +and niches were covered with stalactite corbelling, and pavements and +wall-incrustations, whether of marble or tiling, combined brilliancy and +harmony of color with the perplexing beauty of interlaced +star-and-polygon patterns of marvellous intricacy. Stained glass added +to the interior color-effect, the patterns being perforated in plaster, +with a bit of colored glass set into each perforation--a device not very +durable, perhaps, but singularly decorative. + + ++OTHER WORKS.+ Few of the mediæval Arabic palaces have remained to our +time. That they were adorned with a splendid prodigality appears from +contemporary accounts. This splendor was internal rather than external; +the palace, like all the larger and richer dwellings in the East, +surrounded one or more courts, and presented externally an almost +unbroken wall. The fountain in the chief court, the _diwân_ (a great, +vaulted reception-chamber opening upon the court and raised slightly +above it), the _dâr_, or men’s court, rigidly separated from the +_hareem_ for the women, were and are universal elements in these great +dwellings. The more common city-houses show as their most striking +features successively corbelled-out stories and broad wooden eaves, with +lattice-screens covering single windows, or almost a whole façade, +composed of turned work (_mashrabiyya_), in designs of great beauty. + +The fountains, gates, and minor works of the Arabs display the same +beauty in decoration and color, the same general forms and details which +characterize the larger works, but it is impossible here to +particularize further with regard to them. + + ++MORESQUE.+ Elsewhere in Northern Africa the Arabs produced no such +important works as in Egypt, nor is the architecture of the other Moslem +states so well preserved or so well known. Constructive design would +appear to have been there even more completely subordinated to +decoration; tiling and plaster-relief took the place of more +architectural elements and materials, while horseshoe and cusped arches +were substituted for the simpler and more architectural pointed arch +(Fig. 82). The courts of palaces and public buildings were surrounded by +ranges of horseshoe arches on slender columns; these last being provided +with capitals of a form rarely seen in Cairo. Towers were built of much +more massive design than the Cairo minarets, usually with a square, +almost solid shaft and a more open lantern at the top, sometimes in +several diminishing stories. + + [Illustration: FIG. 82.--MOORISH DETAIL, ALHAMBRA. + _Showing stalactite and perforated work, Moorish cusped arch, + Hispano-Moresque capitals, and decorative inscriptions._] + + ++HISPANO-MORESQUE.+ The most splendid phase of this branch of Arabic +architecture is found not in Africa but in Spain, which was overrun in +710-713 by the Moors, who established there the independent Khalifate of +Cordova. This was later split up into petty kingdoms, of which the most +important were Granada, Seville, Toledo, and Valencia. This +dismemberment of the Khalifate led in time to the loss of these cities, +which were one by one recovered by the Christians during the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries; the capture of Granada, in 1492, finally +destroying the Moorish rule. + +The dominion of the Moors in Spain was marked by a high civilization and +an extraordinary activity in building. The style they introduced became +the national style in the regions they occupied, and even after the +expulsion of the Moors was used in buildings erected by Christians and +by Jews. The “House of Pilate,” at Seville, is an example of this, and +the general use of the Moorish style in Jewish synagogues, down to our +own day, both in Spain and abroad, originated in the erection of +synagogues for the Jews in Spain by Moorish artisans and in Moorish +style, both during and after the period of Moslem supremacy. + +Besides innumerable mosques, castles, bridges, aqueducts, gates, and +fountains, the Moors erected several monuments of remarkable size and +magnificence. Specially worthy of notice among them are the Great Mosque +at Cordova, the Alcazars of Seville and Malaga, the Giralda at Seville, +and the Alhambra at Granada. + + [Illustration: FIG. 83.--INTERIOR OF THE GREAT MOSQUE AT CORDOVA.] + +The +Mosque at Cordova+, begun in 786 by ‘Abd-er-Rahman, enlarged in +876, and again by El Mansour in 976, is a vast arcaded hall 375 feet × +420 feet in extent, but only 30 feet high (Fig. 83). The rich wooden +ceiling rests upon seventeen rows of thirty to thirty-three columns +each, and two intersecting rows of piers, all carrying horseshoe arches +in two superposed ranges, a large portion of those about the sanctuary +being cusped, the others plain, except for the alternation of color in +the voussoirs. The _mihrâb_ niche is particularly rich in its minutely +carved incrustations and mosaics, and a dome ingeniously formed by +intersecting ribs covers the sanctuary before it. This form of dome +occurs frequently in Spain. + +The +Alcazars+ at Seville and Malaga, which have been restored in recent +years, present to-day a fairly correct counterpart of the castle-palaces +of the thirteenth century. They display the same general conceptions and +decorative features as the Alhambra, which they antedate. The +Giralda+ +at Seville is, on the other hand, unique. It is a lofty rectangular +tower, its exterior panelled and covered with a species of +quarry-ornament in relief; it terminated originally in two or three +diminishing stages or lanterns, which were replaced in the sixteenth +century by the present Renaissance belfry. + +The +Alhambra+ is universally considered to be the masterpiece of +Hispano-Moresque art, partly no doubt on account of its excellent +preservation. It is most interesting as an example of the splendid +citadel-palaces built by the Moorish conquerors, as well as for its +gorgeous color-decoration of minute quarry-ornament stamped or moulded +in the wet plaster wherever the walls are not wainscoted with tiles. It +was begun in 1248 by Mohammed-ben-Al-Hamar, enlarged in 1279 by his +successor, and again in 1306, when its mosque was built. Its plan (Fig. +84) shows two large courts and a smaller one next the mosque, with three +great square chambers and many of minor importance. Light arcades +surround the Court of the Lions with its fountain, and adorn the ends of +the other chief court; and the stalactite pendentive, rare in Moorish +work, appears in the “Hall of Ambassadors” and some other parts of the +edifice. But its chief glory is its ornamentation, less durable, less +architectural than that of the Cairene buildings, but making up for this +in delicacy and richness. Minute vine-patterns and Arabic inscriptions +are interwoven with waving intersecting lines, forming a net-like +framework, to all of which deep red, blue, black, and gold give an +indescribable richness of effect. + + [Illustration: FIG. 84.--PLAN OF THE ALHAMBRA. + A, _Hall of Ambassadors_; a, _Mosque_; b, _Court of Mosque_; + c, _Sala della Barca_; _d, d_, _Baths_; e, _Hall of the + Two Sisters_; _f, f, f_, _Hall of the Tribunal_; + g, _Hall of the Abencerrages_.] + +The Moors also overran Sicily in the eighth century, but while their +architecture there profoundly influenced that of the Christians who +recovered Sicily in 1090, and copied the style of the conquered Moslems, +there is too little of the original Moorish architecture remaining to +claim mention here. + + ++SASSANIAN.+ The Sassanian empire, which during the four centuries from +226 to 641 A.D. had withstood Rome and extended its own sway almost to +India, left on Persian soil a number of interesting monuments which +powerfully influenced the Mohammedan style of that region. The Sassanian +buildings appear to have been principally palaces, and were all vaulted. +With their long barrel-vaulted halls, combined with square domical +chambers, as in Firouz-Abad and Serbistan, they exhibit reminiscences of +antique Assyrian tradition. The ancient Persian use of columns was +almost entirely abandoned, but doors and windows were still treated with +the banded frames and cavetto-cornices of Persepolis and Susa. The +Sassanians employed with these exterior details others derived perhaps +from Syrian and Byzantine sources. A sort of engaged buttress-column and +blind arches repeated somewhat aimlessly over a whole façade were +characteristic features; still more so the huge arches, elliptical or +horse-shoe shaped, which formed the entrances to these palaces, as in +the Tâk-Kesra at Ctesiphon. Ornamental details of a debased Roman type +appear, mingled with more gracefully flowing leaf-patterns resembling +early Christian Syrian carving. The last great monument of this style +was the palace at Mashita in Moab, begun by the last Chosroes (627), but +never finished, an imposing and richly ornamented structure about 500 × +170 feet, occupying the centre of a great court. + + ++PERSIAN-MOSLEM ARCHITECTURE.+ These Sassanian palaces must have +strongly influenced Persian architecture after the Arab conquest in 641. +For although the architecture of the first six centuries after that date +suffered almost absolute extinction at the hands of the Mongols under +Genghis Khan, the traces of Sassanian influence are still perceptible in +the monuments that rose in the following centuries. The dome and vault, +the colossal portal-arches, and the use of brick and tile are evidences +of this influence, bearing no resemblance to Byzantine or Arabic types. +The Moslem monuments of Persia, so far as their dates can be +ascertained, are all subsequent to 1200, unless tradition is correct in +assigning to the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786) certain curious tombs +near Bagdad with singular pyramidal roofs. The ruined mosque at Tabriz +(1300), and the beautiful domical +Tomb+ at +Sultaniyeh+ (1313) belong +to the Mogul period. They show all the essential features of the later +architecture of the Sufis (1499-1694), during whose dynastic period were +built the still more splendid and more celebrated +Meidan+ or square, +the great mosque of Mesjid Shah, the Bazaar and the College or Medress +of Hussein Shah, all at Ispahan, and many other important monuments at +Ispahan, Bagdad, and Teheran. In these structures four elements +especially claim attention; the pointed bulbous dome, the round minaret, +the portal-arch rising above the adjacent portions of the building, and +the use of enamelled terra-cotta tiles as an external decoration. To +these may be added the ogee arch (_ogee_ = double-reversed curve), as an +occasional feature. The vaulting is most ingenious and beautiful, and +its forms, whether executed in brick or in plaster, are sufficiently +varied without resort to the perplexing complications of stalactite +work. In Persian decoration the most striking qualities are the harmony +of blended color, broken up into minute patterns and more subdued in +tone than in the Hispano-Moresque, and the preference of flowing lines +and floral ornament to the geometric puzzles of Arabic design. Persian +architecture influenced both Turkish and Indo-Moslem art, which owe to +it a large part of their decorative charm. + + ++INDO-MOSLEM.+ The Mohammedan architecture of India is so distinct from +all the native Indian styles and so related to the art of Persia, if not +to that of the Arabs, that it properly belongs here rather than in the +later chapter on Oriental styles. It was in the eleventh century that +the states of India first began to fall before Mohammedan invaders, but +not until the end of the fifteenth century that the great Mogul dynasty +was established in Hindostan as the dominant power. During the +intervening period local schools of Moslem architecture were developing +in the Pathan country of Northern India (1193-1554), in Jaunpore and +Gujerat (1396-1572), in Scinde, where Persian influence predominated; in +Kalburgah and Bidar (1347-1426). These schools differed considerably in +spirit and detail; but under the Moguls (1494-1706) there was less +diversity, and to this dynasty we owe many of the most magnificent +mosques and tombs of India, among which those of Bijapur retain a marked +and distinct style of their own. + + [Illustration: FIG. 85.--TOMB OF MAHMUD, BIJAPUR. SECTION.] + +The Mohammedan monuments of India are characterized by a grandeur and +amplitude of disposition, a symmetry and monumental dignity of design +which distinguishes them widely from the picturesque but sometimes +trivial buildings of the Arabs and Moors. Less dependent on color than +the Moorish or Persian structures, they are usually built of marble, or +of marble and sandstone, giving them an air of permanence and solidity +wanting in other Moslem styles except the Turkish. The dome, the round +minaret, the pointed arch, and the colossal portal-arch, are universal, +as in Persia, and enamelled tiles are also used, but chiefly for +interior decoration. Externally the more dignified if less resplendent +decoration of surface carving is used, in patterns of minute and +graceful scrolls, leaf forms, and Arabic inscriptions covering large +surfaces. The Arabic stalactite pendentive star-panelling and +geometrical interlace are rarely if ever seen. The dome on the square +plan is almost universal, but neither the Byzantine nor the Arabic +pendentive is used, striking and original combinations of vaulting +surfaces, of corner squinches, of corbelling and ribs, being used in its +place. Many of the Pathan domes and arches at Delhi, Ajmir, Ahmedabad, +Shepree, etc., are built in horizontal or corbelled courses supported on +slender columns, and exert no thrust at all, so that they are vaults +only in form, like the dome of the Tholos of Atreus (Fig. 24). The most +imposing and original of all Indian domes are those of the +Jumma +Musjid+ and of the +Tomb of Mahmud+, both at Bijapur, the latter 137 +feet in span (Fig. 85). These two monuments, indeed, with the Mogul Taj +Mahal at Agra, not only deserve the first rank among Indian monuments, +but in constructive science combined with noble proportions and +exquisite beauty are hardly, if at all, surpassed by the greatest +triumphs of western art. The Indo-Moslem architects, moreover, +especially those of the Mogul period, excelled in providing artistic +settings for their monuments. Immense platforms, superb courts, imposing +flights of steps, noble gateways, minarets to mark the angles of +enclosures, and landscape gardening of a high order, enhance greatly the +effect of the great mosques, tombs, and palaces of Agra, Delhi, +Futtehpore Sikhri, Allahabad, Secundra, etc. + +The most notable monuments of the Moguls are the +Mosque of Akbar+ +(1556-1605) at Futtehpore Sikhri, the tomb of that sultan at Secundra, +and his palace at Allahabad; the +Pearl Mosque+ at Agra and the +Jumma +Musjid+ at Delhi, one of the largest and noblest of Indian mosques, both +built by Shah Jehan about 1650; his immense but now ruined palace in the +same city; and finally the unrivalled mausoleum, the +Taj Mahal+ at +Agra, built during his lifetime as a festal hall, to serve as his tomb +after death (Fig. 86). This last is the pearl of Indian architecture, +though it is said to have been designed by a European architect, French +or Italian. It is a white marble structure 185 feet square, centred in a +court 313 feet square, forming a platform 18 feet high. The corners of +this court are marked by elegant minarets, and the whole is dominated by +the exquisite white marble dome, 58 feet in diameter, 80 feet high, +internally rising over four domical corner chapels, and covered +externally by a lofty marble bulb-dome on a high drum. The rich +materials, beautiful execution, and exquisite inlaying of this mausoleum +are worthy of its majestic design. On the whole, in the architecture of +the Moguls in Bijapur, Agra, and Delhi, Mohammedan architecture reaches +its highest expression in the totality and balance of its qualities of +construction, composition, detail, ornament, and settings. The later +monuments show the decline of the style, and though often rich and +imposing, are lacking in refinement and originality. + + [Illustration: FIG. 86.--TAJ MAHAL, AGRA.] + + ++TURKISH.+ The Ottoman Turks, who began their conquering career under +Osman I. in Bithynia in 1299, had for a century been occupying the +fairest portions of the Byzantine empire when, in 1453, they became +masters of Constantinople. Hagia Sophia was at once occupied as their +chief mosque, and such of the other churches as were spared, were +divided between the victors and the vanquished. The conqueror, Mehmet +II., at the same time set about the building of a new mosque, entrusting +the design to a Byzantine, Christodoulos, whom he directed to reproduce, +with some modifications, the design of the “Great Church”--Hagia Sophia. +The type thus officially adopted has ever since remained the controlling +model of Turkish mosque design, so far, at least, as general plan and +constructive principles are concerned. Thus the conquering Turks, +educated by a century of study and imitation of Byzantine models in +Brusa, Nicomedia, Smyrna, Adrianople, and other cities earlier +subjugated, did what the Byzantines had, during nine centuries, failed +to do. The noble idea first expressed by Anthemius and Isidorus in the +Church of Hagia Sophia had remained undeveloped, unimitated by later +architects. It was the Turk who first seized upon its possibilities, and +developed therefrom a style of architecture less sumptuous in color and +decoration than the sister styles of Persia, Cairo, or India, but of +great nobility and dignity, notwithstanding. The low-curved dome with +its crown of buttressed windows, the plain spherical pendentives, the +great apses at each end, covered by half-domes and penetrated by smaller +niches, the four massive piers with their projecting buttress-masses +extending across the broad lateral aisles, the narthex and the arcaded +atrium in front--all these appear in the great Turkish mosques of +Constantinople. In the Conqueror’s mosque, however, two apses with +half-domes replace the lateral galleries and clearstory of Hagia Sophia, +making a perfectly quadripartite plan, destitute of the emphasis and +significance of a plan drawn on one main axis (Fig. 87). The same +treatment occurs in the mosque of Ahmed I., the +Ahmediyeh+ (1608; Fig. +88), and the +Yeni Djami+ (“New Mosque”) at the port (1665). In the +mosque of +Osman III.+ (1755) the reverse change was effected; the +mosque has no great apses, four clearstories filling the four arches +under the dome, as also in several of the later and smaller mosques. The +greatest and noblest of the Turkish mosques, the +Suleimaniyeh+, built +in 1553 by Soliman the Magnificent, returned to the Byzantine +combination of two half-domes with two clearstories (Fig. 89). + + [Illustration: FIG. 87.--MOSQUE OF MEHMET II., CONSTANTINOPLE. + PLAN. + (The dimensions figured in metres.)] + +In none of these monuments is there the internal magnificence of marble +and mosaic of the Byzantine churches. These are only in a measure +replaced by Persian tile-wainscoting and stained-glass windows of the +Arabic type. The division into stories and the treatment of scale are +less well managed than in the Hagia Sophia; on the other hand, the +proportion of height to width is generally admirable. The exterior +treatment is unique and effective, far superior to the Byzantine +practice. The massing of domes and half-domes and roofs is more +artistically arranged; and while there is little of that minute carved +detail found in Egypt and India, the composition of the lateral arcades, +the simple but impressive domical peristyles of the courts, and the +graceful forms of the pointed arches, with alternating voussoirs of +white and black marble, are artistic in a high degree. The minarets are, +however, inferior to those of Indian, Persian, and Arabic art, though +graceful in their proportions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 88.--EXTERIOR AHMEDIYEH MOSQUE.] + +Nearly all the great mosques are accompanied by the domical tombs +(_turbeh_) of their imperial founders. Some of these are of noble size +and great beauty of proportion and decoration. The +Tomb of Roxelana+ +(Khourrem), the favorite wife of Soliman the Magnificent (1553), is the +most beautiful of all, and perhaps the most perfect gem of Turkish +architecture, with its elegant arcade surrounding the octagonal domical +mausoleum-chamber. The +monumental fountains+ of Constantinople also +deserve mention. Of these, the one erected by Ahmet III. (1710), near +Hagia Sophia, is the most beautiful. They usually consist of a +rectangular marble reservoir with pagoda-like roof and broad eaves, the +four faces of the fountain adorned each with a niche and basin, and +covered with relief carving and gilded inscriptions. + + [Illustration: FIG. 89.--INTERIOR OF SULEIMANIYEH, + CONSTANTINOPLE.] + + ++PALACES.+ In this department the Turks have done little of importance. +The buildings in the Seraglio gardens are low and insignificant. The ++Tchinli Kiosque+, now the Imperial Museum, is however, a simple but +graceful two-storied edifice, consisting of four vaulted chambers in the +angles of a fine cruciform hall, with domes treated like those of +Bijapur on a small scale; the tiling and the veranda in front are +particularly elegant; the design suggests Persian handiwork. The later +palaces, designed by Armenians, are picturesque white marble and stucco +buildings on the water’s edge; they possess richly decorated halls, but +the details are of a debased European rococo style, quite unworthy of an +Oriental monarch. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ ARABIAN: “Mosque of Omar,” or Dome of the Rock, 638; + El Aksah, by ’Abd-el-Melek, 691, both at Jerusalem; Mosque ’Amrou + at Cairo, 642; mosques at Cyrene, 665; great mosque of El Walîd, + Damascus, 705-717. Bagdad built, 755. Great mosque at Kairouân, + 737. At Cairo, Ibn Touloun, 876; Gama-El-Azhar, 971; Barkouk, + 1149; “Tombs of Khalîfs” (Karafah), 1250-1400; Moristan Kalaoun, + 1284; Medresseh Sultan Hassan, 1356; El Azhar enlarged; El Mûayed, + 1415; Kaïd Bey, 1463; Sinan Pacha, 1468; “Tombs of Mamelukes,” + 16th century. Also palaces, baths, fountains, mosques, and tombs. + MORESQUE: Mosque at Saragossa, 713; mosque and arsenal at Tunis, + 742; great mosque at Cordova, 786, 876, 975; sanctuary, 14th + century. Mosques, baths, etc., at Cordova, Tarragona, Segovia, + Toledo, 960-980; mosque of Sobeiha at Cordova, 981. Palaces and + mosques at Fez; great mosque at Seville, 1172. Extensive building + in Morocco close of 12th century. Giralda at Seville, 1160; + Alcazars in Malaga and Seville, 1225-1300; Alhambra and Generalife + at Granada, 1248, 1279, 1306; also mosques, baths, etc. Yussuf + builds palace at Malaga, 1348; palaces at Granada. PERSIAN: Tombs + near Bagdad, 786 (?); mosque at Tabriz, 1300; tomb of Khodabendeh + at Sultaniyeh, 1313; Meidan Shah (square) and Mesjid Shah (mosque) + at Ispahan, 17th century; Medresseh (school) of Sultan Hussein, + 18th century; palaces of Chehil Soutoun (forty columns) and Aineh + Khaneh (Palace of Mirrors). Baths, tombs, bazaars, etc., at + Cashan, Koum, Kasmin, etc. Aminabad Caravanserai between Shiraz + and Ispahan; bazaar at Ispahan. + + INDIAN: Mosque and “Kutub Minar” (tower) _cir._ 1200; Tomb of + Altumsh, 1236; mosque at Ajmir, 1211-1236; tomb at Old Delhi; + Adina Mosque, Maldah, 1358. Mosques Jumma Musjid and Lal Durwaza + at Jaunpore, first half of 15th century. Mosque and bazaar, + Kalburgah, 1435 (?). Mosques at Ahmedabad and Sirkedj, middle 15th + century. Mosque Jumma Musjid and Tomb of Mahmûd, Bijapur, _cir._ + 1550. Tomb of Humayûn, Delhi; of Mohammed Ghaus, Gwalior; mosque + at Futtehpore Sikhri; palace at Allahabad; tomb of Akbar at + Secundra, all by Akbar, 1556-1605. Palace and Jumma Musjid at + Delhi; Muti Musjid (Pearl mosque) and Taj Mahal at Agra, by Shah + Jehan, 1628-1658. + + TURKISH: Tomb of Osman, Brusa, 1326; Green Mosque (Yeshil Djami) + Brusa, _cir._ 1350. Mosque at Isnik (Nicæa), 1376. Mehmediyeh + (mosque Mehmet II.) Constantinople, 1453; mosque at Eyoub; Tchinli + Kiosque, by Mehmet II., 1450-60; mosque Bayazid, 1500; Selim I., + 1520; Suleimaniyeh, by Sinan, 1553; Ahmediyeh by Ahmet I., 1608; + Yeni Djami, 1665; Nouri Osman, by Osman III., 1755; mosque + Mohammed Ali in Cairo, 1824. Mosque at Adrianople. KHANS, + cloistered courts for public business and commercial lodgers, + various dates, 16th and 17th centuries (Validé Khan, Vizir Khan), + vaulted bazaars, fountains, Seraskierat Tower, all at + Constantinople. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE + +IN ITALY AND FRANCE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cattaneo, _L’Architecture en Italie_. Chapuy, + _Le moyen age monumental_. Corroyer, _Architecture romane_. + Cummings, _A History of Architecture in Italy_. Enlart, _Manuel + d’archéologie française_. Hübsch, _Monuments de l’architecture + chrétienne_. Knight, _Churches of Northern Italy_. Lenoir, + _Architecture monastique_. Osten, _Bauwerke in der Lombardei_. + Quicherat, _Mélanges d’histoire et d’archéologie_. Reber, _History + of Mediæval Architecture_. Révoil, _Architecture romane du midi de + la France_. Rohault de Fleury, _Monuments de Pise_. Sharpe, + _Churches of Charente_. De Verneilh, _L’Architecture byzantine en + France_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture + française_ (especially in Vol. I., Architecture religieuse); + _Discourses on Architecture_. + + ++EARLY MEDIÆVAL EUROPE.+ The fall of the Western Empire in 476 A.D. +marked the beginning of a new era in architecture outside of the +Byzantine Empire. The so-called Dark Ages which followed this event +constituted the formative period of the new Western civilization, during +which the Celtic and Germanic races were being Christianized and +subjected to the authority and to the educative influences of the +Church. Under these conditions a new architecture was developed, founded +upon the traditions of the early Christian builders, modified in +different regions by Roman or Byzantine influences. For Rome recovered +early her antique prestige, and Roman monuments covering the soil of +Southern Europe, were a constant object lesson to the builders of that +time. To this new architecture of the West, which in the tenth and +eleventh centuries first began to achieve worthy and monumental results, +the generic name of +Romanesque+ has been commonly given, in spite of +the great diversity of its manifestations in different countries. + + ++CHARACTER OF THE ARCHITECTURE.+ Romanesque architecture was +pre-eminently ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated from the +Church, and her requirements and discipline gave form to the builder’s +art. But the basilican style, which had so well served her purposes in +the earlier centuries and on classic soil, was ill-suited to the new +conditions. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, and splendid +mosaics were not to be had for the asking in the forests of Gaul or +Germany, nor could the Lombards and Ostrogoths in Italy or their +descendants reproduce them. The basilican style was complete in itself, +possessing no seeds of further growth. The priests and monks of Italy +and Western Europe sought to rear with unskilled labor churches of stone +in which the general dispositions of the basilica should reappear in +simpler, more massive dress, and, as far as possible, in a fireproof +construction with vaults of stone. This problem underlies all the varied +phases of Romanesque architecture; its final solution was not, however, +reached until the Gothic period, to which the Romanesque forms the +transition and stepping-stone. + + ++MEDIÆVAL ITALY.+ Italy in the Dark Ages stood midway between the +civilization of the Eastern Empire and the semi-barbarism of the West. +Rome, Ravenna, and Venice early became centres of culture and maintained +continuous commercial relations with the East. Architecture did not lack +either the inspiration or the means for advancing on new lines. But its +advance was by no means the same everywhere. The unifying influence of +the church was counterbalanced by the provincialism and the local +diversities of the various Italian states, resulting in a wide variety +of styles. These, however, may be broadly grouped in four divisions: the ++Lombard+, the +Tuscan-Romanesque+, the +Italo-Byzantine+, and the +unchanged +Basilican+ or Early Christian, which last, as was shown in +Chapter X., continued to be practised in Rome throughout the Middle +Ages. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 90.--INTERIOR OF SAN AMBROGIO, MILAN.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 91.--WEST FRONT AND CAMPANILE OF CATHEDRAL, + PIACENZA.] + ++LOMBARD STYLE.+ Owing to the general rebuilding of ancient churches +under the more settled social conditions of the eleventh and twelfth +centuries, little remains to us of the architecture of the three +preceding centuries in Italy, except the Roman basilicas and a few +baptisteries and circular churches, already mentioned in Chapter X. The +so-called Lombard monuments belong mainly to the eleventh and twelfth +centuries. They are found not only in Lombardy, but also in Venetia and +the Æmilia. Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Bologna, and Verona were important +centres of development of this style. The churches were nearly all +vaulted, but the plans were basilican, with such variations as resulted +from efforts to meet the exigencies of vaulted construction. The nave +was narrowed, and instead of rows of columns carrying a thin clearstory +wall, a few massive piers of masonry, connected by broad pier-arches, +supported the heavy ribs of the groined vaulting, as in S. Ambrogio, +Milan (Fig. 90). To resist the thrust of the main vault, the clearstory +was sometimes suppressed, the side aisle carried up in two stories +forming galleries, and rows of chapels added at the sides, their +partitions forming buttresses. The piers were often of clustered +section, the better to receive the various arches and ribs they +supported. The vaulting was in square divisions or _vaulting-bays_, each +embracing two pier-arches which met upon an intermediate pier lighter +than the others. Thus the whole aspect of the interior was +revolutionized. The lightness, spaciousness, and decorative elegance of +the basilicas were here exchanged for a sombre and massive dignity +severe in its plainness. The Choir was sometimes raised a few feet above +the nave, to allow of a crypt and _confessio_ beneath, reached by broad +flights of steps from the nave. Sta. Maria della Pieve at Arezzo +(9th-11th century), +S. Michele+ at Pavia (late 11th century), the ++Cathedral of Piacenza+ (1122), +S. Ambrogio+ at Milan (12th century), +and +S. Zeno+ at Verona (1139) are notable monuments of this style. + + ++LOMBARD EXTERIORS.+ The few architectural embellishments employed on +the simple exteriors of the Lombard churches were usually effective and +well composed. Slender columnettes or long pilasters, blind arcades, and +open arcaded galleries under the eaves gave light and shade to these +exteriors. The façades were mere frontispieces with a single broad +gable, the three aisles of the church being merely suggested by flat or +round pilasters dividing the front (Fig 91). Gabled porches, with +columns resting on the backs of lions or monsters, adorned the doorways. +The carving was often of a fierce and grotesque character. Detached +bell-towers or _campaniles_ adjoined many of these churches; square and +simple in mass, but with well-distributed openings and well-proportioned +belfries (Piacenza S. Zeno at Verona, etc.).[18] + + [Footnote 18: See Appendix B.] + + ++THE TUSCAN ROMANESQUE.+ The churches of this style (sometimes called +the +Pisan+) were less vigorous but more elegant and artistic in design +than the Lombard. They were basilicas in plan, with timber ceilings and +high clearstories on columnar arcades. In their decoration, both +internal and external, they betray the influence of Byzantine +traditions, especially in the use of white and colored marble in +alternating bands or in panelled veneering. Still more striking is the +external decorative application of wall-arcades, sometimes occupying the +whole height of the wall and carried on flat pilasters, sometimes in +superposed stages of small arches on slender columns standing free of +the wall. In general the decorative element prevailed over the +constructive in the design of these picturesquely beautiful churches, +some of which are of noble size. The +Duomo+ (cathedral) of +Pisa+, +built 1063-1118, is the finest monument of the style (Figs. 92, 93). It +is 312 feet long and 118 wide, with long transepts and an elliptical +dome of later date over the _crossing_ (the intersection of nave and +transepts). Its richly arcaded front and banded flanks strikingly +exemplify the illogical and unconstructive but highly decorative methods +of the Tuscan Romanesque builders. The circular +Baptistery+ (1153), +with its lofty domical central hall surrounded by an aisle, an imposing +development of the type established by Constantine (p. 111), and the +famous +Leaning Tower+ (1174), both designed with external arcading, +combine with the Duomo to form the most remarkable group of +ecclesiastical buildings in Italy, if not in Europe (Fig. 92). + + [Illustration: FIG. 92.--BAPTISTERY, CATHEDRAL, + AND LEANING TOWER, PISA.] + +The same style appears in more flamboyant shape in some of the churches +of Lucca. The cathedral +S. Martino+ (1060; façade, 1204; nave altered +in fourteenth century) is the finest and largest of these; +S. Michele+ +(façade, 1288) and S. Frediano (twelfth century) have the most +elaborately decorated façades. The same principles of design appear in +the cathedral and several other churches in Pistoia and Prato; but these +belong, for the most part, to the Gothic period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 93.--INTERIOR OF PISA CATHEDRAL.] + + ++FLORENCE.+ The church of +S. Miniato+, in the suburbs of Florence, is a +beautiful example of a modification of the Pisan style. It is in plan a +basilica with two piers interrupting the colonnade on each side of the +nave and supporting powerful transverse arches. The interior is +embellished with bands and patterns in black and white, and the woodwork +of the open-timber roof is elegantly decorated with fine patterns in +red, green, blue, and gold--a treatment common in early mediæval +churches, as at Messina, Orvieto, etc. The exterior is adorned with +wall-arches of classic design and with panelled veneering in white and +dark marble, instead of the horizontal bands of the Pisan churches. This +system of external decoration, a blending of Pisan and Italo-Byzantine +methods, became the established practice in Florence, lasting through +the whole Gothic period. The +Baptistery+ of Florence, originally the +cathedral, an imposing polygonal domical edifice of the tenth century, +presents externally one of the most admirable examples of this practice. +Its marble veneering in black and white, with pilasters and arches of +excellent design, is attributed by Vasari to Arnolfo di Cambio, but is +by many considered to be much older, although restored by that architect +in 1294. + +Suggestions of the Pisan arcade system are found in widely scattered +examples in the east and south of Italy, mingled with features of +Lombard and Byzantine design. In Apulia, as at Bari, Caserta Vecchia +(1100), Molfetta (1192), and in Sicily, the Byzantine influence is +conspicuous in the use of domes and in many of the decorative details. +Particularly is this the case at Palermo and Monreale, where the +churches erected after the Norman conquest--some of them domical, some +basilican--show a strange but picturesque and beautiful mixture of +Romanesque, Byzantine, and Arabic forms. The +Cathedral+ of +Monreale+ +and the churches of the +Eremiti+ and +La Martorana+ at Palermo are the +most important. + +The +Italo-Byzantine+ style has already found mention in the latter part +of Chapter XI. Venice and Ravenna were its chief centres; while the +influence, both of the parent style and of its Italian offshoot was, as +we have just shown, very widespread. + + ++WESTERN ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE.+ In Western Europe the unrest and +lawlessness which attended the unsettled relations of society under the +feudal system long retarded the establishment of that social order +without which architectural progress is impossible. With the eleventh +century there began, however, a great activity in building, principally +among the monasteries, which represented all that there was of culture +and stability amid the prevailing disorder. Undisturbed by war, the only +abodes of peaceful labor, learning, and piety, they had become rich and +powerful, both in men and land. Probably the more or less general +apprehension of the supposed impending end of the world in the year 1000 +contributed to this result by driving unquiet consciences to seek refuge +in the monasteries, or to endow them richly. + +The monastic builders, with little technical training, but with plenty +of willing hands, sought out new architectural paths to meet their +special needs. Remote from classic and Byzantine models, and mainly +dependent on their own resources, they often failed to realize the +intended results. But skill came with experience, and with advancing +civilization and a surer mastery of construction came a finer taste and +greater elegance of design. Meanwhile military architecture developed a +new science of building, and covered Europe with imposing castles, +admirably constructed and often artistic in design as far as military +exigencies would permit. + + ++CHARACTER OF THE STYLE.+ The Romanesque architecture of the eleventh +and twelfth centuries in Western Europe (sometimes called the ++Round-Arched Gothic+) was thus predominantly though not exclusively +monastic. This gave it a certain unity of character in spite of national +and local variations. The problem which the wealthy orders set +themselves was, like that of the Lombard church-builders in Italy, to +adapt the basilica plan to the exigencies of vaulted construction. +Massive walls, round arches stepped or recessed to lighten their +appearance, heavy mouldings richly carved, clustered piers and +jamb-shafts, capitals either of the _cushion_ type or imitated from the +Corinthian, and strong and effective carving--all these are features +alike of French, German, English, and Spanish Romanesque architecture. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 94.--PLAN OF ST. FRONT.] + ++THE FRENCH ROMANESQUE.+ Though monasticism produced remarkable results +in France, architecture there did not wholly depend upon the +monasteries. Southern Gaul (Provence) was full of classic remains and +classic traditions while at the same time it maintained close trade +relations with Venice and the East.[19] The church of +St. Front+ at +Perigueux, built in 1120, reproduced the plan of St. Mark’s with +singular fidelity, but without its rich decoration, and with pointed +instead of round arches (Figs. 94, 95). The domical cathedral of ++Cahors+ (1050-1100), an obvious imitation of S. Irene at +Constantinople, and the later and more Gothic Cathedral of +Angoulême+ +display a notable advance in architectural skill outside of the +monasteries. Among the abbeys, +Fontevrault+ (1101-1119) closely +resembles Angoulême, but surpasses it in the elegance of its choir and +chapels. In these and a number of other domical churches of the same +Franco-Byzantine type in Aquitania, the substitution of the Latin cross +in the plan for the Greek cross used in St. Front, evinces the Gallic +tendency to work out to their logical end new ideas or new applications +of old ones. These striking variations on Byzantine themes might have +developed into an independent local style but for the overwhelming tide +of Gothic influence which later poured in from the North. + + [Footnote 19: See Viollet-le-Duc, _Dictionnaire raisonné_, article + ARCHITECTURE, vol. i., pp. 66 _et seq._; also de Verneilh, + _L’Architecture byzantine en France_.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 95.--INTERIOR OF ST. FRONT, PERIGUEUX.] + +Meanwhile, farther south (at Arles, Avignon, etc.), classic models +strongly influenced the details, if not the plans, of an interesting +series of churches remarkable especially for their porches rich with +figure sculpture and for their elaborately carved details. The classic +archivolt, the Corinthian capital, the Roman forms of enriched +mouldings, are evident at a glance in the porches of Notre Dame des Doms +at Avignon, of the church of St. Gilles, and of St. Trophime at Arles. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 96.--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 97.--SECTION OF NOTRE DAME DU PORT, CLERMONT.] + ++DEVELOPMENT OF VAULTING.+ It was in Central France, and mainly along +the Loire, that the systematic development of vaulted church +architecture began. Naves covered with barrel-vaults appear in a number +of large churches built during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, with +apsidal and transeptal chapels and aisles carried around the apse, as in +St. Etienne, Nevers, +Notre Dame du Port+ at Clermont-Ferrand (Fig. 96), +and +St. Paul+ at Issoire. The thrust of these ponderous vaults was +clumsily resisted by half-barrel vaults over the side-aisles, +transmitting the strain to massive side-walls (Fig. 97), or by high +side-aisles with transverse barrel or groined vaults over each bay. In +either case the clearstory was suppressed--a fact which mattered little +in the sunny southern provinces. In the more cloudy North, in Normandy, +Picardy, and the Royal Domain, the nave-vault was raised higher to admit +of clearstory windows, and its section was in some cases made like a +pointed arch, to diminish its thrust, as at +Autun+. But these +eleventh-century vaults nearly all fell in, and had to be reconstructed +on new principles. In this work the Clunisians seem to have led the way, +as at +Cluny+ (1089) and +Vézelay+ (1100). In the latter church, one of +the finest and most interesting French edifices of the twelfth century, +a groined vault replaced the barrel-vault, though the oblong plan of the +vaulting-bays, due to the nave being wider than the pier-arches, led to +somewhat awkward twisted surfaces in the vaulting. But even here the +vaults had insufficient lateral buttressing, and began to crack and +settle; so that in the great ante-chapel, built thirty years later, the +side-aisles were made in two stories, the better to resist the thrust, +and the groined vaults themselves were constructed of pointed section. +These seem to be the earliest pointed groined vaults in France. It was +not till the second half of that century, however (1150-1200), that the +flying buttress was combined with such vaults, so as to permit of high +clearstories for the better lighting of the nave; and the problem of +satisfactorily vaulting an oblong space with a groined vault was not +solved until the following century. + + ++ONE-AISLED CHURCHES.+ In the Franco-Byzantine churches already +described (p. 164) this difficulty of the oblong vaulting-bay did not +occur, owing to the absence of side-aisles and pier-arches. Following +this conception of church-planning, a number of interesting parish +churches and a few cathedrals were built in various parts of France in +which side-recesses or chapels took the place of side-aisles. The +partitions separating them served as abutments for the groined or +barrel-vaults of the nave. The cathedrals of +Autun+ (1150) and ++Langres+ (1160), and in the fourteenth century that of Alby, employed +this arrangement, common in many earlier Provençal churches which have +disappeared. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 98.--A SIX-PART RIBBED VAULT, SHOWING + TWO COMPARTMENTS WITH THE FILLINGS COMPLETE. + _a, a_, _Transverse ribs_ (_doubleaux_); _b, b_, _Wall-ribs_ + (_formerets_); _c, c_, _Groin-ribs_ (_diagonaux_). + (All the ribs are semicircles.)] + ++SIX-PART VAULTING.+ In the Royal Domain great architectural activity +does not appear to have begun until the beginning of the Gothic period +in the middle of the twelfth century. But in Normandy, and especially at +Caen and Mont St. Michel, there were produced, between 1046 and 1120, +some remarkable churches, in which a high clearstory was secured in +conjunction with a vaulted nave, by the use of “six-part” vaulting (Fig. +98). This was an awkward expedient, by which a square vaulting-bay was +divided into six parts by the groins and by a middle transverse rib, +necessitating two narrow skew vaults meeting at the centre. This +unsatisfactory device was retained for over a century, and was common in +early Gothic churches both in France and Great Britain. It made it +possible to resist the thrust by high side-aisles, and yet to open +windows above these under the cross-vaults. The abbey churches of +St. +Etienne+ (the Abbaye aux Hommes) and +Ste. Trinité+ (Abbaye aux Dames), +at Caen, built in the time of William the Conqueror, were among the most +magnificent churches of their time, both in size and in the excellence +and ingenuity of their construction. The great abbey church of +Mont St. +Michel+ (much altered in later times) should also be mentioned here. At +the same time these and other Norman churches showed a great advance in +their internal composition. A well-developed triforium or subordinate +gallery was introduced between the pier-arches and clearstory, and all +the structural membering of the edifice was better proportioned and more +logically expressed than in most contemporary work. + + ++ARCHITECTURAL DETAILS.+ The details of French Romanesque architecture +varied considerably in the several provinces, according as classic, +Byzantine, or local influences prevailed. Except in a few of the +Aquitanian churches, the round arch was universal. The walls were heavy +and built of rubble between facings of stones of moderate size dressed +with the axe. Windows and doors were widely splayed to diminish the +obstruction of the massive walls, and were treated with jamb-shafts and +recessed arches. These were usually formed with large cylindrical +mouldings, richly carved with leaf ornaments, zigzags, billets, and +grotesques. Figure-sculpture was more generally used in the South than +in the North. The interior piers were sometimes cylindrical, but more +often clustered, and where square bays of four-part or six-part vaulting +were employed, the piers were alternately lighter and heavier. Each +shaft had its independent capital either of the block type or of a form +resembling somewhat that of the Corinthian order. During the eleventh +century it became customary to carry up to the main vaulting one or more +shafts of the compound pier to support the vaulting ribs. Thus the +division of the nave into _bays_ was accentuated, while at the same time +the horizontal three-fold division of the height by a well-defined +triforium between the pier-arches and clearstory began to be likewise +emphasized. + + ++VAULTING.+ The vaulting was also divided into bays by transverse ribs, +and where it was groined the groins themselves began in the twelfth +century to be marked by groin-ribs. These were constructed independently +of the vaulting, and the four or six compartments of each vaulting-bay +were then built in, the ribs serving, in part at least, to support the +centrings for this purpose. This far-reaching principle, already applied +by the Romans in their concrete vaults (see p. 84), appears as a +re-discovery, or rather an independent invention, of the builders of +Normandy at the close of the eleventh century. The flying buttress was a +later invention; in the round-arched buildings of the eleventh and +twelfth centuries the buttressing was mainly internal, and was +incomplete and timid in its arrangement. + + ++EXTERIORS.+ The exteriors were on this account plain and flat. The +windows were small, the mouldings simple, and towers were rarely +combined with the body of the church until after the beginning of the +twelfth century. Then they appeared as mere belfries of moderate height, +with pyramidal roofs and effectively arranged openings, the germs of the +noble Gothic spires of later times. Externally the western porches and +portals were the most important features of the design, producing an +imposing effect by their massive arches, clustered piers, richly carved +mouldings, and deep shadows. + + ++CLOISTERS, ETC.+ Mention should be made of the other monastic buildings +which were grouped around the abbey churches of this period. These +comprised refectories, chapter-halls, cloistered courts surrounded by +the conventual cells, and a large number of accessory structures for +kitchens, infirmaries, stores, etc. The whole formed an elaborate and +complex aggregation of connected buildings, often of great size and +beauty, especially the refectories and cloisters. Most of these +conventual buildings have disappeared, many of them having been +demolished during the Gothic period to make way for more elegant +structures in the new style. There remain, however, a number of fine +cloistered courts in their original form, especially in Southern France. +Among the most remarkable of these are those of +Moissac+, +Elne+, and ++Montmajour+. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ ITALY. (For basilicas and domical churches of + 6th-12th centuries see pp. 118, 119.)--Before 11th century: Sta. + Maria at Toscanella, altered 1206; S. Donato, Zara; chapel at + Friuli; baptistery at Boella. 11th century: S. Giovanni, Viterbo; + Sta. Maria della Pieve, Arezzo; S. Antonio, Piacenza, 1014; + Eremiti, 1132, and La Martorana, 1143, both at Palermo; Duomo at + Bari, 1027 (much altered); Duomo and baptistery, Novara, 1030; + Duomo at Parma, begun 1058; Duomo at Pisa, 1063-1118; S. Miniato, + Florence, 1063-12th century; S. Michele at Pavia and Duomo at + Modena, late 11th century.--12th century: in Calabria and Apulia, + cathedrals of Trani, 1100; Caserta, Vecchia, 1100-1153; Molfetta, + 1162; Benevento; churches S. Giovanni at Brindisi, S. Niccolo at + Bari, 1139. In Sicily, Duomo at Monreale, 1174-1189. In Northern + Italy, S. Tomaso in Limine, Bergamo, 1100 (?); Sta. Giulia, + Brescia; S. Lorenzo, Milan, rebuilt 1119; Duomo at Piacenza, 1122; + S. Zeno at Verona, 1139; S. Ambrogio, Milan, 1140, vaulted in 13th + century; baptistery at Pisa, 1153-1278; Leaning Tower, Pisa, + 1174.--14th century: S. Michele, Lucca, 1188; S. Giovanni and + S. Frediano, Lucca. In Dalmatia, cathedral at Zara, 1192-1204. + Many castles and early town-halls, as at Bari, Brescia, Lucca, + etc. + + FRANCE: Previous to 11th century: St. Germiny-des-Prés, + 806, Chapel of the Trinity, St. Honorat-des-Lérins; Ste. Croix de + Montmajour.--11th century: Cérisy-la-Forêt and abbey church of + Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered in 12th and 16th + centuries); Vignory; St. Genou; porch of St. Bénoit-sur-Loire, + 1030; St. Sépulchre at Neuvy, 1045; Ste. Trinité (Abbaye aux + Dames) at Caen, 1046, vaulted 1140; St. Etienne (Abbaye aux + Hommes) at Caen, same date; St. Front at Perigueux, 1120; Ste. + Croix at Quimperlé, 1081; cathedral, Cahors, 1050-1110; abbey + churches of Cluny (demolished) and Vézelay, 1089-1100; circular + church of Rieux-Mérinville, church of St. Savin in Auvergne, the + churches of St. Paul at Issoire and Notre-Dame-du-Port at + Clermont, St. Hilaire and Notre-Dame-la-Grande at Poitiers; also + St. Sernin (Saturnin) at Toulouse, all at close of 11th and + beginning of 12th century.--12th century: Domical churches of + Aquitania and vicinity; Solignac and Fontévrault, 1120; St. + Etienne (Périgueux), St. Avit-Sénieur; Angoulême, Souillac, + Broussac, etc., early 12th century; St. Trophime at Arles, 1110, + cloisters later; church of Vaison; abbeys and cloisters at + Montmajour, Tarascon, Moissac (with fragments of a 10th-century + cloister built into present arcades); St. Paul-du-Mausolée; + Puy-en-Vélay, with fine church. Many other abbeys, parish + churches, and a few cathedrals in Central and Northern France + especially. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +EARLY MEDIÆVAL ARCHITECTURE.--_Continued._ + +IN GERMANY, GREAT BRITAIN, AND SPAIN. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Hübsch and Reber. Bond, _Gothic + Architecture in England_. Also Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic + Architecture_. Boisserée, _Nieder Rhein_. Ditchfield, _The + Cathedrals of England_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gotische + Baukunst_ (in _Handbuch d. Arch._). Lübke, _Die Mittelalterliche + Kunst in Westfalen_. Möller, _Denkmäler der deutschen Baukunst_. + Puttrich, _Baukunst des Mittelalters in Sachsen_. Rickman, _An + Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of Architecture_. Scott, + _English Church Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English + Cathedrals_. + + ++MEDIÆVAL GERMANY.+ Architecture developed less rapidly and +symmetrically in Germany than in France, notwithstanding the strong +centralized government of the empire. The early churches were of wood, +and the substitution of stone for wood proceeded slowly. During the +Carolingian epoch (800-919), however, a few important buildings were +erected, embodying Byzantine and classic traditions. Among these the +most notable was the +Minster+ or palatine chapel of Charlemagne at ++Aix-la-Chapelle+, an obvious imitation of San Vitale at Ravenna. It +consisted of an octagonal domed hall surrounded by a vaulted aisle in +two stories, but without the eight niches of the Ravenna plan. It was +preceded by a porch flanked by turrets. The Byzantine type thus +introduced was repeated in later churches, as in the Nuns’ Choir at +Essen (947) and at Ottmarsheim (1050). In the great monastery at Fulda a +basilica with transepts and with an apsidal choir at either end was +built in 803. These choirs were raised above the level of the nave, to +admit of crypts beneath them, as in many Lombard churches; a practice +which, with the reduplication of the choir and apse just mentioned, +became very common in German Romanesque architecture. + + ++EARLY CHURCHES.+ It was in Saxony that this architecture first entered +upon a truly national development. The early churches of this province +and of Hildesheim (where architecture flourished under the favor of the +bishops, as elsewhere under the royal influence) were of basilican plan +and destitute of vaulting, except in the crypts. They were built with +massive piers, sometimes rectangular, sometimes clustered, the two kinds +often alternating in the same nave. Short columns were, however, +sometimes used instead of piers, either alone, as at Paulinzelle and +Limburg-on-the-Hardt (1024-39), or alternating with piers, as at +Hecklingen, +Gernrode+ (958-1050), and +St. Godehard+ at Hildesheim +(1133). A triple eastern apse, with apsidal chapels projecting eastward +from the transepts, were common elements in the plans, and a second +apse, choir, and crypt at the west end were not infrequent. Externally +the most striking feature was the association of two, four, or even six +square or circular towers with the mass of the church, and the elevation +of square or polygonal turrets or cupolas over the crossing. These +adjuncts gave a very picturesque aspect to edifices otherwise somewhat +wanting in artistic interest. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 99.--PLAN OF MINSTER AT WORMS.] + ++RHENISH CHURCHES.+ It was in the Rhine provinces that vaulting was +first applied to the naves of German churches, nearly a half century +after its general adoption in France. Cologne possesses an interesting +trio of churches in which the Byzantine dome on squinches or on +pendentives, with three apses or niches opening into the central area, +was associated with a long three aisled nave (+St. Mary-in-the-Capitol+, +begun in 9th century; +Great St. Martin’s+, 1150-70; +Apostles’ Church+, +1160-99: the naves vaulted later). The double chapel at ++Schwarz-Rheindorf+, near Bonn (1151), also has the crossing covered by +a dome on pendentives. + + [Illustration: FIG. 100.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL AT SPIRES.] + +The vaulting of the nave itself was developed in another series of +edifices of imposing size, the cathedrals of +Mayence+ (1036), +Spires+ +(Speyer), and +Worms+, and the +Abbey of Laach+, all built in the 11th +century and vaulted early in the 12th. In the first three the main +vaulting is in square bays, each covering two bays of the nave, the +piers of which are alternately lighter and heavier (Figs. 99, 100). At +Laach the vaulting-bays are oblong, both in nave and aisles. There was +no triforium gallery, and stability was secured only by excessive +thickness in the piers and clearstory walls, and by bringing down the +main vault as near to the side-aisle roofs as possible. + + ++RHENISH EXTERIORS.+ These great churches, together with those of +Bonn+ +and +Limburg-on-the-Lahn+ and the cathedral of +Treves+ (Trier, 1047), +are interesting, not only by their size and dignity of plan and the +somewhat rude massiveness of their construction, but even more so by the +picturesqueness of their external design (Fig. 101). Especially +successful is the massing of the large and small turrets with the lofty +nave-roof and with the apses at one or both ends. The systematic use of +arcading to decorate the exterior walls, and the introduction of open +arcaded dwarf galleries under the cornices of the apses, gables, and +dome-turrets, gave to these Rhenish churches an external beauty hardly +equalled in other contemporary edifices. This method of exterior design, +and the system of vaulting in square bays over double bays of the nave, +were probably derived from the Lombard churches of Northern Italy, with +which the Hohenstauffen emperors had many political relations. + + [Illustration: FIG. 101.--EAST END OF CHURCH OF THE APOSTLES, + COLOGNE.] + +The Italian influence is also encountered in a number of circular +churches of early date, as at Fulda (9th-11th century), Drügelte, Bonn +(baptistery, demolished), and in façades like that at Rosheim, which is +a copy in little of San Zeno at Verona. + +Elsewhere in Germany architecture was in a backward state, especially in +the southern provinces. Outside of Saxony, Franconia, and the Rhine +provinces, very few works of importance were erected until the +thirteenth century. + + ++SECULAR ARCHITECTURE.+ Little remains to us of the secular architecture +of this period in Germany, if we except the great feudal castles, +especially those of the Rhine, which were, after all, rather works of +military engineering than of architectural art. The palace of +Charlemagne at Aix (the chapel of which was mentioned on p. 172) is +known to have been a vast and splendid group of buildings, partly, at +least of marble; but hardly a vestige of it remains. Of the extensive ++Palace of Henry III.+ at +Goslar+ there remain well-defined ruins of an +imposing hall of assembly in two aisles with triple-arched windows. At +Brunswick the east wing of the +Burg Dankwargerode+ displays, in spite +of modern alterations, the arrangement of the chapel, great hall, two +fortified towers, and part of the residence of Henry the Lion. The ++Wartburg+ palace (Ludwig III., _cir._ 1150) is more generally +known--a rectangular hall in three stories, with windows effectively +grouped to form arcades; while at Gelnhausen and Münzenberg are ruins of +somewhat similar buildings. A few of the Romanesque monasteries of +Germany have left partial remains, as at +Maulbronn+, which was almost +entirely rebuilt in the Gothic period, and isolated buildings in Cologne +and elsewhere. There remain also in Cologne a number of Romanesque +private houses with coupled windows and stepped gables. + + ++GREAT BRITAIN.+ Previous to the Norman conquest (1066) there was in the +British Isles little or no architecture worthy of mention. The few +extant remains of Saxon and Celtic buildings reveal a singular poverty +of ideas and want of technical skill. These scanty remains are mostly of +towers (those in Ireland nearly all round and tapering, with conical +tops, their use and date being the subjects of much controversy) and +crypts. The tower of Earl’s Barton is the most important and best +preserved of those in England. With the Norman conquest, however, began +an extraordinary activity in the building of churches and abbeys. +William the Conqueror himself founded a number of these, and his Norman +ecclesiastics endeavored to surpass on British soil the contemporary +churches of Normandy. The new churches differed somewhat from their +French prototypes; they were narrower and lower, but much longer, +especially as to the choir and transepts. The cathedrals of +Durham+ +(1096-1133) and +Norwich+ (same date) are important examples (Fig. 102). +They also differed from the French churches in two important particulars +externally; a huge tower rose usually over the crossing, and the western +portals were small and insignificant. Lateral entrances near the west +end were given greater importance and called _Galilees_. At Durham a +Galilee chapel (not shown in the plan), takes the place of a porch at +the west end, like the ante-churches of St. Benoît-sur-Loire and +Vézelay. + + [Illustration: FIG. 102.--PLAN OF DURHAM CATHEDRAL.] + + ++THE NORMAN STYLE.+ The Anglo-Norman builders employed the same general +features as the Romanesque builders of Normandy, but with more of +picturesqueness and less of refinement and technical elegance. Heavy +walls, recessed arches, round mouldings, cubic cushion-caps, clustered +piers, and in doorways a jamb-shaft for each stepping of the arch were +common to both styles. But in England the Corinthian form of capital is +rare, its place being taken by simpler forms. + + ++NORMAN INTERIORS.+ The interior design of the larger churches of this +period shows a close general analogy to contemporaneous French Norman +churches, as appears by comparing the nave of Waltham or Peterboro’ with +that of Cérisy-la-Forêt, in Normandy. Although the massiveness of the +Anglo-Norman piers and walls plainly suggests the intention of vaulting +the nave, this intention seems never to have been carried out except in +small churches and crypts. All the existing abbeys and cathedrals of +this period had wooden ceilings or were, like Durham, Norwich, and +Gloucester, vaulted at a later date. Completed as they were with wooden +nave-roofs, the clearstory was, without danger, made quite lofty and +furnished with windows of considerable size. These were placed near the +outside of the thick wall, and a passage was left between them and +a triple arch on the inner face of the wall--a device imitated +from the abbeys at Caen. The vaulted side-aisles were low, with +disproportionately wide pier-arches, above which was a high triforium +gallery under the side-roofs. Thus a nearly equal height was assigned +to each of the three stories of the bay, disregarding that subordination +of minor to major parts which gives interest to an architectural +composition. The piers were quite often round, as at Gloucester, +Hereford, and Bristol. Sometimes round piers alternated with clustered +piers, as at Durham and Waltham; and in some cases clustered piers alone +were employed, as at Peterboro’ and in the transepts of Winchester (Fig. +103). + + [Illustration: FIG. 103.--ONE BAY OF TRANSEPT, + WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL.] + + ++FAÇADES AND DOORWAYS.+ All the details were of the simplest character, +except in the doorways. These were richly adorned with clustered +jamb-shafts and elaborately carved mouldings, but there was little +variety in the details of this carving. The zigzag was the most common +feature, though birds’ heads with the beaks pointing toward the centre +of the arch were not uncommon. In the smaller churches (Fig. 104) the +doorways were better proportioned to the whole façade than in the larger +ones, in which they appear as relatively insignificant features. Very +few examples remain of important Norman façades in their original form, +nearly all of these having been altered after the round arch was +displaced by the pointed arch in the latter part of the twelfth century. +Iffley church (Fig. 104) is a good example of the style. + + [Illustration: FIG. 104.--FRONT OF IFFLEY CHURCH.] + + ++SPAIN.+ During the Romanesque period a large part of Spain was under +Moorish dominion. The capture of Toledo, in 1062, by the Christians, +began the gradual emancipation of the country from Moslem rule, and in +the northern provinces a number of important churches were erected under +the influence of French Romanesque models. The use of domical +pendentives (as in the +Panteon+ of +S. Isidoro+, at Leon, and in the +_cimborio_ or dome over the choir at the intersection of nave and +transepts in old Salamanca cathedral) was probably derived from the +domical churches of Aquitania and Anjou. Elsewhere the northern +Romanesque type prevailed under various modifications, with long nave +and transepts, a short choir, and a complete _chevet_ with apsidal +chapels. The church of +St. Iago+ at Compostella (1078) is the finest +example of this class. These churches nearly all had groined vaulting +over the side-aisles and barrel-vaults over the nave, the constructive +system being substantially that of the churches of Auvergne and the +Loire Valley (p. 165). They differed, however, in the treatment of the +crossing of nave and transepts, over which was usually erected a dome or +cupola or pendentives or squinches, covered externally by an imposing +square lantern or tower, as in the +Old Cathedral+ at +Salamanca+, +already mentioned (1120-78) and the +Collegiate Church+ at +Toro+. +Occasional exceptions to these types are met with, as in the basilican +wooden-roofed church of S. Millan at Segovia; in +S. Isidoro+ at Leon, +with chapels and a later-added square eastern end, and the circular +church of the Templars at Segovia. + +The architectural details of these Spanish churches did not differ +radically from contemporary French work. As in France and England, the +doorways were the most ornate parts of the design, the mouldings being +carved with extreme richness and the jambs frequently adorned with +statues, as in +S. Vincente+ at Avila. There was no such logical and +reasoned-out system of external design as in France, and there is +consequently greater variety in the façades. Perhaps the most remarkable +thing about the architecture of this period is its apparent exemption +from the influence of the Moorish monuments which abounded on every +hand. This may be explained by the hatred which was felt by the +Christians for the Moslems and all their works. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ GERMANY: Previous to 11th century: Circular churches + of Holy Cross at Münster, and of Fulda; palace chapel of + Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, 804; St. Stephen, Mayence, 990; + primitive nave and crypt of St. Gereon, Cologne, 10th century; + Lorsch.--11th century: Churches of Gernrode, Goslar, and Merseburg + in Saxony; cathedral of Bremen; first restoration of cathedral of + Treves (Trier), 1010, west front, 1047; Limburg-on-Hardt, 1024; + St. Willibrod, Echternach, 1031; east end of Mayence Cathedral, + 1036; Church of Apostles and nave St. Mary-in-Capitol at Cologne, + 1036; cathedral of Spires (Speyer) begun 1040; Cathedral + Hildesheim, 1061; St. Joseph, Bamberg, 1073; Abbey of Laach, + 1093-1156; round churches of Bonn, Drügelte, Nimeguen; cathedrals + of Paderborn and Minden.--12th century: Churches of Klus, + Paulinzelle, Hamersleben, 1100-1110; Johannisberg, 1130; St. + Godehard. Hildesheim, 1133; Worms, the Minster, 1118-83; Jerichau, + 1144-60; Schwarz-Rheindorf, 1151; St. Michael, Hildesheim, 1162; + Cathedral Brunswick, 1172-94; Lubeck, 1172; also churches of + Gaudersheim, Würzburg, St. Matthew at Treves, Limburg-on-Lahn, + Sinzig, St. Castor at Coblentz, Diesdorf, Rosheim; round churches + of Ottmarsheim and Rippen (Denmark); cathedral of Basle, cathedral + and cloister of Zurich (Switzerland). + + ENGLAND: Previous to 11th century: Scanty vestiges of Saxon church + architecture, as tower of Earl’s Barton, round towers and small + chapels in Ireland.--11th century: Crypt of Canterbury Cathedral, + 1070; chapel St. John in Tower of London, 1070; Winchester + Cathedral, 1076-93 (nave and choir rebuilt later); Gloucester + Cathedral nave, 1089-1100 (vaulted later); Rochester Cathedral + nave, west front cloisters, and chapter-house, 1090-1130; Carlisle + Cathedral nave, transepts, 1093-1130; Durham Cathedral, 1095-1133, + vaulted 1233; Galilee and chapter-house, 1133-53; Norwich + Cathedral, 1096, largely rebuilt 1118-93; Hereford Cathedral, nave + and choir, 1099-1115.--12th century: Ely Cathedral, nave, 1107-33; + St. Alban’s Abbey, 1116; Peterboro’ Cathedral, 1117-45; Waltham + Abbey, early 12th century; Church of Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge, + 1130-35; Worcester Cathedral chapter-house, 1140 (?); Oxford + Cathedral (Christ Church), 1150-80; Bristol Cathedral + chapter-house (square), 1155; Canterbury Cathedral, choir of + present structure by William of Sens, 1175; Chichester Cathedral, + 1180-1204; Romsey Abbey, late 12th century; St. Cross Hospital + near Winchester, 1190 (?). Many more or less important parish + churches in various parts of England. + + SPAIN. For principal monuments of 9th-12th centuries, see text, + latter part of this chapter. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Adamy, _Architektonik des gotischen Stils_. + Corroyer, _L’Architecture gothique_. Enlart, _Manuel d’archéologie + française_. Hasak, _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (in _Hdbuch d. + Arch._). Moore, _Development and Character of Gothic + Architecture_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic Architecture._ + Scott, _Mediæval Architecture_. Viollet-le-Duc, _Discourses on + Architecture_; _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture + française_. + + ++INTRODUCTORY.+ The architectural styles which were developed in Western +Europe during the period extending from about 1150 to 1450 or 1500, +received in an unscientific age the wholly erroneous and inept name of +Gothic. This name has, however, become so fixed in common usage that it +is hardly possible to substitute for it any more scientific designation. +In reality the architecture to which it is applied was nothing more than +the sequel and outgrowth of the Romanesque, which we have already +studied. Its fundamental principles were the same; it was concerned with +the same problems. These it took up where the Romanesque builders left +them, and worked out their solution under new conditions, until it had +developed out of the simple and massive models of the early twelfth +century the splendid cathedrals of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries in England, France, Germany, the Low Countries and Spain. + + ++THE CHURCH AND ARCHITECTURE.+ The twelfth century was an era of +transition in society, as in architecture. The ideas of Church and State +were becoming more clearly defined in the common mind. In the conflict +between feudalism and royalty the monarchy was steadily gaining ground. +The problem of human right was beginning to present itself alongside of +the problem of human might. The relations between the crown, the feudal +barons, the pope, bishops, and abbots, differed widely in France, +Germany, England, and other countries. The struggle among them for +supremacy presented itself, therefore, in varied aspects; but the +general outcome was essentially the same. The church began to appear as +something behind and above abbots, bishops, kings, and barons. The +supremacy of the papal authority gained increasing recognition, and the +episcopacy began to overshadow the monastic institutions; the bishops +appearing generally, but especially in France, as the champions of +popular rights. The prerogatives of the crown became more firmly +established, and thus the Church and the State emerged from the social +confusion as the two institutions divinely appointed for the government +of men. + + [Illustration: FIG. 105.--CONSTRUCTIVE SYSTEM OF GOTHIC CHURCH, + ILLUSTRATING PRINCIPLES OF ISOLATED SUPPORTS AND BUTTRESSING.] + +Under these influences ecclesiastical architecture advanced with rapid +strides. No longer hampered by monastic restrictions, it called into its +service the laity, whose guilds of masons and builders carried from one +diocese to another their constantly increasing stores of constructive +knowledge. By a wise division of labor, each man wrought only such parts +as he was specially trained to undertake. The master-builder--bishop, +abbot, or mason--seems to have planned only the general arrangement and +scheme of the building, leaving the precise form of each detail to be +determined as the work advanced, according to the skill and fancy of the +artisan to whom it was intrusted. Thus was produced that remarkable +variety in unity of the Gothic cathedrals; thus, also, those singular +irregularities and makeshifts, those discrepancies and alterations in +the design, which are found in every great work of mediæval +architecture. Gothic architecture was constantly changing, attacking new +problems or devising new solutions of old ones. In this character of +constant flux and development it contrasts strongly with the classic +styles, in which the scheme and the principles were easily fixed and +remained substantially unchanged for centuries. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 106.--PLAN OF SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS, + SHOWING SUPPRESSION OF SIDE-WALLS.] + ++STRUCTURAL PRINCIPLES.+ The pointed arch, so commonly regarded as the +most characteristic feature of the Gothic styles, was merely an +incidental feature of their development. What really distinguished them +most strikingly was the systematic application of two principles which +the Roman and Byzantine builders had recognized and applied, but which +seem to have been afterward forgotten until they were revived by the +later Romanesque architects. The first of these was the _concentration +of strains_ upon isolated points of support, made possible by the +substitution of groined for barrel vaults. This led to a corresponding +concentration of the masses of masonry at these points; the building was +constructed as if upon legs (Fig. 105). The wall became a mere +filling-in between the piers or buttresses, and in time was, indeed, +practically suppressed, immense windows filled with stained glass taking +its place. This is well illustrated in the +Sainte Chapelle+ at Paris, +built 1242-47 (Figs. 106, 122). In this remarkable edifice, a series of +groined vaults spring from slender shafts built against deep buttresses +which receive and resist all the thrusts. The wall-spaces between them +are wholly occupied by superb windows filled with stone tracery and +stained glass. It would be impossible to combine the materials used more +scientifically or effectively. The cathedrals of Gerona (Spain) and of +Alby (France; Fig. 123) illustrate the same principle, though in them +the buttresses are internal and serve to separate the flanking chapels. + + [Illustration: FIG. 107.--EARLY GOTHIC FLYING BUTTRESS.] + +The second distinctive principle of Gothic architecture was that of +_balanced thrusts_. In Roman buildings the thrust of the vaulting was +resisted wholly by the inertia of mass in the abutments. In Gothic +architecture thrusts were as far as possible resisted by +counter-thrusts, and the final resultant pressure was transmitted by +flying half-arches across the intervening portions of the structure to +external buttresses placed at convenient points. This combination of +flying half-arches and buttresses is called the _flying-buttress_ (Fig. +107). It reached its highest development in the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries in the cathedrals of central and northern France. + + ++RIBBED VAULTING.+ These two principles formed the structural basis of +the Gothic styles. Their application led to the introduction of two +other elements, second only to them in importance, _ribbed vaulting_ and +the _pointed arch_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 108.--RIBBED VAULT, ENGLISH TYPE, + WITH DIVIDED GROIN-RIBS AND RIDGE-RIBS.] + +The first of these resulted from the effort to overcome certain +practical difficulties encountered in the building of large groined +vaults. As ordinarily constructed, a groined vault like that in Fig. 47, +must be built as one structure, upon wooden centrings supporting its +whole extent. The Romanesque architects conceived the idea of +constructing an independent skeleton of ribs. Two of these were built +against the wall (_wall-ribs_), two across the nave (transverse ribs); +and two others were made to coincide with the groins (Figs. 98, 108). +The _groin-ribs_, intersecting at the centre of the vault, divided each +bay into four triangular portions, or _compartments_, each of which was +really an independent vault which could be separately constructed upon +light centrings supported by the groin-ribs themselves. This principle, +though identical in essence with the Roman system of brick skeleton-ribs +for concrete vaults, was, in application and detail, superior to it, +both from the scientific and artistic point of view. The ribs, richly +moulded, became, in the hands of the Gothic architects, important +decorative features. In practice the builder gave to each set of ribs +independently the curvature he desired. The vaulting-surfaces were then +easily twisted or warped so as to fit the various ribs, which, being +already in place, served as guides for their construction. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 109.--PENETRATIONS AND INTERSECTIONS + OF VAULTS. + _a, a_, _Penetrations by small semi-circular vaults sprung from + same level_. b, _Intersection by small semi-circular vault sprung + from higher level; groins form wavy lines_. c, _Intersection by + narrow pointed vault sprung from same level; groins are plane + curves_.] + ++THE POINTED ARCH+ was adopted to remedy the difficulties encountered in +the construction of oblong vaults. It is obvious that where a narrow +semi-cylindrical vault intersects a wide one, it produces either what +are called _penetrations_, as at a (Fig. 109), or intersections like +that at b, both of which are awkward in aspect and hard to construct. +If, however, one or both vaults be given a pointed section, the narrow +vault may be made as high as the wide one. It is then possible, with but +little warping of the vaulting surfaces, to make them intersect in +groins c, which are vertical plane curves instead of wavy loops like a +and b. + +The Gothic architects availed themselves to the full of these two +devices. They built their groin-ribs of semi-circular or pointed form, +but the wall-ribs and the transverse ribs were, without exception, +pointed arches of such curvature as would bring the apex of each nearly +or quite to the level of the groin intersection. The pointed arch, thus +introduced as the most convenient form for the vaulting-ribs, was soon +applied to other parts of the structure. This was a necessity with the +windows and pier-arches, which would not otherwise fit well the +wall-spaces under the wall-ribs of the nave and aisle vaulting. + + ++TRACERY AND GLASS.+ With the growth in the size of the windows and the +progressive suppression of the lateral walls of vaulted structures, +stained glass came more and more generally into use. Its introduction +not only resulted in a notable heightening and enriching of the colors +and scheme of the interior decoration, but reacted on the architecture, +intensifying the very causes which led to its introduction. It +stimulated the increase in the size of windows, and the suppression of +the walls, and contributed greatly to the development of _tracery_. This +latter feature was an absolute necessity for the support of the glass. +Its evolution can be traced (Figs, 110, 111, 112) from the simple +coupling of twin windows under a single hood-mould, or discharging arch, +to the florid net-work of the fifteenth century. In its earlier forms it +consisted merely of decorative openings, circles, and quatrefoils, +pierced through slabs of stone (_plate-tracery_), filling the +window-heads over coupled windows. Later attention was bestowed upon the +form of the stonework, which was made lighter and richly moulded +(_bar-tracery_), rather than upon that of the openings (Fig. 111). Then +the circular and geometric patterns employed were abandoned for more +flowing and capricious designs (_Flamboyant_ tracery, Fig. 112) or (in +England) for more rigid and rectangular arrangements (_Perpendicular_, +Fig. 134). It will be shown later that the periods and styles of Gothic +architecture are more easily identified by the tracery than by any other +feature. + + [Illustration: FIG. 110.--PLATE TRACERY, CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE.] + + ++CHURCH PLANS.+ The original basilica-plan underwent radical +modifications during the 12th-15th centuries. These resulted in part +from the changes in construction which have been described, and in part +from altered ecclesiastical conditions and requirements. Gothic church +architecture was based on cathedral design; and the requirements of the +cathedral differed in many respects from those of the monastic churches +of the preceding period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 111--BAR TRACERY, ST. MICHAEL’S, WARFIELD.] + +The most important alterations in the plan were in the choir and +transepts. The choir was greatly lengthened, the transepts often +shortened. The choir was provided with two and often four side-aisles, +and one or both of these was commonly carried entirely around the +apsidal termination of the choir, forming a single or double +_ambulatory_. This combination of choir, apse, and ambulatory was +called, in French churches, the _chevet_. + +Another advance upon Romanesque models was the multiplication of +chapels--a natural consequence of the more popular character of the +cathedral as compared with the abbey. Frequently lateral chapels were +built at each bay of the side-aisles, filling up the space between the +deep buttresses, flanking the nave as well as the choir. They were also +carried around the _chevet_ in most of the French cathedrals (Paris, +Bourges, Reims, Amiens, Beauvais, and many others); in many of those in +Germany (Magdeburg, Cologne, Frauenkirche at Treves), Spain (Toledo, +Leon, Barcelona, Segovia, etc.), and Belgium (Tournay, Antwerp). In +England the choir had more commonly a square eastward termination. +Secondary transepts occur frequently, and these peculiarities, together +with the narrowness and great length of most of the plans, make of the +English cathedrals a class by themselves. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 112.--ROSE WINDOW, CHURCH OF ST. OUEN, ROUEN.] + ++PROPORTIONS AND COMPOSITION.+ Along with these modifications of the +basilican plan should be noticed a great increase in the height and +slenderness of all parts of the structure. The lofty clearstory, the +arcaded triforium-passage or gallery beneath it, the high pointed +pier-arches, the multiplication of slender clustered shafts, and the +reduction in the area of the piers, gave to the Gothic churches an +interior aspect wholly different from that of the simpler, lower, and +more massive Romanesque edifices. The perspective effects of the plans +thus modified, especially of the complex choir and _chevet_ with their +lateral and radial chapels, were remarkably enriched and varied. + +The exterior was even more radically transformed by these changes, and +by the addition of towers and spires to the fronts, and sometimes to the +transepts and to their intersection with the nave. The deep buttresses, +terminating in pinnacles, the rich traceries of the great lateral +windows, the triple portals profusely sculptured, rose-windows of great +size under the front and transept gables, combined to produce effects of +marvellously varied light and shadow, and of complex and elaborate +structural beauty, totally unlike the broad simplicity of the Romanesque +exteriors. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 113.--FLAMBOYANT DETAIL FROM PULPIT + IN STRASBURG CATHEDRAL.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 114.--EARLY GOTHIC CARVING.] + ++DECORATIVE DETAIL.+ The mediæval designers aimed to enrich every +constructive feature with the most effective play of lights and shades, +and to embody in the decorative detail the greatest possible amount of +allegory and symbolism, and sometimes of humor besides. The deep jambs +and soffits of doors and pier-arches were moulded with a rich succession +of hollow and convex members, and adorned with carvings of saints, +apostles, martyrs, and angels. Virtues and vices, allegories of reward +and punishment, and an extraordinary world of monstrous and grotesque +beasts, devils, and goblins filled the capitals and door-arches, peeped +over tower-parapets, or leered and grinned from gargoyles and corbels. +Another source of decorative detail was the application of tracery like +that of the windows to wall-panelling, to balustrades, to open-work +gables, to spires, to choir-screens, and other features, especially in +the late fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (cathedrals of York, Rouen, +Cologne; Henry VII.’s Chapel, Westminster). And finally in the carving +of capitals and the ornamentation of mouldings the artists of the +thirteenth century and their successors abandoned completely the classic +models and traditions which still survived in the early twelfth century. +The later monastic builders began to look directly to nature for +suggestions of decorative form. The lay builders who sculptured the +capitals and crockets and finials of the early Gothic cathedrals adopted +and followed to its finality this principle of recourse to nature, +especially to plant life. At first the budding shoots of early spring +were freely imitated or skilfully conventionalized, as being by their +thick and vigorous forms the best adapted for translation into stone +(Fig. 114). During the thirteenth century the more advanced stages of +plant growth, and leaves more complex and detailed, furnished the models +for the carver, who displayed his skill in a closer and more literal +imitation of their minute veinings and indentations (Fig. 115). This +artistic adaptation of natural forms to architectural decoration +degenerated later into a minutely realistic copying of natural foliage, +in which cleverness of execution took the place of original invention. +The spirit of display is characteristic of all late Gothic work. +Slenderness, minuteness of detail, extreme complexity and intricacy of +design, an unrestrained profusion of decoration covering every surface, +a lack of largeness and vigor in the conceptions, are conspicuous traits +of Gothic design in the fifteenth century, alike in France, England, +Germany, Spain, and the Low Countries. Having worked out to their +conclusion the structural principles bequeathed to them by the preceding +centuries, the authors of these later works seemed to have devoted +themselves to the elaboration of mere decorative detail, and in +technical finish surpassed all that had gone before (Fig. 113). + + [Illustration: FIG. 115.--CARVING, DECORATED PERIOD, + FROM SOUTHWELL MINSTER.] + + ++CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARIZED.+ In the light of the preceding explanations +Gothic architecture may be defined as that system of structural design +and decoration which grew up out of the effort to combine, in one +harmonious and organic conception, the basilican plan with a complete +and systematic construction of groined vaulting. Its development was +controlled throughout by considerations of stability and structural +propriety, but in the application of these considerations the artistic +spirit was allowed full scope for its exercise. Refinement, good taste, +and great fertility of imagination characterize the details and +ornaments of Gothic structures. While the Greeks in harmonizing the +requirements of utility and beauty in architecture approached the +problem from the æsthetic side, the Gothic architects did the same from +the structural side. Their admirably reasoned structures express as +perfectly the idea of vastness, mystery, and complexity as do the Greek +temples that of simplicity and monumental repose. + +The excellence of Gothic architecture lay not so much in its individual +details as in its perfect adaptation to the purposes for which it was +developed--its triumphs were achieved in the building of cathedrals and +large churches. In the domain of civil and domestic architecture it +produced nothing comparable with its ecclesiastical edifices, because it +was the requirements of the cathedral and not of the palace, town-hall, +or dwelling, that gave it its form and character. + + ++PERIODS.+ The history of Gothic architecture is commonly divided into +three periods, which are most readily distinguished by the character of +the window-tracery. These periods were not by any means synchronous in +the different countries; but the order of sequence was everywhere the +same. They are here given, with a summary of the characteristics of +each. + +EARLY POINTED PERIOD. [_Early French_; _Early English_ or _Lancet_ +Period in England; _Early German_, etc.] Simple groined vaults; general +simplicity and vigor of design and detail; conventionalized foliage of +small plants; plate tracery, and narrow windows coupled under pointed +arch with circular foiled openings in the window-head. (In France, 1160 +to 1275.) + +MIDDLE POINTED PERIOD. [_Rayonnant_ in France; _Decorated_ or +_Geometric_ in England.] Vaults more perfect; in England multiple ribs +and liernes; greater slenderness and loftiness of proportions; +decoration much richer, less vigorous; more naturalistic carving of +mature foliage; walls nearly suppressed, windows of great size, bar +tracery with slender moulded or columnar mullions and geometric +combinations (circles and cusps) in window-heads, circular (rose) +windows. (In France, 1275 to 1375.) + +FLORID GOTHIC PERIOD. [_Flamboyant_ in France; _Perpendicular_ in +England.] Vaults of varied and richly decorated design; fan-vaulting and +pendants in England, vault-ribs curved into fanciful patterns in Germany +and Spain; profuse and minute decoration and cleverness of technical +execution substituted for dignity of design; highly realistic carving +and sculpture, flowing or flamboyant tracery in France; perpendicular +bars with horizontal transoms and four-centred arches in England; +“branch-tracery” in Germany. (In France, 1375 to 1525.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Adamy, Corroyer, Enlart, Hasak, + Moore, Reber, Viollet-le-Duc.[20] Also Chapuy, _Le moyen age + monumental_. Chateau, _Histoire et caractères de l’architecture + française_. Davies, _Architectural Studies in France_. Ferree, + _The Chronology of the Cathedral Churches of France_. Johnson, + _Early French Architecture_. King, _The Study book of Mediæval + Architecture and Art_. Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, _Notre Dame de + Paris_. Nesfield, _Specimens of Mediæval Architecture_. Pettit, + _Architectural Studies in France_. + + [Footnote 20: Consult especially articles ARCHITECTURE, + CATHÉDRALE, CHAPELLE, CONSTRUCTION, ÉGLISE, MAISON, VOÛTE.] + + ++CATHEDRAL-BUILDING IN FRANCE.+ In the development of the principles +outlined in the foregoing chapter the church-builders of France led the +way. They surpassed all their contemporaries in readiness of invention, +in quickness and directness of reasoning, and in artistic refinement. +These qualities were especially manifested in the extraordinary +architectural activity which marked the second half of the twelfth +century and the first half of the thirteenth. This was the great age of +cathedral-building in France. The adhesion of the bishops to the royal +cause, and their position in popular estimation as the champions of +justice and human rights, led to the rapid advance of the episcopacy in +power and influence. The cathedral, as the throne-church of the bishop, +became a truly popular institution. New cathedrals were founded on every +side, especially in the Royal Domain and the adjoining provinces of +Normandy, Burgundy, and Champagne, and their construction was warmly +seconded by the people, the communes, and the municipalities. “Nothing +to-day,” says Viollet-le-Duc,[21] “unless it be the commercial movement +which has covered Europe with railway lines, can give an idea of the +zeal with which the urban populations set about building cathedrals; ... +a necessity at the end of the twelfth century because it was an +energetic protest against feudalism.” The collapse of the unscientific +Romanesque vaulting of some of the earlier cathedrals and the +destruction by fire of others stimulated this movement by the necessity +for their immediate rebuilding. The entire reconstruction of the +cathedrals of Bayeux, Bayonne, Cambray, Evreux, Laon, Lisieux, Le Mans, +Noyon, Poitiers, Senlis, Soissons, and Troyes was begun between 1130 and +1200.[22] The cathedrals of Bourges, Chartres, Paris, and Tours, and the +abbey of St. Denis, all of the first importance, were begun during the +same period, and during the next quarter-century those of Amiens, +Auxerre, Rouen, Reims, Séez, and many others. After 1250 the movement +slackened and finally ceased. Few important cathedrals were erected +during the latter half of the thirteenth century, the chief among them +being at Beauvais (actively begun 1247), Clermont, Coutances, Limoges, +Narbonne, and Rodez. During this period, and through the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries, French architecture was concerned rather with the +completion and remodelling of existing cathedrals than the founding of +new ones. There were, however, many important parish churches and civil +or domestic edifices erected within this period. + + [Footnote 21: _Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française_, + vol. ii., pp. 280, 281.] + + [Footnote 22: See Ferree, _Chronology of Cathedral Churches of + France_.] + + ++STRUCTURAL DEVELOPMENT: VAULTING.+ By the middle of the twelfth century +the use of barrel-vaulting over the nave had been generally abandoned +and groined vaulting with its isolated points of support and resistance +had taken its place. The timid experiments of the Clunisian architects +at Vézelay in the use of the pointed arch and vault-ribs also led, in +the second half of the twelfth century, to far-reaching results. The +builders of the great +Abbey Church+ of +St. Denis+, near Paris, begun +in 1140 by the Abbot Suger, appear to have been the first to develop +these tentative devices into a system. In the original choir of this +noble church all the arches, alike of the vault-ribs (except the +groin-ribs, which were semi-circles) and of the openings, were pointed +and the vaults were throughout constructed with cross-ribs, wall-ribs, +and groin-ribs. Of this early work only the chapels remain. In other +contemporary monuments, as for instance in the cathedral of Sens, the +adoption of these devices was only partial and hesitating. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 116--PLAN OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 117.--INTERIOR OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.] + ++NOTRE DAME AT PARIS.+ The next great step in advance was taken in the +cathedral of +Notre Dame+[23] at Paris (Figs. 116, 117, 125). This was +begun, under Maurice de Sully in 1163, on the site of the twin +cathedrals of Ste. Marie and St. Étienne, and the choir was, as usual, +the first portion erected. By 1196 the choir, transepts, and one or two +bays of the nave were substantially finished. The completeness, harmony, +and vigor of conception of this remarkable church contrast strikingly +with the makeshifts and hesitancy displayed in many contemporary +monuments in other provinces. The difficult vaulting over the radiating +bays of the double ambulatory was here treated with great elegance. By +doubling the number of supports in the exterior circuit of each aisle +(Fig. 116) each trapezoidal bay of the vaulting was divided into three +easily managed triangular compartments. Circular shafts were used +between the central and side aisles. The side aisles were doubled and +those next the centre were built in two stories, providing ample +galleries behind a very open triforium. The nave was unusually lofty and +covered with six-part vaults of admirable execution. The vault-ribs were +vigorously moulded and each made to spring from a distinct +vaulting-shaft, of which three rested upon the cap of each of the +massive piers below (Fig. 117). The +Cathedral+ of +Bourges+, begun +1190, closely resembled that of Paris in plan. Both were designed to +accommodate vast throngs in their exceptionally broad central aisles and +double side aisles, but Bourges has no side-aisle galleries, though the +inner aisles are much loftier than the outer ones. Though later in date +the vaulting of Bourges is inferior to that of Notre Dame, especially in +the treatment of the trapezoidal bays of the ambulatory. + + [Footnote 23: This cathedral will be hereafter referred to, for + the sake of brevity, by the name of _Notre Dame_. Other cathedrals + having the same name will be distinguished by the addition of the + name of the city, as “Notre Dame at Clermont-Ferrand.”] + +The masterly examples set by the vault-builders of St. Denis and Notre +Dame were not at once generally followed. Noyon, Senlis, and Soissons, +contemporary with these, are far less completely Gothic in style. At +Le +Mans+ the groined vaulting which in 1158 was substituted for the +original barrel-vault of the cathedral is of very primitive design, +singularly heavy and awkward, although nearly contemporary with that of +Notre Dame (Fig. 118). + + [Illustration: FIG. 118.--LE MANS CATHEDRAL. NAVE.] + + ++DOMICAL GROINED VAULTING.+ The builders of the South and West, +influenced by Aquitanian models, adhered to the square plan and domical +form of vaulting-bay, even after they had begun to employ groin-ribs. +The latter, as at first used by them in imitation of Northern examples, +had no organic function in the vault, which was still built like a dome. +About 1145-1160 the cathedral of +St. Maurice+ at +Angers+ was vaulted +with square, groin-ribbed vaults, domical in form but not in +construction. The joints no longer described horizontal circles as in a +dome, but oblique lines perpendicular to the groins and meeting in +zigzag lines at the ridge (Fig. 119). This method became common in the +West and was afterward generally adopted by the English architects. The ++Cathedrals+ of +Poitiers+ (1162) and +Laval+ (La Trinité, 1180-1185) +are examples of this system, which at Le Mans met with the Northern +system and produced in the cathedral the awkward compromise described +above. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 119.--GROINED VAULT WITH ZIG-ZAG RIDGE-JOINTS. + _a_ shows a small section of filling with courses parallel to + the ridge, for comparison with the other compartments.] + ++THIRTEENTH-CENTURY VAULTING.+ Early in the thirteenth century the +church-builders of Northern France abandoned the use of square +vaulting-bays and six-part vaults. By the adoption of groin-ribs and the +pointed arch, the building of vaults in oblong bays was greatly +simplified. Each bay of the nave could now be covered with its own +vaulting-bay, thus doing away with all necessity for alternately light +and heavy piers. It is not quite certain when and where this system was +first adopted for the complete vaulting of a church. It is, however, +probable that the +Cathedral+ of +Chartres+, begun in 1194 and completed +before 1240, deserves this distinction, although it is possible that the +vaults of Soissons and Noyon may slightly antedate it. +Troyes+ +(1170-1267), +Rouen+ (1202-1220), +Reims+ (1212-1242), +Auxerre+ +(1215-1234, nave fourteenth century), +Amiens+ (1220-1288), and nearly +all the great churches and chapels begun after 1200, employ the fully +developed oblong vault. + + ++BUTTRESSING.+ Meanwhile the increasing height of the clearstories and +the use of double aisles compelled the bestowal of especial attention +upon the buttressing. The nave and choir of Chartres, the choirs of +Notre Dame, Bourges, Rouen, and Reims, the chevet and later the choir of +St. Denis, afford early examples of the flying-buttress (Fig. 107). +These were at first simple and of moderate height. Single half-arches +spanned the side aisles; in Notre Dame they crossed the double aisles in +a single leap. Later the buttresses were given greater stability by the +added weight of lofty pinnacles. An intermediate range of buttresses and +pinnacles was built over the intermediate piers where double aisles +flanked the nave and choir, thus dividing the single flying arch into +two arches. At the same time a careful observation of statical defects +in the earlier examples led to the introduction of subordinate arches +and of other devices to stiffen and to beautify the whole system. At ++Reims+ and +Amiens+ these features received their highest development, +though later examples are frequently much more ornate. + + ++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ The progressive change outlined in the last chapter, +by which the wall was practically suppressed, the windows +correspondingly enlarged, and every part of the structure made loftier +and more slender, resulted in the evolution of a system of interior +design well represented by the nave of Amiens. The second story or +gallery over the side aisle disappeared, but the aisle itself was very +high. The triforium was no longer a gallery, but a richly arcaded +passage in the thickness of the wall, corresponding to the roofing-space +over the aisle, and generally treated like a lower stage of the +clearstory. Nearly the whole space above it was occupied in each bay by +the vast clearstory window filled with simple but effective geometric +tracery over slender mullions. The side aisles were lighted by windows +which, like those in the clearstory, occupied nearly the whole available +wall-space under the vaulting. The piers and shafts were all clustered +and remarkably slender. The whole construction of this vast edifice, +which covers nearly eighty thousand square feet, is a marvel of +lightness, of scientific combinations, and of fine execution. Its great +vault rises to a height of one hundred and forty feet. The nave of St. +Denis, though less lofty, resembles it closely in style (Fig. 120). +Earlier cathedrals show less of the harmony of proportion, the perfect +working out of the relation of all parts of the composition of each bay, +so conspicuous in the Amiens type, which was followed in most of the +later churches. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 120.--ONE BAY, ABBEY OF ST. DENIS.] + ++WINDOWS: TRACERY.+ The clearstory windows of Noyon, Soissons, Sens, and +the choir of Vézelay (1200) were simple arched openings arranged singly, +in pairs, or in threes. In the cathedral of Chartres (1194-1220) they +consist of two arched windows with a circle above them, forming a sort +of plate tracery under a single arch. In the chapel windows of the choir +at Reims (1215) the tracery of mullions and circles was moulded inside +and out, and the intermediate triangular spaces all pierced and glazed. +Rose windows were early used in front and transept façades. During the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries they were made of vast size and +great lightness of tracery, as in the transepts of Notre Dame (1257) and +the west front of Amiens (1288). From the design of these windows is +derived the name _Rayonnant_, often applied to the French Gothic style +of the period 1275-1375. + + ++THE SAINTE CHAPELLE.+ In this beautiful royal chapel at Paris, built +1242-47, Gothic design was admirably exemplified in the noble windows 15 +by 50 feet in size, which perhaps furnished the models for those of +Amiens and St. Denis. Each was divided by slender mullions into four +lancet-like lights gathered under the rich tracery of the window-head. +They were filled with stained glass of the most brilliant but harmonious +hues. They occupy the whole available wall-space, so that the ribbed +vault internally seems almost to rest on walls of glass, so slender are +the visible supports and so effaced by the glow of color in the windows. +Certainly lightness of construction and the suppression of the +wall-masonry could hardly be carried further than here (Fig. 121). Among +other chapels of the same type are those in the palace of St. +Germain-en-Laye (1240), and a later example in the château of Vincennes, +begun by Charles VI., but not finished till 1525. + + [Illustration: FIG. 121.--THE STE. CHAPELLE, PARIS.] + + ++PLANS.+ The most radical change from the primitive basilican type was, +as already explained in the last chapter, the continuation of the side +aisles around the apse to form a _chevet_; and later, the addition of +chapels between the external buttresses. Radiating chapels, usually +semi-octagons or semi-decagons in plan, early appeared as additions to +the _chevet_ (Fig. 122). These may have originated in the apsidal +chapels of Romanesque churches in Auvergne and the South, as at Issoire, +Clermont-Ferrand, Le Puy, and Toulouse. They generally superseded the +transept-chapels of earlier churches, and added greatly to the beauty of +the interior perspective, especially when the encircling aisles of the +chevet were doubled. Notre Dame, as at first erected, had a double +ambulatory, but no chapels. Bourges has only five very small +semicircular chapels. Chartres (choir 1220) and Le Mans, as +reconstructed about the same date, have double ambulatories and radial +chapels. After 1220 the second ambulatory no longer appears. Noyon, +Soissons, Reims, Amiens, Troyes, and Beauvais, Tours, Bayeux, and +Coutances, Clermont, Limoges, and Narbonne all have the single +ambulatory and radiating chevet-chapels. The Lady-chapel in the axis of +the church was often made longer and more important than the other +chapels, as at Amiens, Le Mans, Rouen, Bayeux, and Coutances. Chapels +also flanked the choir in most of the cathedrals named above, and Notre +Dame and Tours also have side chapels to the nave. The only cathedrals +with complete double side aisles alike to nave, choir, and chevet, were +Notre Dame and Bourges. It is somewhat singular that the German +cathedral of Cologne is the only one in which all these various +characteristic French features were united in one design (see Fig. 140). + + [Illustration: FIG. 122.--PLAN OF AMIENS CATHEDRAL.] + +Local considerations had full sway in France, in spite of the tendency +toward unity of type. Thus Dol, Laon, and Poitiers have square eastward +terminations; Châlons has no ambulatory; Bourges no transept. In Notre +Dame the transept was almost suppressed. At Soissons one transept, at +Noyon both, had semicircular ends. +Alby+, a late cathedral of brick, +founded in 1280, but mostly built during the fourteenth century, has +neither side aisles nor transepts, its wide nave being flanked by +chapels separated by internal buttresses (Fig. 123). + + [Illustration: FIG. 123.--PLAN OF CATHEDRAL OF ALBY.] + + ++SCALE.+ The French cathedrals were nearly all of imposing dimensions. +Noyon, one of the smallest, is 333 feet long; Sens measures 354. Laon, +Bourges, Troyes, Notre Dame, Le Mans, Rouen, and Chartres vary from 396 +to 437 feet in extreme length; Reims measures 483, and Amiens, the +longest of all, 521 feet. Notre Dame is 124 feet wide across the five +aisles of the nave; Bourges, somewhat wider. The central aisles of these +two cathedrals, and of Laon, Amiens, and Beauvais, have a span of not +far from 40 feet from centre to centre of the piers; while the ridge of +the vaulting, which in Notre Dame is 108 feet above the pavement, and in +Bourges 125, reaches in Amiens a height of 140 feet, and of nearly 160 +in Beauvais. This emphasis of the height, from 3 to 3½ times the clear +width of the nave or choir, is one of the most striking features of the +French cathedrals. It produces an impressive effect, but tends to dwarf +the great width of the central aisle. + + ++EXTERIOR DESIGN.+ Here, as in the interior, every feature had its +constructive _raison d’être_, and the total effect was determined by the +fundamental structural scheme. This was especially true of the lateral +elevations, in which the pinnacled buttresses, the flying arches, and +the traceried windows of the side aisle and clearstory, repeated +uniformly at each bay, were the principal elements of the design. The +transept façades and main front allowed greater scope for invention and +fancy, but even here the interior membering gave the key to the +composition. Strong buttresses marked the division of the aisles and +resisted the thrust of the terminal pier arches, and rose windows filled +the greater part of the wall space under the end of the lofty vaulting. +The whole structure was crowned by a steep-pitched roof of wood, covered +with lead, copper, or tiles, to protect the vault from damage by snow +and moisture. This roof occasioned the steep gables which crowned the +transept and main façades. The main front was frequently adorned, above +the triple portal, with a gallery of niches or tabernacles filled with +statues of kings. Different types of composition are represented by +Chartres, Notre Dame, Amiens, Reims, and Rouen, of which Notre Dame +(Fig. 124) and Reims are perhaps the finest. Notre Dame is especially +remarkable for its stately simplicity and the even balancing of +horizontal and vertical elements. + + [Illustration: FIG. 124.--WEST FRONT OF NOTRE DAME, PARIS.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 125.--WEST FRONT OF ST. MACLOU, ROUEN.] + ++PORCHES.+ In most French church façades the porches were the most +striking features, with their deep shadows and sculptured arches. The +Romanesque porches were usually limited in depth to the thickness of the +front wall. The Gothic builders secured increased depth by projecting +the portals out beyond the wall, and crowned them with elaborate gables. +The vast central door was divided in two by a pier adorned with a niche +and statue. Over this the tympanum of the arch was carved with +scriptural reliefs; the jambs and arches were profusely adorned with +figures of saints, apostles, martyrs, and angels, under elaborate +canopies. The porches of Laon, Bourges, Amiens, and Reims are especially +deep and majestic in effect, the last-named (built 1380) being the +richest of all. Some of the transept façades also had imposing portals. +Those of +Chartres+ (1210-1245) rank among the finest works of Gothic +decorative architecture, the south porch in some respects surpassing +that of the north transept. The portals of the fifteenth and early +sixteenth centuries were remarkable for the extraordinary richness and +minuteness of their tracery and sculpture, as at Abbeville, Alençon, the +cathedral and St. Maclou at Rouen (Fig. 125), Tours, Troyes, Vendôme, +etc. + + ++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The emphasizing of vertical elements reached its +fullest expression in the towers and spires of the churches. What had +been at first merely a lofty belfry roof was rapidly developed into the +spire, rising three hundred feet or more into the air. This development +had already made progress in the Romanesque period, and the south spire +of Chartres is a notable example of late twelfth-century steeple design. +The transition from the square tower to the slender octagonal pyramid +was skilfully effected by means of corner pinnacles and dormers. During +and after the thirteenth century the development was almost wholly in +the direction of richness and complexity of detail, not of radical +constructive modification. The northern spire of Chartres (1515) and the +spires of Bordeaux, Coutances, Senlis, and the Flamboyant church of St. +Maclou at Rouen, illustrate this development. In Normandy central spires +were common, rising over the crossing of nave and transepts. In some +cases the designers of cathedrals contemplated a group of towers; this +is evident at Chartres, Coutances, and Reims. This intention was, +however, never realized; it demanded resources beyond even the +enthusiasm of the thirteenth century. Only in rare instances were the +spires of any of the towers completed, and the majority of the French +towers have square terminations, with low-pitched wooden roofs, +generally invisible from below. In general, French towers are marked by +their strong buttresses, solid lower stories, twin windows in each side +of the belfry proper--these windows being usually of great size--and a +skilful management of the transition to an octagonal plan for the belfry +or the spire. + + ++CARVING AND SCULPTURE.+ The general superiority of French Gothic work +was fully maintained in its decorative details. Especially fine is the +figure sculpture, which in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries +attained true nobility of expression, combined with great truthfulness +and delicacy of execution. Some of its finest productions are found in +the great doorway jambs of the west portals of the cathedrals, and in +the ranks of throned and adoring angels which adorned their deep arches. +These reach their highest beauty in the portals of Reims (1380). The +_tabernacles_ or carved niches in which such statues were set were +important elements in the decoration of the exteriors of churches. + + [Illustration: FIG. 126.--FRENCH GOTHIC CAPITALS. + _a_, From Sainte Chapelle, Paris, 13th century. _b_, 14th-century + capital from transept of Notre Dame, Paris. _c_, 15th-century + capital from north spire of Chartres.] + +Foliage forms were used for nearly all the minor carved ornaments, +though grotesque and human figures sometimes took their place. The +gargoyles through which the roof-water was discharged clear of the +building, were almost always composed in the form of hideous monsters; +and symbolic beasts, like the oxen in the towers of Laon, or monsters +like those which peer from the tower balustrades of Notre Dame, were +employed with some mystical significance in various parts of the +building. But the capitals corbels, crockets, and finials were mostly +composed of floral or foliage forms. Those of the twelfth and thirteenth +centuries were for the most part simple in mass, and crisp and vigorous +in design, imitating the strong shoots of early spring. The +capitals+ +were tall and slender, concave in profile, with heavy square or +octagonal abaci. With the close of the thirteenth century this simple +and forcible style of detail disappeared. The carving became more +realistic; the leaves, larger and more mature, were treated as if +applied to the capital or moulding, not as if they grew out of it. The +execution and detail were finer and more delicate, in harmony with the +increasing slenderness and lightness of the architecture (Fig. 126 a, +b). +Tracery forms+ now began to be profusely applied to all manner of +surfaces, and open-work gables, wholly unnecessary from the structural +point of view, but highly effective as decorations, adorned the portals +and crowned the windows. + + ++LATE GOTHIC MONUMENTS.+ So far our attention has been mainly occupied +with the masterpieces erected previous to 1250. Among the cathedrals, +relatively few in number, whose construction is referable to the second +half of the century, that of +Beauvais+ stands first in importance. +Designed on a colossal scale, its foundations were laid in 1225, but it +was never completed, and the portion built--the choir and +chapels--belonged really to the second half of the century, having been +completed in 1270. But the collapse in 1284 of the central tower and +vaulting of this incomplete cathedral, owing to the excessive loftiness +and slenderness of its supports, compelled its entire reconstruction, +the number of the piers being doubled and the span of the pier arches +correspondingly reduced. As thus rebuilt, the cathedral aisle was 47 +feet wide from centre to centre of opposite piers, and 163 feet high to +the top of the vault. Transepts were added after 1500. +Limoges+ and ++Narbonne+, begun in 1272 on a large scale (though not equal in size to +Beauvais), were likewise never completed. Both had choirs of admirable +plan, with well-designed chevet-chapels. Many other cathedrals begun +during this period were completed only after long delays, as, for +instance, Meaux, Rodez (1277), Toulouse (1272), and Alby (1282), +finished in the sixteenth century, and Clermont (1248), completed under +Napoleon III. But between 1260 or 1275 and 1350, work was actively +prosecuted on many still incomplete cathedrals. The choirs of Beauvais +(rebuilding), Limoges, and Narbonne were finished after 1330; and +towers, transept-façades, portals, and chapels added to many others of +earlier date. + +The style of this period is sometimes designated as +Rayonnant+, from +the characteristic wheel tracery of the rose-windows, and the prevalence +of circular forms in the lateral arched windows, of the late thirteenth +and early fourteenth centuries. The great rose windows in the transepts +of Notre Dame, dating from 1257, are typical examples of the style. +Those of Rouen cathedral belong to the same category, though of later +date. The façade of Amiens, completed by 1288, is one of the finest +works of this style, of which an early example is the elaborate parish +church of +St. Urbain+ at Troyes. + + ++THE FLAMBOYANT STYLE.+ The geometric treatment of the tracery and the +minute and profuse decoration of this period gradually merged into the +fantastic and unrestrained extravagances of the +Flamboyant+ style, +which prevailed until the advent of the Renaissance--say 1525. The +continuous logical development of forms ceased, and in its place caprice +and display controlled the arts of design. The finest monument of this +long period is the fifteenth-century nave and central tower of the +church of +St. Ouen+ at Rouen, a parish church of the first rank, begun +in 1318, but not finished until 1515. The tracery of the lateral windows +is still chiefly geometric, but the western rose window (Fig. 112) and +the magnificent central tower or lantern, exhibit in their tracery the +florid decoration and wavy, flame-like lines of this style. Slenderness +of supports and the suppression of horizontal lines are here carried to +an extreme; and the church, in spite of its great elegance of detail, +lacks the vital interest and charm of the earlier Gothic churches. The +cathedral of Alençon and the church of +St. Maclou+ at Rouen, have +portals with unusually elaborate detail of tracery and carving; while +the façade of Rouen cathedral (1509) surpasses all other examples in the +lace-like minuteness of its open-work and its profusion of ornament. The +churches of +St. Jacques+ at Dieppe, and of +St. Wulfrand+ at Abbeville, +the façades of Tours and Troyes, are among the masterpieces of the +style. The upper part of the façade of Reims (1380-1428) belongs to the +transition from the Rayonnant to the Flamboyant. While some works of +this period are conspicuous for the richness of their ornamentation, +others are noticeably bare and poor in design, like St. Merri and St. +Séverin in Paris. + + ++SECULAR AND MONASTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The building of cathedrals did not +absorb all the architectural activity of the French during the Gothic +period, nor did it by any means put an end to monastic building. While +there are few Gothic cloisters to equal the Romanesque cloisters of +Puy-en-Vélay, Montmajour, Elne, and Moissac, many of the abbeys either +rebuilt their churches in the Gothic style after 1150, or extended and +remodelled their conventual buildings. The cloisters of Fontfroide, +Chaise-Dieu, and the Mont St. Michel rival those of Romanesque times, +while many new refectories and chapels were built in the same style with +the cathedrals. The most complete of these Gothic monastic +establishments, that of the +Mont St. Michel+ in Normandy, presented a +remarkable aggregation of buildings clustering around the steep isolated +rock on which stands the abbey church. This was built in the eleventh +century, and the choir and chapels remodelled in the sixteenth. The +great refectory and dormitory, the cloisters, lodgings, and chapels, +built in several vaulted stories against the cliffs, are admirable +examples of the vigorous pointed-arch design of the early thirteenth +century. + ++Hospitals+ like that of St. Jean at Angers (late twelfth century), or +those of Chartres, Ourscamps, Tonnerre, and Beaune, illustrate how +skilfully the French could modify and adapt the details of their +architecture to the special requirements of civil architecture. Great +numbers of charitable institutions were built in the middle +ages--asylums, hospitals, refuges, and the like--but very few of those +in France are now extant. Town halls were built in the fifteenth century +in some places where a certain amount of popular independence had been +secured. The florid fifteenth-century +Palais de Justice+ at +Rouen+ +(1499-1508) is an example of another branch of secular Gothic +architecture. In all these monuments the adaptation of means to ends is +admirable. Wooden ceilings and roofs replaced stone, wherever required +by great width of span or economy of construction. There was little +sculpture; the wall-spaces were not suppressed in favor of stained glass +and tracery; while the roofs were usually emphasized and adorned with +elaborate crestings and finials in lead or terra-cotta. + + ++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ These same principles controlled the designing +of houses, farm buildings, barns, granaries, and the like. The common +closely-built French city house of the twelfth and thirteenth century is +illustrated by many extant examples at Cluny, Provins, and other towns. +A shop opening on the street by a large arch, a narrow stairway, and two +or three stories of rooms lighted by clustered, pointed-arched windows, +constituted the common type. The street front was usually gabled and the +roof steep. In the fourteenth or fifteenth century half-timbered +construction began to supersede stone for town houses, as it permitted +of encroaching upon the street by projecting the upper stories. Many of +the half-timbered houses of the fifteenth century were of elaborate +design. The heavy oaken uprights were carved with slender colonnettes; +the horizontal sills, bracketed out over the street, were richly +moulded; picturesque dormers broke the sky-line, and the masonry filling +between the beams was frequently faced with enamelled tiles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 127.--HOUSE OF JACQUES CŒUR, BOURGES. + (After Viollet-le-Duc.)] + +The more considerable houses or palaces of royalty, nobles, and wealthy +citizens rivalled, and in time surpassed, the monastic buildings in +richness and splendor. The earlier examples retain the military aspect, +with moat and donjon, as in the Louvre of Charles V., demolished in the +sixteenth century. The finest palaces are of late date, and the type is +well represented by the Ducal Palace at Nancy (1476), the +Hotel de +Cluny+ (1485) at Paris, the +Hotel Jacques Cœur+ at Bourges (Fig. 127), +and the east wing of Blois (1498-1515). These palaces are not only +excellently and liberally planned, with large halls, many staircases, +and handsome courts; they are also extremely picturesque with their +square and circular towers, slender turrets, elaborate dormers, and rich +carved detail. + + + +MONUMENTS+: (C. = cathedral; A. = abbey; trans. = transept; each + edifice is given under the date of its commencement; subsequent + alterations in parentheses.) Between 1130 and 1200: Vézelay A., + ante-chapel, 1130; St. Germer-de-Fly C., 1130-1150 (chapel later); + St. Denis A., choir, 1140 (choir rebuilt, nave and trans., 1240); + Sens C., 1140-68 (W. front, 13th century; chapels, spire, 14th); + Senlis C., 1145-83 (trans., spire, 13th century); Noyon C., + 1149-1200 (W. front, vaults, 13th century); St. Germain-des-Prés A., + Paris, choir, 1150 (Romanesque nave); Angers C., 1150 (choir, + trans., 1274); Langres, 1150-1200; Laon C., 1150-1200; Le Mans C., + nave, 1150-58 (choir, 1217-54); Soissons C., 1160-70 (choir, 1212; + nave chapels, 14th century); Poitiers C., 1162-1204; Notre Dame, + Paris, choir, 1163-96 (nave, W. front finished, 1235; trans. + fronts, and chapels, 1257-75); Chartres C., W. end, 1170; rest, + mainly 1194-98 (trans. porches, W. rose, 1210-1260; N. spire, + 1506); Tours C., 1170 (rebuilt, 1267; trans., portals, 1375; W. + portals, chapels, 15th century; towers finished, 1507-47); + Laval C., 1180-85 (choir, 16th century); Mantes, church Notre + Dame, 1180-1200; Bourges C., 1190-95 (E. end, 1210; W. end, 1275); + St. Nicholas at Caen, 1190 (vaults, 15th century); Reims, church + St. Rémy, choir, end of 12th century (Romanesque nave); church St. + Leu d’Esserent, choir late 12th century (nave, 13th century); + Lyons C., choir, end of 12th century (nave, 13th and 14th + centuries); Etampes, church Notre Dame, 12th and 13th + centuries.--13th century: Evreux C., 1202-75 (trans., central + tower, 1417; W. front rebuilt, 16th century); Rouen C., 1202-20 + (trans. portals, 1280; W. front, 1507); Nevers, 1211, N. portal, + 1280 (chapels, S. portal, 15th century); Reims C., 1212-42 (W. + front, 1380; W. towers, 1420); Bayonne C., 1213 (nave, vaults, W. + portal, 14th century); Troyes C., choir, 1214 (central tower, + nave, W. portal, and towers, 15th century); Auxerre C., 1215-34 + (nave, W. end, trans., 14th century); Amiens C., 1220-88; St. + Etienne at Chalons-sur-Marne, 1230 (spire, 1520); Séez C., 1230, + rebuilt 1260 (remodelled 14th century); Notre Dame de Dijon, 1230; + Reims, Lady chapel of Archbishop’s palace, 1230; Chapel Royal at + St. Germain-en-Laye, 1240; Ste. Chapelle at Paris, 1242-47 (W. + rose, 15th century); Coutances C., 1254-74; Beauvais C., 1247-72 + (rebuilt 1337-47; trans. portals, 1500-48); Notre Dame de Grace at + Clermont, 1248 (finished 1350); Dôl C., 13th century; St. + Martin-des-Champs at Paris, nave 13th century (choir Romanesque); + Bordeaux C., 1260; Narbonne C., 1272-1320; Limoges, 1273 (finished + 16th century); St. Urbain, Troyes, 1264; Rodez C., 1277-1385 + (altered, completed 16th century); church St. Quentin, 1280-1300; + St. Benigne at Dijon, 1280-91; Alby C., 1282 (nave, 14th; choir, + 15th century; S. portal, 1473-1500); Meaux C., mainly rebuilt 1284 + (W. end much altered 15th, finished 16th century); Cahors C., + rebuilt 1285-93 (W. front, 15th century); Orléans, 1287-1328 + (burned, rebuilt 1601-1829).--14th century: St. Bertrand de + Comminges, 1304-50; St. Nazaire at Carcassonne, choir and trans. + on Romanesque nave; Montpellier C., 1364; St. Ouen at Rouen, + choir, 1318-39 (trans., 1400-39; nave, 1464-91; W. front, 1515); + Royal Chapel at Vincennes, 1385 (?)-1525.--15th and 16th century: + St. Nizier at Lyons rebuilt; St. Séverin, St. Merri, St. Germain + l’Auxerrois, all at Paris; Notre Dame de l’Epine at + Chalons-sur-Marne; choir of St. Etienne at Beauvais; Saintes C., + rebuilt, 1450; St. Maclou at Rouen (finished 16th century); church + at Brou; St. Wulfrand at Abbeville; abbey of St. Riquier--these + three all early 16th century.--HOUSES, CASTLES, AND PALACES: + Bishop’s palace at Paris, 1160 (demolished); castle of Coucy, + 1220-30; Louvre at Paris (the original château), 1225-1350; Palais + de Justice at Paris, originally the royal residence, 1225-1400; + Bishop’s palace at Laon, 1245 (addition to Romanesque hall); + castle Montargis, 13th century; castle Pierrefonds, Bishop’s + palace at Narbonnne, palace of Popes at Avignon--all 14th century; + donjon of palace at Poitiers, 1395; Hôtel des Ambassadeurs at + Dijon, 1420; house of Jacques Cœur at Bourges, 1443; Palace, + Dijon, 1467; Ducal palace at Nancy, 1476; Hôtel Cluny at Paris, + 1490; castle of Creil, late 15th century, finished in 16th; E. + wing palace of Blois, 1498-1515, for Louis XII.; Palace de Justice + at Rouen, 1499-1508. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Parker, Reber. Also, + Bell’s Series of _Handbooks of English Cathedrals_. Billings, _The + Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_. Bond, + _Gothic Architecture in England_. Brandon, _Analysis of Gothic + Architecture_. Britton, _Cathedral Antiquities of Great Britain_. + Ditchfield, _The Cathedrals of England_. Murray, _Handbooks of the + English Cathedrals_. Parker, _Introduction to Gothic + Architecture_; _Glossary of Architectural Terms_; _Companion to + Glossary_, etc. Rickman, _An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of + English Architecture_. Sharpe, _Architectural Parallels_; _The + Seven Periods of English Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _English + Cathedrals_. Winkles and Moule, _Cathedral Churches of England and + Wales_. Willis, _Architectural History of Canterbury Cathedral_; + ditto _of Winchester Cathedral_; _Treatise on Vaults_. + + ++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ Gothic architecture was developed in England under +a strongly established royal power, with an episcopate in no sense +hostile to the abbots or in arms against the barons. Many of the +cathedrals had monastic chapters, and not infrequently abbots were +invested with the episcopal rank. + +English Gothic architecture was thus by no means predominantly an +architecture of cathedrals. If architectural activity in England was on +this account less intense and widespread in the twelfth and thirteenth +centuries than in France, it was not, on the other hand, so soon +exhausted. Fewer new cathedrals were built, but the progressive +rebuilding of those already existing seems not to have ceased until the +middle or end of the fifteenth century. Architecture in England +developed more slowly, but more uniformly than in France. It contented +itself with simpler problems; and if it failed to rival Amiens in +boldness of construction and in lofty majesty, it at least never +perpetrated a folly like Beauvais. In richness of internal decoration, +especially in the mouldings and ribbed vaulting, and in the picturesque +grouping of simple masses externally, the British builders went far +toward atoning for their structural timidity. + + [Illustration: FIG. 128.--PLAN OF SALISBURY CATHEDRAL.] + + ++EARLY GOTHIC BUILDINGS.+ The pointed arch and ribbed vault were +importations from France. Early examples appear in the Cistercian abbeys +of Furness and Kirkstall, and in the Temple Church at London (1185). But +it was in the +Choir of Canterbury+, as rebuilt by William of Sens, +after the destruction by fire in 1170 of Anselm’s Norman choir, that +these French Gothic features were first applied in a thoroughgoing +manner. In plan this choir resembled that of the cathedral of Sens; and +its coupled round piers, with capitals carved with foliage, its pointed +arches, its six-part vaulting, and its _chevet_, were distinctly French. +The Gothic details thus introduced slowly supplanted the round arch and +other Norman features. For fifty years the styles were more or less +mingled in many buildings, though +Lincoln Cathedral+, as rebuilt in +1185-1200, retained nothing of the earlier round-arched style. But the +first church to be designed and built from the foundations in the new +style was the cathedral of +Salisbury+ (1220-1258; Fig. 128). +Contemporary with Amiens, it is a homogeneous and typical example of the +Early English style. The predilection for great length observable in the +Anglo-Norman churches (as at Norwich and Durham) still prevailed, as it +continued to do throughout the Gothic period; Salisbury is 480 feet +long. The double transepts, the long choir, the square east end, the +relatively low vault (84 feet to the ridge), the narrow grouped windows, +all are thoroughly English. Only the simple four-part vaulting recalls +French models. +Westminster Abbey+ (1245-1269), on the other hand, +betrays in a marked manner the French influence in its internal +loftiness (100 feet), its polygonal _chevet_ and chapels, and its +strongly accented exterior flying-buttresses (Fig. 137). + + ++MIXTURE OF STYLES.+ Very few English cathedrals are as homogeneous as +the two just mentioned, nearly all having undergone repeated +remodellings in successive periods. Durham, Norwich, and Oxford are +wholly Norman but for their Gothic vaults. Ely, Rochester, Gloucester, +and Hereford have Norman naves and Gothic choirs. Peterborough has an +early Gothic façade and late Gothic retro-choir added to an otherwise +completely Norman structure. Winchester is a Norman church remodelled +with early Perpendicular details. The purely Gothic churches and +cathedrals, except parish churches--in which England is very rich--are +not nearly as numerous in England as in France. + + ++PERIODS.+ The development of English Gothic architecture followed the +same general sequence as the French, and like it the successive stages +were most conspicuously characterized by the forms of the tracery. + +The EARLY ENGLISH or LANCET period extended roundly from 1175 or 1180 to +1280, and was marked by simplicity, dignity, and purity of design. + +The DECORATED or GEOMETRIC period covered another century, 1280 to 1380, +and was characterized by its decorative richness and greater lightness +of construction. + +The PERPENDICULAR period extended from 1380, or thereabout, well into +the sixteenth century. Its salient features were the use of +fan-vaulting, four-centred arches, and tracery of predominantly vertical +and horizontal lines. The tardy introduction of Renaissance forms +finally put an end to the Gothic style in England, after a long period +of mixed and transitional architecture. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 129.--RIBBED VAULTING, + CHOIR OF EXETER CATHEDRAL.] + ++VAULTING.+ The richness and variety of English vaulting contrast +strikingly with the persistent uniformity of the French. A few of the +early Gothic vaults, as in the aisles of Peterborough, and later the +naves of Durham, Salisbury, and Gloucester, were simple four-part, +ribbed vaults substantially like the French. But the English disliked +and avoided the twisted and dome-like surfaces of the French vaults, +preferring horizontal ridges, and, in the filling-masonry, straight +courses meeting at the ridge in zigzag lines, as in southwest France +(see p. 200). This may be seen in Westminster Abbey. The idea of ribbed +construction was then seized upon and given a new application. By +springing a large number of ribs from each point of support, the +vaulting-surfaces were divided into long, narrow, triangles, the filling +of which was comparatively easy (Fig. 129). The ridge was itself +furnished with a straight rib, decorated with carved rosettes or +_bosses_ at each intersection with a vaulting-rib. The naves and choirs +of Lincoln, Lichfield, Exeter, and the nave of Westminster illustrate +this method. The logical corollary of this practice was the introduction +of minor ribs called _liernes_, connecting the main ribs and forming +complex reticulated and star-shaped patterns. Vaults of this description +are among the most beautiful in England. One of the richest is in the +choir of Gloucester (1337-1377). Less correct constructively is that +over the choir of Wells, while the choir of Ely, the nave of Tewkesbury +Abbey (Fig. 130), and all the vaulting of Winchester as rebuilt by +William of Wykeham (1390), illustrate the same system. Such vaults are +called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults. + + [Illustration: FIG. 130.--NET OR LIERNE VAULTING, + TEWKESBURY ABBEY.] + + ++FAN-VAULTING.+ The next step in the process may be observed in the +vaults of the choir of Oxford Cathedral (Christ Church), of the +retro-choir of Peterborough, of the cloisters of Gloucester, and many +other examples. The diverging ribs being made of uniform curvature, the +_severeys_ (the inverted pyramidal vaulting-masses springing from each +support) became a species of concave conoids, meeting at the ridge in +such a way as to leave a series of flat lozenge-shaped spaces at the +summit of the vault (Fig. 136). The ribs were multiplied indefinitely, +and losing thus in individual and structural importance became a mere +decorative pattern of tracery on the severeys. To conceal the awkward +flat lozenges at the ridge, elaborate panelling was resorted to; or, in +some cases, long stone pendents were inserted at those points--a device +highly decorative but wholly unconstructive. At Cambridge, in +King’s +College Chapel+, at Windsor, in +St. George’s Chapel+, and in the ++Chapel of Henry VII.+ at Westminster, this sort of vaulting received +its most elaborate development. The _fan-vault_, as it is called, +illustrates the logical evolution of a decorative element from a +structural starting--point, leading to results far removed from the +original conception. Rich and sumptuous as are these ceilings, they are +with all their ornament less satisfactory than the ribbed vaults of the +preceding period. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 131.--VAULT OF CHAPTER-HOUSE, WELLS.] + ++CHAPTER-HOUSES.+ One of the most beautiful forms of ribbed vaulting was +developed in the polygonal halls erected for the deliberations of the +cathedral chapters of Lincoln (1225), Westminster (1250), Salisbury +(1250), and Wells (1292), in which the vault-ribs radiated from a +central column to the sides and angles of the polygon (Fig. 131). If +these vaults were less majestic than domes of the same diameter, they +were far more decorative and picturesque, while the chapter-houses +themselves were the most original and striking products of English +Gothic art. Every feature was designed with strict regard for the +structural system determined by the admirable vaulting, and the Sainte +Chapelle was not more logical in its exemplification of Gothic +principles. To the four above-mentioned examples should be added that of +York (1280-1330), which differs from them in having no central column: +by some critics it is esteemed the finest of them all. Its ceiling is a +Gothic dome, 57 feet in diameter, but unfortunately executed in wood. +Its geometrical window-tracery and richly canopied stalls are admirable. + + ++OCTAGON AT ELY.+ The magnificent +Octagon+ of Ely Cathedral, at the +intersection of the nave and transepts, belongs in the same category +with these polygonal chapter-house vaults. It was built by Alan of +Walsingham in 1337, after the fall of the central tower and the +destruction of the adjacent bays of the choir. It occupies the full +width of the three aisles, and covers the ample space thus enclosed with +a simple but beautiful groined and ribbed vault of wood reaching to a +central octagonal lantern, which rises much higher and shows externally +as well as internally. Unfortunately, this vault is of wood, and would +require important modifications of detail if carried out in stone. But +it is so noble in general design and total effect, that one wonders the +type was not universally adopted for the crossing in all cathedrals, +until one observes that no cathedral of importance was built after +Walsingham’s time, nor did any other central towers opportunely fall to +the ground. + + ++WINDOWS AND TRACERY.+ In the Early English Period (1200-1280 or 1300) +the windows were tall and narrow (_lancet_ windows), and generally +grouped by twos and threes, though sometimes four and even five are seen +together (as the “Five Sisters” in the N. transept of York). In the nave +of Salisbury and the retro-choir of Ely the side aisles are lighted by +coupled windows and the clearstory by triple windows, the central one +higher than the others--a surviving Norman practice. Plate-tracery was, +as in France, an intermediate step leading to the development of +bar-tracery (see Fig. 110). The English followed here the same reasoning +as the French. At first the openings constituted the design, the +intervening stonework being of secondary importance. Later the forms of +the openings were subordinated to the pattern of the stone framework of +bars, arches, circles, and cusps. Bar-tracery of this description +prevailed in England through the greater part of the Decorated Period +(1280-1380), and somewhat resembled the contemporary French geometric +tracery, though more varied and less rigidly constructive in design. An +early example of this tracery occurs in the cloisters of Salisbury (Fig. +132); others in the clearstories of the choirs of Lichfield, Lincoln, +and Ely, the nave of York, and the chapter-houses mentioned above, +where, indeed, it seems to have received its earliest development. After +the middle of the fourteenth century lines of double curvature were +introduced, producing what is called _flowing_ tracery, somewhat +resembling the French flamboyant, though earlier in date (Fig. 111). +Examples of this style are found in Wells, in the side aisles and +triforium of the choir of Ely, and in the S. transept rose-window of +Lincoln. + + [Illustration: FIG. 132.--CLOISTERS, SALISBURY CATHEDRAL + (SHOWING UPPER PART OF CHAPTER-HOUSE).] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 133.--PERPENDICULAR TRACERY, + WEST WINDOW OF ST. GEORGE’S, WINDSOR.] + ++THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.+ Flowing tracery was, however, a transitional +phase of design, and was soon superseded by _Perpendicular_ tracery, in +which the mullions were carried through to the top of the arch and +intersected by horizontal transoms. This formed a very rigid and +mechanically correct system of stone framing, but lacked the grace and +charm of the two preceding periods. The earliest examples are seen in +the work of Edington and of Wykeham in the reconstructed cathedral of +Winchester (1360-1394), where the tracery was thus made to harmonize +with the accentuated and multiplied vertical lines of the interior +design. It was at this late date that the English seem first to have +fully appropriated the Gothic ideas of emphasized vertical elements and +wall surfaces reduced to a minimum. The development of fan-vaulting had +led to the adoption of a new form of arch, the four-centred or _Tudor +arch_ (Fig. 133), to fit under the depressed apex of the vault. The +whole design internally and externally was thenceforward controlled by +the form of the vaulting and of the openings. The windows were made of +enormous size, especially at the east end of the choir, which was square +in nearly all English churches, and in the west windows over the +entrance. These windows had already reached, in the Decorated Period, an +enormous size, as at York; in the Perpendicular Period the two ends of +the church were as nearly as possible converted into walls of glass. The +East Window of Gloucester reaches the prodigious dimensions of 38 by 72 +feet. The most complete examples of the Perpendicular tracery and of the +style in general are the three chapels already mentioned (p. 223); +those, namely, of +King’s College+ at Cambridge, of +St. George+ at +Windsor, and of +Henry VII.+ in Westminster Abbey. + + ++CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN.+ The most striking peculiarity of English Gothic +design was its studious avoidance of temerity or venturesomeness in +construction. Both the height and width of the nave were kept within +very moderate bounds, and the supports were never reduced to extreme +slenderness. While much impressiveness of effect was undoubtedly lost +thereby, there was some gain in freedom of design, and there was less +obtrusion of constructive elements in the exterior composition. The +flying-buttress became a feature of minor importance where the +clearstory was kept low, as in most English churches. In many cases the +flying arches were hidden under the aisle roofs. The English cathedrals +and larger churches are long and low, depending for effect mainly upon +the projecting masses of their transepts, the imposing square central +towers which commonly crown the crossing, and the grouping of the main +structure with chapter-houses, cloisters, and Lady-chapels. + + ++FRONTS.+ The sides and east ends were, in most cases, more successful +than the west fronts. In these the English displayed a singular +indifference or lack of creative power. They produced nothing to rival +the majestic façades of Notre Dame, Amiens, or Reims, and their portals +are almost ridiculously small. The front of +York+ Cathedral is the most +notable in the list for its size and elaborate decoration. Those of ++Lincoln+ and +Peterborough+ are, however, more interesting in the +picturesqueness and singularity of their composition. The first-named +forms a vast arcaded screen, masking the bases of the two western +towers, and pierced by three huge Norman arches, retained from the +original façade. The west front of Peterborough is likewise a mask or +screen, mainly composed of three colossal recessed arches, whose vast +scale completely dwarfs the little porches which give admittance to the +church. Salisbury has a curiously illogical and ineffective façade. +Those of +Lichfield+ and +Wells+ are, on the other hand, imposing and +beautiful designs, the first with its twin spires and rich arcading +(Fig. 134), the second with its unusual wealth of figure-sculpture, and +massive square towers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 134.--WEST FRONT, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.] + + ++CENTRAL TOWERS.+ These are the most successful features of English +exterior design. Most of them form lanterns internally over the +crossing, giving to that point a considerable increase of dignity. +Externally they are usually massive and lofty square towers, and having +been for the most part completed during the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries they are marked by great richness and elegance of detail. +Durham, York, Ely, Canterbury, Lincoln, and Gloucester maybe mentioned +as notable examples of such square towers; that of Canterbury is the +finest. Two or three have lofty spires over the lantern. Among these, +that of Salisbury is chief, rising 424 feet from the ground, admirably +designed in every detail. It was not completed till the middle of the +fourteenth century, but most fortunately carries out with great felicity +the spirit of the earlier style in which it was begun. Lichfield and +Chichester have somewhat similar central spires, but less happy in +proportion and detail than the beautiful Salisbury example. + + [Illustration: FIG. 135.--ONE BAY OF CHOIR, LICHFIELD CATHEDRAL.] + + ++INTERIOR DESIGN.+ In the Norman churches the pier-arches, triforium, +and clearstory were practically equal. In the Gothic churches the +pier-arches generally occupy the lower half of the height, the upper +half being divided nearly equally between the triforium and clearstory, +as in Lincoln, Lichfield (nave), Ely (choir). In some cases, however (as +at Salisbury, Westminster, Winchester, choir of Lichfield), the +clearstory is magnified at the expense of the triforium (Fig. 135). +Three peculiarities of design sharply distinguish the English treatment +of these features from the French. The first is the multiplicity of fine +mouldings in the pier-arches; the second is the decorative elaboration +of design in the triforium; the third, the variety in the treatment of +the clearstory. In general the English interiors are much more ornate +than the French. Black Purbeck marble is frequently used for the shafts +clustered around the central core of the pier, giving a striking and +somewhat singular effect of contrasted color. The rich vaulting, the +highly decorated triforium, the moulded pier-arches, and at the end of +the vista the great east window, produce an impression very different +from the more simple and lofty stateliness of the French cathedrals. The +great length and lowness of the English interiors combine with this +decorative richness to give the impression of repose and grace, rather +than of majesty and power. This tendency reached its highest expression +in the Perpendicular churches and chapels, in which every surface was +covered with minute panelling. + + ++CARVING.+ In the Early English Period the details were carved with a +combined delicacy and vigor deserving of the highest praise. In the +capitals and corbels, crockets and finials, the foliage was crisp and +fine, curling into convex masses and seeming to spring from the surface +which it decorated. Mouldings were frequently ornamented with foliage of +this character in the hollows, and another ornament, the _dog-tooth_ or +_pyramid_, often served the same purpose, introducing repeated points of +light into the shadows of the mouldings. These were fine and complex, +deep hollows alternating with round mouldings (_bowtels_) sometimes made +pear-shaped in section by a fillet on one side. _Cusping_--the +decoration of an arch or circle by triangular projections on its inner +edge--was introduced during this period, and became an important +decorative resource, especially in tracery design. In the Decorated +Period the foliage was less crisp; sea-weed and oak-leaves, closely and +confusedly bunched, were used in the capitals, while crockets were +larger, double-curved, with leaves swelling into convexities like +oak-galls. Geometrical and flowing tracery were developed, and the +mouldings of the tracery-bars, as of other features, lost somewhat in +vigor and sharpness. The _ball-flower_ or button replaced the +dog’s-tooth, and the hollows were less frequently adorned with foliage. + +In the Perpendicular Period nearly all flat surfaces were panelled in +designs resembling the tracery of the windows. The capitals were less +important than those of the preceding periods, and the mouldings weaker +and less effective. The Tudor rose appears as an ornament in square +panels and on flat surfaces; and moulded battlements, which first +appeared in Decorated work, now become a frequent crowning motive in +place of a cornice. There is less originality and variety in the +ornament, but a great increase in its amount (Fig. 136). + + [Illustration: FIG. 136.--FAN-VAULTING, HENRY VII.’S CHAPEL, + WESTMINSTER ABBEY.] + + ++PLANS.+ English church plans underwent, during the Gothic Period, but +little change from the general types established previous to the +thirteenth century. The Gothic cathedrals and abbeys, like the Norman, +were very long and narrow, with choirs often nearly as long as the nave, +and almost invariably with square eastward terminations. There is no +example of double side aisles and side chapels, and apsidal chapels are +very rare. Canterbury and Westminster (Fig. 137) are the chief +exceptions to this, and both show clearly the French influence. Another +striking peculiarity of the English plans is the frequent occurrence of +secondary transepts, adding greatly to the external picturesqueness. +These occur in rudimentary form in Canterbury, and at Durham the Chapel +of the Nine Altars, added 1242-1290 to the eastern end, forms in reality +a secondary transept. This feature is most perfectly developed in the +cathedral of Salisbury (Fig. 128), and appears also at Lincoln, +Worcester, Wells, and a few other examples. The English cathedral plans +are also distinguished by the retention or incorporation of many +conventual features, such as cloisters, libraries, and halls, and by the +grouping of chapter-houses and Lady-chapels with the main edifice. Thus +the English cathedral plans and those of the great abbey churches +present a marked contrast with those of France and the Continent +generally. While Amiens, the greatest of French cathedrals, is 521 feet +long, and internally 140 feet high, Ely measures 565 feet in length, and +less than 75 feet in height. Notre Dame is 148 feet wide; the English +naves are usually under 80 feet in total width of the three aisles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 137.--EASTERN HALF OF WESTMINSTER ABBEY. PLAN. + a, _Henry VII.’s chapel._] + + ++PARISH CHURCHES.+ Many of these were of exceptional beauty of +composition and detail. They display the greatest variety of plan, +churches with two equal-gabled naves side by side being not uncommon. +A considerable proportion of them date from the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries, and are chiefly interesting for their square, single, west +towers and their carved wooden ceilings (see below). The tower was +usually built over the central western porch; broad and square, with +corner buttresses terminating in pinnacles, it was usually finished +without spires. Crenelated battlements crowned the upper story. When +spires were added the transition from the square tower to the octagonal +spire was effected by _broaches_ or portions of a square pyramid +intersecting the base of the spire, or by corner pinnacles and +flying-buttresses. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 138.--ROOF OF NAVE, ST. MARY’S, + WESTONZOYLAND.] + ++WOODEN CEILINGS.+ The English treated woodwork with consummate skill. +They invented and developed a variety of forms of roof-truss in which +the proper distribution of the strains was combined with a highly +decorative treatment of the several parts by carving, moulding, and +arcading. The ceiling surfaces between the trusses were handled +decoratively, and the oaken open-timber ceilings of many of the English +churches and civic or academic halls (Christ Church Hall, Oxford; +Westminster Hall, London) are such noble and beautiful works as quite to +justify the substitution of wooden for vaulted ceilings (Fig. 138). The +_hammer-beam_ truss was in its way as highly scientific, and +æsthetically as satisfactory, as any feature of French Gothic stone +construction. Without the use of tie-rods to keep the rafters from +spreading, it brought the strain of the roof upon internal brackets low +down on the wall, and produced a beautiful effect by the repetition of +its graceful curves in each truss. + + ++CHAPELS AND HALLS.+ Many of these rival the cathedrals in beauty and +dignity of design. The royal chapels at Windsor and Westminster have +already been mentioned, as well as King’s College Chapel at Cambridge, +and Christ Church Hall at Oxford. To these college halls should be added +the chapel of Merton College at Oxford, and the beautiful chapel of St. +Stephen at Westminster, most unfortunately demolished when the present +Parliament House was erected. The Lady-chapels of Gloucester and Ely, +though connected with the cathedrals, are really independent designs of +late date, and remarkable for the richness of their decoration, their +great windows, and elaborate ribbed vaulting. Some of the halls in +mediæval castles and manor-houses are also worthy of note, especially +for their timber ceilings. + + ++MINOR MONUMENTS.+ The student of Gothic architecture should also give +attention to the choir-screens, tombs, and chantries which embellish +many of the abbeys and cathedrals. The rood-screen at York is a notable +example of the first; the tomb of De Gray in the same cathedral, and +tombs and chantries in Canterbury, Winchester, Westminster Abbey, Ely, +St. Alban’s Abbey, and other churches are deservedly admired. In these +the English love for ornament, for minute carving, and for the contrast +of white and colored marble, found unrestrained expression. To these +should be added the market-crosses of Salisbury and Winchester, and +Queen Eleanor’s Cross at Waltham. + + ++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ The mediæval castles of Great Britain belong to +the domain of military engineering rather than of the history of art, +though occasionally presenting to view details of considerable +architectural beauty. The growth of peace and civic order is marked by +the erection of manor-houses, the residences of wealthy landowners. Some +of these houses are of imposing size, and show the application to +domestic requirements, of the late Gothic style which prevailed in the +period to which most of them belong. The windows are square or +Tudor-arched, with stone mullions and transoms of the Perpendicular +style, and the walls terminate in merlons or crenelated parapets, +recalling the earlier military structures. The palace of the bishop or +archbishop, adjoining the cathedral, and the residences of the dean, +canons, and clergy, together with the libraries, schools, and gates of +the cathedral enclosure, illustrate other phases of secular Gothic work. +Few of these structures are of striking architectural merit, but they +possess a picturesque charm which is very attractive. + +Not many stone houses of the smaller class remain from the Gothic period +in England. But there is hardly an old town that does not retain many of +the half-timbered dwellings of the fifteenth or even fourteenth century, +some of them in excellent preservation. They are for the most part wider +and lower than the French houses of the same class, but are built on the +same principle, and, like them, the woodwork is more or less richly +carved. + + + +MONUMENTS+: (A. = abbey church; C. = cathedral; r. = ruined; + trans. = transept; each monument is given under the date of the + earliest extant Gothic work upon it, with additions of later + periods in parentheses.) + + EARLY ENGLISH: Kirkstall A., 1152-82, first pointed arches; + Canterbury C., choir, 1175-84 (nave, 1378-1411; central tower, + 1500); Lincoln C., choir, trans., 1192-1200 (vault, 1250; nave and + E. end, 1260-80); Lichfield C., 1200-50 (W. front, 1275; + presbytery, 1325); Worcester C., choir, 1203-18, nave partly + Norman (W. end, 1375-95); Chichester C., 1204-44 (spire rebuilt + 17th century); Fountains A., 1205-46; Salisbury C., 1220-58 + (cloister, chapter-h., 1263-84; spire, 1331); Elgin C., 1224-44; + Wells C., 1175-1206 (W. front 1225, choir later, chapter-h., + 1292); Rochester C., 1225-39 (nave Norman); York C., S. trans., + 1225; N. trans., 1260 (nave, chapter-h., 1291-1345; W. window, + 1338; central tower, 1389-1407; E. window, 1407); Southwell + Minster, 1233-94 (nave Norman); Ripon C., 1233-94 (central tower, + 1459); Ely C., choir, 1229-54 (nave Norman; octagon and + presbytery, 1323-62); Peterborough C., W. front, 1237 (nave + Norman; retro-choir, late 14th century); Netley A., 1239 (r.); + Durham C., “Nine Altars” and E. end choir, 1235-90 (nave, choir, + Norman; W. window, 1341; central tower finished, 1480); + Glasgow C., (with remarkable Early English crypt), 1242-77; + Gloucester C., nave vaulted, 1239-42 (nave mainly Norman; choir, + 1337-51; cloisters, 1375-1412; W. end, 1420-37; central tower, + 1450-57); Westminster A., 1245-69; St. Mary’s A., York, 1272-92 + (r.). + + DECORATED: Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Hereford C., + N. trans., chapter-h., cloisters, vaulting, 1275-92 (nave, choir, + Norman); Exeter C., choir, trans., 1279-91; nave, 1331-50 (E. end + remodelled, 1390); Lichfield C., Lady-chapel, 1310; Ely C., + Lady-chapel, 1321-49; Melrose A., 1327-99 (nave, 1500; r.); St. + Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 1349-64 (demolished); Edington + church, 1352-61; Carlisle C., E. end and upper parts, 1352-95 + (nave in part and S. trans. Norman; tower finished, 1419); + Winchester C., W. end remodelled, 1360-66 (nave and aisles, + 1394-1410; trans., partly Norman); York C., Lady-chapel, 1362-72; + churches of Patrington and Hull, late 14th century. + + PERPENDICULAR: Holy Cross Church, Canterbury, 1380; St. Mary’s, + Warwick, 1381-91; Manchester C., 1422; St. Mary’s, Bury St. + Edmunds, 1424-33; Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick, 1439; King’s College + Chapel, Cambridge, 1440; vaults, 1508-15; St. Mary’s Redcliffe, + Bristol, 1442; Roslyn Chapel, Edinburgh, 1446-90; Gloucester C., + Lady-chapel, 1457-98; St. Mary’s, Stratford-on-Avon, 1465-91; + Norwich C., upper part and E. end of choir, 1472-99 (the rest + mainly Norman); St. George’s Chapel, Windsor, 1481-1508; choir + vaulted, 1507-20; Bath A., 1500-39; Chapel of Henry VII., + Westminster, 1503-20. + + ACADEMIC AND SECULAR BUILDINGS: Winchester Castle Hall, 1222-35; + Merton College Chapel, Oxford, 1274-1300; Library Merton College, + 1354-78; Norborough Hall, 1356; Windsor Castle, upper ward, + 1359-73; Winchester College, 1387-93; Wardour Castle, 1392; + Westminster Hall, rebuilt, 1397-99; St. Mary’s Hall, Coventry, + 1401-14; Warkworth Castle, 1440; St. John’s College, All Soul’s + College, Oxford, 1437; Eton College, 1441-1522; Divinity Schools, + Oxford, 1445-54; Magdalen College, Oxford, 1475-80, tower, 1500; + Christ Church Hall, Oxford, 1529. + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SPAIN. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Adler, + _Mittelalterliche Backstein-Bauwerke des preussischen Staates_. + Essenwein (_Hdbuch. d. Arch._), _Die romanische und die gothische + Baukunst; der Wohnbau_. Hasak, _Die romanische und die gothische + Baukunst; Kirchenbau_; _Einzelheiten des Kirchenbaues_ (both in + _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Hase and others, _Die mittelalterlichen + Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens_. Kallenbach, _Chronologie der + deutschen mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. Lübke, _Ecclesiastical Art + in Germany during the Middle Ages_. Redtenbacher, _Leitfaden zum + Studium der mittelalterlichen Baukunst_. Street, _Gothic + Architecture in Spain_. Uhde, _Baudenkmäler in Spanien_. + Ungewitter, _Lehrbuch der gothischen Constructionen_. Villa Amil, + _Hispania Artistica y Monumental_. + + ++EARLY GOTHIC WORKS.+ The Gothic architecture of Germany is less +interesting to the general student than that of France and England, not +only because its development was less systematic and more provincial, +but also because it produced fewer works of high intrinsic merit. The +introduction into Germany of the pointed style was tardy, and its +progress slow. Romanesque architecture had created imposing types of +ecclesiastical architecture, which the conservative Teutons were slow to +abandon. The result was a half-century of transition and a mingling of +Romanesque and Gothic forms. St. Castor, at Coblentz, built as late as +1208, is wholly Romanesque. Even when the pointed arch and vault had +finally come into general use, the plan and the constructive system +still remained predominantly Romanesque. The western apse and short +sanctuary of the earlier plans were retained. There was no triforium, +the clearstory was insignificant, and the whole aspect low and massive. +The Germans avoided, at first, as did the English, the constructive +audacities and difficulties of the French Gothic, but showed less of +invention and grace than their English neighbors. When, however, through +the influence of foreign models, especially of the great French +cathedrals, and through the employment of foreign architects, the Gothic +styles were at last thoroughly domesticated, a spirit of ostentation +took the place of the earlier conservatism. Technical cleverness, +exaggerated ingenuity of detail, and constructive _tours de force_ +characterize most of the German Gothic work of the late fourteenth and +of the fifteenth century. This is exemplified in the slender mullions of +Ulm, the lofty and complicated spire of Strasburg, and the curious +traceries of churches and houses in Nuremberg. + + ++PERIODS.+ The periods of German mediæval architecture corresponded in +sequence, though not in date, with the movement elsewhere. The maturing +of the true Gothic styles was preceded by more than a half-century of +transition. Chronologically the periods may be broadly stated as +follows: + +THE TRANSITIONAL, 1170-1225. + +THE EARLY POINTED, 1225-1275. + +THE MIDDLE OR DECORATED, 1275-1350. + +THE FLORID, 1350-1530. + +These divisions are, however, far less clearly defined than in France +and England. The development of forms was less logical and +consequential, and less uniform in the different provinces, than in +those western lands. + + ++CONSTRUCTION.+ As already remarked, a tenacious hold of Romanesque +methods is observable in many German Gothic monuments. Broad +wall-surfaces with small windows and a general massiveness and lowness +of proportions were long preferred to the more slender and lofty +forms of true Gothic design. Square vaulting-bays were persistently +adhered to, covering two aisle-bays. The six-part system was only +rarely resorted to, as at Schlettstadt, and in St. George at +Limburg-on-the-Lahn (Fig. 139). The ribbed vault was an imported idea, +and was never systematically developed. Under the final dominance of +French models in the second half of the thirteenth century, vaulting in +oblong bays became more general, powerfully influenced by buildings like +Freiburg, Cologne, Oppenheim, and Ratisbon cathedrals. In the fourteenth +century the growing taste for elaboration and rich detail led to the +introduction of multiplied decorative ribs. These, however, did not come +into use, as in England, through a logical development of constructive +methods, but purely as decorative features. The German multiple-ribbed +vaulting is, therefore, less satisfying than the English, though often +elegant. Conspicuous examples of its application are found in the +cathedrals of Freiburg, Ulm, Prague, and Vienna; in St. Barbara at +Kuttenberg, and many other important churches. But with all the richness +and complexity of these net-like vaults the Germans developed nothing +like the fan-vaulting or chapter-house ceilings of England. + + [Illustration: FIG. 139.--ONE BAY OF CATHEDRAL OF ST. GEORGE, + LIMBURG.] + + ++SIDE AISLES.+ The most notable structural innovation of the Germans was +the raising of the side aisles to the same height as the central aisle +in a number of important churches. They thus created a distinctly new +type, to which German writers have given the name of _hall-church_. The +result of this innovation was to transform completely the internal +perspective of the church, as well as its structural membering. The +clearstory disappeared; the central aisle no longer dominated the +interior; the pier-arches and side-walls were greatly increased in +height, and flying buttresses were no longer required. The whole design +appeared internally more spacious, but lost greatly in variety and in +interest. The cathedral of +St. Stephen+ at Vienna is the most imposing +instance of this treatment, which first appeared in the church of St. +Elizabeth at Marburg (1235-83; Fig. 140). St. Barbara at Kuttenberg, St. +Martin’s at Landshut (1404), and the cathedral of Munich are others +among many examples of this type. + + [Illustration: FIG. 140.--SECTION OF ST. ELIZABETH, MARBURG.] + + ++TOWERS AND SPIRES.+ The same fondness for spires which had been +displayed in the Rhenish Romanesque churches produced in the Gothic +period a number of strikingly beautiful church steeples, in which +openwork tracery was substituted for the solid stone pyramids of earlier +examples. The most remarkable of these spires are those of Freiburg +(1300), Strasburg, and Cologne cathedrals, of the church at Esslingen, +St. Martin’s at Landshut, and the cathedral of Vienna. In these the +transition from the simple square tower below to the octagonal belfry +and spire is generally managed with skill. In the remarkable tower of +the cathedral at Vienna (1433) the transition is too gradual, so that +the spire seems to start from the ground and lacks the vigor and accent +of a simpler square lower portion. The over-elaborate spire of ++Strasburg+ (1429, by Junckher of Cologne; lower parts and façade, +1277-1365, by _Erwin von Steinbach_ and his sons) reaches a height of +468 feet; the spires of Cologne, completed in 1883 from the original +fourteenth-century drawings, long lost but recovered by a happy +accident, are 500 feet high. The spires of +Ratisbon+ and +Ulm+ +cathedrals have also been recently completed in the original style. + + ++DETAILS.+ German window tracery was best where it most closely followed +French patterns, but it tended always towards the faults of mechanical +stiffness and of technical display in over-slenderness of shafts and +mullions. The windows, especially in the “hall-churches,” were apt to be +too narrow for their height. In the fifteenth century ingenuity of +geometrical combinations took the place of grace of line, and later the +tracery was often tortured into a stone caricature of rustic-work of +interlaced and twisted boughs and twigs, represented with all their bark +and knots (_branch-tracery_). The execution was far superior to the +design. The carving of foliage in capitals, finials, etc., calls for no +special mention for its originality or its departure from French types. + + ++PLANS.+ In these there was more variety than in any other part of +Europe except Italy. Some churches, like Naumburg, retained the +Romanesque system of a second western apse and short choir. The +Cistercian churches generally had square east ends, while the polygonal +eastern apse without ambulatory is seen in St. Elizabeth at Marburg, the +cathedrals of Ratisbon, Ulm and Vienna, and many other churches. The +introduction of French ideas in the thirteenth century led to the +adoption in a number of cases of the chevet with a single ambulatory and +a series of radiating apsidal chapels. +Magdeburg+ cathedral (1208-11) +was the first erected on this plan, which was later followed at +Altenburg, Cologne, Freiburg, Lübeck, Prague and Zwettl, in St. Francis +at Salzburg and some other churches. Side chapels to nave or choir +appear in the cathedrals of Lübeck, Munich, Oppenheim, Prague and +Zwettl. +Cologne+ +Cathedral+, by far the largest and most magnificent +of all, is completely French in plan, uniting in one design the leading +characteristics of the most notable French churches (Fig. 141). It has +complete double aisles in both nave and choir, three-aisled transepts, +radial chevet-chapels and twin western towers. The ambulatory is, +however, single, and there are no lateral chapels. A typical German +treatment was the eastward termination of the church by polygonal +chapels, one in the axis of each aisle, the central one projecting +beyond its neighbors. Where there were five aisles, as at Xanten, the +effect was particularly fine. The plan of the curious polygonal church +of +Our Lady+ (Liebfrauenkirche; 1227-43) built on the site of the +ancient circular baptistery at Treves, would seem to have been produced +by doubling such an arrangement on either side of the transverse axis +(Fig. 142). + + [Illustration: FIG. 141.--COLOGNE CATHEDRAL. PLAN.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 142.--CHURCH OF OUR LADY, TREVES.] + ++HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT.+ The so-called +Golden Portal+ of +Freiburg+ in +the Erzgebirge is perhaps the first distinctively Gothic work in +Germany, dating from 1190. From that time on, Gothic details appeared +with increasing frequency, especially in the Rhine provinces, as shown +in many transitional structures. +Gelnhausen+ and Aschaffenburg are +early 13th-century examples; pointed arches and vaults appear in the +Apostles’ and St. Martin’s churches at Cologne; and the great church of ++St. Peter and St. Paul+ at Neuweiler in Alsace has an almost purely +Gothic nave of the same period. The churches of +Bamberg+, +Fritzlar+, +and +Naumburg+, and in Westphalia those of +Münster+ and +Osnabrück+, +are important examples of the transition. The French influence, +especially the Burgundian, appears as early as 1212 in the cathedral of +Magdeburg, imitating the choir of Soissons, and in the structural design +of the Liebfrauenkirche at Treves as already mentioned; it reached +complete ascendancy in Alsace at +Strasburg+ (nave 1240-75), in Baden at ++Freiburg+ (nave 1270) and in Prussia at +Cologne+ (1248-1320). +Strasburg Cathedral is especially remarkable for its façade, the work of +Erwin von Steinbach and his sons (1277-1346), designed after French +models, and its north spire, built in the fifteenth century. Cologne +Cathedral, begun in 1248 by _Gerhard of Riel_ in imitation of the newly +completed choir of Amiens, was continued by Master _Arnold_ and his son +_John_, and the choir was consecrated in 1322. The nave and W. front +were built during the first half of the 14th century, though the towers +were not completed till 1883. In spite of its vast size and slow +construction, it is in style the most uniform of all great Gothic +cathedrals, as it is the most lofty (excepting the choir of Beauvais) +and the largest excepting Milan and Seville. Unfortunately its details, +though pure and correct, are singularly dry and mechanical, while its +very uniformity deprives it of the picturesque and varied charm which +results from a mixture of styles recording the labors of successive +generations. The same criticism may be raised against the late cathedral +of +Ulm+ (choir, 1377-1449; nave, 1477; Fig. 143). The Cologne influence +is observable in the widely separated cathedrals of Utrecht in the +Netherlands, Metz in the W., Minden and +Halberstadt+ (begun 1250; +mainly built after 1327) in Saxony, and in the S. in the church of +St. +Catherine+ at Oppenheim. To the E. and S., in the cathedrals of +Prague+ +(Bohemia) by _Matthew of Arras_ (1344-52) and +Ratisbon+ (or Regensburg, +1275) the French influence predominates, at least in the details and +construction. The last-named is one of the most dignified and beautiful +of German Gothic churches--German in plan, French in execution. The +French influence also manifests itself in the details of many of the +peculiarly German churches with aisles of equal height (see p. 240). + + [Illustration: FIG. 143.--PLAN OF ULM CATHEDRAL.] + +More peculiarly German are the brick churches of North Germany, where +stone was almost wholly lacking. In these, flat walls, square towers, +and decoration by colored tiles and bricks are characteristic, as at +Brandenburg (St. Godehard and +St. Catherine+, 1346-1400), at ++Prentzlau+, Tängermünde, Königsberg, &c. Lübeck possesses notable +monuments of brick architecture in the churches of +St. Mary+ and St. +Catherine, both much alike in plan and in the flat and barren simplicity +of their exteriors. +St. Martin’s+ at +Landshut+ in the South is also a +notable brick church. + + ++LATE GOTHIC.+ As in France and England, the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries were mainly occupied with the completion of existing churches, +many of which, up to that time, were still without naves. The works of +this period show the exaggerated attenuation of detail already alluded +to, though their richness and elegance sometimes atone for their +mechanical character. The complicated ribbed vaults of this period are +among its most striking features (see p. 239). Spire-building was as +general as was the erection of central square towers in England, during +the same period. To this time also belong the overloaded traceries and +minute detail of the +St. Sebald+ and St. Lorenz churches and of several +secular buildings at Nuremberg, the façade of Chemnitz Cathedral, and +similar works. The nave and tower of St. Stephen at Vienna (1359-1433), +the church of Sta. Maria in Gestade in the same city, and the cathedral +of Kaschau in Hungary, are Austrian masterpieces of late Gothic design. + + ++SECULAR BUILDINGS.+ Germany possesses a number of important examples of +secular Gothic work, chiefly municipal buildings (gates and town halls) +and castles. The first completely Gothic castle or palace was not built +until 1280, at +Marienburg+ (Prussia), and was completed a century +later. It consists of two courts, the earlier of the two forming a +closed square and containing the chapel and chapter-house of the Order +of the German knights. The later and larger court is less regular, its +chief feature being the +Great Hall+ of the Order, in two aisles. All +the vaulting is of the richest multiple-ribbed type. Other castles are +at Marienwerder, Heilsberg (1350) in E. Prussia, Karlstein in Bohemia +(1347), and the +Albrechtsburg+ at Meissen in Saxony (1471-83). + +Among town halls, most of which date from the fourteenth and fifteenth +centuries may be mentioned those of Ratisbon (Regensburg), Münster and +Hildesheim, Halberstadt, +Brunswick+, Lübeck, and Bremen--the last two +of brick. These, and the city gates, such as the +Spahlenthor+ at Basle +(Switzerland) and others at Lübeck and Wismar, are generally very +picturesque edifices. Many fine guildhalls were also built during the +last two centuries of the Gothic style; and dwelling-houses of the same +period, of quaint and effective design, with stepped or traceried +gables, lofty roofs, openwork balconies and corner turrets, are to be +found in many cities. Nuremberg is especially rich in these. + + ++THE NETHERLANDS+, as might be expected from their position, underwent +the influences of both France and Germany. During the thirteenth +century, largely through the intimate monastic relations between Tournay +and Noyon, the French influence became paramount in what is now Belgium, +while Holland remained more strongly German in style. Of the two +countries Belgium developed by far the most interesting architecture. +Some of its cathedrals, notably those of Tournay, Antwerp, Brussels, +Malines (Mechlin), Mons and Louvain, rank high among structures of their +class, both in scale and in artistic treatment. The Flemish town halls +and guildhalls merit particular attention for their size and richness, +exemplifying in a worthy manner the wealth, prosperity, and independence +of the weavers and merchants of Antwerp, Ypres, Ghent (Gand), Louvain, +and other cities in the fifteenth century. + + ++CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.+ The earliest purely Gothic edifice in Belgium +was the choir of +Ste. Gudule+ (1225) at Brussels, followed in 1242 by +the choir and transepts of +Tournay+, designed with pointed vaults, side +chapels, and a complete _chevet_. The transept-ends are round, as at +Noyon. It was surpassed in splendor by the +Cathedral+ of +Antwerp+ +(1352-1422), remarkable for its seven-aisled nave and narrow transepts. +It covers some 70,000 square feet, but its great size is not as +effective internally as it should be, owing to the poverty of the +details and the lack of finely felt proportion in the various parts. The +late west front (1422-1518) displays the florid taste of the wealthy +Flemish burgher population of that period, but is so rich and elegant, +especially its lofty and slender north spire, that its over-decoration +is pardonable. The cathedral of +St. Rombaut+ at Malines (choir, 1366; +nave, 1454-64) is a more satisfactory church, though smaller and with +its western towers incomplete. The cathedral of +Louvain+ belongs to the +same period (1373-1433). +St. Wandru+ at Mons (1450-1528) and +St. +Jacques+ at Liège (1522-58) are interesting parish churches of the first +rank, remarkable especially for the use of color in their internal +decoration, for their late tracery and ribbed vaulting, and for the +absence of Renaissance details at that late period. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 144.--TOWN HALL, LOUVAIN.] + ++TOWN HALLS: GUILDHALLS.+ These were really the most characteristic +Flemish edifices, and are in most cases the most conspicuous monuments +of their respective cities. The +Cloth Hall+ of +Ypres+ (1304) is the +earliest and most imposing among them; similar halls were built not much +later at +Bruges+, +Louvain+, +Malines+ and +Ghent+. The town halls were +mostly of later date, the earliest being that of +Bruges+ (1377). The +town halls of +Brussels+ with its imposing and graceful tower, of ++Louvain+ (1448-63; Fig. 144) and of +Oudenärde+ (early 16th century) +are conspicuous monuments of this class. + +In general, the Gothic architecture of Belgium presents the traits of a +borrowed style, which did not undergo at the hands of its borrowers any +radically novel or fundamental development. The structural design is +usually lacking in vigor and organic significance, but the details are +often graceful and well designed, especially on the exterior. The +tendency was often towards over-elaboration, particularly in the later +works. + +The Gothic architecture of +Holland+ and of the +Scandinavian+ countries +offers so little that is highly artistic or inspiring in character, that +space cannot well be given in this work, even to an enumeration of its +chief monuments. + + ++SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.+ The beginnings of Gothic architecture in Spain +followed close on the series of campaigns from 1217 to 1252, which began +the overthrow of the Moorish dominion. With the resulting spirit of +exultation and the wealth accruing from booty, came a rapid development +of architecture, mainly under French influence. Gothic architecture was +at this date, under St. Louis, producing in France some of its noblest +works. The great cathedrals of +Toledo+ and +Burgos+, begun between 1220 +and 1230, were the earliest purely Gothic churches in Spain. +San +Vincente+ at Avila and the +Old Cathedral+ at Salamanca, of somewhat +earlier date, present a mixture of round- and pointed-arched forms, with +the Romanesque elements predominant. +Toledo Cathedral+, planned in +imitation of Notre Dame and Bourges, but exceeding them in width, covers +75,000 square feet, and thus ranks among the largest of European +cathedrals. Internally it is well proportioned and well detailed, +recalling the early French masterworks, but its exterior is less +commendable. + + [Illustration: FIG. 145.--FAÇADE OF BURGOS CATHEDRAL.] + +In the contemporary cathedral of Burgos the exterior is at least as +interesting as the interior. The west front, of German design, suggests +Cologne by its twin openwork spires (Fig. 145); while the crossing is +embellished with a sumptuous dome and lantern or _cimborio_, added as +late as 1567. The chapels at the east end, especially that of the +Condestabile (1487), are ornate to the point of overloading, a fault to +which late Spanish Gothic work is peculiarly prone. Other +thirteenth-century cathedrals are those of +Leon+ (1260), +Valencia+ +(1262), and +Barcelona+ (1298), all exhibiting strongly the French +influence in the plan, vaulting, and vertical proportions. The models of +Bourges and Paris with their wide naves, lateral chapels and +semicircular chevets were followed in the cathedral of Barcelona, in a +number of fourteenth-century churches both there and elsewhere, and in +the sixteenth-century cathedral of Segovia. In Sta. Maria del Pi at +Barcelona, in the collegiate church at Manresa, and in the imposing nave +of the +Cathedral+ of +Gerona+ (1416, added to choir of 1312, the latter +by a Southern French architect, Henri de Narbonne), the influence of +Alby in southern France (see p. 206) is discernible. These are +one-aisled churches with internal buttresses separating the lateral +chapels. The nave of Gerona is 73 feet wide, or double the average clear +width of French or English cathedral naves. The resulting effect is not +commensurate with the actual dimensions, and shows the inappropriateness +of Gothic details for compositions so Roman in breadth and simplicity. + + ++SEVILLE.+ The largest single edifice in Spain, and the largest church +built during the Middle Ages in Europe, is the +Cathedral of Seville+, +begun in 1401 on the site of a Moorish mosque. It covers 124,000 square +feet, measuring 415 × 298 feet, and is a simple rectangle comprising +five aisles with lateral chapels. The central aisle is 56 ft. wide and +145 high; the side aisles and chapels diminish gradually in height, and +with the uniform piers in six rows produce an imposing effect, in spite +of the lack of transepts or chevet. The somewhat similar +New Cathedral+ +of Salamanca (1510-1560) shows the last struggles of the Gothic style +against the incoming tide of the Renaissance. + + ++LATER MONUMENTS.+ These all partake of the over-decoration which +characterized the fifteenth century throughout Europe. In Spain this +decoration was even less constructive in character, and more purely +fanciful and arbitrary, than in the northern lands; but this very +rejection of all constructive pretense gives it a peculiar charm and +goes far to excuse its extravagance (Fig. 146). Decorative vaulting-ribs +were made to describe geometric patterns of great elegance. Some of the +late Gothic vaults by the very exuberance of imagination shown in their +designs, almost disarm criticism. Instead of suppressing the walls as +far as possible, and emphasizing all the vertical lines, as was done in +France and England, the later Gothic architects of Spain delighted in +broad wall-surfaces and multiplied horizontal lines. Upon these surfaces +they lavished carving without restraint and without any organic relation +to the structure of the building. The arcades of cloisters and interior +courts (_patios_) were formed with arches of fantastic curves resting on +twisted columns; and internal chapels in the cathedrals were covered +with minute carving of exquisite workmanship, but wholly irrational +design. Probably the influence of Moorish decorative art accounts in +part for these extravagances. The eastern chapels in Burgos cathedral, +the votive church of +San Juan de los Reyes+ at Toledo and many portals +of churches, convents and hospitals illustrate these tendencies. + + [Illustration: FIG. 146.--DETAIL, PORTAL S. GREGORIO, VALLADOLID.] + + ++PORTUGAL+ is an almost unknown land architecturally. It seems to have +adopted the Gothic styles very late in its history. Two monuments, +however, are conspicuous, the convent churches of Batalha (1390-1520) +and +Belem+, both marked by an extreme overloading of carved ornament. +The +Mausoleum of King Manoel+ in the rear of the church at Batalha is, +however, a noble creation, possibly by an English master. It is a +polygonal domed edifice, some 67 feet in diameter, and well designed, +though covered with a too profuse and somewhat mechanical decoration of +panels, pinnacles, and carving. + + + +MONUMENTS+: GERMANY (C = cathedral; A = abbey; tr. = + transepts).--13th century: Transitional churches: Bamberg C.; + Naumburg C.; Collegiate Church, Fritzlar; St. George, + Limburg-on-Lahn; St. Castor, Coblentz; Heisterbach A.;--all in + early years of 13th century. St. Gereon, Cologne, choir 1212-27; + Liebfrauenkirche, Treves, 1227-44; St. Elizabeth, Marburg, + 1235-83; Sts. Peter and Paul, Neuweiler, 1250; Cologne C., choir + 1248-1322 (nave 14th century; towers finished 1883); Strasburg C., + 1250-75 (E. end Romanesque; façade 1277-1365; tower 1429-39); + Halberstadt C., nave 1250 (choir 1327; completed 1490); + Altenburg C., choir 1255-65 (finished 1379); Wimpfen-im-Thal + church 1259-78; St. Lawrence, Nuremberg, 1260 (choir 1439-77); St. + Catherine, Oppenheim, 1262-1317 (choir 1439); Xanten, Collegiate + Church, 1263; Freiburg C., 1270 (W. tower 1300; choir 1354); + Toul C., 1272; Meissen C., choir 1274 (nave 1312-42); Ratisbon C., + 1275; St. Mary’s, Lübeck, 1276; Dominican churches at Coblentz, + Gebweiler; and in Switzerland at Basle, Berne, and Zurich.--14th + century: Wiesenkirche, Söst, 1313; Osnabrück C., 1318 (choir + 1420); St. Mary’s, Prentzlau, 1325; Augsburg C., 1321-1431; + Metz C., 1330 rebuilt (choir 1486); St. Stephen’s C., Vienna, 1340 + (nave 15th century; tower 1433); Zwette C., 1343; Prague C., 1344; + church at Thann, 1351 (tower finished 16th century); + Liebfrauenkirche, Nuremberg, 1355-61; St. Sebaldus Church, + Nuremberg, 1361-77 (nave Romanesque); Minden C., choir 1361; + Ulm C., 1377 (choir 1449; nave vaulted 1471; finished 16th + century); Sta. Barbara, Kuttenberg, 1386 (nave 1483); Erfurt C.; + St. Elizabeth, Kaschau; Schlettstadt C.--15th century: St. + Catherine’s, Brandenburg, 1401; Frauenkirche, Esslingen, 1406 + (finished 1522); Minster at Berne, 1421; Peter-Paulskirche, + Görlitz, 1423-97; St. Mary’s, Stendal, 1447; Frauenkirche, Munich, + 1468-88; St. Martin’s, Landshut, 1473. + + SECULAR MONUMENTS. Schloss Marienburg, 1341; Moldau-bridge and + tower, Prague, 1344; Karlsteinburg, 1348-57; Albrechtsburg, + Meissen, 1471-83; Nassau House, Nuremberg, 1350; Council houses + (Rathhaüser) at Brunswick, 1393; Cologne, 1407-15; Basle; Breslau; + Lübeck; Münster; Prague; Ulm; City Gates of Basle, Cologne, + Ingolstadt, Lucerne. + + THE NETHERLANDS. Brussels C. (Ste. Gudule), 1226-80; Tournai C., + choir 1242 (nave finished 1380); Notre Dame, Bruges, 1239-97; + Notre Dame, Tongres, 1240; Utrecht C., 1251; St. Martin, Ypres, + 1254; Notre Dame, Dinant, 1255; church at Dordrecht; church at + Aerschot, 1337; Antwerp C., 1352-1411 (W. front 1422-1518); St. + Rombaut, Malines, 1355-66 (nave 1456-64); St. Wandru, Mons, + 1450-1528; St. Lawrence, Rotterdam, 1472; other 15th century + churches--St. Bavon, Haarlem; St. Catherine, Utrecht; St. + Walpurgis, Sutphen; St. Bavon, Ghent (tower 1461); St. Jaques, + Antwerp; St. Pierre, Louvain; St. Jacques, Bruges; churches at + Arnheim, Breda, Delft; St. Jacques, Liège, 1522.--SECULAR: + Cloth-hall, Ypres, 1200-1304; cloth-hall, Bruges, 1284; town hall, + Bruges, 1377; town hall, Brussels, 1401-55; town hall, Louvain, + 1448-63; town hall, Ghent, 1481; town hall, Oudenarde, 1527; + Standehuis, Delft, 1528; cloth-halls at Louvain, Ghent, Malines. + + SPAIN.--13th century: Burgos C., 1221 (façade 1442-56; chapels + 1487; cimborio 1567); Toledo C., 1227-90 (chapels 14th and 15th + centuries); Tarragona C., 1235; Leon C., 1250 (façade 14th + century); Valencia C., 1262 (N. transept 1350-1404; façade + 1381-1418); Avila C., vault and N. portal 1292-1353 (finished 14th + century); St. Esteban, Burgos; church at Las Huelgas.--14th + century: Barcelona C., choir 1298-1329 (nave and transepts 1448; + façade 16th century); Gerona C., 1312-46 (nave added 1416); S. M. + del Mar, Barcelona, 1328-83; S. M. del Pino, Barcelona, same date; + Collegiate Church, Manresa, 1328; Oviedo C., 1388 (tower very + late); Pampluna C., 1397 (mainly 15th century).--15th century: + Seville C., 1403 (finished 16th century; cimborio 1517-67); La + Seo, Saragossa (finished 1505); S. Pablo, Burgos, 1415-35; El + Parral, Segovia, 1459; Astorga C., 1471; San Juan de los Reyes, + Toledo, 1476; Carthusian church, Miraflores, 1488; San Juan, and + La Merced, Burgos.--16th century: Huesca C., 1515; Salamanca New + Cathedral, 1510-60; Segovia C., 1522; S. Juan de la Puerta, + Zamorra. + + SECULAR.--Porta Serraños, Valencia, 1349; Casa Consistorial, + Barcelona, 1369-78; Casa de la Disputacion, same city; Casa de las + Lonjas, Valencia, 1482. + + PORTUGAL. At Batalha, church and mausoleum of King Manoel, + finished 1515; at Belem, monastery, late Gothic. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED; As before, Corroyer, Reber. Also, Cummings, + _A History of Architecture in Italy_. De Fleury, _La Toscane au + moyen âge_. Gruner, _The Terra Cotta Architecture of Northern + Italy_. Mothes, _Die Baukunst des Mittelalters in Italien_. + Norton, _Historical Studies of Church Building in the Middle + Ages_. Osten, _Bauwerke der Lombardei_. Street, _Brick and Marble + Architecture of Italy_. Willis, _Remarks on the Architecture of + the Middle Ages, especially of Italy_. + + ++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ The various Romanesque styles which had grown up in +Italy before 1200 lacked that unity of principle out of which alone a +new and homogeneous national style could have been evolved. Each +province practised its own style and methods of building, long after the +Romanesque had given place to the Gothic in Western Europe. The Italians +were better decorators than builders, and cared little for Gothic +structural principles. Mosaic and carving, sumptuous altars and tombs, +veneerings and inlays of colored marble, broad flat surfaces to be +covered with painting and ornament--to secure these they were content to +build crudely, to tie their insufficiently buttressed vaults with +unsightly iron tie-rods, and to make their church façades mere +screen-walls, in form wholly unrelated to the buildings behind them. + +When, therefore, under foreign influences pointed arches, tracery, +clustered shafts, crockets and finials came into use, it was merely as +an imported fashion. Even when foreign architects (usually Germans) were +employed, the composition, and in large measure the details, were still +Italian and provincial. The church of St. Francis at Assisi (1228-53, by +_Jacobus of Meruan_, a German, superseded later by an Italian, +Campello), and the cathedral of Milan (begun 1389, perhaps by _Henry of +Gmund_), are conspicuous illustrations of this. Rome built basilicas all +through the Middle Ages. Tuscany continued to prefer flat walls veneered +with marble to the broken surfaces and deep buttresses of France and +Germany. Venice developed a Gothic style of façade-design wholly her own +(see p. 267). Nowhere but in Italy could two such utterly diverse +structures as the Certosa at Pavia and the cathedral at Milan have been +erected at the same time. + + ++CLIMATE AND TRADITION.+ Two further causes militated against the +domestication of Gothic art in Italy. The first was the brilliant +atmosphere, which made the vast traceried windows of Gothic design, and +its suppression of the wall-surfaces, wholly undesirable. Cool, dim +interiors, thick walls, small windows and the exclusion of sunlight, all +necessary to Italian comfort, were incompatible with Gothic ideals and +methods. The second obstacle was the persistence of classic traditions +of form, both in construction and decoration. The spaciousness and +breadth of interior planning which characterized Roman design, and its +amplitude of scale in every feature, seem never to have lost their hold +on the Italians. The narrow lofty aisles, multiplied supports and minute +detail of the Gothic style were repugnant to the classic predilections +of the Italian builders. The Roman acanthus and Corinthian capital were +constantly imitated in their Gothic buildings, and the round arch +continued all through the Middle Ages to be used in conjunction with the +pointed arch (Figs. 149, 150). + + ++EARLY BUILDINGS.+ It is hard to determine how and by whom Gothic forms +were first introduced into Italy, but it was most probably through the +agency of the monastic orders. Cistercian churches like that at +Chiaravalle near Milan (1208-21), and most of those erected by the +mendicant orders of the Franciscans (founded 1210) and Dominicans +(1216), were built with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. The example +set by these orders contributed greatly to the general adoption of the +foreign style. +S. Francesco+ at +Assisi+, already mentioned, was the +first completely Gothic Franciscan church, although +S. Francesco+ at ++Bologna+, begun a few years later, was finished a little earlier. The +Dominican church of +SS. Giovanni e Paolo+ and the great Franciscan +church of +Sta. Maria Gloriosa dei Frari+, both at Venice, were built a +little later. +Sta. Maria Novella+ at Florence (1278), and +Sta. Maria +sopra Minerva+ at Rome (1280), both by the brothers _Sisto_ and +_Ristoro_, and +S. Anastasia+ at Verona (1261) are the masterpieces of +the Dominican builders. +S. Andrea+ at +Vercelli+ in North Italy, begun +in 1219 under a foreign architect, is an isolated early example of lay +Gothic work. Though somewhat English in its plan, and (unlike most +Italian churches) provided with two western spires in the English +manner, it is in all other respects thoroughly Italian in aspect. The +church at Asti, begun in 1229, suggests German models by its high side +walls and narrow windows. + + [Illustration: FIG. 147.--DUOMO AT FLORENCE. PLAN. + a, _Campanile_.] + + ++CATHEDRALS.+ The greatest monuments of Italian Gothic design are the +cathedrals, in which, even more than was the case in France, the highly +developed civic pride of the municipalities expressed itself. Chief +among these half civic, half religious monuments are the cathedrals of ++Sienna+ (begun in 1243), +Arezzo+ (1278), +Orvieto+ (1290), +Florence+ +(the +Duomo+, Sta. Maria del Fiore, begun 1294 by Arnolfo di Cambio), ++Lucca+ (S. Martino, 1350), +Milan+ (1389-1418), and +S. Petronio+ at +Bologna (1390). They are all of imposing size; Milan is the largest of +all Gothic cathedrals except Seville. S. Petronio was planned to be 600 +feet long, the present structure with its three broad aisles and +flanking chapels being merely the nave of the intended edifice. The +Duomo at Florence (Fig. 147) is 500 feet long and covers 82,000 square +feet, while the octagon at the crossing is 143 feet in diameter. The +effect of these colossal dimensions is, however, as in a number of these +large Italian interiors, singularly belittled by the bareness of the +walls, by the great size of the constituent parts of the composition, +and by the lack of architectural subdivisions and multiplied detail to +serve as a scale by which to gauge the scale of the _ensemble_. + + [Illustration: FIG. 148.--NAVE OF DUOMO AT FLORENCE.] + + ++INTERIOR TREATMENT.+ It was doubtless intended to cover these large +unbroken wall-surfaces and the vast expanse of the vaults over naves of +extraordinary breadth, with paintings and color decoration. This would +have remedied their present nakedness and lack of interest, but it was +only in a very few instances carried out. The double church of +S. Francesco at Assisi, decorated by Cimabue, Giotto, and other early +Tuscan painters, the Arena Chapel at Padua, painted by Giotto, the ++Spanish Chapel+ of S. M. Novella, Florence, and the east end of +S. Croce, Florence, are illustrations of the splendor of effect possible +by this method of decoration. The bareness of effect in other, unpainted +interiors was emphasized by the plainness of the vaults destitute of +minor ribs. The transverse ribs were usually broad arches with flat +soffits, and the vaulting was often sprung from so low a point as to +leave no room for a triforium. Mere bull’s-eyes often served for +clearstory windows, as in S. Anastasia at Verona, S. Petronio at +Bologna, and the Florentine Duomo. The cathedral of +S. Martino+ at +Lucca (Fig. 149) is one of the most complete and elegant of Italian +Gothic interiors, having a genuine triforium with traceried arches. Even +here, however, there are round arches without mouldings, flat pilasters, +broad transverse ribs recalling Roman arches, and insignificant +bull’s-eyes in the clearstory. + + [Illustration: FIG. 149.--ONE BAY, NAVE OF CATHEDRAL OF + SAN MARTINO, LUCCA.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 150.--INTERIOR OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.] + +The failure to produce adequate results of scale in the interiors of the +larger Italian churches, has been already alluded to. It is strikingly +exemplified in the Duomo at Florence, the nave of which is 72 feet wide, +with four pier-arches each over 55 feet in span. The immense vault, in +square bays, starts from the level of the tops of these arches. The +interior (Fig. 148) is singularly naked and cold, giving no conception +of its vast dimensions. The colossal dome is an early work of the +Renaissance (see p. 276). It is not known how _Fr. Talenti_, who in 1357 +enlarged and vaulted the nave and planned the east end, proposed to +cover the great octagon. The east end is the most effective part of the +design both internally and externally, owing to the relatively moderate +scale of the 15 chapels which surround the apsidal arms of the cross. In +S. Petronio at Bologna, begun 1390 by _Master Antonio_, the scale is +better handled. The nave, 300 feet long, is divided into six bays, each +embracing two side chapels. It is 46 feet wide and 132 feet high, +proportions which approximate those of the French cathedrals, and +produce an impression of size somewhat unusual in Italian churches. ++Orvieto+ has internally little that suggests Gothic architecture; like +many Franciscan and Dominican churches it is really a timber-roofed +basilica with a few pointed windows. The mixed Gothic and Romanesque +interior of +Sienna Cathedral+ (Fig. 150), with its round arches and +six-sided dome, unsymmetrically placed over the crossing, is one of the +most impressive creations of Italian mediæval art. Alternate courses of +black and white marble add richness but not repose to the effect of this +interior: the same is true of Orvieto, and of some other churches. The +basement baptistery of +S. Giovanni+, under the east end of Sienna +Cathedral, is much more purely Gothic in detail. + +In these, and indeed in most Italian interiors, the main interest +centres less in the excellence of the composition than in the +accessories of pavements, pulpits, choir-stalls, and sepulchral +monuments. In these the decorative fancy and skill of the Italians found +unrestrained exercise, and produced works of surpassing interest and +merit. + + ++EXTERNAL DESIGN.+ The greatest possible disparity generally exists +between the sides and west fronts of the Italian churches. With few +exceptions the flanks present nothing like the variety of sky-line and +of light and shade customary in northern and western lands. The side +walls are high and flat, plain, or striped with black and white masonry +(Sienna, Orvieto), or veneered with marble (Duomo at Florence) or +decorated with surface-ornament of thin pilasters and arcades (Lucca). +The clearstory is low; the roof low--pitched and hardly visible from +below. Color, rather than structural richness, is generally sought for: +Milan Cathedral is almost the only exception, and goes to the other +extreme, with its seemingly countless buttresses, pinnacles and statues. + +The façades, on the other hand, were treated as independent decorative +compositions, and were in many cases remarkably beautiful works, though +having little or no organic relation to the main structure. The most +celebrated are those of +Sienna+ (cathedral begun 1243; façade 1284 by +_Giovanni Pisano_; Fig. 151) and +Orvieto+ (begun 1290 by _Lorenzo +Maitani_; façade 1310). Both of these are sumptuous polychromatic +compositions in marble, designed on somewhat similar lines, with three +high gables fronting the three aisles, with deeply recessed portals, +pinnacled turrets flanking nave and aisles, and a central circular +window. That of Orvieto is furthermore embellished with mosaic pictures, +and is the more brilliant in color of the two. The mediæval façades of +the Florentine Gothic churches were never completed; but the elegance of +the panelling and of the tracery with twisted shafts in the flanks of +the cathedral, and the florid beauty of its side doorways (late 14th +century) would doubtless if realized with equal success on the façades, +have produced strikingly beautiful results. The modern façade of the +Duomo, by the late _De Fabris_ (1887) is a correct if not highly +imaginative version of the style so applied. The front of Milan +cathedral (soon to be replaced by a new façade), shows a mixture of +Gothic and Renaissance forms. +Ferrara Cathedral+, although internally +transformed in the last century, retains its fine 13th-century +three-gabled and arcaded screen front; one of the most Gothic in spirit +of all Italian façades. The +Cathedral+ of +Genoa+ presents Gothic +windows and deeply recessed portals in a façade built in black and white +bands, like Sienna cathedral and many churches in Pistoia and Pisa. + + [Illustration: FIG. 151.--FAÇADE OF SIENNA CATHEDRAL.] + +Externally the most important feature was frequently a cupola or dome +over the crossing. That of Sienna has already been mentioned; that of +Milan is a sumptuous many-pinnacled structure terminating in a spire 300 +feet high. The +Certosa+ at Pavia (Fig. 152) and the earlier Carthusian +church of Chiaravalle have internal cupolas or domes covered externally +by many-storied structures ending in a tower dominating the whole +edifice. These two churches, like many others in Lombardy, the Æmilia +and Venetia, are built of brick, moulded terra-cotta being effectively +used for the cornices, string-courses, jambs and ornaments of the +exterior. The Certosa at Pavia is contemporary with the cathedral of +Milan, to which it offers a surprising contrast, both in style and +material. It is wholly built of brick and terra-cotta, and, save for its +ribbed vaulting, possesses hardly a single Gothic feature or detail. Its +arches, mouldings, and cloisters suggest both the Romanesque and the +Renaissance styles by their semi-classic character. + + [Illustration: FIG. 152.--EXTERIOR OF THE CERTOSA, PAVIA.] + + ++PLANS.+ The wide diversity of local styles in Italian architecture +appears in the plans as strikingly as in the details In general one +notes a love of spaciousness which expresses itself in a sometimes +disproportionate breadth, and in the wide spacing of the piers. The +polygonal chevet with its radial chapels is but rarely seen; ++S. Lorenzo+ at Naples, Sta. Maria dei Servi and S. Francesco at Bologna +are among the most important examples. More frequently the chapels form +a range along the east side of the transepts, especially in the +Franciscan churches, which otherwise retain many basilican features. +A comparison of the plans of S. Andrea at Vercelli, the Duomo at +Florence, the cathedrals of Sienna and Milan, S. Petronio at Bologna and +the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 153), sufficiently illustrates the variety of +Italian Gothic plan-types. + + [Illustration: FIG. 153.--PLAN OF CERTOSA AT PAVIA.] + + ++ORNAMENT.+ Applied decoration plays a large part in all Italian Gothic +designs. Inlaid and mosaic patterns and panelled veneering in colored +marble are essential features of the exterior decoration of most Italian +churches. Florence offers a fine example of this treatment in the Duomo, +and in its accompanying +Campanile+ or bell-tower, designed by _Giotto_ +(1335), and completed by _Gaddi_ and _Talenti_. This beautiful tower is +an epitome of Italian Gothic art. Its inlays, mosaics, and veneering are +treated with consummate elegance, and combined with incrusted reliefs of +great beauty. The tracery of this monument and of the side windows of +the adjoining cathedral is lighter and more graceful than is common in +Italy. Its beauty consists, however, less in movement of line than in +richness and elegance of carved and inlaid ornament. In the +Or San +Michele+--a combined chapel and granary in Florence dating from +1330--the tracery is far less light and open. In general, except in +churches like the Cathedral of Milan, built under German influences, the +tracery in secular monuments is more successful than in ecclesiastical +structures. Venice developed the designing of tracery to greater +perfection in her palaces than any other Italian city (see below). + + ++MINOR WORKS.+ Italian Gothic art found freer expression in +semi-decorative works, like tombs, altars and votive chapels, than in +more monumental structures. The fourteenth century was particularly rich +in canopy tombs, mostly in churches, though some were erected in the +open air, like the celebrated +Tombs of the Scaligers+ in Verona +(1329-1380). Many of those in churches in and near Rome, and others in +south Italy, are especially rich in inlay of _opus Alexandrinum_ upon +their twisted columns and panelled sarcophagi. The family of the +_Cosmati_ acquired great fame for work of this kind during the +thirteenth century. + +The little marble chapel of +Sta. Maria della Spina+, on the Arno, at +Pisa, is an instance of the successful decorative use of Gothic forms in +minor buildings. + + ++TOWERS.+ The Italians always preferred the square tower to the spire, +and in most cases treated it as an independent campanile. Following +Early Christian and Romanesque traditions, these square towers were +usually built with plain sides unbroken by buttresses, and terminated in +a flat roof or a low and inconspicuous cone or pyramid. The Campanile at +Florence already mentioned is by far the most beautiful of these designs +(Fig. 154). The campaniles of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia are built in +alternate white and black courses, like the adjoining cathedrals. Verona +and Mantua have towers with octagonal lanterns. In general, these Gothic +towers differ from the earlier Romanesque models only in the forms of +their openings. Though dignified in their simplicity and size, and +usually well proportioned, they lack the beauty and interest of the +French, English, and German steeples and towers. + + [Illustration: FIG. 154.--UPPER PART OF CAMPANILE, FLORENCE.] + + ++SECULAR MONUMENTS.+ In their public halls, open _loggias_, and domestic +architecture the Italians were able to develop the application of Gothic +forms with greater freedom than in their church-building, because +unfettered by traditional methods of design. The early and vigorous +growth of municipal and popular institutions led, as in the Netherlands, +to the building of two classes of public halls--the town hall proper or +_Podestà_, and the council hall, variously called _Palazzo Communale_, +_Pubblico_, or _del Consiglio_. The town halls, as the seat of +authority, usually have a severe and fortress-like character; the ++Palazzo Vecchio+ at Florence is the most important example (1298, by +Arnolfo di Cambio; Fig. 155). It is especially remarkable for its tower, +which, rising 308 feet in the air, overhangs the street nearly 6 feet, +its front wall resting on the face of the powerfully corbelled cornice +of the palace. The court and most of the interior were remodelled in the +sixteenth century. At Sienna is a somewhat similar structure in brick, +the +Palazzo Pubblico+. At Pistoia the Podestà and the Communal Palace +stand opposite each other; in both of these the courtyards still retain +their original aspect. At Perugia, Bologna, and Viterbo are others of +some importance; while in Lombardy, Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Piacenza and +other towns possess smaller halls with open arcades below, of a more +elegant and pleasing aspect. More successful still are the open loggias +or tribunes erected for the gatherings of public bodies. The +Loggia dei +Lanzi+ at Florence (1376, by _Benci di Cione_ and _Simone di Talenti_) +is the largest and most famous of these open vaulted halls, of which +several exist in Florence and Sienna. Gothic only in their minor +details, they are Romanesque or semi-classic in their broad round arches +and strong horizontal lines and cornices (Fig. 156). + + [Illustration: FIG. 155.--UPPER PART OF PALAZZO VECCHIO, + FLORENCE.] + + ++PALACES AND HOUSES: VENICE.+ The northern cities, especially Pisa, +Florence, Sienna, Bologna, and Venice, are rich in mediæval public and +private palaces and dwellings in brick or marble, in which pointed +windows and open arcades are used with excellent effect. In Bologna and +Sienna brick is used, in conjunction with details executed in moulded +terra-cotta, in a highly artistic and effective way. Viterbo, nearer +Rome, also possesses many interesting houses with street arcades and +open stairways or stoops leading to the main entrance. + + [Illustration: FIG. 156.--LOGGIA DEI LANZI, FLORENCE.] + +The security and prosperity of Venice in the Middle Ages, and the ever +present influence of the sun-loving East, made the massive and +fortress-like architecture of the inland cities unnecessary. Abundant +openings, large windows full of tracery of great lightness and elegance, +projecting balconies and the freest use of marble veneering and +inlay--a survival of Byzantine traditions of the 12th century (see +p. 133)--give to the Venetian houses and palaces an air of gayety and +elegance found nowhere else. While there are few Gothic churches of +importance in Venice, the number of mediæval houses and palaces is very +large. Chief among these is the +Doge’s Palace+ (Fig. 157), adjoining +the church of St. Mark. The two-storied arcades of the west and south +fronts date from 1354, and originally stood out from the main edifice, +which was widened in the next century, when the present somewhat heavy +walls, laid up in red, white and black marble in a species of +quarry-pattern, were built over the arcades. These arcades are beautiful +designs, combining massive strength and grace in a manner quite foreign +to Western Gothic ideas. Lighter and more ornate is the +Ca d’Oro+, on +the Grand Canal; while the Foscari, Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, and Pisani +palaces, among many others, are admirable examples of the style. In most +of these a traceried loggia occupies the central part, flanked by walls +incrusted with marble and pierced by Gothic windows with carved +mouldings, borders, and balconies. The Venetian Gothic owes its success +largely to the absence of structural difficulties to interfere with the +purely decorative development of Gothic details. + + [Illustration: FIG. 157.--WEST FRONT VIEW OF DOGE’S PALACE, + VENICE.] + + + +MONUMENTS.+ 13th Century: Cistercian abbeys Fossanova and + Casamari, _cir._ 1208; S. Andrea, Vercelli, 1209; S. Francesco, + Assisi, 1228-53; Church at Asti, 1229; Sienna C., 1243-59 (cupola + 1259-64; façade 1284); S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari, Venice, 1250-80 + (finished 1388); Sta. Chiara, Assisi, 1250; Sta. Trinità, + Florence, 1250; S. Antonio, Padua, begun 1256; SS. Giovanni e + Paolo, Venice, 1260 (?)-1400; Sta. Anastasia, Verona, 1261; + Naples C., 1272-1314 (façade 1299; portal 1407; much altered + later); S. Lorenzo, Naples, 1275; Campo Santo, Pisa, 1278-83; + Arezzo C., 1278; S. M. Novella, Florence, 1278; S. Eustorgio, + Milan, 1278; S. M. sopra Minerva, Rome, 1280; Orvieto C., 1290 + (façade 1310; roof 1330); Sta. Croce, Florence, 1294 (façade + 1863); S. M. del Fiore, or C., Florence, 1294-1310 (enlarged 1357; + E. end 1366; dome 1420-64; façade 1887); S. Francesco, + Bologna.--14th century: Genoa C., early 14th century; + S. Francesco, Sienna, 1310; San Domenico, Sienna, about same date; + S. Giovanni in Fonte, Sienna, 1317; S. M. della Spina, Pisa, 1323; + Campanile, Florence, 1335; Or San Michele, Florence, 1337; + Milan C., 1386 (cupola 16th century; façade 16th-19th century; new + façade building 1895); S. Petronio, Bologna, 1390; Certosa, Pavia, + 1396 (choir, transepts, cupola, cloisters, 15th and 16th + centuries); Como C., 1396 (choir and transepts 1513); Lucca C. + (S. Martino), Romanesque building remodelled late in 14th century; + Verona C.; S. Fermo, Maggiore; S. Francesco, Pisa; S. Lorenzo, + Vicenza.--15th century: Perugia C.; S. M. delle Grazie, Milan, + 1470 (cupola and exterior E. part later). + + SECULAR BUILDINGS: Pal. Pubblico, Cremona, 1245; Pal. Podestà + (Bargello), Florence, 1255 (enlarged 1333-45); Pal. Pubblico, + Sienna, 1289-1305 (many later alterations); Pal. Giureconsulti, + Cremona, 1292; Broletto, Monza, 1293; Loggia dei Mercanti, + Bologna, 1294; Pal. Vecchio, Florence, 1298; Broletto, Como; Pal. + Ducale (Doge’s Palace), Venice, 1310-40 (great windows 1404; + extended 1423-38; courtyard 15th and 16th centuries); Loggia dei + Lanzi, Florence, 1335; Loggia del Bigallo, 1337; Broletto, + Bergamo, 14th century; Loggia dei Nobili, Sienna, 1407; Pal. + Pubblico, Udine, 1457; Loggia dei Mercanti, Ancona; Pal. del + Governo, Bologna; Pal. Pepoli, Bologna; Palaces Conte Bardi, + Davanzati, Capponi, all at Florence; at Sienna, Pal. Tolomei, + 1205; Pal. Saracini, Pal. Buonsignori; at Venice, Pal. + Contarini-Fasan, Cavalli, Foscari, Pisani, and many others; others + in Padua and Vicenza. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +EARLY RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Anderson, _Architecture of the Renaissance in + Italy_. Burckhardt, _The Civilization of the Renaissance_; + _Geschichte der Renaissance in Italien_; _Der Cicerone_. Cellesi, + _Sei Fabbriche di Firenze_. Cicognara, _Le Fabbriche più cospicue + di Venezia_. Durm, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Italien_ (in + _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Fergusson, _History of Modern Architecture_. + Geymüller, _La Renaissance en Toscane_. Montigny et Famin, + _Architecture Toscane_. Moore, _Character of Renaissance + Architecture_. Müntz, _La Renaissance en Italie et en France à + l’époque de Charles VIII._ Palustre, _L’Architecture de la + Renaissance_. Pater, _Studies in the Renaissance_. Symonds, _The + Renaissance of the Fine Arts in Italy_. Tosi and Becchio, _Altars, + Tabernacles, and Tombs_. + + ++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The abandonment of Gothic architecture in Italy +and the substitution in its place of forms derived from classic models +were occasioned by no sudden or merely local revolution. The Renaissance +was the result of a profound and universal intellectual movement, whose +roots may be traced far back into the Middle Ages, and which manifested +itself first in Italy simply because there the conditions were most +propitious. It spread through Europe just as rapidly as similar +conditions appearing in other countries prepared the way for it. +The essence of this far-reaching movement was the protest of the +individual reason against the trammels of external and arbitrary +authority--a protest which found its earliest organized expression in +the Humanists. In its assertion of the intellectual and moral rights +of the individual, the Renaissance laid the foundations of modern +civilization. The same spirit, in rejecting the authority and teachings +of the Church in matters of purely secular knowledge, led to the +questionings of the precursors of modern science and the discoveries of +the early navigators. But in nothing did the reaction against mediæval +scholasticism and asceticism display itself more strikingly than in the +joyful enthusiasm which marked the pursuit of classic studies. The +long-neglected treasures of classic literature were reopened, almost +rediscovered, in the fourteenth century by the immortal trio--Dante, +Petrarch, and Boccaccio. The joy of living, the hitherto forbidden +delight in beauty and pleasure for their own sakes, the exultant +awakening to the sense of personal freedom, which came with the bursting +of mediæval fetters, found in classic art and literature their most +sympathetic expression. It was in Italy, where feudalism had never fully +established itself, and where the municipalities and guilds had +developed, as nowhere else, the sense of civic and personal freedom, +that these symptoms first manifested themselves. In Italy, and above all +in the Tuscan cities, they appeared throughout the fourteenth century in +the growing enthusiasm for all that recalled the antique culture, and in +the rapid advance of luxury and refinement in both public and private +life. + + ++THE RENAISSANCE OF THE ARTS.+ Classic Roman architecture had never lost +its influence on the Italian taste. Gothic art, already declining in the +West, had never been in Italy more than a borrowed garb, clothing +architectural conceptions classic rather than Gothic in spirit. The +antique monuments which abounded on every hand were ever present models +for the artist, and to the Florentines of the early fifteenth century +the civilization which had created them represented the highest ideal of +human culture. They longed to revive in their own time the glories of +ancient Rome, and appropriated with uncritical and undiscriminating +enthusiasm the good and the bad, the early and the late forms of Roman +art, Naïvely unconscious of the disparity between their own +architectural conceptions and those they fancied they imitated, they +were, unknown to themselves, creating a new style, in which the details +of Roman art were fitted in novel combinations to new requirements. In +proportion as the Church lost its hold on the culture of the age, this +new architecture entered increasingly into the service of private luxury +and public display. It created, it is true, striking types of church +design, and made of the dome one of the most imposing of external +features; but its most characteristic products were palaces, villas, +council halls, and monuments to the great and the powerful. The personal +element in design asserted itself as never before in the growth of +schools and the development of styles. Thenceforward the history of +Italian architecture becomes the history of the achievements of +individual artists. + + ++EARLY BEGINNINGS.+ Already in the 13th century the pulpits of Niccolo +Pisano at Sienna and Pisa had revealed that master’s direct recourse to +antique monuments for inspiration and suggestion. In the frescoes of +Giotto and his followers, and in the architectural details of many +nominally Gothic buildings, classic forms had appeared with increasing +frequency during the fourteenth century. This was especially true in +Florence, which was then the artistic capital of Italy. Never, perhaps, +since the days of Pericles, had there been another community so +permeated with the love of beauty in art, and so endowed with the +capacity to realize it. Nowhere else in Europe at that time was there +such strenuous life, such intense feeling, or such free course for +individual genius as in Florence. Her artists, with unexampled +versatility, addressed themselves with equal success to goldsmiths’ +work, sculpture, architecture and engineering--often to painting and +poetry as well; and they were quick to catch in their art the spirit of +the classic revival. The new movement achieved its first architectural +triumph in the dome of the cathedral of Florence (1420-64); and it was +Florentine--or at least Tuscan--artists who planted in other centres the +seeds of the new art that were to spring up in the local and provincial +schools of Sienna, Milan, Pavia, Bologna, and Venice, of Brescia, Lucca, +Perugia, and Rimini, and many other North Italian cities. The movement +asserted itself late in Rome and Naples, as an importation from Northern +Italy, but it bore abundant fruit in these cities in its later stages. + + ++PERIODS.+ The classic styles which grew up out of the Renaissance may +be divided for convenience into four periods. + +THE EARLY RENAISSANCE or FORMATIVE PERIOD, 1420-90; characterized by +the grace and freedom of the decorative detail, suggested by Roman +prototypes and applied to compositions of great variety and originality. + +THE HIGH RENAISSANCE or FORMALLY CLASSIC PERIOD, 1490-1550. During this +period classic details were copied with increasing fidelity, the orders +especially appearing in almost all compositions; decoration meanwhile +losing somewhat in grace and freedom. + +THE EARLY BAROQUE (or BAROCO), 1550-1600; a period of classic formality +characterized by the use of colossal orders, engaged columns and rather +scanty decoration. + +THE DECLINE or LATER BAROQUE, marked by poverty of invention in the +composition and a predominance of vulgar sham and display in the +decoration. Broken pediments, huge scrolls, florid stucco-work and a +general disregard of architectural propriety were universal. + +During the eighteenth century there was a reaction from these +extravagances, which showed itself in a return to the servile copying of +classic models, sometimes not without a certain dignity of composition +and restraint in the decoration. + +By many writers the name Renaissance is confined to the first period. +This is correct from the etymological point of view; but it is +impossible to dissociate the first period historically from those which +followed it, down to the final exhaustion of the artistic movement to +which it gave birth, in the heavy extravagances of the Rococo. + +Another division is made by the Italians, who give the name of the +_Quattrocento_ to the period which closed with the end of the fifteenth +century, _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century, and _Seicento_ to the +seventeenth century or Rococo. It has, however, become common to confine +the use of the term Cinquecento to the first half of the sixteenth +century. + + ++CONSTRUCTION AND DETAIL.+ The architects of the Renaissance occupied +themselves more with form than with construction, and rarely set +themselves constructive problems of great difficulty. Although the new +architecture began with the colossal dome of the cathedral of Florence, +and culminated in the stupendous church of St. Peter at Rome, it was +pre-eminently an architecture of palaces and villas, of façades and of +decorative display. Constructive difficulties were reduced to their +lowest terms, and the constructive framework was concealed, not +emphasized, by the decorative apparel of the design. Among the +masterpieces of the early Renaissance are many buildings of small +dimensions, such as gates, chapels, tombs and fountains. In these the +individual fancy had full sway, and produced surprising results by the +beauty of enriched mouldings, of carved friezes with infant genii, +wreaths of fruit, griffins, masks and scrolls; by pilasters covered with +arabesques as delicate in modelling as if wrought in silver; by inlays +of marble, panels of glazed terra-cotta, marvellously carved doors, fine +stucco-work in relief, capitals and cornices of wonderful richness and +variety. The Roman orders appeared only in free imitations, with +panelled and carved pilasters for the most part instead of columns, and +capitals of fanciful design, recalling remotely the Corinthian by their +volutes and leaves (Fig. 158). Instead of the low-pitched classic +pediments, there appears frequently an arched cornice enclosing a +sculptured lunette. Doors and windows were enclosed in richly carved +frames, sometimes arched and sometimes square. Façades were flat and +unbroken, depending mainly for effect upon the distribution and +adornment of the openings, and the design of doorways, courtyards and +cornices. Internally vaults and flat ceilings of wood and plaster were +about equally common, the barrel vault and dome occurring far more +frequently than the groined vault. Many of the ceilings of this period +are of remarkable richness and beauty. + + [Illustration: FIG. 158.--EARLY RENAISSANCE CAPITAL, PAL. ZORZI, + VENICE.] + + ++THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN FLORENCE: THE DUOMO.+ In the year 1417 a +public competition was held for completing the cathedral of Florence by +a dome over the immense octagon, 143 feet in diameter. _Filippo +Brunelleschi_, sculptor and architect (1377-1446), who with Donatello +had journeyed to Rome to study there the masterworks of ancient art, +after demonstrating the inadequacy of all the solutions proposed by the +competitors, was finally permitted to undertake the gigantic task +according to his own plans. These provided for an octagonal dome in two +shells, connected by eight major and sixteen minor ribs, and crowned by +a lantern at the top (Fig. 159). This wholly original conception, by +which for the first time (outside of Moslem art) the dome was made an +external feature fitly terminating in the light forms and upward +movement of a lantern, was carried out between the years 1420 and 1464. +Though in no wise an imitation of Roman forms, it was classic in its +spirit, in its vastness and its simplicity of line, and was made +possible solely by Brunelleschi’s studies of Roman design and +construction (Fig. 160). + + [Illustration: FIG. 159.--SECTION OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.] + + ++OTHER CHURCHES.+ From Brunelleschi’s designs were also erected the ++Pazzi Chapel+ in Sta. Croce, a charming design of a Greek cross covered +with a dome at the intersection, and preceded by a vestibule with a +richly decorated vault; and the two great churches of +S. Lorenzo+ +(1425) and +S. Spirito+ (1433-1476, Fig. 161). Both reproduced in a +measure the plan of the Pisa Cathedral, having a three-aisled nave and +transepts, with a low dome over the crossing. The side aisles were +covered with domical vaults and the central aisles with flat wooden or +plaster ceilings. All the details of columns, arches and mouldings were +imitated from Roman models, and yet the result was something entirely +new. Consciously or unconsciously, Brunelleschi was reviving Byzantine +rather than Roman conceptions in the planning and structural design of +these domical churches, but the garb in which he clothed them was Roman, +at least in detail. The +Old Sacristy+ of S. Lorenzo was another domical +design of great beauty. + +From this time on the new style was in general use for church designs. +_L. B. Alberti_ (1404-73), who had in Rome mastered classic details more +thoroughly than Brunelleschi, remodelled the church of +S. Francesco+ at ++Rimini+ with Roman pilasters and arches, and with engaged orders in the +façade, which, however, was never completed. His great work was the +church of +S. Andrea+ at +Mantua+, a Latin cross in plan, with a dome at +the intersection (the present high dome dating however, only from the +18th century) and a façade to which the conception of a Roman triumphal +arch was skilfully adapted. His façade of incrusted marbles for the +church of S. M. Novella at Florence was a less successful work, though +its flaring consoles over the side aisles established an unfortunate +precedent frequently imitated in later churches. + + [Illustration: FIG. 160.--EXTERIOR OF DOME OF DUOMO, FLORENCE.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 161.--INTERIOR OF S. SPIRITO, FLORENCE.] + +A great activity in church-building marked the period between 1475 and +1490. The plans of the churches erected about this time throughout north +Italy display an interesting variety of arrangements, in nearly all of +which the dome is combined with the three-aisled cruciform plan, either +as a central feature at the crossing or as a domical vault over each +bay. Bologna and Ferrara possess a number of churches of this kind. +Occasionally the basilican arrangement was followed, with columnar +arcades separating the aisles. More often, however, the pier-arches were +of the Roman type, with engaged columns or pilasters between them. The +interiors, presumably intended to receive painted decorations, were in +most cases somewhat bare of ornament, pleasing rather by happy +proportions and effective vaulting or rich flat ceilings, panelled, +painted and gilded, than by elaborate architectural detail. A similar +scantiness of ornament is to be remarked in the exteriors, excepting the +façades, which were sometimes highly ornate; the doorways, with columns, +pediments, sculpture and carving, receiving especial attention. High +external domes did not come into general use until the next period. In +Milan, Pavia, and some other Lombard cities, the internal cupola over +the crossing was, however, covered externally by a lofty structure in +diminishing stages, like that of the Certosa at Pavia (Fig. 152), or +that erected by Bramante for the church of S. M. delle Grazie at Milan. +At Prato, in the church of the +Madonna delle Carceri+ (1495-1516), by +_Giuliano da S. Gallo_, the type of the Pazzi chapel reappears in a +larger scale; the plan is cruciform, with equal or nearly equal arms +covered by barrel vaults, at whose intersection rises a dome of moderate +height on pendentives. This charming edifice, with its unfinished +exterior of white marble, its simple and dignified lines, and internal +embellishments in della-Robbia ware, is one of the masterpieces of the +period. + +In the designing of chapels and oratories the architects of the early +Renaissance attained conspicuous success, these edifices presenting +fewer structural limitations and being more purely decorative in +character than the larger churches. Such façades as that of ++S. Bernardino+ at Perugia and of the +Frati di S. Spirito+ at Bologna +are among the most delightful products of the decorative fancy of the +15th century. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 162.--COURTYARD OF RICCARDI PALACE, FLORENCE.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 163.--FAÇADE OF STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE.] + ++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ While the architects of this period failed to +develop any new and thoroughly satisfactory ecclesiastical type, they +attained conspicuous success in palace-architecture. The +Riccardi+ +palace in Florence (1430) marks the first step of the Renaissance in +this direction. It was built for the great Cosimo di Medici by +_Michelozzi_ (1397-1473), a contemporary of Brunelleschi and Alberti, +and a man of great talent. Its imposing rectangular façade, with widely +spaced mullioned windows in two stories over a massive basement, is +crowned with a classic cornice of unusual and perhaps excessive size. In +spite of the bold and fortress-like character of the rusticated masonry +of these façades, and the mediæval look they seem to present to modern +eyes, they marked a revolution in style and established a type +frequently imitated in later years. The courtyard, in contrast with this +stern exterior, appears light and cheerful (Fig. 162). Its wall is +carried on round arches borne by columns with Corinthianesque capitals, +and the arcade is enriched with sculptured medallions. +The Pitti +Palace+, by Brunelleschi (1435), embodies the same ideas on a more +colossal scale, but lacks the grace of an adequate cornice. A lighter +and more ornate style appeared in 1460 in the +P. Rucellai+, by Alberti, +in which for the first time classical pilasters in superposed stages +were applied to a street façade. To avoid the dilemma of either +insufficiently crowning the edifice or making the cornice too heavy for +the upper range of pilasters, Alberti made use of brackets, occupying +the width of the upper frieze, and converting the whole upper +entablature into a cornice. But this compromise was not quite +successful, and it remained for later architects in Venice, Verona, and +Rome to work out more satisfactory methods of applying the orders to +many-storied palace façades. In the great +P. Strozzi+ (Fig. 163), +erected in 1490 by _Benedetto da Majano_ and _Cronaca_, the architects +reverted to the earlier type of the P. Riccardi, treating it with +greater refinement and producing one of the noblest palaces of Italy. + + ++COURTYARDS; ARCADES.+ These palaces were all built around interior +courts, whose walls rested on columnar arcades, as in the P. Riccardi +(Fig. 162). The origin of these arcades may be found in the arcaded +cloisters of mediæval monastic churches, which often suggest classic +models, as in those of St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls and St. John Lateran at +Rome. Brunelleschi not only introduced columnar arcades into a number of +cloisters and palace courts, but also used them effectively as exterior +features in the +Loggia S. Paolo+ and the Foundling Hospital (+Ospedale +degli Innocenti+) at Florence. The chief drawback in these light arcades +was their inability to withstand the thrust of the vaulting over the +space behind them, and the consequent recourse to iron tie-rods where +vaulting was used. The Italians, however, seemed to care little about +this disfigurement. + + ++MINOR WORKS.+ The details of the new style were developed quite as +rapidly in purely decorative works as in monumental buildings. Altars, +mural monuments, tabernacles, pulpits and _ciboria_ afforded scope for +the genius of the most distinguished artists. Among those who were +specially celebrated in works of this kind should be named _Lucca della +Robbia_ (1400-82) and his successors, _Mino da Fiesole_ (1431-84) and +_Benedetto da Majano_ (1442-97). Possessed of a wonderful fertility of +invention, they and their pupils multiplied their works in extraordinary +number and variety, not only throughout north Italy, but also in Rome +and Naples. Among the most famous examples of this branch of design may +be mentioned a pulpit in Sta. Croce by B. da Majano; a terra-cotta +fountain in the sacristy of S. M. Novella, by the della Robbias; the +Marsupini tomb in Sta. Croce, by _Desiderio da Settignano_ (all in +Florence); the della Rovere tomb in S. M. del Popolo, Rome, by Mino da +Fiesole, and in the Cathedral at Lucca the Noceto tomb and the +Tempietto, by _Matteo Civitali_. It was in works of this character that +the Renaissance oftenest made its first appearance in a new centre, as +was the case in Sienna, Pisa, Lucca, Naples, etc. + + [Illustration: FIG. 164.--TOMB OF PIETRO DI NOCETO, LUCCA.] + + ++NORTH ITALY.+ Between 1450 and 1490 the Renaissance presented in +Sienna, in a number of important palaces, a sharp contrast to the +prevalent Gothic style of that city. The +P. Piccolomini+--a somewhat +crude imitation of the P. Riccardi in Florence--dates from 1463; the ++P. del Governo+ was built 1469, and the +Spannocchi Palace+ in 1470. In +1463 _Ant. Federighi_ built there the +Loggia del Papa+. About the same +time _Bernardo di Lorenzo_ was building for Pope Pius II. (Æneas Sylvius +Piccolomini) an entirely new city, +Pienza+, with a cathedral, +archbishop’s palace, town hall and Papal residence (the ++P. Piccolomini+), which are interesting if not strikingly original +works. Pisa possesses few early Renaissance structures, owing to the +utter prostration of her fortunes in the 15th century, and the dominance +of Pisan Gothic traditions. In Lucca, besides a wealth of minor +monuments (largely the work of Matteo Civitali, 1435-1501) in various +churches, a number of palaces date from this period, the most important +being the +P. Pretorio+ and P. Bernardini. To Milan the Renaissance was +carried by the Florentine masters _Michelozzi_ and _Filarete_, to whom +are respectively due the +Portinari Chapel+ in S. Eustorgio (1462) and +the earlier part of the great +Ospedale Maggiore+ (1457). In the latter, +an edifice of brick with terra-cotta enrichments, the windows were +Gothic in outline--an unusual mixture of styles, even in Italy. The +munificence of the Sforzas, the hereditary tyrants of the province, +embellished the semi-Gothic +Certosa+ of Pavia with a new marble façade, +begun 1476 or 1491, which in its fanciful and exuberant decoration, and +the small scale of its parts, belongs properly to the early Renaissance. +Exquisitely beautiful in detail, it resembles rather a magnified +altar-piece than a work of architecture, properly speaking. Bologna and +Ferrara developed somewhat late in the century a strong local school of +architecture, remarkable especially for the beauty of its courtyards, +its graceful street arcades, and its artistic treatment of brick and +terra-cotta (+P. Bevilacqua+, +P. Fava+, at Bologna; +P. Scrofa+, ++P. Roverella+, at Ferrara). About the same time palaces with interior +arcades and details in the new style were erected in Verona, Vicenza, +Mantua, and other cities. + + ++VENICE.+ In this city of merchant princes and a wealthy _bourgeoisie_, +the architecture of the Renaissance took on a new aspect of splendor and +display. It was late in appearing, the Gothic style with its tinge of +Byzantine decorative traditions having here developed into a style well +suited to the needs of a rich and relatively tranquil community. These +traditions the architects of the new style appropriated in a measure, as +in the marble incrustations of the exquisite little church of +S. M. dei +Miracoli+ (1480-89), and the façade of the +Scuola di S. Marco+ +(1485-1533), both by _Pietro Lombardo_. Nowhere else, unless on the +contemporary façade of the Certosa at Pavia, were marble inlays and +delicate carving, combined with a framework of thin pilasters, finely +profiled entablatures and arched pediments, so lavishly bestowed upon +the street fronts of churches and palaces. The family of the _Lombardi_ +(Martino, his sons Moro and Pietro, and grandsons Antonio and Tullio), +with _Ant. Bregno_ and _Bart. Buon_, were the leaders in the +architectural Renaissance of this period, and to them Venice owes her +choicest masterpieces in the new style. Its first appearance is noted in +the later portions of the church of +S. Zaccaria+ (1456-1515), partly +Gothic internally, with a façade whose semicircular pediment and small +decorative arcades show a somewhat timid but interesting application of +classic details. In this church, and still more so in S. Giobbe +(1451-93) and the Miracoli above mentioned, the decorative element +predominates throughout. It is hard to imagine details more graceful in +design, more effective in the swing of their movement, or more delicate +in execution than the mouldings, reliefs, wreaths, scrolls, and capitals +one encounters in these buildings. Yet in structural interest, in scale +and breadth of planning, these early Renaissance Venetian buildings hold +a relatively inferior rank. + + ++PALACES.+ The great +Court+ of the +Doge’s Palace+, begun 1483 by _Ant. +Rizzio_, belongs only in part to the first period. It shows, however, +the lack of constructive principle and of largeness of composition just +mentioned, but its decorative effect and picturesque variety elicit +almost universal admiration. Like the neighboring façade of St. Mark’s, +it violates nearly every principle of correct composition, and yet in a +measure atones for this capital defect by its charm of detail. Far more +satisfactory from the purely architectural point of view is the façade +of the +P. Vendramini+ (Vendramin-Calergi), by Pietro Lombardo (1481). +The simple, stately lines of its composition, the dignity of its broad +arched and mullioned windows, separated by engaged columns--the earliest +example in Venice of this feature, and one of the earliest in Italy--its +well-proportioned basement and upper stories, crowned by an adequate but +somewhat heavy entablature, make this one of the finest palaces in Italy +(Fig. 165) It established a type of large-windowed, vigorously modelled +façades which later architects developed, but hardly surpassed. In the +smaller contemporary, P. Dario, another type appears, better suited for +small buildings, depending for effect mainly upon well-ordered openings +and incrusted panelling of colored marble. + + [Illustration: FIG. 165.--VENDRAMINI PALACE, VENICE.] + + ++ROME.+ Internal disorders and the long exile of the popes had by the +end of the fourteenth century reduced Rome to utter insignificance. Not +until the second half of the fifteenth century did returning prosperity +and wealth afford the Renaissance its opportunity in the Eternal City. +Pope Nicholas V. had, indeed, begun the rebuilding of St. Peter’s from +designs by B. Rossellini, in 1450, but the project lapsed shortly after +with the death of the pope. The earliest Renaissance building in Rome +was the +P. di Venezia+, begun in 1455, together with the adjoining +porch of S. Marco. In this palace and the adjoining unfinished +Palazzetto we find the influence of the old Roman monuments clearly +manifested in the court arcades, built like those of the Colosseum, with +superposed stages of massive piers and engaged columns carrying +entablatures. The proportions are awkward, the details coarse; but the +spirit of Roman classicism is here seen in the germ. The exterior of +this palace is, however, still Gothic in spirit. The architects are +unknown; _Giuliano da Majano_ (1452-90), _Giacomo di Pietrasanta_, and +_Meo del Caprino_ (1430-1501) are known to have worked upon it, but it +is not certain in what capacity. + +The new style, reaching, and in time overcoming, the conservatism of the +Church, overthrew the old basilican traditions. In +S. Agostino+ +(1479-83), by _Pietrasanta_, and +S. M. del Popolo+, by Pintelli (?), +piers with pilasters or half-columns and massive arches separate the +aisles, and the crossing is crowned with a dome. To the same period +belong the Sistine chapel and parts of the Vatican palace, but the +interest of these lies rather in their later decorations than in their +somewhat scanty architectural merit. + +The architectural renewal of Rome, thus begun, reached its culmination +in the following period. + + ++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ The complete enumeration of even the most important +Early Renaissance monuments of Italy is impossible within our limits. +Two or three only can here be singled out as suggesting types. Among +town halls of this period the first place belongs to the +P. del +Consiglio+ at Verona, by _Fra Giocondo_ (1435-1515). In this beautiful +edifice the façade consists of a light and graceful arcade supporting a +wall pierced with four windows, and covered with elaborate frescoed +arabesques (recently restored). Its unfortunate division by pilasters +into four bays, with a pier in the centre, is a blemish avoided in the +contemporary +P. del Consiglio+ at Padua. The +Ducal Palace+ at Urbino, +by _Luciano da Laurano_ (1468), is noteworthy for its fine arcaded +court, and was highly famed in its day. At Brescia +S. M. dei Miracoli+ +is a remarkable example of a cruciform domical church dating from the +close of this period, and is especially celebrated for the exuberant +decoration of its porch and its elaborate detail. Few campaniles were +built in this period; the best of them are at Venice. Naples possesses +several interesting Early Renaissance monuments, chief among which are +the +Porta Capuana+ (1484), by _Giul. da Majano_, the triumphal +Arch of +Alphonso+ of Arragon, by _Pietro di Martino_, and the +P. Gravina+, by +_Gab. d’Agnolo_. Naples is also very rich in minor works of the early +Renaissance, in which it ranks with Florence, Venice, and Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN ITALY--_Continued_. + +THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE AND DECLINE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Burckhardt, Cicognara, Fergusson, + Palustre. Also, Gauthier, _Les plus beaux edifices de Gênes_. + Geymüller, _Les projets primitifs pour la basilique de St. Pierre + de Rome_. Gurlitt, _Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien_. + Letarouilly, _Édifices de Rome Moderne_; _Le Vatican_. Palladio, + _The Works of A. Palladio_. + + ++CHARACTER OF THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ It was inevitable that the +study and imitation of Roman architecture should lead to an increasingly +literal rendering of classic details and a closer copying of antique +compositions. Toward the close of the fifteenth century the symptoms +began to multiply of the approaching reign of formal classicism. +Correctness in the reproduction of old Roman forms came in time to be +esteemed as one of the chief of architectural virtues, and in the +following period the orders became the principal resource of the +architect. During the so-called Cinquecento, that is, from the close of +the fifteenth century to nearly or quite 1550, architecture still +retained much of the freedom and refinement of the Quattrocento. There +was meanwhile a notable advance in dignity and amplitude of design, +especially in the internal distribution of buildings. Externally the +orders were freely used as subordinate features in the decoration of +doors and windows, and in court arcades of the Roman type. The +lantern-crowned dome upon a high drum was developed into one of the +noblest of architectural forms. Great attention was bestowed upon all +subordinate features; doors and windows were treated with frames and +pediments of extreme elegance and refinement; all the cornices and +mouldings were proportioned and profiled with the utmost care, and the +balustrade was elaborated into a feature at once useful and highly +ornate. Interior decoration was even more splendid than before, if +somewhat less delicate and subtle; relief enrichments in stucco were +used with admirable effect, and the greatest artists exercised their +talents in the painting of vaults and ceilings, as in P. del Té at +Mantua, by _Giulio Romano_ (1492-1546), and the Sistine Chapel at Rome, +by Michael Angelo. This period is distinguished by an exceptional number +of great architects and buildings. It was ushered in by _Bramante +Lazzari_, of Urbino (1444-1514), and closed during the career of +_Michael Angelo Buonarotti_ (1475-1564); two names worthy to rank with +that of Brunelleschi. Inferior only to these in architectural genius +were _Raphael_ (1483-1520), _Baldassare Peruzzi_ (1481-1536), _Antonio +da San Gallo the Younger_ (1485-1546), and _G. Barozzi da Vignola_ +(1507-1572), in Rome; _Giacopo Tatti Sansovino_ (1479-1570), in Venice, +and others almost equally illustrious. This period witnessed the +erection of an extraordinary series of palaces, villas, and churches, +the beginning and much of the construction of St. Peter’s at Rome, and a +complete transformation in the aspect of that city. + + ++BRAMANTE’S WORKS.+ While precise time limits cannot be set to +architectural styles, it is not irrational to date this period from the +maturing of Bramante’s genius. While his earlier works in Milan belong +to the Quattrocento (S. M. delle Grazie, the sacristy of San Satiro, the +extension of the Great Hospital), his later designs show the classic +tendency very clearly. The charming +Tempietto+ in the court of +S. Pietro in Montorio at Rome, a circular temple-like chapel (1502), is +composed of purely classic elements. In the +P. Giraud+ (Fig. 166) and +the great +Cancelleria+ Palace, pilasters appear in the external +composition, and all the details of doors and windows betray the results +of classic study, as well as the refined taste of their designer.[24] +The beautiful courtyard of the Cancelleria combines the Florentine +system of arches on columns with the Roman system of superposed arcades +independent of the court wall. In 1506 Bramante began the rebuilding of +St. Peter’s for Julius II. (see p. 294) and the construction of a new +and imposing papal palace adjoining it on the Vatican hill. Of this +colossal group of edifices, commonly known as the +Vatican+, he executed +the greater Belvedere court (afterward divided in two by the Library and +the Braccio Nuovo), the lesser octagonal court of the Belvedere, and the +court of San Damaso, with its arcades afterward frescoed by Raphael and +his school. Besides these, the cloister of S. M. della Pace, and many +other works in and out of Rome, reveal the impress of Bramante’s genius, +alike in their admirable plans and in the harmony and beauty of their +details. + + [Footnote 24: See Appendix C.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 166.--FAÇADE OF THE GIRAUD PALACE, ROME.] + + ++FLORENTINE PALACES.+ The P. Riccardi long remained the accepted type of +palace in Florence. As we have seen, it was imitated in the Strozzi +palace, as late as 1489, with greater perfection of detail, but with no +radical change of conception. In the +P. Gondi+, however, begun in the +following year by _Giuliano da San Gallo_ (1445-1516), a more pronounced +classic spirit appears, especially in the court and the interior design. +Early in the 16th century classic columns and pediments began to be used +as decorations for doors and windows; the rustication was confined to +basements and corner-quoins, and niches, loggias, and porches gave +variety of light and shade to the façades (+P. Bartolini+, by _Baccio +d’Agnolo_; +P. Larderel+, 1515, by _Dosio_; +P. Guadagni+, by _Cronaca_; ++P. Pandolfini+, 1518, attributed to Raphael). In the +P. Serristori+, +by Baccio d’Agnolo (1510), pilasters were applied to the composition of +the façade, but this example was not often followed in Florence. + + ++ROMAN PALACES.+ These followed a different type. They were usually of +great size, and built around ample courts with arcades of classic model +in two or three stories. The broad street façade in three stories with +an attic or mezzanine was crowned with a rich cornice. The orders were +sparingly used externally, and effect was sought principally in the +careful proportioning of the stories, in the form and distribution of +the square-headed and arched openings, and in the design of mouldings, +string-courses, cornices, and other details. The _piano nobile_, or +first story above the basement, was given up to suites of sumptuous +reception-rooms and halls, with magnificent ceilings and frescoes by the +great painters of the day, while antique statues and reliefs adorned the +courts, vestibules, and niches of these princely dwellings. The ++Massimi+ palace, by Peruzzi, is an interesting example of this type. +The Vatican, Cancelleria, and Giraud palaces have already been +mentioned; other notable palaces are the Palma (1506) and Sacchetti +(1540), by A. da San Gallo the Younger; the +Farnesina+, by Peruzzi, +with celebrated fresco decorations designed by Raphael; and the Lante +(1520) and Altemps (1530), by Peruzzi. But the noblest creation of this +period was the + + ++FARNESE PALACE+, by many esteemed the finest in Italy. It was begun in +1530 for Alex. Farnese (Paul III.) by A. da San Gallo the Younger, with +Vignola’s collaboration. The simple but admirable plan is shown in Fig. +167, and the courtyard, the most imposing in Italy, in Fig. 168. The +exterior is monotonous, but the noble cornice by Michael Angelo +measurably redeems this defect. The fine vaulted columnar entrance +vestibule, the court and the _salons_, make up an _ensemble_ worthy of +the great architects who designed it. The loggia toward the river was +added by _G. della Porta_ in 1580. + + [Illustration: FIG. 167.--PLAN OF FARNESE PALACE.] + + ++VILLAS.+ The Italian villa of this pleasure-loving period afforded full +scope for the most playful fancies of the architect, decorator, and +landscape gardener. It comprised usually a dwelling, a _casino_ or +amusement-house, and many minor edifices, summer-houses, arcades, etc., +disposed in extensive grounds laid out with terraces, cascades, and +shaded alleys. The style was graceful, sometimes trivial, but almost +always pleasing, making free use of stucco enrichments, both internally +and externally, with abundance of gilding and frescoing. The +Villa +Madama+ (1516), by Raphael, with stucco-decorations by Giulio Romano, +though incomplete and now dilapidated, is a noted example of the style. +More complete, the +Villa of Pope Julius+, by Vignola (1550), belongs by +its purity of style to this period; its façade well exemplifies the +simplicity, dignity, and fine proportions of this master’s work. In +addition to these Roman villas may be mentioned the +V. Medici+ (1540, +by _Annibale Lippi_; now the French Academy of Rome); the +Casino del +Papa+ in the Vatican Gardens, by _Pirro Ligorio_ (1560); the +V. Lante+, +near Viterbo, and the +V. d’Este+, at Tivoli, as displaying among almost +countless others the Italian skill in combining architecture and +gardening. + + [Illustration: FIG. 168.--ANGLE OF COURT OF FARNESE PALACE, ROME.] + + ++CHURCHES AND CHAPELS.+ This period witnessed the building of a few +churches of the first rank, but it was especially prolific in memorial, +votive, and sepulchral chapels added to churches already existing, like +the +Chigi Chapel+ of S. M. del Popolo, by Raphael. The earlier churches +of this period generally followed antecedent types, with the dome as the +central feature dominating a cruciform plan, and simple, unostentatious +and sometimes uninteresting exteriors. Among them may be mentioned: at +Pistoia, S. M. del Letto and +S. M. dell’ Umiltà+, the latter a fine +domical rotunda by _Ventura Vitoni_ (1509), with an imposing vestibule; +at Venice, +S. Salvatore+, by _Tullio Lombardo_ (1530), an admirable +edifice with alternating domical and barrel-vaulted bays; +S. Georgio +dei Grechi+ (1536), by _Sansovino_, and S. M. Formosa; at Todi, the ++Madonna della Consolazione+ (1510), by _Cola da Caprarola_, a charming +design with a high dome and four apses; at Montefiascone, the +Madonna +delle Grazie+, by _Sammichele_ (1523), besides several churches at +Bologna, Ferrara, Prato, Sienna, and Rome of almost or quite equal +interest. In these churches one may trace the development of the dome as +an external feature, while in +S. Biagio+, at Montepulciano, the effort +was made by _Ant. da San Gallo the Elder_ to combine with it the +contrasting lines of two campaniles, of which, however, but one was +completed. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 169.--ORIGINAL PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.] + ++ST. PETER’S.+ The culmination of Renaissance church architecture was +reached in +St. Peter’s+, at Rome. The original project of Nicholas V. +having lapsed with his death, it was the intention of Julius II. to +erect on the same site a stupendous mausoleum over the monument he had +ordered of Michael Angelo. The design of Bramante, who began its +erection in 1506, comprised a Greek cross with apsidal arms, the four +angles occupied by domical chapels and loggias within a square outline +(Fig. 169). The too hasty execution of this noble design led to the +collapse of two of the arches under the dome, and to long delays after +Bramante’s death in 1514. Raphael, Giuliano da San Gallo, Peruzzi, and +A. da San Gallo the Younger successively supervised the works under the +popes from Leo X. to Paul III., and devised a vast number of plans for +its completion. Most of these involved fundamental alterations of the +original scheme, and were motived by the abandonment of the proposed +monument of Julius II.; a church, and not a mausoleum, being in +consequence required. In 1546 Michael Angelo was assigned by Paul III. +to the works, and gave final form to the general design in a simplified +version of Bramante’s plan with more massive supports, a square east +front with a portico for the chief entrance, and the unrivalled +Dome+, +which is its most striking feature. This dome, slightly altered and +improved in curvature by della Porta after M. Angelo’s death in 1564, +was completed by _D. Fontana_ in 1604. It is the most majestic creation +of the Renaissance, and one of the greatest architectural conceptions of +all history. It measures 140 feet in internal diameter, and with its two +shells rises from a lofty drum, buttressed by coupled Corinthian +columns, to a height of 405 feet to the top of the lantern. The church, +as left by Michael Angelo, was harmonious in its proportions, though the +single order used internally and externally dwarfed by its colossal +scale the vast dimensions of the edifice. Unfortunately in 1606 _C. +Maderna_ was employed by Paul V. to lengthen the nave by two bays, +destroying the proportions of the whole, and hiding the dome from view +on a near approach. The present tasteless façade was Maderna’s work. The +splendid atrium or portico added (1629-67), by _Bernini_, as an +approach, mitigates but does not cure the ugliness and pettiness of this +front. + + [Illustration: FIG. 170.--PLAN OF ST. PETER’S, ROME, + AS NOW STANDING. + The portion below the line A, B, and the side chapels C, D, were + added by Maderna. The remainder represents Michael Angelo’s plan.] + +St. Peter’s as thus completed (Fig. 170) is the largest church in +existence, and in many respects is architecturally worthy of its +pre-eminence. The central aisle, nearly 600 feet long, with its +stupendous panelled and gilded vault, 83 feet in span, the vast central +area and the majestic dome, belong to a conception unsurpassed in +majestic simplicity and effectiveness. The construction is almost +excessively massive, but admirably disposed. On the other hand the nave +is too long, and the details not only lack originality and interest, but +are also too large and coarse in scale, dwarfing the whole edifice. The +interior (Fig. 171) is wanting in the sobriety of color that befits so +stately a design; it suggests rather a pagan temple than a Christian +basilica. These faults reveal the decline of taste which had already set +in before Michael Angelo took charge of the work, and which appears even +in the works of that master. + + ++THE PERIOD OF FORMAL CLASSICISM.+ With the middle of the 16th century +the classic orders began to dominate all architectural design. While +Vignola, who wrote a treatise upon the orders, employed them with +unfailing refinement and judgment, his contemporaries showed less +discernment and taste, making of them an end rather than a means. Too +often mere classical correctness was substituted for the fundamental +qualities of original invention and intrinsic beauty of composition. The +innovation of colossal orders extending through several stories, while +it gave to exterior designs a certain grandeur of scale, tended to +coarseness and even vulgarity of detail. Sculpture and ornament began to +lose their refinement; and while street-architecture gained in +monumental scale, and public squares received a more stately adornment +than ever before, the street-façades individually were too often bare +and uninteresting in their correct formality. In the interiors of +churches and large halls there appears a struggle between a cold and +dignified simplicity and a growing tendency toward pretentious sham. But +these pernicious tendencies did not fully mature till the latter part of +the century, and the half-century after 1540 or 1550 was prolific of +notable works in both ecclesiastical and secular architecture. The names +of Michael Angelo and Vignola, whose careers began in the preceding +period; of Palladio and della Porta (1541-1604) in Rome; of Sammichele +and Sansovino in Verona and Venice, and of Galeazzo Alessi in Genoa, +stand high in the ranks of architectural merit. + + [Illustration: FIG. 171.--INTERIOR OF ST. PETER’S, ROME.] + + ++CHURCHES.+ The type established by St. Peter’s was widely imitated +throughout Italy. The churches in which a Greek or Latin cross is +dominated by a high dome rising from a drum and terminating in a +lantern, and is treated both internally and externally with Roman +Corinthian pilasters and arches, are almost numberless. Among the best +churches of this type is the +Gesù+ at Rome, by Vignola (1568), with a +highly ornate interior of excellent proportions and a less interesting +exterior, the façade adorned with two stories of orders and great +flanking volutes over the sides (see p. 277). Two churches at Venice, by +_Palladio_--+S. Giorgio Maggiore+ (1560; façade by _Scamozzi_, 1575) and +the +Redentore+--offer a strong contrast to the Gesù, in their cold and +almost bare but pure and correct design. An imitation of Bramante’s plan +for St. Peter’s appears in +S. M. di Carignano+, at Genoa, by _Galeazzo +Alessi_ (1500-72), begun 1552, a fine structure, though inferior in +scale and detail to its original. Besides these and other important +churches there were many large domical chapels of great splendor added +to earlier churches; of these the +Chapel of Sixtus V.+ in S. M. +Maggiore, at Rome, by _D. Fontana_ (1543-1607), is an excellent example. + + ++PALACES: ROME.+ The palaces on the Capitoline Hill, built at different +dates (1540-1644) from designs by Michael Angelo, illustrate the palace +architecture of this period, and the imposing effect of a single +colossal order running through two stories. This treatment, though well +adapted to produce monumental effects in large squares, was dangerous in +its bareness and heaviness of scale, and was better suited for buildings +of vast dimensions than for ordinary street-façades. In other Roman +palaces of this time the traditions of the preceding period still +prevailed, as in the +Sapienza+ (University), by della Porta (1575), +which has a dignified court and a façade of great refinement without +columns or pilasters. The +Papal palaces+ built by Domenico Fontana on +the Lateran, Quirinal, and Vatican hills, between 1574 and 1590, +externally copying the style of the Farnese, show a similar return to +earlier models, but are less pure and refined in detail than the +Sapienza. The great pentagonal +Palace of Caprarola+, near Rome, by +Vignola, is perhaps the most successful and imposing production of the +Roman classic school. + + ++VERONA.+ Outside of Rome, palace-building took on various local and +provincial phases of style, of which the most important were the closely +related styles of Verona, Venice, and Vicenza. _Michele Sammichele_ +(1484-1549), who built in Verona the +Bevilacqua+, +Canossa+, +Pompei+, +and +Verzi+ palaces and the four chief city gates, and in Venice the ++P. Grimani+, his masterpiece (1550), was a designer of great +originality and power. He introduced into his military architecture, as +in the gates of Verona, the use of rusticated orders, which he treated +with skill and taste. The idea was copied by later architects and +applied, with doubtful propriety, to palace-façades; though Ammanati’s +garden-façade for the Pitti palace, in Florence (cir. 1560), is an +impressive and successful design. + + ++VENICE.+ Into the development of the maturing classic style _Giacopo +Tatti Sansovino_ (1477-1570) introduced in his Venetian buildings new +elements of splendor. Coupled columns between arches themselves +supported on columns, and a profusion of figure sculpture, gave to his +palace-façades a hitherto unknown magnificence of effect, as in the ++Library of St. Mark+ (now the Royal Palace, Fig. 172), and the ++Cornaro+ palace (P. Corner de Cà Grande), both dating from about +1530-40. So strongly did he impress upon Venice these ornate and +sumptuous variations on classic themes, that later architects adhered, +in a very debased period, to the main features and spirit of his work. + + [Illustration: FIG. 172.--LIBRARY OF ST. MARK, VENICE.] + + ++VICENZA.+ Of _Palladio’s_ churches in Venice we have already spoken; +his palaces are mainly to be found in his native city, Vicenza. In these +structures he displayed great fertility of invention and a profound +familiarity with the classic orders, but the degenerate taste of the +Baroque period already begins to show itself in his work. There is far +less of architectural propriety and grace in these pretentious palaces, +with their colossal orders and their affectation of grandeur, than in +the designs of Vignola or Sammichele. Wood and plaster, used to mimic +stone, indicate the approaching reign of sham in all design +(+P. Barbarano+, 1570; +Chieregati+, 1560; +Tiene+, +Valmarano+, 1556; ++Villa Capra+). His masterpiece is the two-storied arcade about the +mediæval +Basilica+, in which the arches are supported on a minor order +between engaged columns serving as buttresses. This treatment has in +consequence ever since been known as the _Palladian Motive_. + + ++GENOA.+ During the second half of the sixteenth century a remarkable +series of palaces was erected in Genoa, especially notable for their +great courts and imposing staircases. These last were given unusual +prominence owing to differences of level in the courts, arising from the +slope of their sites on the hillside. Many of these palaces were by +Galeazzo Alessi (1502-72); others by architects of lesser note; but +nearly all characterized by their effective planning, fine stairs and +loggias, and strong and dignified, if sometimes uninteresting, detail +(+P. Balbi+, +Brignole+, +Cambiasi+, +Doria-Tursi+ [or Municipio], ++Durazzo+ [or Reale], +Pallavicini+, and +University+). + + [Illustration: FIG. 173.--INTERIOR OF SAN SEVERO, NAPLES.] + + ++THE BAROQUE STYLE.+ A reaction from the cold _classicismo_ of the late +sixteenth century showed itself in the following period, in the lawless +and vulgar extravagances of the so-called _Baroque_ style. The wealthy +Jesuit order was a notorious contributor to the debasement of +architectural taste. Most of the Jesuit churches and many others not +belonging to the order, but following its pernicious example, are +monuments of bad taste and pretentious sham. Broken and contorted +pediments, huge scrolls, heavy mouldings, ill-applied sculpture in +exaggerated attitudes, and a general disregard for architectural +propriety characterized this period, especially in its church +architecture, to whose style the name _Jesuit_ is often applied. Sham +marble and heavy and excessive gilding were universal (Fig. 173). _C. +Maderna_ (1556-1629), _Lorenzo Bernini_ (1589-1680), and _F. Borromini_ +(1599-1667) were the worst offenders of the period, though Bernini was +an artist of undoubted ability, as proved by his colonnades or atrium in +front of St. Peter’s. There were, however, architects of purer taste +whose works even in that debased age were worthy of admiration. + + [Illustration: FIG. 174.--CHURCH OF S. M. DELLA SALUTE, VENICE.] + + ++BAROQUE CHURCHES.+ The Baroque style prevailed in church architecture +for almost two centuries. The majority of the churches present varieties +of the cruciform plan crowned by a high dome which is usually the best +part of the design. Everywhere else the vices of the period appear in +these churches, especially in their façades and internal decoration. ++S. M. della Vittoria+, by Maderna, and +Sta. Agnese+, by Borromini, +both at Rome, are examples of the style. Naples is particularly full of +Baroque churches (Fig. 173), a few of which, like the +Gesù Nuovo+ +(1584), are dignified and creditable designs. The domical church of ++S. M. della Salute+, at Venice (1631), by Longhena, is also a majestic +edifice in excellent style (Fig. 174), and here and there other churches +offer exceptions to the prevalent baseness of architecture. Particularly +objectionable was the wholesale disfigurement of existing monuments by +ruthless remodelling, as in S. John Lateran, at Rome, the cathedrals of +Ferrara and Ravenna, and many others. + + ++PALACES.+ These were generally superior to the churches, and not +infrequently impressive and dignified structures. The two best examples +in Rome are the +P. Borghese+, by _Martino Lunghi the Elder_ (1590), +with a fine court arcade on coupled Doric and Ionic columns, and the ++P. Barberini+, by Maderna and Borromini, with an elliptical staircase +by Bernini, one of the few palaces in Italy with projecting lateral +wings. In Venice, Longhena, in the +Rezzonico+ and +Pesaro+ palaces +(1650-80), showed his freedom from the mannerisms of the age by +reproducing successfully the ornate but dignified style of Sansovino +(see p. 301). At Naples D. Fontana, whose works overlap the Baroque +period, produced in the +Royal Palace+ (1600) and the +Royal Museum+ +(1586-1615) designs of considerable dignity, in some respects superior +to his papal residences in Rome. In suburban villas, like the +Albani+ +and +Borghese+ villas near Rome, the ostentatious style of the Decline +found free and congenial expression. + + ++LATER MONUMENTS.+ In the few eighteenth-century buildings which are +worthy of mention there is noticeable a reaction from the extravagances +of the seventeenth century, shown in the dignified correctness of the +exteriors and the somewhat frigid splendor of the interiors. The most +notable work of this period is the +Royal Palace+ at +Caserta+, by _Van +Vitelli_ (1752), an architect of considerable taste and inventiveness, +considering his time. This great palace, 800 feet square, encloses four +fine courts, and is especially remarkable for the simple if monotonous +dignity of the well proportioned exterior and the effective planning of +its three octagonal vestibules, its ornate chapel and noble staircase. +Staircases, indeed, were among the most successful features of late +Italian architecture, as in the +Scala Regia+ of the Vatican, and in the +Corsini, Braschi, and Barberini palaces at Rome, the Royal Palace at +Naples, etc. + +In church architecture the +east front+ of +S. John Lateran+ in Rome, by +_Galilei_ (1734), and the whole +exterior+ of +S. M. Maggiore+, by +_Ferd. Fuga_ (1743), are noteworthy designs: the former an especially +powerful conception, combining a colossal order with two smaller orders +in superposed _loggie_, but marred by the excessive scale of the statues +which crown it. The +Fountain+ of +Trevi+, conceived in much the same +spirit (1735, by _Niccola Salvi_), is a striking piece of decorative +architecture. The Sacristy of St. Peter’s, by _Marchionne_ (1775), also +deserves mention as a monumental and not uninteresting work. In the +early years of the present century the +Braccio Nuovo+ of the Vatican, +by _Stern_, the imposing church of +S. Francesco di Paola+ at Naples, by +_Bianchi_, designed in partial imitation of the Pantheon, and the great ++S. Carlo Theatre+ at Naples, show the same coldly classical spirit, not +wholly without merit, but lacking in true originality and freedom of +conception. + + ++CAMPANILES.+ The +campaniles+ of the Renaissance and Decline deserve at +least passing reference, though they are neither numerous nor often of +conspicuous interest. That of the +Campidoglio+ (Capitol) at Rome, by +Martino Lunghi, is a good example of the classical type. Venetia +possesses a number of graceful and lofty bell-towers, generally of brick +with marble bell-stages, of which the upper part of the +Campanile+ of ++St. Mark+ and the tower of S. Giorgio Maggiore are the finest examples. + +The Decline attained what the early Renaissance aimed at--the revival of +Roman forms. But it was no longer a Renaissance; it was a decrepit and +unimaginative art, held in the fetters of a servile imitation, copying +the letter rather than the spirit of antique design. It was the mistaken +and abject worship of precedent which started architecture upon its +downward path and led to the atrocious products of the seventeenth +century. + + + +MONUMENTS+ (mainly in addition to those mentioned in the text). + 15TH CENTURY--FLORENCE: Foundling Hospital (Innocenti), 1421; Old + Sacristy and Cloister S. Lorenzo; P. Quaratesi, 1440; cloisters at + Sta. Croce and Certosa, all by Brunelleschi; façade S. M. Novella, + by Alberti, 1456; Badia at Fiesole, from designs of Brunelleschi, + 1462; Court of P. Vecchio, by Michelozzi, 1464 (altered and + enriched, 1565); P. Guadagni, by Cronaca, 1490; Hall of 500 in + P. Vecchio, by same, 1495.--VENICE: S. Zaccaria, by Martino + Lombardo, 1457-1515; S. Michele, by Moro Lombardo, 1466; S. M. del + Orto, 1473; S. Giovanni Crisostomo, by Moro Lombardo, atrium of + S. Giovanni Evangelista, Procurazie Vecchie, all 1481; Scuola di + S. Marco, by Martino Lombardo, 1490; P. Dario; + P. Corner-Spinelli.--FERRARA: P. Schifanoja, 1469; P. Scrofa or + Costabili, 1485; S. M. in Vado, P. dei Diamanti, P. Bevilacqua, + S. Francesco, S. Benedetto, S. Cristoforo, all 1490-1500.--MILAN: + Ospedale Grande (or Maggiore), begun 1457 by Filarete, extended by + Bramante, cir. 1480-90 (great court by Richini, 17th century); + S. M. delle Grazie, E. end, Sacristy of S. Satiro, S. M. presso + S. Celso, all by Bramante, 1477-1499.--ROME: S. Pietro in + Montorio, 1472; S. M. del Popolo, 1475?; Sistine Chapel of + Vatican, 1475; S. Agostino, 1483.--SIENNA: Loggia del Papa and + P. Nerucci, 1460; P. del Governo, 1469-1500; P. Spannocchi, 1470; + Sta. Catarina, 1490, by di Bastiano and Federighi, church later by + Peruzzi; Library in cathedral by L. Marina, 1497; Oratory of + S. Bernardino, by Turrapili, 1496.--PIENZA: Cathedral, Bishop’s + Palace (Vescovado), P. Pubblico, all cir. 1460, by B. di Lorenzo + (or Rosselini?). ELSEWHERE (in chronological order): Arch of + Alphonso, Naples, 1443, by P. di Martino; Oratory S. Bernardino, + Perugia, by di Duccio, 1461; Church over Casa-Santa, Loreto, + 1465-1526; P. del Consiglio at Verona, by Fra Giocondo, 1476; + Capella Colleoni, Bergamo, 1476; S. M. in Organo, Verona, 1481; + Porta Capuana, Naples, by Giul. da Majano, 1484; Madonna della + Croce, Crema, by B. Battagli, 1490-1556; Madonna di Campagna and + S. Sisto, Piacenza, both 1492-1511; P. Bevilacqua, Bologna, by + Nardi, 1492 (?); P. Gravina, Naples; P. Fava, Bologna; + P. Pretorio, Lucca; S. M. dei Miracoli Brescia; all at close of + 15th century. + + 16TH CENTURY--ROME: P. Sora, 1501; S. M. della Pace and cloister, + 1504, both by Bramante (façade of church by P. da Cortona, 17th + century); S. M. di Loreto, 1507, by A. da San Gallo the Elder; + P. Vidoni, by Raphael; P. Lante, 1520; Vigna Papa Giulio, 1534, by + Peruzzi; P. dei Conservatori, 1540, and P. del Senatore, 1563 + (both on Capitol), by M. Angelo, Vignola, and della Porta; Sistine + Chapel in S. M. Maggiore, 1590; S. Andrea della Valle, 1591, by + Olivieri (façade, 1670, by Rainaldi).--FLORENCE: Medici Chapel of + S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same, and Laurentian Library, all by + M. Angelo, 1529-40; Mercato Nuovo, 1547, by B. Tasso; P. degli + Uffizi, 1560-70, by Vasari; P. Giugni, 1560-8.--VENICE: + P. Camerlinghi, 1525, by Bergamasco; S. Francesco della Vigna, by + Sansovino, 1539, façade by Palladio, 1568; Zecca or Mint, 1536, + and Loggetta of Campanile, 1540, by Sansovino[25], Procurazie + Nuove, 1584, by Scamozzi.--VERONA: Capella Pellegrini in + S. Bernardino, 1514; City Gates, by Sammichele, 1530-40 (Porte + Nuova, Stuppa, S. Zeno, S. Giorgio).--VICENZA: P. Porto, 1552; + Teatro Olimpico, 1580; both by Palladio.--GENOA: P. Andrea Doria, + by Montorsoli, 1529; P. Ducale, by Pennone, 1550; P. Lercari, + P. Spinola, P. Sauli, P. Marcello Durazzo, all by Gal. Alessi, + cir. 1550; Sta. Annunziata, 1587, by della Porta; Loggia dei + Banchi, end of 16th century.--ELSEWHERE (in chronological order). + P. Roverella, Ferrara, 1508; P. del Magnifico, Sienna, 1508, by + Cozzarelli; P. Communale, Brescia, 1508, by Formentone; + P. Albergati, Bologna, 1510; P. Ducale, Mantua, 1520-40; + P. Giustiniani, Padua, by Falconetto, 1524; Ospedale del Ceppo, + Pistoia, 1525; Madonna delle Grazie, Pistoia, by Vitoni, 1535; + P. Buoncampagni-Ludovisi, Bologna, 1545; Cathedral, Padua, 1550, + by Righetti and della Valle, after M. Angelo; P. Bernardini, 1560, + and P. Ducale, 1578, at Lucca, both by Ammanati. + + [Footnote 25: See Appendix B.] + + 17TH CENTURY: Chapel of the Princes in S. Lorenzo, Florence, 1604, + by Nigetti; S. Pietro, Bologna, 1605; S. Andrea delle Fratte, + Rome, 1612; Villa Borghese, Rome, 1616, by Vasanzio; P. Contarini + delle Scrigni, Venice, by Scamozzi; Badia at Florence, rebuilt + 1625 by Segaloni; S. Ignazio, Rome, 1626-85; Museum of the + Capitol, Rome, 1644-50; Church of Gli Scalzi, Venice, 1649; + P. Pesaro, Venice, by Longhena, 1650; S. Moisé, Venice, 1668; + Brera Palace, Milan; S. M. Zobenigo, Venice, 1680; Dogana di Mare, + Venice, 1686, by Benone; Santi Apostoli, Rome. + + 18TH AND EARLY 19TH CENTURY: Gesuati, at Venice, 1715-30; + S. Geremia, Venice, 1753, by Corbellini; P. Braschi, Rome, by + Morelli, 1790; Nuova Fabbrica, Venice, 1810. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN FRANCE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Müntz, Palustre. Also + Berty, _La Renaissance monumentale en France_. Château, _Histoire + et caractères de l’architecture en France_. Daly, _Motifs + historiques d’architecture et de sculpture_. De Laborde, _La + Renaissance des arts à la cour de France_. Du Cerceau, _Les plus + excellents bastiments de France_. Lübke, _Geschichte der + Renaissance in Frankreich_. Mathews, _The Renaissance under the + Valois Kings_. Palustre, _La Renaissance en France_. Pattison, + _The Renaissance of the Fine Arts in France_. Rouyer et Darcel, + _L’Art architectural en France_. Sauvageot, _Choix de palais, + châteaux, hôtels, et maisons de France_. + + ++ORIGIN AND CHARACTER.+ The vitality and richness of the Gothic style in +France, even in its decline in the fifteenth century, long stood in the +way of any general introduction of classic forms. When the Renaissance +appeared, it came as a foreign importation, introduced from Italy by the +king and the nobility. It underwent a protracted transitional phase, +during which the national Gothic forms and traditions were picturesquely +mingled with those of the Renaissance. The campaigns of Charles VIII. +(1489), Louis XII. (1499), and Francis I. (1515), in vindication of +their claims to the thrones of Naples and Milan, brought these monarchs +and their nobles into contact with the splendid material and artistic +civilization of Italy, then in the full tide of the maturing +Renaissance. They returned to France, filled with the ambition to rival +the splendid palaces and gardens of Italy, taking with them Italian +artists to teach their arts to the French. But while these Italians +successfully introduced many classic elements and details into French +architecture, they wholly failed to dominate the French master-masons +and _tailleurs de pierre_ in matters of planning and general +composition. The early Renaissance architecture of France is +consequently wholly unlike the Italian, from which it derived only minor +details and a certain largeness and breadth of spirit. + + ++PERIODS.+ The French Renaissance and its sequent developments may be +broadly divided into three periods, with subdivisions coinciding more or +less closely with various reigns, as follows: + +I. THE VALOIS PERIOD, or Renaissance proper, 1483-1589, subdivided into: + +_a._ THE TRANSITION, comprising the reigns of Charles VIII. and Louis +XII. (1483-1515), and the early years of that of Francis I.; +characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details with Gothic +conceptions. + +_b._ THE STYLE OF FRANCIS I., or Early Renaissance, from about 1520 to +that king’s death in 1547; distinguished by a remarkable variety and +grace of composition and beauty of detail. + +_c._ THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE, comprising the reigns of Henry II. +(1547), Francis II. (1559), Charles IX. (1560), and Henry III. +(1574-89); marked by the gradual adoption of the classic orders and a +decline in the delicacy and richness of the ornament. + +II. THE BOURBON OR CLASSIC PERIOD (1589-1715): + +_a._ STYLE OF HENRY IV., covering his reign and partly that of Louis +XIII. (1610-45), employing the orders and other classic forms with a +somewhat heavy, florid style of ornament. + +_b._ STYLE OF LOUIS XIV., beginning in the preceding reign and extending +through that of Louis XIV. (1645-1715); the great age of classic +architecture in France, corresponding to the Palladian in Italy. + +III. THE DECLINE OR ROCOCO PERIOD, corresponding with the reign of Louis +XV. (1715-74); marked by pompous extravagance and capriciousness. + +During this period a reaction set in toward a severer classicism, +leading to the styles of Louis XVI. and of the Empire, to be treated of +in a later chapter. + + ++THE TRANSITION.+ As early as 1475 the new style made its appearance in +altars, tombs, and rood-screens wrought by French carvers with the +collaboration of Italian artificers. The tomb erected by Charles of +Anjou to his father in Le Mans cathedral (1475, by _Francesco Laurana_), +the chapel of St. Lazare in the cathedral of Marseilles (1483), and the +tomb of the children of Charles VIII. in Tours cathedral (1506), by +_Michel Columbe_, the greatest artist of his time in France, are +examples. The schools of Rouen and Tours were especially prominent in +works of this kind, marked by exuberant fancy and great delicacy of +execution. In church architecture Gothic traditions were long dominant, +in spite of the great numbers of Italian prelates in France. It was in +_châteaux_, palaces, and dwellings that the new style achieved its most +notable triumphs. + + ++EARLY CHÂTEAUX.+ The castle of Charles VIII., at Amboise on the Loire, +shows little trace of Italian influence. It was under Louis XII. that +the transformation of French architecture really began. The +Château de +Gaillon+ (of which unfortunately only fragments remain in the École des +Beaux-Arts at Paris), built for the Cardinal George of Amboise, between +1497 and 1509, by _Pierre Fain_, was the masterwork of the Rouen school. +It presented a curious mixture of styles, with its irregular plan, its +moat, drawbridge, and round corner-towers, its high roofs, turrets, and +dormers, which gave it, in spite of many Renaissance details, a mediæval +picturesqueness. The +Château de Blois+ (the east and south wings of the +present group), begun for Louis XII. about 1500, was the first of a +remarkable series of royal palaces which are the glory of French +architecture. It shows the new influences in its horizontal lines and +flat, unbroken façades of brick and stone, rather than in its +architectural details (Fig. 175). The +Ducal Palace+ at Nancy and the ++Hôtel de Ville+ at Orléans, by _Viart_, show a similar commingling of +the classic and mediæval styles. + + [Illustration: FIG. 175.--BLOIS, COURT FAÇADE OF WING + OF LOUIS XII.] + + ++STYLE OF FRANCIS I.+ Early in the reign of this monarch, and partly +under the lead of Italian artists, like il Rosso, Serlio, and +Primaticcio, classic elements began to dominate the general composition +and Gothic details rapidly disappeared. A simple and effective system of +exterior design was adopted in the castles and palaces of this period. +Finely moulded belt-courses at the sills and heads of the windows marked +the different stories, and were crossed by a system of almost equally +important vertical lines, formed by superposed pilasters flanking the +windows continuously from basement to roof. The façade was crowned by a +slight cornice and open balustrade, above which rose a steep and lofty +roof, diversified by elaborate dormer windows which were adorned with +gables and pinnacles (Fig. 178). Slender pilasters, treated like long +panels ornamented with arabesques of great beauty, or with a species of +baluster shaft like a candelabrum, were preferred to columns, and were +provided with graceful capitals of the Corinthianesque type. The +mouldings were minute and richly carved; pediments were replaced by +steep gables, and mullioned windows with stone crossbars were used in +preference to the simpler Italian openings. In the earlier monuments +Gothic details were still used occasionally; and round corner-towers, +high dormers, and numerous turrets and pinnacles appear even in the +châteaux of later date. + + ++CHURCHES.+ Ecclesiastical architecture received but scant attention +under Francis I., and, so far as it was practised, still clung +tenaciously to Gothic principles. Among the few important churches of +this period may be mentioned +St. Etienne du Mont+, at Paris (1517-38), +in which classic and Gothic features appear in nearly equal proportions; +the east end of +St. Pierre+, at Caen, with rich external carving; and +the great parish church of +St. Eustache+, at Paris (1532, by +_Lemercier_), in which the plan and construction are purely Gothic, +while the details throughout belong to the new style, though with little +appreciation of the spirit and proportions of classic art. New façades +were also built for a number of already existing churches, among which ++St. Michel+, at Dijon, is conspicuous, with its vast portal arch and +imposing towers. The Gothic towers of Tours cathedral were completed +with Renaissance lanterns or belfries, the northern in 1507, the +southern in 1547. + + ++PALACES.+ To the palace at Blois begun by his predecessor, Francis I. +added a northern and a western wing, completing the court. The north +wing is one of the masterpieces of the style, presenting toward the +court a simple and effective composition, with a rich but slightly +projecting cornice and a high roof with elaborate dormers. This façade +is divided into two unequal sections by the open +Staircase Tower+ (Fig. +176), a _chef-d’œuvre_ in boldness of construction as well as in +delicacy and richness of carving. The outer façade of this wing is a +less ornate but more vigorous design, crowned by a continuous open +loggia under the roof. More extensive than Blois was +Fontainebleau+, +the favorite residence of the king and of many of his successors. +Following in parts the irregular plan of the convent it replaced, its +other portions were more symmetrically disposed, while the whole was +treated externally in a somewhat severe, semi-classic style, singularly +lacking in ornament. Internally, however, this palace, begun in 1528 by +_Gilles Le Breton_, was at that time the most splendid in France, the +gallery of Francis I. being especially noted. The +Château+ of +St. +Germain+, near Paris (1539, by _Pierre Chambiges_), is of a very +different character. Built largely of brick, with flat balustraded roof +and deep buttresses carrying three ranges of arches, it is neither +Gothic nor classic, neither fortress nor palace in aspect, but a wholly +unique conception. + + [Illustration: FIG. 176.--STAIRCASE TOWER, BLOIS.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 177.--PLAN OF CHAMBORD.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 178.--VIEW OF CHAMBORD.] + +The rural châteaux and hunting-lodges erected by Francis I. display the +greatest diversity of plan and treatment, attesting the inventiveness of +the French genius, expressing itself in a new-found language, whose +formal canons it disdained. Chief among them is the +Château of +Chambord+ (Figs. 177, 178)--“a Fata Morgana in the midst of a wild, +woody thicket,” to use Lübke’s language. This extraordinary edifice, +resembling in plan a feudal castle with curtain-walls, bastions, moat, +and donjon, is in its architectural treatment a palace with arcades, +open-stair towers, a noble double spiral staircase terminating in a +graceful lantern, and a roof of the most bewildering complexity of +towers, chimneys, and dormers (1526, by _Pierre le Nepveu_). The +hunting-lodges of La Muette and Chalvau, and the so-called +Château de +Madrid+--all three demolished during or since the Revolution--deserve +mention, especially the last. This consisted of two rectangular +pavilions, connected by a lofty banquet-hall, and adorned externally +with arcades in Florentine style, and with medallions and reliefs of +della Robbia ware (1527, by _Gadyer_). + + ++THE LOUVRE.+ By far the most important of all the architectural +enterprises of this reign, in ultimate results, if not in original +extent, was the beginning of a new palace to replace the old Gothic +fortified palace of the Louvre. To this task Pierre Lescot was summoned +in 1542, and the work of erection actually begun in 1546. The new +palace, in a sumptuous and remarkably dignified classic style, was to +have covered precisely the area of the demolished fortress. Only the +southwest half, comprising two sides of the court, was, however, +undertaken at the outset (Fig. 179). It remained for later monarchs to +amplify the original scheme, and ultimately to complete, late in the +present century, the most extensive and beautiful of all the royal +residences of Europe. (See Figs. 181, 208, 209.) + + [Illustration: FIG. 179.--DETAIL OF COURT OF LOUVRE, PARIS.] + +Want of space forbids more than a passing reference to the rural castles +of the nobility, rivalling those of the king. Among them Bury, La +Rochefoucauld, Bournazel, and especially +Azay-le-Rideau+ (1520) and ++Chenonceaux+ (1515-23), may be mentioned, all displaying that love of +rural pleasure, that hatred of the city and its confinement, which so +distinguish the French from the Italian Renaissance. + + ++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ The +Hôtel-de-Ville+ (town hall), of Paris, begun +during this reign, from plans by _Domenico di Cortona_ (?), and +completed under Henry IV., was the most important edifice of a class +which in later periods numbered many interesting structures. The town +hall of +Beaugency+ (1527) is one of the best of minor public buildings +in France, and in its elegant treatment of a simple two-storied façade +may be classed with the +Maison François I.+, at Paris. This stood +formerly at Moret, whence it was transported to Paris and re-erected +about 1830 in somewhat modified form. The large city houses of this +period are legion; we can mention only the Hôtel Carnavalet at Paris; +the Hôtel Bourgtheroude at Rouen; the Hôtel d’Écoville at Caen; the +archbishop’s palace at Sens, and a number of houses in Orléans. The ++Tomb of Louis XII.+, at St. Denis, deserves especial mention for its +fine proportions and beautiful arabesques. + + ++THE ADVANCED RENAISSANCE.+ By the middle of the sixteenth century the +new style had lost much of its earlier charm. The orders, used with +increasing frequency, were more and more conformed to antique +precedents. Façades were flatter and simpler, cornices more pronounced, +arches more Roman in treatment, and a heavier style of carving took the +place of the delicate arabesques of the preceding age. The reigns of +Henry II. (1547-59) and Charles IX. (1560-74) were especially +distinguished by the labors of three celebrated architects: _Pierre +Lescot_ (1515-78), who continued the work on the southwest angle of the +Louvre; _Jean Bullant_ (1515-78), to whom are due the right wing of +Ecouen and the porch of colossal Corinthian columns in the left wing of +the same, built under Francis I.; and, finally, _Philibert de l’Orme_ +(1515-70). _Jean Goujon_ (1510-72) also executed during this period most +of the remarkable architectural sculptures which have made his name one +of the most illustrious in the annals of French art. Chief among the +works of de l’Orme was the palace of the +Tuileries+, built under +Charles IX. for Cathérine de Médicis, not far from the Louvre, with +which it was ultimately connected by a long gallery. Of the vast plan +conceived for this palace, and comprising a succession of courts and +wings, only a part of one side was erected (1564-72). This consisted of +a domical pavilion, flanked by low wings only a story and a half high, +to which were added two stories under Henry IV., to the great advantage +of the design. Another masterpiece was the +Château d’Anet+, built in +1552 by Henry II. for Diane de Poitiers, of which, unfortunately, only +fragments survive. This beautiful edifice, while retaining the +semi-military moat and bastions of feudal tradition, was planned with +classic symmetry, adorned with superposed orders, court arcades, and +rectangular corner-pavilions, and provided with a domical cruciform +chapel, the earliest of its class in France. All the details were +unusually pure and correct, with just enough of freedom and variety to +lend a charm wanting in later works of the period. To the reign of Henry +II. belong also the châteaux of Ancy-le-Franc, Verneuil, Chantilly (the +“petit château,” by Bullant), the banquet-hall over the bridge at +Chenonceaux (1556), several notable residences at Toulouse, and the tomb +of Francis I. at St. Denis. The châteaux of +Pailly+ and +Sully+, +distinguished by the sobriety and monumental quality of their +composition, in which the orders are important elements, belong to the +reign of Charles IX., together with the Tuileries, already mentioned. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 180.--THE LUXEMBURG, PARIS.] + ++THE CLASSIC PERIOD: HENRY IV.+ Under this energetic but capricious +monarch (1589-1610) and his Florentine queen, Marie de Médicis, +architecture entered upon a new period of activity and a new stage of +development. Without the charm of the early Renaissance or the +stateliness of the age of Louis XIV., it has a touch of the Baroque, +attributable partly to the influence of Marie de Médicis and her Italian +prelates, and partly to the Italian training of many of the French +architects. The great work of this period was the extension of the +Tuileries by _J. B. du Cerceau_, and the completion, by _Métézeau_ and +others, of the long gallery next the Seine, begun under Henry II., with +the view of connecting the Tuileries with the Louvre. In this part of +the work colossal orders were used with indifferent effect. Next in +importance was the addition to Fontainebleau of a great court to the +eastward, whose relatively quiet and dignified style offers less +contrast than one might expect to the other wings and courts dating from +Francis I. More successful architecturally than either of the above was +the +Luxemburg+ palace, built for the queen by _Salomon De Brosse_, in +1616 (Fig. 180). Its plan presents the favorite French arrangement of a +main building separated from the street by a garden or court, the latter +surrounded on three sides by low wings containing the dependencies. +Externally, rusticated orders recall the garden front of the Pitti at +Florence; but the scale is smaller, and the projecting pavilions and +high roofs give it a grace and picturesqueness wanting in the Florentine +model. The +Place Royale+, at Paris, and the château of Beaumesnil, +illustrate a type of brick-and-stone architecture much in vogue at this +time, stone quoins decorating the windows and corners, and the orders +being generally omitted. + +Under Louis XIII. the Tuileries were extended northward and the Louvre +as built by Lescot was doubled in size by the architect _Lemercier_, the +Pavillon de l’Horloge being added to form the centre of the enlarged +court façade. + + ++CHURCHES.+ To this reign belong also the most important churches of the +period. The church of +St. Paul-St. Louis+, at Paris (1627, by +_Derrand_), displays the worst faults of the time, in the overloaded and +meaningless decoration of its uninteresting front. Its internal dome is +the earliest in Paris. Far superior was the chapel of the +Sorbonne+, +a well-designed domical church by _Lemercier_, with a sober and +appropriate exterior treated with superposed orders. + + ++PERIOD OF LOUIS XIV.+ This was an age of remarkable literary and +artistic activity, pompous and pedantic in many of its manifestations, +but distinguished also by productions of a very high order. Although +contemporary with the Italian Baroque--Bernini having been the guest of +Louis XIV.--the architecture of this period was free from the wild +extravagances of that style. In its often cold and correct dignity it +resembled rather that of Palladio, making large use of the orders in +exterior design, and tending rather to monotony than to overloaded +decoration. In interior design there was more of lightness and caprice. +Papier-maché and stucco were freely used in a fanciful style of relief +ornamentation by scrolls, wreaths, shells, etc., and decorative +panelling was much employed. The whole was saved from triviality only by +the controlling lines of the architecture which framed it. But it was +better suited to cabinet-work or to the prettinesses of the boudoir than +to monumental interiors. The +Galerie d’Apollon+, built during this +reign over the Petite Galerie in the Louvre, escapes this reproach, +however, by the sumptuous dignity of its interior treatment. + + ++VERSAILLES.+ This immense edifice, built about an already existing +villa of Louis XIII., was the work of _Levau_ and _J. H. Mansart_ +(1647-1708). Its erection, with the laying out of its marvellous park, +almost exhausted the resources of the realm, but with results quite +incommensurate with the outlay. In spite of its vastness, its exterior +is commonplace; the orders are used with singular monotony, which is not +redeemed by the deep breaks and projections of the main front. There is +no controlling or dominant feature; there is no adequate entrance or +approach; the grand staircases are badly placed and unworthily treated, +and the different elements of the plan are combined with singular lack +of the usual French sense of monumental and rational arrangement. The +chapel is by far the best single feature in the design. + +Far more successful was the completion of the Louvre, in 1688, from the +designs of _Claude Perrault_, the court physician, whose plans were +fortunately adopted in preference to those of Bernini. For the east +front he designed a magnificent Corinthian colonnade nearly 600 feet +long, with coupled columns upon a plain high basement, and with a +central pediment and terminal pavilions (Fig. 181). The whole forms one +of the most imposing façades in existence; but it is a mere decoration, +having no practical relation to the building behind it. Its height +required the addition of a third story to match it on the north and +south sides of the court, which as thus completed quadrupled the +original area proposed by Lescot. Fortunately the style of Lescot’s work +was retained throughout in the court façades, while externally the +colonnade was recalled on the south front by a colossal order of +pilasters. The Louvre as completed by Louis XIV. was a stately and noble +palace, as remarkable for the surpassing excellence of the sculptures of +Jean Goujon as for the dignity and beauty of its architecture. Taken in +connection with the Tuileries, it was unrivalled by any palace in Europe +except the Vatican. + + [Illustration: FIG. 181.--COLONNADE OF LOUVRE.] + + ++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ To Louis XIV. is also due the vast but uninteresting ++Hôtel des Invalides+ or veteran’s asylum, at Paris, by J. H. Mansart. +To the chapel of this institution was added, in 1680-1706, the +celebrated +Dome+ of the Invalides, a masterpiece by the same architect. +In plan it somewhat resembles Bramante’s scheme for St. Peter’s--a Greek +cross with domical chapels in the four angles and a dome over the +centre. The exterior (Fig. 182), with the lofty gilded dome on a high +drum adorned with engaged columns, is somewhat high for its breadth, but +is a harmonious and impressive design; and the interior, if somewhat +cold, is elegant and well proportioned. The chief innovation in the +design was the wide separation of the interior stone dome from the lofty +exterior decorative cupola and lantern of wood, this separation being +designed to meet the conflicting demands of internal and external +effect. To the same architect is due the formal monotony of the +Place +Vendôme+, all the houses surrounding it being treated with a uniform +architecture of colossal pilasters, at once monumental and +inappropriate. One of the most pleasing designs of the time is the ++Château de Maisons+ (1658), by _F. Mansart_, uncle of J. H. Mansart. In +this the proportions of the central and terminal pavilions, the mass and +lines of the steep roof _à la Mansarde_, the simple and effective use of +the orders, and the refinement of all the details impart a grace of +aspect rare in contemporary works. The same qualities appear also in the ++Val-de-Grâce+, by F. Mansart and Lemercier, a domical church of +excellent proportions begun under Louis XIII. The want of space forbids +mention of other buildings of this period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 182.--DOME OF THE INVALIDES.] + + ++THE DECLINE.+ Under Louis XV. the pedantry of the classic period gave +place to a protracted struggle between license and the severest +classical correctness. The exterior designs of this time were often even +more uninteresting and bare than under Louis XIV.; while, on the other +hand, interior decoration tended to the extreme of extravagance and +disregard of constructive propriety. Contorted lines and crowded +scrolls, shells, and palm-leaves adorned the mantelpieces, cornices, and +ceilings, to the almost complete suppression of straight lines. + + [Illustration: FIG. 183.--FAÇADE OF ST. SULPICE, PARIS.] + +While these tendencies prevailed in many directions, a counter-current +of severe classicism manifested itself in the designs of a number of +important public buildings, in which it was sought to copy the grandeur +of the old Roman colonnades and arcades. The important church of +St. +Sulpice+ at Paris (Fig. 183) is an excellent example of this. Its +interior, dating from the preceding century, is well designed, but in no +wise a remarkable composition, following Italian models. The façade, +added in 1755 by _Servandoni_, is, on the other hand, one of the most +striking architectural objects in the city. It is a correct and well +proportioned classic composition in two stories--an Ionic arcade over a +Doric colonnade, surmounted by two lateral turrets. Other monuments of +this classic revival will be noticed in Chapter XXV. + + ++PUBLIC SQUARES.+ Much attention was given to the embellishment of open +spaces in the cities, for which the classic style was admirably suited. +The most important work of this kind was that on the north side of the +Place de la Concorde, Paris. This splendid square, perhaps, on the +whole, the finest in Europe (though many of its best features belong to +a later date), was at this time adorned with the two monumental +colonnades by _Gabriel_. These colonnades, which form the decorative +fronts for blocks of houses, deserve praise for the beauty of their +proportions, as well as for the excellent treatment of the arcade on +which they rest, and of the pavilions at the ends. + + ++IN GENERAL.+ French Renaissance architecture is marked by good +proportions and harmonious and appropriate detail. Its most interesting +phase was unquestionably that of Francis I., so far, at least, as +concerns exterior design. It steadily progressed, however, in its +mastery of planning; and in its use of projecting pavilions crowned by +dominant masses of roof, it succeeded in preserving, even in severely +classic designs, a picturesqueness and variety otherwise impossible. +Roofs, dormers, chimneys, and staircases it treated with especial +success; and in these matters, as well as in monumental dispositions of +plan, the French have largely retained their pre-eminence to our own +day. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to text. Ch. = château; P. = + palace; C. = cathedral; Chu. = church; H. = hôtel; T.H. = town + hall.) + + TRANSITION: Blois, E. wing, 1499; Ch. Meillant; Ch. Chaumont; T.H. + Amboise, 1502-05. + + FRANCIS I.: Ch. Nantouillet, 1517-25; Ch. Blois, W. wing + (afterward demolished) and N. wing, 1520-30; H. Lallemant, + Bourges, 1520; Ch. Villers-Cotterets, 1520-59; P. of Archbishop, + Sens, 1521-35; P. Fontainebleau (Cour Ovale, Cour d’Adieux, + Gallery Francis I., 1527-34; Peristyle, Chapel St. Saturnin, + 1540-47, by _Gilles le Breton_; Cour du Cheval Blanc, 1527-31, by + _P. Chambiges_); H. Bernuy, Toulouse, 1528-39; P. Granvelle, + Besançon, 1532-40; T.H. Niort, T.H. Loches, 1532-43: H. de Ligeris + (Carnavalet), Paris, 1544, by _P. Lescot_; churches of Gisors, + nave and façade, 1530; La Dalbade, Toulouse, portal, 1530; St. + Symphorien Tours, 1531; Chu. Tillières, 1534-46. + + ADVANCED RENAISSANCE: Fontaine des Innocents, Paris, 1547-50, by + _P. Lescot_ and _J. Goujon_; tomb Francis I., at St. Denis, 1555, + by _Ph. de l’Orme_; H. Catelan, Toulouse, 1555; tomb Henry II., at + St. Denis, 1560; portal S. Michel, Dijon, 1564; Ch. Sully, 1567; + T.H. Arras, 1573; P. Fontainebleau (Cour du Cheval Blanc + remodelled, 1564-66, by _P. Girard_; Cour de la Fontaine, same + date); T.H. Besançon, 1582; Ch. Charleval, 1585, by, _J. B. du + Cerceau_. + + STYLE OF HENRY IV.: P. Fontainebleau (Galerie des Cerfs, Chapel of + the Trinity, Baptistery, etc.); P. Tuileries (Pav. de Flore, by + _du Cerceau_, 1590-1610; long gallery continued); Hôtel Vogüé, at + Dijon, 1607; Place Dauphine, Paris, 1608; P. de Justice, Paris, + Great Hall, by _S. de Brosse_, 1618; H. Sully, Paris, 1624-39; + P. Royal, Paris, by _J. Lemercier_, for Cardinal Richelieu, + 1627-39; P. Louvre doubled in size, by the same; P. Tuileries (N. + wing, and Pav. Marsan, long gallery completed); H. Lambert, Paris; + T.H. Reims, 1627; Ch. Blois, W. wing for Gaston d’Orléans, by _F. + Mansart_, 1635; façade St. Étienne du Mont, Paris, 1610; of St. + Gervais, Paris, 1616-21, by _S. de Brosse_. + + STYLE OF LOUIS XIV.: T.H. Lyons, 1646; P. Louvre, E. colonnade and + court completed, 1660-70; Tuileries altered by Le Vau, 1664; + observatory at Paris, 1667-72; arch of St. Denis, Paris, 1672, by + _Blondel_; Arch of St. Martin, 1674, by _Bullet_; Banque de + France, H. de Luyne, H. Soubise, all in Paris; Ch. Chantilly; Ch. + de Tanlay; P. St. Cloud; Place des Victoires, 1685; Chu. St. + Sulpice, Paris, by _Le Vau_ (façade, 1755); Chu. St. Roch, Paris, + 1653, by _Lemercier_ and _de Cotte_; Notre Dame des Victoires, + Paris, 1656, by _Le Muet_ and _Bruant_. + + THE DECLINE: P. Bourbon, 1722; T.H. Rouen; Halle aux Blés + (recently demolished), 1748; École Militaire, 1752-58, by + _Gabriel_; P. Louvre, court completed, 1754, by the same; + Madeleine begun, 1764; H. des Monnaies (Mint), by _Antoine_; École + de Médecine, 1774, by _Gondouin_; P. Royal, Great Court, 1784, by + _Louis_; Théâtre Français, 1784 (all the above at Paris); Grand + Théâtre, Bordeaux, 1785-1800, by _Louis_; Préfecture at Bordeaux, + by the same; Ch. de Compiegne, 1770, by _Gabriel_; P. Versailles, + theatre by the same; H. Montmorency, Soubise, de Varennes, and the + Petit Luxembourg, all at Paris, by _de Cotte_; public squares at + Nancy, Bordeaux, Valenciennes, Rennes, Reims. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GREAT BRITAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre. Also, Belcher + and Macartney, _Later Renaissance Architecture in England_. + Billings, _Baronial and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Scotland_. + Blomfield, _A Short History of Renaissance Architecture in + England_. Britton, _Architectural Antiquities of Great Britain_. + Ewerbeck, _Die Renaissance in Belgien und Holland_. Galland, + _Geschichte der Hollandischen Baukunst im Zeitalter der + Renaissance_. Gotch and Brown, _Architecture of the Renaissance in + England_. Loftie, _Inigo Jones and Wren_. Nash, _Mansions of + England_. Papworth, _Renaissance and Italian Styles of + Architecture in Great Britain_. Richardson, _Architectural Remains + of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I._ Schayes, _Histoire de + l’architecture en Belgique_. + + ++THE TRANSITION.+ The architectural activity of the sixteenth century in +England was chiefly devoted to the erection of vast country mansions for +the nobility and wealthy _bourgeoisie_. In these seignorial residences a +degenerate form of the Gothic, known as the Tudor style, was employed +during the reigns of Henry VII. and Henry VIII., and they still retained +much of the feudal aspect of the Middle Ages. This style, with its +broad, square windows and ample halls, was well suited to domestic +architecture, as well as to collegiate buildings, of which a +considerable number were erected at this time. Among the more important +palaces and manor-houses of this period are the earlier parts of Hampton +Court, Haddon and Hengreave Halls, and the now ruined castles of Raglan +and Wolterton. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 184.--BURGHLEY HOUSE.] + ++ELIZABETHAN STYLE.+ Under Elizabeth (1558-1603) the progress of classic +culture and the employment of Dutch and Italian artists led to a gradual +introduction of Renaissance forms, which, as in France, were at first +mingled with others of Gothic origin. Among the foreign artists in +England were the versatile Holbein, Trevigi and Torregiano from Italy, +and Theodore Have, Bernard Jansen, and Gerard Chrismas from Holland. The +pointed arch disappeared, and the orders began to be used as subordinate +features in the decoration of doors, windows, chimneys, and mantels. +Open-work balustrades replaced externally the heavy Tudor battlements, +and a peculiar style of carving in flat relief-patterns, resembling +_appliqué_ designs cut out with the jigsaw and attached by nails or +rivets, was applied with little judgment to all possible features. +Ceilings were commonly finished in plaster, with elaborate interlacing +patterns in low relief; and this, with the increasing use of interior +woodwork, gave to the mansions of this time a more homelike but less +monumental aspect internally. English architects, like Smithson and +Thorpe, now began to win the patronage at first monopolized by +foreigners. In +Wollaton Hall+ (1580), by Smithson, the orders were used +for the main composition with mullioned windows, much after the fashion +of +Longleat House+, completed a year earlier by his master, John of +Padua. During the following period, however (1590-1610), there was a +reaction toward the Tudor practice, and the orders were again relegated +to subordinate uses. Of their more monumental employment, the +Gate of +Honor+ of Caius College, Cambridge, is one of the earliest examples. +Hardwicke and Charlton Halls, and Burghley, Hatfield, and Holland Houses +(Fig. 184), are noteworthy monuments of the style. + + ++JACOBEAN STYLE.+ During the reign of James I. (1603-25), details of +classic origin came into more general use, but caricatured almost beyond +recognition. The orders, though much employed, were treated without +correctness or grace, and the ornament was unmeaning and heavy. It is +not worth while to dwell further upon this style, which produced no +important public buildings, and soon gave way to a more rigid +classicism. + + ++CLASSIC PERIOD.+ If the classic style was late in its appearance in +England, its final sway was complete and long-lasting. It was _Inigo +Jones_ (1572-1652) who first introduced the correct and monumental style +of the Italian masters of classic design. For Palladio, indeed, he seems +to have entertained a sort of veneration, and the villa which he +designed at Chiswick was a reduced copy of Palladio’s Villa Capra, near +Vicenza. This and other works of his show a failure to appreciate the +unsuitability of Italian conceptions to the climate and tastes of Great +Britain; his efforts to popularize Palladian architecture, without the +resources which Palladio controlled in the way of decorative sculpture +and painting, were consequently not always happy in their results. His +greatest work was the design for a new +Palace at Whitehall+, London. Of +this colossal scheme, which, if completed, would have ranked as the +grandest palace of the time, only the +Banqueting Hall+ (now used as a +museum) was ever built (Fig. 185). It is an effective composition in two +stories, rusticated throughout and adorned with columns and pilasters, +and contains a fine vaulted hall in three aisles. The plan of the +palace, which was to have measured 1,152 × 720 feet, was excellent, +largely conceived and carefully studied in its details, but it was +wholly beyond the resources of the kingdom. The garden-front of ++Somerset House+ (1632; demolished) had the same qualities of simplicity +and dignity, recalling the works of Sammichele. Wilton House, Coleshill, +the Villa at Chiswick, and St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, are the best known +of his works, showing him to have been a designer of ability, but hardly +of the consummate genius which his admirers attribute to him. + + [Illustration: FIG. 185.--BANQUETING HALL, WHITEHALL.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 186.--PLAN OF ST. PAUL’S, LONDON.] + ++ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.+ The greatest of Jones’s successors was _Sir +Christopher Wren_ (1632-1723), principally known as the architect of ++St. Paul’s Cathedral+, London, built to replace the earlier Gothic +cathedral destroyed in the great fire of 1666. It was begun in 1675, and +its designer had the rare good fortune to witness its completion in +1710. The plan, as finally adopted, retained the general proportions of +an English Gothic church, measuring 480 feet in length, with transepts +250 feet long, and a grand rotunda 108 feet in diameter at the crossing +(Fig. 186). The style was strictly Italian, treated with sobriety and +dignity, if somewhat lacking in variety and inspiration. Externally two +stories of the Corinthian order appear, the upper story being merely a +screen to hide the clearstory and its buttresses. This is an +architectural deception, not atoned for by any special beauty of detail. +The dominant feature of the design is the dome over the central area. It +consists of an inner shell, reaching a height of 216 feet, above which +rises the exterior dome of wood, surmounted by a stone lantern, the +summit of which is 360 feet from the pavement (Fig. 187). This exterior +dome, springing from a high drum surrounded by a magnificent peristyle, +gives to the otherwise commonplace exterior of the cathedral a signal +majesty of effect. Next to the dome the most successful part of the +design is the west front, with its two-storied porch and flanking +bell-turrets. Internally the excessive relative length, especially that +of the choir, detracts from the effect of the dome, and the poverty of +detail gives the whole a somewhat bare aspect. It is intended to relieve +this ultimately by a systematic use of mosaic decoration, especially in +the dome. The central area itself, in spite of the awkward treatment of +the four smaller arches of the eight which support the dome, is a noble +design, occupying the whole width of the three aisles, like the Octagon +at Ely, and producing a striking effect of amplitude and grandeur. The +dome above it is constructively interesting from the employment of a +cone of brick masonry to support the stone lantern which rises above the +exterior wooden shell. The lower part of the cone forms the drum of the +inner dome, its contraction upward being intended to produce a +perspective illusion of increased height. + + [Illustration: FIG. 187.--EXTERIOR OF ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL.] + +St. Paul’s ranks among the five or six greatest domical buildings of +Europe, and is the most imposing modern edifice in England. + + ++WREN’S OTHER WORKS.+ Wren was conspicuously successful in the designing +of parish churches in London. +St. Stephen’s+, Walbrook, is the most +admired of these, with a dome resting on eight columns. Wren may be +called the inventor of the English Renaissance type of steeple, in which +a conical or pyramidal spire is harmoniously added to a belfry on a +square tower with classic details. The steeple of +Bow Church+, +Cheapside, is the most successful example of the type. In secular +architecture Wren’s most important works were the plan for rebuilding +London after the Great Fire; the new courtyard of Hampton Court, a quiet +and dignified composition in brick and stone; the pavilions and +colonnade of +Greenwich Hospital+; the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford, and +the Trinity College Library at Cambridge. Without profound originality, +these works testify to the sound good taste and intelligence of their +designer. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 188.--PLAN OF BLENHEIM.] + ++THE 18TH CENTURY.+ The Anglo-Italian style as used by Jones and Wren +continued in use through the eighteenth century, during the first half +of which a number of important country-seats and some churches were +erected. _Van Brugh_ (1666-1726), _Hawksmoor_ (1666-1736), and _Gibbs_ +(1683-1751) were then the leading architects. Van Brugh was especially +skilful in his dispositions of plan and mass, and produced in the +designs of Blenheim and Castle Howard effects of grandeur and variety of +perspective hardly equalled by any of his contemporaries in France or +Italy. +Blenheim+, with its monumental plan and the sweeping curves of +its front (Fig. 188), has an unusually palatial aspect, though the +striving for picturesqueness is carried too far. Castle Howard is +simpler, depending largely for effect on a somewhat inappropriate dome. +To Hawksmoor, his pupil, are due +St. Mary’s, Woolnoth+ (1715), at +London, in which by a bold rustication of the whole exterior and by +windows set in large recessed arches he was enabled to dispense wholly +with the orders; St. George’s, Bloomsbury; the new quadrangle of All +Souls at Oxford, and some minor works. The two most noted designs of +James Gibbs are +St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields+, at London (1726), and the ++Radcliffe Library+, at Oxford (1747). In the former the use of a +Corinthian portico--a practically uncalled-for but decorative +appendage--and of a steeple mounted on the roof, with no visible lines +of support from the ground, are open to criticism. But the excellence of +the proportions, and the dignity and appropriateness of the composition, +both internally and externally, go far to redeem these defects (Fig. +189). The Radcliffe Library is a circular domical hall surrounded by a +lower circuit of alcoves and rooms, the whole treated with +straightforward simplicity and excellent proportions. Colin Campbell, +Flitcroft, Kent and Wood, contemporaries of Gibbs, may be dismissed with +passing mention. + + [Illustration: FIG. 189.--ST. MARTIN’S-IN-THE-FIELDS, LONDON.] + +_Sir William Chambers_ (1726-96) was the greatest of the later +18th-century architects. His fame rests chiefly on his _Treatise on +Civil Architecture_, and the extension and remodelling of +Somerset +House+, in which he retained the general _ordonnance_ of Inigo Jones’s +design, adapting it to a frontage of some 600 feet. _Robert Adams_, the +designer of Keddlestone Hall, _Robert Taylor_ (1714-88), the architect +of the Bank of England, and _George Dance_, who designed the Mansion +House and Newgate Prison, at London--the latter a vigorous and +appropriate composition without the orders--close the list of noted +architects of the eighteenth century. It was a period singularly wanting +in artistic creativeness and spontaneity; its productions were nearly +all dull and respectable, or at best dignified, but without charm. + + ++BELGIUM.+ As in all other countries where the late Gothic style had +been highly developed, Belgium was slow to accept the principles of the +Renaissance in art. Long after the dawn of the sixteenth century the +Flemish architects continued to employ their highly florid Gothic alike +for churches and town-halls, with which they chiefly had to do. The +earliest Renaissance buildings date from 1530-40, among them being the +Hôtel du Saumon, at Malines, at Bruges the Ancien Greffe, by _Jean +Wallot_, and at Liège the +Archbishop’s Palace+, by _Borset_. The last +named, in the singular and capricious form of the arches and +baluster-like columns of its court, reveals the taste of the age for +what was _outré_ and odd; a taste partly due, no doubt, to Spanish +influences, as Belgium was in reality from 1506 to 1712 a Spanish +province, and there was more or less interchange of artists between the +two countries. The +Hôtel de Ville+, at Antwerp, by _Cornelius de +Vriendt_ or _Floris_ (1518-75), erected in 1565, is the most important +monument of the Renaissance in Belgium. Its façade, 305 feet long and +102 feet high, in four stories, is an impressive creation in spite of +its somewhat monotonous fenestration and the inartistic repetition in +the third story of the composition and proportions of the second. The +basement story forms an open arcade, and an open colonnade or loggia +runs along under the roof, thus imparting to the composition a +considerable play of light and shade, enhanced by the picturesque +central pavilion which rises to a height of six stories in diminishing +stages. The style is almost Palladian in its severity, but in general +the Flemish architects disdained the restrictions of classic canons, +preferring a more florid and fanciful effect than could be obtained by +mere combinations of Roman columns, arches, and entablatures. De +Vriendt’s other works were mostly designs for altars, tabernacles and +the like; among them the rood screen in Tournay Cathedral. His influence +may be traced in the Hôtel de Ville at Flushing (1594). + + [Illustration: FIG. 190.--RENAISSANCE HOUSES, BRUSSELS.] + +The ecclesiastical architecture of the Flemish Renaissance is almost as +destitute of important monuments as is the secular. +Ste. Anne+, at +Bruges, fairly illustrates the type, which is characterized in general +by heaviness of detail and a cold and bare aspect internally. The +Renaissance in Belgium is best exemplified, after all, by minor works +and ordinary dwellings, many of which have considerable artistic grace, +though they are quaint rather than monumental (Fig. 190). Stepped +gables, high dormers, and volutes flanking each diminishing stage of the +design, give a certain piquancy to the street architecture of the +period. + + ++HOLLAND.+ Except in the domain of realistic painting, the Dutch have +never manifested pre-eminent artistic endowments, and the Renaissance +produced in Holland few monuments of consequence. It began there, as in +many other places, with minor works in the churches, due largely to +Flemish or Italian artists. About the middle of the 16th century two +native architects, _Sebastian van Noye_ and _William van Noort_, first +popularized the use of carved pilasters and of gables or steep pediments +adorned with carved scallop-shells, in remote imitation of the style of +Francis I. The principal monuments of the age were town-halls, and, +after the war of independence in which the yoke of Spain was finally +broken (1566-79), local administrative buildings--mints, exchanges and +the like. The +Town Hall+ of +The Hague+ (1565), with its stepped gable +or great dormer, its consoles, statues, and octagonal turrets, may be +said to have inaugurated the style generally followed after the war. +Owing to the lack of stone, brick was almost universally employed, and +stone imported by sea was only used in edifices of exceptional cost and +importance. Of these the +Town Hall+ at Amsterdam holds the first place. +Its façade is of about the same dimensions as the one at Antwerp, but +compares unfavorably with it in its monotony and want of interest. The ++Leyden Town Hall+, by the Fleming, _Lieven de Key_ (1597), the Bourse +or Exchange and the Hanse House at Amsterdam, by _Hendrik de Keyser_, +are also worthy of mention, though many lesser buildings, built of brick +combined with enamelled terra-cotta and stone, possess quite as much +artistic merit. + + ++DENMARK.+ In Denmark the monuments of the Renaissance may almost be +said to be confined to the reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648), and do +not include a single church of any importance. The royal castles of the ++Rosenborg+ at Copenhagen (1610) and the +Fredericksborg+ (1580-1624), +the latter by a Dutch architect, are interesting and picturesque in +mass, with their fanciful gables, mullioned windows and numerous +turrets, but can hardly lay claim to beauty of detail or purity of +style. The Exchange at Copenhagen, built of brick and stone in the same +general style (1619-40), is still less interesting both in mass and +detail. + +The only other important Scandinavian monument deserving of special +mention in so brief a sketch as this is the +Royal Palace+ at ++Stockholm+, Sweden (1698-1753), due to a foreign architect, _Nicodemus +de Tessin_. It is of imposing dimensions, and although simple in +external treatment, it merits praise for the excellent disposition of +its plan, its noble court, imposing entrances, and the general dignity +and appropriateness of its architecture. + + + +MONUMENTS+ (in addition to those mentioned in text). ENGLAND, + TUDOR STYLE: Several palaces by Henry VIII., no longer extant; + Westwood, later rebuilt; Gosfield Hall; Harlaxton.--ELIZABETHAN: + Buckhurst, 1565; Kirby House, 1570, both by Thorpe; Caius College, + 1570-75, by Theodore Have; “The Schools,” Oxford, by Thomas Holt, + 1600; Beaupré Castle, 1600.--JACOBEAN: Tombs of Mary of Scotland + and of Elizabeth in Westminster Abbey; Audsley Inn; Bolsover + Castle, 1613; Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh, 1628.--CLASSIC or + ANGLO-ITALIAN: St. John’s College, Oxford; Queen’s House, + Greenwich; Coleshill; all by Inigo Jones, 1620-51; Amesbury, by + Webb; Combe Abbey; Buckingham and Montague Houses; The Monument, + London, 1670, by Wren; Temple Bar, by the same; Winchester Palace, + 1683; Chelsea College; Towers of Westminster Abbey, 1696; St. + Clement Dane’s; St. James’s, Westminster; St. Peter’s, Cornhill, + and many others, all by Wren.--18TH CENTURY: Seaton Delaval and + Grimsthorpe, by Van Brugh; Wanstead House, by Colin Campbell; + Treasury Buildings, by Kent. + + The most important Renaissance buildings of BELGIUM and HOLLAND + have been mentioned in the text. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +RENAISSANCE ARCHITECTURE IN GERMANY, SPAIN, AND PORTUGAL. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Palustre Also, von + Bezold, _Die Baukunst der Renaissance in Deutschland, Holland, + Belgien und Dänemark_ (in _Hdbuch. d. Arch._). Caveda (tr. + Kugler), _Geschichte der Baukunst in Spanien_. Fritsch, _Denkmäler + der deutschen Renaissance_ (plates). Junghändel, _Die Baukunst + Spaniens_. Lambert und Stahl, _Motive der deutschen Architektur_. + Lübke, _Geschichte der Renaissance in Deutschland_. Prentice, + _Renaissance Architecture and Ornament in Spain_. Uhde, + _Baudenkmäler in Spanien_. Verdier et Cattois, _Architecture + civile et domestique_. Villa Amil, _Hispania Artistica y + Monumental_. + + ++AUSTRIA+; +BOHEMIA+. The earliest appearance of the Renaissance in the +architecture of the German states was in the eastern provinces. Before +the close of the fifteenth century Florentine and Milanese architects +were employed in Austria, Bohemia, and the Tyrol, where there are a +number of palaces and chapels in an unmixed Italian style. The portal of +the castle of Mahrisch-Trübau dates from 1492; while to the early years +of the 16th century belong a cruciform chapel at Gran, the remodelling +of the castle at Cracow, and the chapel of the Jagellons in the same +city--the earliest domical structure of the German Renaissance, though +of Italian design. The +Schloss Porzia+ (1510), at Spital in Carinthia, +is a fine quadrangular palace, surrounding a court with arcades on three +sides, in which the open stairs form a picturesque interruption with +their rampant arches. But for the massiveness of the details it might be +a Florentine palace. In addition to this, the famous +Arsenal+ at +Wiener-Neustadt (1524), the portal of the Imperial Palace (1552), and +the +Castle Schalaburg+ on the Danube (1530-1601), are attributed to +Italian architects, to whom must also be ascribed a number of important +works at Prague. Chief among these the +Belvedere+ (1536, by _Paolo +della Stella_), a rectangular building surrounded by a graceful open +arcade, above which it rises with a second story crowned by a curved +roof; the Waldstein Palace (1621-29), by _Giov. Marini_, with its +imposing loggia; +Schloss Stern+, built on the plan of a six-pointed +star (1459-1565) and embellished by Italian artists with stucco +ornaments and frescoes; and parts of the palace on the Hradschin, by +_Scamozzi_, attest the supremacy of Italian art in Bohemia. The same is +true of Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol; _e.g._ +Schloss Ambras+ at +Innsbrück (1570). + + ++GERMANY: PERIODS.+ The earliest manifestation of the Renaissance in +what is now the German Empire, appeared in the works of painters like +Dürer and Burkmair, and in occasional buildings previous to 1525. The +real transformation of German architecture, however, hardly began until +after the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. From that time on its progress was +rapid, its achievements being almost wholly in the domain of secular +architecture--princely and ducal castles, town halls or _Rathhäuser_, +and houses of wealthy burghers or corporations. It is somewhat singular +that the German emperors should not have undertaken the construction of +a new imperial residence on a worthy scale, the palaces of Munich and +Berlin being aggregations of buildings of various dates about a nucleus +of mediæval origin, and with no single portion to compare with the +stately châteaux of the French kings. Church architecture was neglected, +owing to the Reformation, which turned to its own uses the existing +churches, while the Roman Catholics were too impoverished to replace the +edifices they had lost. + +The periods of the German Renaissance are less well marked than those of +the French; but its successive developments follow the same general +progression, divided into three stages: + +I. THE EARLY RENAISSANCE, 1525-1600, in which the orders were +infrequently used, mainly for porches and for gable decoration. The +conceptions and spirit of most monuments were still strongly tinged with +Gothic feeling. + +II. THE LATE RENAISSANCE, 1600-1675, characterized by a dry, heavy +treatment, in which too often neither the fanciful gayety of the +previous period nor the simple and monumental dignity of classic design +appears. Broken curves, large scrolls, obelisks, and a style of flat +relief carving resembling the Elizabethan are common. Occasional +monuments exhibit a more correct and classic treatment after Italian +models. + +III. THE DECLINE OR BAROQUE PERIOD, 1675-1800, employing the orders in a +style of composition oscillating between the extremes of bareness and of +Rococo over-decoration. The ornament partakes of the character of the +Louis XV. and Italian Jesuit styles, being most successful in interior +decoration, but externally running to the extreme of unrestrained fancy. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 191.--SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG.] + ++CHARACTERISTICS.+ In none of these periods do we meet with the sober, +monumental treatment of the Florentine or Roman schools. A love of +picturesque variety in masses and sky-lines, inherited from mediæval +times, appears in the high roofs, stepped gables and lofty dormers which +are universal. The roofs often comprise several stories, and are lighted +by lofty gables at either end, and by dormers carried up from the side +walls through two or three stories. Gables and dormers alike are built +in diminishing stages, each step adorned with a console or scroll, and +the whole treated with pilasters or colonnettes and entablatures +breaking over each support (Fig. 191). These roofs, dormers, and gables +contribute the most noticeable element to the general effect of most +German Renaissance buildings, and are commonly the best-designed +features in them. The orders are scantily used and usually treated with +utter disregard of classic canons, being generally far too massive and +overloaded with ornament. Oriels, bay-windows, and turrets, starting +from corbels or colonnettes, or rarely from the ground, diversify the +façade, and spires of curious bulbous patterns give added piquancy to +the picturesque sky-line. The plans seldom had the monumental symmetry +and largeness of Italian and French models; courtyards were often +irregular in shape and diversified with balconies and spiral +staircase-turrets. The national leaning was always toward the quaint and +fantastic, as well in the decoration as in the composition. Grotesques, +caryatids, _gaînes_ (half-figures terminating below in sheath-like +supports), fanciful rustication, and many other details give a touch of +the Baroque even to works of early date. The same principles were +applied with better success to interior decoration, especially in the +large halls of the castles and town-halls, and many of their ceilings +were sumptuous and well-considered designs, deeply panelled, painted and +gilded in wood or plaster. + + ++CASTLES.+ The _Schloss_ or _Burg_ of the German prince or duke retained +throughout the Renaissance many mediæval characteristics in plan and +aspect. A large proportion of these noble residences were built upon +foundations of demolished feudal castles, reproducing in a new dress the +ancient round towers and vaulted guard-rooms and halls, as in the +Hartenfels at Torgau, the Heldburg (both in Saxony), and the castle of +Trausnitz, in Bavaria, among many others. The +Castle+ at +Torgau+ +(1540) is one of the most imposing of its class, with massive round and +square towers showing externally, and court façades full of picturesque +irregularities. In the great +Castle+ at +Dresden+ the plan is more +symmetrical, and the Renaissance appears more distinctly in the details +of the Georgenflügel (1530-50), though at that early date the classic +orders were almost ignored. The portal of the Heldburg, however, built +in 1562, is a composition quite in the contemporary French vein, with +superposed orders and a crowning pediment over a massive basement. + +Another important series of castles or palaces are of more regular +design, in which the feudal traditions tend to disappear. The majority +belong to the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. They +are built around large rectangular courts with arcades in two or three +stories on one or more sides, but rarely surrounding it entirely. In +these the segmental arch is more common than the semicircular, and +springs usually from short and stumpy Ionic or Corinthian columns. The +rooms and halls are arranged _en suite_, without corridors, and a large +and lofty banquet hall forms the dominant feature of the series. The +earliest of these regularly planned palaces are of Italian design. Chief +among them is the +Residenz+ at +Landshut+ (1536-43), with a thoroughly +Roman plan, by pupils of Giulio Romano, and exterior and court façades +of great dignity treated with the orders. More German in its details, +but equally interesting, is the +Fürstenhof+ at +Wismar+, in brick and +terra-cotta, by _Valentino di Lira_ and _Van Aken_ (1553); while in the ++Piastenschloss+ at Brieg (1547-72), by Italian architects, the +treatment in parts suggests the richest works of the style of Francis I. +In other castles the segmental arch and stumpy columns or piers show the +German taste, as in the +Plassenburg+, by _Kaspar Vischer_ (1554-64), +the castle at Plagnitz, and the +Old Castle+ at +Stuttgart+, all dating +from about 1550-55. +Heidelberg Castle+, in spite of its mediæval aspect +from the river and its irregular plan, ranks as the highest achievement +of the German Renaissance in palace design. The most interesting parts +among its various wings built at different dates--the earlier portions +still Gothic in design--are the +Otto Heinrichsbau+ (1554) and the ++Friedrichsbau+ (1601). The first of these appears somewhat simpler in +its lines than the second, by reason of having lost its original +dormer-gables. The orders, freely treated, are superposed in three +stories, and twin windows, niches, statues, _gaînes_, medallions and +profuse carving produce an effect of great gayety and richness. The +Friedrichsbau (Fig. 192), less quiet in its lines, and with high +scroll-gabled and stepped dormers, is on the other hand more soberly +decorated and more characteristically German. The Schloss Hämelschenburg +(Fig. 191) is designed in somewhat the same spirit, but with even +greater simplicity of detail. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 192.--THE FRIEDRICHSBAU, HEIDELBERG.] + ++TOWN HALLS.+ These constitute the most interesting class of Renaissance +buildings in Germany, presenting a considerable variety of types, but +nearly all built in solid blocks without courts, and adorned with towers +or spires. A high roof crowns the building, broken by one or more high +gables or many-storied dormers. The majority of these town halls present +façades much diversified by projecting wings, as at Lemgo and Paderborn, +or by oriels and turrets, as at +Altenburg+ (1562-64); and the towers +which dominate the whole terminate usually in bell-shaped cupolas, or in +more capricious forms with successive swellings and contractions, as at +Dantzic (1587). A few, however, are designed with monumental simplicity +of mass; of these that at +Bremen+ (1612) is perhaps the finest, with +its beautiful exterior arcade on strong Doric columns. The town hall of +Nuremberg is one of the few with a court, and presents a façade of +almost Roman simplicity (1613-19); that at +Augsburg+ (1615) is equally +classic and more pleasing; while at Schweinfurt, Rothenburg (1572), +Mülhausen, etc., are others worthy of mention. + + ++CHURCHES.+ +St. Michael’s+, at Munich, is almost the only important +church of the first period in Germany (1582), but it is worthy to rank +with many of the most notable contemporary Italian churches. A wide nave +covered by a majestic barrel vault, is flanked by side chapels, +separated from each other by massive piers and forming a series of +gallery bays above. There are short transepts and a choir, all in +excellent proportion and treated with details which, if somewhat heavy, +are appropriate and reasonably correct. The +Marienkirche+ at +Wolfenbüttel (1608) is a fair sample of the parish churches of the +second period. In the exterior of this church pointed arches and +semi-Gothic tracery are curiously associated with heavy rococo carving. +The simple rectangular mass, square tower, and portal with massive +orders and carving are characteristic features. Many of the +church-towers are well proportioned and graceful structures in spite of +the fantastic outlines of their spires. One of the best and purest in +style is that of the University Church at Würzburg (1587-1600). + + + [Illustration: FIG. 193.--ZWINGER PALACE, DRESDEN.] + ++HOUSES.+ Many of the German houses of the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries would merit extended notice in a larger work, as among the +most interesting lesser monuments of the Renaissance. Nuremberg and +Hildesheim are particularly rich in such houses, built either for +private citizens or for guilds and corporations. Not a few of the +half-timbered houses of the time are genuine works of art, though +interest chiefly centres in the more monumental dwellings of stone. In +this domestic architecture the picturesque quality of German design +appears to better advantage than in more monumental edifices, and their +broadly stepped gables, corbelled oriels, florid portals and want of +formal symmetry imparting a peculiar and undeniable charm. The +Kaiserhaus and Wedekindsches Haus at Hildesheim; +Fürstenhaus+ at +Leipzig; Peller, Hirschvogel, and Funk houses at Nuremberg; the Salt +House at Frankfurt, and Ritter House at Heidelberg, are a few of the +most noted among these examples of domestic architecture. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 194.--CHURCH OF ST. MARY (MARIENKIRCHE), + DRESDEN.] + ++LATER MONUMENTS.+ The +Zwinger Palace+ at Dresden (Fig. 193), is the +most elaborate and wayward example of the German palace architecture of +the third period. Its details are of the most exaggerated rococo type, +like confectioner’s work done in stone; and yet the building has an air +of princely splendor which partly atones for its details. Besides this +palace, Dresden possesses in the domical +Marienkirche+ (Fig. 194) +a very meritorious example of late design. The proportions are good, and +the detail, if not interesting, is at least inoffensive, while the whole +is a dignified and rational piece of work. At Vienna are a number of +palaces of the third period, more interesting for their beautiful +grounds and parks than for intrinsic architectural merit. As in Italy, +this was the period of stucco, and although in Vienna this cheap and +perishable material was cleverly handled, and the ornament produced was +often quaint and effective, the results lack the permanence and dignity +of true building in stone or brick, and may be dismissed without further +mention. + +In minor works the Germans were far less prolific than the Italians or +Spaniards. Few of their tombs were of the first importance, though one, +the +Sebald Shrine+, in Nuremberg, by _Peter Vischer_ (1506-19), is a +splendid work in bronze, in the transitional style; a richly decorated +canopy on slender metal colonnettes covering and enclosing the +sarcophagus of the saint. There are a large number of fountains in the +squares of German and Swiss cities which display a high order of design, +and are among the most characteristic minor products of German art. + + ++SPAIN.+ The flamboyant Gothic style sufficed for a while to meet the +requirements of the arrogant and luxurious period which in Spain +followed the overthrow of the Moors and the discovery of America. But it +was inevitable that the Renaissance should in time make its influence +felt in the arts of the Iberian peninsula, largely through the +employment of Flemish artists. In jewelry and silverwork, arts which +received a great impulse from the importation of the precious metals +from the New World, the forms of the Renaissance found special +acceptance, so that the new style received the name of the _Plateresque_ +(from _platero_, silversmith). This was a not inept name for the +minutely detailed and sumptuous decoration of the early Renaissance, +which lasted from 1500 to the accession of Philip II. in 1556. It was +characterized by surface-decoration spreading over broad areas, +especially around doors and windows, florid escutcheons and Gothic +details mingling with delicately chiselled arabesques. Decorative +pilasters with broken entablatures and carved baluster-shafts were +employed with little reference to constructive lines, but with great +refinement of detail, in spite of the exuberant profusion of the +ornament. + +To this style, after the artistic inaction of Philip II.’s reign, +succeeded the coldly classic style practised by _Berruguete_ and +_Herrera_, and called the _Griego-Romano_. In spite of the attempt to +produce works of classical purity, the buildings of this period are for +the most part singularly devoid of originality and interest. This style +lasted until the middle of the seventeenth century, and in the case of +certain works and artists, until its close. It was followed, at least in +ecclesiastical architecture, by the so-called _Churrigueresque_, a name +derived from an otherwise insignificant architect, _Churriguera_, who +like Maderna and Borromini in Italy, discarded all the proprieties of +architecture, and rejoiced in the wildest extravagances of an untrained +fancy and debased taste. + + ++EARLY MONUMENTS.+ The earliest ecclesiastical works of the Renaissance +period, like the cathedrals of Salamanca, Toledo, and Segovia, were +almost purely Gothic in style. Not until 1525 did the new forms begin to +dominate in cathedral design. The cathedral at +Jaen+, by _Valdelvira_ +(1525), an imposing structure with three aisles and side chapels, was +treated internally with the Corinthian order throughout. The Cathedral +of +Granada+ (1529, by _Diego de Siloe_) is especially interesting for +its great domical sanctuary 70 feet in diameter, and for the largeness +and dignity of its conception and details. The cathedral of Malaga, the +church of San Domingo at Salamanca, and the monastery of San Girolamo in +the same city are either wholly or in part Plateresque, and provided +with portals of especial richness of decoration. Indeed, the portal of +S. Domingo practically forms the whole façade. + + [Illustration: FIG. 195.--DOOR OF THE UNIVERSITY, SALAMANCA.] + +In secular architecture the +Hospital+ of +Santa Cruz+ at Toledo, by +_Enrique de Egaz_ (1504-16), is one of the earliest examples of the +style. Here, as also in the +University+ at +Salamanca+ (Fig. 195), the +portal is the most notable feature, suggesting both Italian and French +models in its details. The great +College+ at +Alcala de Heñares+ is +another important early monument of the Renaissance (1500-17, by _Pedro +Gumiel_). In most designs the preference was for long façades of +moderate height, with a basement showing few openings, and a _bel étage_ +lighted by large windows widely spaced. Ornament was chiefly +concentrated about the doors and windows, except for the roof +balustrades, which were often exceedingly elaborate. Occasionally a +decorative motive is spread over the whole façade, as in the +Casa de +las Conchas+ at Salamanca, adorned with cockle-shells carved at +intervals all over the front--a bold and effective device; or the +Infantada palace with its spangling of carved diamonds. The courtyard or +_patio_ was an indispensable feature of these buildings, as in all hot +countries, and was surrounded by arcades frequently of the most fanciful +design overloaded with minute ornament, as in the +Infantado+ at +Guadalajara, the +Casa de Zaporta+, formerly at Saragossa (now removed +to Paris; Fig. 196), and the Lupiana monastery. The patios in the ++Archbishop’s Palace+ at Alcala de Heñares and the +Collegio de los +Irlandeses+ at Salamanca are of simpler design; that of the +Casa de +Pilatos+ at Seville is almost purely Moorish. Salamanca abounds in +buildings of this period. + + [Illustration: FIG. 196.--CASA DE ZAPORTA: COURTYARD.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 197.--PALACE OF CHARLES V., GRANADA.] + ++THE GRIEGO-ROMANO.+ The more classic treatment of architectural designs +by the use of the orders was introduced by _Alonzo Berruguete_ +(1480-1560?), who studied in Italy after 1503. The Archbishop’s Palace +and the Doric +Gate+ of +San Martino+, both at Toledo, were his work, as +well as the first palace at Madrid. The Palladio of Spain was, however, +by _Juan de Herrera_ (died 1597), the architect of +Valladolid +Cathedral+, built under Philip V. This vast edifice follows the general +lines of the earlier cathedrals of Jaen and Granada, but in a style of +classical correctness almost severe in aspect, but well suited to the +grand scale of the church. The masterpiece of this period was the +monastery of the +Escurial+, begun by _Juan Battista_ of Toledo, in +1563, but not completed until nearly one hundred and fifty years later. +Its final architectural aspect was largely due to Herrera. It is a vast +rectangle of 740 × 580 feet, comprising a complex of courts, halls, and +cells, dominated by the huge mass of the chapel. This last is an +imposing domical church covering 70,000 square feet, treated throughout +with the Doric order, and showing externally a lofty dome and campaniles +with domical lanterns, which serve to diversify the otherwise monotonous +mass of the monastery. What the Escurial lacks in grace or splendor is +at least in a measure redeemed by its majestic scale and varied +sky-lines. The +Palace of Charles V.+ (Fig. 197), adjoining the Alhambra +at Granada, though begun as early as 1527 by _Machuca_, was mainly due +to Berruguete, and is an excellent example of the Spanish Palladian +style. With its circular court, admirable proportions and well-studied +details, this often maligned edifice deserves to be ranked among the +most successful examples of the style. During this period the cathedral +of Seville received many alterations, and the upper part of the +adjoining Moorish tower of the +Giralda+, burned in 1395, was rebuilt by +_Fernando Ruiz_ in the prevalent style, and with considerable elegance +and appropriateness of design. + +Of the +Palace+ at +Madrid+, rebuilt by Philip V. after the burning of +the earlier palace in 1734, and mainly the work of an Italian, _Ivara_; +the Aranjuez palace (1739, by _Francisco Herrera_), and the Palace at ++San Ildefonso+, it need only be said that their chief merit lies in +their size and the absence of those glaring violations of good taste +which generally characterized the successors of Churriguera. In +ecclesiastical design these violations of taste were particularly +abundant and excessive, especially in the façades and in the +sanctuary--huge aggregations of misplaced and vulgar detail, with hardly +an unbroken pediment, column, or arch in the whole. Some extreme +examples of this abominable style are to be found in the +Spanish-American churches of the 17th and 18th centuries, as at +Chihuahua (Mexico), Tucson (Arizona), and other places. The least +offensive features of the churches of this period were the towers, +usually in pairs at the west end, some of them showing excellent +proportions and good composition in spite of their execrable details. + +Minor architectural works, such as the rood screens in the churches of +Astorga and Medina de Rio Seco, and many tombs at Granada, Avila, +Alcala, etc., give evidence of superior skill in decorative design, +where constructive considerations did not limit the exercise of the +imagination. + + ++PORTUGAL.+ The Renaissance appears to have produced few notable works +in Portugal. Among the chief of these are the +Tower+, the church, and +the +Cloister+, at Belem. These display a riotous profusion of minute +carved ornament, with a free commingling of late Gothic details, +wearisome in the end in spite of the beauty of its execution (1500-40?). +The church of +Santa Cruz+ at Coimbra, and that of +Luz+, near Lisbon, +are among the most noted of the religious monuments of the Renaissance, +while in secular architecture the royal palace at +Mafra+ is worthy of +mention. + + + +MONUMENTS.+ (Mainly supplementary to preceding text.) AUSTRIA, + BOHEMIA, etc.: At Prague, Schloss Stern, 1459-1565; Schwarzenburg + Palace, 1544; Waldstein Palace, 1629; Salvator Chapel, Vienna, + 1515; Schloss Schalaburg, near Mölk, 1530-1601; Standehaus, Gratz, + 1625. At Vienna: Imperial palace, various dates; Schwarzenburg and + Lichtenstein palaces, 18th century. + + GERMANY, FIRST PERIOD: Schloss Baden, 1510-29 and part 1569-82; + Schloss Merseburg, 1514, with late 16th-century portals; + Fuggerhaus at Augsburg, 1516; castles of Neuenstein, 1530-64; + Celle, 1532-46 (and enlarged, 1665-70); Dessau, 1533; Leignitz, + portal, 1533; Plagnitz, 1550; Schloss Gottesau, 1553-88; castle of + Güstrow, 1555-65; of Oels, 1559-1616; of Bernburg, 1565; of + Heiligenburg, 1569-87; Münzhof at Munich, 1575; Lusthaus + (demolished) at Stuttgart, 1575; Wilhelmsburg Castle at + Schmalkald, 1584-90; castle of Hämelschenburg, 1588-1612.--SECOND + PERIOD: Zunfthaus at Basle, 1578, in advanced style; so also + Juleum at Helmstädt, 1593-1612; gymnasium at Brunswick, 1592-1613; + Spiesshof at Basle, 1600; castle at Berlin, 1600-1616, demolished + in great part; castle Bevern, 1603; Dantzic, Zeughaus, 1605; + Wallfahrtskirche at Dettelbach, 1613; castle Aschaffenburg, + 1605-13; Schloss Weikersheim, 1600-83.--THIRD PERIOD: Zeughaus at + Berlin, 1695; palace at Berlin by Schlüter, 1699-1706; Catholic + church, Dresden. (For Classic Revival, see next chapter.)--TOWN + HALLS: At Heilbronn, 1535; Görlitz, 1537; Posen, 1550; Mülhausen, + 1552; Cologne, porch with Corinthian columns and Gothic arches, + 1569; Lübeck (Rathhaushalle), 1570; Schweinfurt, 1570; Gotha, + 1574; Emden, 1574-76; Lemgo, 1589; Neisse, 1604; Nordhausen, 1610; + Paderborn, 1612-16; Gernsbach, 1617. + + SPAIN, 16TH CENTURY: Monastery San Marcos at Leon; palace of the + Infanta, Saragossa; Carcel del Corte at Baez; Cath. of Malaga, W. + front, 1538, by de Siloë; Tavera Hospital, Toledo, 1541, by de + Bustamente; Alcazar at Toledo, 1548; Lonja (Town Hall) at + Saragossa, 1551; Casa de la Sal, Casa Monterey, and Collegio de + los Irlandeses, all at Salamanca; Town Hall, Casa de los Taveras + and upper part of Giralda, all at Seville.--17TH CENTURY: + Cathedral del Pilar, Saragossa, 1677; Tower del Seo, 1685.--18TH + CENTURY: palace at Madrid, 1735; at Aranjuez, 1739; cathedral of + Santiago, 1738; Lonja at Barcelona, 1772. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +THE CLASSIC REVIVALS IN EUROPE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson. Also Chateau, _Histoire + et caractères de l’architecture en France_; and Lübke, _Geschichte + der Architektur_. (For the most part, however, recourse must be + had to the general histories of architecture, and to monographs on + special cities or buildings.) + + ++THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.+ By the end of the seventeenth century the +Renaissance, properly speaking, had run its course in Europe. The +increasing servility of its imitation of antique models had exhausted +its elasticity and originality. Taste rapidly declined before the growth +of the industrial and commercial spirit in the eighteenth century. The +ferment of democracy and the disquiet of far-reaching political changes +had begun to preoccupy the minds of men to the detriment of the arts. By +the middle of the eighteenth century, however, the extravagances of the +Rococo, Jesuit, and Louis XV. styles had begun to pall upon the popular +taste. The creative spirit was dead, and nothing seemed more promising +as a corrective for these extravagances than a return to classic models. +But the demand was for a literal copying of the arcades and porticos of +Rome, to serve as frontispieces for buildings in which modern +requirements should be accommodated to these antique exteriors, instead +of controlling the design. The result was a manifest gain in the +splendor of the streets and squares adorned by these highly decorative +frontispieces, but at the expense of convenience and propriety in the +buildings themselves. While this academic spirit too often sacrificed +logic and originality to an arbitrary symmetry and to the supposed +canons of Roman design, it also, on the other hand, led to a stateliness +and dignity in the planning, especially in the designing of vestibules, +stairs, and halls, which render many of the public buildings it produced +well worthy of study. The architecture of the Roman Revival was pompous +and artificial, but seldom trivial, and its somewhat affected grandeur +was a welcome relief from the dull extravagance of the styles it +replaced. + + ++THE GREEK REVIVAL.+ The Roman revival was, however, displaced in +England and Germany by the Greek Revival, which set in near the close of +the eighteenth century. This was the result of a newly awakened interest +in the long-neglected monuments of Attic art which the discoveries of +Stuart and Revett--sent out in 1732 by the London Society of +Dilettanti--had once more made known to the world. It led to a veritable +_furore_ in England for Greek Doric and Ionic columns, which were +applied indiscriminately to every class of buildings, with utter +disregard of propriety. The British taste was at this time at its lowest +ebb, and failed to perceive the poverty of Greek architecture when +deprived of its proper adornments of carving and sculpture, which were +singularly lacking in the British examples. Nevertheless the Greek style +in England had a long run of popular favor, yielding only during the +reign of the present sovereign to the so-called Victorian Gothic, +a revival of mediæval forms. In Germany the Greek Revival was +characterized by a more cultivated taste and a more rational application +of its forms, which were often freely modified to suit modern needs. In +France, where the Roman Revival under Louis XV. had produced fairly +satisfactory results, and where the influence of the Royal School of +Fine Arts (_École des Beaux-Arts_) tended to perpetuate the principles +of Roman design, the Greek Revival found no footing. The Greek forms +were seen to be too severe and intractable for present requirements. +About 1830, however, a modified style of design, known since as the +_Néo-Grec_, was introduced by the exertions of a small coterie of +talented architects; and though its own life was short, it profoundly +influenced French art in the direction of freedom and refinement for a +long time afterward. In Italy there was hardly anything in the nature of +a true revival of either Roman or Greek forms. The few important works +of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were conceived in +the spirit of the late Renaissance, and took from the prevalent revival +of classicism elsewhere merely a greater correctness of detail, not any +radical change of form or spirit. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 198.--BRITISH MUSEUM, LONDON.] + ++ENGLAND.+ There was, strictly speaking, no Roman revival in Great +Britain. The modified Palladian style of Wren and Gibbs and their +successors continued until superseded by the Greek revival. The first +fruit of the new movement seems to have been the +Bank of England+ at +London, by _Sir John Soane_ (1788). In this edifice the Greco-Roman +order of the round temple at Tivoli was closely copied, and applied to a +long façade, too low for its length and with no sufficient stylobate, +but fairly effective with its recessed colonnade and unpierced walls. +The +British Museum+, by _Robert Smirke_ (Fig. 198), was a more +ambitious essay in a more purely Greek style. Its colossal Ionic +colonnade was, however, a mere frontispiece, applied to a badly planned +and commonplace building, from which it cut off needed light. The more +modest but appropriate columnar façade to the +Fitzwilliam Museum+ at +Cambridge, by _Bassevi_, was a more successful attempt in the same +direction, better proportioned and avoiding the incongruity of modern +windows in several stories. These have always been the stumbling-block +of the revived Greek style. The difficulties they raise are avoided, +however, in buildings presenting but two stories, the order being +applied to the upper story, upon a high stylobate serving as a basement. +The +High School+ and the Royal Institution at Edinburgh, and the +University at London, by _Wilkins_, are for this reason, if for no +other, superior to the British Museum and other many-storied Anglo-Greek +edifices. In spite of all difficulties, however, the English extended +the applications of the style with doubtful success not only to all +manner of public buildings, but also to country residences. Carlton +House, Bowden Park, and Grange House are instances of this +misapplication of Greek forms. Neither did it prove more tractable for +ecclesiastical purposes. +St. Pancras’s+ Church at London, and several +churches by _Thomson_ (1817-75), in Glasgow, though interesting as +experiments in such adaptation, are not to be commended for imitation. +The most successful of all British Greek designs is perhaps +St. +George’s Hall+ at Liverpool (Fig. 199), whose imposing peristyle and +porches are sufficiently Greek in spirit and detail to class it among +the works of the Greek Revival. But its great hall and its interior +composition are really Roman and not Greek, emphasizing the teaching of +experience that Greek architecture does not lend itself to the +exigencies of modern civilization to nearly the same extent as the +Roman. + + [Illustration: FIG. 199.--ST. GEORGE’S HALL, LIVERPOOL.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 200.--THE OLD MUSEUM, BERLIN.] + ++GERMANY.+ During the eighteenth century the classic revival in Germany, +which at first followed Roman precedents (as in the columns carved with +spirally ascending reliefs in front of the church of +St. Charles +Borromeo+, at Vienna), was directed into the channel of Greek imitation +by the literary works of Winckelmann, Lessing, Goethe, and others, as +well as by the interest aroused by the discoveries of Stuart and Revett. +The +Brandenburg Gate+ at Berlin (1784, by Langhans) was an early +example of this Hellenism in architecture, and one of its most +successful applications to civic purposes. Without precisely copying any +Greek structure, it was evidently inspired from the Athenian Propylæa, +and nothing in its purpose is foreign to the style employed. The +greatest activity in the style came later, however, and was greatly +stimulated by the achievements of _Fr. Schinkel_ (1771-1841), one of the +greatest of modern German architects. While in the domical church of St. +Nicholas at Potsdam, he employed Roman forms in a modernized Roman +conception, and followed in one or two other buildings the principles of +the Renaissance, his predilections were for Greek architecture. His +masterpiece was the +Museum+ at Berlin, with an imposing portico of 18 +Ionic columns (Fig. 200). This building with its fine rotunda was +excellently planned, and forms, in conjunction with the +New Museum+ by +_Stuhler_ (1843-55), a noble palace of art, to whose monumental +requirements and artistic purpose the Greek colonnades and pediments +were not inappropriate. Schinkel’s greatest successor was _Leo von +Klenze_ (1784-1864), whose more textual reproductions of Greek models +won him great favor and wide employment. The +Walhalla+ near Ratisbon is +a modernized Parthenon, internally vaulted with glass; elegant +externally, but too obvious a plagiarism to be greatly admired. The ++Ruhmeshalle+ at Munich, a double +L+ partly enclosing a colossal +statue of Bavaria, and devoted to the commemoration of Bavaria’s great +men, is copied from no Greek building, though purely Greek in design and +correct to the smallest detail. In the +Glyptothek+ (Sculpture Gallery), +in the same city, the one distinctively Greek feature introduced by +Klenze, an Ionic portico, is also the one inappropriate note in the +design. The +Propylæa+ at Munich, by the same (Fig. 201), and the +Court +Theatre+ at Berlin, by Schinkel, are other important examples of the +style. The latter is externally one of the most beautiful theatres in +Europe, though less ornate than many. Schinkel’s genius was here +remarkably successful in adapting Greek details to the exigent +difficulties of theatre design, and there is no suggestion of copying +any known Greek building. + + [Illustration: FIG. 201.--THE PROPYLÆA, MUNICH.] + +In Vienna the one notable monument of the Classic Revival is the ++Reichsrathsgebäude+ or Parliament House, by _Th. Hansen_ (1843), an +imposing two-storied composition with a lofty central colonnade and +lower side-wings, harmonious in general proportions and pleasingly +varied in outline and mass. + +In general, the Greek Revival in Germany presents the aspect of a +sincere striving after beauty, on the part of a limited number of +artists of great talent, misled by the idea that the forms of a dead +civilization could be galvanized into new life in the service of modern +needs. The result was disappointing, in spite of the excellent planning, +admirable construction and carefully studied detail of these buildings, +and the movement here as elsewhere was foredoomed to failure. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 202.--PLAN OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.] + ++FRANCE.+ In France the Classic Revival, as we have seen, had made its +appearance during the reign of Louis XV. in a number of important +monuments which expressed the protest of their authors against the +caprice of the Rococo style then in vogue. The colonnades of the +Garde-Meuble, the façade of St. Sulpice, and the coldly beautiful ++Panthéon+ (Figs. 202, 203) testified to the conviction in the most +cultured minds of the time that Roman grandeur was to be attained only +by copying the forms of Roman architecture with the closest possible +approach to correctness. In the Panthéon, the greatest ecclesiastical +monument of its time in France (otherwise known as the church of Ste. +Genéviève), the spirit of correct classicism dominates the interior as +well as the exterior. It is a Greek cross, measuring 362 × 267 feet, +with a dome 265 feet high, and internally 69 feet in diameter. The four +arms have domical vaulting and narrow aisles separated by Corinthian +columns. The whole interior is a cold but extremely elegant composition. +The most notable features of the exterior are its imposing portico of +colossal Corinthian columns and the fine peristyle which surrounds the +drum of the dome, giving it great dignity and richness of effect. + + [Illustration: FIG. 203.--EXTERIOR OF PANTHÉON, PARIS.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 204.--ARC DE L’ÉTOILE, PARIS.] + +The dome, which is of stone throughout, has three shells, the +intermediate shell serving to support the heavy stone lantern. The +architect was _Soufflot_ (1713-81). The +Grand Théâtre+, at Bordeaux +(1773, by _Victor Louis_), one of the largest and finest theatres in +Europe, was another product of this movement, its stately colonnade +forming one of the chief ornaments of the city. Under Louis XVI. there +was a temporary reaction from this somewhat pompous affectation of +antique grandeur; but there were few important buildings erected during +that unhappy reign, and the reaction showed itself mainly in a more +delicate and graceful style of interior decoration. It was reserved for +the Empire to set the seal of official approval on the Roman Revival. +The Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, behind the Tuileries, by _Percier +and Fontaine_, the magnificent Arc de l’Étoile, at the summit of the +Avenue of the Champs Elysées, by _Chalgrin_; the wing begun by Napoleon +to connect the Tuileries with the Louvre on the land side, and the +church of the Madeleine, by _Vignon_, erected as a temple to the heroes +of the Grande Armée, were all designed, in accordance with the expressed +will of the Emperor himself, in a style as Roman as the requirements of +each case would permit. All these monuments, begun between 1806 and +1809, were completed after the Restoration. The +Arch+ of the ++Carrousel+ is a close copy of Roman models; that of the +Étoile+ (Fig. +204) was a much more original design, of colossal dimensions. Its +admirable proportions, simple composition and striking sculptures give +it a place among the noblest creations of its class. The +Madeleine+ +(Fig. 205), externally a Roman Corinthian temple of the largest size, +presents internally an almost Byzantine conception with the three +pendentive domes that vault its vast nave, but all the details are +Roman. However suitable for a pantheon or mausoleum, it seems strangely +inappropriate as a design for a Christian church. To these monuments +should be added the +Bourse+ or Exchange, by _Brongniart_, heavy in +spite of its Corinthian peristyle, and the river front of the +Corps +Législatif+ or Palais Bourbon, by _Poyet_, the only extant example of a +dodecastyle portico with a pediment. All of these designs are +characterized by great elegance of detail and excellence of execution, +and however inappropriate in style to modern uses, they add immensely to +the splendor of the French capital. Unquestionably no feature can take +the place of a Greek or Roman colonnade as an embellishment for broad +avenues and open squares, or as the termination of an architectural +vista. + + [Illustration: FIG. 205.--THE MADELEINE, PARIS.] + +The Greek revival took little hold of the Parisian imagination. Its +forms were too cold, too precise and fixed, too intractable to modern +requirements to appeal to the French taste. It counts but one notable +monument, the church of +St. Vincent de Paul+, by _Hittorff_, who sought +to apply to this design the principles of Greek external polychromy; but +the frescoes and ornaments failed to withstand the Parisian climate, and +were finally erased. The Néo-Grec movement already referred to, +initiated by Duc, Duban, and Labrouste about 1830, aimed only to +introduce into modern design the spirit and refinement, the purity and +delicacy of Greek art, not its forms (Fig. 206). Its chief monuments +were the remodelling, by _Duc_, of the +Palais de Justice+, of which the +new west façade is the most striking single feature; the beautiful ++Library of the École des Beaux-Arts+, by _Duban_; the library of +Ste. +Genéviève+, by _Labrouste_, in which a long façade is treated without a +pilaster or column, simple arches over a massive basement forming the +dominant motive, while in the interior a system of iron construction +with glazed domes controls the design; and the commemorative +Colonne +Juillet+, by Duc, the most elegant and appropriate of all modern +memorial columns. All these buildings, begun between 1830 and 1850 and +completed at various dates, are distinguished by a remarkable purity and +freedom of conception and detail, quite unfettered by the artificial +trammels of the official academic style then prevalent. + + [Illustration: FIG. 206.--DOORWAY, ÉCOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS, PARIS.] + + ++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL ELSEWHERE.+ The other countries of Europe have +little to show in the way of imitations of classic monuments or +reproductions of Roman colonnades. In Italy the church of +S. Francesco +di Paola+, at Naples, in quasi-imitation of the Pantheon at Rome, with +wing-colonnades, and the +Superga+, at Turin (1706, by _Ivara_); the +façade of the San Carlo Theatre, at Naples, and the Braccio Nuovo of the +Vatican (1817, by _Stern_) are the monuments which come the nearest to +the spirit and style of the Roman Revival. Yet in each of these there is +a large element of originality and freedom of treatment which renders +doubtful their classification as examples of that movement. + +A reflection of the Munich school is seen in the modern public buildings +of Athens, designed in some cases by German architects, and in others by +native Greeks. The University, the Museum buildings, the Academy of Art +and Science, and other edifices exemplify fairly successful efforts to +adapt the severe details of classic Greek art to modern windowed +structures. They suffer somewhat from the too liberal use of stucco in +place of marble, and from the conscious affectation of an extinct style. +But they are for the most part pleasing and monumental designs, adding +greatly to the beauty of the modern city. + + [Illustration: FIG. 207.--ST. ISAAC’S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG.] + +In Russia, during and after the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), +there appeared a curious mixture of styles. A style analogous to the +Jesuit in Italy and the Churrigueresque in Spain was generally +prevalent, but it was in many cases modified by Muscovite traditions +into nondescript forms like those of the +Kremlin+, at Moscow, or the +less extravagant Citadel Church and Smolnoy Monastery at St. Petersburg. +Along with this heavy and barbarous style, which prevails generally in +the numerous palaces of the capital, finished in stucco with atrocious +details, a more severe and classical spirit is met with. The church of +the +Greek Rite+ at St. Petersburg combines a Roman domical interior +with an exterior of the Greek Doric order. The Church of +Our Lady of +Kazan+ has a semicircular colonnade projecting from its transept, +copying as nearly as may be the colonnades in front of St. Peter’s. But +the greatest classic monument in Russia is the +Cathedral of St. Isaac+ +(Fig. 207), at St. Petersburg, a vast rectangular edifice with four +Roman Corinthian pedimental colonnades projecting from its faces, and a +dome with a peristyle crowning the whole. Despite many defects of +detail, and the use of cast iron for the dome, which pretends to be of +marble, this is one of the most impressive churches of its size in +Europe. Internally it displays the costliest materials in extraordinary +profusion, while externally its noble colonnades go far to redeem its +bare attic and the material of its dome. The +Palace of the Grand Duke +Michael+, which reproduces, with improvements, Gabriel’s colonnades of +the Garde Meuble at Paris on its garden front, is a nobly planned and +commendable design, agreeably contrasting with the debased architecture +of many of the public buildings of the city. The Admiralty with its +Doric pilasters, and the +New Museum+, by von Klenze of Munich, in a +skilfully modified Greek style, with effective loggias, are the only +other monuments of the classic revival in Russia which can find mention +in a brief sketch like this. Both are notable and in many respects +admirable buildings, in part redeeming the vulgarity which is +unfortunately so prevalent in the architecture of St. Petersburg. + +The +MONUMENTS+ of the Classic Revival have been referred to in the +foregoing text at sufficient length to preclude the necessity of further +enumeration here. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +RECENT ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Chateau, Fergusson. Also Barqui, + _L’Architecture moderne en France_.--_Berlin und seine Bauten_ + (and a series of similar works on the modern buildings of other + German cities). Daly, _Architecture privée du XIXe siècle_. + Garnier, _Le nouvel Opéra_. Gourlier, _Choix d’édifices publics_. + Licht, _Architektur Deutschlands_. Lübke, _Denkmäler der Kunst_. + Lützow und Tischler, _Wiener Neubauten_. Narjoux, _Monuments + élevés par la ville de Paris, 1850-1880_. Rückwardt, _Façaden und + Details modernen Bauten_.--_Sammelmappe hervorragenden + Concurrenz-Entwurfen._ Sédille, _L’Architecture moderne_. + Selfridge, _Modern French Architecture_. Statham, _Modern + Architecture_. Villars, _England, Scotland, and Ireland_ (tr. + Henry Frith). Consult also _Transactions of the Royal Institute of + British Architects_, and the leading architectural journals of + recent years. + + ++MODERN CONDITIONS.+ The nineteenth century has been pre-eminently an +age of industrial progress. Its most striking advances have been along +mechanical, scientific, and commercial lines. As a result of this +material progress the general conditions of mankind in civilized +countries have undoubtedly been greatly bettered. Popular education and +the printing-press have also raised the intellectual level of society, +making learning the privilege of even the poorest. Intellectual, +scientific, and commercial pursuits have thus largely absorbed those +energies which in other ages found exercise in the creation of artistic +forms and objects. The critical and sceptical spirit, the spirit of +utilitarianism and realism, has checked the free and general development +of the creative imagination, at least in the plastic arts. While in +poetry and music there have been great and noble achievements, the +plastic arts, including architecture, have only of late years attained a +position at all worthy of the intellectual advancement of the times. + +Nevertheless the artistic spirit has never been wholly crushed out by +the untoward pressure of realism and commercialism. Unfortunately it has +repeatedly been directed in wrong channels. Modern archæology and the +publication of the forms of historic art by books and photographs have +too exclusively fastened attention upon the details of extinct styles as +a source of inspiration in design. The whole range of historic art is +brought within our survey, and while this has on the one hand tended +toward the confusion and multiplication of styles in modern work, it has +on the other led to a slavish adherence to historic precedent or a +literal copying of historic forms. Modern architecture has thus +oscillated between the extremes of archæological servitude and of an +unreasoning eclecticism. In the hands of men of inferior training the +results have been deplorable travesties of all styles, or meaningless +aggregations of ill-assorted forms. + +An important factor in this demoralization of architectural design has +been the development of new constructive methods, especially in the use +of iron and steel. It has been impossible for modern designers, in their +treatment of style, to keep pace with the rapid changes in the +structural use of metal in architecture. The roofs of vast span, largely +composed of glass, which modern methods of trussing have made possible +for railway stations, armories, and exhibition buildings; the immense +unencumbered spaces which may be covered by them; the introduction and +development, especially in the United States, of the post-and-girder +system of construction for high buildings, in which the external walls +are a mere screen or filling-in; these have revolutionized architecture +so rapidly and completely that architects are still struggling and +groping to find the solution of many of the problems of style, scale, +and composition which they have brought forward. + +Within the last thirty years, however, architecture has, despite these +new conditions, made notable advances. The artistic emulation of +repeated international exhibitions, the multiplication of museums and +schools of art, the general advance in intelligence and enlightenment, +have all contributed to this artistic progress. There appears to be more +of the artistic and intellectual quality in the average architecture of +the present time, on both sides of the Atlantic, than at any previous +period in this century. The futility of the archæological revival of +extinct styles is generally recognized. New conditions are gradually +procuring the solution of the very problems they raise. Historic +precedent sits more lightly on the architect than formerly, and the +essential unity of principle underlying all good design is coming to be +better understood.[26] + + [Footnote 26: See Appendix D.] + + ++FRANCE.+ It is in France, Germany (including Austria), and England that +the architectural progress of this period in Europe has been most +marked. We have already noticed the results of the classic revivals in +these three countries. Speaking broadly, it may be said that in France +the influence of the _École des Beaux-Arts_, while it has tended to give +greater unity and consistency to the national architecture, and has +exerted a powerful influence in behalf of refinement of taste and +correctness of style, has also stood in the way of a free development of +new ideas. French architecture has throughout adhered to the principles +of the Renaissance, though the style has during this century been +modified by various influences. The first of these was the Néo-Grec +movement, alluded to in the last chapter, which broke the grip of Roman +tradition in matters of detail and gave greater elasticity to the +national style. Next should be mentioned the Gothic movement represented +by Viollet-le-Duc, Lassus, Ballu, and their followers. Beginning about +1845, it produced comparatively few notable buildings, but gave a great +impulse to the study of mediæval archæology and the restoration of +mediæval monuments. The churches of Ste. Clothilde and of St. Jean de +Belleville, at Paris, and the reconstruction of the Château de +Pierrefonds, were among its direct results. Indirectly it led to a freer +and more rational treatment of constructive forms and materials than had +prevailed with the academic designers. The church of +St. Augustin+, by +_Baltard_, at Paris, illustrates this in its use of iron and brick for +the dome and vaulting, and the +College Chaptal+, by _E. Train_, in its +decorative treatment of brick and tile externally. The general adoption +of iron for roof-trusses and for the construction of markets and similar +buildings tended further in the same direction, the +Halles Centrales+ +at Paris, by _Baltard_, being a notable example. + + [Illustration: FIG. 208.--PLAN OF LOUVRE AND TUILERIES, PARIS. + A, A, _the Old Louvre, so called_; B, B, _the New Louvre._] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 209.--PAVILION OF RICHELIEU, LOUVRE.] + ++THE SECOND EMPIRE.+ The reign of Napoleon III. (1852-70) was a period +of exceptional activity, especially in Paris. The greatest monument of +his reign was the completion of the +Louvre+ and +Tuileries+, under +_Visconti_ and _Lefuel_, including the remodelling of the pavilions de +Flore and de Marsan. The new portions constitute the most notable +example of modern French architecture, and the manner in which the two +palaces were united deserves high praise. In spite of certain defects, +this work is marked by a combination of dignity, richness, and +refinement, such as are rarely found in palace architecture (Figs. 208, +209). The +New Opera+ (1863-75), by _Garnier_ (d. 1898), stands next to +the Louvre in importance as a national monument. It is by far the most +sumptuous building for amusement in existence, but in purity of detail +and in the balance and restraint of its design it is inferior to the +work of Visconti and Lefuel (Fig. 210). To this reign belong the Palais +de l’Industrie, by _Viel_, built for the exhibition of 1855, and several +great railway stations (Gare du Nord, by Hitorff, Gare de l’Est, Gare +d’Orléans, etc.), in which the modern French version of the Renaissance +was applied with considerable skill to buildings largely constructed of +iron and glass. Town halls and theatres were erected in great numbers, +and in decorative works like fountains and monuments the French were +particularly successful. The fountains of +St. Michel+, Cuvier, and +Molière, at Paris, and of +Longchamps+, at Marseilles (Fig. 211), +illustrate the fertility of resource and elegance of detailed treatment +of the French in this department. Mention should also here be made of +the extensive enterprises carried out by Napoleon III., in rectifying +and embellishing the street-plan of Paris by new avenues and squares on +a vast scale, adding greatly to the monumental splendor of the city. + + [Illustration: FIG. 210.--GRAND STAIRCASE OF THE OPERA, PARIS.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 211.--FOUNTAIN OF LONGCHAMPS, MARSEILLES.] + ++THE REPUBLIC.+ Since the disasters of 1870 a number of important +structures have been erected, and French architecture has shown a +remarkable vitality and flexibility under new conditions. Its +productions have in general been marked by a refined taste and a +conspicuous absence of eccentricity and excess; but it has for the most +part trodden in well-worn paths. The most notable recent monuments are, +in church architecture, the +Sacré-Cœur+, at Montmartre, by _Abadie_, +a votive church inspired from the Franco-Byzantine style of Aquitania; +in civil architecture the new +Hôtel de Ville+, at Paris, by _Ballu_ and +_Déperthes_, recalling the original structure destroyed by the Commune, +but in reality an original creation of great merit; in scholastic +architecture the new École de Médecine, and the new +Sorbonne+, by +_Nénot_, and in other branches of the art the metal-and-glass exhibition +buildings of 1878, 1889, and 1900. In the last of these the striving for +originality and the effort to discard traditional forms reached the +extreme, although accompanied by much very clever detail and a masterly +use of color-decoration. To these should be added many noteworthy +theatres, town-halls, court-houses, and _préfectures_ in provincial +cities, and commemorative columns and monuments almost without number. +In street architecture there is now much more variety and originality +than formerly, especially in private houses, and the reaction against +the orders and against traditional methods of design has of late been +growing stronger. The chief excellence of modern French architecture +lies in its rational planning, monumental spirit, and refinement of +detail (Fig. 212). + + ++GERMANY AND AUSTRIA.+ German architecture has been more affected during +the past fifty years by the archæological spirit than has the French. +A pronounced mediæval revival partly accompanied, partly followed the +Greek revival in Germany, and produced a number of churches and a few +secular buildings in the basilican, Romanesque, and Gothic styles.These +are less interesting than those in the Greek style, because mediæval +forms are even more foreign to modern needs than the classic, being +compatible only with systems of design and construction which are no +longer practicable. At Munich the Auekirche, by _Ohlmuller_, in an +attenuated Gothic style; the Byzantine Ludwigskirche, and _Ziebland’s_ +Basilica following Early Christian models; the Basilica by _Hübsch _, at +Bulach, and the Votive Church at Vienna (1856) by H. Von Ferstel +(1828-1883) are notable neo-mediæval monuments. The last-named church +may be classed with Ste. Clothilde at Paris (see p. 371), and St. +Patrick’s Cathedral at New York, all three being of approximately the +same size and general style, recalling St. Ouen at Rouen. They are +correct and elaborate, but more or less cold and artificial. + + [Illustration: FIG. 212.--MUSÉE GALLIÉRA, PARIS.] + +More successful are many of the German theatres and concert halls, in +which Renaissance and classic forms have been freely used. In several of +these the attempt has been made to express by the external form the +curvilinear plan of the auditorium, as in the +Dresden Theatre+, by +_Semper_ (1841; Fig. 213), the theatre at Carlsruhe, by Hübsch, and the +double winter-summer +Victoria Theatre+, at Berlin, by _Titz_. But the +practical and æsthetic difficulties involved in this treatment have +caused its general abandonment. The +Opera House+ at Vienna, by +_Siccardsburg_ and _Van der Null_ (1861-69), is rectangular in its +masses, and but for a certain triviality of detail would rank among the +most successful buildings of its kind. The new +Burgtheater+ in the same +city is a more elaborately ornate structure in Renaissance style, +somewhat florid and overdone. + + [Illustration: FIG. 213.--THEATRE AT DRESDEN.] + +Modern German architecture is at its best in academic and residential +buildings. The +Bauschule+, at Berlin, by Schinkel, in which brick is +used in a rational and dignified design without the orders; the +Polytechnic School, at Zürich, by Semper; university buildings, and +especially buildings for technical instruction, at Carlsruhe, Stuttgart, +Strasburg, Vienna, and other cities, show a monumental treatment of the +exterior and of the general distribution, combined with a careful study +of practical requirements. In administrative buildings the Germans have +hardly been as successful; and the new +Parliament House+, at Berlin, by +_Wallot_, in spite of its splendor and costliness, is heavy and +unsatisfactory in detail. The larger cities, especially Berlin, contain +many excellent examples of house architecture, mostly in the Renaissance +style, sufficiently monumental in design, though usually, like most +German work, inclined to heaviness of detail. The too free use of stucco +in imitation of stone is also open to criticism. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 214.--BLOCK OF DWELLINGS (MARIE-THERESIENHOF), + VIENNA.] + ++VIENNA.+ During the last thirty years Vienna has undergone a +transformation which has made it the rival of Paris as a stately +capital. The remodelling of the central portion, the creation of a +series of magnificent boulevards and squares, and the grouping of the +chief state and municipal buildings about these upon a monumental scheme +of arrangement, have given the city an unusual aspect of splendor. Among +the most important monuments in this group are the +Parliament House+, +by Hansen (see p. 360), and the +Town Hall+, by _Schmidt_. This latter +is a Neo-Gothic edifice of great size and pretentiousness, but strangely +thin and meagre in detail, and quite out of harmony with its +surroundings. The university and museums are massive piles in +Renaissance style; and it is the Renaissance rather than the classic or +Gothic revival which prevails throughout the new city. The great blocks +of residences and apartments (Fig. 214) which line its streets are +highly ornate in their architecture, but for the most part done in +stucco, which fails after all to give the aspect of solidity and +durability which it seeks to counterfeit. + +The city of +Buda-Pesth+ has also in recent years undergone a phenomenal +transformation of a similar nature to that effected in Vienna, but it +possesses fewer monuments of conspicuous architectural interest. The ++Synagogue+ is the most noted of these, a rich and pleasing edifice of +brick in a modified Hispano-Moresque style. + + ++GREAT BRITAIN.+ During the closing years of the Anglo-Greek +style a coterie of enthusiastic students of British mediæval +monuments--archæologists rather than architects--initiated a movement +for the revival of the national Gothic architecture. The first fruits +of this movement, led by Pugin, Brandon, Rickman, and others (about +1830-40), were seen in countless pseudo-Gothic structures in which +the pointed arches, buttresses, and clustered shafts of mediæval +architecture were imitated or parodied according to the designer’s +ability, with frequent misapprehension of their proper use or +significance. This unintelligent misapplication of Gothic forms was, +however, confined to the earlier stages of the movement. With increasing +light and experience came a more correct and consistent use of the +mediæval styles, dominated by the same spirit of archæological +correctness which had produced the _classicismo_ of the Late Renaissance +in Italy. This spirit, stimulated by extensive enterprises in the +restoration of the great mediæval monuments of the United Kingdom, was +fatal to any free and original development of the style along new lines. +But it rescued church architecture from the utter meanness and +debasement into which it had fallen, and established a standard of taste +which reacted on all other branches of design. + + [Illustration: FIG. 215.--HOUSES OF PARLIAMENT, WESTMINSTER, + LONDON.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 216.--ASSIZE COURTS, MANCHESTER. DETAIL.] + ++THE VICTORIAN GOTHIC.+ Between 1850 and 1870 the striving after +archæological correctness gave place to the more rational effort to +adapt Gothic principles to modern requirements, instead of merely +copying extinct styles. This effort, prosecuted by a number of +architects of great intelligence, culture, and earnestness (Sir Gilbert +Scott, George Edmund Street, William Burges, and others), resulted in a +number of extremely interesting buildings. Chief among these in size and +cost stand the +Parliament Houses+ at Westminster, by _Sir Charles +Barry_ (begun 1839), in the Perpendicular style. This immense structure +(Fig. 215), imposing in its simple masses and refined in its carefully +studied detail, is the most successful monument of the Victorian Gothic +style. It suffers, however, from the want of proper relation of scale +between its decorative elements and the vast proportions of the edifice, +which belittle its component elements. It cannot, on the whole, be +claimed as a successful vindication of the claims of the promoters of +the style as to the adaptability of Gothic forms to structures planned +and built after the modern fashion. The +Assize Courts+ at Manchester +(Fig. 216), the +New Museum+ at Oxford, the gorgeous +Albert Memorial+ +at London, by _Scott_, and the +New Law Courts+ at London, by _Street_, +are all conspicuous illustrations of the same truth. They are +conscientious, carefully studied designs in good taste, and yet wholly +unsuited in style to their purpose. They are like labored and scholarly +verse in a foreign tongue, correct in form and language, but lacking the +naturalness and charm of true and unfettered inspiration. A later essay +of the same sort in a slightly different field is the +Natural History +Museum+ at South Kensington, by _Waterhouse_ (1879), an imposing +building in a modified Romanesque style (Fig. 217). + + [Illustration: FIG. 217.--NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM, LONDON.] + + ++OTHER WORKS.+ The Victorian Gothic style responded to no deep and +general movement of the popular taste, and, like the Anglo-Greek style, +was doomed to failure from the inherent incongruity between modern needs +and mediæval forms. Within the last twenty years there has been a quite +general return to Renaissance principles, and the result is seen in a +large number of town-halls, exchanges, museums, and colleges, in which +Renaissance forms, with and without the orders, have been treated with +increasing freedom and skilful adaptation to the materials and special +requirements of each case. The Albert Memorial Hall (1863, by General +Scott) may be taken as an early instance of this movement, and the ++Imperial Institute+ (Colonial offices), by Collcutt, and Oxford Town +Hall, by Aston Webb, as among its latest manifestations. In domestic +architecture the so-called Queen Anne style has been much in vogue, as +practised by Norman Shaw, Ernest George, and others. It is really a +modern style, originating in the imitation of the modified Palladian +style as used in the brick architecture of Queen Anne’s time, but freely +and often artistically altered to meet modern tastes and needs. + +In its emancipation from the mistaken principles of archæological +revivals, and in its evidences of improved taste and awakened +originality, contemporary British architecture shows promise of good +things to come. It is still inferior to the French in the monumental +quality, in technical resource and refinement of decorative detail. + + ++ELSEWHERE IN EUROPE.+ In other European countries recent architecture +shows in general increasing freedom and improved good taste, but both +its opportunities and its performance have been nowhere else as +conspicuous as in France, Germany, and England. The costly Bourse and +the vast but overloaded Palais de Justice at Brussels, by _Polaert_, are +neither of them conspicuous for refined and cultivated taste. A few +buildings of note in Switzerland, Russia, and Greece might find mention +in a more extended review of architecture, but cannot here even be +enumerated. In Italy, especially at Rome, Milan, Naples, and Turin, +there has been a great activity in building since 1870, but with the +exception of the +Monument to Victor Emmanuel+ and the National Museum +at Rome, monumental arcades and passages at Milan and Naples, and _Campi +Santi_ or monumental cemeteries at Bologna, Genoa, and one or two other +places, there has been almost nothing of real importance built in Italy +of late years. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: As before, Fergusson, Statham. Also, Chandler, + _The Colonial Architecture of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and + Virginia_. Cleaveland and Campbell, _American Landmarks_. Corner + and Soderholz, _Colonial Architecture in New England_. Crane and + Soderholz, _Examples of Colonial Architecture in Charleston and + Savannah_. Drake, _Historic Fields and Mansions of Middlesex_. + Everett, _Historic Churches of America_. King, _Handbook of + Boston_; _Handbook of New York_. Little, _Early New England + Interiors_. Schuyler, _American Architecture_. Van Rensselaer, _H. + H. Richardson and His Works_. Wallis, _Old Colonial Architecture + and Furniture_. + + ++GENERAL REMARKS.+ The colonial architecture of modern times presents a +peculiar phenomenon. The colonizing nation, carrying into its new +_habitat_ the tastes and practices of a long-established civilization, +modifies these only with the utmost reluctance, under the absolute +compulsion of new conditions. When the new home is virgin soil, +destitute of cultivation, government, or civilized inhabitants, the +accompaniments and activities of civilization introduced by the +colonists manifest themselves at first in curious contrast to the +primitive surroundings. The struggle between organized life and chaos, +the laborious subjugation of nature to the requirements of our complex +modern life, for a considerable period absorb the energies of the +colonists. The amenities of culture, the higher intellectual life, the +refinements of art can, during this period, receive little attention. +Meanwhile a new national character is being formed; the people are +undergoing the moral training upon which their subsequent achievements +must depend. With the conquest of brute nature, however, and the gradual +emergence of a more cultivated class, with the growth of commerce and +wealth and the consequent increase of leisure, the humanities find more +place in the colonial life. The fine arts appear in scattered centres +determined by peculiarly favorable conditions. For a long time they +retain the impress, and seek to reproduce the forms, of the art of the +mother country. But new conditions impose a new development. Maturing +commerce with other lands brings in foreign influences, to which the +still unformed colonial art is peculiarly susceptible. Only with +political and commercial independence, fully developed internal +resources, and a high national culture do the arts finally attain, as it +were, their majority, and enter upon a truly national growth. + +These facts are abundantly illustrated by the architectural history of +the United States. The only one among the British colonies to attain +political independence, it is the only one among them whose architecture +has as yet entered upon an independent course of development, and this +only within the last twenty-five or thirty years. Nor has even this +development produced as yet a distinctive local style. It has, however, +originated new constructive methods, new types of buildings, and a +distinctively American treatment of the composition and the masses; the +decorative details being still, for the most part, derived from historic +precedents. The architecture of the other British colonies has retained +its provincial character, though producing from time to time individual +works of merit. In South America and Mexico the only buildings of +importance are Spanish, French, or German in style, according to the +nationality of the architects employed. The following sketch of American +architecture refers, therefore, exclusively to its development in the +United States. + + ++FORMATIVE PERIOD.+ Buildings in stone were not undertaken by the early +English colonists. The more important structures in the Southern and +Dutch colonies were of brick imported from Europe. Wood was, however, +the material most commonly employed, especially in New England, and its +use determined in large measure the form and style of the colonial +architecture. There was little or no striving for architectural elegance +until well into the eighteenth century, when Wren’s influence asserted +itself in a modest way in the Middle and Southern colonies. The very +simple and unpretentious town-hall at Williamsburg, Va., and St. +Michael’s, Charleston, are attributed to him; but the most that can be +said for these, as for the brick churches and manors of Virginia +previous to 1725, is that they are simple in design and pleasing in +proportion, without special architectural elegance. The same is true of +the wooden houses and churches of New England of the period, except that +they are even simpler in design. + +From 1725 to 1775 increased population and wealth along the coast +brought about a great advance in architecture, especially in churches +and in the dwellings of the wealthy. During this period was developed +the _Colonial style_, based on that of the reigns of Anne and the first +two Georges in England, and in church architecture on the models set by +Wren and Gibbs. All the details were, however, freely modified by the +general employment of wood. The scarcity of architects trained in Old +World traditions contributed to this departure from classic precision of +form. The style, especially in interior design, reflected the cultured +taste of the colonial aristocracy in its refined treatment of the +woodwork. But there was little or no architecture of a truly monumental +character. Edifices of stone were singularly few, and administrative +buildings were small and modest, owing to insufficient grants from the +Crown, as well as to the poverty of the colonies. + + [Illustration: FIG. 218.--CHRIST CHURCH, PHILADELPHIA.] + +The churches of this period include a number of interesting designs, +especially pleasing in the forms of their steeples. The “+Old South+” at +Boston (now a museum), Trinity at Newport, and +St. Paul’s+ at New +York--one of the few built of stone (1764)--are good examples of the +style. +Christ Church+ at Philadelphia (1727-35, by Dr. Kearsley) is +another example, historically as well as architecturally interesting +(Fig. 218); and there are scores of other churches almost equally +noteworthy, scattered through New England, Maryland, Virginia, and the +Middle States. + + ++DWELLINGS.+ These reflect better than the churches the varying tastes +of the different colonies. Maryland and Virginia abound in fine brick +manor-houses, set amid extensive grounds walled in and entered through +iron gates of artistic design. The interior finish of these houses was +often elaborate in conception and admirably executed. Westover (1737), +Carter’s Grove (1737) in Virginia, and the Harwood and Hammond Houses at +Annapolis, Md. (1770), are examples. The majority of the New England +houses were of wood, more compact in plan, more varied and picturesque +in design than those of the South, but wanting somewhat of their +stateliness. The interior finish of wainscot, cornices, stairs, and +mantelpieces shows, however, the same general style, in a skilful and +artistic adaptation of classic forms to the slender proportions of wood +construction. Externally the orders appear in porches and in colossal +pilasters, with well designed entablatures, and windows of Italian +model. The influence of the Adams and Sheraton furniture is doubtless to +be seen in these quaint and often charming versions of classic motives. +The Hancock House, Boston (of stone, demolished); the Sherburne House, +Portsmouth (1730); Craigie House, Cambridge (1757, Fig. 219); and +Rumford House, North Woburn (Mass.), are typical examples. + + [Illustration: FIG. 219.--CRAIGIE (LONGFELLOW) HOUSE, CAMBRIDGE.] + +In the Middle States architectural activity was chiefly centred in +Philadelphia and New York, and one or two other towns, where a number of +manor-houses, still extant, attest the wealth and taste of the time. It +is noticeable that the veranda or piazza was confined to the Southern +States, but that the climate seems to have had little influence on the +forms of roofs. These were gambrelled, hipped, gabled, or flat, alike in +the North and South, according to individual taste. + + ++PUBLIC BUILDINGS.+ Of public and monumental architecture this period +has little to show. Large cities did not exist; New York, Boston, and +Philadelphia were hardly more than overgrown villages. The public +buildings--court-houses and town-halls--were modest and inexpensive +structures. The Old State House and Faneuil Hall at Boston, the Town +Hall at Newport (R.I.), and Independence Hall at Philadelphia, the best +known of those now extant, are not striking architecturally. Monumental +design was beyond the opportunities and means of the colonies. It was in +their churches, all of moderate size, and in their dwellings that the +colonial builders achieved their greatest successes; and these works are +quaint, charming, and refined, rather than impressive or imposing. + +To the latter part of the colonial period belong a number of interesting +buildings which remain as monuments of Spanish rule in California, +Florida, and the Southwest. The old Fort S. Marco, now Fort Marion +(1656-1756), and the Catholic cathedral (1793; after the fire of 1887 +rebuilt in its original form with the original façade uninjured), both +at St. Augustine, Fla.; the picturesque buildings of the California +missions (mainly 1769-1800), the majority of them now in ruins; +scattered Spanish churches in California, Arizona, and New Mexico, and a +few unimportant secular buildings, display among their modern and +American settings a picturesque and interesting Spanish aspect and +character, though from the point of view of architectural detail they +represent merely a crude phase of the Churrigueresque style. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 220.--NATIONAL CAPITOL, WASHINGTON.] + ++EARLY REPUBLICAN PERIOD.+ Between the Revolution and the War of 1812, +under the new conditions of independence and self-government, +architecture took on a more monumental character. Buildings for the +State and National administrations were erected with the rapidly +increasing resources of the country. Stone was more generally used; +colonnades, domes, and cupolas or bell-towers, were adopted as +indispensable features of civic architecture. In church-building the +Wren-Gibbs type continued to prevail, but with greater correctness of +classic forms. The gambrel roof tended to disappear from the houses of +this period, and there was some decline in the refinement and delicacy +of the details of architecture. The influence of the Louis XVI. style is +traceable in many cases, as in the New York City Hall (1803-12, by +_McComb_ and _Mangin_), one of the very best designs of the time, and in +the delicate stucco-work and interior finish of many houses, The +original +Capitol+ at Washington--the central portion of the present +edifice--by _Thornton_, _Hallet_, and _B. H. Latrobe_ (1793-1830; Fig. +220), the +State House+ at Boston (1795, by _Bulfinch_), and the +University of Virginia, at Charlotteville, by _Thomas Jefferson_ (1817; +recently destroyed in part by fire), are the most interesting examples +of the classic tendencies of this period. Their freedom from the rococo +vulgarities generally prevalent at the time in Europe is noticeable. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 221.--CUSTOM HOUSE, NEW YORK.] + ++THE CLASSIC REVIVAL.+ The influence of the classic revivals of Europe +began to appear before the close of this period, and reached its +culmination about 1830-40. It left its impress most strongly on our +Federal architecture, although it invaded domestic architecture, +producing countless imitations, in brick and wooden houses, of Grecian +colonnades and porticos. One of its first-fruits was the White House, or +Executive Mansion, at Washington, by _Hoban_ (1792), recalling the large +English country houses of the time. The +Treasury+ and +Patent Office+ +buildings at Washington, the Philadelphia Mint, the +Sub-treasury+ and ++Custom House+ at New York (the latter erected originally for a bank; +Fig. 221), and the +Boston Custom House+ are among the important Federal +buildings of this period. Several State capitols were also erected under +the same influence; and the Marine Exchange and +Girard College+ at +Philadelphia should also be mentioned as conspicuous examples of the +pseudo-Greek style. The last-named building is a Corinthian dormitory, +its tiers of small windows contrasting strangely with its white marble +columns. These classic buildings were solidly and carefully constructed, +but lacked the grace, cheerfulness, and appropriateness of earlier +buildings. The Capitol at Washington was during this period greatly +enlarged by terminal wings with fine Corinthian porticos, of Roman +rather than Greek design. The +Dome+, by _Walters_, was not added until +1858-73; it is a successful and harmonious composition, nobly completing +the building. Unfortunately, it is an afterthought, built of iron +painted to simulate marble, the substructure being inadequate to support +a dome of masonry. The Italian or Roman style which it exemplified, in +time superseded the less tractable Greek style. + + ++THE WAR PERIOD.+ The period from 1850 to 1876 was one of intense +political activity and rapid industrial progress. The former culminated +in the terrible upheaval of the civil war; the latter in the completion +of the Pacific Railroad (1869) and a remarkable development of the +mining resources and manufactures of the country. It was a period of +feverish commercial activity, but of artistic stagnation, and witnessed +the erection of but few buildings of architectural importance. A number +of State capitols, city halls and churches, of considerable size and +cost but of inferior design, attest the decline of public taste and +architectural skill during these years. The huge Municipal Building at +Philadelphia and the still unfinished Capitol at Albany are full of +errors of planning and detail which twenty-five years of elaboration +have failed to correct. Next to the dome of the Capitol at Washington, +completed during this period, of which it is the most signal +architectural achievement, its most notable monument was the +St. +Patrick’s Cathedral+ at New York, by _Renwick_; a Gothic church which, +if somewhat cold and mechanical in detail, is a stately and +well-considered design. Its west front and spires (completed 1886) are +particularly successful. Trinity Church (1843, by _Upjohn_) and Grace +Church (1840, by Renwick), though of earlier date, should be classed +with this cathedral as worthy examples of modern Gothic design. Indeed, +the churches designed in this style by a few thoroughly trained +architects during this period are the most creditable and worthy among +its lesser productions. In general an undiscriminating eclecticism of +style prevailed, unregulated by sober taste or technical training. The +Federal buildings by _Mullett_ were monuments of perverted design in a +heavy and inartistic rendering of French Renaissance motives. The New +York Post Office and the State, Army and Navy Department building at +Washington are examples of this style. + + ++THE ARTISTIC AWAKENING.+ Between 1870 and 1880 a remarkable series of +events exercised a powerful influence on the artistic life of the United +States. Two terrible conflagrations in Chicago (1871) and Boston (1872) +gave unexampled opportunities for architectural improvement and greatly +stimulated the public interest in the art. The feverish and abnormal +industrial activity which followed the war and the rapid growth of the +parvenu spirit were checked by the disastrous “panic” of 1873. With the +completion of the Pacific railways and the settlement of new communities +in the West, industrial prosperity, when it returned, was established on +a firmer basis. An extraordinary expansion of travel to Europe began to +disseminate the seeds of artistic culture throughout the country. The +successful establishment of schools of architecture in Boston (1866) and +other cities, and the opening or enlargement of art museums in New York, +Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Detroit, Milwaukee, and elsewhere, +stimulated the artistic awakening which now manifested itself. In +architecture the personal influence of two men, trained in the Paris +École des Beaux-Arts, was especially felt--of _R. M. Hunt_ (1827-95) +through his words and deeds quite as much as through his works; and of +_H. H. Richardson_ (1828-86) predominantly through his works. These two +men, with others of less fame but of high ideals and thorough culture, +did much to elevate architecture as an art in the public esteem. To all +these influences new force was added by the Centennial Exhibition at +Philadelphia (1876). Here for the first time the American people were +brought into contact, in their own land, with the products of European +and Oriental art. It was to them an artistic revelation, whose results +were prompt and far-reaching. Beginning first in the domain of +industrial and decorative art, its stimulating influence rapidly +extended to painting and architecture, and with permanent consequences. +American students began to throng the centres of Old World art, while +the setting of higher standards of artistic excellence at home, and the +development of important art-industries, were other fruits of this +artistic awakening. The recent Columbian Exhibition at Chicago (1893), +its latest and most important manifestation, has added a new impulse to +the movement, especially in architecture. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 222.--TRINITY CHURCH, BOSTON.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 223.--LIBRARY AT WOBURN, MASS.] + ++STYLE IN RECENT ARCHITECTURE.+ The rapid increase in the number of +American architects trained in Paris or under the indirect influence of +the École des Beaux-Arts has been an important factor in recent +architectural progress. Yet it has by no means imposed the French +academic formulæ upon American architecture. The conditions, materials, +and constructive processes here prevailing, and above all the +eclecticism of the public taste, have prevented this. The French +influence is perceived rather in a growing appreciation of monumental +design in the planning, composition, and setting of buildings, than in +any direct imitation of French models. The Gothic revival which +prevailed more or less widely from 1840 to 1875, as already noticed, and +of which the +State Capitol+ at Hartford (Conn.; 1875-78), and the +Fine +Arts Museum+ at Boston, were among the last important products, was +generally confined to church architecture, for which Gothic forms are +still largely employed, as in the Protestant +Cathedral+ of +All Saints+ +now building at Albany (N.Y.), by an English architect. For the most +part the works of the last twenty years show a more or less judicious +eclecticism, the choice of style being determined partly by the person +and training of the designer, partly by the nature of the building. The +powerfully conceived works of Richardson, in a free version of the +French Romanesque, for a time exercised a wide influence, especially +among the younger architects. +Trinity Church+, Boston (Fig. 222), his +earliest important work; many public libraries and business buildings, +and finally the impressive +County Buildings+ at Pittsburgh (Pa.), all +treated in this style, are admirable rather for the strong individuality +of their designer, displayed in their vigorous composition, than on +account of the historic style he employed (Fig. 223). Yet it appeared in +his hands so flexible and effective that it was widely imitated. But if +easy to use, it is most difficult to use well; its forms are too massive +for ordinary purposes, and in the hands of inferior designers it was so +often travestied that it has now lost its wide popularity. While a +number of able architects have continued to use it effectively in +ecclesiastical, civic, and even commercial architecture, it is being +generally superseded by various forms of the Renaissance. Here also a +wide eclecticism prevails, the works of the same architect often varying +from the gayest Francis I. designs in domestic architecture, or free +adaptations of Quattrocento details for theatres and street +architecture, to the most formal classicism in colossal +exhibition-buildings, museums, libraries, and the like. Meanwhile there +are many more or less successful ventures in other historic styles +applied to public and private edifices. Underlying this apparent +confusion, almost anarchy in the use of historic styles, the careful +observer may detect certain tendencies crystallizing into definite form. +New materials and methods of construction, increased attention to +detail, a growing sense of monumental requirements, even the development +of the elevator as a substitute for the grand staircase, are leaving +their mark on the planning, the proportions, and the artistic +composition of American buildings, irrespective of the styles used. The +art is with us in a state of transition, and open to criticism in many +respects; but it appears to be full of life and promise for the future. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 224.--“TIMES” BUILDING, NEW YORK.] + ++COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS.+ This class of edifices has in our great cities +developed wholly new types, which have taken shape under four imperative +influences. These are the demand for fire-proof construction, the demand +for well-lighted offices, the introduction of elevators, and the +concentration of business into limited areas, within which land has +become inordinately costly. These causes have led to the erection of +buildings of excessive height (Fig. 224); the more recent among them +constructed with a framework of iron or steel columns and beams, the +visible walls being a mere filling-in. To render a building of twenty +stories attractive to the eye, especially when built on an irregular +site, is a difficult problem, of which a wholly satisfactory solution +has yet to be found. There have been, however, some notable achievements +in this line, in most of which the principle has been clearly recognized +that a lofty building should have a well-marked basement or pedestal and +a somewhat ornate crowning portion or capital, the intervening stories +serving as a die or shaft and being treated with comparative simplicity. +The difficulties of scale and of handling one hundred and fifty to three +hundred windows of uniform style have been surmounted with conspicuous +skill (+American Surety Building+ and Broadway Chambers, New York; Ames +Building, Boston; Carnegie Building, Pittsburgh; Union Trust, St. +Louis). In some cases, especially in Chicago and the Middle West, the +metallic framework is suggested by slender piers between the windows, +rising uninterrupted from the basement to the top story. In others, +especially in New York and the East, the walls are treated as in +ordinary masonry buildings. The Chicago school is marked by a more +utilitarian and unconventional treatment, with results which are often +extremely bold and effective, but rarely as pleasing to the eye as those +attained by the more conservative Eastern school. In the details of +American office-buildings every variety of style is to be met with; but +the Romanesque and the Renaissance, freely modified, predominate. The +tendency towards two or three well-marked types in the external +composition of these buildings, as above suggested, promises, however, +the evolution of a style in which the historic origin of the details +will be a secondary matter. Certain Chicago architects have developed an +original treatment of architectural forms by exaggerating some of the +structural lines, by suppressing the mouldings and more familiar +historic forms, and by the free use of flat surface ornament. The +Schiller, Auditorium, and Fisher Buildings, all at Chicago, Guaranty +Building, Buffalo, and Majestic Building, Detroit, are examples of this +personal style, which illustrates the untrammelled freedom of the art in +a land without traditions.[27] + + [Footnote 27: See Appendix, D and E.] + + + [Illustration: FIG. 225.--COUNTRY HOUSE, MASSACHUSETTS.] + ++DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE.+ It is in this field that the most +characteristic and original phases of American architecture are to be +met with, particularly in rural and suburban residences. In these the +peculiar requirements of our varying climates and of American domestic +life have been studied and in large measure met with great frankness and +artistic appreciation. The broad staircase-hall, serving often as a sort +of family sitting-room, the piazza, and a picturesque massing of steep +roofs, have been the controlling factors in the evolution of two or +three general types which appear in infinite variations. The material +most used is wood, but this has had less influence in the determination +of form than might have been expected. The artlessness of the planning, +which is arranged to afford the maximum of convenience rather than to +conform to any traditional type, has been the element of greatest +artistic success. It has resulted in exteriors which are the natural +outgrowth of the interior arrangements, frankly expressed, without +affectation of style (Fig. 225). The resulting picturesqueness has, +however, in many cases been treated as an end instead of an incidental +result, and the affectation of picturesqueness has in such designs +become as detrimental as any affectation of style. In the internal +treatment of American houses there has also been a notable artistic +advance, harmony of color and domestic comfort and luxury being sought +after rather than monumental effects. A number of large city and country +houses designed on a palatial scale have, however, given opportunity for +a more elaborate architecture; notably the Vanderbilt, Villard, and +Huntington residences at New York, the great country-seat of +Biltmore+, +near Asheville (N.C.), in the Francis I. style (by R. M. Hunt), and many +others. + + ++OTHER BUILDINGS.+ American architects have generally been less +successful in public, administrative, and ecclesiastical architecture +than in commercial and domestic work. The preference for small parish +churches, treated as audience-rooms rather than as places of worship, +has interfered with the development of noble types of church-buildings. +Yet there are signs of improvement; and the new +Cathedral+ of +St. John +the Divine+ at New York, in a modified Romanesque style, promises to be +a worthy and monumental building. In semi-public architecture, such as +hotels, theatres, clubs, and libraries, there are many notable examples +of successful design. The +Ponce de Leon Hotel+ at St. Augustine, +a sumptuous and imposing pile in a free version of the Spanish +Plateresco; the Auditorium Theatre at Chicago, the Madison Square Garden +and the Casino at New York, may be cited as excellent in general +conception and well carried out in detail, externally and internally. +The Century and Metropolitan Clubs at New York, the +Boston Public +Library+, the Carnegie Library at Pittsburgh, the +Congressional +Library+ at Washington, and the recently completed Minnesota +State +Capitol+ at St. Paul, exemplify in varying degrees of excellence the +increasing capacity of American architects for monumental design. This +was further shown in the buildings of the +Columbian Exposition+ at +Chicago in 1893. These, in spite of many faults of detail, constituted +an aggregate of architectural splendor such as had never before been +seen or been possible on this side the Atlantic. They further brought +architecture into closer union with the allied arts and formed an object +lesson in the value of appropriate landscape gardening as a setting to +monumental structures. + +It should be said, in conclusion, that with the advances of recent years +in artistic design in the United States there has been at least as great +improvement in scientific construction. The sham and flimsiness of the +Civil War period are passing away, and solid and durable building is +becoming more general throughout the country, but especially in the +Northeast and in some of the great Western cities, notably in Chicago. +In this onward movement the Federal buildings--post-offices, +custom-houses, and other governmental edifices--have not, till lately, +taken high rank. Although solidly and carefully constructed, those built +during the period 1875-1895 were generally inferior to the best work +produced by private enterprise, or by State and municipal governments. +This was in large part due to enactments devolving upon the supervising +architect at Washington the planning of all Federal buildings, as well +as a burden of supervisory and clerical duties incompatible with the +highest artistic results. Since 1898, however, a more enlightened policy +has prevailed, and a number of notable designs for Federal buildings +have been secured by carefully-conducted competitions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +ORIENTAL ARCHITECTURE. + +INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN. + + + BOOKS RECOMMENDED: Cole, _Monographs of Ancient Monuments of + India_. Conder, _Notes on Japanese Architecture_ (in Transactions + of R.I.B.A., for 1886). Cunningham, _Archæological Survey of + India_. Fergusson, _Indian and Eastern Architecture_; _Picturesque + Illustrations of Indian Architecture_. Le Bon, _Les Monuments de + l’Inde_. Morse, _Japanese Houses_. Stirling, _Asiatic Researches_. + Consult also the _Journal_ and the _Transactions_ of the Royal + Asiatic Society. + + ++INTRODUCTORY NOTE.+ The architecture of the non-Moslem countries and +races of Asia has been reserved for this closing chapter, in order not +to interrupt the continuity of the history of European styles, with +which it has no affinity and scarcely even a point of contact. Among +them all, India alone has produced monuments of great architectural +importance. The buildings of China and Japan, although interesting for +their style, methods, and detail, and so deserving at least of brief +mention, are for the most part of moderate size and of perishable +materials. Outside of these three countries there is little to interest +the general student of architecture. + + ++INDIA: PERIODS.+ It is difficult to classify the non-Mohammedan styles +of India, owing to their frequently overlapping, both geographically and +artistically; while the lack of precise dates in Indian literature makes +the chronology of many of the monuments more or less doubtful. The +divisions given below are a modification of those first established by +Fergusson, and are primarily based on the three great religions, with +geographical subdivisions, as follows: + +THE BUDDHIST STYLE, from the reign of Asoka, _cir._ 250 B.C., to the 7th +century A.D. Its monuments occupy mainly a broad band running northeast +and southwest, between the Indian Desert and the Dekkan. Offshoots of +the style are found as far north as Gandhara, and as far south as +Ceylon. + +THE JAINA STYLE, akin to the preceding if not derived from it, covering +the same territory as well as southern India; from 1000 A.D. to the +present time. + +THE BRAHMAN or HINDU STYLES, extending over the whole peninsula. They +are sub-divided geographically into the NORTHERN BRAHMAN, the CHALUKYAN +in the Dekkan, and the DRAVIDIAN in the south; this last style being +coterminous with the populations speaking the Tamil and cognate +languages. The monuments of these styles are mainly subsequent to the +10th century, though a few date as far back as the 7th. + +The great majority of Indian monuments are religious--temples, shrines, +and monasteries. Secular buildings do not appear until after the Moslem +conquests, and most of them are quite modern. + + ++GENERAL CHARACTER.+ All these styles possess certain traits in common. +While stone and brick are both used, sandstone predominating, the +details are in large measure derived from wooden prototypes. Structural +lines are not followed in the exterior treatment, purely decorative +considerations prevailing. Ornament is equally lavished on all parts of +the building, and is bewildering in its amount and complexity. Realistic +and grotesque sculpture is freely used, forming multiplied horizontal +bands of extraordinary richness and minuteness of execution. Spacious +and lofty interiors are rarely attempted, but wonderful effects are +produced by seemingly endless repetition of columns in halls, and +corridors, and by external emphasis of important parts of the plan by +lofty tower-like piles of masonry. + +The source of the various Indian styles, the origin of the forms used, +the history of their development, are all wrapped in obscurity. All the +monuments show a fully developed style and great command of technical +resources from the outset. When, where, and how these were attained is +as yet an unsolved mystery. In all its phases previous to the Moslem +conquest Indian architecture appears like an indigenous art, borrowing +little from foreign styles, and having no affinities with the arts of +Occidental nations. + + ++BUDDHIST STYLE.+ Although Buddhism originated in the sixth century +B.C., the earliest architectural remains of the style date from its wide +promulgation in India under Asoka (272-236 B.C.). Buddhist monuments +comprise three chief classes of structures: the _stupas_ or _topes_, +which are mounds more or less domical in shape, enclosing relic-shrines +of Buddha, or built to mark some sacred spot; _chaityas_, or temple +halls, cut in the rock; and _viharas_, or monasteries. The style of the +detail varies considerably in these three classes, but is in general +simpler and more massive than in the other styles of India. + + ++TOPES.+ These are found in groups, of which the most important are at +or near Bhilsa in central India, at Manikyala in the northwest, at +Amravati in the south, and in Ceylon at Ruanwalli and Tuparamaya. The +best known among them is the +Sanchi Tope+, near Bhilsa, 120 feet in +diameter and 56 feet high. It is surrounded by a richly carved stone +rail or fence, with gateways of elaborate workmanship, having three +sculptured lintels crossing the carved uprights. The tope at Manikyala +is larger, and dates from the 7th century. It is exceeded in size by +many in Ceylon, that at Abayagiri measuring 360 feet in diameter. Few of +the topes retain the _tee_, or model of a shrine, which, like a lantern, +once crowned each of them. + +Besides the topes there are a few stupas of tower-like form, square in +plan, of which the most famous is that at +Buddh Gaya+, near the sacred +Bodhi tree, where Buddha attained divine light in 588 B.C. + + ++CHAITYA HALLS.+ The Buddhist speos-temples--so far as known the only +extant halls of worship of that religion, except one at Sanchi--are +mostly in the Bombay Presidency, at Ellora, Karli, Ajunta, Nassick, and +Bhaja. The earliest, that at Karli, dates from 78 B.C., the latest (at +Ellora), _cir._ 600 A.D. They consist uniformly of a broad nave ending +in an apse, and covered by a roof like a barrel vault, and two narrow +side aisles. In the apse is the _dagoba_ or relic-shrine, shaped like a +miniature tope. The front of the cave was originally adorned with an +open-work screen or frame of wood, while the face of the rock about the +opening was carved into the semblance of a sumptuous structural façade. +Among the finest of these caverns is that at +Karli+, whose massive +columns and impressive scale recall Egyptian models, though the +resemblance is superficial and has no historic significance. More +suggestive is the affinity of many of the columns which stand before +these caves to Persian prototypes (see Fig. 21). It is not improbable +that both Persian and classic forms were introduced into India through +the Bactrian kingdom 250 years B.C. Otherwise we must seek for the +origin of nearly all Buddhist forms in a pre-existing wooden +architecture, now wholly perished, though its traditions may survive in +the wooden screens in the fronts of the caves. While some of these +caverns are extremely simple, as at Bhaja, others, especially at ++Nassick+ and +Ajunta+, are of great splendor and complexity. + + ++VIHARAS.+ Except at Gandhara in the Punjab, the structural monasteries +of the Buddhists were probably all of wood and have long ago perished. +The Gandhara monasteries of Jamalgiri and Takht-i-Bahi present in plan +three or four courts surrounded by cells. The centre of one court is in +both cases occupied by a platform for an altar or shrine. Among the +ruins there have been found a number of capitals whose strong +resemblance to the Corinthian type is now generally attributed to +Byzantine rather than Bactrian influences. These viharas may therefore +be assigned to the 6th or 7th century A.D. + +The rock-cut viharas are found in the neighborhood of the chaityas +already described. Architecturally, they are far more elaborate than the +chaityas. Those at Salsette, Ajunta, and Bagh are particularly +interesting, with pillared halls or courts, cells, corridors, and +shrines. The hall of the +Great Vihara+ at +Bagh+ is 96 feet square, +with 36 columns. Adjoining it is the school-room, and the whole is +fronted by a sumptuous rock-cut colonnade 200 feet long. These caves +were mostly hewn between the 5th and 7th centuries, at which time +sculpture was more prevalent in Buddhist works than previously, and some +of them are richly adorned with figures. + + ++JAINA STYLE.+ The religion and the architecture of the Jainas so +closely resemble those of the Buddhists, that recent authorities are +disposed to treat the Jaina style as a mere variation or continuation of +the Buddhist. Chronologically they are separated by an interval of some +three centuries, _cir._ 650-950 A.D., which have left us almost no +monuments of either style. The Jaina is moreover easily distinguished +from the Buddhist architecture by the great number and elaborateness of +its structural monuments. The multiplication of statues of Tirthankhar +in the cells about the temple courts, the exuberance of sculpture, the +use of domes built in horizontal courses, and the imitation in stone of +wooden braces or struts are among its distinguishing features. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 226.--PORCH OF TEMPLE ON MOUNT ABU.] + ++JAINA TEMPLES.+ The earliest examples are on +Mount Abu+ in the Indian +Desert. Built by Vimalah Sah in 1032, the chief of these consists of a +court measuring 140 × 90 feet, surrounded by cells and a double +colonnade. In the centre rises the shrine of the god, containing his +statue, and terminating in a lofty tower or _sikhra_. An imposing +columnar porch, cruciform in plan, precedes this cell (Fig. 226). The +intersection of the arms is covered by a dome supported on eight columns +with stone brackets or struts. The dome and columns are covered with +profuse carving and sculptured figures, and the total effect is one of +remarkable dignity and splendor. The temple of +Sadri+ is much more +extensive, twenty minor domes and one of larger size forming cruciform +porches on all four sides of the central _sikhra_. The cells about the +court are each covered by a small _sikhra_, and these, with the +twenty-one domes (four of which are built in three stories), all grouped +about the central tower and adorned with an astonishing variety of +detail, constitute a monument of the first importance. It was built by +Khumbo Rana, about 1450. At +Girnar+ are several 12th-century temples +with enclosed instead of open vestibules. One of these, that of ++Neminatha+, retains intact its court enclosure and cells, which in most +other cases have perished. The temple at +Somnath+ resembles it, but is +larger; the dome of its porch, 33 feet in diameter, is the largest Jaina +dome in India. Other notable temples are at Gwalior, Khajuraho, and +Parasnatha. + +In all the Jaina temples the salient feature is the sikhra or _vimana_. +This is a tower of approximately square plan, tapering by a graceful +curve toward a peculiar terminal ornament shaped like a flattened melon. +Its whole surface is variegated by horizontal bands and vertical breaks, +covered with sculpture and carving. Next in importance are the domes, +built wholly in horizontal courses and resting on stone lintels carried +by bracketed columns. These same traits appear in relatively modern +examples, as at Delhi. + + + [Illustration: FIG. 227.--TOWER OF VICTORY, CHITTORE.] + ++TOWERS.+ A similar predilection for minutely broken surfaces marks the +towers which sometimes adjoin the temples, as at Chittore (tower of +Sri +Allat+, 13th century), or were erected as trophies of victory, like that +of +Khumbo Rana+ in the same town (Fig. 227). The combination of +horizontal and vertical lines, the distribution of the openings, and the +rich ornamentation of these towers are very interesting, though lacking +somewhat in structural propriety of design. + + ++HINDU STYLES: NORTHERN BRAHMAN.+ The origin of this style is as yet an +unsolved problem. Its monuments were mainly built between 600 and 1200 +A.D., the oldest being in Orissa, at Bhuwanesevar, Kanaruk, and Puri. In +northern India the temples are about equally divided between the two +forms of Brahmanism--the worship of Vishnu or _Vaishnavism_, and that of +Siva or _Shaivism_--and do not differ materially in style. As in the +Jaina style, the _vimana_ is their most striking feature, and this is in +most cases adorned with numerous reduced copies of its own form grouped +in successive stages against its sides and angles. This curious system +of design appears in nearly all the great temples, both of Vishnu and +Siva. The Jaina melon ornament is universal, surmounted generally by an +urn-shaped finial. + +In plan the vimana shrine is preceded by two or three chambers, square +or polygonal, some with and some without columns. The foremost of these +is covered by a roof formed like a stepped pyramid set cornerwise. The +fine porch of the ruined temple at +Bindrabun+ is cruciform in plan and +forms the chief part of the building, the shrine at the further end +being relatively small and its tower unfinished or ruined. In some +modern examples the antechamber is replaced by an open porch with a +Saracenic dome, as at Benares; in others the old type is completely +abandoned, as in the temple at +Kantonnuggur+ (1704-22). This is a +square hall built of terra-cotta, with four three-arched porches and +nine towers, more Saracenic than Brahman in general aspect. + +The +Kandarya Mahadeo+, at Khajuraho, is the most noted example of the +northern Brahman style, and one of the most splendid structures extant. +A strong and lofty basement supports an extraordinary mass of roofs, +covering the six open porches and the antechamber and hypostyle hall, +which precede the shrine, and rising in successive pyramidal masses +until the vimana is reached which covers the shrine. This is 116 feet +high, but seems much loftier, by reason of the small scale of its +constituent parts and the marvellously minute decoration which covers +the whole structure. The vigor of its masses and the grand stairways +which lead up to it give it a dignity unusual for its size, 60 × 109 +feet in plan (_cir._ 1000 A.D.). + +At Puri, in Orissa, the +Temple+ of +Jugganat+, with its double +enclosure and numerous subordinate shrines, the Teli-ka-Mandir at +Gwalior, and temples at +Udaipur+ near Bhilsa, at +Mukteswara+ in +Orissa, at Chittore, Benares, and Barolli, are important examples. The +few tombs erected subsequent to the Moslem conquest, combining Jaina +bracket columns with Saracenic domes, and picturesquely situated palaces +at Chittore (1450), Oudeypore (1580), and Gwalior, should also be +mentioned. + + ++CHALUKYAN STYLE.+ Throughout a central zone crossing the peninsula from +sea to sea about the Dekkan, and extending south to Mysore on the west, +the Brahmans developed a distinct style during the later centuries of +the Chalukyan dynasty. Its monuments are mainly comprised between 1050 +and the Mohammedan conquest in 1310. The most notable examples of the +style are found along the southwest coast, at Hullabid, Baillur, and +Somnathpur. + + ++TEMPLES.+ Chalukyan architecture is exclusively religious and its +temples are easily recognized. The plans comprise the same elements as +those of the Jainas, but the Chalukyan shrine is always star-shaped +externally in plan, and the vimana takes the form of a stepped pyramid +instead of a curved outline. The Jaina dome is, moreover, wholly +wanting. All the details are of extraordinary richness and beauty, and +the breaking up of the surfaces by rectangular projections is skilfully +managed so as to produce an effect of great apparent size with very +moderate dimensions. All the known examples stand on raised platforms, +adding materially to their dignity. Some are double temples, as at +Hullabid (Fig. 228); others are triple in plan. A noticeable feature of +the style is the deeply cut stratification of the lower part of the +temples, each band or stratum bearing a distinct frieze of animals, +figures or ornament, carved with masterly skill. Pierced stone slabs +filling the window openings are also not uncommon. + +The richest exemplars of the style are the temples at +Baillur+ and +Somnathpur, and at Hullabîd the +Kait Iswara+ and the incomplete +Double +Temple+. The Kurti Stambha, or gate at Worangul, and the Great Temple at ++Hamoncondah+ should also be mentioned. + + [Illustration: FIG. 228.--TEMPLE AT HULLABÎD. DETAIL.] + + ++DRAVIDIAN STYLE.+ The Brahman monuments of southern India exhibit a +style almost as strongly marked as the Chalukyan. This appears less in +their details than in their general plan and conception. The Dravidian +temples are not single structures, but aggregations of buildings of +varied size and form, covering extensive areas enclosed by walls and +entered through gates made imposing by lofty pylons called _gopuras_. As +if to emphasize these superficial resemblances to Egyptian models, the +sanctuary is often low and insignificant. It is preceded by much more +imposing porches (_mantapas_) and hypostyle halls or _choultries_, the +latter being sometimes of extraordinary extent, though seldom lofty. The +choultrie, sometimes called the Hall of 1,000 Columns, is in some cases +replaced by pillared corridors of great length and splendor, as at ++Ramisseram+ and +Madura.+ The plans are in most cases wholly irregular, +and the architecture, so far from resembling the Egyptian in its scale +and massiveness, is marked by the utmost minuteness of ornament and +tenuity of detail, suggesting wood and stucco rather than stone. The ++Great Hall+ at Chillambaram is but 10 to 12 feet high, and the +corridors at Ramisseram, 700 feet long, are but 30 feet high. The effect +of _ensemble_ of the Dravidian temples is disappointing. They lack the +emphasis of dominant masses and the dignity of symmetrical and logical +arrangement. The very loftiness of the gopuras makes the buildings of +the group within seem low by contrast. In nearly every temple, however, +some one feature attracts merited admiration by its splendor, extent, or +beauty. Such are the +Choultrie+, built by Tirumalla Nayak at Madura +(1623-45), measuring 333 × 105 feet; the corridors already mentioned at +Ramisseram and in the +Great Temple+ at Madura; the gopuras at ++Tarputry+ and Vellore, and the +Mantapa+ of +Parvati+ at Chillambaram +(1595-1685). Very noticeable are the compound columns of this style, +consisting of square piers with slender shafts coupled to them and +supporting brackets, as at Chillambaram, Peroor, and Vellore; the richly +banded square piers, the grotesques of rampant horses and monsters, and +the endless labor bestowed upon minute carving and ornament in +superposed bands. + + ++OTHER MONUMENTS.+ Other important temples are at Tiruvalur, Seringham, +Tinevelly, and Conjeveram, all alike in general scheme of design, with +enclosures varying from 300 to 1,000 feet in length and width. At ++Tanjore+ is a magnificent temple with two courts, in the larger of +which stands a _pagoda_ or shrine with a pyramidal vimana, unusual in +Dravidian temples, and beside it the smaller +Shrine+ of +Soubramanya+ +(Fig. 229), a structure of unusual beauty of detail. In both, the +vertical lower story with its pilasters and windows is curiously +suggestive of Renaissance design. The pagoda dates from the 14th, the +smaller temple from the 15th century. + + [Illustration: FIG. 229.--SHRINE OF SOUBRAMANYA, TANJORE.] + + ++ROCK-CUT RATHS.+ All the above temples were built subsequently to the +12th century. The rock-cut shrines date in some cases as far back as the +7th century; they are called _kylas_ and _raths_, and are not caves, but +isolated edifices, imitating structural designs, but hewn bodily from +the rock. Those at Mahavellipore are of diminutive size; but at ++Purudkul+ there is an extensive temple with shrine, choultrie, and +gopura surrounded by a court enclosure measuring 250 × 150 feet (9th +century). More famous still is the elaborate +Kylas+ at +Ellora+, of +about the same size as the above, but more complex and complete in its +details. + + ++PALACES.+ At Madura, Tanjore, and Vijayanagar are Dravidian palaces, +built after the Mohammedan conquest and in a mixed style. The domical +octagonal throne-room and the +Great Hall+ at Madura (17th century), the +most famous edifices of the kind, were evidently inspired from Gothic +models, but how this came about is not known. The Great Hall with its +pointed arched barrel vault of 67 feet span, its cusped arches, round +piers, vaulting shafts, and triforium, appears strangely foreign to its +surroundings. + + ++CAMBODIA.+ The subject of Indian architecture cannot be dismissed +without at least brief mention of the immense temple of +Nakhon Wat+ in +Cambodia. This stupendous creation covers an area of a full square mile, +with its concentric courts, its encircling moat or lake, its causeways, +porches, and shrines, dominated by a central structure 200 feet square +with nine pagoda-like towers. The corridors around the inner court have +square piers of almost classic Roman type. The rich carving, the perfect +masonry, and the admirable composition of the whole leading up to the +central mass, indicate architectural ability of a high order. + + ++CHINESE ARCHITECTURE.+ No purely Mongolian nation appears ever to have +erected buildings of first-rate importance. It cannot be denied, +however, that the Chinese are possessed of considerable decorative skill +and mechanical ingenuity; and these qualities are the most prominent +elements in their buildings. Great size and splendor, massiveness and +originality of construction, they do not possess. Built in large measure +of wood, cleverly framed and decorated with a certain richness of color +and ornament, with a large element of the grotesque in the decoration, +the Chinese temples, pagodas, and palaces are interesting rather than +impressive. There is not a single architectural monument of imposing +size or of great antiquity, so far as we know. The celebrated +Porcelain +Tower+ of Nankin is no longer extant, having been destroyed in the +Tæping rebellion in 1850. It was a nine-storied polygonal pagoda 236 +feet high, revetted with porcelain tiles, and was built in 1412. The +largest of Chinese temples, that of the +Great Dragon+ at Pekin, is a +circular structure of moderate size, though its enclosure is nearly a +mile square. Pagodas with diminishing stories, elaborately carved +entrance gates and successive terraces are mainly relied upon for +effect. They show little structural art, but much clever ornament. Like +the monasteries and the vast _lamaseries_ of Thibet, they belong to the +Buddhist religion. + +Aside from the ingenious framing and bracketing of the carpentry, the +most striking peculiarity of Chinese buildings is their broad-spreading +tiled roofs. These invariably slope downward in a curve, and the tiling, +with its hip-ridges, crestings, and finials in terra-cotta or metal, +adds materially to the picturesqueness of the general effect. Color and +gilding are freely used, and in some cases--as in a summer pavilion at +Pekin--porcelain tiling covers the walls, with brilliant effect. The +chief wonder is that this resource of the architectural decorator has +not been further developed in China, where porcelain and earthenware are +otherwise treated with such remarkable skill. + + ++JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE.+ Apparently associated in race with the Chinese +and Koreans, the Japanese are far more artistic in temperament than +either of their neighbors. The refinement and originality of their +decorative art have given it a wide reputation. Unfortunately the +prevalence of earthquakes has combined with the influence of the +traditional habits of the people to prevent the maturing of a truly +monumental architecture. Except for the terraces, gates, and enclosures +of their palaces and temples, wood is the predominant building material. +It is used substantially as in China, the framing, dovetailing, +bracketing, broad eaves and tiled roofs of Japan closely resembling +those of China. The chief difference is in the greater refinement and +delicacy of the Japanese details and the more monumental disposition of +the temple terraces, the beauty of which is greatly enhanced by skillful +landscape gardening. The gateways recall somewhat those of the Sanchi +Tope in India (p. 403), but are commonly of wood. Owing to the danger +from earthquakes, lofty towers and pagodas are rarely seen. + +The domestic architecture of Japan, though interesting for its +arrangements, and for its sensible and artistic use of the most flimsy +materials, is too trivial in scale, detail, and construction to receive +more than passing reference. Even the great palace at Tokio,[28] +covering an immense area, is almost entirely composed of one-storied +buildings of wood, with little of splendor or architectural dignity. + + [Footnote 28: See Transactions R.I.B.A., 52d year, 1886, article + by R. J. Conder, pp. 185-214.] + + +MONUMENTS+ (additional to those in text). BUDDHIST: Topes at + Sanchi, Sonari, Satdara, Andher, in Central India; at Sarnath, + near Benares; at Jelalabad and Salsette; in Ceylon at + Anuradhapura, Tuparamaya, Lankaramaya.--Grotto temples (chaityas), + mainly in Bombay and Bengal Presidencies; at Behar, especially the + Lomash Rishi, and Cuttack; at Bhaja, Bedsa, Ajunta, and Ellora + (Wiswakarma Cave); in Salsette, the Kenheri Cave.--Viharas: + Structural at Nalanda and Sarnath, demolished; rock-cut in Bengal, + at Cuttack, Udayagiri (the Ganesa); in the west, many at Ajunta, + also at Bagh, Bedsa, Bhaja, Nassick (the Nahapana, Vadnya Sri, + etc.), Salsette, Ellora (the Dekrivaria, etc.). In Nepâl, stupas + of Swayanbunath and Bouddhama. + + JAINA: Temples at Aiwulli, Kanaruc (Black Pagoda), and Purudkul; + groups of temples at Palitana, Gimar, Mount Abu, Somnath, + Parisnath; the Sas Bahu at Gwalior, 1093; Parswanatha and Ganthai + (650) at Khajuraho; temple at Gyraspore, 7th century; modern + temples at Ahmedabad (Huttising), Delhi, and Sonaghur; in the + south at Moodbidri, Sravana Belgula; towers at Chittore. + + NORTHERN BRAHMAN: Temples, Parasumareswara (500 A.D.), Mukteswara, + and Great Temple (600-650), all at Bhuwaneswar, among many others; + of Papanatha at Purudkul; grotto temples at Dhumnar, Ellora, and + Poonah; temples at Chandravati, Udaipur, and Amritsur (the last + modern); tombs of Singram Sing and others at Oudeypore; of Rajah + Baktawar at Ulwar, and others at Goverdhun; ghâts or landings at + Benares and elsewhere. + + CHALUKYAN: Temples at Buchropully and Hamoncondah, 1163; ruins at + Kalyani; grottoes of Hazar Khutri. + + DRAVIDIAN: Rock-cut temples (raths) at Mahavellipore; Tiger Cave + at Saluvan Kuppan; temples at Pittadkul (Purudkul), Tiruvalur, + Combaconum, Vellore, Peroor, Vijayanagar; pavilions at Tanjore and + Vijayanagar. + + There are also many temples in the Kashmir Valley difficult of + assignment to any of the above styles and religions. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +A. +PRIMITIVE GREEK ARCHITECTURE.+--The researches of Schliemann +commented by Schuchardt, of Dörpfeld, Stamakis, Tsoundas, Perrot, and +others, in Troy, Mycenæ, and Tiryns, and the more recent discoveries of +Evans at Gnossus, in Crete, have greatly extended our knowledge of the +prehistoric art of Greece and the Mediterranean basin, and established +many points of contact on the one hand with ancient Egyptian and +Phœnician art, and on the other, with the art of historic Greece. They +have proved the existence of an active and flourishing commerce between +Egypt and the Mediterranean shores and Aegean islands more than 2000 +B.C., and of a flourishing material civilization in those islands and on +the mainland of Greece, borrowing much, but not everything, from Egypt. +While the origin of the Doric order in the structural methods of the +pre-Homeric architecture of Tiryns and Mycenæ, as set forth by Dörpfeld +and by Perrot and Chipiez, can hardly be regarded as proved in all +details, since much of the argument advanced for this derivation rests +on more or less conjectural restorations of the existing remains, it +seems to be fairly well established that the Doric order, and historic +Greek architecture in general, trace their genesis in large measure back +in direct line to this prehistoric art. The remarkable feature of this +early architecture is the apparently complete absence of temples. +Fortifications, houses, palaces, and tombs make up the ruins thus far +discovered, and seem to indicate clearly the derivation of the +temple-type of later Greek art from the primitive house, consisting of a +hall or _megaron_ with four columns about the central hearth (whence no +doubt, the atrium and peristyle of Roman houses, through their Greek +intermediary prototypes) and a porch or _aithousa_, with or without +columns _in antis_, opening directly into the _megaron_, or indirectly +through an ante-room called the _prodomos_. Here we have the prototypes +of the Greek temple _in antis_, with its _naos_ having interior columns, +whether roofed over or hypæthral (see pp. 54, 55). It is probable also +that the evidently liberal use of timber for many of the structural +details led in time to many of the forms later developed in stone in the +entablature of the Doric order. But it is hard to discover, as Dörpfeld +would have it, in the slender Mycenæan columns with their inverted +taper, the prototype of the massive Doric column with its upward taper. +The Mycenæan column was evidently derived from wooden models; the sturdy +Doric column--the earliest being the most massive--seems plainly derived +from stone or rubble piers (see p. 50), and thus to have come from a +different source from the Mycenæan forms. + +The _gynecæum_, or women’s apartments, the men’s apartments, and the +bath were in these ancient palaces grouped in varying relations about +the _megaron_: their plan, purpose, and arrangement are clearly revealed +in the ruins of Tiryns, where they are more complete and perfect than +either at Troy or Mycenæ. + + +B. +CAMPANILES IN ITALY.+--Reference is made on page 264 to the towers +or campaniles of the Italian Gothic style and period, and six of these +are specifically mentioned; and on page 305 mention is also made of +those of the Renaissance in Italy. The number and importance of the +Italian campaniles and the interest attaching to their origin and +design, warrant a more extended notice than has been assigned them in +the pages cited. + +The oldest of these bell-towers appear to be those adjoining the two +churches of San Apollinare in and near Ravenna (see p. 114), and date +presumably from the sixth century. They are plain circular towers with +few and small openings, except in the uppermost story, where larger +arched openings permit the issue of the sound of the bells. This type, +which might have been developed into a very interesting form of tower, +does not seem to have been imitated. It was at Rome, and not till the +ninth or tenth century, that the campanile became a recognized feature +of church architecture. It was invariably treated as a structure +distinct from the church, and was built of brick upon a square plan, +rising with little or no architectural adornment to a height usually of +a hundred feet or more, and furnished with but a few small openings +below the belfry stage, where a pair of coupled arched windows separated +by a simple column opened from each face of the tower. Above these +windows a pyramidal roof of low pitch terminated the tower. In spite of +their simplicity of design these Roman bell-towers often possess a +noticeable grace of proportions, and furnish the prototype of many of +the more elaborate campaniles erected during the Middle Ages in other +central and north Italian cities. The towers of Sta. Maria in Cosmedin, +Sta. Maria in Trastevere, and S. Giorgio in Velabro are examples of this +type. Most of the Roman examples date from the eleventh and twelfth +centuries. + +In other cities, the campanile was treated with some variety of form and +decoration, as well as of material. In Lombardy and Venetia the square +red-brick shaft of the tower is often adorned with long, narrow pilaster +strips, as at Piacenza (p. 158, Fig. 91) and Venice, and an arcaded +cornice not infrequently crowns the structure. The openings at the top +may be three or four in number on each face, and even the plan is +sometimes octagonal or circular. The brick octagonal campanile of ++S. Gottardo+ at Milan is one of the finest Lombard church towers. At +Verona the brick tower on the Piazza dell’ Erbe and that of S. Zeno are +conspicuous; but every important town of northern Italy possesses one or +more examples of these structures dating from the eleventh, twelfth, or +thirteenth century. + +Undoubtedly the three most noted bell-towers in Italy are those of +Venice, Pisa, and Florence. The great +Campanile+ of +St. Mark+ at +Venice, first begun in 874, carried higher in the twelfth and fourteenth +centuries, and finally completed in the sixteenth century with the +marble belvedere and wooden spire so familiar in pictures of Venice, was +formerly the highest of all church campaniles in Italy, measuring +approximately 325 feet to the summit. But this superb historic monument, +weakened by causes not yet at this writing fully understood, fell in +sudden ruin on the 14th of July, 1902, to the great loss not only of +Venice, but of the world of art, though fortunately without injuring the +neighboring buildings on the Piazza and Piazzetta of St. Mark. Since +then the campanile of S. Stefano, in the same city, has been demolished +to forestall another like disaster. The +Leaning Tower+ of Pisa (see +p. 160, Fig. 92) dates from 1174, and is unique in its plan and its +exterior treatment with superposed arcades. Begun apparently as a +leaning tower, it seems to have increased this lean to a dangerous +point, by the settling of its foundations during construction, as its +upper stages were made to deviate slightly towards the vertical from the +inclination of the lower portion. It has always served rather as a +watch-tower and belvedere than as a bell-tower. The +Campanile+ +adjoining the Duomo at +Florence+ is described on p. 263 and illustrated +in Fig. 154, and does not require further notice here. The +black-and-white banded towers of Sienna, Lucca, and Pistoia, and the +octagonal lanterns crowning those of Verona and Mantua, also referred to +in the text on p. 264, need here only be mentioned again as illustrating +the variety of treatment of these Italian towers. + +The Renaissance architects developed new types of campanile, and in such +variety that they can only be briefly referred to. Some, like a brick +tower at Perugia, are simple square towers with pilasters; more often +engaged columns and entablatures mark the several stories, and the upper +portion is treated either with an octagonal lantern or with diminishing +stages, and sometimes with a spire. Of the latter class the best example +is that of S. Biagio, at Montepulciano,--one of the two designed to +flank the façade of Ant. da S. Gallo’s beautiful church of that name. +One or two good late examples are to be found at Naples. Of the more +massive square type there are examples in the towers of S. Michele, +Venice; of the cathedral at Ferrara, Sta. Chiara at Naples, and Sta. +Maria dell’ Anima--one of the earliest--at Rome. The most complete and +perfect of these square belfries of the Renaissance is that of the ++Campidoglio+ at Rome, by Martino Lunghi, dating from the end of the +sixteenth century, which groups so admirably with the palaces of the +Capitol. + + +C. +BRAMANTE’S WORKS.+--A more or less animated controversy has arisen +regarding the authenticity of many of the works attributed to Bramante, +and the tendency has of late been to deny him any part whatever in +several of the most important of these works. The first of these to be +given a changed assignment was the church of the Consolazione at Todi +(p. 293), now believed to be by Cola di Caprarola; and it is now denied +by many investigators that either the Cancelleria or the Giraud palace +(p. 290) is his work, or any one of two or three smaller houses in Rome +showing a somewhat similar architectural treatment. The evidence adduced +in support of this denial is rather speculative and critical than +documentary, but is not without weight. The date 1495 carved on a +doorway of the Cancelleria palace is thought to forbid its attribution +to Bramante, who is not known to have come to Rome till 1503; and there +is a lack of positive evidence of his authorship of the Giraud palace +and the other houses which seem to be by the same hand as the +Cancelleria. To the advocates of this view there is not enough +resemblance in style between this group of buildings and his +acknowledged work either in Milan or in the Vatican to warrant their +being attributed to him. + +It must, however, be remarked, that this notable group of works, stamped +with the marks and even the mannerisms of a strong personality, reveal +in their unknown author gifts amounting to genius, and heretofore deemed +not unworthy of Bramante. It is almost inconceivable that they should +have been designed by a mere beginner previously utterly unknown and +forgotten soon after. It is incumbent upon those who deny the +attribution to Bramante to find another name, if possible, on which to +fasten the credit of these works. Accordingly, they have been variously +attributed to Alberti (who died in 1472) or his followers; to Bernardo +di Lorenzo, and to other later fifteenth-century artists. The difficulty +here is to discover any name that fits the conditions even as well as +Bramante’s; for the supposed author must have been in Rome between 1495 +and 1505, and his other works must be at least as much like these as +were Bramante’s. No name has thus far been found satisfactory to careful +critics; and the alternative theory, that there existed in Rome, before +Bramante’s coming, a group of architects unknown to later fame, working +in a common style and capable of such a masterpiece as the Cancelleria, +does not harmonize with the generally accepted facts of Renaissance art +history. Moreover, the comparison of these works with Bramante’s +Milanese work on the one hand and his great Court of the Belvedere in +the Vatican on the other, yields, to some critics, conclusions quite +opposed to those of the advocates of another authorship than Bramante’s. + +The controversy must be considered for the present as still open. There +are manifest difficulties with either of the two opposed views, and +these can hardly be eliminated, except by the discovery of documents not +now known to exist, whose testimony will be recognized as unimpeachable. + + +D. +L’ART NOUVEAU.+--Since 1896, and particularly since the Paris +Exposition of 1900, a movement has manifested itself in France and +Belgium, and spread to Germany and Austria and even measurably to +England, looking towards a more personal and original style of +decorative and architectural design, in which the traditions and +historic styles of the past shall be ignored. This movement has received +from its adherents and the public the name of “L’Art Nouveau,” or, +according to some, “L’Art Moderne”; but this name must not be held to +connote either a really new style or a fundamentally new principle in +art. Indeed, it may be questioned whether any clearly-defined body of +principles whatever underlies the movement, or would be acknowledged +equally by all its adherents. It appears to be a reaction against a too +slavish adherence to traditional forms and methods of design (see pp. +370, 375), a striving to ignore or forget the past rather than a +reaching out after any well-understood, positive end; as such, it +possesses the negative strength of protest rather than the affirmative +strength of a vital principle. Its lack of cohesion is seen in the +division of its adherents into groups, some looking to nature for +inspiration, while others decry this as a mistaken quest; some seeking +to emphasize structural lines, and others to ignore them altogether. +All, however, are united in the avoidance of commonplace forms and +historic styles, and this preoccupation has developed an amazing amount +of originality and individualism of style, frequently reaching the +extreme of eccentricity. The results have therefore been, as might be +expected, extremely varied in merit, ranging from the most refined and +reserved in style to the most harshly bizarre and extravagant. As a +rule, they have been most successful in small and semi-decorative +objects--jewelry, silverware, vases, and small furniture; and one most +desirable feature of the movement has been the stimulus it has given +(especially in France and England), to the organization and activity of +“arts-and-crafts” societies which occupy themselves with the +encouragement of the decorative and industrial arts and the diffusion of +an improved taste. In the field of the larger objects of design, in +which the dominance of traditional form and of structural considerations +is proportionally more imperious, the struggle to evade these +restrictions becomes more difficult, and results usually in more obvious +and disagreeable eccentricities, which the greater size and permanence +of the object tend further to exaggerate. The least successful +achievements of the movement have accordingly been in architecture. The +buildings designed by its most fervent disciples (_e.g._ the Pavillon +Bleu at the Exposition of 1900, the Castel Béranger, Paris, by _H. +Guimard_, the houses of the artist colony at Darmstadt, and others) are +for the most part characterized by extreme stiffness, eccentricity, or +ugliness. The requirements of construction and of human habitation +cannot easily be met without sometimes using the forms which past +experience has developed for the same ends; and the negation of +precedent is not the surest path to beauty or even reasonableness of +design. It is interesting to notice that in the intermediate field of +furniture-design some of the best French productions recall the style of +Louis XV., modified by Japanese ideas and spirit. This singular but not +unpleasing combination is less surprising when we reflect that the style +of Louis XV. was itself a protest against the formalism of the heavy +classic architecture of preceding reigns, and achieved its highest +successes in the domain of furniture and interior decoration. + +It may be fair to credit the new movement with one positive +characteristic in its prevalent regard for line, especially for the +effect of long and swaying lines, whether in the contours or +ornamentation of an object. This is especially noticeable in the Belgian +work, and in that of the Viennese “Secessionists,” who have, however, +carried eccentricity to a further point of extravagance than any others. + +Whether “L’Art Nouveau” will ever produce permanent results time alone +can show. Its present vogue is probably evanescent and it cannot claim +to have produced a style; but it seems likely to exert on European +architecture an influence, direct and indirect, not unlike that of the +Néo-Grec movement of 1830 in France (p. 364), but even more lasting and +beneficial. It has already begun to break the hold of rigid classical +tradition in design; and recent buildings, especially in Germany and +Austria, like the works of the brilliant _Otto Wagner_ in Vienna, show a +pleasing freedom of personal touch without undue striving after +eccentric novelty. Doubtless in French and other European architecture +the same result will in time manifest itself. + +The search for novelty and the desire to dispense wholly with historic +forms of design which are the chief marks of the Art Nouveau, were +emphatically displayed in many of the remarkable buildings of the Paris ++Exhibition of 1900+, in which a striking fertility and facility of +design in the decorative details made more conspicuous the failure to +improve upon the established precedents of architectural style in the +matters of proportion, scale, general composition, and contour. As usual +the metallic construction of these buildings was almost without +exception admirable, and the decorative details, taken by themselves, +extremely clever and often beautiful, but the combined result was not +satisfactory. + +In the United States the movement has not found a firm foothold because +there has been no dominant, enslaving tradition to protest against. Not +a few of the ideas, not a little of the spirit of the movement may be +recognized in the work of individual architects and decorative artists +in the United States, executed years before the movement took +recognizable form in Europe: and American decorative design has +generally been, at least since 1880 or 1885, sufficiently free, +individual and personal, to render unnecessary and impossible any +concerted movement of artistic revolt against slavery to precedent. + + +E. +RECENT AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE.+--Architectural activity in the United +States continues to share in the general prosperity which has marked the +years since 1898, and this activity has by no means been confined to +industrial and commercial architecture. Indeed, while the erection of +“sky scrapers” or excessively lofty office-buildings has continued to be +a feature of this activity in the great commercial centres, the most +notable architectural enterprises of recent years have been in the field +of educational buildings, both in the East and West. In 1898 a great +international competition resulted in the selection of the design of Mr. +_E. Bénard_ of Paris for a magnificent group of buildings for the ++University of California+ on a scale of unexampled grandeur, and the +erection of this colossal project has been begun. An almost equally +ambitious project, by a firm of Philadelphia architects, has been +adopted for the Washington University at St. Louis; and many other +universities and colleges have either added extensively to their +existing buildings or planned an entire rebuilding on new designs. Among +these the national military and naval academies at +West Point+ and ++Annapolis+ take the first rank in the extent and splendor of the +projected improvements. Museums and libraries have also been erected or +begun in various cities, and the +New York Public Library+, now +building, will rank in cost and beauty with those already erected in +Boston and Washington. + +In other departments mention should be made of recent Federal buildings +(custom-houses, post-offices, and court-houses) erected under the +provisions of the Tarsney act from designs secured by competition among +the leading architects of the country; among those the +New York Custom +House+ is the most important, but other buildings, at Washington, +Indianapolis, and elsewhere, are also conspicuous, and many of them +worthy of high praise. The tendency to award the designing of important +public buildings, such as State capitols, county court houses, city +halls, libraries, and hospitals, by competition instead of by personal +and political favor, has resulted in a marked improvement in the quality +of American public architecture. + + +F. +THE ERECHTHEUM: RECENT INVESTIGATIONS.+--During the past two years, +extensive repairs and partial restorations of the Erechtheum at Athens, +undertaken by the Greek Archæological Society, have afforded +opportunities for a new and thoroughgoing study of the existing portions +of the building and of the surrounding ruins. In these investigations a +prominent part has been borne by Mr. Gorham P. Stevens, representing the +Archæological Institute of America, to whom must be credited, among +other things, the demonstration of the existence, in the east wall of +the original structure, of two windows previously unknown. Other +peculiarities of design and construction were also discovered, which add +greatly to the interest of the building. These investigations are +reported in the _American Journal of Archæology_, Second Series; +_Journal of the Archæological Institute of America_, Vol. X., No. 1, _et +seq._ The illustrations, Figures 35 and 36, are, by Mr. Stevens’ +courtesy, based upon, though not reproductions of, his original +drawings. + + + + +GLOSSARY + +OF TERMS NOT DEFINED IN THE TEXT. + + +ALCAZAR (Span., from Arabic _Al Kasr_), a palace or castle, especially +of a governing official. + +ARCHIVOLT, a band or group of mouldings decorating the wall-face of an +arch; or a transverse arch projecting slightly from the surface of a +barrel or groined vault. + +ASTYLAR, without columns. + + +BALNEA, a Roman bathing establishment, less extensive than the _thermæ_. + +BEL ETAGE, the principal story of a building, containing the reception +rooms and saloons; usually the second story (first above the ground +story). + +BROKEN ENTABLATURE, an entablature which projects forward over each +column or pilaster, returning back to the wall and running along with +diminished projection between the columns, as in the Arch of Constantine +(Fig. 63). + + +CANTONED PIERS, piers adorned with columns or pilasters at the corners +or on the outer faces. + +CARTOUCHE (Fr.), an ornament shaped like a shield or oval. In Egyptian +hieroglyphics, the oval encircling the name of a king. + +CAVETTO, a concave, quarter-round moulding. + +CHEVRON, a V-shaped ornament. + +CHRYSELEPHANTINE, of ivory and gold; used of statues in which the nude +portions are of ivory and the draperies of gold. + +CONSOLE, a large scroll-shaped bracket or ornament, having its broadest +curve at the bottom. + +CORINTHIANESQUE, resembling the Corinthian; used of capitals having +corner-volutes and acanthus leaves, but combined otherwise than in the +classic Corinthian type. + + +EMPAISTIC, made of, or overlaid with, sheet-metal beaten or hammered +into decorative patterns. + +EXEDRÆ, curved seats of stone; niches or recesses, sometimes of +considerable size, provided with seats for the public. + + +FENESTRATION, the whole system or arrangement of windows and openings in +an architectural composition. + +FOUR-PART. A four-part vault is a groined vault formed by the +intersection of two barrel vaults. Its diagonal edges or _groins_ divide +it into four sections, triangular in plan, each called a _compartment_. + + +GIGANTOMACHIA, a group or composition representing the mythical combat +between the gods and the giants. + + +HALF-TIMBERED, constructed with a timber framework showing externally, +and filled in with masonry or brickwork. + + +IMAUM, imâm, a Mohammedan priest. + + +KAABAH, the sacred shrine at Meccah, a nearly cubical structure hung +with black cloth. + +KARAFAH, a region in Cairo containing the so-called tombs of the +Khalifs. + + +LACONICUM, the sweat-room in a Roman bath; usually of domical design in +the larger thermæ. + + +MEZZANINE, a low, intermediate story. + +MUEDDIN, a Mohammedan mosque-official who calls to prayer. + + +NARTHEX, a porch or vestibule running across the front of a basilica or +church. + +NEO-GOTHIC, NEO-MEDIÆVAL, in a style which seeks to revive and adapt or +apply to modern uses the forms of the Middle Ages. + + +OCULUS, a circular opening, especially in the crown of a dome. + +OGEE ARCH, one composed of two juxtaposed S-shaped or wavy curves, +meeting in a point at the top. + + +PALÆSTRA, an establishment among the ancient Greeks for physical +training. + +PAVILION (Fr. _pavillon_), ordinarily a light open structure of ornate +design. As applied to architectural composition, a projecting section of +a façade, usually rectangular in plan, and having its own distinct mass +of roof. + + +QUARRY ORNAMENT, any ornament covering a surface with two series of +reticulated lines enclosing approximately quadrangular spaces or meshes. + +QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_; composed of four arcs of +circles meeting in cusps pointing inward. + +QUOINS, slightly projecting blocks of stone, alternately long and short, +decorating or strengthening a corner or angle of a façade. + + +REVETMENT, a veneering or sheathing. + +RUSTICATION, treatment of the masonry with blocks having roughly broken +faces, or with deeply grooved or bevelled joints. + + +SOFFIT, the under-side of an architrave, beam, arch, or corona. + +SPANDRIL, the triangular wall-space between two contiguous arches. + +SQUINCH, a bit of conical vaulting filling in the angles of a square so +as to provide an octagonal or circular base for a dome or lantern. + +STOA, an open colonnade for public resort. + + +TEPIDARIUM, the hot-water hall or chamber of a Roman bath. + +TYMPANUM, the flat space comprised between the horizontal and raking +cornices of a pediment, or between a lintel and the arch over it. + + +VOUSSOIR, any one of the radial stones composing an arch. + + + + +INDEX OF ARCHITECTS. + +The _surname_ is in all cases followed by a comma. + + Abadie, 373 + Adams, Robert 234 + Agnolo, Baccio d’ 291 + Agnolo, Gabriele d’ 287 + Alberti, Leo Battista 277, 280 + Alessi, Galeazzo 299, 302 + Ammanati, Bartolomeo 300 + Anselm, Prior 219 + Anthemius of Tralles, 127 + Antonio, Master 259 + Arnold, Master 243 + Arnolfo di Cambio, 162, 265 + + Baccio D’ Agnolo, 291 + Ballu, 371, 373 + Baltard, Victor 371 + Barry, Sir Charles 380 + Bassevi, 356 + Battista, Juan 351 + Benci di Cione, 266 + Benedetto da Majano, 280, 281 + Bernardo di Lorenzo, 282 + Bernini, Lorenzo 295, 303, 319 + Berruguete, Alonzo 348, 350 + Bianchi, 305 + Bondone, Giotto di 258, 263, 272 + Boromini, Francesco 303, 304 + Borset, 334 + Bramante Lazzari, 289, 290, 294, 295, 321 + Brandon, Richard 378 + Bregno, Antonio 284 + Brongniart, 363 + Brunelleschi, Filippo 275, 276, 280, 281, 289 + Bullant, Jean 316, 317 + Bulfinch, Charles 390 + Buon, Bartolomeo 284 + Buonarotti, Michael Angelo 289, 292, 294, 295, 296, 299 + Burges, William 380 + + Callicrates, 63 + Cambio, Arnolfo di 162, 265 + Campbell, Colin 333 + Campello, 255 + Caprarola, Cola da 293 + Caprino, Meo del 286 + Chalgrin, 362 + Chambers, Sir William 333 + Chambiges, Pierre 313 + Chrismas, Gerard 327 + Christodoulos, 150 + Churriguera, 348, 352 + Cimabue, 258 + Civitale, Matteo 281, 283 + Columbe, Michel 310 + Cortona, Domenico di 316 + Cossutius, 68 + Cronaca, 280, 291 + + Dance, George 334 + De Brosse, Salomon 318, 319 + De Fabris, 261 + De Key, Lieven 336 + De Keyser, Hendrik 336 + Della Porta, Giacomo 292, 299, 300 + Della Robbia, Luca 281 + De l’Orme, Philibert 316, 317 + Déperthes, 373 + Derrand, François 319 + Desiderio da Settignano, 281 + De Tessin, Nicodemus 337 + De Vriendt (or Floris), Cornelius 334, 335 + Diego de Siloë, 348 + Domenico di Cortona, 316 + Donatello, 275 + Dosio, Giovanni Antonio 291 + Duban, Félix 364 + Duc, 364, 365 + Du Cerceau, Jean Batiste 318 + + Edington, 226 + Emerson, William 382 + Enrique de Egaz, 349 + Erwin von Steinbach, 241 + + Fain, Pierre 310 + Federighi, Antonio 282 + Ferstel, H. von 375 + Fiesole, Mino da 281 + Filarete, Antonio 283 + Flitcroft, 333 + Floris (De Vriendt), Cornelius 334, 335 + Fontaine, 362 + Fontana, Domenico 295, 299, 300, 304 + Fra Giocondo, 286 + Fra Ristoro, 256 + Fra Sisto, 256 + Fuga, Ferdinando 305 + + Gabriel, Jacques Ange 324, 367 + Gabriele d’Agnolo, 287 + Gaddi, Taddeo 263 + Gadyer, Pierre 315 + Galilei, Alessandro 305 + Garnier, Charles 372 + Gerhardt von Riel, 243 + Giacomo di Pietrasanta, 286 + Gibbs, James 332, 333, 356, 385 + Giocondo, Fra 286 + Giotto di Bondone, 258, 263, 272 + Giuliano da Majano, 286, 287 + Giulio Romano, 289, 292 + Goujon, Jean 316, 321 + Gumiel, Pedro 349 + + Hallet, Stephen (Étienne) 389 + Hansen, Theophil 360 + Have, Theodore 327 + Hawksmoor, 332 + Hendrik de Keyser, 336 + Henri de Narbonne, 249 + Henry of Gmünd, 255 + Herrera, Francisco 352 + Herrera, Juan d’ 348, 350, 351 + Hitorff, J. J. 364, 372 + Hoban, Thomas 390 + Holbein, Hans 327 + Hübsch, Heinrich 375, 376 + Hunt, Richard M. 393 + + Ictinus, 62, 63, 65 + Isodorus of Miletus, 127 + Ivara, Ferdinando 352, 365 + + Jacobus of Meruan, 255 + Jansen, Bernard 327 + Jefferson, Thomas 390 + John, Master 243 + John of Padua, 328 + Jones, Inigo 328, 332, 333 + Juan Battista, 351 + Junckher of Cologne, 241 + + Kearsley, Dr. 386 + Kent, 333 + Klenze, Leo von 359, 360, 367 + + Labrouste, Henri 364 + Lassus, J. B. A. 371 + Latrobe, Benjamin H. 389 + Laurana, Francesco 310 + Laurana, Luciano 287 + Le Breton, Gilles 313 + Lefuel, Hector 372 + Lemercier, Jacques 312, 319, 322 + Le Nepveu, Pierre 314 + Lescot, Pierre 316, 321 + Le Vau (or Levau) 320 + Lieven de Key, 336 + Ligorio, Pirro 293 + Lippi, Annibale 293 + Lira, Valentino di 343 + Lombardi, Antonio 284 + Lombardi, Martino 284 + Lombardi, Moro 284 + Lombardi, Pietro 284 + Lombardi, Tullio 284, 293 + Longhena, Baldassare 304 + Lorenzo, Bernardo di 282 + Louis, Victor 362 + Luca della Robbia, 281 + Lunghi, Martino (the elder) 304, 305 + + Machuca, 351 + Maderna, Carlo 295, 303 + Majano, Benedetto da 280, 281 + Majano, Giuliano da 286, 287 + Mansart, François 322 + Mansart, Jules Hardouin 320, 321, 322 + Marchionne, 305 + Marini, Giovanni 339 + Martino, Pietro di 287 + Matthew of Arras, 243 + Meo del Caprino, 286 + Meruan, Jacobus of 255 + Métézeau, 318 + Michelozzi, Michelozzo 279, 283 + Mino da Fiesole, 281 + Mnesicles, 65 + Mullet, A. B. 392 + + Narbonne, Henri de 249 + Nénot, Henri P. 374 + + Ohlmüller, 375 + + Palladio, Andrea 299, 301, 319, 328, 350 + Percier, Charles 362 + Perrault, Claude 320 + Peruzzi, Baldassare 289, 291, 292, 294 + Phidias, 62 + Philibert de l’Orme, 316, 317 + Pietrasanta, Giacomo di 286 + Pintelli, Baccio 286 + Pisano, Giovanni 260 + Pisano, Niccolo 272 + Polaert, 382 + Poyet, 363 + Pugin, A. Welby 378 + Pythius, 71 + + Raphael Sanzio, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293 + Renwick, James 391, 392 + Revett, Nicholas 355, 358 + Richardson, Henry H. 393, 394 + Rickman, Thomas 378 + Riel, Gerhardt von 243 + Ristoro, Fra 256 + Rizzio, Antonio 284 + Romano, Giulio 289, 292 + Rossellini, Bernardo 286 + Ruiz, Fernando 352 + + Salvi, Niccola 305 + Sammichele, Michele 293, 299, 300, 329 + San Gallo, Antonio da (the Elder) 294 + San Gallo, Antonio da (the Younger) 289, 291, 294 + San Gallo, Giuliano da 278, 291, 292, 294 + Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti 289, 293, 299, 300, 304 + Satyrus, 71 + Scamozzi, Vincenzo 299, 339 + Schinkel, Friedrich 358, 360, 376 + Schmidt, F. 378 + Scott (General) 382 + Scott, Sir Gilbert 380 + Semper, Ottfried 376 + Sens, William of 219 + Servandoni, 323 + Settignano, Desiderio da 281 + Shaw, Norman 382 + Siccardsburg, 376 + Smirke, Robert 356 + Smithson, Robert 328 + Soane, Sir John 356 + Soufflot, J. J. 362 + Steinbach, Erwin von 241 + Stella, Paolo della 339 + Stern, Raphael 305, 365 + Street, George Edmund 380 + Stuart, James 355, 358 + Stuhler, 359 + + Talenti, Francesco Di 259, 263 + Talenti, Simone di 266 + Taylor, Robert 334 + Tessin, Nicodemus de 337 + Thomson, Alexander 357 + Thornton, 389 + Thorpe, John 328 + Titz, 376 + Torregiano, 327 + Trevigi, 327 + + Upjohn, Richard 392 + + Val Del Vira, 348 + Valentino di Lira, 343 + Van Aken, 343 + Van Brugh, Sir John 332 + Van Noort, William 336 + Van Noye, Sebastian 336 + Van Vitelli, 304 + Vasari, Giorgio 162 + Viart, Charles 311 + Viel, 372 + Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da 289, 292, 296, 299, 300, 301 + Vignon, Pierre 362 + Viollet-le-Duc, Eugene Emmanuel 370, 371 + Vischer, Kaspar 343 + Vischer, Peter 347 + Visconti, Louis T. J. 371, 372 + Vitoni, Ventura 293 + Vitruvius, 56, 71, 77 + Von der Null, 376 + + Wallot, Paul 377 + Wallot, Jean 333 + Walter, Thomas Ustick 391 + Waterhouse, Alfred 381 + Webb, Aston 382 + Wilkins, 357 + William of Sens, 219 + William of Wykeham, 222, 226 + Wood, 333 + Wren, Sir Christopher 329, 331, 332, 356, 385 + + Ziebland, 375 + + + + +INDEX. + +The buildings are arranged according to location. Those which appear +only in the lists of monuments at the ends of chapters are omitted. +_Numerals in parentheses refer to illustrations._ + + ABAYAGIRI. + Tope, 403 + ABBEVILLE. St. + Wulfrand, 209, 213 + ABU-SEIR. + Stepped pyramid, 9 + ABYDOS. + Columns, 12. + Temple, 19, 21. + Tombs, 11 (+5+) + ADDEH. + Grotto-temple, 22 + ÆMILIA. + Churches in, 157, 262 + AGRA, 149. + Pearl Mosque, 148. + Taj Mahal, 148 (+86+) + AGRIGENTUM. + Temple of Zeus, 56, 61 (+33+) + AHMEDABAD, 148 + AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. + Minster (palatine Chapel), 172. + Palace of Charlemagne, 176 + AIZANOI. + Temple of Zeus, 67. + Theatre, 70 + AJMIR, 148 + AJUNTA. + Brahman Chaityas, 404; + viharas, 405 + ALBANO. + Tomb, 89 + ALBANY. + All Saints’ Cathedral, 394. + Capitol, 391 + ALBY Cathedral, 185, 205, 206, 212, 249 (+123+) + ALCALA DE HEÑARES, 352. + Archepiscopal Palace, 350. + College, 349 + ALCANTARA. + Bridge, 108 + ALENÇON Cathedral, 209, 213 + ALEXANDRIA TROAS. + Palæstra, 71. + ALLAHABAD. + Akbar’s Palace, 148 + ALTENBURG Cathedral, 242. + Town hall, 344 + AMADA. + Columns, 12 + AMBOISE Castle, 310 + AMIENS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 203, 205, 206, 219, 232 (+122+); + west front of, 207, 208, 212, 227 + AMRAVATI. + Topes, 403 + AMSTERDAM. + Bourse (Exchange) Hanse House, Town hall, 336 + ANCY LE FRANC. + Château, 317 + ANET. + Château, 317 + ANGERS. + Cathedral S. Maurice, 200. + Hospital, 214 + ANGORA (Ancyra), 118 + ANGOULÊME Cathedral, 164 + ANI, 134 + ANNAPOLIS. + Harwood and Hammond Houses, 386 + ANTIOCH, 115 + ANTIPHELLUS. + Theatre, 70. + Tombs, 72 + ANTWERP + Cathedral, 190, 246, 247. + Town Hall, 334, 336 + AQUITANIA. + Churches of, 164, 167, 168, 179, 373 + ARANJUEZ. + Palace, 352 + AREZZO Cathedral, 257. + Sta. Maria della Pieve, 159 + ARGOS. + Gates, 45 + ARIZONA. + Spanish churches in, 388 + ARLES. + St. Trophime, 165 + ASCHAFFENBURG. + Church, 243 + ASHEVILLE. + Biltmore House, 399 + ASIA MINOR, 53, 55, 58, 62, 66, 122 + ASPENDUS. + Theatre, 70 + ASSISI. + Church of St. Francis (S. Francesco), 255, 256, 258 + ASSOS, 55. + Public cquare, 69. + Temple, 61 + ASTI. + Church, 256 + ASTORGA. + Rood-screen, 352 + ATHENS. + Academy, 365. + Acropolis, 65, 69. + Agora Gate, 68. + Cathedral, 134. + Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, 66 (+30+, +38+). + Erechtheum, 64 (+35+, +36+). + Museum, 365. + Odeion of Regilla (of Herodes Atticus), 68, 69, 70. + Parthenon, 56, 58, 63, 64, 131, 359 (Frontispiece, +31+ d, +34+). + Propylæa, 58, 65, 69, 358 (+37+). + Stoa of Attalus, 67. + Temple of Nike Apteros, 64, 65. + Temple of Olympian Zeus, 68 (+39+). + Theatre of Dionysus, 69, 70. + Theseum (Temple of Theseus or Heracles), 62. + Tower of Winds (Clepsydra of Cyrrhestes), 53, 67. + University, 365 + ATTICA, 50, 55 + AUGSBURG. + Town hall, 344 + AUSTRIA, 330 + AUTUN Cathedral, 166, 167 + AUVERGNE. + Churches, 204 + AUXERRE Cathedral, 197, 201 + AVIGNON. + Notre Dame Des Doms, 165 + AVILA. + S. Vincente, 180, 247; + Tombs in, 352 + AZAY-LE-RIDEAU. + Château, 316 + + BAALBEC (Heliopolis), 83. + Circular Temple, 94. + Temple of Sun, 92 + BAB-EL-MOLOUK, 14 + BAGDAD. + Tombs, etc., 145, 146 + BAGH. + Viharas, Great Vihara, 405 + BAILLUR. + Temples, 409, 410 + BAMBERG. + Church, 243 + BARCELONA. + Cathedral, 189, 249. + Sta. Maria del Pi, 249 + BAROLLI. + Hindu Temple, 409 + BASLE. + Spahlenthor, 246 + BASSÆ (Phigalæa). + Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65 + BATALHA. + Church, mausoleum, 251 + BAVARIA, 342 + BAYEUX Cathedral, 197, 205 + BAYONNE Cathedral, 197 + BEAUGENCY. + Town hall, 316 + BEAUMESNIL. + Château, 319 + BEAUNE. + Hospital, 214 + BEAUVAIS Cathedral, 189, 197, 211, 219; + chapels, 205; + size, 206, 211, 212, 243 + BEIT-EL-WALI. + Rock-cut Temple, 22 + BELEM. + Church, 251, 352. + Cloister, tower, 352 + BELGIUM, 334. + BENARES. + Hindu Temples, 408, 409 + BENI HASSAN. + Columns, 11, 24, 50. + Speos Artemidos, 22. + Tombs, 11 (+6+, +7+) + BERGAMO. + Town Hall, 266 + BERLIN. + Bauschule, 376. + Brandenburg Gate, 358. + Old Museum, 359 (+200+). + New Museum, 359. + Parliament House, 377. + Theatres, 360, 376 + BETHLEHEM. + Church of the Nativity, 115 + BHAJA. + Chaityas, 404 + BHILSA. + Topes, 403 + BHUWANESWAR. + Hindu temples, 408 + BIDAR, 146 + BIJAPUR. + Tomb of Mahmud, 148, 153 (+85+). + Jumma Musjid, 148. + Mogul architecture, 149 + BILTMORE House, 399 + BINDRABUN. + Ruined temple, 408 + BIRS NIMROUD. + Stepped pyramid, 31 + BLENHEIM House, 332 (+188+) + BLOIS. + Château of, 216, 310, 313 (+175+, +176+) + BOHEMIA, 338 + BOLOGNA, 157. + Brick houses, 266. + Campo Santo, 382. + Frati di S. Spirito, 279. + Local style, 283. + Pal. Bevilacqua, Pal. Fava, 283. + Palazzo Communale (town Hall), 266. + Renaissance churches in, 277, 293. + S. Francesco, 256, 263. + S. Petronio, 257, 258, 259, 263. + Sta. Maria dei Servi, 263 + BONN. + Minster, 174. + Baptistery, 175 + BORDEAUX. + Cathedral, spires, 209. + Grand Théatre, 362 + BOSTON. + Ames Building, 397. + Custom House, 390. + Faneuil Hall, 388. + Fine Arts Museum, 394. + Hancock House, 387. + Old State House, 388. + Old South Church, 386. + Public Library, 399. + State House, 390. + Trinity Church, 394 (+222+) + BOURGES Cathedral, 189, 197, 199, 202, 249; + chapels, 205; + size, 206; + portals, 208. + House of Jacques Cœur, 215 (+127+) + BOURNAZEL. + Château, 315 + BOWDEN PARK, 357 + BOZRAH Cathedral, 117 (+70+) + BRANDENBURG. + St. Catherine, St. Godehard, 244 + BREMEN. + Town hall, 246, 344 + BRESCIA. + Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, 287 + BRIEG. + Piastenschloss, 343 + BRISTOL Cathedral, piers, 178 + BRUGES. + Ancien Greffe, 334. + Cloth hall, 247. + Ste. Anne, 334. + Town hall, 247 + BRUNSWICK. + Burg Dankwargerode, 176. + Town hall, 246 + BRUSA, 150 + BRUSSELS. + Bourse, 382. + Cathedral (ste. Gudule), 246. + Pal. de Justice, 382. + Renaissance Houses, 335 (+190+). + Town Hall, 247 + BUBASTIS. + Temple, 13 + BUDA-PESTH. + Synagogue, 378 + BUDDH GAYA. + Tope or stupa, 404 + BUFFALO. + Guaranty Building, 397 + BULACH. + Basilica, 375 + BURGUNDY. + Cathedrals in, 197 + BURGHLEY House, 328 (+184+) + BURY. + Château, 315 + BURGOS Cathedral, 248, 249, 251 (+145+) + BYZANTIUM, 92; See Constantinople + + CAEN. + Churches, 167, 178; + St. Étienne (Abbaye aux Hommes) and Ste. Trinité + (Abbaye aux Dames), 168; + St. Pierre, 312. + Hôtel D’Écoville, 316 + CAHORS Cathedral, 164 + CAIRO. + Karafah (Tombs of Khalîfs), 137, 138, 139. + Mohammedan monuments (list), 136, 153. + Mosque of Amrou, 136; + of Ibn Touloun, 136; + of Barkouk, 137; + of Kalaoun, 137; + of Sultan Hassan, 137, 138 (+80+); + of El Muayyad, 137; + of Kaîd Bey, 137 (+81+) + CALIFORNIA. + Spanish missions and churches, 388 + CAMBODIA. + Temple of Nakhon Wat, 413 + CAMBRAY Cathedral, 197 + CAMBRIDGE. + Caius College, Gate of Honor, 328. + Fitzwilliam Museum, 356. + King’s College Chapel, 223, 227, 234. + Trinity College Library, 332 + CAMBRIDGE (Mass.). + Craigie (Longfellow) House, 387 (+219+) + CANTERBURY Cathedral, 219; + central tower of, 228; + chapels, 231; + transepts, 232; + minor works in, 234 + CAPRAROLA. + Palace of, 300 + CAPUA. + Amphitheatre, 103 + CARIA, 71; see Halicamassus + CARINTHIA, 338, 339 + CARLTON House, 357 + CARTER’S GROVE, 386 + CASERTA. + Royal Palace, 304 + CASTLE HOWARD, 332 + CÉRISY-LA-FORÊT. + Church, 178 + CEYLON. + Topes, 403 + CHAISE-DIEU. + Cloister, 213 + CHÂLONS (Châlons-sur-Marne) Cathedral, 205 + CHALVAU. + Château, 314 + CHAMBORD. + Château, 314 (+177+, +178+) + CHANTILLY. “Petit Château,” 317 + CHARLESTON. + St. Michael’s, 385 + CHARLOTTEVILLE. + University of Virginia, 390 + CHARLTON Hall, 328 + CHARLTON-ON-OXMORE. Plate tracery (+110+) + CHARTRES + Cathedral, 197, 201, 203; + chapels of, 205; + size of, 206; + W. front, 207; + transept porches, 208; + spires, 209; + capital from (+126+ C). + hospital, 214 + CHEMNITZ Cathedral, 245 + CHENONCEAUX. + Château, 316, 317 + CHIARAVALLE. + Certosa, 255 + CHICAGO. + Auditorium Theatre, 399. + Columbian Exposition, 393, 399. + Masonic Building, 396. + Fisher Building, Schiller Building, 397 + CHICHESTER Cathedral, spire, 229 + CHIHUAHUA. + Church, 352 + CHILLAMBARAM. + Dravidian Temple, Mantapa of Parvati, 411 + CHISWICK. + Villa, 328, 329 + CHITTORE. + Hindu temples, 409. + Palace, 409. + Towers, 407, 408 (+227+) + CLERMONT (Clermont-Ferrand) + Cathedral, 197; + chapels of, 205, 212. + Notre-Dame-du-Port, 165, 204 (+96+, +97+) + CLUNY. + Abbey Church, 166. + Houses at, 214. + Hôtel de (at Paris), 216 + COBLENTZ. + Church of St. Castor, 237 + COIMBRA. + Sta. Cruz, 352 + COLESHILL. + House, 329 + COLOGNE. + Apostles’ Church, 174, 243 (+101+). + Cathedral, 189, 192, 205, 243, 249; + vaulting of, 239; + spires, 240, 241; + plan, 189, 205, 242 (+141+). + Church of St. Mary-in-the-Capitol, 174. + Great St. Martin’s, 174, 243. + Romanesque Houses, Etc., 176 + COMO. + Town hall (broletto), 266 + COMPOSTELLA. + St. Iago, 180 + CONJEVERAM. + Dravidian temple, 411 + CONSTANTINE. + Amphitheatre, 92 + CONSTANTINOPLE, 120. + Byzantine monuments (list), 134. + Church of Hagia Sophia (Santa Sophia, Divine Wisdom), + 111, 123, 124, 127-131, 132, 133, 150, 151 + (+72+, +75+, +76+, +77+). + Church of the Apostles, 132. + Early Christian monuments (list), 119. + Fountains, Fountain of Ahmet III., 152, 153. + Mosque of Ahmet II. (Ahmediyeh), 151 (+88+); + of Mehmet II., 150, 151 (+87+); + of Osman III. (Nouri Osman), 151; + of Soliman (Suleimaniyeh), 151 (+89+); + of Yeni Djami, 151. + Palaces, 153. + St. Bacchus, 127. + St. John Studius (Emir Akhor mosque), 118. + St. Sergius, 117, 127 (+74+). + Tchinli Kiosque (Imperial Museum), 153; + sarcophagi in, 66. + Tombs, 152. + Turkish mosques, 150 + COPENHAGEN. + Exchange, Fredericksborg, 336 + CORDOVA, 141; + Great Mosque, 142, 143 (+83+) + CORINTH. + Temple of Zeus, 60 + COUTANCES Cathedral, 197; + chapels of, 205; + spires, 209 + CRACOW Castle, 338. + Chapel of Jagellons, 338 + CREMONA. + Town hall, 266 + CTESIPHON. + Tâk-kesra, 145 + + DAMASCUS, Mosque of El-walîd, 136 + DANTZIC. + Town hall, 344 + DASHOUR. + Pyramid, 9 + DEIR-EL-BAHARI. + Tomb-temple of Hatasu, 15, 21 + DEIR-EL-MEDINEH. + Temple of Hathor, 19 + DELHI. + Jaina Temples, 407. + Jumma Musjid, 148. + Mogul Architecture of, 149. + Palace of Shah Jehan, 148. + Pathan arches, Etc., 148 + DELOS. + Gates, 45; + Portico of Philip, 67 + DENDERAH. + Temple of Hathor, 17. + Group of Temples, 22, 24. + Hathoric columns, 24 + DETROIT. + Majestic Building, 397 + DIEPPE. + Church of St. Jacques, 213 + DIJON. + St. Michel, 312 + DOL Cathedral, east end, 205 + DRESDEN. + Castle, Georgenflügel, 342. + Church of St. Mary (Marienkirche) 346 (+194+). + Theatre, 376 (+213+). + Zwinger Palace, 346 (+193+) + DRÜGELTE. + Circular church, 175 + DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+); + central tower of, 228; + Chapel of Nine Altars, 232 + + EARL’S BARTON. + Tower, 176 + ECOUEN. + Château, 316 + EDFOU. + Great Temple, 16, 17, 22 (+9+, +10+, +14+). + Peripteral Temple, 22 + EDINBURGH. + High School, Royal Institution, 357 + EGYPT. + Early Christian buildings in, 118 + ELEPHANTINE. + Temple of Amenophis III., 22 + EL KAB. Temple of Amenophis III.; 18 + ELEUSIS. + Propylæa, 69 + ELLORA. + Chaityas, 404. + Dravidian Kylas, 413 + ELNE. + Cloister, 170, 213 + ELY Cathedral, 220; + choir vault, 222; + octagon, 224, 330; + clearstory, 225; + towers, 228; + interior, 229; + size, 232; + Lady Chapel, 234 + EPHESUS. Temple of Artemis (Artemisium), 66; + Ionic Order, 53. + Palæstra, 71 + ERECH, 31 + ESCURIAL. + Monastery, 351 + ESNEH. + Hathoric columns, 25. + Temple, 23. + ESSEN. + Nun’s choir, 172 + ESSLINGEN. + Church spire, 240 + ETCHMIADZIN. + Byzantine monuments, 134 + EVREUX Cathedral, 197 + EXETER Cathedral, 221 (+129+) + EZRA. + Church of St. George, 117 + + FERAIG. + Rock-cut Temple, 22 + FERRARA Cathedral, 261, 304. + Churches, 277, 293. + Palaces Scrofa, Roverella, 283 + FIROUZABAD. + Sassanian Buildings, 144 + FLORENCE. + Baptistery, 162. + Bartolini, Guadagni, Larderel, Pandolfini, Serristori palaces, 291. + Campanile, 263, 264 (+147+ a). + Cathedral (Duomo, Santa Maria del Fiore), 257, 258, 263; + façade, 261; + marble incrustation, 263; + dome, 273-275 (+147+, +148+, +159+, +160+). + Church + of San Miniato, 115, 161, 162; + of Or San Michele, 264. + Gondi Palace, 291. + Loggia dei Lanzi, 266. + Loggia di San Paolo, 281. + Minor works, 287. + Ospedale degli Innocenti, 281. + Palazzo Vecchio, 265. + Pitti Palace, 280, 300, 319. + Riccardi Palace, 279, 280, 281, 290 (+162+). + Rucellai Palace, 280, 282. + Santa Croce, 258; + Pazzi Chapel of, 276; + pulpit in, 281; + Marsupini tomb, 281. + San Lorenzo, 276. + San Spirito, 276 (+161+), + Santa Maria Novella, 256, 258; + façade, 277; + fountain in sacristy of, 281. + Strozzi Palace, 280, 290 (+163+) + FLUSHING. + Town hall (Hôtel de Ville), 335 + FONTAINEBLEAU. + Palace, 313, 318 + FONTEVRAULT. + Abbey, 164 + FONTFROIDE. + Cloister, 213 + FRANCE. + Romanesque monuments (list), 170, 171; + Gothic monuments (list), 216, 217; + Renaissance monuments (list), 324, 325 + FRANKFORT. + Salt House, 346 + FREIBURG Cathedral, 239, 242, 243; + Spire, 240 + FREIBERG IM ERZGEBIRGE. + Golden portal, 242 + FRITZLAR. + Church, 243 + FULDA. + Monastery, 172, 173, 175 + FURNESS. + Abbey, pointed arches, 219 + FUTTEHPORE SIKHRI. + Mosque of Akbar, 148 + + GANDHARA. + Monasteries, 404 + GAILLON. + Château, 310 + GELNHAUSEN. + Abbey Church, 243. Castle ruins, 176 + GENOA. + Campo Santo, 382. + Cathedral, west front, 261. + PALACES:--Balbi, Brignole, Cambiasi, Doria-tursi (municipio), + Durazzo (reale), Pallavicini, University, 302. + Sta. Maria Di Carignano, 299 + GERMANY. + Mediæval, 172. + Romanesque monuments (list), 180. + Gothic monuments (list), 252. + Renaissance monuments (list), 353 + GERNRODE. + Romanesque church, 173 + GERONA Cathedral, 185, 249, 250 + GHENT (Gand). + Cloth hall, 247 + GHERF HOSSEIN. + Rock-cut temple, 22 + GHERTASHI (Kardassy). + Temple, 23 + GHIZEH. + Pyramids, 4; + Pyramid of Cheops, 7 (+1+, +2+); + of Chephren, 8; + of Mycerinus, 8. + Sphinx, Sphinx temple, 10 (+3+, +4+) + GIRNAR. + Jaina temples, 407. + Temple of Neminatha, 407 + GLASGOW. + Churches in Greek style, 357 + GLOUCESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222; + cloisters, 222; + east window, 227; + central tower, 228; + Lady Chapel, 234 + GOSLAR. + Palace of Henry III., 176 + GOURNAH. + Columns, 24. + Temple, 21 + GRAN. + Cruciform Chapel, 338 + GRANADA, 141. + Alhambra, 142, 143, 144, 351 (+84+). + Cathedral, 348, 350; + minor works in, 352. + Palace of Charles V., 352 (+197+) + GRANGE House, 357 + GREAT BRITAIN. + Gothic monuments (list), 235, 236. + Norman monuments (list), 181. + Renaissance monuments (list), 337 + GUADALAJARA. + Infantado, 350 + GUJERAT, 146 + GWALIOR. + Jaina Temples, 407. + Palace, 409. + Teli-ka-mandir, 409 + + HADDON Hall, 326 + HAGUE, THE. + Town hall, 336 + HÄMELSCHENBURG Castle, 343 (+191+) + HALBERSTADT Cathedral, 244. + Town hall, 245 + HALICARNASSUS. + Mausoleum, 4, 53, 71, 72 (+41+) + HAMONCONDAH. + Temple, 410 + HAMPTON Court, 326, 332 + HARTFORD. + State Capitol, 393 + HAURAN. + Roman works in, 92; + domestic buildings, 118 + HARDWICKE Hall, 328 + HATFIELD House, 328 + HECKLINGEN. + Romanesque church, 173 + HEIDELBERG Castle, 343 (+192+). + Ritter House, 346 + HEILSBERG Castle, 245 + HELDBURG Castle, 342 + HENGREAVE Hall, 326 + HERCULANUM, 86. + Amphitheatre, 92. + Houses, 107. + Theatre, (+61+) + HEREFORD Cathedral, 220 + HIERAPOLIS. + Early Christian buildings in, 118 + HILDESHEIM. + Kaiserhaus, 346. + Renaissance houses, 345. + St. Godehard, 173. + Town hall, 245. + Wedekindsches Haus, 346 + HOLLAND House, 328 + HOWARD Castle, 332 + HULLABÎD. + Temples, 409; + double temple, 410 (+228+); + Kaît Iswara, 410 + + IFFLEY. + Church, 179 (+104+) + INDIA, 146-149. + Moslem monuments (list), 154. + Non-moslem monuments (list), 415 + INNSBRÜCK, Schloss Ambras, 339 + IPSAMBOUL. + (Abou Simbel). Grotto temples, 21, 22 (+13+) + IRELAND. + Celtic Towers, 176 + ISPAHAN. + Meidan (Meidan-Shah), Mesjid-Shah, Bazaar, Medress, 146 + ISSOIRE. + Church of St. Paul, 165, 204 + ITALY. + Early Christian monuments (list), 119; + Romanesque monuments (list), 170; + Gothic monuments (list), 268-269; + Renaissance monuments (list), 306-307 + + JAEN Cathedral, 348, 350 + JAMALGIRI. + Monastery, 405 + JERUSALEM. + Church of the Ascension, 115. + Early Christian churches, 111. + Herod’s temple, 41, 83. + Mosque of Omar (Dome of the Rock, Kubbet-es-sakhrah), 116, 136. + Octagonal church on temple site, 115, 116. + Tombs of the Kings, Etc., 39. + Tomb of Absalom, of Hezekiah, Golden Gate, Solomon’s temple, 40. + Wall of Lamentations, 41. + Zerubbabel’s temple, 41 + JAUNPORE, 146 + + KALABSHÉ. + Columns, 12. + Temple, 23 + KALB LOUZEH. + Church, 117 (+69+) + KALBURGAH, 146 + KANARUK. + Hindu temples, 408 + KANTONNUGGUR. + Hindu temple, 408 + KARDASSY (Ghertashi). + Temple, 23 + KARLI. + Chaityas, 404 + KARLSTEIN Castle, 245 + KARNAK, 50. + Great Temple (of Amen Ra) and Hypostyle Hall, + xxiii., 17, 18, 19, 24, 36 (+11+, +12+). + Ancient temple, 13. + Temple of Khonsu, 16, 20 + KASCHAU Cathedral, 245 + KASR. + Mound, 31 + KEDDLESTONE Hall, 334 + KELAT SEMAN. Church of St. Simeon + Stylites, 117 + KHAJURAHO. + Jaina temples, 407. + Kandarya Mahadeo, 408 + KHORSABAD. + Palace of Sargon, 31, 32 (+18+). + City Gate, 32, 33, (+19+) + KIRKSTALL Abbey, pointed arches, 219 + KÖNIGSBERG. + Church At, 244 + KOYUNJIK. + Palaces of Sennacherib and Assur-bani-pal, 31 + KUTTENBERG. + Church of St. Barbara, 239, 240 + + LAACH. + Abbey of, 174 + LABYRINTH (of Moeris or Fayoum in Egypt), 26 + LA MUETTE. + Château, 314 + LANDSHUT. + Residenz, 342. + St. Martin’s, 240, 244 + LANGRES Cathedral, 167 + LAON Cathedral, 197, 205, 206, 210; + porches, 208 + LA ROCHEFOUCAULD. + Château, 315 + LAVAL Cathedral (La Trinité), 201 + LE MANS Cathedral, 197, 200, 205, 206 (+118+); + tomb in, 310 + LEON. + Cathedral, 189, 249. + Panteon of S. Isidore, 179, 180 + LE PUY (Puy-en-Vélay). + Church, 204; + cloister of same, 213 + LEIPZIG. + Fürstenhaus, 346 + LEMGO. + Town hall, 344 + LEYDEN. + Town hall, 336 + LICHFIELD Cathedral, 225, 229 (+135+); + west front, 228 (+134+); + spire, 229 + LIÈGE. + Archbishop’s Palace, 334. + Church of St. Jacques, 247 + LIMBURG-ON-THE-HARDT. + Church, 193 + LIMBURG-ON-LAHN. + Abbey Church, 174. + Cathedral of St. George, 239 (+139+) + LIMOGES Cathedral, 197, 205, 212 + LINCOLN Cathedral, 219, 225, 229, 232; + west front, 227; + central tower, 228; + chapter-house, 223 + LISBON, 352 + LISIEUX Cathedral, 197 + LIVERPOOL. + St. George’s Hall, 358 (+199+) + LOIRE VALLEY. + Churches of, 165 + LOMBARDY. + Romanesque Monuments In, 157 + LONDON. + Albert Memorial, 380. + Albert Memorial Hall, 382. + Bank of England, 334, 356. + British Museum, 356 (+198+); + Elgin marbles in, 57; + mausoleum fragments in, 71. + Cathedral (St. Paul’s), 329-331 (+186+, +187+). + Chapel Royal (Banqueting Hall, Whitehall), 329 (+185+). + CHURCHES:-- + Bow Church, 332; + St. George’s, Bloomsbury, 333; + St. Martin’s-in-the-Fields, 333 (+189+); + St. Mary’s, Woolnoth, 332; + St. Pancras’s, 357; + St. Paul’s Cathedral, 329-331 (+186+, +187+); + St. Paul’s, Covent Garden, 329; + St. Stephen’s, Walbrook, 331; + St. Stephen’s Chapel, Westminster, 234; + Temple Church, pointed arches in, 219; + Westminster Abbey, 220 (+137+); + Henry VII.’s chapel in same, 192, 223, 227, 229, 234 (+136+). + Greenwich Hospital, 332. + Mansion House, 334. + Natural History Museum, South Kensington, 381 (+216+). + New Law Courts, 380. + Newgate Prison, 334. + Parliament Houses, 234, 380 (+215+). + Somerset House, 329, 333. + South Kensington Museum, new building, 382. + University, 357. + Westminster Abbey, see above. + Westminster Hall, 233. + Whitehall Palace, 329; + Banqueting Hall (Chapel Royal) in same, 329 (+185+) + LONGLEAT House, 328 + LOUVAIN + Cathedral, 246, 247. + Cloth hall, 247. + Town hall, 248 (+144+) + LÜBECK. + City Gates, 246. + St. Mary’s, 242, 244. + St. Catharine’s, 244. + Town hall, 246 + LUCCA. + Campanile, 264. + Cathedral (S. Martino), 161, 257, 258, 260 (+149+); + tempietto in same, 281; + tomb of P. di Noceto in same, 281 (+164+). + S. Frediano, S. Michele, 161. + Minor works, 282, 283. + Palazzo Pretorio, Pal. Bernardini, 283 + LUPIANA Monastery, 350 + LUXOR, 50. + Temple, 19, 20. + Osirid Piers, 24 + LUZ. + Church at, 352 + LYCIA. + Tombs, 37, 39, 52 + + MADRID. + First Palace, 350. + New Palace, 352 + MADRID, Château de (at Boulogne), 314 + MADURA. + Choultrie of Tirumalla Nayak, 411. + Great Temple, corridors, 411. + Palace, 413 + MAFRA. + Palace, 353 + MAGDEBURG Cathedral, 189, 242, 243 + MAHRISCH TRÜBAU. + Castle portal, 338 + MAISONS. + Château, 322 + MALAGA. + Alcazar, 142, 143. + Cathedral, 348 + MALINES (Mechlin). + Cathedral of St. Rombaut, 246, 247. + Cloth hall, 247. + Hôtel du Saumon, 324 + MANCHESTER. + Assize Courts, 380 (+216+) + MANIKYALA. + Tope, 403 + MANRESA. + Collegiate Church, 249 + MANTINÆA. + Theatre, 69 + MANTUA. + Campanile, 264. + Church of S. Andrea, 279. + Early Renaissance palaces, 283. + Palazzo del Té, 289 + MARBURG. + St. Elizabeth, 240, 242 (+140+) + MARIENBURG Castle, Great Hall, 245 + MARIENWERDER. + Castle, 245 + MARSEILLES. + Chapel of St. Lazare, 310. + Fountain of Longchamps, 372 (+211+) + MASHITA. + Palace of Chosroes, 145 + MASSACHUSETTS. Country house in (+225+) + MAULBRONN. + Monastery, 176 + MAYENCE Cathedral, 174 + MEAUX Cathedral, 212 + MECCA. + Kaabah, 136 + MEDINA DE RIO SECO. + Rood-screen, 352 + MEDINET ABOU. + Osirid piers, 24 (+15+). + Pavilion of Rameses III., 26. + Peripteral temple, 22. + Tomb-temple of Rameses III., 15, 21 + MEISSEN. + Albrechtsburg, 245 + MEROË. + Pyramids, 9 + METZ Cathedral, 244 + MEYDOUM. + Stepped Pyramid, 9 + MILAN, 157. + Arcade, 382. + Cathedral, 243, 255, 257, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264. + Domical churches, 278. + Ospedale Maggiore, 283. + S. Ambrogio, 158, 159 (+90+). + S. Eustorgio, Portinari Chapel in, 283. + S. Satiro, sacristy of, 289. + Sta. Maria delle Grazie, 278, 289 + MILETUS. + Temple of Apollo Didymæus, 53, 66 (+28+, +29+) + MINDEN Cathedral, 244 + MŒRIS. + Labyrinth of, 26 + MOISSAC. + Cloister, 170, 213 + MONREALE. + Churches, cathedral, 162 + MONS. + Cathedral, St. Wandru, 246, 247 + MONTEPULCIANO. + Church of S. Biagio, 294 + MONTMAJOUR. + Cloister, 170, 213 + MONT ST. MICHEL. + Abbey, 167, 168, 213, 214; + cloister of same, 213 + MORET. + House of Francis I., 316 + MOSCOW. + The Kremlin, 366 + MOSUL, 33 + MOUNT ABU. + Jaina temples, Temple of Vimalah Sah, 405, 406 (+226+) + MOUNT ATHOS. + Monastery, 134 + MUGHEIR. + Temple of Sin Or Hurki, 30 + MUJELIBEH. + Mound, 31 + MUKTESWARA. + Hindu temples, 409 + MÜLHAUSEN. + Town Hall, 344 + MUNICH, 366. + Auekirche, 375. + Basilica, 375. + Cathedral, 240, 242. + Glyptothek, 359. + Ludwigskirche, 375. + Propylæa, 360 (+201+). + Ruhmeshalle, 359. + St. Michael’s, 344. + MÜNSTER. + Church at, 243. + Town hall, 245 + MÜNZENBERG. + Castle ruins, 176 + MYCENÆ. + Fortifications, 44 (+23+). + Lion Gate, 44 (+22+). + Tholos of Atreus, 45, 46, 148 (+24+, +25+). + Tombs, 4 + MYLASSA. + Tomb, 72 + MYRA. + Theatre, 69. + Tombs, 72 + + NAKHON WAT, Temple of, 413 + NAKSH-I-ROUSTAM (persepolis), 36. + Tomb of Darius, 37 + NANCY. + Ducal Palace, 216, 311 + NANKIN. + Porcelain Tower, 414 + NAPLES. + Arcade, 382. + Arch of Alphonso, 287. + Church + of Gesù Nuovo, 304; + of S. Francesco di Paola, 305, 365; + of S. Lorenzo, 263; + of S. Severo (+173+). + Minor works, 281, 282. + Pal. Gravina, Porta Capuana, 287. + Royal Museum, 304. + Royal Palace, 304, 305. + Theatre of S. Carlo, 305, 365 + NARBONNE Cathedral, 197, 205, 211 + NASSICK. + Chaityas, 404 + NAUKRATIS, 44 + NAUMBURG. + Church At, 243 + NETHERLANDS, 146. + Gothic monuments (list), 252-253 + NEUWEILER. + Church of St. Peter And St. Paul, 243 + NEVERS. + St. Étienne, 165 + NEW MEXICO. + Spanish churches, 388 + NEWPORT. + Town hall, 388. + Trinity Church, 386 + NEW YORK. + American Surety Building, Broadway Chambers, 397. + Casino, 399. + Cathedral + of St. John the Divine, 399; + of St. Patrick, 375, 391. + Century Club, 399. + City Hall, 389. + Custom House, 390 (+221+). + Grace Church, 392. + Huntington house, 399. + Madison Square Garden, Metropolitan Club, 399. + St. Paul’s, 386. + Sub-Treasury, 390. + Times Building, (+224+). + Trinity Church, 392. + Vanderbilt and Villard houses, 399 + NÎMES. + Amphitheatre, 92. + Maison Carrée, 93, 94 + NIMROUD. + Palaces of Assur-nazir-pal and Shalmaneser, 31, 32 + NINEVEH, 31 + NIPPUR (Niffer). + Ruins of, 29, 31 + NORMANDY. + Romanesque churches in, 167, 177; + cathedrals in, 197, 213 + NORTH GERMANY. + Brick churches in, 244 + NORTH WOBURN. + Rumford House, 387 + NORWICH Cathedral, 177, 178, 220 + NOYON Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 246 + NUBIA. + Early Christian buildings, 118 + NUREMBERG, 238. + Churches of St. Sebald, St. Lorenz, 245. + Funk, Hirschvogel, and Keller houses, 346. + Renaissance houses, 345. + Town hall, 344. + Shrine of St. Sebald, 347 + + OLYMPIA. + Altis, Echo Hall, 69. + Heraion, 50, 62. + Temples, 55; + sculptures from, 57. + Temple of Zeus, 62 + OPPENHEIM. + St. Catharine’s, 239, 242, 244 + OUDEYPORE. + Hindu temples, palace, 409 + ORANGE. + Theatre, 101 + ORCHOMENOS. + Ceiling, 47 + ORLÉANS. + Houses, 316. + Town hall (hôtel de ville), 311 + ORVIETO Cathedral, 257, 259, 261; + façade of same, 260 + OSNABRÜCK. + Church at, 243 + OTTMARSHEIM. + Church at, 172 + OUDENÄRDE. + Town hall, 247 + OURSCAMP. + Hospital, 214 + OXFORD. + All Souls’ College, 333. + Cathedral (Christ Church), 220, 222. + Christ Church Hall, 233, 234. + Merton College Chapel, 234. + Radcliffe Library, 333. + Sheldonian Theatre, 332 + + PADERBORN. + Town hall, 344 + PADUA. + Arena chapel, 258. + Palazzo del Consiglio, 287 + PÆSTUM. + Basilica, 69. + Temples, 61 + PAILLY. + Château, 317 + PALERMO. + Churches of Eremitani, La Martorana, 162 + PALMYRA, 83. + Temple of the Sun, 92. + Ceiling panels (+50+ a) + PARASNATHA. + Jaina temples, 407 + PARIS. + Arch of Triumph of the Carrousel, 362, 363; + of l’Étoile, 362, 363 (+204+). + Bourse (Exchange), 363. + Cathedral (Notre Dame), 189, 197-202, 249 (+116+, +117+, +124+); + rose windows, 203, 212; + chapels, 205; + size, 206, 232; + west front, 207, 227 (+124+); + capital from (+126+ b); + early carving (+114+). + CHURCHES:-- + Chapel and Dome of the Invalides, 321 (+182+); + Madeleine, 362, 363 (+205+); + Panthéon, 361, 362 (+202+, +203+); + Sacré-Cœur at Montmartre, 373; + Sainte Chapelle, 185, 203, 224 (+106+, +121+); + capital from same (+126+ a); + Sorbonne, 319; + St. Augustin, 371; + Ste. Clothilde, 371, 375; + St. Étienne-du-Mont, St. Eustache, 312; + St. Jean de Belleville, 371; + St. Merri, St. Sévérin, 213; + St. Paul-St. Louis, 319; + St. Sulpice, 323, 361 (+183+); + St. Vincent-de-Paul, 364; + Val-de-Grâce, 322. + Collège Chaptal, 371. + Colonnades of the Garde-Meuble, 361, 367. + Column of July (Colonne Juillet), 365. + Corps Législatif (Palais Bourbon), 363. + École des Beaux-Arts, 355, 370, 392, 393; + library of same, 364; + door (+206+). + École de Médecine, new buildings, 374. + Exhibition buildings, 374. + FOUNTAINS:--of Cuvier, Molière, St. Michel, 372. + Halles Centrales, 371. + Hôtel-de-Ville (town hall), 316; + new building, 373. + HÔTELS:-- + Carnavalet (de Ligeris), 316; + de Cluny, 216; + des Invalides, 321. + House of Francis I. (Maison François I.), 316. + Library of the Beaux-Arts, 364; + of Ste. Genéviève, 365. + Louvre (see palaces). Museum (Musée) Galliéra (+212+). + Opera House (Nouvel Opéra), 372 (+210+). + PALACES:-- + Palais Bourbon (Corps Législatif), 363; + Palais de l’Industrie, 364; + Pal. de Justice, 364; + Louvre and Tuileries, 215, 315-319, 321, 362, 371, 372 + (+179+, +208+, +209+); + Luxemburg Palace, 318 (+180+). + PLACES (Squares):-- + de la Concorde, 324; + Royale, 319; + Vendôme, 322. + Railway stations (du Nord, de l’Est, d’Orléans), 372. + Sorbonne, new academic buildings, 374. + PAULINZELLE. + Romanesque church, 173 + PAVIA, 157. + Certosa, 255, 262, 263, 278, 283, 284 (+152+, +153+). + Church of S. Michele, 159. + Domical churches, 278 + PEKIN. + Summer pavilion, Temple of Great Dragon, 414 + PERGAMON (Pergamus). Altar of Eumenes II., 67. + Christian buildings, 118 + PERIGUEUX. + St. Front, 164 (+94+, +95+) + PEROOR. + Temple, 411 + PERSEPOLIS, 145. + Columns, 37, 38 (+21+). + Hall of Xerxes, 36, 37. + Palaces, 35, 69 + PERSIA. + Moslem architecture, 145, 146 (list 154). + Sassanian buildings, 144, 145 + PERUGIA. + Oratory of San Bernardino, 279. + Town hall (Pal. Communale), 266. + Roman Gates, 88 + PETERBOROUGH Cathedral, 178, 220; + retro-choir, 222; + west front, 227 + PHIGALÆA (Bassæ). + Gate, 45. + Sculptures from, 57. + Temple of Apollo Epicurius, 65 + PHILADELPHIA. + Christ Church, 386 (+218+). + Girard College, 390, 391. + Independence Hall, 388. + Marine Exchange, Mint, 390. + Municipal Building, 391 + PHILÆ. + Great Temple, 22. + Peripteral temple, 22 + PIACENZA, 157. + Campanile, 159 (+91+). + Cathedral (+91+). + Town hall, 266 + PIASTENSCHLOSS at Brieg, 343 + PIENZA. + Palazzo Piccolomini, etc., 282 + PIERREFONDS. + Château, 371 + PISA. + Churches in, 115, 261; + minor works in, 282; + early Renaissance in, 282-283. + Baptistery, 160 (+92+). + Cathedral (Duomo), 159, 160, 276 (+92+, +93+). + Leaning Tower, 160 (+92+). + Sta. Maria della Spina, 264 + PISTOIA. + Campanile, 264. + Churches, 161, 261. + Podestà, Palazzo Communale, 266. + Sta. Maria dell’ Umiltà, 293 + PITTSBURGH. + Carnegie Building, 397. + Carnegie Library, 399. + County Buildings, 394 + PLAGNITZ. + Castle, 343 + PLASSENBURG. + Castle, 343 + POITIERS Cathedral, 197, 201, 205 + POLA. + Amphitheatre, 92, 102 + POMPEII. + Amphitheatre, 92. + Baths, 86. + Houses, 72, 107, 108; + House of Pansa (+65+). + Theatre, 101. + Tombs, 105 + PONT DU GARD. + Bridge, 108 + PORTSMOUTH. Sherburne House, 387 + PORTUGAL, 352. + Gothic monuments (list), 253 + POTSDAM. + St. Nicholas Church, 359 + PRAGUE. + Belvedere, 339. + Cathedral, 239, 242, 244. + Palace on Hradschin, Schloss Stern, Waldstein palace, 339 + PRATO. + Churches in, 161, 293. + Madonna delle Carceri, 278 + PRENTZLAU. + Church, 244 + PRIENE. + Ionic order, 53; + Propylæa, 69 + PROVENCE, 164. + PROVINS. + Houses at, 214 + PURI. + Temples, 408. + Temple of Jugganât, 409 + PURUDKUL. + Rock-cut raths, 413 + + RAMESSEUM (Thebes). + Tomb-temple of Rameses II., 15, 21, 24 (+8+) + RAMISSERAM. + Temple, corridors, 411 + RATISBON (Regensburg) Cathedral, 239, 241, 244. + Town hall, 245. + Walhalla, 359 + RAVENNA, 114. + Baptistery of St. John, 119. + Byzantine monuments (list), 134. + Cathedral, 304. + Early Christian monuments (list), 119. + S. Apollinare Nuovo, S. Apollinare in Classe, 114. + S. Vitale, 117, 122, 127, 172 (+73+) + REGGIO. + Amphitheatre, 92 + REIMS Cathedral, 189, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205; + size, 206; + west front, 207, 213, 227; + towers, 209; + portals, 208, 210 + RIMINI. + S. Francesco, 277 + ROCHESTER Cathedral, 220 + RODEZ Cathedral, 197, 212 + ROME. + Ancient monuments, (list) 108, 109. + Amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, 102. + ARCHES:-- + in general, 77, 103; + of Constantine, 80, 103 (+63+); + of Septimius Severus, 103; + of Titus, 92, 103; + of Trajan, 97, 103. + BASILICAS:-- + in general, 97, 98; + Basilica Æmilia, 98; + of Constantine, xxiii, 80, 82, 98, 99 (+50+ b, +58+, +59+); + Julian Basilica, 98; + Sempronian, 98; + Ulpian, 97, 98 (+57+). + (For Early Christian Basilicas, see Churches.) + BATHS (Thermæ):-- + in general, 71, 92, 99; + of Agrippa, 91, 100; + of Caracalla, 87, 92 (+60+); + of Diocletian, 92, 100, 101; + of Titus, 86, 91, 100, 105. + Campanile of Campidoglio (Capitol), 305. + Capitol, 91; + palaces on, 299. + CHURCHES:-- + in general, 293; + Church of Gesù, 299; + Sistine Chapel of Vatican, 286, 289; + Sta. Agnese + (basilica), 112 + (modern church), 303; + S. Agostino, 286; + S. Clemente, 114; + Sta. Costanza, 111 (+66+); + St. John Lateran, 113, 251, 304, 305; + cloister of same, 281; + S. Lorenzo, 112; + S. Lorenzo in Miranda, 93; + Sta. Maria degli Angeli, 101; + Sta. Maria Maggiore, 113, 305; + Chapel of Sixtus V. in same, 299; + Sta. Maria del Popolo, 286, 287; + Chigi Chapel in same, 293; + Sta. Maria della Vittoria, 303; + Sta. Maria sopra Minerva, 256; + St. Paul-beyond-the-Walls, 113, 281 (+67+, +68+); + St. Peter’s, original basilica, 113; + existing church of, 274, 286, 289, 290, 294-296, 299, 321 + (+169+, +170+, +171+); + colonnade of same, 295, 303, 367; + sacristy of same, 305; + S. Pietro in Montorio, Tempietto in court of, 209. + CIRCUSES:-- + Maximus, 103; + of Caligula and Nero, 103, 113. + Cloaca Maxima, 81, 90. + Colosseum (Flavian amphitheatre) 91, 92, 102 (+45+, +62+). + COLUMNS:--103; + of Marcus Aurelius, 104; + of Trajan, 97, 104. + Early Christian monuments, 111; (list), 118, 119. + FORA:-- + in general, 97; + of Augustus, 91, 97; + of Julius, Nerva, Vespasian, 97; + Forum Romanum (Magnum), 97, 98; + Forum of Trajan, 97, 98 (+57+). + Fountain of Trevi, 305. + HOUSES:-- + in general, 105, 106, 108; + of Vestals (Atrium Vestæ), 94, 106; + of Livia, 107. + Lateran, carved ornament from Museum of (+49+); + palace of, 300. + Mausoleum of Augustus, of Hadrian, 104. + Minor Works in Rome, 287. + Monument to Victor Emmanuel, 382. + National Museum, 382. + PALACES (Ancient):-- + of Cæsars on Palatine Hill, 86, 91, 105; + of Nero (Golden House), 91, 92, 100, 105; + Septizonium, 105. + PALACES (Renaissance):-- + Altemps, 292; + Barberini, 304, 305; + Borghese, 304; + Braschi, 305; + of Capitol, 299; + Cancelleria, 290, 291; + Corsini, 305; + Farnese, 292 (+167+, +168+); + Farnesina, 291; + Giraud, 290, 291 (+166+); + Lante, 292; + Massimi, Palma, 291; + Quirinal, 300; + Sacchetti, 291; + Vatican, Belvedere, greater and lesser court, + Court of S. Damaso, Loggie, 209, 291; + Braccio Nuovo, 305, 365; + Casino del Papa in gardens, 293; + papal residence, 300; + Scala Reggia, 305; + palazzo di Venezia, 286. + Pantheon of Agrippa, 82, 91, 94-96, 100, 118, 122, 127, 365 + (+54+, +55+, +56+). + Pons Ælius (Ponte S. Angelo), 108. + Porta Maggiore, 108. + Portico of Octavia, 91. + TEMPLES:-- + Of Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri), 84, 91, 94 (+44+); + of Concord, 94; + of Faustina, 93; + of Fortuna Virilis, 89, 90, 93; + of Hercules or Vesta, 90; + of Julius, 94; + of Jupiter Capitolinus, 68, 89, 91; + of Jupiter Stator, so called (see Temple of Castor and Pollux); + of Jupiter Tonans, 91; + of Mars Ultor, 91; + of Minerva Medica, 127; + of Peace, 98; + of Trajan, 97; + of Venus and Rome, 94 (+53+); + of Vesta, in Forum, 94; + of Vesta, so called, or Hercules, 90. + THEATRES:-- + Of Marcellus, 91, 101 (+42+); + of Mummius, of Pompey, 101. + TOMBS:--86, 104; + of Caius Cestius, of Cecilia Metella, 104; + of Helena, 118 + ROSENBORG Castle, 336 + ROSHEIM. + Church façade, 175 + ROTHENBURG. + Town hall, 344 + ROUEN, 310. + Cathedral, 192, 197, 201, 202, 205; + size of, 206; + west front, 207; + rose windows, 212. + Hôtel Bourgtheroude, 316. + Palais de Justice, 214. + St. Maclou, 209. + St. Ouen, 212, 213, 375; + rose window from (+112+) + ROUHEIHA. + Early Christian church, 117 + ROYAL DOMAIN, 166, 167, 197 + RUANWALLI. + Topes, 403 + RUSSIA, 367. + Byzantine monuments (list), 134 + + SADRI. + Temple, 406 + SAKKARAH. + Pyramid, 9 + SALAMANCA. + Casa de las Conchas, 349. + Cathedral (old), 180, 248; + (new), 250, 348. + Monastery of S. Girolamo, 348. + S. Domingo, 348. + University, 349; + portal of (+195+) + SALISBURY + Cathedral, 219, 223, 225, 229, 232 (+128+); + west front, 228; + spire, 228, 229. + Market cross, 234 + SALONICA. Church of St. George, 118. + Other monuments (list), 134 + SALSETTE. + Viharas, 405 + SALZBURG. + Church of St. Francis, 242 + SAMOS. + Gate, 45 + SANCHI. + Brahman temple, 404. + Tope, 403 + SAN ILDEFONSO. + Royal Palace, 352 + SABAGOSSA. + Casa de Zaporta, 350 (+196+) + SAXONY, 173 + SCHALABURG. + Castle, 339 + SCHLETTSTADT Cathedral, 239 + SCHLOSS HÄMELSCHENBURG, 343 (+191+) + SCHLOSS PORZIA at Spital, 338 + SCHLOSS STERN at Prague, 339 + SCHWARZ-RHEINDORF. + Church, 174 + SCHWEINFÜRTH. + Town hall, 344 + SCINDE, 146 + SECUNDRA. + Tomb of Akbar, 148 + SEDINGA. + Hathoric columns, 24 + SÉEZ Cathedral, 197 + SEGOVIA Cathedral, 190, 249, 348. + Church of S. Millan, of Templars, 180 + SELINUS. + Temples, 49; + northern temple, 60; + Temple of Zeus, 61 + SEMNEH. + Pavilion, 26 + SENLIS Cathedral, 197, 200, 209 + SENS. + Archbishop’s palace, 317. + Cathedral, 203, 219 + SERBISTAN. + Sassanian buildings, 144 + SEVILLE. + Alcazar, 142, 143. + Casa de Pilato (House of Pilate), 142, 350. + Cathedral, 244, 250, 257, 351. + Giralda, 142, 143, 352 + SHEEPREE. + Pathan arches, 148 + SIENNA. + Brick houses, 266. + Campanile, 264. + Cathedral (Duomo), 257, 259, 263 (+150+); + west front, 260 (+151+). + Loggia del Papa, 282. + Minor works, 282. + PALACES:-- + Del Governo, Piccolomini, Spannocchi, 282; + Palazzo Pubblico, 266. + Renaissance churches, 293. + S. Giovanni in Fonte, 260 + SILSILEH. + Grotto temple, 22 + SOISSONS Cathedral, 197, 200, 203, 205, 243 + SOMNATH. + Jaina temple, 407 + SOMNATHPUR. + Chalukyan temples, 409, 410 + SOUTHWELL Minster, carving from, (+115+) + SPAIN, 347. + Gothic monuments (list), 253. + Romanesque churches, 179-180 + SPALATO. + Palace of Diocletian, 92, 106, 113 (+64+) + SPITAL. + Schloss Porzia, 338 + SPIRES (Speyer) Cathedral, 174 (+100+) + ST. ALBAN’S Abbey, tombs, etc., in, 234 + ST. AUGUSTINE. + Fort Marion (S. Marco), 388. + Ponce de Leon Hotel, 399. + Roman Catholic cathedral, 388. + ST. BENOÎT-SUR-LOIRE. + Antechurch, 177 + ST. DENIS. + Abbey, 197, 198, 200, 202, 203 (+120+); + tomb of Louis XII. in, 316; + of Francis I., 317 + ST. GERMAIN-EN-LAYE. + Château, 313; + Royal chapel in, 204 + ST. GILLES. + Church, 165 + ST. LOUIS. + Union Trust Bdg., 397 + ST. PAUL. + State Capitol, 400 + ST. PETERSBURG, 366, 367. + Admiralty, 367. + Cathedral of St. Isaac, 367 (+207+). + CHURCHES:-- + of the Citadel, of the Greek Rite, 366; + of Our Lady of Kazan, 367. + New Museum, Palace of Grand Duke Michael, 367. + Smolnoy Monastery, 366. + ST. RÉMY. + Tombs, 105 + STABIÆ, 92 + STOCKHOLM. + Palace, 337 + STRASBURG + Cathedral, 243; + spire of, 238, 240, 241, 243. + University Buildings, 376 + STUTTGART. + Old Castle, 343. + Technical School, 376 + STYRIA, 339 + SULLY. + Château, 317 + SULTANIYEH. + Tomb, 145 + SUNIUM. + Propylæa, 69 + SUSA, 145. + Palaces, 35 + SYRACUSE. + Theatre, 70 + SYRIA, 122; + early Christian churches in, 115, 116, 117; (list), 119 + + TABRIZ. + Ruined Mosque, 145 + TAFKHAH. + Early Christian Church, 117 + TAKHT-I-BAHI. + Monastery, 405 + TÄNGERMÜNDE. + Church, 244 + TANJORE. + Great temple, 412. + Palace, 413. + Shrine of Soubramanya, 412 (+229+) + TARPUTRY. + Gopura, 411 + TEHERAN, 146 + TEL-EL-AMARNA, 27 + TEWKESBURY Abbey, 222 (+130+) + THEBES. + Amenopheum, 15. + Ramesseum, 15 (+8+) + THORICUS. + Gate, 45; + Stoa Diple, 69 + TINNEVELLY. + Dravidian temples, 411 + TIRUVALUR. + Dravidian temples, 411 + TIRYNS, 44 + TIVOLI. + Circular temple, 90, 356 (+52+). + VILLAS:-- + D’Este, 293; + of Hadrian, 87, 106 + TOKIO. + Great Palace, 415 + TOLEDO. + Archbishop’s Palace, 360. + Cathedral, 189, 248, 348. + Gate of S. Martino, 350. + Hospital of Sta. Cruz, 349. + S. Juan de los Reyes, 251 + TONNERRE. + Hospital, 214 + TORGAU. + Hartenfels Castle, 342 + TORO. + Collegiate church, 180 + TOULOUSE Cathedral, 212. + Church of St. Sernin, 204. + Houses, 317 + TOURNAY Cathedral, 190, 197, 205, 209; + rood-screen in, 335 + TOURS, 310. + Cathedral, 197, 205, 209; + towers of, 312; + tomb of children of Charles VIII. in, 310, 342 + TRAUSNITZ Castle, 342 + TREVES (Trier). + Cathedral, 174. + Frauenkirche (Liebfrauenkirche, Church of Our Lady), + 189, 242, 243 (+142+) + TROYES + Cathedral, 197, 201, 205; + size, 206; + west portals, 209. + St. Urbain, 212 + TUCSON. + Church, 352 + TUPARAMAYA. + Topes, 403 + TURIN. + Church of La Superga, 365 + TURKEY, 149. + Monuments (list), 154 + TUSCULUM. + Amphitheatre, 92 + TYROL, 338, 339 + + UDAIPUR (near Bhilsa). + Hindu temples, 409 + ULM Cathedral, 238, 239, 241, 243; + spire, 241 + UR, 30 + URBINO. + Ducal palace, 287 + UTRECHT Cathedral, 244 + + VALENCIA Cathedral, 249 + VALLADOLID. + Cathedral, 350. + S. Gregorio, portal (+146+) + VELLORE. + Gopura, 411 + VENDÔME Cathedral, portal, 209 + VENETIA, 157, 262, 305 + VENICE, 300. + Campaniles of St. Mark, of S. Giorgio Maggiore, 305. + CHURCHES:-- + Frari (S. M. Gloriosa dei Frari), 256; + Redentore, 299; + S. Giobbe, 284; + S. Giorgio dei Grechi, 293; + S. Giorgio Maggiore, 299, 305; + SS. Giovanni e Paolo, 256; + Sta. Maria Formosa, 293; + S. M. dei Miracoli, 283; + S. M. della Salute, 304, (+174+); + St. Mark’s, 132, 164 (+78+, +79+); + Library of same (Royal Palace), 301 (+172+); + S. Salvatore, 293; + S. Zaccaria, 284. + Doge’s Palace, 267, 284 (+157+). + Minor works, 287. + PALACES:--267, 283, 284; + Cà d’Oro, Cavalli, Contarini-Fasan, 268; + Cornaro (Corner de Cà Grande) 301; + Dario, 285; + Ducale (Doge’s Palace), 267, 284 (+157+); + Foscari, 268; + Grimani, 300; + Pesaro, 304; + Pisani, 268; + Rezzonico, 304; + Vendramini (Vendramin-Calergi), 284, 285 (+165+); + Zorzi, capital, 275 (+158+) + VERCELLI. + S. Andrea, 256, 263 + VERNEUIL. + Château, 317 + VERONA, 157. + Amphitheatre, 92, 102. + Campanile, 264. + Church + of Sta. Anastasia, 256, 258; + of S. Zeno, 159, 175. + PALACES:--283; + Bevilacqua, Canossa, 300; + del Consiglio, 286; + Pompeii, Verzi, 300. + Tombs of Scaligers, 264 + VERSAILLES Palace, 320 + VÉZÉLAY. + Abbey, 166, 198, 203 + VICENZA, 300, 301. + Basilica, 301. + PALACES:--283; + Barbarano, Chieregati, Tiene, Valmarano, 301; + Villa Capra, 301, 328 + VIENNA, 347. + Arsenal at Wiener Neustadt, 338. + Burgtheater, 376. + Cathedral (St. Stephen), 239, 240, 241; + spire of, 240, 241. + Church of St. Charles Borromeo, 358. + Imperial Palace, portal, 339. + Museums, 378. + Opera House, 376. + Parliament House, or Reichsrathsgebäude, 360, 378. + Residence-block (Maria-Theresienhof), 378 (+214+). + Sta. Maria in Gestade, 245. + Town hall, University, 378. + Votiv Kirche, 375 + VIJAYANAGAR. + Palace, 413 + VINCENNES. + Royal chapel, 204 + VITERBO. + Houses, 267. + Town hall (Palazzo Communale), 266. + Villa Lante, 293 + VOLTERRA (Volaterræ). + Gate, 88 + + WALTHAM. + Abbey, 178. + Eleanor’s Cross, 234 + WARFIELD. + St. Michael’s, window (+111+) + WARKAH (Erech). + Palace terraces, 31 + WARTBURG Castle, 176 + WASHINGTON. + Capitol, 389, 391 (+220+). + Congressional Library, 399. + Patent Office, 390. + State, Army, and Navy Building, 392. + White House, 390 + WELLS Cathedral, 222, 225, 232; + west front, 228; + chapter house of, 223 (+131+) + WESTMINSTER. See LONDON + WESTONZOYLAND. Ceiling of St. Mary’s (+138+) + WESTOVER House, 386 + WIENER-NEUSTADT. See VIENNA + WILLIAMSBURG. + Town hall, 385 + WILTON House, 329 + WINCHESTER Cathedral, 178, 220, 222, 226, 229 (+103+); + tombs, etc., in, 234 + WINDSOR. + St. George’s Chapel, 223, 227, 234 + WISMAR. + Castle (Fürstenhof), 343. + City Gates, 246 + WOBURN. Public Library (+223+) + WOLLATON Hall, 328 + WOLFENBÜTTEL. + Marienkirche, 345 + WOLTERTON Castle, 326 + WORANGUL. + Kurti Stambha, 410 + WORCESTER Cathedral, 232 + WORMS. + Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+) + WÜRZBURG. + University Church, 345 + + XANTEN. + Church, 242 + XANTHUS. + Nereid monument, 71 + + YORK Cathedral, 192, 225, 226; + west front, 227; + tower, 228; + minor works in, 234 + YPRES. + Cloth hall, 247 + + ZURICH. + Polytechnic School, 376 + ZWETTL Cathedral, 242 + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + +College Histories of Art. + +A HISTORY OF PAINTING. + +BY + +JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D. + +Professor of the History of Art in Rutgers College, and Author of +“Principles of Art,” “Art for Art’s Sake,” etc. + +With Frontispiece and 110 Illustrations in the text, reproduced in +half-tone from the most celebrated paintings. Crown 8vo, 307 pages, +$1.50. + + +“... The initial volume of a promising series ... seems a model of pith, +lucidity, and practical convenience; and that it is sound and accurate +the author’s name is a sufficient guarantee. Essential historical and +biographical facts, together with brief critical estimates and +characterizations of leading schools and painters, are given in a few +well-chosen words; and for students who wish to pursue the subject in +detail, a list of selected authorities at the head of each chapter +points the way. Serviceable lists are also provided of principal extant +works, together with the places where they are to be found. The text is +liberally sprinkled with illustrations in half-tone.”--DIAL, CHICAGO. + +“Prof. Van Dyke has performed his task with great thoroughness and good +success.... He seems to us singularly happy in his characterization of +various artists, and amazingly just in proportion. We have hardly found +an instance in which the relative importance accorded a given artist +seemed to us manifestly wrong, and hardly one in which the special +characteristics of a style were not adequately presented.”--NATION, N.Y. + +“... Gives a good general view of the subject, avoiding as a rule all +elaborate theories and disputed points, and aiming to distinguish the +various historical schools from one another by their differences of +subject and technique ... we do not know of anybody who has, on the +whole, accomplished the task with as much success as has Mr. Van Dyke. +The book is modern in spirit and thoroughly up-to-date in point of +information.”--ART AMATEUR. + +“Professor Van Dyke has made a radical departure in one respect, in +purposely omitting the biographical details with which text-books on art +are usually encumbered, and substituting short critical estimates of +artists and of their rank among the painters of their time. This feature +of the work is highly to be commended, as it affords means for +comparative study that cannot fail to be beneficial.... Altogether +Professor Van Dyke’s text-book is worthy of general adoption, and as a +volume of ready reference for the family library it will have a distinct +usefulness. It is compact, comprehensive, and admirably +arranged.”--BEACON, BOSTON. + + +LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO., + +91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + +A History of Sculpture. + +BY + +ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D. + +AND + +ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, Jr., Ph.D. + +Professors of Archæology and the History of Art in Princeton University. + ++With Frontispiece and 113 Illustrations in half-tone in the text, +Bibliographies, Addresses for Photographs and Casts, etc. Crown 8vo, 313 +pages, $1.50.+ + + +HENRY W. KENT, _Curator of the Seater Museum, Watkins, N.Y._ + +“Like the other works in this series of yours, it is simply invaluable, +filling a long-felt want. The bibliographies and lists will be keenly +appreciated by all who work with a class of students.” + +CHARLES H. MOORE, _Harvard University_. + +“The illustrations are especially good, avoiding the excessively black +background which produce harsh contrasts and injure the outlines of so +many half-tone prints.” + +J. M. HOPPIN, _Yale University_. + +“These names are sufficient guarantee for the excellence of the book and +its fitness for the object it was designed for. I was especially +interested in the chapter on _Renaissance Sculpture in Italy_.” + +CRITIC, _New York_. + +“This history is a model of condensation.... Each period is treated in +full, with descriptions of its general characteristics and its +individual developments under various conditions, physical, political, +religious and the like.... A general history of sculpture has never +before been written in English--never in any language in convenient +textbook form. This publication, then, should meet with an enthusiastic +reception among students and amateurs of art, not so much, however, +because it is the only book of its kind, as for its intrinsic merit and +attractive form.” + +OUTLOOK, _New York_. + +“A concise survey of the history of sculpture is something needed +everywhere.... A good feature of this book--and one which should be +imitated--is the list indicating where casts and photographs may best be +obtained. Of course such a volume is amply indexed.” + +NOTRE DAME SCHOLASTIC, _Notre Dame, Ind._ + +“The work is orderly, the style lucid and easy. The illustrations, +numbering over a hundred, are sharply cut and well selected. Besides a +general bibliography, there is placed at the end of each period of style +a special list to which the student may refer, should he wish to pursue +more fully any particular school.” + + +LONGMANS, GREEN & CO., Publishers, + +91 & 93 Fifth Avenue, NEW YORK. + + + * * * * * + * * * * + + +ERRORS AND INCONSISTENCIES: + +Missing or invisible punctuation has been silently supplied, as have +missing umlauts and line-end hyphens; errors of this type were assumed +to be mechanical, introduced either in printing or scanning. Conversely, +“Bauschule” (Berlin) was consistently misprinted as “Bauschüle”. + +Hyphenization of some words was inconsistent: zigzag and zig-zag, +semicircular and semi-circular, staircase and stair-case. The plural of +“portico” is regularly “porticos”, rarely “porticoes”. Both occurrences +of “mantelpiece” are at line-break; the hyphen was omitted based on +usage in the 8th edition. + +Alphabetization in the Index is as printed. + +Names: + + The architect Robert Adam is consistently called “Adams”; the error + was corrected in the 8th edition. The name form “Michael Angelo” + is standard for the time. + Columbia College changed its name to Columbia University in 1896, + presumably after the book’s original preface (dated January 20, + 1896) was written. + The French palace is variously Luxembourg and Luxemburg. + +Spelling of place names was unchanged except when there was an +unambiguous error. For details, see below. + + Chapter VII: + the choragus Lysicrates [choraegus] + Chapter VIII: + (long miscalled the temple of Jupiter Stator) [Jupitor] + Chapter IX: + Adams, _Ruins of the Palace of Spalato_. [Spalatro] + --, Monuments: + [FORA] Trajan (by Apollodorus of Damascus, 117 A.D.) + [_closing ) missing_] + Chapter XII: + the time of Haroun Ar Rashid (786) [_spelling unchanged_] + Chapter XIII, Monuments: + [FRANCE, 11th century] Mont St. Michel, 1020 (the latter altered + in 12th and 16th centuries) [_closing ) missing_] + Chapter XIV: + Northern Italy, with which the Hohenstauffen emperors + [_spelling unchanged_] + Chapter XVII: + Such vaults are called _lierne_ or _star_ vaults. + [_Figure caption has “net or lierne”_] + [Monuments] All Soul’s College [_apostrophe in original_] + Chapter XX: + _Cinquecento_ to the sixteenth century [cenury] + Chapter XXI: + but following its pernicious example [pernicous] + --, Monuments: + Chapel of S. Lorenzo, new sacristy of same [sacristry] + P. Giugni, 1560-8. + [_text has “P. Giugni, -1560.” Correction was taken from + 8th edition_] + Chapter XXIII: + St. Paul’s ranks among the five or six greatest [five of six] + Chapter XXVI: + Sammelmappe hervorragenden Concurrenz-Entwurfen. + [Sammel mappe] + + Appendix B: + the brick tower on the Piazza dell’ Erbe [dell ’Erbe] + Appendix D: + the chief marks of the Art Nouveau [Noveau] + + Glossary: + QUATREFOIL, with four leaves or _foils_ [QUARTREFOIL] + + Index: + BERLIN + Old Museum, 359 (+200+). + New Museum, 359. + [_alphabetized as shown; body text has “Museum” and “New Museum”_] + DURHAM Cathedral, 177, 178, 220, 221 (+102+) [+116+] + PARIS. ... Cathedral ... early carving (+114+) [+122+] + TAFKHAH. Early Christian Church [Christain] + WORMS. Minster (cathedral), 174 (+99+) [+112+] + + +A few words in Chapters VI and VII were printed with “ae” instead of the +expected “æ”. They have been regularized for this e-text. + + From Olympia, Ægina, and Phigaleia [Aegina] + Selinus, Agrigentum, Pæstum [Paestum] + Castor and Pollux, Demeter, Æsculapius [Aesculapius] + + +PLACE NAMES: + +The form “Herculanum” (for Herculanum) was used consistently. The +English city is Peterboro’ (with apostrophe) in its first few +appearances, and then changes to Peterborough for the remainder of +the book. The Italian city was conventionally spelled “Sienna” (with +two n’s) in English. + +Many names, especially non-European ones, differ significantly from +their modern form. Some of the following are conjectural. + +Near East: + + Ipsamboul: Abu Simbel + Bozrah: probably modern Bouseira, Jordan (not “Bosrah”, modern Basra) + +Greater India (including modern Pakistan and Bangladesh) + + Tope: the form “stupa” is more common + Indian desert: Thar desert + + Baillur: Belur + Chillambaram: probably Chidambaram; the author’s sources seem to + have had trouble with “l” in South Indian names + Conjeveram: Kanchipuram + Futtehpore Sikhri: Fatehpur Sikri + Hullabid: Halebid + Jaunpore: Janpur + Jugganat: the name of the deity is Jagannath; the English name-form + led to the word “juggernaut” + Kantonnuggur: Kantanagar + Oudeypore: the author seems not to have realized that this is the same + place as Udaipur, cited with that spelling in the same paragraph + Scinde: Sind + Shepree: could not be identified. + The author’s source is probably James Ferguson, who describes it + as “near Gualior” (Gwalior) + Tanjore: Thanjavur + Worangul: Varangal + +Cambodia: + + Nakhon Wat: better known as Angkor Wat + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE *** + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will +be renamed. + +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the +United States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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